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= Kirkenes – Bjørnevatn Line =
The Kirkenes – Bjørnevatn Line ( Norwegian : Kirkenes – Bjørnevatnbanen ) , or the Sydvaranger Line ( Sydvarangerbanen ) , is a 8 @.@ 5 @-@ kilometer ( 5 @.@ 3 mi ) long railway line between Kirkenes and Bjørnevatn in Sør @-@ Varanger , Norway . Owned by the private mining company Northern Iron , the single @-@ track railway is solely used to haul 20 daily iron ore trains from Bjørnevatn Mine to the port at Kirkenes . It was the world 's northern @-@ most railway until 2010 , when the Obskaya – Bovanenkovo Line in Russia went further north .
The line was built by the mining company Sydvaranger , who started construction in 1907 and inaugurated the railway in 1910 . From 1912 , the port network received electrification , as did the mainline in 1920 . Originally , free passenger trains services were also offered . During the Second World War , the line was largely destroyed , but rebuilt afterwards and re @-@ opened in 1952 . Electric traction was abandoned in 1955 when two EMD G12 diesel locomotives were bought . The line closed in 1997 , but was reopened in 2009 , following a change in ownership of the mine . There are proposals to connect the line to either one or both of the Finnish and Russian railway networks .
= = Route = =
The Kirkenes – Bjørnevatn Line is 8 @.@ 484 kilometers ( 5 @.@ 272 mi ) long and runs from Bjørnevatn Mine to Kirkenes Port . While the line had passenger transport , it had two stations , Kirkenes Station and Bjørnevatn Station , which were located 7 @.@ 5 kilometers ( 4 @.@ 7 mi ) from each other . A third station , Armeverplegungslager , was only used during the Second World War and immediately afterwards and was located 5 @.@ 01 kilometers ( 3 @.@ 11 mi ) from Kirkenes Station . The railway is standard gauge , non @-@ electrified and single track .
Starting at Bjørnevatn , the railway line starts underground at a silo , 77 @.@ 0 meters ( 252 @.@ 6 ft ) above mean sea level ( AMSL ) . From Bjørnevatn , the line starts to fall with a 0 @.@ 3 @-@ percent gradient . After passing the residential area , the gradient drops to 1 @.@ 5 percent . On this section , the line passes through its only tunnel , which is 68 meters ( 223 ft ) long . The line then runs along a flatter terrain , and crosses through a 450 @-@ meter ( 1 @,@ 480 ft ) long cutting towards the lowest point of the line , at 50 @.@ 4 meters ( 165 ft ) AMSL .
The railway then runs under European Road E6 and starts climbing at a 1 @.@ 0 @-@ percent gradient until reaching 56 @.@ 2 meters ( 184 ft ) AMSL . From this point to Kirkenes it runs next to the E6 , and passes by the lakes Tredjevatn , Stuorrajávn and Førstevatn . While the first part of this section is flat , towards Kirkenes the landscape is more rolling . The line passes Kirkenes Station , which is 59 @.@ 5 meters ( 195 ft ) AMSL . The swing towards the station is as a curve radius of 275 meters ( 902 ft ) , while the remaining part of the line has a minimum radius of 300 meters ( 980 ft ) . The line terminates at the silo in Kirknes after running over an elevated section , nicknamed the Air Bridge .
= = History = =
= = = Construction = = =
Iron ore was discovered at Bjørnevatn in 1866 . The ore was of poor quality , but lay close to the surface — allowing for open @-@ pit mining , had large deposits and was located close to a port . The mining company Sydvaranger was established by German and Swedish investors in 1906 . A separation plant was built in Kirkenes and the company decided to transport all ore from the mine to the port by rail . Inge T. Wiull , former manager of the Valdres Line , was hired as divisional leader for the construction of the railway , the port and the residential areas .
Construction of the railway was given high priority to as early as possible aid in transport of workers to the mining sites . Both stations were completed in 1908 , the same year as the laying of tracks started . The line originally had a rail profile of 30 kilograms per meter ( 60 lb / yd ) . The first steam locomotive , built at Hamar Jernstøperi , was delivered during the fall of 1908 . For the tacks in the mine , a shunter needed and the company bought a fireless locomotive . At the time of the opening , the line was 7 @.@ 5 kilometers ( 4 @.@ 7 mi ) long , in addition to tracks at both Kirkenes and Bjørnevatn . Both stations received a turntable , while Kirkenes also received water tower , motive power depot and a workshop . Bjørnevatn Station received a depot for the fireless locomotive . Tracks were laid through the open @-@ pit mine , with the length varying . For instance , in 1910 there were 5 kilometers ( 3 mi ) of tracks in the mine .
Mining started on 7 July 1910 , with the first ore train being run on 13 July . The first shipload left Kirkenes on 11 October , but SS Bengal sank with the first shipment . In 1911 , the system exported 330 @,@ 000 tonnes of ore . The railway was also used for transporting workers , with trains running from the towns to the plants in the morning and returning after the working day was over . Prior to private cars becoming common , the railway operated a passenger carriage on the trains between Kirkenes and Bjørnevatn — allowing free travel . The railway has never had any scheduled or public transport of passengers , but the company 's concession specifies that the authorities could at a later date require the company to operate public passenger services under specified conditions .
= = = Electrification = = =
In 1910 , construction started of an electric power supply for tracks at the port . Originally it had 500 volts direct current , but this was later reduced to 400 volts . Because an overhead wire could interfere with the cranes , third @-@ rail conduction was chosen . However , because of the possibility of iron slimes spilling onto the tracks , the railway chose to use two third rail conductors , one on each side of the track , and avoid the return current running through the tracks . The electric components were delivered by Siemens @-@ Schukert and were taken into use in 1912 . The company took delivery of two electric locomotives , both with a Bo wheel arrangement , in 1910 and 1911 . Sydvaranger operated one port train every 45 minutes , consisting of one locomotive and four hopper cars , with a combined 25 tonnes ( 25 long tons ; 28 short tons ) of ore .
The original system was designed for an export capacity of 650 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 640 @,@ 000 long tons ; 720 @,@ 000 short tons ) , and in 1913 , the company exported 427 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 420 @,@ 000 long tons ; 471 @,@ 000 short tons ) and had 1 @,@ 150 employees . The company initiated plans to start electrification of the mainline , but the plans were placed on hold during the First World War . Sales plummeted during the war . At first , the mining company stored the overproduction , but later production was reduced significantly . In 1918 , the tracks at the mine were electrified at 750 volts direct current . Two 50 @-@ tonne ( 49 @-@ long @-@ ton ; 55 @-@ short @-@ ton ) Bo 'Bo ' locomotives were delivered by Siemens @-@ Schukert and Skabo Jernbanevognfabrikk in 1917 . The following year , another Bo @-@ locomotive was built for the port . Power was secured with the construction of Jarfjord Power Station . However , lack of materials after the war delayed the electrification of the mainline railway until 1920 . Also the port received overhead wires , as the third rail caused problems for snow removal . The new electric system was taken into use on 23 December 1920 .
In the 1920s , the economy fell into a low conjuncture , forcing Sydvaranger to file for bankruptcy in 1925 . However , the facilities were quickly reopened . Two new Bo @-@ locomotives , which could operate both on the mainline and at the port , were delivered in 1930 . Built by Siemens @-@ Schukert , they were christened Lisa and Sonja . Two mainline Bo 'Bo ' locomotives were delivered by Siemens @-@ Schukert in 1935 , which were named Oscar and Ivar . They were followed by the Bo Laila and Gerd two years later — which could operate both on the mainline and at the port . During the late 1930s , the railway company started replacing the rails with heavier 35 kilograms per meter ( 70 lb / yd ) rails , although this work was not completed . The final electric locomotive was a Siemens @-@ Schukert @-@ built Bo unit delivered for the port in 1940 . In 1938 , the last year before production was reduced because of the Second World War , the mine exported 900 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 890 @,@ 000 long tons ; 990 @,@ 000 short tons ) .
= = = Occupation and reconstruction = = =
After the occupation of Norway by Nazi Germany , mining continued under German administration until January 1942 . Kirkenes and the areas along the railway and at the mine were being used to store material for Wehrmacht . To allow better capacity to ship out the materials , in 1942 , a 2 @.@ 5 @-@ kilometer ( 1 @.@ 6 mi ) branch line was built to Haganes . Known as the Port Line ( Norwegian : Havnebanen , German : Hafenbahn ) , the line was completed in 1943 and demolished after the war . Wehrmacht also established Armeverplegungslager Station , which was used during the and slightly after the war . From the spring of 1944 , German authorities ordered that mining was to resume , and allocated two steam locomotives and thirty hooper cars to the line . There was also built a new depot for the German rolling stock .
As part of Operation Nordlicht , Kirkenes was scorched , causing extensive damage to the mining company 's infrastructure . During the reconstruction , Sydvaranger needed to transport large machinery to Bjørnevatn , so the loading gauge was increased to 6 meters ( 20 ft ) . All heavy transport during the reconstruction was done using railway , and tracks were laid throughout the mining facility . From 1945 , passenger trains ran between the two settlements , at first with steam locomotives , and from 1950 with electric locomotives . New storage silos were built in Bjørnevatn , but from operations started , transport within the mine was performed using trackless machinery . A new port facility was built in Kirkenes , with the line terminating at the Air Bridge , an elevated railway which led to the plant . Mining operations and revenue service on the railway did not start until 1952 .
The Directorate for Enemy Property took over the German portion of the ownership of Sydvaranger after the war . In 1948 , ownership of the company was transferred to the state . The initial post @-@ war plans were to use the existing rolling stock . The only remaining locomotive which could haul an ore train from the mine to the port was Oskar , which could haul up to 14 hooper cars and a train weight of 800 tonnes ( 790 long tons ; 880 short tons ) . However , the locomotive proved unreliable , so Sydvaranger decided to order new locomotives . The electric traction was taken out of use in 1955 , but the overhead wires remained until 1963 . Two G12 diesel @-@ electric locomotives were delivered from General Motors Electro @-@ Motive Division in 1954 and 1956 . The Bo 'Bo ' units had a power output of 977 kilowatts ( 1 @,@ 310 hp ) . In addition , new hooper cars were built by Skabo .
To allow for larger trains , the permanent way was upgraded . The rail profiles were upgraded to 49 kilograms per meter ( 78 lb / yd ) , were continuously welded and the gravel ballast was replaced with crushed stone . The distance of the line was after the upgrades 8 @,@ 484 meters ( 5 @.@ 272 mi ) . The upgrades allowed the maximum axle load to be increased to 22 tonnes ( 22 long tons ; 24 short tons ) and the train weight to increased to 1 @,@ 800 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 800 long tons ; 2 @,@ 000 short tons ) . A nominal train consisted of 20 hooper cars with air brakes . In 1960 , work started on demolishing the tracks at the port , followed by all tracks at the workshop at Kirkenes the following year . From then , all non @-@ ore transport in the company was taken over using road transport . The three remaining electric shunters and the steam locomotive were chopped up . Two diesel shunters were sold to Norsk Jernverk in Mo i Rana . Up until this point , the railway had operated 33 steam locomotives , 14 electric locomotives and 4 diesel locomotives .
In 1980 , the mine 's production peaked with an export of 2 @.@ 4 million tonnes and 1 @,@ 000 employees . In 1984 , to improve the workplace environment , a used Allmänna Svenska Elektriska Aktiebolaget ( ASEA ) -built T45 locomotive was bought from Sweden . However , it suffered several breakdowns and was retired in 1989 . As a replacement , a new G 1203 BB was bought from Maschinenbau Kiel and was delivered to Kirkenes on 8 February 1991 . In 1988 , the first part of the Kirkenes plant was closed , and the mining company drastically reduced production because its owner , the Ministry of Trade and Industry , would no longer subsidize operations . All mining ceased in the spring of 1996 , and the last load of ore was hauled in April 1997 . After operations closed , the oldest G12 was transferred to Sør @-@ Varanger Museum .
= = = Reopening = = =
Arctic Bulk Minerals bought the mining rights , and operated a train once to twice a year to keep the track and rolling stock maintained . This company filed for bankruptcy in 2002 . The mining company was then bought by the local power company Varanger Kraft and Sør @-@ Varanger Municipality . In 2006 , they sold the mining company to Tschudi Group for 102 million Norwegian krone ( NOK ) . The Tschudi Group established Northern Iron , registered in Perth , Australia , as a holding company to own the mining company . Operations in the mine and on the line resumed in 2009 , after the price of iron had risen dramatically since the closing of the mine . With the opening of the mine , production is estimated at 3 million tonnes of export per year . The Kirkenes – Bjørnevatn Line was the northern @-@ most railway in the world until 2010 , when Russia 's Obskaya – Bovanenkovo Line was opened .
To haul the trains , the mining company took delivery of a Vossloh G1000 BB . Built new in 2009 , it was delivered to Kirkenes on 12 February 2010 . The unit deviates from standard production by having its maximum speed reduced by software from 100 to 45 kilometers per hour ( 62 to 28 mph ) ; it is further equipped with snowploughs , air supply to open the hopper car doors , radio remote control and janney couplers . As a back @-@ up , the company will retain the MaK G 1203 . The old hooper cars were renovated and put into service , while the track received new concrete ties . The train runs up to 20 trips per day .
On 18 November 2015 the mining company went into bankruptcy .
= = Expansion = =
In the Railway Plan of 1923 , Parliament decided to extend the Nordland Line from Fauske to Vadsø with a branch to Kirkenes . During the Second World War , the Wehrmacht revitalized the plans to build a railway to Kirkenes . No more than the unfinished Polar Line was built and there was never any railways built north of Narvik and the Ofoten Line . However , detailed plans were made for the line , including surveying geological conditions and choice of the route .
Since 1992 , there have been proposals to extend the Kirkenes – Bjørnevatn Line to either Nikel or Zapolyarny , Russia , where it would connect to the Murmansk – Nikel Line . About 40 kilometers ( 25 mi ) of railway is missing to connect the two lines . The proposal calls to develop Kirkenes as a port for export of Russian products , as the Murmansk is less suited and under @-@ dimensioned . Major transshipment products include metals from MMC Norilsk Nickel , steel from Arkhangelsk and crude oil . The Murmansk – Nikel Line was built in 1936 , is 206 kilometers ( 128 mi ) long , is not electrified and is operated by the Russian Railways . As it is Russian gauge , the Kirkenes – Bjørnevatn Line would be presumably undergo gauge conversion or get dual gauge . A new railway would be able to transport 5 million tonnes of cargo per year .
In 2003 , the cost of the necessary 40 kilometers ( 25 mi ) of new railway was estimated at 1 @.@ 4 billion Norwegian krone ( NOK ) , while the cost of upgrading the existing Russian line was NOK 400 million . In 2007 , Murmansk Oblast 's governor , Yury Yevdokimov , rejected the plans for a connection to Russia , stating that his opinion was supported by President Vladimir Putin . Because Kirkenes is a better suited port than Murmansk , local authorities in Murmansk do not want to lose transshipment business to Norway . However , with the increased realism of a line to Rovaniemi , which would serve as an alternative route to Kirkenes from Russia , Russian authorities have since 2010 again supported a railway line between Kirkenes and Russia .
A prestudy also exists about the possibility to connect Kirkenes to the Finnish railway network , named the Arctic Ocean Line . Possible routes include from either Rovaniemi , Kolari , Kemijärvi or multiple of these , via Sodankylä , Saariselkä and Ivalo , then either east or west of Lake Inari or via Nikel to Kirkenes . The length of the line would be between 480 and 550 kilometers ( 300 and 340 mi ) . The background is the boom of mining in Finnish Lapland and the need for access to a deep , ice @-@ free port . Railway lines exists to the Baltic Sea , but the bay is both shallow and ice @-@ covered during winter . The line would also allow for export of lumber and other products from Finland , while it would provide a route to export fish from Norway to Finland and Eastern Europe . In 2011 , the costs of the line were estimated at € 1 @.@ 1 to 1 @.@ 6 billion . A significantly deviating alternative is to build westwards from Kolari to Skibotn ( 300 km ) .
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= Shadows ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" Shadows " is the sixth episode of the first season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premièred on the Fox network on October 22 , 1993 . It was written by Glen Morgan and James Wong , directed by Michael Lange , and featured guest appearances by Barry Primus and Lisa Waltz . The episode is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , unconnected to the series ' wider mythology . " Shadows " earned a Nielsen household rating of 5 @.@ 9 , being watched by 5 @.@ 6 million households in its initial broadcast . The episode was not well received by the production staff , and received mixed reviews from critics .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . In this episode , Mulder and Scully investigate the death of two muggers and encounter an office worker who may be haunted by the spirit of her dead boss , who is using her to uncover his murderer ; and discover covert arms deals made with Middle Eastern radicals .
This episode , inspired by the 1982 horror film The Entity , was written due to insistence that the creators write more episodes where Mulder and Scully help people . This allowed the writers some space to create other episodes they had in mind .
= = Plot = =
Two muggers are found dead in a back alley of Philadelphia after robbing a woman , Lauren Kyte , at an automated teller machine . Mulder and Scully investigate the case when called in by a pair of agents from an unknown agency . The bodies of the muggers are found to have an electrical charge and their throats have been crushed from the inside . Lauren sees her boss , Robert Dorlund , and resigns due to her grief over the death of Dorlund 's partner , Howard Graves , who committed suicide weeks before .
Mulder and Scully determine that one of the dead men belonged to an Islamic terrorist group , the Isfahan , and using the ATM video are able to track down Lauren . A screenshot of the video reveals a blurry figure who appears to be Howard Graves . The agents meet with Lauren at her home and after initially denying it , she admits to the incident but knows nothing about the murders . Upon leaving , the agents find their car going out of control on its own . The car is found to have no evidence of tampering , but an electrical charge is detected within it .
Later , upon visiting the grave of Graves , Mulder and Scully learn of his suicide and the death of his daughter at a young age , a daughter who would be Lauren 's age were she still alive . Scully suspects that Graves faked his death , but on consulting the pathologist who examined his body and testing the organs he donated to others it is proved that he indeed died . Lauren meanwhile witnesses a vision at night , including blood appearing in the bathtub , that leads her to believe that Graves was murdered . At her going @-@ away party , Lauren is threatened by Dorlund , who believes she has knowledge of confidential information that could implicate him . Lauren calls Mulder and Scully to her home , but before the agents can get there , two assassins hired by Dorlund arrive to kill her . An invisible force kills both of them , just as Mulder and Scully arrive ( with Mulder witnessing the body of one of the assassins being hanged in midair ) .
Lauren is interrogated by Mulder and Scully , and the two unknown agents that called them in , who say they are involved because they believe Graves and Dorlund 's company sold technology to the Isfahan . Lauren admits to Mulder and Scully that the sales did indeed take place and that she believes Dorlund had Graves killed . After hearing Lauren recount the eerie circumstances that she believes are being caused by Graves ' spirit , Scully - the usually reserved skeptic - readily accepts her story . Mulder is confused but , after Lauren leaves , Scully admits she was just humoring her . The agents search the company 's premises , but are unable to find any evidence . When Dorlund attacks Lauren with a letter opener Graves ' spirit takes it and cuts open the wallpaper , revealing a disc with evidence . Weeks later , Lauren starts her new job , but it appears that Graves ' spirit may have followed her there .
= = Production = =
This episode was created on Fox 's insistence that the creators write more episodes where Mulder and Scully help people . This episode was written to accomplish that , and to allow the writers some space to create other episodes they had in mind . Co @-@ writer Glen Morgan claims the episode was inspired by the movie The Entity . The name Tom Braidwood , the show 's assistant director who later played Lone Gunmen member Melvin Frohike , is used in the scene where the parking lot attendant paints over the name of Howard Graves . The episode featured guest appearances by Barry Primus , Lisa Waltz , Lorena Gale and Veena Sood .
Fox emphasized the horror aspect of " Shadows " by using the tagline " Don 't watch it alone " when advertising the episode . During the episode , Mulder jokes that Elvis was the only man ever to have successfully faked his own death . The joke would eventually become the first of many similar Elvis jokes littered throughout most of the series . When Mulder wonders whether or not it could have been a poltergeist , Scully mocks him by replying " they 're here " . This is a tagline and famous quote from the film Poltergeist .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Shadows " premiered on the Fox network on October 22 , 1993 , and was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC Two on October 24 , 1994 . The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 5 @.@ 9 with an 11 share — meaning that in the US , 5 @.@ 9 percent of television @-@ equipped households , and 11 percent of all households actively watching television , were watching the program . It was viewed by 5 @.@ 6 million households .
In a retrospective of the first season in Entertainment Weekly , " Shadows " was rated a C + , with the episode being called " exceedingly awkward " , while the political context was seen as a weak point . Keith Phipps , writing for The A.V. Club , had mixed feeling about the episode , rating it a C + . He felt that the episode 's plot worked well , though the supernatural elements seemed " a little corny " . Matt Haigh , writing for Den of Geek , was more positive about the episode , calling it " fun viewing " and feeling that " with characters we could care about and a far more rounded plot , this proved one of the better episodes so far . I still wouldn ’ t call it a particularly brilliant one , though , either " .
Co @-@ writer James Wong felt that the changes he was asked to make to the script led to " Shadows " turning out to be " an average episode " , although he felt " the director did a good job with it " . His partner Glen Morgan had a similar opinion , calling it " a little too ordinary , like you have seen it before , which is exactly what the network wanted at the time . Chris Carter had a more positive view of the episode , calling it " very well done , really great effects , and more of a meat @-@ and @-@ potatoes kind of story . An FBI sting and a good mystery that Mulder and Scully investigate . Overall , a really solid episode . " The plot for " Shadows " was also adapted as a novel for young adults in 2000 by Ellen Steiber , under the title Haunted .
= = Allusions to Benjamin Franklin 's Kite Experiment = =
The episode connects several central elements around the story of Benjamin Franklin 's kite experiment on the nature of lightning and electricity . A paperweight which Lauren takes from the desk of Mr. Graves , bearing an inscription of an epigram by Franklin , appears to serve as a conduit for his psychokinetic powers , which include high voltage electrical charges . Additionally , Lauren Kyte 's surname is a homophone of " kite , " and though she works in Philadelphia , her home is given briefly by agent Scully as " 858 Franklin " in Bensalem Township , Pennsylvania , a suburb in Bucks County . Local tradition has long claimed , erroneously , that Franklin carried out his kite experiment on the grounds of Growden Mansion in Bensalem and that the township was named in part in honor of " Ben . "
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= Hurricane Dalilia ( 1989 ) =
Hurricane Dalilia was the only tropical cyclone during 1989 to affect the Hawaiian Islands . A tropical disturbance developed into a tropical depression on July 11 and into Hurricane Dalilia on July 13 . Dalilia crossed 140 ° W shortly after reaching its maximum intensity and entered the Central Pacific Hurricane Center 's area of responsibility . The storm accelerated , and headed directly towards the Hawaiian Islands . Hurricane Dalilia passed just south of the Hawaiian Islands as a tropical storm before dissipating July 21 as it interacted with a trough . It then interacted with the remains of Tropical Storm Erick and reformed into a depression on July 24 . A trough then accelerated the remnants towards the Aleutian Islands on July 28 . The cyclone 's effects were minimal . There was high surf , and some gusty winds . Damage was minor , and mainly limited to downed power lines . However , many areas throughout the island chain received more than 5 in ( 130 mm ) of precipitation .
= = Meteorological history = =
Hurricane Dalilia originated out of a tropical disturbance embedded in the Intertropical Convergence Zone ( ITCZ ) during early July 1989 off the west coast of Africa . As the system became increasingly organized , the disturbance 's outflow suppressed the ITCZ . By July 9 , the disturbance had entered the eastern Pacific ocean and sufficient convective development to prompt Dvorak Technique intensity estimates . Continued development took place in the following days ; on July 11 , the National Hurricane Center determined that the disturbance spawned a tropical depression 792 mi ( 1 @,@ 275 km ) southwest of Cabo San Lucas . Upon being designated a depression , it was still partially embedded within the ITCZ , inhibiting rapid development . In fact , the National Hurricane Center did not operationally begin advisories on the depression until almost 24 hours later . After the National Hurricane Center began issuing advisories , the depression quickly became more well @-@ defined , as it began separating from the ITCZ on July 12 . In addition , significant further intensification was expected , as sea surface temperatures ( SST 's ) were greater than 78 @.@ 8 ° F ( 26 ° C ) . Only a few hours later , satellite imagery showed a significant increase in convection . Tracking in a general west @-@ northwest direction , the depression intensified into a tropical storm late on July 12 , at which time it was given the name Dalilia by the NHC .
Dalilia rapidly intensified after becoming a tropical storm , and several computer models predicted it to reach winds of 100 mph ( 155 km / h ) by July 15 . Six hours later , the National Hurricane Center upgraded Dalilia to a hurricane , after winds were estimated at 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) , and satellite imagery suggested that the hurricane was continuing to organize . However , post @-@ storm analysis show this upgrade as several hours premature . While Dalilia developed well @-@ defined spiral convective bands , it had remained a minimal hurricane , since no eye had formed . Despite earlier forecasts for low wind shear values , upper @-@ level winds appeared less favorable for further intensification , after water vapor imagery showed several upper @-@ level low pressure areas to the north and northeast of Dalilia . Although the National Hurricane Center operationally held the intensity of Dalilia at minimal hurricane status for a while ; post @-@ analysis data show that Dalilia was slowly intensifying . By July 16 , the storm developed a central dense overcast , leading to further intensification . Although the storm tracked near cool waters , a well @-@ developed outflow allowed it to maintain hurricane @-@ intensity .
Shortly before crossing into the Central Pacific Hurricane Center 's area of responsibility , the storm reached its peak intensity with winds of 90 mph ( 150 km / h ) and a central pressure of 977 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 85 inHg ) . After crossing 140 ° W , Dalilia weakened to a minimal hurricane . The storm maintained this intensity until July 19 , at which time the system slowed and turned northwest . The following day , the weakening tropical storm brushed the Hawaiian Islands to the south , eventually curving away from the island chain on July 21 . Later that day , Dalilia further weakened to a tropical depression , with the Central Pacific Hurricane Center issuing their final advisory at that time . The remnants of the former hurricane continued to track northwest . On July 24 , the system interacted with the remnants of Tropical Storm Erick and may have briefly re @-@ attained tropical storm intensity ; however , by July 28 , the storm was rapidly tracking north through the Aleutian Islands . The remnants of Dalilia dissipated shortly thereafter .
= = Preparations and impact = =
In preparation of the storm , a high surf advisory and a tropical storm watch were issued for the Hawaiian Islands . Officials urged residents to stock up on supplies and they closed beaches . Even though the Central Pacific Hurricane Center remarked that that watch will likely be upgraded into a hurricane warning , this failed to occur ; instead , the watch was discontinued on July 20 because meteorologists were now expecting the storm to pass south of the island chain .
While tracking near the Hawaiian Islands , Dalilia produced waves up to 20 ft ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) along south @-@ facing coastlines . Along the coasts of Ka 'u and South Kona , winds gusted up to 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) ; the winds caused minor damage , mainly downed power lines . Most areas on Oahu received up to 3 in ( 76 mm ) of rain with localized areas reporting up to 8 in ( 200 mm ) . Hurricane Dalilia contributed to a record rainfall total for the month of July in Honolulu with 2 @.@ 33 in ( 59 mm ) falling during the storm 's passage . The heaviest rainfall was recorded on the north side of Kauai , with localized areas receiving rainfall in excess of 10 in ( 250 mm ) . Along the southeast slopes of Mauna Loa , upwards of 9 in ( 230 mm ) of rain fell . The remnants of the storm continued to produce unseasonable rains in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands through July 28 . Heavy rains caused minor flooding which forced transit officials to shut down several roads . Many power lines were down , which produced minor wind damage . Despite causing power outages , there were no reports of injuries or major property damage . Overall , impact from Tropical Storm Dalilia was less than anticipated .
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= Anti @-@ tobacco movement in Nazi Germany =
After German doctors became the first to identify the link between smoking and lung cancer , Germany initiated a strong anti @-@ tobacco movement and led the first public anti @-@ smoking campaign in modern history . Anti @-@ tobacco movements grew in many nations from the beginning of the 20th century , but these had little success , except in Germany , where the campaign was supported by the government after the Nazis came to power . It was the most powerful anti @-@ smoking movement in the world during the 1930s and early 1940s . The National Socialist leadership condemned smoking and several of them openly criticized tobacco consumption . Research on smoking and its effects on health thrived under Nazi rule and was the most important of its type at that time . Adolf Hitler 's personal distaste for tobacco and the Nazi reproductive policies were among the motivating factors behind their campaign against smoking , and this campaign was associated with both antisemitism and racism .
The Nazi anti @-@ tobacco campaign included banning smoking in trams , buses and city trains , promoting health education , limiting cigarette rations in the Wehrmacht , organizing medical lectures for soldiers , and raising the tobacco tax . The National Socialists also imposed restrictions on tobacco advertising and smoking in public spaces , and regulated restaurants and coffeehouses . The anti @-@ tobacco movement did not have much effect in the early years of the Nazi regime and tobacco use increased between 1933 and 1939 , but smoking by military personnel declined from 1939 to 1945 . Even by the end of the 20th century , the anti @-@ smoking movement in postwar Germany had not attained the influence of the Nazi anti @-@ smoking campaign .
= = Prelude = =
Anti @-@ tobacco sentiment existed in Germany in the early 20th century . Critics of smoking organized the first anti @-@ tobacco group in the country named the Deutscher Tabakgegnerverein zum Schutze der Nichtraucher ( German Tobacco Opponents ' Association for the Protection of Non @-@ smokers ) . Established in 1904 , this organization existed for a brief period only . The next anti @-@ tobacco organization , the Bund Deutscher Tabakgegner ( Federation of German Tobacco Opponents ) , was established in 1910 in Trautenau , Bohemia . Other anti @-@ smoking organizations were established in 1912 in the cities of Hanover and Dresden . In 1920 , a Bund Deutscher Tabakgegner in der Tschechoslowakei ( Federation of German Tobacco Opponents in Czechoslovakia ) was formed in Prague , after Czechoslovakia was separated from Austria at the end of World War I. A Bund Deutscher Tabakgegner in Deutschösterreich ( Federation of German Tobacco Opponents in German Austria ) was established in Graz in 1920 .
These groups published journals advocating nonsmoking . The first such German language journal was Der Tabakgegner ( The Tobacco Opponent ) , published by the Bohemian organization between 1912 and 1932 . Deutscher Tabakgegner ( German Tobacco Opponent ) was published in Dresden from 1919 to 1935 , and was the second journal on this subject . The anti @-@ tobacco organizations were also against consumption of alcoholic beverages .
= = Reasons = =
= = = Hitler 's attitude towards smoking = = =
Adolf Hitler was a heavy smoker in his early life — he used to smoke 25 to 40 cigarettes daily — but gave up the habit , concluding that it was " a waste of money " . In later years , Hitler viewed smoking as " decadent " and " the wrath of the Red Man against the White Man , vengeance for having been given hard liquor " , lamenting that " so many excellent men have been lost to tobacco poisoning " . He was unhappy because both Eva Braun and Martin Bormann were smokers and was concerned over Hermann Göring 's continued smoking in public places . He was angered when a statue portraying a cigar @-@ smoking Göring was commissioned . Hitler is often considered to be the first national leader to advocate nonsmoking , however James VI and I , king of Scotland and England , was openly against smoking 330 years prior .
Hitler disapproved of the military personnel 's freedom to smoke , and during World War II he said on 2 March 1942 , " it was a mistake , traceable to the army leadership at the time , at the beginning of the war " . He also said that it was " not correct to say that a soldier cannot live without smoking " . He promised to end the use of tobacco in the military after the end of the war . Hitler personally encouraged close friends not to smoke . He even began to offer a gold watch to any of his inner circle who could quit . However , Hitler 's personal distaste for tobacco was only one of several catalysts behind the anti @-@ smoking campaign .
= = = Reproductive policies = = =
The Nazi reproductive policies were a significant factor behind their anti @-@ tobacco campaign . Women who smoked were considered to be vulnerable to premature aging and loss of physical attractiveness ; they were viewed as unsuitable to be wives and mothers in a German family . Werner Huttig of the Nazi Party 's Rassenpolitisches Amt ( Office of Racial Politics ) said that a smoking mother 's breast milk contained nicotine , a claim that modern research has proven correct . Martin Staemmler , a prominent physician during the Third Reich , opined that smoking by pregnant women resulted in a higher rate of stillbirths and miscarriages . This opinion was also supported by well @-@ known female racial hygienist Agnes Bluhm , whose book published in 1936 expressed the same view . The Nazi leadership was concerned over this because they wanted German women to be as reproductive as possible . An article published in a German gynecology journal in 1943 stated that women smoking three or more cigarettes per day were more likely to remain childless compared to nonsmoking women .
= = Research = =
Research and studies on tobacco 's effects on the population 's health were more advanced in Germany than in any other nation by the time the Nazis came to power . The link between lung cancer and tobacco was first proven in Nazi Germany , contrary to the popular belief that American and British scientists first discovered it in the 1950s . The term " passive smoking " ( " Passivrauchen " ) was coined in Nazi Germany . Research projects funded by the Nazis revealed many disastrous effects of smoking on health . Nazi Germany supported epidemiological research on the harmful effects of tobacco use . Hitler personally gave financial support to the Wissenschaftliches Institut zur Erforschung der Tabakgefahren ( Institute for Tobacco Hazards Research ) at the University of Jena , headed by Karl Astel . Established in 1941 , it was the most significant anti @-@ tobacco institute in Nazi Germany .
Franz H. Müller in 1939 and Eberhard Schairer in 1943 first used case @-@ control epidemiological methods to study lung cancer among smokers . In 1939 , Müller published a study report in a reputed cancer journal in Germany which claimed that prevalence of lung cancer was higher among smokers . Müller , described as the " forgotten father of experimental epidemiology " , was a member of the National Socialist Motor Corps ( NSKK ) and the Nazi Party ( NSDAP ) . Müller 's 1939 medical dissertation was the world 's first controlled epidemiological study of the relationship between tobacco and lung cancer . Apart from mentioning the increasing incidence of lung cancer and many of the causes behind it such as dust , exhaust gas from cars , tuberculosis , X @-@ ray and pollutants emitted from factories , Müller 's paper pointed out that " the significance of tobacco smoke has been pushed more and more into the foreground " .
Physicians in the Third Reich were aware that smoking was responsible for cardiac diseases , which were considered to be the most serious diseases resulting from smoking . Use of nicotine was sometimes considered to be responsible for increasing reports of myocardial infarction in the country . In the later years of World War II , researchers considered nicotine a factor behind the coronary heart failures suffered by a significant number of military personnel in the Eastern Front . A pathologist of the Heer examined thirty @-@ two young soldiers who had died from myocardial infarction at the front , and documented in a 1944 report that all of them were " enthusiastic smokers " . He cited the opinion of pathologist Franz Buchner that cigarettes are " a coronary poison of the first order " .
= = Measures = =
The Nazis used several public relations tactics to convince the general population of Germany not to smoke . Well @-@ known health magazines like the Gesundes Volk ( Healthy People ) , Volksgesundheit ( People 's Health ) and Gesundes Leben ( Healthy Life ) published warnings about the health consequences of smoking and posters showing the harmful effects of tobacco were displayed . Anti @-@ smoking messages were sent to the people in their workplaces , often with the help of the Hitler @-@ Jugend ( HJ ) and the Bund Deutscher Mädel ( BDM ) . The anti @-@ smoking campaign undertaken by the Nazis also included health education . In June 1939 , a Bureau against the Hazards of Alcohol and Tobacco was formed and the Reichsstelle für Rauschgiftbekämpfung ( Reich Office for Drug Control ) also helped in the anti @-@ tobacco campaign . Articles advocating nonsmoking were published in the magazines Die Genussgifte ( The Recreational Stimulants ) , Auf der Wacht ( On the Guard ) and Reine Luft ( Clean Air ) . Out of these magazines , Reine Luft was the main journal of the anti @-@ tobacco movement . Karl Astel 's Institute for Tobacco Hazards Research at Jena University purchased and distributed hundreds of reprints from Reine Luft .
After recognizing the harmful effects of smoking on health , several items of anti @-@ smoking legislation were enacted . The later 1930s increasingly saw anti @-@ tobacco laws implemented by the Nazis . In 1938 , the Luftwaffe and the Reichspost imposed a ban on smoking . Smoking was also banned not only in health care institutions , but also in several public offices and in rest homes . Midwives were restricted from smoking while on duty . In 1939 , the Nazi Party outlawed smoking in all of its offices premises , and Heinrich Himmler , the then chief of the Schutzstaffel ( SS ) , restricted police personnel and SS officers from smoking while they were on duty . Smoking was also outlawed in schools .
In 1941 , tobacco smoking in trams was outlawed in sixty German cities . Smoking was also outlawed in bomb shelters ; however , some shelters had separate rooms for smoking . Special care was taken to prevent women from smoking . The President of the Medical Association in Germany announced , " German women don 't smoke " . Pregnant women and women below the age of 25 and over the age of 55 were not given tobacco ration cards during World War II . Restrictions on selling tobacco products to women were imposed on the hospitality and food retailing industry . Anti @-@ tobacco films aimed at women were publicly shown . Editorials discussing the issue of smoking and its effects were published in newspapers . Strict measures were taken in this regard and a district department of the National Socialist Factory Cell Organization ( NSBO ) announced that it would expel female members who smoked publicly . The next step in the anti @-@ tobacco campaign came in July 1943 , when public smoking for persons under the age of 18 was outlawed . In the next year , smoking in buses and city trains was made illegal , on the personal initiative of Hitler , who feared female ticket takers might be the victims of passive smoking .
Restrictions were imposed on the advertisement of tobacco products , enacted on 7 December 1941 and signed by Heinrich Hunke , the President of the Advertising Council . Advertisements trying to depict smoking as harmless or as an expression of masculinity were banned . Ridiculing anti @-@ tobacco activists was also outlawed , as was the use of advertising posters along rail tracks , in rural regions , stadiums and racing tracks . Advertising by loudspeakers and mail was also prohibited .
Restrictions on smoking were also introduced in the Wehrmacht . Cigarette rations in the military were limited to six per soldier per day . Extra cigarettes were often sold to the soldiers , especially when there was no military advance or retreat in the battleground , however these were restricted to 50 for each person per month . Teenaged soldiers serving in the 12th SS Panzer Division Hitlerjugend , composed of Hitler Youth members , were given confectionery instead of tobacco products . Access to cigarettes was not allowed for the Wehrmacht 's female auxiliary personnel . Medical lectures were arranged to persuade military personnel to quit smoking . An ordinance enacted on 3 November 1941 raised tobacco taxes by approximately 80 – 95 % of the retail price . It would be the highest rise in tobacco taxes in Germany until more than 25 years after the collapse of the Nazi regime .
= = Effectiveness = =
The early anti @-@ smoking campaign was considered a failure , and from 1933 to 1937 there was a rapid increase in tobacco consumption in Germany . The rate of smoking in the nation increased faster even than in neighboring France , where the anti @-@ tobacco movement was tiny and far less influential . Between 1932 and 1939 , per capita cigarette consumption in Germany increased from 570 to 900 per year , while the corresponding numbers for France were from 570 to 630 .
The cigarette manufacturing companies in Germany made several attempts to weaken the anti @-@ tobacco campaign . They published new journals and tried to depict the anti @-@ tobacco movement as " fanatic " and " unscientific " . The tobacco industry also tried to counter the government campaign to prevent women from smoking and used smoking models in their advertisements . Despite government regulations , many women in Germany regularly smoked , including the wives of many high @-@ ranking Nazi officials . For instance , Magda Goebbels smoked even while she was interviewed by a journalist . Fashion illustrations displaying women with cigarettes were often published in prominent publications such as the Beyers Mode für Alle ( Beyers Fashion For All ) . The cover of the popular song Lili Marleen featured singer Lale Andersen holding a cigarette .
The Nazis implemented more anti @-@ tobacco policies at the end of the 1930s and by the early years of World War II , the rate of tobacco usage declined . As a result of the anti @-@ tobacco measures implemented in the Wehrmacht , the total tobacco consumption by soldiers decreased between 1939 and 1945 . According to a survey conducted in 1944 , the number of smokers increased in the Wehrmacht , but average tobacco consumption per military personnel declined by 23 @.@ 4 % compared to the immediate pre @-@ World War II years . The number of people who smoked 30 or more cigarettes per day declined from 4 @.@ 4 % to 0 @.@ 3 % .
The Nazi anti @-@ tobacco policies were not free of contradictions . For example , the Volksgesundheit ( People 's Health ) and Gesundheitspflicht ( Duty to be Healthy ) policies were enforced in parallel with the active distribution of cigarettes to people who the Nazis saw as " deserving " groups ( e.g. frontline soldiers , members of the Hitler Youth ) . On the other hand , " undeserving " and stigmatized groups ( Jews , war prisoners ) were denied access to tobacco .
= = Association with antisemitism and racism = =
Apart from public health concerns , the Nazis were heavily influenced by ideology ; specifically , the movement was influenced by concepts of racial hygiene and bodily purity . Nazi leaders believed that it was wrong for the master race to smoke and that tobacco consumption was equal to " racial degeneracy " . The Nazis viewed tobacco as a " genetic poison " . Racial hygienists opposed tobacco use , fearing that it would " corrupt " the " German germ plasm " . Nazi anti @-@ tobacco activists often tried to depict tobacco as a vice of the degenerate Negroes .
The Nazis claimed that the Jews were responsible for introducing tobacco and its harmful effects . The Seventh @-@ day Adventist Church in Germany announced that smoking was an unhealthy vice spread by the Jews . Johann von Leers , editor of the Nordische Welt ( Nordic World ) , during the opening ceremony of the Wissenschaftliches Institut zur Erforschung der Tabakgefahren in 1941 , proclaimed that " Jewish capitalism " was responsible for the spread of tobacco use across Europe . He said that the first tobacco on German soil was brought by the Jews and that they controlled the tobacco industry in Amsterdam , the principal European entry point of Nicotiana .
= = After World War II = =
After the collapse of Nazi Germany at the end of World War II , American cigarette manufacturers quickly entered the German black market . Illegal smuggling of tobacco became prevalent , and the anti @-@ smoking campaign started by the Nazis ceased to exist after the fall of the Third Reich . In 1949 , approximately 400 million cigarettes manufactured in the United States entered Germany illegally every month . In 1954 , nearly two billion Swiss cigarettes were smuggled into Germany and Italy . As part of the Marshall Plan , the United States sent tobacco to Germany free of charge ; the amount of tobacco shipped into Germany in 1948 was 24 @,@ 000 tons and was as high as 69 @,@ 000 tons in 1949 . Per capita yearly cigarette consumption in post @-@ war Germany steadily rose from 460 in 1950 to 1 @,@ 523 in 1963 . At the end of the 20th century , the anti @-@ tobacco campaign in Germany was unable to approach the level of the Nazi @-@ era climax in the years 1939 – 41 and German tobacco health research was described by Robert N. Proctor as " muted " .
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= SS Batavier II ( 1897 ) =
SS Batavier II was a steam packet for the Batavier Line that sailed between Rotterdam and London for most of her career . The ship was built in 1897 by the Gourlay Brothers of Dundee . The Dutch ship could carry a limited amount of freight and up to 321 passengers . She was rebuilt in 1909 which increased her length by over 5 metres ( 16 ft ) .
During World War I , the Batavier Line attempted to maintain service , but in September 1916 , Batavier II was seized as a prize by German submarine UB @-@ 6 and sailed into Zeebrugge and retained . Ten months later , Batavier II was shelled by British submarine E55 and sank near Texel .
= = Career = =
Batavier II and her sister ship Batavier III were built for William Müller and Company by the Gourlay Brothers of Dundee , Scotland . The ship was launched on 17 August 1897 . As built , she was 74 @.@ 4 metres ( 244 ft 1 in ) long ( between perpendiculars ) and 10 @.@ 2 metres ( 33 ft 6 in ) abeam . Batavier II was powered by a single 4 @-@ cylinder , triple @-@ expansion steam engine of 2 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 1 @,@ 500 kW ) that moved her up to 14 knots ( 26 km / h ) . She could carry up to 321 passengers : 44 in first class , 27 in second class , and up to 250 in steerage . She was listed at 1 @,@ 136 gross register tons ( GRT ) .
Upon completion in October 1897 , she joined the 683 @-@ ton Batavier I in packet service between Rotterdam and London . The pair were joined by Batavier III after her completion in November . In Rotterdam , the ships docked at the Willemsplein ; in London , the ships originally docked near London Bridge , but in 1899 switched to the Customs House and Wool Quays near the Tower Bridge . Also beginning in 1899 , Batavier Line service between Rotterdam and London was offered daily except Sundays ; each of the ships made three round trips per week . In addition to passengers , Batavier II could also carry a limited quantity of freight . One example that may be typical was a load of 1 long ton ( 1 @.@ 1 short tons ) of dry chemical wood pulp in 5 bales carried to London in March 1907 . In 1909 , Batavier II was rebuilt to 1 @,@ 335 GRT and lengthened by 5 @.@ 3 metres ( 17 ft 5 in ) to 79 @.@ 7 metres ( 261 ft 6 in ) .
After the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , the Batavier Line continued service on the Rotterdam – London route . In December 1914 , Batavier II made news when porters handling what was identified as a 750 @-@ pound ( 340 kg ) crate of Swedish matches discovered an escaped German Army officer inside . The plan , apparently , was for him to be shipped from London to Rotterdam via Batavier II . The plot unraveled when the porters could only move the heavy crate by rolling it , which knocked the man unconscious ; the officer was returned to the custody of British military officials .
In June 1915 , passengers on Batavier II witnessed an attack by two German airplanes against a British steamship between the Galloper and the North Hinder Lightships . The attack was broken off when two British airplanes arrived over the ship to engage the German aircraft ; none of the airplanes were destroyed , and the ship was unscathed .
On 24 September 1916 , after Batavier II had departed from Rotterdam , the ship was stopped by the German submarine UB @-@ 6 . She was seized as prize and sailed into German @-@ held Zeebrugge . There , Batavier II 's Dutch crew and women and children passengers were released and sent via train to Rotterdam . The Germans confiscated the ship 's cargo of food . Also on board Batavier II were four escaped Russian prisoners of war and Richard Hansemann , a German @-@ born New York businessman . American newspapers carried reports of Hansemann 's plight , reporting by 1 October that he would likely be impressed into the German Army .
Batavier II 's whereabouts and activities over the next ten months are uncertain . She remained under German control for a time , but how long is not clear from sources . Batavier II was back under Dutch control by late July 1917 .
On 27 July 1917 , Batavier II was shelled by British submarine E55 just outside Dutch territorial waters . Damaged by E55 's gunfire , Batavier II 's crew steered her back into Dutch territorial waters . E55 then sent a prize crew on board Batavier II and sailed her back outside Dutch waters . By the time a Dutch torpedo boat arrived on the scene , Batavier II was taking on water and had drifted back into Dutch territory . The torpedo boat sent the message " respect neutrality " to E55 which retrieved her prize crew and departed . Despite efforts to stem the flow of water , Batavier II sank 1 nautical mile ( 1 @.@ 9 km ) from the Molengat North Buoy , off Texel .
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= Battle of White Marsh =
The Battle of White Marsh or Battle of Edge Hill was a battle of the Philadelphia campaign of the American Revolutionary War fought December 5 – 8 , 1777 , in the area surrounding Whitemarsh Township , Pennsylvania . The battle , which took the form of a series of skirmish actions , was the last major engagement of 1777 between British and American forces .
George Washington , commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the American revolutionary forces , spent the weeks after his defeat at the Battle of Germantown encamped with the Continental Army in various locations throughout Montgomery County , just north of British @-@ occupied Philadelphia . In early November , the Americans established an entrenched position approximately 16 miles ( 26 km ) north of Philadelphia along the Wissahickon Creek and Sandy Run , primarily situated on several hills between Old York Road and Bethlehem Pike . From here , Washington monitored British troop movements in Philadelphia and evaluated his options .
On December 4 , Gen. Sir William Howe , the commander @-@ in @-@ chief of British forces in North America , led a sizable contingent of troops out of Philadelphia in one last attempt to destroy Washington and the Continental Army before the onset of winter . After a series of skirmishes , Howe called off the attack and returned to Philadelphia without engaging Washington in a decisive conflict .
With the British back in Philadelphia , Washington was able to march his troops to winter quarters at Valley Forge .
= = Background and movement to battle = =
After their October 4 , 1777 , defeat at the Battle of Germantown , Washington 's army retreated along Skippack Pike to Pawling 's Mill , beyond the Perkiomen Creek , where they remained encamped until October 8 . They then marched east on Skippack Pike , turned left on Forty @-@ Foot Road ( present @-@ day Old Forty @-@ Foot Road ) , and marched to Sumneytown Pike , where they camped on the property of Frederick Wampole near Kulpsville in Towamencin Township . While there , Brig. Gen. Francis Nash died of wounds incurred at Germantown and was buried in the Mennonite Meeting Cemetery . Washington remained at Towamencin for one week , gathering supplies and waiting to see if Howe would move against him . On October 16 , Washington moved his forces to Methacton Hill in Worcester Township . After learning of Howe 's withdrawal from Germantown to Philadelphia , Washington moved his army to Whitpain , 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) closer to Philadelphia , on October 20 . On October 29 , Washington 's army numbered 8 @,@ 313 Continentals and 2 @,@ 717 militia , although the terms of enlistment of many soldiers from Maryland and Virginia were due to expire . With his ranks reinforced , Washington dispatched a brigade to assist with the defense of Forts Mifflin and Mercer , on the Delaware River . On November 2 , at the recommendation of his council of war , Washington marched his forces to White Marsh , approximately 13 miles ( 21 km ) northwest of Philadelphia . At White Marsh , the army began to build redoubts and defensive works .
After the surrender of British Lt. Gen. John Burgoyne after the Battles of Saratoga , Washington began drawing troops from the north , including the 1 @,@ 200 men of Varnum 's Rhode Island brigade , and about 1 @,@ 000 more men from various Pennsylvania , Maryland and Virginia units . Maj. Gen. Horatio Gates sent Col. Daniel Morgan 's rifle corps , and the brigades of Paterson and Glover . With these additional forces , and the pending onset of winter , Washington had to face the problem of supplying his army . A quarter of the troops were barefooted , and there were very few blankets or warm clothing . Washington became so desperate that he even offered a reward of $ 10 to the person who could supply the " best substitute for shoes , made of raw hides " . Morale was so low and desertion so common that Washington offered a pardon on October 24 to all deserters who returned by January 1 . Washington 's loss of Philadelphia and inactivity brought criticism from Congress , who pressured him to attack the city . He therefore called a council of war on November 24 which voted against an attack 11 to 4 . Nonetheless , Washington rode out the next day to view the British defenses , which turned to be stronger than he had expected .
On October 19 , Howe withdrew the British forces from Germantown and focused on the defense of Philadelphia . British military engineer Capt. John Montresor supervised the building of a series of fourteen formidable redoubts that began at Upper Ferry , along the Schuylkill River , and extended eastward to the shores of the Delaware River , just north of Philadelphia . Howe took advantage of his time in Philadelphia to raise additional forces from the loyalist population in the region . Newly @-@ promoted Maj. John Graves Simcoe reinforced his unit , the Queen 's Rangers , which had lost over a quarter of its men at the Battle of Brandywine . William Allen , Jr . , the son of notable loyalist William Allen , raised the 1st Battalion of Pennsylvania Loyalists , and was made its lieutenant colonel . Loyalist James Chalmers raised the 1st Battalion of Maryland Loyalists , and was given its command . Recruitment also took place among the city 's Irish Catholic population , with the formation of the Irish Catholic Volunteers , and in the counties immediately surrounding Philadelphia . In mid @-@ November , the fall of Forts Mifflin and Mercer effectively ended American control of the Delaware River , and much @-@ needed supplies began arriving at the city 's docks , along with 2 @,@ 000 additional British soldiers .
The weeks with two major armies sitting within miles of each other were not without conflict , and a petite guerre ensued in the no man 's land between White Marsh and Northern Liberties . Minor skirmishes between light troops increased in intensity throughout November , with almost daily losses being incurred by both the British and the Americans . In retaliation , on November 22 , Howe ordered his troops to set fire to several large country houses in the Germantown area , including Fair Hill , a mansion and country estate that had previously belonged to John Dickinson . Eleven houses in all were burned to the ground , and residents of Philadelphia climbed onto rooftops and church steeples to watch the spectacle . Just one day earlier , crowds had gathered to watch the burning of Commodore John Hazelwood 's Pennsylvania Navy in the Delaware . On the same morning the mansions were burned , an earthquake struck Philadelphia , and was felt as far away as Lancaster . On November 27 , an aurora borealis lit up the night skies . The two events caused quite a stir among both the residents of Philadelphia and the troops , British and American alike , who took them as an ominous sign of things to come .
By early December , Howe decided , despite having written to Colonial Secretary Lord George Germain requesting to be relieved of his command , that he was in a position to make one last attempt to destroy Washington 's army before the onset of winter , and he began preparations for an attack on the American forces . Washington 's intelligence network in Philadelphia , led by Maj. John Clark , became aware of British plans to surprise the Americans . According to a historically unsubstantiated story , Howe 's movements were revealed to the Americans by a Quaker woman named Lydia Darrah , who overheard British officers quartered in her house discussing Howe 's plan , and crossed the British lines to deliver this information to Col. Elias Boudinot of the Continental Army , who was at the Rising Sun Tavern between Germantown and Northern Liberties , ( located at the present day intersection of Germantown Avenue and Old York Road ) attempting to secure provisions . Boudinot immediately relayed this information to Washington , and the Continental Army was ready when Howe , with a force of approximately 10 @,@ 000 men , marched out of Philadelphia just prior to midnight on December 4 . The advance column , led by Lt. Gen. Lord Cornwallis , headed up Germantown Pike . A second column , led by Lt. Gen. von Knyphausen , marched toward the American left .
= = First day of battle = =
Just after midnight on December 5 , Cornwallis ' vanguard , which consisted of two British light infantry battalions , skirmished with an American cavalry patrol under the command of Capt. Allen McLane near Three Mile Run on Skippack Road . McLane sent a messenger to Washington , alerting him of the British movements . While the main body of the British troops marched through Germantown , Beggarstown , and Flourtown , American alarm cannons were sounded and positions manned . At 3 : 00 am , the British halted on Chestnut Hill , just south of the American defenses , and waited for daybreak . During the night , Washington ordered his troops to build additional campfires to deceive the British . " ... [ I ] t looked as if fifty thousand men were encamped there . By day we could see this was merely a trick ... , " wrote Hessian Maj. Carl von Bauermeister .
Expecting a confrontation , Washington took the precaution of striking his tents before sunrise , and sent the heavy baggage north to Trappe . He then dispatched troops to find out the size and intent of the British column . Brig. Gen. James Irvine of the Pennsylvania militia took 600 men and marched them through the Wissahickon Valley toward Chestnut Hill . Brig. Gen. James Potter 's brigade of about 1 @,@ 000 Pennsylvania militia and Webb 's 2nd Connecticut Regiment of 200 men moved to screen Irvine 's right . Around noon , Irvine 's detachment encountered the British light infantry on the north side of Chestnut Hill . The Pennsylvania militia got off the first volley , but were soon routed by the British . While attempting to rally his fleeing troops , Irvine had three fingers shot off , and was taken prisoner when he fell from his horse . Potter 's brigade immediately fled , despite orders to advance and skirmish with the British light infantry . The 2nd Connecticut made a brief stand , killing three and wounding eleven , including British Capt. Sir James Murray @-@ Pulteney .
British Lt. Col. Robert Abercromby decided to push his advantage after scattering Irvine 's troops . He pushed north and captured St. Thomas Episcopal Church , located on a hillock . Howe arrived a short while later , and ascended to the top of the church 's bell tower in an attempt to view the American positions . Deciding the American defenses were too strong to attack with his present force , he opted to shell their defenses with artillery fire ; however , his guns did not have the range to hit Washington 's defenses . His forces camped on Chestnut Hill that night , and planned a new way of attack for the following day .
= = Second and third days of battle = =
The two armies spent December 6 watching each other across the Wissahickon Valley . Howe hoped that Washington would leave his positions to attack the British ; Washington did not , preferring instead to let the British do the maneuvering . By day 's end , Howe decided upon a flanking movement toward the Americans ' left , toward Jenkintown and Cheltenham Township , while Maj. Gen. Charles Grey 's forces would create a distraction by attacking the American center .
Sometime after 1 : 00 am on December 7 , Howe marched the British Army back through Germantown , and then to Jenkintown , where they remained until noon . As the British movements were concealed by a ridge on Chestnut Hill , Washington did not become aware of Howe 's maneuvering until 8 : 00 am . He immediately moved Morgan 's Rifle Corps. and Col. Mordecai Gist 's Maryland militia eastward to cover his left flank . About a mile to the right of this detachment , Brig. Gen. James Potter 's brigade of Pennsylvania militia , and Webb 's 2nd Connecticut Regiment , under Lieut . Col. Isaac Sherman , proceeded down Lime Kiln road toward Edge Hill . Movement of the British rear guard , including the Jägers and the Queen 's Rangers , was hindered by the burning of the villages of Cresheim and Beggarstown by troops at the front of the column . Howe 's right was now situated near the Abington Presbyterian Meeting . His main force moved to situate itself on Edge Hill , a ridge that ran parallel to , and a mile in front of , the American lines . Grey 's column had broken off from the main column , and proceeded up Whitemarsh Church Road toward the American center .
Gen. Grey had been instructed not to attack until he heard the sound of firing from Howe 's column , but after several hours , he became impatient and decided to proceed on his own . He formed his column into three divisions , with the Queen 's Rangers were on the left , the Jägers on each side of the road , and the light infantry of the Guards on the right , and headed in the direction of Tyson 's Tavern on Limekiln Road . As Grey advanced toward the American center , his troops took fire from American militia on Edge Hill . The militia were quickly routed , with between twenty and thirty killed , and fifteen of them taken as prisoners . Gens . John Cadwalader and Joseph Reed , out reconnoitering on horse near Twickenham , the country estate of Thomas Wharton Jr . , attempted to rally the Potter 's fleeing Pennsylvania militia . Lieut . Col. Sherman , the officer in charge of the 2nd Connecticut Continentals , resented Reed 's assumption of command , and later complained to Washington that it put " ... Officers and Men into such confusion that it rendered it impossible to keep that regularity so necessary when going into Action . " The British soon had them surrounded and outnumbered , and the Pennsylvania militia again panicked and fled . The 2nd Connecticut Continentals made a stand , firing between two and five rounds per man ; Sherman only gave the order to retreat when the Jägers were within 15 – 20 yards of his position . At some point , Cadwalader and Reed became separated from the militia , and Reed 's horse was shot out from under him . A body of Hessians charged at the two officers with bayonets , but Capt. McLane rode up with a few dragoons and ordered a charge that scattered the Hessians . McLane then took the two officers to safety .
The Pennsylvania militia fled in panic down Edge Hill , across Sandy Run , and toward the main American camp . Right behind them were men of the 2nd Connecticut , also in disorderly retreat . They were pursued to within yards of their encampment by the Queen 's Rangers and Jägers , who then fell back and took a position on Edge Hill , between Grey 's troops and Howe 's main column .
Morgan 's Rifle Corps. and Gist 's Maryland militia had taken position on Edge Hill , about a mile to the east of Grey 's troops , and higher up on the ridge . A small group of Americans moved down to attack Col. Twistleton 's Light Infantry of the Guards , but were quickly repulsed by the British . William Augustus West , Lord Cantelupe , who was stationed with the light infantry , noted that the 4th and 23rd Regiments engaged the Americans with 9 men killed and 19 wounded . British Maj. John André reported that one American was killed .
Meanwhile , the main body of Morgan 's and Gist 's troops engaged Howe 's main column in dense woods , where they fought " Indian style " , from tree to tree . The Maryland militia attacked Abercromby 's 1st Light Infantry Battalion with unusual vigor : British officers , who were used to encountering militia who would flee at the first sign of battle , would later express admiration at the skill of Morgan 's and Gist 's men . Morgan 's troops were not reinforced , and were forced to retreat back to the main camp after Cornwallis sent in the 33rd Regiment of Foot .
= = British withdrawal = =
On the morning of December 8 , British generals and engineers once again studied the American positions , looking for any advantage they could exploit in the American defenses . To the astonishment of both the British and the Americans , Howe decided to withdraw and return to Philadelphia . Despite being successful in two major skirmishes over the previous days , his maneuvering had not gotten as far around the American flank as he had hoped and his troops ' provisions were running low . Also , the nights were getting colder and the troops had left their tentage and gear in Philadelphia .
Mark Boatner says that Howe " decided that Washington 's defenses were too strong to warrant the risk of a general assault . At 2 : 00 pm , the British began their withdrawal , lighting numerous campfires — in a tactic similar to one used by Washington three days prior — to conceal their movements . An American reconnaissance party , led by Capt. McLane , discovered that Howe was marching back down Old York Road into Philadelphia and communicated this information back to Washington . Morgan 's troops harassed the enemy 's rear , in particular Grey 's column , which was hindered by the weight of the artillery that it was transporting . A contingent of Hessians formed to oppose them with their fieldpieces and Morgan 's troops retreated . The British arrived in Philadelphia later that day .
= = Casualties = =
No American official casualty return from December 5 to 8 is known to exist . Some information , however , can be pieced together from various sources . For December 5 , David Martin says that General Irvine 's force took about 40 casualties , while a Loyalist officer with the British Army wrote that Irvine was captured along with 23 of his men . For December 6 , Howard Peckham says that the Americans lost 30 killed , 40 wounded and 15 captured . The figure of 15 prisoners taken was confirmed by John André in his journal .
For December 7 , Colonel John Laurens stated that “ the loss of Morgan 's riflemen was 27 killed and wounded ” , while John Donaldson , an American cavalryman wrote that “ Morgan had 44 killed & wounded & among them was Major Morris a brave & gallant officer ” This reference was to Major Joseph Morris of the 1st New Jersey Regiment , so Donaldson 's figure was evidently for the whole force under Morgan 's command , while Laurens ' figure was for the Corps of Riflemen only . Benson Lossing confirms that “ twenty @-@ seven were killed and wounded in Morgan 's Corps ” , while Major Morris was badly wounded and the Maryland Militia lost “ 16 or 17 ” wounded . For December 8 , David Martin says that the Maryland Militia lost 20 killed or wounded and 15 prisoners . From these sources , the aggregate American loss from December 5 – 8 would appear to have been 16 killed or wounded and 24 captured on the 5th ; 70 killed or wounded and 15 captured on the 6th ; 44 killed or wounded on the 7th and 20 killed or wounded and 15 captured on the 8th . This gives 150 killed or wounded and 54 captured , for a total loss of 204 men .
Lord Cantelupe wrote in his diary that " the number of killed & wounded on our side amount to one hundred & twenty , one officer killed . Cantelupe 's figure agrees approximately with Howe 's official casualty return for “ the different skirmishes from 4th to 8th December ” , which gives 19 killed , 60 wounded and 33 missing . David Martin gives the total British loss , including deserters , as 350 , which would suggest that 238 men deserted .
= = Aftermath = =
Washington , frustrated at not being able to confront Howe in a more decisive action , wrote in his report to Henry Laurens , president of Congress , " I sincerely wish , that they had made an Attack ; the Issue in all probability , from the disposition of our Troops and the strong situation of our Camp , would have been fortunate and happy . At the same time I must add that reason , prudence , and every principle of policy , forbade us quitting our post to attack them . Nothing but Success would have justified the measure , and this could not be expected from their position . "
On December 11 , the Continental Army left White Marsh for Valley Forge . It took the soldiers eight days to make the 13 @-@ mile ( 21 km ) journey . The following April , Howe resigned his post and returned to Britain , and was replaced by Gen. Sir Henry Clinton . Following France 's entry into the war , the British evacuated Philadelphia overland the following spring , and while en route to New York City , they were attacked by Washington at the Battle of Monmouth .
Remains of the American redoubts were visible near Farmar Mill , as were vestiges of stone chimneys from the soldier 's makeshift huts , as late as 1860 . The battle is alluded to in Sally Wister 's Journal , and the author later views the remains of the nearby camp . Fort Washington State Park , which encompasses a portion of the area occupied by the American forces , was established in the early 1920s by Philadelphia 's Fairmount Park Commission and is today managed by the Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources . The park 's Fort Hill marks the spot where a temporary fort once stood at the western end of the American position . The Pennsylvania Militia ( under Gens . Armstrong , Cadwalader and Irvine ) held positions on the park 's Militia Hill . Nearby , Emlen House , Washington 's headquarters between November 2 and December 11 , remains standing despite destructive modernization in 1854 .
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= Privilege of peerage =
The privilege of peerage is the body of special privileges belonging to members of the British peerage . It is distinct from Parliamentary privilege , which applies only to those peers serving in the House of Lords and the members of the House of Commons , while Parliament is in session and forty days before and after a Parliamentary session .
The privileges have been lost and eroded over time . Only three survived into the 20th century : the right to be tried by other peers of the realm instead of juries of commoners , freedom from arrest in civil ( but not criminal ) cases , and access to the Sovereign to advise him or her on matters of state . The right to be tried by other peers was abolished in 1948 . Legal opinion considers the right of freedom from arrest as extremely limited in application , if at all . The remaining privilege is not exercised and was recommended for formal abolition in 1999 , but has never been formally revoked .
Peers also have several other rights not formally part of the privilege of peerage . For example , they are entitled to use coronets and supporters on their achievements of arms .
= = Extent = =
The privilege of peerage extends to all temporal peers and peeresses regardless of their position in relation to the House of Lords . The right to sit in the House is separate from the privilege , and is held by only some peers ( see History of reform of the House of Lords ) . Scottish peers from the Acts of Union 1707 and Irish peers from the Act of Union 1800 , therefore , have the privilege of peerage . From 1800 , Irish peers have had the right to stand for election to the United Kingdom House of Commons but they lose the privilege of peerage for the duration of their service in the lower House . Since 1999 , hereditary peers of England , Scotland , Great Britain , and the United Kingdom who are not members of the House of Lords may stand for election to the House of Commons . Their privilege of peerage is not explicitly lost by service in the lower House . Any peer issuing a disclaimer under the provisions of the Peerage Act 1963 loses all privileges of peerage . The privilege of peerage also extends to wives and widows of peers . A peeress by marriage loses the privilege upon marrying a commoner , but a peeress suo jure does not . Individuals who hold courtesy titles , however , do not have such privileges by virtue of those titles . Lords Spiritual ( the 26 Archbishops and Bishops who sit in the House of Lords ) do not have the privilege of peerage as , at least since 1621 , they have been Lords of Parliament , and not peers .
= = Trial by peers = =
Just as commoners have a right to trial by a jury of their equals ( other commoners ) , peers and peeresses formerly had a right to trial by other peers . The right of peers to trial by their own order was formalized during the 14th century . A statute passed in 1341 provided :
Whereas before this time the peers of the land have been arrested and imprisoned , and their temporalities , lands , and tenements , goods and cattels , asseized in the King 's hands , and some put to death without judgment of their peers : It is accorded and assented , that no peer of the land ... shall be brought in judgment to lose his temporalities , lands , tenements , goods and cattels , nor to be arrested , imprisoned , outlawed , exiled , nor forejudged , nor put to answer , nor be judged , but by award of the said peers in Parliament .
The privilege of trial by peers was still ill @-@ defined , and the statute did not cover peeresses . In 1442 , after an ecclesiastical court ( which included King Henry VI of England , Henry Beaufort and John Kemp ) found Eleanor , Duchess of Gloucester , guilty of witchcraft and banished her to the Isle of Man , a statute was enacted granting peeresses the right of trial by peers .
By the reign of Henry VII of England , there were two methods of trial by peers of the realm : trial in the House of Lords ( or , in proper terms , by the High Court of Parliament ) and trial in the Court of the Lord High Steward . The House of Lords tried the case if Parliament was in session ; otherwise , trial was by the Lord High Steward 's Court .
In the Lord High Steward 's Court , a group of Lords Triers , sitting under the chairmanship of the Lord High Steward , acted as judge and jury . By custom the number of Triers was not fewer than 23 , so that a majority was a minimum of 12 , but in fact the number ranged from 20 to 35 . The power to choose which peers served as Triers lay with the Crown and was sometimes subject to abuse , as only those peers who agreed with the monarch 's position would be summoned to the Court of the Lord High Steward , thereby favouring the desired verdict . This practice was ended by the Treason Act 1695 , passed during the reign of King William III . The Act required that all peers be summoned as Triers . All subsequent trials were held before the full House of Lords .
In the House of Lords , technically called the Court of the King ( or Queen ) in Parliament , the Lord High Steward was the President or Chairman of the Court , and the entire House determined both questions of fact and questions of law as well as the verdict . By convention , Bishops and Archbishops did not vote on the verdict , though they were expected to attend during the course of the trial . They sat until the conclusion of the deliberations , and withdrew from the chamber just prior to the final vote . At the end of the trial , peers voted on the question before them by standing and declaring their verdict by saying " guilty , upon my honour " or " not guilty , upon my honour " , starting with the most junior baron and proceeding in order of precedence ending with the Lord High Steward . For a guilty verdict , a majority of twelve was necessary . The entire House also determined the punishment to be imposed , which had to accord with the law . For capital crimes the punishment was death ; the last peer to be executed was Laurence Shirley , 4th Earl Ferrers , who was hanged for murder in 1760 .
From 1547 , if a peer or peeress was convicted of a crime , except treason or murder , he or she could claim " privilege of peerage " to escape punishment if it was their first offence . In all , the privilege was exercised five times , until it was formally abolished in 1841 when James Brudenell , 7th Earl of Cardigan , announced he would claim the privilege and avoid punishment if he was convicted of duelling . He was acquitted before the introduction of the bill .
The last trial in the House of Lords was that of Edward Southwell Russell , 26th Baron de Clifford , in 1935 for motor manslaughter ( he was acquitted ) ; the following year the Lords passed a bill to abolish trial by peers but the Commons ignored it . In 1948 , the right to trial by peers was abolished when the Lords added an amendment to the Criminal Justice Act , which the Commons accepted . Now , peers are tried by juries composed of commoners , though they were themselves excluded from jury service until the passage of the House of Lords Act 1999 .
Peers were , and still are hypothetically , subject to impeachment . Impeachment was a procedure distinct from the aforementioned procedure of trial in the House of Lords , though the House of Lords is the court in both cases . Charges were brought by the House of Commons , not a Grand Jury . Additionally , while in normal cases the House of Lords tried peers only for felonies or treason , in impeachments the charges could include felonies , treason and misdemeanours . The case directly came before the House of Lords , rather than being referred to it by a writ of certiorari . The Lord High Steward presided only if a peer was charged with high treason ; otherwise the Lord Chancellor presided . Other procedures in trials of impeachment were similar , however , to trials before the House of Lords : at the conclusion of the trial , the spiritual peers withdrew , and the temporal Lords gave their votes on their honour . The last impeachment was that of Henry Dundas , 1st Viscount Melville , in 1806 for misappropriating public money ( he was acquitted ) . Since then , impeachment has become an obsolete procedure in the United Kingdom .
The novel Clouds of Witness ( 1926 ) by Dorothy L. Sayers depicts in the House of Lords the fictional trial of a duke who is accused , and eventually acquitted , of murder . Sayers researched and used the then current trial procedures . Kind Hearts and Coronets ( 1949 ) comedy from Ealing Studios features an almost identical scene .
= = Freedom from arrest = =
The privilege of freedom from arrest applies to members of both Houses of Parliament , because of the principle that they must , whenever possible , be available to give advice to the Sovereign . Several other nations have copied this provision ; the Constitution of the United States , for example , provides , " The Senators and Representatives ... shall in all Cases , except Treason , Felony and Breach of the Peace , be privileged from Arrest during their Attendance at the Session of their respective Houses . " Theoretically , even when Parliament is not sitting , peers enjoy the privilege because they continue to serve the Sovereign as counsellors . However , peers are free from arrest in civil cases only ; arrests in criminal matters are not covered by the privilege . Until 1770 , a peer 's domestic servants were also covered by the privilege of freedom from arrest in civil matters .
Most often the privilege was applied in cases of imprisonment in debtors ' prisons . In 1870 , both imprisonment for debt and the privilege in relation to freedom from arrest for bankruptcy were abolished , and as a result the freedom became extremely limited in practical application . Now , civil proceedings involve arrests only when an individual disobeys a court order . Since 1945 , the privilege of freedom from arrest in civil cases has arisen in only two cases : Stourton v Stourton ( 1963 ) and Peden International Transport , Moss Bros , The Rowe Veterinary Group and Barclays Bank plc v Lord Mancroft ( 1989 ) . In the latter most recent case , the trial judge considered the privilege obsolete and inapplicable , and said in proceedings , " the privilege did not apply — indeed ... it is unthinkable in modern times that , in circumstances such as they are in this case , it should " .
= = Access to the Sovereign = =
The Sovereign is traditionally advised by various counsellors , including the peers of the realm . After the Norman conquest of England , peers were summoned to form the magnum concilium , or Great Council , which was one of the four councils belonging to the Sovereign . The other three were the Privy Council , Parliament ( which was called the commune concilium , or Common Council ) , and judges ( who are considered counsellors of the Sovereign on legal matters ) .
A council composed only of peers was often summoned by early English Kings . Such a council , having been in disuse for centuries , was revived in 1640 , when Charles I summoned all of the peers of the realm using writs issued under the Great Seal . Though such a council has not been summoned since then , and was considered obsolete at the time , each peer is commonly considered a counsellor of the Sovereign , and , according to Sir William Blackstone in 1765 , " it is usually looked upon to be the right of each particular peer of the realm , to demand an audience of the King , and to lay before him , with decency and respect , such matters as he shall judge of importance to the public weal . "
The privilege of access is no longer exercised , but it is possibly still retained by peers whether members of the House of Lords or not . In 1999 , the Joint Committee on Parliamentary Privilege recommended the formal abolition of any remaining privilege of peerage .
= = Scandalum magnatum = =
At one time , the honour of peers was especially protected by the law ; while defamation of a commoner was known as libel or slander , the defamation of a peer ( or of a Great Officer of State ) was called scandalum magnatum .
Eighteenth century jurist Sir William Blackstone opined :
" The honour of peers is so highly tendered by the law , that it is much more penal to spread false reports of them , and certain other great officers of the realm , than of other men ; scandal against them being called by the peculiar name of scandalum magnatum , and subject to peculiar punishments by divers ancient statutes . "
The Statute of Westminster of 1275 provided that " from henceforth none be so hardy to tell or publish any false News or Tales , whereby discord , or occasion of discord or slander may grow between the King and his People , or the Great Men of the Realm . " Scandalum magnatum was punishable under the aforesaid statute as well as under further laws passed during the reign of Richard II . Scandalum magnatum was both a tort and a criminal offence . The prohibition on scandalum magnatum was first enforced by the King 's Council . During the reign of Henry VII , the Star Chamber , a court formerly reserved for trial of serious offences such as rioting , assumed jurisdiction over scandalum magnatum , as well as libel and slander , cases . The court , which sat without a jury and in secret , was often used as a political weapon and a device of royal tyranny , leading to its abolition in 1641 ; its functions in respect of defamation cases passed to the common law courts . However , the number of cases had already dwindled as the laws of libel , slander and contempt of court developed in its place . In the reign of Charles II , scandalum magnatum came briefly back into fashion ; it was used by the future James II against Titus Oates , by Lord Gerard against his cousin Alexander Fitton , and by the Duke of Beaufort against John Arnold . By the end of the 18th century , however , scandalum magnatum was obsolete . The prohibition on it was finally repealed by the Statute Law Revision Act 1887 .
= = Privilege myths = =
Fanciful tales of peers with whimsical privileges circulate , such as that of the right to wear a hat in the presence of the Sovereign . The most persistent example of such a legend is that of the Kingsale hat . According to the fable , John de Courcy , Earl of Ulster , obtained from King John the privilege of remaining covered in the presence of the Sovereign . Though the tale is untrue — de Courcy was never made an earl and did not receive such a privilege — several authorities on the peerage have seen fit to repeat it . A 19th @-@ century edition of Burke 's Peerage suggests the origins of the privilege :
... the Earl of Ulster was treacherously seized while performing penance , unarmed and barefooted , in the churchyard of Downpatrick , on Good Friday , anno 1203 , and sent over to England , where the king condemned him to perpetual imprisonment in the Tower ... After de Courcy had been in confinement about a year , a dispute happening to arise between King John and Philip Augustus of France concerning the Duchy of Normandy , the decision of which being referred to single combat , King John , more hasty than advised , appointed the day , against which the King of France provided his champion ; but the King of England , less fortunate , could find no one of his subjects willing to take up the gauntlet , until his captive in the Tower , the stout Earl of Ulster , was prevailed upon to accept the challenge . But when everything was prepared for the contest , and the champions had entered the lists , in presence of the Kings of England , France and Spain , the opponent of the earl , seized with a sudden panic , put spurs to his horse , and fled the arena ; whereupon the victory was adjudged by acclamation to the champion of England . The French king being informed , however , of the earl 's powerful strength , and wishing to witness some exhibition of it , de Courcy , at the desire of King John , cleft a massive helmet in twain at a single blow .
To reward his singular performance , King John supposedly granted de Courcy the privilege of remaining covered in the presence of the Sovereign . The 1823 edition of Debrett 's Peerage gives an entirely fictitious account of how Almericus de Courcy , 23rd Baron Kingsale , asserted the privilege :
Being very handsome in his person , and of a tall stature , his lordship one day attended King William 's court , and being admitted into the presence @-@ chamber , asserted the privilege of being covered before his majesty , by walking to and fro with his hat on his head . The king observing him , sent one of his attendants to inquire the reason of his appearance before him with his head covered ; to whom he replied , he knew very well in whose presence he stood , and the reason why he wore his hat that day was , because he stood before the king of England . This answer being told the king , and his lordship approaching nearer the throne , was required by his majesty to explain himself , which he did to this effect : " May it please your majesty , my name is Courcy , and I am Lord of Kingsale in your kingdom of Ireland : the reason of my appearing covered in your majesty 's presence is , to assert the ancient privilege of my family , granted to sir John de Courcy , earl of Ulster , and his heirs , by John , king of England , for him and his successors for ever . " The king replied , he remembered he had such a nobleman , and believed the privilege he asserted to be his right , and giving him his hand to kiss , his lordship paid his obeisance , and remained covered .
Despite such inaccuracies , the tale has been frequently repeated . Individual privileges that did exist have fallen into disuse — for example the Lord of the Manor of Worksop ( which is not a peerage ) was extended the privilege and duty of attending the coronation of the British monarch until 1937 , but the right was not exercised at the Coronation of Queen Elizabeth II in 1953 .
= = Precedence = =
Peers are entitled to a special precedence because of their ranks . Wives and children of peers are also entitled to a special precedence because of their station .
The Sovereign may , as fount of honour , vary the precedence of the peers or of any other people . For example , Elizabeth II granted her husband , Prince Philip , Duke of Edinburgh , precedence immediately following her ; otherwise , he would have ranked along with the other dukes of the peerage of the United Kingdom .
= = = General precedence = = =
In England and Wales , the Sovereign ranks first , followed by the Royal Family . Then follow the Archbishops of Canterbury and York , the Great Officers of State and other important state functionaries such as the Prime Minister . Thereafter , dukes precede marquesses , who precede earls , who precede viscounts , who precede bishops , who precede barons and lords of Parliament .
Within the members of each rank of the peerage , peers of England precede peers of Scotland . English and Scottish peers together precede peers of Great Britain . All of the aforementioned precede peers of Ireland created before 1801 . Last come peers of Ireland created after 1801 and peers of the United Kingdom . Among peers of the same rank and Peerage , precedence is based on the creation of the title : those whose titles were created earlier precede those whose titles were created later . But in no case would a peer of a lower rank precede one of a higher rank . For example , the Duke of Fife , the last non @-@ royal to be created a duke , would come before the Marquess of Winchester , though the latter 's title was created earlier and is in a more senior peerage ( the peerage of England ) .
The place of a peer in the order for gentlemen is taken by his wife in the order for ladies , except that a Dowager peeress of a particular title precedes the present holder of the same title . Children of peers ( and suo jure peeresses ) also obtain a special precedence . The following algorithm may be used to determine their ranks :
Eldest sons of peers of rank X go after peers of rank X − 1
Younger sons of peers of rank X go after eldest sons of peers of rank X − 1
Wives have a precedence corresponding to those of their husbands
Daughters of peers of rank X go after wives of eldest sons of peers of rank X
Over time , however , various offices were inserted at different points in the order , thereby varying it .
Eldest sons of dukes rank after marquesses ; eldest sons of marquesses and then younger sons of dukes rank after earls ; eldest sons of earls and then younger sons of marquesses rank after viscounts . Eldest sons of viscounts , younger sons of earls , and then eldest sons of barons , in that order , follow barons , with the Treasurer of the Household , the Comptroller of the Household , the Vice @-@ Chamberlain of the Household and Secretaries of State being interpolated between them and the barons . Younger sons of viscounts , and then younger sons of barons , come after the aforesaid eldest sons of barons , with Knights of the Order of the Garter and Order of the Thistle , Privy Councillors and senior judges being intercalated between them and eldest sons of barons .
Children of the eldest son of a peer also obtain a special precedence . Generally , the eldest son of the eldest son of a peer comes immediately before his uncles , while the younger sons of the eldest son of a peer come after them . Therefore , eldest sons of eldest sons of dukes come before younger sons of dukes , and younger sons of eldest sons of dukes come after them , and so forth for all the ranks . Below the younger sons of barons are baronets , knights , circuit judges and companions of the various orders of Chivalry , followed by the eldest sons of younger sons of peers .
Wives of all of the aforementioned have precedence corresponding to their husbands ' , unless otherwise entitled to a higher precedence , for instance by virtue of holding a certain office . An individual 's daughter takes precedence after the wife of that individual 's eldest son and before the wives of that individual 's younger sons . Therefore , daughters of peers rank immediately after wives of eldest sons of peers ; daughters of eldest sons of peers rank immediately after wives of eldest sons of eldest sons of peers ; daughters of younger sons of peers rank after wives of eldest sons of younger sons of peers . Such a daughter keeps her precedence if marrying a commoner ( unless that marriage somehow confers a higher precedence ) , but rank as their husband if marrying a peer .
= = = Precedence within Parliament = = =
The order of precedence used to determine seating in the House of Lords chamber is governed by the House of Lords Precedence Act 1539 . Precedence as provided by the Act is similar to , but not the same as , the order outside Parliament . The Sovereign , however , does not have the authority to change the precedence assigned by the Act .
Lords Temporal assume precedence similar to precedence outside Parliament . One difference in the precedence of peers relates to the positions of the Great Officers of State and the officers of the Sovereign 's Household . Some Great Officers — the Lord Chancellor , the Lord High Treasurer , the Lord President of the Council and the Lord Privy Seal — provided they are peers , rank before all other peers except those who are of the Blood Royal ( no precedence is accorded if they are not peers ) . The positions of the other Great Officers — the Lord Great Chamberlain , the Lord High Constable , the Earl Marshal and the Lord High Admiral — and the officers of the Household — the Lord Steward and the Lord Chamberlain — are based on their respective ranks . Thus , if the Lord Steward were a duke , he would precede all dukes , if a marquess , he would precede all marquesses , and so on . If two such officers are of the same rank , the precedence of the offices ( reflected by the order in which they are mentioned above ) is taken into account : if the Lord Great Chamberlain and Earl Marshal were both marquesses , for example , then the Great Chamberlain would precede the Earl Marshal , as the former office precedes the latter .
In practice , however , the Act is obsolete , as the Lords do not actually sit according to strict precedence ; instead , peers sit with their political parties .
= = Coats of arms = =
Peers are generally entitled to use certain heraldic devices . Atop the arms , a peer may display a coronet . Dukes were the first individuals authorised to wear coronets . Marquesses acquired coronets in the 15th century , earls in the 16th and viscounts and barons in the 17th . Until the barons received coronets in 1661 , the coronets of earls , marquesses and dukes were engraved while those of viscounts were plain . After 1661 , however , viscomital coronets became engraved , while baronial coronets were plain . Coronets may not bear any precious or semi @-@ precious stones . Generally , only peers may use the coronets corresponding to their ranks . The Bishop of Durham , however , may use a duke 's coronet atop the arms as a reference to the historical temporal authority of the Prince @-@ Bishops of Durham .
Peers wear their coronets at coronations . Otherwise , coronets are seen only in heraldic representations , atop a peer 's arms . Coronets include a silver gilt chaplet and a base of ermine fur . The coronet varies with the rank of the peer . A member of the Royal Family uses a royal coronet instead of the coronet he or she would use as a peer or peeress .
Ducal coronets include eight strawberry leaves atop the chaplet , five of which are displayed in heraldic representations . Marquesses have coronets with four strawberry leaves alternating with four silver balls , of which three leaves and two balls are displayed . Coronets for earls have eight strawberry leaves alternating with eight silver balls ( called " pearls " even though they are not ) raised on spikes , of which five silver balls and four leaves are displayed . Coronets for viscounts have 16 silver balls , of which seven are displayed . Finally , baronial coronets have six silver balls , of which four are displayed . Peeresses use equivalent designs , but in the form of a circlet , which encircles the head , rather than a coronet , which rests atop the head .
Peers are entitled to the use of supporters in their achievements of arms . Hereditary supporters are normally limited to hereditary peers , certain members of the Royal Family , chiefs of Scottish Clans , Scottish feudal barons whose baronies predate 1587 . Non @-@ hereditary supporters are granted to life peers , Knights of the Garter , Knights of the Thistle , Knights and Dames Grand Cross of the Bath , Knights and Dames Grand Cross of St Michael and St George , Knights and Dames Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order , Knights and Dames Grand Cross of the British Empire , and knights banneret .
Peers , like most other armigers , may display helms atop their arms . Helms of peers are depicted in silver and facing the viewer 's left . The helm is garnished in gold and the closed visor has gold bars , normally numbering five . Along with the helm , peers use a mantling , one side of which is red and the other a representation of the heraldic fur ermine . The mantling of peers is emblazoned gules , doubled ermine . Peeresses and other female armigers do not bear helms or mantlings .
= = Robes = =
Since the early Middle Ages , robes have been worn as a sign of nobility . At first , these seem to have been bestowed on individuals by the monarch or feudal lord as a sign of special recognition ; but in the fifteenth century the use of robes became formalised with peers all wearing robes of the same design , though varied according to the rank of the wearer .
Two distinct forms of robe emerged , and these remain in current use : one is worn for parliamentary occasions ( such at the State Opening of Parliament ) , the other is generally worn only at coronations . ( Formerly , new peers were invested with their coronation robe by the monarch , but this Investiture ceremony has not taken place since 1621 . )
Coronets are worn with the Coronation robe ; the robes and coronets used at Elizabeth II 's coronation in 1953 cost about £ 1 @,@ 250 ( roughly £ 31 @,@ 500 in present @-@ day terms ) . ( Peers under the rank of an Earl , however , were allowed in 1953 to wear a cheaper " cap of estate " in place of a coronet , as were peeresses of the same rank , for whom a simpler robe was also permitted ( a one @-@ piece gown with wrap @-@ around fur cape , designed by Norman Hartnell ) .
= = = Parliament robes = = =
= = = = Lords Temporal = = = =
The Parliament robe of a peer is a full @-@ length garment of scarlet wool with a collar of white miniver fur . It is closed at the front with black silk satin ribbon ties ( except for a short slit at the neck down half the length of the robe ) but open from the shoulder on the right @-@ hand side . ( The opposite side is usually tied up with a ribbon to free the left arm ) . The back is cut long , as a train , but this is usually kept hooked up inside the garment . Miniver bars ( edged with gold oak @-@ leaf lace ) on the right @-@ hand side of the robe indicate the rank of the wearer : 4 for a duke , 3 ½ for a marquess , 3 for an earl , 2 ½ for a viscount , and 2 for a baron . These robes are worn by peers at their Introduction to the House of Lords as well as at the State Opening . They are also worn by Lords Commissioners when representing the Queen . They are directed to be worn ' when the peers attend as a body a church service or other ceremony ' ; however in the twentieth century they were only twice worn outside Parliament : at the Investitures of the Prince of Wales in 1911 and 1969 . The Parliament robe is only worn by Peers who are sworn members of the House of Lords , and the robe is the same for female peers as for males . ( Unlike the Coronation robe , there is no equivalent garment for the wives of peers to wear . )
= = = = Lords Spiritual = = = =
Bishops in the House of Lords have their own distinctive parliamentary robe , which is worn at the State Opening of Parliament . It is akin to the cappa clausa of Cambridge University : a full @-@ length scarlet cloak with a cape of plain white fur . This is worn over rochet & chimere , which is the normal day dress for Bishops in the House of Lords . As it is a parliament robe , it is not worn at coronations .
= = = Coronation robes = = =
= = = = Peers = = = =
For male peers , the Coronation robe is a cloak of crimson velvet extending to the feet , open in the front ( with white silk satin ribbon ties ) and trailing behind . Attached to the robe is a cape and collar of miniver ; the rank of the peer is indicated by rows of sealskin spots on the ermine cape : 4 for a duke , 3 ½ for a marquess , 3 for an earl , 2 ½ for a viscount and 2 for a baron . ( Royal dukes have six rows of spots , and additional rows on the collar and on the front edges of the garment . ) Peers are entitled to wear the coronation robe whether or not they are members of the House of Lords .
The robes are worn over court uniform and with collars of an order of chivalry if entitled .
= = = = Peeresses = = = =
Peeresses ( both female peers and the wives of male peers ) also wear a crimson robe at coronations , but it is of a different design : a crimson velvet kirtle , edged in miniver , is worn closely over a full evening dress ; the robe itself is attached at the shoulder , and takes the form of a long train of matching crimson velvet , edged with miniver . At the top of the train is a miniver cape ( the same width as the train ) which has rows of ermine indicating rank , as for their male counterparts . The length of the train also denotes the rank of the wearer : duchesses have two @-@ yard trains , marchionesses one and three quarters , countesses one and a half , viscountesses one and a quarter , and baronesses ( and female holders of lordships of Parliament ) one .
In the twentieth century , very precise details about the design of peers ' and peeresses ' robes ( and what is to be worn underneath them ) were published by the Earl Marshal in advance of each coronation .
= = = Headwear = = =
With the Parliament robe a black hat was customarily worn . The Wriothesley Garter Book provides a contemporary illustration of the 1523 State Opening of Parliament : the two dukes present are shown wearing coronets with their parliament robes , but the other Lords Temporal are all wearing black hats . The Lords Spiritual are wearing mitres with their distinctive robes . Mitres ceased to be worn after the Reformation , and the wearing of hats in Parliament ceased , for the most part , when wigs came into fashion . They survive today only as part of the dress of Lords Commissioners , when they are worn with the parliamentary robe : a bicorn hat for men ( of black beaver , edged with silk grosgrain ribbon ) and a tricorne @-@ like hat for women . ( The use of these hats at Introductions of peers to the House was discontinued in 1998 . )
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= HMS Hyperion ( H97 ) =
HMS Hyperion was an H @-@ class destroyer built for the Royal Navy during the mid @-@ 1930s . During the Spanish Civil War of 1936 – 1939 the ship enforced the arms blockade imposed by Britain and France on both sides as part of the Mediterranean Fleet . During the first few months of World War II , Hyperion searched for German commerce raiders in the Atlantic Ocean and blockaded German merchant ships in neutral harbours until she returned to the British Isles in early 1940 . The ship participated in the Norwegian Campaign before she was transferred back to the Mediterranean Fleet shortly afterwards . Hyperion participated in the Battle of Calabria and the Battle of Cape Spada in July 1940 while escorting the larger ships of the fleet . The ship covered several convoys to Malta before she struck a mine and had to be sunk in December 1940 .
= = Description = =
Hyperion displaced 1 @,@ 350 long tons ( 1 @,@ 370 t ) at standard load and 1 @,@ 883 long tons ( 1 @,@ 913 t ) at deep load . The ship had an overall length of 323 feet ( 98 @.@ 5 m ) , a beam of 33 feet ( 10 @.@ 1 m ) and a draught of 12 feet 5 inches ( 3 @.@ 8 m ) .
She was powered by Parsons geared steam turbines , driving two shafts , which developed a total of 34 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 25 @,@ 000 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 36 knots ( 67 km / h ; 41 mph ) . The other G- and H @-@ class destroyers were built with three Admiralty 3 @-@ drum water @-@ tube boilers , but as a trial Hyperion uniquely used a Johnson boiler in the aft position instead . This is an O @-@ type boiler with a single lower water drum and curved tubes , rather than the triangular arrangement with two drums used by the Admiralty . The first boiler design suffered from poor circulation and so external cold downcomers were added , making the reworked boiler 10 % heavier . The boiler was well @-@ regarded in service as it reduced the amount of potentially troublesome refractory firebrick usually used for the base of the furnace .
Hyperion carried a maximum of 470 long tons ( 480 t ) of fuel oil that gave her a range of 5 @,@ 530 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 240 km ; 6 @,@ 360 mi ) at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . The ship 's complement was 137 officers and men in peacetime , but this increased to 146 in wartime .
The ship mounted four 45 @-@ calibre 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch Mk IX guns in single mounts . For anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) defence , Hyperion had two quadruple Mark I mounts for the 0 @.@ 5 inch Vickers Mk III machine gun . She was fitted with two above @-@ water quadruple torpedo tube mounts for 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedoes . One depth charge rail and two throwers were fitted ; 20 depth charges were originally carried , but this increased to 35 shortly after the war began . The ship 's anti @-@ aircraft armament was increased when the rear set of torpedo tubes was replaced by a 12 @-@ pounder 12 cwt AA gun , although when exactly the modification was made is not known .
= = Career = =
Ordered on 13 December 1934 , Hyperion was laid down by Swan Hunter & Wigham Richardson at Wallsend @-@ on @-@ Tyne , England , on 27 March 1935 . She was launched on 8 April 1936 and completed on 3 December 1936 . Excluding government @-@ furnished equipment like the armament , the ship cost £ 251 @,@ 466 . She was assigned to the 2nd Destroyer Flotilla of the Mediterranean Fleet upon commissioning . Hyperion patrolled Spanish waters during the Spanish Civil War enforcing the policies of the Non @-@ Intervention Committee . The ship received an overhaul at Malta between 30 September and 30 October 1937 and resumed patrolling Spanish waters for the rest of the war . Hyperion was sent to Portsmouth for another refit in August 1939 that lasted from 16 to 27 August .
When World War II began on 3 September , the ship was en route to Freetown , Sierra Leone to search for German commerce raiders . Hyperion was transferred to the North America and West Indies Station in late October where he blockaded various German merchant ships in American and Mexican harbours . She intercepted the German ocean liner Columbus off Cape Hatteras on 19 December , but Columbus scuttled herself before she could be captured . Hyperion was transferred to the British Isles in mid @-@ January 1940 and began a refit at Portsmouth that lasted from 25 January to 6 March . The ship rejoined the 2nd Destroyer Flotilla of the Home Fleet at Scapa Flow .
On 5 April Hyperion escorted the battlecruiser Renown as she covered the minelayers preparing to implement Operation Wilfred , an operation to lay mines in the Vestfjord to prevent the transport of Swedish iron ore from Narvik to Germany . The ship and her sister Hero pretended to lay a minefield off Bud , Norway on 8 April and reported its location to the Norwegians . Hyperion escorted the aircraft carriers Glorious and Ark Royal from 21 April as their aircraft attacked German targets in Norway . She remained with Ark Royal when Glorious returned to Scapa Flow to refuel on 27 April . In early May the ship escorted the light cruiser Birmingham on an unsuccessful sweep of the North Sea looking for German ships .
Hyperion evacuated British personnel from the Hook of Holland from 8 to 12 May and was then ordered to reinforce the Mediterranean Fleet at Malta on 16 May . On 9 July she participated in the Battle of Calabria as an escort for the heavy ships of Force C and unsuccessfully engaged Italian destroyers and suffered no damage . During the Battle of Cape Spada on 19 July , the ship escorted Australian light cruiser HMAS Sydney and rescued some of the 525 survivors from the Italian cruiser Bartolomeo Colleoni together with the other escorting destroyers . Together with her sister Hereward and two other destroyers , she bombarded Italian positions around Sidi Barrani on 25 September . Hyperion escorted the carrier Illustrious during the Battle of Taranto on the night of 11 / 12 November . With Hereward , she sank the Italian submarine Naiade on 14 December 1940 near Bardia .
Hyperion struck a mine on 22 December 1940 off Pantelleria as she escorted the battleship HMS Malaya on passage from Alexandria to Gibraltar while covering a convoy to Malta . The destroyer Ilex attempted to tow Hyperion , but the tow cable broke twice and the destroyer Janus was ordered to sink her after Ilex took off the crew . Only two members of the crew were not rescued and were presumed killed in the explosion .
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= Jezdimir Dangić =
Jezdimir Dangić ( Serbian Cyrillic : Јездимир Дангић ; 4 May 1897 – 22 August 1947 ) was a Bosnian Serb Chetnik commander during World War II . Born in the town of Bratunac , he was imprisoned during World War I for his membership of the revolutionary movement Young Bosnia . He subsequently completed a law degree and became an officer in the gendarmerie of the Kingdom of Serbs , Croats and Slovenes at the beginning of 1928 . In 1940 he was appointed to lead the gendarmerie detachment stationed at the Yugoslav royal palace . With the Axis invasion of Yugoslavia in 1941 , Dangić commanded the gendarmerie unit that escorted King Peter II out of the country . In August of that year , General Draža Mihailović appointed him commander of the Chetnik forces in eastern Bosnia . Here , Dangić and his men launched several attacks against the forces of the Independent State of Croatia ( NDH ) . In August , Dangić 's Chetniks captured the town of Srebrenica . Afterwards , they became largely inactive in fighting the Germans , choosing instead to avoid confrontation . In December , Chetniks under Dangić 's command massacred hundreds of Bosnian Muslims in the town of Goražde . In December , his Chetniks captured five nuns and took them with them through Romanija to Goražde , where they later committed suicide to avoid being raped .
In January 1942 , Dangić ordered his forces to not resist German and NDH troops during the anti @-@ Partisan offensive known as Operation Southeast Croatia . Afterwards , he was invited to Belgrade to negotiate the terms of proposed Chetnik collaboration with the Germans with Milan Nedić and General der Artillerie ( lieutenant general ) Paul Bader . Although a deal was struck , it was vetoed by the Wehrmacht Commander in Southeast Europe , General der Pioniere ( lieutenant general ) Walter Kuntze , who remained suspicious of Dangić . Despite this , Dangić 's Chetniks collaborated with German forces in eastern Bosnia over a period of several months beginning in December 1941 . In April , Dangić was arrested when he travelled to Serbia despite promising to operate only within the territory of Bosnia , and was sent to a prisoner @-@ of @-@ war camp in German @-@ occupied Poland . In 1943 , he escaped from the camp and the following year participated in the Warsaw Uprising . In 1945 , he was captured by the Red Army and was extradited to Yugoslavia , where he stood accused of committing war crimes . In 1947 , he was tried , convicted , sentenced to death and executed by Yugoslavia 's new Communist authorities .
= = Early life and interwar period = =
Jezdimir Dangić was born in the town of Bratunac on 4 May 1897 , as one of ten children . His father Savo was a Serbian Orthodox priest and his mother was a housewife . Dangić attended high school in Tuzla and became a communist sympathizer . He was also one of the youngest members of the revolutionary organisation known as Young Bosnia ( Serbo @-@ Croatian : Mlada Bosna , Млада Босна ) . Following Gavrilo Princip 's assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria on 28 June 1914 , Dangić was arrested by the Austro @-@ Hungarian police because of his membership . He was tried in Bihać alongside thirty @-@ two others in September 1915 and imprisoned for 2 ½ years for participating in revolutionary activities . Dangić 's parents were also arrested . His father was charged with treason and sentenced to death , but his sentence was later reduced to 3 ½ years ' imprisonment . Dangić 's mother was never tried , as she suffered a mental breakdown from spending several months in solitary confinement and her trial was postponed indefinitely .
Dangić was released from prison at the end of World War I , in November 1918 . The following year , he and Božo Ilić organized a series of communist demonstrations in Belgrade , for which they were arrested and imprisoned . Following his release from prison , Dangić became a member of the League of Farmers , a party which protected the interests of Bosnian Serb peasantry and which was the precursor to the Chetnik movement in Bosnia and Herzegovina during World War II . He also obtained a law degree and spent some time as a district officer in Belgrade , Subotica , Kratovo and Vlasenica . By 1928 , he had achieved the rank of cavalry sub @-@ lieutenant . He joined the gendarmerie on 3 January 1928 , and worked his way up to the rank of major . Over his career , Dangić served in Skopje , Tuzla , Virovitica , and Zagreb . In 1940 , he was appointed to lead the gendarmerie detachment stationed at the Yugoslav royal palace . He was married and had two daughters born in 1931 and 1937 .
Between 1937 and 1941 , Dangić published ten articles in the newspaper Politika . He published his first novel in 1938 , titled Our Imprisonment ( Naše tamnovanje ) . The book was praised by academics such as Vladimir Ćorović , and Dangić received a literary award from the Serbian Royal Academy . In 1940 , he published a novel called Hunger and the Dungeon ( Glad i tamnica ) , for which he received another accolade from the Serbian Royal Academy . Bogoljub Srebrić and poet Milan Ćurčin praised the book as " an excellent depiction of prison life " .
= = World War II = =
= = = Invasion and occupation of Yugoslavia = = =
On 6 April 1941 , Axis forces invaded Yugoslavia . Poorly equipped and poorly trained , the Royal Yugoslav Army was quickly defeated . At this time , Dangić was assigned to command the gendarmerie unit that escorted King Peter II to Nikšić Airport as he left the country .
After the invasion , Yugoslavia was dismembered , with Serbia being reduced to its pre @-@ 1912 borders and placed under a government of German military occupation . Milan Nedić , a pre @-@ war politician who was known to have pro @-@ Axis leanings , was then selected by the Germans to lead the collaborationist Government of National Salvation in the Territory of the Military Commander in Serbia . Meanwhile , the extreme Croat nationalist and fascist Ante Pavelić , who had been in exile in Benito Mussolini 's Italy , was appointed Poglavnik ( leader ) of an Ustaše @-@ led Croatian state – the Independent State of Croatia ( often called the NDH , from the Croatian : Nezavisna Država Hrvatska ) . The NDH combined almost all of modern @-@ day Croatia , all of modern @-@ day Bosnia and Herzegovina and parts of modern @-@ day Serbia into an " Italian @-@ German quasi @-@ protectorate . " NDH authorities , led by the Ustaše militia , subsequently implemented genocidal policies against the Serb , Jewish and Romani population living within the borders of the new state . As a result , two resistance movements emerged – the royalist and Serb Chetniks , led by Colonel Draža Mihailović , and the multi @-@ ethnic , Communist Yugoslav Partisans , led by Josip Broz Tito .
= = = Command in east Bosnia = = =
= = = = Background = = = =
At the time of the Yugoslav surrender , Dangić was in Belgrade . He obeyed the summons of Milan Aćimović , head of the first Serbian puppet government , to serve in the gendarmerie of the Serbian quisling state and did so until mid @-@ August . When news reached him of the Ustaše massacres of Serbs in Bosnia , he sought permission to travel there and escort his family and relatives to safety . In the summer his request was approved , and he travelled via Mihailović 's headquarters at Ravna Gora . Early on , Mihailović designated Dangić as one of three men who were to succeed him as leaders of the Chetnik movement should anything happen to him . Within the first months of their occupation of Yugoslavia , the Germans had threatened to murder 100 Serb civilians for every German soldier killed and 50 for every German soldier wounded . As a result , Mihailović increasingly sought to avoid attacks that would bring German reprisals against the Serb population . Despite this , more than 25 @,@ 000 Serbs were killed in German reprisal killings by October 1941 . However , as early as that August , Mihailović had urged the Chetniks to " avoid clashes with the Germans for as long as possible . " Dangić likewise sought to avoid conflict with the Germans and began to pursue a policy of " self @-@ defence against the Ustaše and revenge against the Croats and Muslims . " In August 1941 , Dangić was sent by Mihailović to eastern Bosnia to take command of the Chetnik detachments in the region and bring them under Mihailović 's control , and he collected a group of Bosnian Serbs and crossed the Drina into the NDH . Dangić was accompanied by Major Boško Todorović who had been appointed by Mihailović as his commander for east Bosnia and Herzegovina . Dangić himself was appointed as the commander of the Mountain Staff of the Bosnian Chetnik Detachments , and had direct responsibility for east Bosnia , including the senior local Chetnik commanders , Aćim Babić and Rade Kosorić . According to the historian Dr. Marko Attila Hoare , Dangić may have had more influence on Chetnik decision @-@ making , despite his formal subordination to Todorović . Todorović was responsible for negotiating with the Italians and Dangić with the Germans . At the time Dangić arrived in east Bosnia , some Chetnik detachments were still co @-@ operating with the Partisans in the region . At the beginning of the uprising in east Bosnia , the 20 @-@ strong Han Pijesak @-@ based Chetnik detachment of Babić had accepted the command of the much larger Partisan Romanija company , but he became more independent as events unfolded and his own force grew . In early August , Babić refused to participate in a joint attack on Vlasenica with the Birač Partisan detachment due to the presence of " Turks " ( derogatory term for Bosnian Muslims ) in the Partisan force , and consequently the town was captured by the Partisans without Babić 's assistance on 11 August . Babić then moved his headquarters to Vlasenica and established a town administration that was completely independent of the Partisans . By this time Babić was the most powerful local Chetnik leader in the region , and had become the self @-@ styled " vojvoda ( warlord ) of the Bosnian Uprising " .
= = = = Initial activities and liaison with the Partisans = = = =
Dangić arrived in east Bosnia on 16 August . In the beginning , his operations were directed primarily against the Ustaše and the Bosnian Muslim population of the area , where Dangić exercised considerable influence over the Serb population . On 18 August , a 400 @-@ strong Chetnik force led by Dangić captured the town of Srebrenica . The Chetniks confiscated all weapons that were in the hands of the local inhabitants and began recruiting local Serbs to join the Chetniks . On 1 September , Babić signed an agreement with the Partisan Sarajevo Oblast ( district ) Staff led by Slobodan Princip @-@ Seljo and Boriša Kovačević to form a joint command . At the time , the Oblast Staff considered Babić 's troops were " semi @-@ bandit " , and that they had undermined the position of the Partisans with local Muslims . Princip @-@ Seljo and Kovačević had also intercepted one of Babić 's couriers carrying a message to the Germans . In the message Babić offered to work with the Germans and assured them he was only interested in fighting the Ustaše . By early September , Dangić had established himself as the leader of the Chetnik groups in eastern Bosnia , including those led by Babić and Kosorić . On 5 September , in response to a failed joint Partisan @-@ Chetnik attack on Kladanj , he burnt a number of Muslim homes , and his Chetniks engaged in the robbing and beating of Muslim civilians . At this point , occasional killings of Muslims occurred , although Hoare describes this behaviour as being " not yet genocidal . " That month , under the direct orders of Dangić , Chetniks burnt and looted the Muslim village of Novo Selo , killing Muslims and carrying out other crimes in the process . At the end of September , the Abwehr ( German military intelligence ) reported that Dangić was supported by and was in contact with the Nedić administration . It also reported that " [ Dangić ] has had good relations with the Germans and does everything in order to avoid collision between his troops and the Germans . "
On 1 October 1941 , Dangić and two other east Bosnian Chetnik commanders , Pero Đukanović and Sergije Mihailović , met with the Partisan General Staff for Bosnia @-@ Hercegovina at the village of Drinjača south of Zvornik . The Partisans were Svetozar Vukmanović ( known as " Tempo " ) , Rodoljub Čolaković and Princip @-@ Seljo . The meeting agreed on the creation of a joint Chetnik @-@ Partisan Staff , the " Command of the Bosnian Military and Partisan Detachments " , to consist of six members , three Chetniks and three Partisans . The meeting also agreed that joint Chetnik @-@ Partisan administration would be imposed on liberated areas , using the Partisan model of people 's liberation committees . The resulting declaration was a compromise , and called on the patriotism of both Serbs and Bosnians , although Dangić opposed the inclusion of any call for the unity of Muslims or Croats with the Serbs of Bosnia @-@ Herzegovina , as he stated that all Muslims were responsible for the Ustaše crimes against Serbs . According to Hoare , the Drinjača agreement represented the pinnacle of co @-@ operation between Partisans and Chetniks in east Bosnia , but effectively sidelined the Provincial Committee . On 6 October , a further meeting was held at Milići near Vlasenica , and the composition of the joint staff was decided . Dangić , Babić and Sergije Mihailović became the Chetnik representatives , and Vukmanović , Čolaković and Princip @-@ Seljo represented the Partisans , with Sergije Mihailović appointed as chief of staff . After the war , the Drinjača agreement was the subject of much heated debate between Vukmanović and Čolaković , with Vukmanović blaming Čolaković for the negative medium @-@ term consequences of the agreement for the Partisan movement in east Bosnia . According to Vukmanović , these consequences included the virtual disappearance of an independent Partisan General Staff for Bosnia @-@ Herzegovina , the domination of the joint staff by Sergije Mihailović , including his appointment of officers hostile to the Partisans as commanders of Partisan units , the diversion of weapons from the Partisan controlled arms factory at Užice to Chetnik troops , and the alienation of the Muslim and Croat population of the region . When Vukmanović raised his concerns with Tito , the Bosnian Communists were forced to insist that the joint staff could have no contact with Chetnik units except during operations against Axis forces , and no joint Chetnik @-@ Partisan operations would be permitted in Muslim areas .
Relations between the Partisans and Chetniks were placed under pressure by the continued targeting of Muslims by Chetnik units . Over the period of 13 – 23 October 1941 , a joint Chetnik @-@ Partisan operation captured the town of Rogatica . During and after its capture , Chetnik elements of the force burned and looted Muslim homes , and Partisan units refused to obey orders to stop the Chetniks , stating they would not defend the " Turks " .
During this time , Dangić and his men cooperated with the Partisans in accordance with Chetnik policy at the time . Chetnik – Partisan cooperation in areas under Dangić 's command continued to some extent even after the two groups began clashing . Dangić is said to have held a " fierce hatred " of Muslims , allegedly saying that he wished to " kill them all " , and that he had an " absolute willingness " to collaborate with the Germans . That fall in the village of Zaklopača , about 8 kilometres ( 5 @.@ 0 mi ) east of Vlasenica , they barricaded a group of Muslims in a local mekteb ( Muslim religious school ) which was then set alight , killing eighty @-@ one people . Chetnik persecution of Muslims worsened after the break with the Partisans . The largest Chetnik massacres took place in eastern Bosnia and preceded any significant genocidal campaigns by the Ustaše , which began in the spring of 1942 . According to Hoare , the massacres were " above all an expression of the genocidal policy and ideology of the Chetnik movement " .
Although his original objective was solely to protect the Serb population against the Ustaše , Dangić quickly became an important factor in the conflict between the two groups in eastern Bosnia . The Germans sought to win Dangić over to collaboration in order to strengthen anti @-@ Partisan operations in the region , where Dangić 's Chetniks reportedly numbered about 10 @,@ 000 men , but at this time neither Dangić nor any of Mihailović 's other commanders had any arrangement with the Germans .
On 9 November 1941 , Mihailović ordered Dangić to attack Partisan forces in the Serbian town of Užice and to retain only his " most necessary units " in Bosnia . His order claimed that the Partisans were led by the Ustaše and were pursuing a " fratricidal war " amongst Serbs to " prevent the Chetniks from taking their revenge against the Croats . " However , Dangić failed to carry out the attack , likely because he considered the strengthening of Chetniks in eastern Bosnia a greater priority and because Partisans in Užice had previously provided Chetniks in Srebrenica with arms and munitions from the local weapons factory . The factory later blew up on 21 November and the Partisans withdrew from Užice on 29 November after being forced out by the German 113th , 342nd , and 717th Infantry Divisions .
= = = = Vlasenica conference = = = =
The break between the forces of Mihailović and Tito in the Territory of the Military Commander in Serbia reached eastern Bosnia in early November . In response , a joint Partisan @-@ Chetnik conference was held in Vlasenica on 16 November . It was convened by Čolaković and Vukmanović without consulting the Partisan Provincial Committee for Bosnia @-@ Herzegovina . Serbian Partisans were situated at Ljubovija at the time , ready to launch an offensive across the Drina against Dangić 's forces in Bratunac and Srebrenica , but held off at Čolaković 's request . At the conference , Čolaković tried to maintain the alliance , but Vukmanović raised Mihailović 's attack on Tito 's headquarters at Užice and the Chetnik 's failure to fight Axis forces . Dangić questioned Vukmanović 's Montenegrin background and told him to return to Montenegro . The Partisan representatives sought a policy of brotherhood and unity among Serbs , Muslims , and Croats , whereas Dangić stated that his Chetniks were fighting a purely Serbian war for the Serbian people . Dangić 's envoys told them they intended " to slit the throats of the Turks , except for any pretty Turkish ladies " and " screw down the Croats so hard that they wouldn 't dare for a thousand years to look at a Serb askance . " At this conference the two sides failed to come to an agreement . The next day a separate Chetnik conference was held where a 14 @-@ article resolution was adopted in support of Dangić 's views . Meanwhile , the Partisan General Staff of Bosnia and Herzegovina appealed to the Chetnik rank and file that Partisan @-@ Chetnik cooperation was broken due to the Chetnik importation of Royal Yugoslav Army officers from Serbia to Bosnia and due to Dangić wanting " to turn our People 's Liberation Struggle into a war of Serbs against Muslims " as opposed to the Partisan belief " that the peaceful toiling Muslim people is not to blame for the crimes that the Ustaše have committed , and that the People 's Liberation Army must protect them from persecution and killing . " The Staff charged that Dangić wished for " Serbs to gather for a war of revenge " instead of the Partisans ' " summon to our flag all honorable people , Serbs , Muslims , and Croats . " They claimed that Dangić attempted to collaborate with the Germans and Italians .
= = = = Capture of Goražde and atrocities = = = =
Sources vary to some extent in respect of the Chetnik massacre of Muslims in the town of Goražde . According to Hoare , on 29 November 1941 , the Italians handed Goražde over to the Chetniks , who immediately massacred Croatian Home Guard prisoners and NDH officials . This expanded into the systematic killing of the Muslim civilian population . Their corpses were left hanging in the town or were tossed into the Drina . Several hundred civilians were killed in Goražde at this time . Todorović had reached an agreement with Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Castagnieri , commander of the Italian garrison in Goražde , regarding Italian evacuation and hand over of Goražde to the Chetniks . According to Tomislav Dulić , the town was occupied by Dangić and his Chetniks on 1 December . Upon arrival , Dangić gave a speech to a group of Serbs , Croats and Bosnian Muslims which contained references to Greater Serbia and ended with Dangić proclaiming that Serbs and Bosnian Muslims could no longer live together . Following the speech , Chetnik bands spread through the town and began killing , raping , pillaging and torching homes . A significant number of victims were killed on a bridge over the Drina , after which their bodies were dropped into the river . Chetnik forces in Bosnia , including those of Dangić , then set about pursuing an anti @-@ Muslim campaign to recompense for the persecution experienced by ethnic Serbs in the NDH . On 11 December , Dangić 's Chetniks entered Pale and looted and burnt down the local convent . They captured five nuns ( two Croats , two Slovenes , and one Austrian ) and took them with them through Romanija to Goražde , where on 15 December they committed suicide to avoid being raped .
= = = = Operation Southeast Croatia = = = =
In December 1941 and January 1942 , Chetniks under Dangić 's command co @-@ operated with the Germans in eastern Bosnia . Between December 1941 and April 1942 , Dangić engaged in direct negotiations with the Germans . During the latter half of December he met with Abwehr representatives numerous times in an effort to reach an agreement with them . In January 1942 , Dangić and other Chetnik leaders met with Renzo Dalmazzo , the commander of the Italian 6th Army Corps . By this time , Dangić 's cooperation with the Germans came to be seen as being even more valuable because of the arrival of Tito and his First Proletarian Brigade to eastern Bosnia . The Germans and Croats launched Operation Southeast Croatia on 17 January . Dangić and Todorović advised other Chetnik commanders that the operation was targeted at the Partisans , and there was no need for the Chetniks to get involved . Following this , their units withdrew from their positions on the front line , let the Germans pass through their areas , or went home . Many withdrew across the Drina river into the Territory of the Military Commander in Serbia to avoid being engaged . On 22 January , Dangić ordered his own troops to permit the Germans to pass through Bosnia , saying " they are advancing peacefully and minding their own business without disturbing our unfortunate and long @-@ suffering people . " He urged Chetniks and Serbs to annihilate the Ustaše , Croats and Communists . Within a few days , the Germans and Croats succeeded in pushing the Partisans out of eastern Bosnia and southward into the Italian @-@ occupied zone of the NDH . The Chetnik actions in response to Operation Southeast Croatia severely weakened Partisan defences with the result that they suffered significant casualties and lost a great deal of territory . The result was the severing of any remaining cooperative links that remained between the Chetniks and Partisans in eastern Bosnia . In the same month Dangić 's staff declared that the Partisans " are led by the Kike Moša Pijade , the Turk Safet Mujić , the Magyar Franjo Vajnert , and that so @-@ and @-@ so Petar Ilić whose real name nobody knows [ emphasis in the original ] " and announced the shared goal of the Partisans and Ustaše was " to break up and destroy Serbdom . That , and that alone ! [ emphasis in the original ] " . In February , Dangić and other former Royal Yugoslav Army officers re @-@ entered eastern Bosnia from the Territory of the Military Commander in Serbia , where some of them had withdrawn to avoid Operation Southeast Croatia . They started to re @-@ form Chetnik units in eastern Bosnia and began agitating against the Partisans on a " conservative , Serb @-@ nationalist and anti @-@ Muslim basis . "
= = = = Meeting in Belgrade = = = =
In order to enlist further Chetnik aid and to intensify the Chetnik – Partisan split , Dangić was invited to Belgrade in late January by Nedić and General der Artillerie ( lieutenant general ) Paul Bader . There , meetings were held from 30 January to 2 February 1942 . Present were Bader , Professor Josif Matl , and Colonel Erich Kewisch for the Germans , Dangić and Pero Đukanović for the Chetniks , and Nedić and Aćimović for the Serbian puppet government . Eventually , the involved parties reached an agreement . The terms of the agreement stipulated that :
Dangić and his detachments bordered by the Drina , Sava and Bosna rivers in the east and the Italian – German Demarcation Line to the south were to place themselves immediately under the command of Generalleutnant Johann Fortner , commander of the 718th Infantry Division and holder of executive power in the area .
Dangić 's Chetniks were to remain aligned with the Germans , even in the event of a general uprising .
The town of Zvornik was to be Dangić 's assigned seat of command .
Dangić 's Chetniks were to help pacify northern Bosnia by ensuring that each Serb , Croat and Muslim there was to live in peace .
Murder was to be punishable by death .
The presence of NDH authorities was to be maintained .
Dangić was to spread news of the agreement , fight the Yugoslav Partisans , and protect German industrial and mining enterprises in eastern Bosnia according to Fortner 's instructions .
Ammunition for Dangić 's Chetniks was to be provided by Bader .
All prisoners held by Dangić 's forces were to be released .
The parties all agreed that seventeen districts in east Bosnia would have its military control shifted from NDH control to Chetnik control with the German military in Serbia attaining authority over it and having the ability to supply certain Chetnik forces no longer considered illegal by the Germans . The Germans demanded the area remain formally a part of the NDH though Bader implied " East Bosnia from the Serbian frontier to the River Bosna together with Sarajevo will be incorporated into occupied Serbia . " Dangić accepted it as formally being a part of the NDH , but informed the Chetniks in east Bosnia that occupied Serbia would include " the following districts from the territory of Bosnia : Sarajevo , Višegrad , Rogatica , Srebrenica , Visoko , Vlasenica , Zvornik , Kladanj , Fojnica , Travnik , Brčko , Foča , Doboj , Bijeljina , Tuzla , Zenica , and Čajniče . " Đukanović understood the agreement as meaning Serbian annexation of the districts . However , despite the concurrence of the parties , the agreement was not signed because negotiations had not been cleared in advance by General der Pioniere Walter Kuntze , the Wehrmacht Commander in Southeast Europe . Kuntze believed and informed Bader that " Major Dangić is a Serb and will remain one . He has only made the offer in order to use East Bosnia as his troop training ground , to overcome the winter months , and to make preparations to gain East Bosnia for Serbia . " Thus , he vetoed the conclusion of the agreement on 12 February . The agreement was also opposed by representatives of the NDH and the German Foreign Ministry . Siegfried Kasche , German envoy in Zagreb , Joachim von Ribbentrop , German foreign minister , and General Edmund Glaise @-@ Horstenau , opposed the agreement with Kasche arguing it would harm the NDH 's position , expand the suffering of Muslims in east Bosnia who outnumbered the Serbs , and damage German – Muslim world relations . This opposition led Bader to change his mind and not sign it .
Despite this , Dangić 's Chetniks collaborated with German forces in eastern Bosnia over a period of several weeks and with the understanding that Dangić and his forces would operate only inside Bosnia . Bader reported following the talks that " Dangić on this occasion declared that he and his men would , even in the conditions of a general uprising in the Balkans and the arrival of the English , fight loyally and without wavering on the German side . He declared on this occasion his belief that only German victory could guarantee Serbia the position due to it in the Balkans , while the victory of Bolshevism would mean the destruction of every nation , thus also including the Serb nation . " The plan of a Greater Serbia protected by the Germans continued to be pursued by Nedić and Dangić .
The Ustaše authorities were concerned about negotiations between the German and Italian commanders and Dangić , and were particularly worried that the Germans would permit the Italians and Chetniks to use Sarajevo as a base . In March , NDH gendarmerie in Tuzla reported " Nedić 's Chetniks are distributing weapons and ammunition from the quota they receive from the Germans for the struggle against the Communists . They are constantly sent from Serbia into Bosnia and are claiming that they will conquer the latter . " On 31 March , Jure Francetić , commander of the Black Legion , an Ustaše militia infantry unit consisting largely of Muslim and Croat refugees that fled from eastern Bosnia , launched a pre @-@ emptive offensive primarily against Dangić 's Chetniks . Francetić captured Vlasenica , Bratunac and Srebrenica , meeting limited resistance from the Partisans , and then scattered the more numerous Chetniks while inflicting significant losses and committing atrocities against segments of the Bosnian Serb population . In mid @-@ 1942 , Đoka Đorđević , senior Serbian Interior Ministry official , asked Đukanović during a visit to Nedić : " Do you really still have Turks in Bosnia ? They must all be expelled and cleansed , so that we can enter Bosnia and establish our government . "
In early April , Dangić made the mistake of travelling to Serbia , where he met one of Nedić 's representatives and various other Chetnik leaders , and attended a public rally in Valjevo . Shortly afterwards , Kuntze ordered Dangić 's arrest . Dangić was then seized and taken to a prisoner @-@ of @-@ war camp in German @-@ occupied Poland , being replaced by Stevan Botić as the Chetnik commander in eastern Bosnia . Dangić escaped from prison in 1943 . The following year he participated in the Warsaw Uprising , an anti @-@ German rebellion which resulted in the deaths of 18 @,@ 000 members of the Polish Home Army and over 200 @,@ 000 Polish civilians .
= = Death = =
In 1945 , after the Soviets drove the Germans out of Poland , Dangić was captured by the Red Army and extradited to Yugoslavia 's new Communist authorities . Accused of committing war crimes , he was immediately arrested and charged . Dangić was then tried , found guilty by a court in Sarajevo and sentenced to death . He was executed by firing squad on 22 August 1947 . According to the indictment against Mihailović and others , Dangić was awarded the Order of the Star of Karađorđe by the Yugoslav government @-@ in @-@ exile on the recommendation of Mihailović .
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= United Nations Memorial Cemetery =
The United Nations Memorial Cemetery ( UNMCK ; Hangul : 재한유엔기념공원 ; RR : jae hahn UN ki nyum gong won ) , located at Tanggok in the Nam District , City of Busan , Republic of Korea , is a burial ground for United Nations Command ( UNC ) casualties of the Korean War . It contains 2 @,@ 300 graves and is the only United Nations cemetery in the world . Laid out over 14 hectares ( 35 acres ) , the graves are set out in 22 sites designated by the nationalities of the buried servicemembers .
= = History = =
= = = Temporary battlefield cemeteries and remains recovery = = =
The Korean War began when North Korean People 's Army forces attacked south in June 1950 . As the fighting progressed , temporary military cemeteries for battle casualties were established by United Nations forces near the towns of Taejon ( July 9 , 1950 ) , Kwan @-@ ui ( Kwan @-@ ni ) , Kum @-@ chon , and Sindong . When the North Korean forces pushed towards Pusan , these cemeteries had to be abandoned . Later , as the Battle of Pusan Perimeter developed , temporary cemeteries were established at Masan , Miryang , and Taegu , with a Pusan cemetery being established on July 11 , 1950 . As the fighting pushed into North Korea , temporary cemeteries were established in or near the towns of Kaesong , Sukehon , Wonsan , Pupchong ( Pukchong County ) , Yudarn @-@ ni and Koto @-@ ri . Some 11 division @-@ level cemeteries were established in the first two months of fighting and later 5 UN military cemeteries were established in North Korea .
At the beginning of the war , the nearest U.S. Army mortuary affairs unit was the 108th Graves Registration Platoon in Yokohama , Japan , which was searching for the remains of missing World War II American airmen . The 108th was reconfigured as the 114th Graves Registration Company and deployed to establish temporary cemeteries at Hungnam , Pyongyang , and Suchon as the fighting continued . Supporting the 2nd Infantry Division was the Graves Registration Section of the 2nd Quartermaster Company , which collected the remains of Allied and American soldiers to be further processed by the 148th Graves Registration Company . When UN forces launched the Inchon Invasion in September 1950 , a platoon from the 565th Graves Registration Company accompanied them . Other mortuary affairs units included the 293rd Graves Registration Company , activated in April 1951 . It was difficult to recover remains and conduct burials in Korea , due to the rugged geography and harsh climate , and the threat of unexploded ordnance and booby @-@ traps .
= = = Construction of the Tanggok cemetery = = =
Construction of the United Nations Military Cemetery ( UNMC ) at Tanggok began on January 18 , 1951 and was carried out by hand @-@ labor over a 28 @.@ 2 hectares ( 70 acres ) site . It was dedicated by General Matthew Ridgeway on April 6 , 1951 . Graves Registration units then concentrated American and allied remains at Tanggok before they were permanently buried or repatriated . Besides burial services , refrigeration units to store remains were added , as were cremation facilities . Today the 2 @,@ 300 graves in the cemetery are set out in 22 sites designated by the nationalities of the buried service members .
= = = Post @-@ armistice = = =
Following the signing of the Korean Armistice Agreement in July 1953 , the United Nations Command sought to recover bodies interred in North Korean territory . Cemeteries for POWs in North Korea were established at 16 POW camps . From September to October 1954 , the resulting exchange of casualties , dubbed Operation Glory , between United Nations forces and the North Koreans resulted in 4 @,@ 219 remains being recovered , of which 1 @,@ 275 were non @-@ US casualties . ( Also exchanged were the remains of approximately 14 @,@ 000 North Korean and Chinese casualties . ) From 1950 to 1954 , approximately 11 @,@ 000 casualties were interred at UNMC , which was maintained by the United States Army Graves Registration Agency .
= = = Foundation as a United Nations cemetery and transfer to CUNMCK = = =
It was officially established as the United Nations Memorial Cemetery on December 15 , 1955 with the passage of UN General Assembly Resolution 977 ( X ) . Following the war , the cemetery was funded from the United Nations budget , but the Sino @-@ Soviet world objected to this funding . In 1973 , the cemetery was transferred from the UN to the Commission for the United Nations Memorial Cemetery ( CUNMCK ) , which is composed of representatives from the 11 countries who have servicemembers buried there .
= = = Cultural heritage and tourism = = =
The cemetery is designated as Site 359 in the listing of Registered Cultural Heritage Sites in Korea by the Cultural Heritage Administration of Korea . Also , it is a visitor attraction for Pacific Rim tourists . In 2011 , United Nations Secretary @-@ General Ban Ki @-@ Moon described it as the only United Nations cemetery in the world .
= = Memorials = =
An Honour Guard from the Republic of Korea 53rd Division carries out flag ceremonies daily .
The UN Sculpture Park was established in October 2001 and twenty @-@ nine permanent memorials are in the cemetery . The memorials include :
Commonwealth of Nations memorials :
Australian Memorial
British Memorial – dedicated 2010
Monument to Canadian Fallen – an identical monument is located in downtown Ottawa
Commonwealth MemorialCommonwealth Missing in Action Memorial
New Zealand Memorial – designed by Warren and Mahoney architects and built of marble from the Coromandel Peninsula
South Africa Memorial – the 2001 sculpture Reconciliation by South African sculptor Strijdom van der Merwe , was created as part of the International Sculpture Symposium
French Memorial – dedicated 2007
Greek Memorial – dedicated 1961
Interfaith memorial chapel – built by the United Nations Command in 1964
Main gate – designed by Korean architect Kim Joong @-@ up and built by the city of Busan in 1966
Memorabilia display hall – built by the UN in 1968
Norwegian Memorial
Thai Memorial – dedicated November 2008
Turkish Memorials I and II – dedicated 1960 , 1962 , and 2008
UN Forces Monument – dedicated 1978 and refurbished in 2007
United States Korean War Memorial – the Frank Gaylord sculpture was carved from Barre Granite at the Rock of Ages Corporation in Barre , Vermont , and dedicated under the auspices of the American Battle Monuments Commission in 2013
The Unknown Soldiers ' Pathway
The Wall of Remembrance , completed in 2006 , has the names of the 40 @,@ 896 United Nations casualties ( killed and missing ) inscribed on 140 marble panels .
The UNMCK maintains a website in Korean , English , and Turkish ( Türkçe ) , which allows website visitors to post online flowers and tributary messages .
= = Notable graves = =
The cemetery contains the graves of 2 @,@ 289 military personnel and 11 non @-@ combatants . Amongst those are the graves of Bill Madden GC , 3rd Battalion , Royal Australian Regiment , ( who died as a prisoner of war ) , Kenneth Muir VC ( killed in action in the Battle of Hill 282 while serving with the Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders ) , and Philip Curtis VC ( killed in action in the Battle of the Imjin River while serving with The Duke of Cornwall 's Light Infantry ) . Also buried is Lt. Col. Charles Hercules Green DSO , commander of the 3rd Battalion , Royal Australian Regiment , who was mortally wounded at Battle of Chongju and died at nearby Anju . Dutch Lt. Col. Marinus Petrus Antonius den Ouden , commander of the Regiment Van Heutsz , was killed in action during Operation Roundup in 1951 and is buried with members of his regiment – posthumously , den Ouden was awarded Netherlands ' highest military award , the Military Order of William . In the early days of the war , journalist Christopher Buckley died from a land mine explosion , and was subsequently buried at the cemetery .
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= Auto Club Speedway =
Auto Club Speedway , formerly California Speedway , is a two @-@ mile ( 3 km ) , low @-@ banked , D @-@ shaped oval superspeedway in Fontana , California which has hosted NASCAR racing annually since 1997 . It is also used for open wheel racing events . The racetrack is located near the former locations of Ontario Motor Speedway and Riverside International Raceway . The track is owned and operated by International Speedway Corporation and is the only track owned by ISC to have naming rights sold . The speedway is served by the nearby Interstate 10 and Interstate 15 freeways as well as a Metrolink station located behind the backstretch .
Construction of the track , on the site of the former Kaiser Steel Mill , began in 1995 and was completed in late 1996 . The speedway has a grandstand capacity of 68 @,@ 000 and 28 skyboxes . In 2006 , a fanzone was added behind the main grandstand . Lights were added to the speedway in 2004 with the addition of a second annual NASCAR weekend . Since 2011 , the track has hosted only one NASCAR weekend .
IndyCar returned to the track in 2012 with its season finale race ( a 500 @-@ mile night race ) ; the series previously ran a 400 @-@ mile race from 2002 to 2005 .
= = Track history = =
= = = Early history and construction = = =
On April 20 , 1994 , Roger Penske and Kaiser announced the construction of a racetrack on the site of the abandoned Kaiser Steel mill in Fontana , CA . A day after the announcement CART announced it would hold an annual race at the speedway . Three months later NASCAR President Bill France , Jr. agreed to sanction Winston Cup Series races at the speedway upon completion , marking the first time NASCAR has made a commitment to run a race at a track that had yet to be built . Community meetings were held to discuss issues related to the construction of the track and the local effects of events held . The local community largely supported construction of the speedway citing potentially increased land values and rejuvenation of the community . In April 1995 , after having toured the sister track Michigan International Speedway , the San Bernardino County Board of Supervisors unanimously approved the project . The California Environmental Protection Agency gave Penske permission to begin construction after Kaiser agreed to pay $ 6 million to remove hazardous waste from the site . Construction on the site began on November 22 , 1995 with the demolition of the Kaiser Steel Mill . The 100 @-@ foot water tower , a landmark of the Kaiser property , was preserved in the center of the track to be used as a scoreboard . 3 @,@ 000 cubic yards ( 2 @,@ 300 m3 ) of contaminated dirt was removed and transported to a toxic waste landfill . To prevent remaining impurities from rising to the surface , a cap of non @-@ porous polyethylene was put down and covered with 2 feet ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) of clean soil . Construction of the track was completed in late 1996 .
On January 10 , 1997 Marlboro Team Penske ’ s driver Paul Tracy became the first driver to test on the new speedway . NASCAR held its first open test session on at the track from May 5 – 7 . The official opening and ribbon cutting ceremony was held on June 20 , 1997 with the first race , a NASCAR West Series race , being held the next day .
= = California Speedway = =
The track was named the California Speedway from the time it was built through February 21 , 2008 when the Southern California Automobile Club ( Auto Club ) purchased the naming rights in a 10 @-@ year deal . Thus creating Auto Club Speedway .
= = = Expansion and additions = = =
With early success following the opening of the track , the speedway began to expand reserved grandstand seating along the front stretch with an additional 15 @,@ 777 seats . In May 1999 , an additional 28 skyboxes were added to the top of the main grandstand . In 2001 the Auto Club Dragway , a 1 / 4 mile dragstrip , was built outside of the backstretch of the main speedway . That same year , the infield of the speedway was reconfigured to hold a multipurpose road course . On April 24 , 2003 The San Bernardino County Planning Commission approved the changing of the speedway ’ s conditional use permit to allow the installation of lights around the track . Later that year NASCAR announced a second annual Sprint Cup Series race at the track for the 2004 season , with the second race being run " under the lights " . NASCAR ran two weekends of racing annually until the 2011 season , when the track returned to a single annual race weekend .
In 2006 , the speedway 's midway , located behind the main grandstand , was overhauled . The new midway , called Discover IE FanZone , includes the addition of Apex ( a Wolfgang Puck restaurant ) , additional shade and lounge areas , a new retail store and an entertainment stage .
In March 2014 , Las Vegas based company Exotics Racing expanded to California by opening a new 1 @.@ 2 mile road course at the Auto Club Speedway .
= = = Configurations = = =
= = = Attendance problems = = =
Upon the addition of a second NASCAR weekend at the track in 2004 , attendance at the races dropped off dramatically , by as much as 20 @,@ 000 . With such a large attendance swing , drivers and media began to doubt if the track deserved two dates , even if the track was near Los Angeles , the nation 's second @-@ largest media market . Weather also became a concern with either extremely hot days or with rain threatening the races . All of this factored into NASCAR 's decision to remove a second race from the track with the realignment of the 2011 NASCAR schedule . Former track owner Roger Penske said the track may be located in a one @-@ race market . Track president Gillian Zucker cited bad weather windows and fans having other entertainment options as reasons for the attendance decline .
Effective in the 2014 racing season , the grandstand capacity was reduced from 92 @,@ 000 to 68 @,@ 000 . This was accomplished by removing approximately 12 @,@ 000 seats near Turn 1 and installing a hospitality area and a digital display showing speeds along the straightaway . In addition , seats were further reduced as a result of modifying average seat width from 18 inches to 23 inches . The capacity quoted does not include luxury boxes and infield seating , which when added up reaches a capacity of approximately 100 @,@ 000 .
= = = Name change = = =
On February 21 , 2008 , the Automobile Club of Southern California ( ACSC ) became the title sponsor of the raceway , making Auto Club Speedway the track 's official name . The naming rights deal will last for ten years and is worth an estimated $ 50 to $ 75 million . In addition to naming rights , the ACSC will have use of the facility for road tests for Westways Magazine and other consumer tests . The money will be used for capital improvements to the track .
= = = In pop culture = = =
The facility is often used for filming television shows , commercials and films . In 2000 , portions of Charlie 's Angels were filmed at the speedway , and in 2005 , portions of Herbie : Fully Loaded were filmed there . In 2007 , The Bucket List saw Jack Nicholson and Morgan Freeman drive a vintage Shelby Mustang and Dodge Challenger around the 2 @-@ mile ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) speedway .
A parody of the track was used in the 2006 Pixar film Cars . It is the venue for the Piston Cup tiebreaker race between the movie 's main character Lightning McQueen ( voiced by Owen Wilson ) , retiring veteran Strip " The King " Weathers ( voiced by Richard Petty ) and perennial runner @-@ up Chick Hicks ( voiced by Michael Keaton ) . The race is held at the Los Angeles International Speedway , which is a conglomeration of the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum , the Arroyo Seco in Pasadena where the Rose Bowl is located , as well as the Auto Club Speedway .
= = = Fatalities = = =
During the 1999 Marlboro 500 CART race , Canadian driver Greg Moore died in a crash along the backstretch of the track . It was determined that after sliding along the infield grass , Moore 's car hit the edge of oncoming pavement , which caused the car to flip into a concrete retaining wall . The incident prompted the track owners , ISC , to pave the backstretch of both Auto Club Speedway and its sister track Michigan International Speedway in an attempt to prevent a similar accident . Shortly after the crash , CART mandated the use of a head @-@ and @-@ neck restraint system on all ovals . The rule eventually became mandatory on all tracks .
On April 5 , 2002 , Ricky Lundgren was killed in a qualifying session for a motorcycle race .
On August 7 , 2004 , a police officer from San Diego , John Barr , died during an open track event after coming off his motorcycle .
On June 2 , 2005 , two men died while participating in an event sponsored by the San Diego Chapter of the Ferrari Owners ' Club .
On October 15 , 2010 , a 24 @-@ year @-@ old woman died while participating in a driving school at the track . The woman was driving a replica Indycar as part of the Mario Andretti Racing Experience when she lost control and hit the inside wall of the track .
= = Racing events = =
= = = Current races = = =
NASCAR Sprint Cup Series :
Auto Club 400
NASCAR Xfinity Series :
TreatMyClot.com 300
Shell Eco @-@ marathon Americas
= = = Former races = = =
NASCAR Sprint Cup Series
Pepsi Max 400 ( 2004 – 2010 )
NASCAR Xfinity Series
CampingWorld.com 300 ( 2004 – 2010 )
NASCAR Camping World Truck Series
San Bernardino County 200 ( 1997 – 2009 )
NASCAR West Series ( 1997 – 2006 )
CART
Marlboro 500 ( 1997 – 2002 )
IndyCar Series
MAVTV 500 ( 2002 @-@ 2005 , 2012 @-@ 2015 )
Rolex Sports Car Series
Grand American 400 ( Sports Car Course ) ( 2002 – 2005 )
IROC ( 1997 , 1998 , 2002 )
Super GT ( 2004 )
= = Other events = =
Red , White & Cruise — A July 4 festival consisting of a car show , various family @-@ friendly entertainment and a fireworks show .
Epicenter 2010 at the speedway 's midway
Cardenas Festival — The annual Cardenas Festival is held in the parking lot . This is a festival where all the company 's that sell food at the grocery store Cardenas give out free samples of new or upcoming food . There are also performances from many artists .
= = Track length of paved oval = =
The track length is disputed by CART and NASCAR that run at Auto Club Speedway . The NASCAR timing and scoring use a length of exactly 2 @.@ 000 miles ( 3 @.@ 219 km ) . The IRL timing and scoring use also a length of exactly 2 miles since their first race in 2002 . CART measured the track as 2 @.@ 029 miles ( 3 @.@ 265 km ) and used this length for timing and scoring between 1997 and 2002 .
= = Track records = =
The closed @-@ course practice and qualifying one @-@ lap records Arie Luyendyk had set in the run @-@ up to the 1996 Indy 500 at 239 @.@ 260 mph ( 385 @.@ 052 km / h ) and 237 @.@ 498 mph ( 382 @.@ 216 km / h ) respectively were improved by Maurício Gugelmin on September 27 , 1997 . He was clocked at 238 @.@ 869 mph ( 384 @.@ 422 km / h ) and 237 @.@ 498 mph ( 382 @.@ 216 km / h ) respectively .
After Juan Pablo Montoya had missed Gugelmin 's unofficial record in practice , Gil de Ferran set a new official one @-@ lap record at 237 @.@ 977 mph ( 382 @.@ 987 km / h ) during CART qualifying on October 28 , 2000 . There is a discrepancy in average speed recognised because CART did use a slightly larger track length . Under CART measurements , the speed was listed as 241 @.@ 428 miles per hour ( 388 @.@ 541 km / h ) . As of March 2012 , this is the fastest lap speed ever recorded at an official race meeting and the fastest ever lap on a closed racing circuit . The 2003 Indycar race was the fastest circuit race ever in motorsport history , with an average speed of 207 @.@ 151 mph ( 333 @.@ 377 km / h ) over 400 miles ( 640 km ) , topping the previous record average of 195 @.@ 165 mph ( 314 @.@ 088 km / h ) over 500 miles ( 800 km ) , which was set by the final CART race held in Fontana the preceding year ( again , the time was adjusted to reflect the discrepancy between the CART 's measured distance and the recognised distance ) .
NOTE : Because of CART 's discrepancy in calculating laps at the circuit ( 2 @.@ 029 miles versus 2 @.@ 000 miles ) , for consistency purposes , the one lap and 500 @-@ mile records are calculated with the standard 2 @.@ 000 mile distance for average speed purposes .
= = NASCAR Sprint Cup Series stats = =
( As of 3 / 20 / 16 )
* from minimum 5 starts .
= = = NASCAR Sprint Cup Series race winners = = =
* – Race extended due to green @-@ white @-@ checker finish . * * – Race shortened due to rain .
= = Open wheel race winners = =
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= Council House , Perth =
Council House is a 13 @-@ storey office building on St Georges Terrace in Perth , Western Australia . Located beside Stirling Gardens and Government House in the city 's central business district , the 47 @.@ 9 @-@ metre ( 157 ft ) building was designed by Howlett and Bailey Architects and opened by The Queen in 1963 , after Perth hosted the 1962 British Empire and Commonwealth Games . For most of its history , it has served as the headquarters for the City of Perth .
Built in a modernist style , the building has been the subject of vigorous public debate about its heritage value . Some parties , such as the Royal Australian Institute of Architects , consider the building to be an important example of modernist architecture in the city , whilst others consider it ugly . These conflicting views led to animosity in the 1990s , when the State Government refused to heritage list the property , and instead recommended its demolition . Despite this , the City of Perth opted to renovate the tower and keep it as its headquarters . Following this , the building was admitted to the State 's Heritage Register .
= = Prior site history = =
The site was originally home to the Colony 's governing Legislative Council in a building which came to be known as the Old Government Offices or Public Offices . The building was designed by Acting Civil Engineer Henry Reveley in August 1836 after he was asked to prepare plans for public offices on the site . A call for tenders was made , and the tender accepted was for £ 1 @,@ 833 , well above the £ 1 @,@ 200 maximum specified in the call for tenders . Payment was delayed until February 1839 .
The Public Offices stood 10 metres ( 33 ft ) back from St Georges Terrace . The Legislative Council occupied the building until 1870 , when it moved to a chamber adjoining the new Perth Town Hall . The Legislative Council returned to the building in 1890 after the newly formed Legislative Assembly took over that chamber . In the 1890s , the building became a Post Office , before being taken over by the Department of Agriculture , and the building continued to be used as public offices until 1961 . Additions to the building in the 1930s included a second storey , which contained a Legislative Council room and offices for senior public servants . Showing its age , the building eventually became what was described as a " rat @-@ infested hell @-@ hole " .
The Perth City Council had been based from 1871 in the Perth Town Hall , then in 1925 moved to offices in Murray Street . The site of the Public Offices on St Georges Terrace was chosen as the site for a new home for the Perth City Council in 1954 . Immediately south of the Public Offices building stood the Soldiers ' Institute building . This building was taken over from the Returned Soldiers ' League by the ABC in 1937 for its 6WF radio studio .
= = Competition and construction = =
With the news that Perth would be hosting the 1962 British Empire and Commonwealth Games , Perth City Council in 1959 launched an international competition to design its new building . The brief in the competition was to design a " creative building that marked where Perth was at the time " and have the building ready in time for the opening of the Commonwealth Games .
There were 61 designs entered into the competition , including one by Jeffrey Howlett and Don Bailey from the Melbourne architectural firm Bates , Smart and McCutcheon . The jury assessing the competition entries , which included architect Harry Seidler , described the Howlett @-@ Bailey plan as " a remarkably simple solution to a complex problem " and declared them winners of the competition .
The ABC moved to new premises on Adelaide Terrace in 1960 when the Council House site was taken over by the Perth City Council for construction to begin . Both the Public Offices and Soldiers ' Institute buildings were demolished to make way for the redevelopment .
Excavations for construction of the building 's foundations started in October 1961 and the first concrete pour occurred in November 1961 . The building was not completely finished by the time Perth hosted the Commonwealth Games in November 1962 , however the builders rushed to finish the ground , eighth , and 10th floors in time so that foreign dignitaries could be entertained in the reception areas . Following the Games , the fit @-@ out of the building was finished in March 1963 , and on 25 March 1963 Queen Elizabeth II officially opened Council House , unveiling a 2 @.@ 4 @-@ metre ( 7 @.@ 9 ft ) tall ceremonial plaque set in granite from the original 1817 Waterloo Bridge in London .
Construction of Council House was performed by J. Hawkins and Son Pty Ltd , and cost £ 1 @.@ 5 million . It was the first building in Perth to use complete window walling . In order to reduce the heat entering the building through these full @-@ height windows , the building used internal blinds and external sun @-@ breakers . When the building was opened , all Perth City Council activities were moved there .
Part of Howlett and Bailey 's plans for the complex included the extension of Terrace Road westwards across the sites of the Old Court House and the Supreme Court , but this was never done . Also part of their plan was the construction of an elliptical auditorium called the " Public Suite " behind Council House ; the plan to build this was dropped after the completion of Council House , with the design reformulated by Howlett and Bailey and the building eventually built on the opposite side of Government House as the Perth Concert Hall .
= = 1990s refurbishment and heritage listing = =
The building continued to serve as the headquarters for the Perth City Council from its completion until 1994 , when it was vacated to allow for the removal of asbestos which had been used to insulate the building 's steel frame . The Council moved to office space in the Westralia Square building .
In 1994 , Commissioners appointed by the State to oversee the break @-@ up of the Perth City Council voted to demolish the building . At the time , refurbishment costs were estimated to run to $ 42 million . The State Government 's plan was to demolish the building and extend Stirling Gardens right across the site to beside Government House , as part of a broader plan entitled " Perth - A City for People " which also included the Northbridge Tunnel , the sinking of Riverside Drive , and the housing of Supreme Court and District Court under the one roof . The State Government suggested that the Council move into the Old Treasury Building across St Georges Terrace , for which they offered an incentive of $ 30 million .
Significant public debate ensued about whether the building should be kept . Those prominent in the fight to save the building included Bill Warnock , architect Ken Adam , and the Royal Australian Institute of Architects . Others said it was " out of date , unattractive , and out of step " with the older heritage buildings which surround it . Heritage Minister Graham Kierath also refused to place the building on the WA Register of Heritage Places , despite calls from the Heritage Council and the National Trust to do so . This decision " stunned " the Institute of Architects .
Despite the recommendation for demolition , in late 1995 , the Councillors of the newly formed City of Perth had a feasibility study carried out into whether Council House could be refurbished . This feasibility study was carried out by Architects Cox Howlett and Bailey , of which one of the partners was the son of original designer Jeffrey Howlett , and cost $ 100 @,@ 000 . The study indicated that the building could be economically refurbished , and in December 1996 the Council unanimously agreed to press ahead with refurbishment plans , removing its asbestos and building an underground car park at the rear of the site . The decision to refurbish was helped by the fact that interest rates at the time were so low that it was cheaper to service a loan than to pay rent . At the time , the refurbishment was expected to cost around $ 26 million .
The new 95 @-@ bay car park at the rear of the building required the removal of a New Zealand Kauri Pine estimated to be up to 150 years old , and was described by Opposition MLC John Cowdell as a " disgrace " which would undermine the heritage value of the precinct . There was also some concern expressed that the refurbishment might cause the building to lose heritage value through the updating of its interiors .
The contract to refurbish the building was won by John Holland Group , the construction company of Janet Holmes à Court , on 29 July 1997 , at a price of $ 25 @.@ 3 million . The architect for the refurbishment was Geoffrey Clough of Peter Hunt and Daryl Jackson Architects . The building was " stripped back to bare bones " and the tiny tiles coating the building 's distinctive " T " -shaped fins were removed , repaired , and re @-@ glued to the surface . The refurbishment also involved the construction of a new " Lord Mayoral space and reception area " on the eleventh floor ( formerly a plant level ) , the full enclosure of the ground floor ( which had previously been partially open to the elements ) and the replacement of gold Venetian blinds which had been a feature of the building in the past .
The City of Perth moved back to Council House in February 1999 and placed three unused floors of Council House for lease . The refurbishment was widely considered a " qualified success " , with the building " handsomely restored " .
The Western Australian state election of 2001 had resulted in a change of government , including a change of Heritage Minister . The restored building was finally placed on the interim heritage list by Heritage Minister Michelle Roberts on 5 March 2006 . Former Heritage Minister Graham Kierath , who had resisted the nomination in the 1990s , attacked the decision to list the building as pandering to left @-@ wing supporters . The Heritage Council of Western Australia recommended on 17 November 2006 that the listing of the building go ahead . The building was entered as a permanent entry on the Heritage Register on 8 December 2006 .
= = Design and reaction = =
Council House is constructed from concrete @-@ encased steel frame , with lifts and service rooms located at its eastern end and a fire escape stairwell at its western end . Level 9 houses the distinctive circular Council Chamber , which features wood panelling and has been restored to largely its original state in the 1990s refurbishment ( by contrast to most of the other levels of the building ) . The building is almost completely clad with glass , which led to criticism about its excessive air conditioning costs . The glass exterior of the building has T @-@ shaped white sunbreakers superimposed in an alternating pattern across the building , coated with fine mosaic tiles . With the newly enclosed top floor , the building now has 13 levels above ground .
The building , which was the favourite creation of its designer Jeffrey Howlett , has been called the most important example of modernist architecture in Perth and " one of the State 's modernist icons " . The building has been described as demonstrating " modernist aspirations " from the Bauhaus school , exuding " brutalist warmth " . Stephen Neille , the Chair of Architectural Design at Curtin University , described it as reflecting Perth of that time : a city " brimming with confidence and consciously promoting itself to the world as a modern city " . Adrian Iredale , from architects Iredale Pederson Hook , described the building as " simultaneously elegant and heavy and introducing poetry through the repetitive system of sun shading , the big Ts that hover in front of the facade on all sides . "
The building has divided the public over the years , with some branding the building an " eyesore " and a " hideous folly " , whereas others considered it a " classic example of 1960s architecture and an important reminder of Perth 's past " and a " unique building " . It has been suggested by Associate Ralph Hoare from the Australian Institute of Architects said the building should never have been built on St Georges Terrace , having been built in the " wrong place " .
= = = LED lighting = = =
The outside of the building was fitted with over 22 @,@ 000 LED lights which was officially turned on on 7 April 2010 . The LEDs located on the roof , " T " window structures , and bulkheads are able to be individually computer controlled and coloured . The lights were installed at a cost of $ 1 @.@ 08 million .
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= BAE Systems Nimrod MRA4 =
The BAE Systems Nimrod MRA4 was a maritime patrol and attack aircraft intended to replace the Hawker Siddeley Nimrod MR2 . The rebuilt aircraft would have extended the operating life of the Nimrod fleet by several decades and significantly improved the aircraft by installing more efficient Rolls @-@ Royce BR700 turbofan jet engines to almost double the flight range . The conversion of the flight deck to a digital glass cockpit would have simplified control operations and reduced crew requirements . New detection systems were to be installed , as well as additional weapons for anti @-@ submarine warfare .
However the project was subject to significant delays due to cost over @-@ runs and contract re @-@ negotiations . This was partly due to difficulties combining refurbished Nimrod MR2 fuselages , which had not been built to a common standard , with newly built wings . The numbers of aircraft to be procured fell from 21 to nine over a course of years , while costs continued to climb .
The MRA4 was ultimately cancelled in 2010 as a result of the Strategic Defence and Security Review , at which point it was £ 789 million over @-@ budget and over nine years late . There is no direct replacement under development . The roles intended for the MRA4 are filled by existing assets such as the Type 23 Frigate and the Merlin helicopter . Ultimately , On 23 November 2015 , the UK announced its intention to order nine P @-@ 8 Poseidon ASW aircraft as part of the Strategic Defense and Security Review 2015 , effectively replacing the Nimrod .
= = Development = =
= = = Background and origins = = =
In 1988 , the Royal Air Force started a Replacement Maritime Patrol Aircraft ( RMPA ) procurement programme to replace the Nimrod MR2 aircraft . To meet the requirement British Aerospace proposed rebuilding each Nimrod MR2 with new engines and electronics which it called Nimrod 2000 . The RAF considered bids from Lockheed with its P @-@ 3 Orion , Loral Corporation with rebuilt ex @-@ US Navy Orions , and Dassault with the Atlantique 3 . In December 1996 the $ US3.5 @-@ billion contract was awarded to British Aerospace for the Nimrod 2000 , under the designation Nimrod MRA4 . British Aerospace became BAE Systems in 1999 and continued development on the Nimrod MRA4 .
The MRA4 was to be essentially a new aircraft . Significant changes included the installation of current @-@ generation Rolls @-@ Royce BR710 turbofan engines , a larger and more efficient wing , and a fully refurbished fuselage . Much larger air intakes were required on the MRA4 because the airflow requirements of the BR710 engine are significantly higher than that of the original Spey 250 powering the original Nimrods . The MRA4 also borrowed heavily from Airbus technology ; the glass cockpit was derived from the Airbus A340 .
According to BAE Systems , the Nimrod MRA4 systems was to enable the crews to gather , process and display up to 20 times more technical and strategic data than the MR2 . The Searchwater 2000 radar was stated to have been capable over land as well as water ; with the ability to have swept an area the size of the UK every 10 seconds . The Aircraft Synthetic Training Aids ( ASTA ) provided by Thales Training & Simulation was an electronic training suite to allow the training of crew members to transfer from active MRA4 aircraft to ground @-@ based training systems ; this change was made to increase the availability of the aircraft for operational missions and allow for more intensive training exercises .
= = = Delays and development problems = = =
The original scheduled date of entry into service for the MRA4 was April 2003 ; however , development proved far more protracted than anticipated . An independent company , Flight Refuelling Ltd . , was contracted to undertake the conversions to MRA4 standard , however BAE discovered that the Nimrod airframes supplied by the RAF were not built to a common standard and this considerably complicated the refurbishment process . The task of converting the existing airframes was transferred in @-@ house to BAE Systems Woodford . The BAE team at Woodford then found that the new wing was flawed , which resulted in the project being put on hold while another wing design was developed .
BAE Systems issued a shock profit warning in December 2002 due to cost overruns of the Nimrod MRA4 and the Astute class submarine projects . On 19 February 2003 BAE took a charge of £ 500 million against the MRA4 contract . The company had previously taken a £ 300 million " loss charge " in 2000 , which was expected to cover " all the costs of completion of the current contract " . The contract was renegotiated for the second time in 2002 , where the aircraft requirement was reduced from 21 to 18 .
Announcing plans for the future of the British military on 21 July 2004 , the Defence Secretary Geoff Hoon detailed plans to reduce the upgrade programme to cover only 16 MRA4 aircraft , and suggested that an eventual fleet of 12 might suffice . PA02 , the second development MRA4 , achieved its first flight in December 2004 and was used to test elements of the mission system and the air vehicle . BAE Systems received a contract worth £ 1 @.@ 1 billion for 12 MRA4s on 18 July 2006 ; three were to be development aircraft and nine more converted to production standard . The Nimrod MRA4 successfully released the Sting Ray torpedo for the first time on 30 July 2007 .
Further disputes over cost meant that the number of MRA4s to be delivered was further reduced to nine by Spring 2008 . The first production aircraft took its maiden flight on 10 September 2009 . At the time of the flight , each MRA4 was to cost at least £ 400 million . The Ministry of Defence announced in December 2009 that the introduction of the MRA4 would be delayed until 2012 as part of defence spending cuts . The first Nimrod MRA4 was delivered in March 2010 to the RAF for acceptance testing ; initial operational capability was expected to be reached in October 2012 . The MRA4 was to operate out from its main base at RAF Kinloss , Scotland ; all nine aircraft were due to be delivered by 2012 .
= = = Cancellation = = =
In the 2010 Strategic Defence and Security Review of the Armed Forces , the UK government announced the cancellation of the MRA4 on 19 October 2010 and consequently that RAF Kinloss , the intended base for the Nimrod fleet , would be closed . On 24 November 2010 , 382 sub @-@ contract workers previously working on the MRA4 were laid off at BAE Systems Warton and Woodford . After the airframes were stripped of electronic equipment , the remaining fuselages were scrapped at BAE Systems Woodford beginning on 26 January 2011 . Although the process was conducted behind screens intended to hide the process from the media , the BBC flew a helicopter over Woodford and broadcast footage of the scrapping in process .
Although late and over @-@ budget the decision to cancel the MRA4 was controversial as the remaining airframes had all been near completion . It has been reported that following the retirement of the Nimrod MR2 ( in March 2010 . ) , Russian submarines have been able to travel past the UK in international waters , but they could not be tracked because of the lack of suitable aircraft . In November and early December 2014 four maritime patrol aircraft operated by France , Canada and the United States were based at RAF Lossiemouth to attempt to locate a Russian submarine which had been spotted in British territorial waters off west Scotland .
The aircraft would also have been used in the civilian search and rescue role , the Nimrod MR2 had often been used in this role . In this respect the Strategic Defence and Security Review stated that the UK " will depend on other maritime assets to contribute to the tasks previously planned for [ the Nimrod MRA4 ] " .
Following the cancellation , the Defence Secretary Liam Fox used the Nimrod MRA4 procurement as an example of the worst of MOD procurement performance : " The idea that we ever allow ourselves into a position where something that was originally Nimrod 2000 – where we ordered [ 21 ] was reduced to nine , spent £ 3.8bn and we still weren 't close to getting the capability – is not to happen again . "
In January 2011 it was reported by the Financial Times that when the decision was taken to scrap the aircraft , " [ The MRA4 ] was still riddled with flaws .... Safety tests conducted [ in 2010 ] found there were still ' several hundred design non @-@ compliances ' with the aircraft . It was unclear , for example , whether its bomb bay doors functioned properly , whether its landing gear worked and , most worryingly , whether its fuel pipe was safe . " According to Air Forces Monthly magazine , " significant aerodynamic issues and associated flying control concerns in certain regimes of flight meant that it was grounded at the time of cancellation and may not have been signed over as safe by the Military Aviation Authority . " The magazine also stated that the reason for the cancellation was that the RAF and Navy placed a higher priority on fast jets and frigates than on maritime patrol .
Nevertheless , six ex @-@ defence chiefs publicly criticised the decision to scrap the Nimrods in January 2011 and the Public Accounts Committee concluded in February 2012 that the decision had been made without a proper understanding of the cost implications and had wasted £ 3.4bn.
= = = Replacement = = =
Press reports in February 2011 claimed the Royal Navy 's Fleet Air Arm had established a committee to consider the acquisition of maritime patrol aircraft to replace the Nimrod in the anti @-@ submarine role , with an estimated budget of around £ 1 billion , contrasting with the MRA4 program 's cost of £ 3 @.@ 6 billion . Further reports in mid @-@ 2011 suggested that a purchase of up to five P @-@ 8 Poseidons was under consideration , while in January 2015 it was reported that attempts had been made to sell the Kawasaki P @-@ 1 as another possible replacement . In November 2015 , as part of the Strategic Defence and Security Review , the Ministry of Defence announced the procurement of nine P @-@ 8 Poseidons , which will undertake the range of tasks that were undertaken by the Nimrod MR.2 and intended for the MRA.4.
= = Specifications ( MRA4 ) = =
Data from Flight Insight , armedforces.co.uk
General characteristics
Crew : 10
Length : 38 @.@ 6 m ( 126 ft 9 in )
Wingspan : 38 @.@ 71 m ( 127 ft )
Height : 9 @.@ 45 m ( 31 ft )
Wing area : 235 @.@ 8 m2 ( 2 @,@ 538 sq ft )
Empty weight : 51 @,@ 710 kg ( 114 @,@ 000 lb )
Max. takeoff weight : 105 @,@ 376 kg ( 232 @,@ 315 lb )
Powerplant : 4 × Rolls @-@ Royce BR710 turbofans , 68 @.@ 97 kN ( 15 @,@ 500 lbf ) each
Performance
Maximum speed : Mach 0 @.@ 77 , 496 kn ( 571 mph , 918 km / h )
Range : 11 @,@ 119 km ( 6 @,@ 910 mi )
Service ceiling : 10 @,@ 972 m ( 36 @,@ 000 ft )
Armament
Guns : None
Hardpoints : 4 × under @-@ wing pylon stations and an internal bomb bay with a capacity of 22 @,@ 000 lb ( 10 @,@ 000 kg ) and provisions to carry combinations of :
Rockets : None
Missiles : Air @-@ to @-@ air missile : 2 × AIM @-@ 9 Sidewinder
Air @-@ to @-@ surface missile : AGM @-@ 65 Maverick , AGM @-@ 84 Harpoon , Storm Shadow
Bombs : Depth charges
Other : Air @-@ dropped Mk.46 torpedoes , Sting Ray torpedoes
Naval mines
Sonobuoys
Avionics
Thales Searchwater 2000 multi @-@ mode search radar
CDC / Ultra UYS503 / AQS970 acoustic processor
Northrop Grumman Nighthunter Electro @-@ Optical Search and Detection System
Elta EL / L @-@ 8300UK ESM system
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= Lurie Garden =
Lurie Garden is a 2 @.@ 5 @-@ acre ( 10 @,@ 000 m2 ) garden located at the southern end of Millennium Park in the Loop area of Chicago in Cook County , Illinois , United States . Designed by Kathryn Gustafson , Piet Oudolf , and Robert Israel , it opened on July 16 , 2004 . The garden is a combination of perennials , bulbs , grasses , shrubs and trees . It is the featured nature component of the world 's largest green roof . The garden cost $ 13 @.@ 2 million and has a $ 10 million endowment for maintenance and upkeep . It was named after Ann Lurie , who donated the $ 10 million endowment . For visitors , the garden features guided walks , lectures , interactive demonstrations , family festivals and picnics .
The Garden is composed of two " plates " protected on two sides by large hedges . The dark plate depicts Chicago 's history by presenting shade @-@ loving plant material . The dark plate has a combination of trees that will provide a shade canopy for these plants when they fill in . The light plate , which includes no trees , represents the city 's future with sun @-@ loving perennials that thrive in the heat and the sun .
= = General information = =
Lying between Lake Michigan to the east and the Loop to the west , Grant Park has been Chicago 's front yard since the mid 19th century . Its northwest corner , north of Monroe Street and the Art Institute , east of Michigan Avenue , south of Randolph Street , and west of Columbus Drive , had been Illinois Central rail yards and parking lots until 1997 , when it was made available for development by the city as Millennium Park . Today , Millennium Park trails only Navy Pier as a Chicago tourist attraction . Today , there is truly a rooftop garden on top of the Millennium Park parking garage , which is itself above railroad tracks .
In 1836 , a year before Chicago was incorporated , the Board of Canal Commissioners held public auctions for the city 's first lots . Foresighted citizens , who wanted the lakefront kept as public open space , convinced the commissioners to designate the land east of Michigan Avenue between Randolph Street and Park Row ( 11th Street ) " Public Ground — A Common to Remain Forever Open , Clear and Free of Any Buildings , or Other Obstruction , whatever . " Grant Park has been " forever open , clear and free " since , protected by legislation that has been affirmed by four previous Illinois Supreme Court rulings .
In 1839 , United States Secretary of War Joel Roberts Poinsett declared the land between Randolph Street and Madison Street east of Michigan Avenue " Public Ground forever to remain vacant of buildings " . Aaron Montgomery Ward , who is known both as the inventor of mail order and the protector of Grant Park , twice sued the city of Chicago to force it to remove buildings and structures from Grant Park and to keep it from building new ones . In 1890 , arguing that Michigan Avenue property owners held easements on the park land , Ward commenced legal actions to keep the park free of new buildings . In 1900 , the Illinois Supreme Court concluded that all landfill east of Michigan Avenue was subject to dedications and easements . In 1909 , when he sought to prevent the construction of the Field Museum of Natural History in the center of the park , the courts affirmed his arguments . As a result , the city has what are termed the Montgomery Ward height restrictions on buildings and structures in Grant Park and there are no tall buildings in the park blocking the sun for large parts of the day .
The Lurie garden constantly depicts the dynamics of nature , but it is most colorful from June through the autumn . It is not a botanical garden with a scientific purpose and is instead a public garden . Thus , it does not use a plant labeling system . The plant life of the garden consists entirely of perennials . It does not now nor does it intend to incorporate annuals , which rarely survive Chicago winters . Approximately 60 % of the plant life in the light and dark plates are plants that are native to Illinois . It is located across the street from the Art Institute of Chicago 's new Modern Wing , and within the park it is south of Jay Pritzker Pavilion , east of the South Chase Promenade and Southwest Exelon Pavilion as well as the future site of the Nichols Bridgeway , west of the Southeast Exelon Pavilion , southwest of the BP Pedestrian Bridge .
= = Culture = =
The world @-@ class garden was an essential element of the park , as the motto of Chicago is Urbs in Horto , which is a Latin phrase meaning City in a Garden . The Garden also pays tribute to Carl Sandburg 's moniker of Chicago as the " City of Big Shoulders " with a 15 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) " shoulder " hedge that protects the perennial garden and encloses the park on two sides . It keeps the garden from being trampled by crowds exiting events at the neighboring Jay Pritzker Pavilion .
The " shoulder " hedge , which serves as the northern edge of the garden , also fills the space next to the void of the great lawn of the Jay Pritzker Pavilion . These hedges use a metal armature , to prefigure the mature hedge . The shoulder hedge is an evolving hedge screen of deciduous Fagus ( beech ) and Carpinus ( hornbeam ) and evergreen Thuja ( arborvitae , also known as redcedars ) that will eventually ( over the course of approximately ten years ) branch horizontally to fill the permanent armature frame and create a solid hedge .
The garden was one of the gardens depicted in the 2006 In Search of Paradise : Great Gardens of the World exhibition that was shown from May 12 – October 22 , 2006 in the Boeing Galleries and that was later shown in the Chicago Botanic Garden . The Chicago Botanic Garden developed the exhibition that included 65 photomurals of gardens from 21 countries using photographs that were less than five years old .
= = Design = =
Kathryn Gustafson , known generally for sculptured parks and lively waterworks and specifically for the Diana , Princess of Wales Memorial Fountain , and Israel , a renowned lighting and set designer , determined the thematic concepts such as the placement of paths , and the shapes of perennial beds . Oudolf , a Dutch master of perennial , designed the flower beds which contain 26 @,@ 000 perennial plants in 250 varieties native to the prairie . Gustafson and her partners , Jennifer Guthrie and Shannon Nichol , and Israel are Seattle @-@ based . The garden is designed with four primary components : the shoulder hedge , the light plate , the dark plate and the seam boardwalk .
The shoulder hedge frames the garden 's north and west sides , and the hedge and armature help to protect the perennials from heavy pedestrian traffic . The 14 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) armature also provides a permanent pruning guide . In addition to the Carl Sandburg symbolism , the western hedge also forms a topiary referring to greek mythology .
Lurie Garden is bisected by a diagonal boardwalk , which represents the natural Lake Michigan seawall that still bisects Grant Park . The boardwalk divides the garden into two plates , one of which contains muted colors , the other bright colors , while paralleling the line of the old Illinois Central Railroad retaining wall . The dark plate represents the early landscape history of the site , while the light plate represents the landscape of the future . The diagonal plate @-@ dividing seam boardwalk serves as a demarcation between two eras of Chicago 's landscape development . It also serves as a reminder of the time when Chicago placed boards over the marshland for pedestrians .
The boardwalk has a 24 @-@ inch ( 61 cm ) wide step on one side . The step , which provides seating , leads down to a 5 @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) wide canal , which runs between this step and a limestone wall . The limestone supports the plant beds of the dark plate . The water is invigorated with jets , and visitors are allowed to sit and dangle their feet in the water . It traces the angle of a historic subterranean seawall that remains beneath the site and used to be the boundary between the marshy Lake Michigan shoreline and the city . The boardwalk also crosses over stepped pools that expose a 5 @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) wide seam of water .
The garden initially had a hardwood footbridge that passes over the shallow water in the canal , and that divides the garden diagonally . However , stories in the sixth year of the garden described steel bridges . The entire garden slopes downward to present itself for the new Renzo Piano Modern Wing addition to the Art Institute of Chicago Building . At the foot of the canal opposite the Building the water ends in a pool . Oudolf 's lighting accents the hedges , and pathways are lit by in @-@ ground lighting fixtures . There were complaints that the construction of the Nichols Bridgeway clutters the picturesque view of Lurie Gardens and in so doing diminishes its prairie aspect .
= = = Materials = = =
The garden is a sustainable design built on lightweight geofoam under the soil . All curbing , stone stairways , stair landings , wall coping , and wall cladding in the interior of the Garden use midwestern limestone . The garden uses granite for paving and wall veneer . Where it is exposed , the granite surfaces have a flamed finish . The boardwalk and wood benches in the Garden are fabricated from FSC @-@ certified Ipe . The garden primarily uses patinized Naval Brass ( all metal plates in the Seam ) , patinized architectural bronze ( all handrails ) , and powdercoated steel ( the armature ) .
= = Wildlife features = =
The seasonal highlights are as follows : Spring highlights include - Star of Persia , Arkansas Blue Star , Wild White Indigo , Quamash , Shooting Star , Prairie Smoke , Virginia Bluebells , Herbaceous Peony , Phlomis , Meadow Sage , Burnet , and Tulip ; Summer highlights include - Giant Hyssop , Ornamental Onion , Butterfly Weed , Purple Lance Astilbe , Calamint , Rusty Foxglove , Pale Coneflower , Daylily , White Blazing Star , Bee Balm , Oregano , and Culver 's Root ; Fall / Winter highlights include - Japanese Anemone , White Wood Aster , Northern Sea Oats , Tennessee Coneflower , Purple Love Grass , Rattlesnake Master , Bottle Gentian , Common Eulalia Grass , Red Switch Grass , Little Bluestem , Prairie Dropseed , and Toad Lily . The garden features dozens of types of perennials and bulbs . The garden features both ornamental and prairie grasses . It includes evergreen and deciduous shrubs . Its trees serve as its foundation . The wide variety of plant life has lured dozens of cottontail rabbits to the Garden and the surrounding park . The garden uses no synthetic pesticides .
60 @,@ 000 and 42 @,@ 000 bulbs were handplanted in 2006 and 2008 , respectively . In 2009 , 20 @,@ 000 additional bulbs were planted , bringing the total to 120 @,@ 000 and extending the flowering season earlier . The garden includes 35 @,@ 000 perennials in 240 varieties and 5 @,@ 200 " woody " plants in 14 varieties .
The dark plate 's perennials include ferns , angelicas and other broad @-@ leaved species , with a scattering of trees sprouting out of the flower beds . These plants thrive with shade from trees . The lush plants of this plate were selected by Oudolf as a tribute to Chicago 's marshy beginnings . It is described as a thick wetland whose designers have described as " wild , naughty and hidden . "
The light plate is dominated by prairie plants : grasses , coneflowers , prairie @-@ smoke and no trees . These plants thrive in direct sunlight . This plate unites lighter native plants with imported specimens . It is described as a fine @-@ textured upland whose designers have described as " clean , noble and prominent " .
At the time of the 2004 opening of the Garden , the perennials were expected to need a year or two to mature and the hedges were expected to need another five to ten years to fill out . Another Tribune critic , Beth Botts , noted that the historical symbolism of the plantings is a future pleasure to be anticipated . However , she noted that it would be many years before the rosebud trees to the east could provide a pleasant shade . By the July / August 2010 issue of Garden Design , the garden was described as a garden in maturity worth revisiting .
Several animal species have been sighted in the garden . 27 species of birds have been identified in the park and its garden . Butterflies and bees have are among the wildlife that visit the garden .
= = Visitor programming = =
In 2008 , the garden hosted four million visitors from 21 . In its first few years , it has had over two dozen adult programs attended by 1 @,@ 800 people each year and over three dozen family programs attended by 5 @,@ 000 people per year . The garden participated in an " Ask Me " program in 2009 , during which 12 volunteers logged 192 hours answering questions from 1 @,@ 094 guests from 35 states and 20 countries as well as a series of 2009 Sunday Garden Tours in which 24 people volunteered 391 hours to guide 2 @,@ 027 guests from 45 states and 26 countries through the garden . During 2009 , eight volunteers spent 383 hours gardening . The garden has two staff members and four volunteers on hand to answer questions on Wednesdays and Thursdays . The garden is open from Memorial Day through Labor Day from 10 a.m. to 11 p.m. on weekdays and from 6 a.m. to 11 p.m. on weekends .
= = Critical review = =
Chicago Tribune Pulitzer Prize @-@ winning architecture critic Blair Kamin , rated the garden as three stars , but projected it to be a four star venue once mature . He praised the light plate especially for its vibrant composition and undulating garden as a fitting contrast to the historic Chicago skyline . He also praised the symbolism of the seam for its uniqueness . He considers the garden a testament to the value of urban planning of public spaces . Botts noted that the reward of a design awaiting maturity is in enjoying the maturation .
= = Awards = =
The garden is the result of an invited international competition that occurred from August to October 2000 . Following the contest the garden was commissioned in October 2000 and completed in June 2004 . Among the entrants in the competition were Louis Benech , Dan Kiley , George Hargreaves , Jeffrey Mendoza and Michael Van Valkenburgh .
The garden has won numerous awards : Best Public Space Award by Travel + Leisure , 2005 ; Intensive Industrial Award by Green Roofs for Healthy Cities , 2005 ; Award of Honor by WASLA Professional Awards , 2005 ; Institute Honor Awards for Regional & Urban Design , American Institute of Architects , 2006 ( Millennium Park ) ; and Award of Excellence , American Society of Landscape Architects Professional Awards , 2008 .
Green Roofs for Healthy Cities considers the park to be the largest green roof in the world as it covers a structural deck supported by two reinforced concrete cast @-@ in @-@ place garages and steel structures that span the space above Illinois Central Railroad tracks .
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= Wall Street : Money Never Sleeps =
Wall Street : Money Never Sleeps ( also known as Wall Street 2 or Wall Street 2 : Money Never Sleeps ) is a 2010 American drama film directed by Oliver Stone , a sequel to Wall Street ( 1987 ) . It stars Michael Douglas , Shia LaBeouf , Josh Brolin , Carey Mulligan , Frank Langella , Susan Sarandon and , in his final film role before his death in 2014 , Eli Wallach .
The film takes place in New York , 23 years after the original , and revolves around the 2008 financial crisis . Its plot centers on a reformed Gordon Gekko , played by Douglas , acting as an antihero rather than a villain , and follows his attempts to repair his relationship with his daughter Winnie ( Mulligan ) , with the help of her fiancé , Jacob ( LaBeouf ) .
Principal photography took place in New York between September and November 2009 . After having its release date moved twice , Money Never Sleeps was released theatrically worldwide on September 24 , 2010 , by 20th Century Fox . Prior to its official release , many journalists connected to the financial industry were reportedly shown advance screenings of the film .
Despite opening to positive reception at the 2010 Cannes Film Festival , Money Never Sleeps received polarized reviews from critics , who generally praised the acting , but considered it an unnecessary sequel . Though failing to meet its critical expectations , the film was successful at the box office , topping the United States 's ranking during its opening weekend , and earning a worldwide total of $ 134 million in ticket sales , and more than $ 15 million on DVD .
= = Plot = =
In 2001 , Gordon Gekko ( Michael Douglas ) is released from prison after serving eight years for insider trading and securities fraud . Seven years later , Gekko is promoting his new book Is Greed Good ? , warning about the coming economic downturn . His estranged daughter , Winnie ( Carey Mulligan ) , runs a small , non @-@ profit news website and is dating Jacob Moore ( Shia LaBeouf ) , a top proprietary trader at Keller Zabel Investments ( KZI ) . Jacob is a protégé of managing director Louis Zabel ( Frank Langella ) , and is trying to raise money for a fusion research project which would create massive amounts of clean energy for the world . Jake is also financially assisting his mother ( Susan Sarandon ) , who has begun a new career selling real estate .
When the recession of 2008 hits , Keller Zabel 's stock loses more than 50 % of its value . Louis Zabel tries to arrange a bailout for KZI from other Wall Street banks but is blocked by Bretton James ( Josh Brolin ) , head of rival firm Churchill Schwartz , which Louis Zabel had refused to bail out eight years earlier . Zabel kills himself by jumping in front of a subway train because he cannot handle the stress and embarrassment of losing his company .
A distraught Jacob proposes marriage to Winnie , who accepts , then attends a lecture given by Gordon Gekko and introduces himself afterward . Gekko tells him that Keller Zabel 's collapse started when rumors of the company having toxic debt started to spread . Jacob and Gekko arrange a trade : Jacob will try to reconcile Winnie 's and Gekko 's relationship , and Gekko will gather information to destroy Bretton 's career to seek revenge for Zabel 's suicide .
Jake , aided by Gekko , learns that Bretton James profited from the Keller Zabel collapse . In revenge , Jake spreads rumors about the nationalization of an Equatorial Guinea oil field owned by Churchill Schwartz . The company loses $ 120 million , but Bretton offers Jake a job , impressed by his initiative . In his new position , Jake convinces Chinese investors to fund the fusion research by Dr. Masters ( Austin Pendleton ) he has been supporting . Bretton is impressed even more .
Jake attends a fundraiser with Winnie and pays for a seat at a table for Gekko priced at $ 10 @,@ 000 . Gekko confronts Bretton about what he did to him and also to Zabel . Bretton mocks him that no one cares what Gekko knows or thinks anymore . Gekko also bumps into Bud Fox ( Charlie Sheen ) , and they discuss their shared experience going to jail . Gekko then follows Winnie outside , where she explains why she blames him for everything that went wrong , particularly her brother Rudy 's suicide . Gekko claims he paid for the best therapists and even paid off a drug dealer to stop selling to Rudy , who died from an overdose . Winnie forgives him somewhat .
As the economy starts to crumble , Bretton and business mentor Julius Steinhardt ( Eli Wallach ) advise federal regulators what drastic actions must be taken . Jake 's mother continues to come to him for large sums of money . Winnie then announces to Jake she is pregnant with a boy . After riding motorcycles together , Bretton reveals to Jake that the Chinese investment is going into solar panels and fossil fuels instead of fusion research , leaving Jake furious and feeling betrayed .
Gekko proposes a solution , using a $ 100 million trust fund account in Switzerland , which Gekko set up for Winnie in the 1980s , to fund the research and save the company . She signs the money over to Jake , who then entrusts it to Gekko to legitimize the funds for investment in the fusion research company . However , the money never arrives , and Gekko betrays his daughter and Jake by leaving the country with Winnie 's $ 100 million . Jake realizes that Gekko has been using him to get the money in the account for his own gain . Winnie then tells Jake to leave , no longer trusting him .
Gekko is now in London , running a hugely successful hedgefund @-@ like financial company , capitalized by the $ 100 million . Jake travels there to propose one last trade : Winnie gets her money back , and Gekko can participate in his grandson 's life . Gekko , however , refuses .
Jake pieces together everything from Keller Zabel 's collapse to the economic bailout of Bretton 's company and gives the information to Winnie , telling her that revealing it will bring her website publicity and credibility . Winnie runs the story , and Bretton James is exposed . The investors , including Steinhardt , promptly abandon Bretton and go to Gekko on the back of his $ 1 @.@ 1 billion return as Bretton finds himself under intense legal scrutiny by the government .
Jake has successfully reunited with Winnie in New York , when late one night Gekko appears and tells them that he deposited $ 100 million into the fusion research 's account anonymously . He apologizes to them . One year later , Gekko is seen at his grandson Louis 's first birthday party , along with Jacob 's mother and Jacob and Winnie 's friends .
= = Cast = =
= = Characters = =
Michael Douglas reprises his role as Gordon Gekko , which won him an Academy Award after the original film . Gekko has recently been released from prison and , after a failed attempt to warn business leaders of the imminent economic downturn , he decides to try to rebuild a relationship with his estranged daughter Winnie .
Shia LaBeouf portrays Jacob " Jake " Moore , an ambitious , young proprietary trader who works for Keller Zabel Investments , and is in a relationship with Winnie . LaBeouf 's role in the film has been said to be a role similar to that of Charlie Sheen 's in the original . The young actor said he was able to relate to his character 's background and found similarities in their motivations . Initially the actor was intimidated by the idea of working on a film that was going to stretch his dramatic abilities and came to the film set with a different approach , which was that if he disappointed his fans twice , his career was finished after making two recently panned sequels .
LaBeouf stated that , during his first meeting with Stone , the director was " really expedient about killing any ego or conceit on my part " , saying not to worry because Tom Cruise was not an actor when he first worked with him either , which LaBeouf considered a knife to his heart . LaBeouf said that he did not know what a credit derivative is or what a CP , LP , or LVC were , commenting " You gotta know ticker names . " He also said that he has " no concept " of the " ins and outs of the financial world " and , as part of getting into character , he chose to stay thin to be like hedge funders . To prepare for the film he traded with different firms , playing with up to $ 1 million and became so interested in trading that he began studying for the Series 7 Exam .
Josh Brolin plays Bretton James , head of the Churchill Schwartz investment bank , whom Jacob blames for the death of his mentor . Bretton has been described as being a villain . Bretton is presented as a " new style " version of Gekko in the film . Javier Bardem was in final talks to play the character ; in July 2009 it was confirmed that he had turned down the project in favor of a film adaptation of the book Eat , Pray , Love , with Julia Roberts . Brolin took the part and lost 30 pounds in a month to prepare physically for this part . The actor , acknowledging that every character had both good and bad in them , viewed Bretton as being on a " higher level , " adding that he liked the ambition his character had and that he was an opportunist .
Carey Mulligan was cast as Winnie Gekko , Gordon 's estranged daughter and Jacob 's fiancée . Winnie has not spoken to her father since his imprisonment ; she blames Gordon for the suicide of her drugged @-@ out brother , Rudy . The character has been said to be the " moral center of the story " and described as being liberal , and to some extent passive . Mulligan is British and had to speak with an American accent for her role . Wall Street : Money Never Sleeps was her first major studio film . When she first met Stone for the role she explained that she did not want her character to be a " token girlfriend ; " both agreed to work to make sure that would not happen . During the same encounter Stone learned that she had short hair , and he initially discussed having her wear a wig , but Mulligan said she did not feel like herself when wearing the hairpiece . Stone trusted her and made an exception . According to Mulligan , Stone cast her in the Wall Street sequel based on her performance in An Education ( 2009 ) .
Frank Langella was cast as Louis Zabel . His death " ultimately leads the characters to discover the shady practices " of James 's hedge fund . Susan Sarandon portrays Sylvia Moore , Jacob 's real @-@ estate agent mother who is just as consumed by greed as Gekko is , but in a different sense . Audrey , a " tough , intelligent trader in the Wall Street trenches " , is portrayed by Vanessa Ferlito . John Buffalo Mailer plays Jacob 's Long Island financier friend , Robby and Eli Wallach plays the part of Jules Steinhardt , a Churchill Schwartz top executive and Wall Street patriarch who considers the current economic climate to be like the 1929 stock market crash . Pressman deemed the actor 's role as the " crier of doom , " who , " reveals just how much more devastating things can be today . " Charlie Sheen reprised his role of Bud Fox , Gekko 's former protégé , whom he meets briefly at a cocktail party . Sylvia Miles reprised her role as a real estate agent from the first film .
Television personality Natalie Morales , Vanity Fair magazine editor Graydon Carter , economist Nouriel Roubini , financier Warren Buffett and director Stone 's mother have minor roles in the film . Jim Cramer also makes a brief appearance after Stone cast him because he was a former hedge fund manager . Stone , who had a cameo in the first film , plays a similarly brief role in Wall Street : Money Never Sleeps . He wanted to give the young LaBeouf " some older connections " that would " give it weight " in the movie . Donald Trump and Julianne Michelle played minor parts , but Trump 's scene was cut from the final version ( it is instead available on the DVD ) . Stone said the scene was too " distracting " for the ending . Program host Neil Cavuto appears in the sequel for several seconds . A longer scene that involved him was cut ; a representative for Stone clarified that his decision was an aesthetic , not political , choice . Roger Hendricks Simon , a director @-@ actor , landed a part acting as a thinly veiled version of former AIG CEO Hank Greenberg . Like Trump 's part , his scenes were not included but are in the film 's DVD version .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
In early 2007 , The New York Times reported that a sequel to Wall Street , then tentatively titled Money Never Sleeps , had entered pre @-@ production and was in the early stages of development with a screenplay by Stephen Schiff of The New Yorker . Shortly after the film was confirmed , Douglas was reported to be interested in reprising his role as Gordon Gekko , depending on the script . In October 2008 , 20th Century Fox announced that it had officially green @-@ lit the film and would serve as a distributor . In the same month it was announced that Allan Loeb had been approached to write a script that was being referred to as a " page one rewrite " , meaning that he would be starting " from scratch " . Shortly after the film had entered pre @-@ production it was announced that both Charlie Sheen and Daryl Hannah would not be involved with the sequel for unknown reasons . Despite stating that Sheen was not going to return , Stone confirmed he would briefly reprise his role as Bud , which would be worked into the script .
Around May 2007 , The New York Times reported that Stone had turned down the opportunity to direct the film , even after months of being pressured to do so by Douglas , among others . However , in April 2009 Fox confirmed that Stone would be returning as both director and producer , alongside Douglas and Edward R. Pressman . Stone stated that he reconsidered passing on directing the film after the stock market crash . The film was co @-@ produced by Eric Kopeloff with Alessandro Camen and Celia D. Costas serving as executive producers . In addition to screenwriter Loeb , the film 's overall writer is Schiff . Bryan Burrough received credit as a consultant , and may have done uncredited work on the story .
At the time of the film 's announcement the plot details were kept under wraps , but Loeb later confirmed that its plot would primarily focus on Gekko , recently released from prison and re @-@ entering a much more " chaotic " financial world than the one he once oversaw from the previous film . Its budget was reported to be between $ 60 million ( $ 50 million with the tax credits ) and $ 70 million . Money Never Sleeps was being used as the film 's working title before being renamed Wall Street 2 at the director 's request and finally changed to Wall Street : Money Never Sleeps . As part of research for the film , Douglas and Stone had a dinner meeting with Samuel D. Waksal , the founder of the bio @-@ pharmaceutical company ImClone Systems , who spent five years in federal prison for securities fraud . LaBeouf , along with Stone , discussed the financial collapse with multiple hedge fund managers .
Early in mid @-@ 2009 , Stone took LaBeouf to a cocktail party organized by Nouriel Roubini , a New York University economics professor and chairman of a consulting firm . There , Stone and LaBeouf discussed the financial collapse with Roubini and also discussed hedge fund managers who are clients of Roubini 's firm . Roubini said that " in this financial crisis it was the traditional banks and the investment banks that had a larger role in doing stupid and silly things than the hedge funds . " Stone also stated that he had conversations with Jim Chanos , a prominent hedge fund manager who had urged him to focus less on hedge funds and more on the banking system , Chanos said , " there was a much more important story , a bigger story , in what happened with the system . "
= = = Writing = = =
In October 2008 , 20th Century Fox confirmed that Allan Loeb , who is a licensed stock broker , had been selected to re @-@ write the script . Stanley Weiser had worked on a treatment for a sequel set in the present with Gekko being released from jail ; the second part would be set in China . The studio felt that the material was dated , and put the project in turnaround . Stone had a falling out with Pressman , the producer , and began work on W. with Weiser . Weiser 's treatment for Wall Street Two was discarded and the film began taking shape from an original script by Stephen Schiff . It was reported that Aaron Sorkin had turned down the opportunity to work on the film 's script .
During December 2008 , while still in the process of drafting , Loeb said that he had been riveted by the Bernie Madoff headlines and showed interest in referencing him in the film , noting : " the thing that is so crazy about this story is that Ponzi schemes seem to be the simplest low @-@ class scam , " and " but this was carried out in the highest echelon of high finance . You couldn 't even get in to see this guy unless you had $ 2 million to invest . " Stone clarified that Madoff will not be mentioned in the film , commenting that he considered Madoff 's actions to be " a crook running a Ponzi scheme " which is " legal robbery . " The filmmaker returned to the project in April on the strength of this script , feeling Loeb 's draft was " so great " that he did not feel the need to touch it , although he did have the option .
Sometime in early June , Loeb reportedly handed in his second draft of the film to Fox , and in July , was finalizing the screenplay . Wall Street : Money Never Sleeps is based in four locations ; New York , London , the United Arab Emirates , and an Asian country . One of the character consultants to the new film will be billionaire Vincent Tchenguiz . Pressman said that Tchenguiz had modeled Gekko but did admit that Gekko was " partly Milken " and that Gekko will be a more outwardly altruistic figure but , admits , " a leopard doesn 't change its spots , despite appearances . " Pressman said of the origin of the film 's subtitle : " Wall Street was New York @-@ centric . Today the markets are much more global , hence the title of the new film , Money Never Sleeps . " He described Gekko 's involvement in the film as being " larger than life " .
It was reported that Loeb had taken advice from a " number of real Wall Street movers and shakers " to ensure " horrifying accuracy " for the film 's script . Of the re @-@ writes done to script , Stone said : " We sort of started over with the story of a young man who is at the center of it , and how he needs Gordon Gekko 's help to navigate those waters . " In a reference to the GEICO Gecko commercial , which was suggested by New York Governor David Paterson , Gekko says " even a caveman could do it " in the movie . At the request of Mulligan and LaBeouf , the filmmaker cut some dialogue from the character 's break @-@ up scenes , which he at first was initially hesitant to do .
Stone said that the film will provide more of a social commentary and admitted that he had never expected high finance to " serve again as a tableau for his storytelling " . He also added that its plot will showcase the unemployment rate at an all @-@ time high and the " our national debt ever climbing . " Discussing the difference between Wall Street and its sequel , the director explained , " In the other movie , Charlie Sheen is corrupt at the beginning and he finds a path to integrity . In this movie , it starts out the other way . Shia and Carey are idealists . And their idealism is being threatened . " A writer for USA Today believed that the film 's story line " attempts to put the complicated financial schemes that led to the worldwide economic collapse on a human scale . "
= = = Filming = = =
A shift in location in the sequel reflected some of the changes in the world since then : while the New York Stock Exchange and its trading floor had featured heavily in the first film , they are less prominent in the second . Instead , more time is spent at the Federal Reserve Building , reflecting its new position as a " bulwark of the system " according to Stone . The location provided a link to the contemporary crisis the film examines , since September 2008 it has been an important site for meeting on the crisis .
Although August 10 was reportedly the start date , principal photography began on September 9 . The filmmaker continued to make additions to the script and meet with financial consultants about the project whilst filming . Mulligan was able to film all of her scenes in 15 days . Stone said that they were on schedule and on budget , but claimed that the constantly changing weather was a problem for filming . He also said that the filming on location process was similar to the first film . While filming , LaBeouf said that Douglas was an " opened wound on the set " due to his oldest son 's arrest in July for drug trafficking , adding that Stone filmed a " struggling " Douglas .
Charlie Sheen was able to shoot his scene in one day and described being on set with the director and Douglas as strange , with Stone adding that it was difficult for the actor . Sheen reportedly had trouble remembering his lines and required some prodding to remember his cue during the party scene in which Gekko encounters Fox . Although eager to meet him , LaBeouf did not interact with Sheen on set per request . Regarding working with the director , who has a reputation for being demanding on his cast , Douglas described him as being mellow , but acknowledged that " it 's still always a workout with him . " " Everyone was very friendly , but the scene work felt dangerous , " LaBeouf recalls of the on @-@ set atmosphere . " These guys aren 't going to coddle you . Douglas was the one who comforted me . And I 've never gone deeper with a director than Oliver . He 's the Easter bunny and Orson Welles in one man . " The young actor further discussed Stone 's work ethic on @-@ set with him , saying :
We 'd be on the street [ filming ] , and Oliver would just say , " Go to that bar , get fucked @-@ up , and come back . " I 'd walk over , get smashed , and go back to work . He would really fuck with me when I was smashed . I get aggressive when I 'm smashed , and he 'd film that . He would just open you up completely , make you fucking naked – and then call , " Action ! "
Douglas filmed the opening scene , which is Gekko being released from Sing Sing maximum @-@ security prison , in Ossining , Westchester County , on September 18 . Stone felt that the prison scene was a " key plot element " because there is no one there to meet Gekko , who returns to society as an outsider . Regarding there being no scenes that show Gekko adjusting to the modern world , the director clarified that there is " very little space to do those kind of tricks in this movie " because of how modern the world is becoming on a monthly basis . Filming took place in Fordham University for the classroom scenes on October 10 and 11 . In order to shoot a dining scene between LaBeouf and Douglas , Shun Lee West closed for 24 hours so the two could film scenes at the restaurant for the entire day of November 10 . Brolin and Stone found extras simply by asking workers , at places like RdV , if they would like to be a part of the sequel .
= = Soundtrack = =
The soundtrack to the film was released on September 21 , 2010 , through Todo Mundo . The album features numerous songs by David Byrne , including several tracks from his 2008 collaboration with Brian Eno , Everything That Happens Will Happen Today .
= = = Track listing = = =
" Prison " ( Craig Armstrong )
" Home " ( David Byrne and Brian Eno )
" Life Is Long " ( David Byrne and Brian Eno )
" Sleeping Up " ( David Byrne )
" Strange Overtones " ( David Byrne and Brian Eno )
" Money " ( Craig Armstrong )
" My Big Nurse " ( David Byrne and Brian Eno )
" Helicopter Reveal " ( Craig Armstrong )
" Tiny Apocalypse " ( David Byrne )
" Lazy " ( David Byrne )
" I Feel My Stuff " ( David Byrne and Brian Eno )
" This Must Be the Place ( Naïve Melody ) " ( Talking Heads )
= = Release = =
= = = Marketing = = =
The film was screened out of competition during May 2010 at the Cannes Film Festival in France . Pressman thought that Cannes would be the " perfect platform to launch a film that speaks of today 's economic dilemma " . It was met with positive reviews from film critics at the festival , although numerous reviewers " objected to an ending deemed somewhat pat " . A spokesperson for Fox said that Stone had changed the ending since its screening at Cannes . Wall Street : Money Never Sleeps opened The Ischia Global Film and Music Fest , held during July 11 – 18 . Michael Corkery of The Wall Street Journal reported that numerous journalists involved in the financial industry had been invited to see advance screenings of the film . To promote Wall Street : Money Never Sleeps , several cast members visited the NASDAQ Market site in Times Square , on September 20 and presided over the NASDAQ Opening Bell .
Also on September 20 , the movie 's New York premiere was held at the Ziegfeld Theater in midtown Manhattan . According to Deadline Hollywood the film originally had a February 2010 release date , but it was later given an April 23 , 2010 , release . In March 2010 , the film 's release date was pushed back to September 24 . Brolin stated that he hoped that audiences would wonder about the ethics of the banking industry , asking " How much is enough ? , " he concluded , " There used to be a ceiling . Now there 's no ceiling " . Surveys indicated that the main audience for the movie would be older adults who remembered the first film .
= = = Box office = = =
Money Never Sleeps opened at a total of 3 @,@ 597 theaters in the United States , earning nine million on its first day and approximately nineteen million in its opening weekend in the US , averaging $ 5 @,@ 330 per theatre and becoming the number one movie at the box office , although falling short of studio estimates . Nonetheless it still marked one of the best openings for a Stone film . Despite an increase of thirty @-@ two screens for its second weekend , Money Never Sleeps saw a forty @-@ seven percent decrease on its earnings , falling to third place at the box office and making slightly over ten million for the week .
During the October 8 – 10 weekend it had a further decrease , falling almost fifty @-@ five percent , earning over four million and dropping to seventh place at the box office . In its fourth week of domestic release it fell under the top ten at the box office with a revenue of more than one million , after suffering a forty @-@ eight percent decrease and seven @-@ hundred and ninety less screens . Domestically , the film made $ 52 @.@ 4 million , and has grossed over $ 134 @.@ 7 million worldwide .
= = = Critical reception = = =
The film 's reception was mixed , review tallying website Rotten Tomatoes reported a rating of 55 % , based on a sample of 221 reviews ; the site 's consensus reading " It 's more entertaining than many sequels , but with Oliver Stone directing , a terrific cast , and a timely storyline that picks up where the original left off , Wall Street : Money Never Sleeps should be better , " for comparison , Wall Street ( 1987 ) had achieved a 78 % positive rating . Joe Neumaier of the New York Daily News publication awarded it five out of five stars saying that it is a sharp sequel that is worthy of its investment . He also saluted the cast 's performance and noted that Douglas gives Gekko " uncounted layers as he fakes , deals and fuels fire " . Matthew Toomey of Australia 's 612 ABC Radio Brisbane gave it a B @-@ rating and said that Douglas is the film 's " biggest positive " , finding LaBeouf to be unconvincing in his role . Christy Lemire , in The Canadian Press , claimed that the film ultimately " goes soft and loses its way " and described the contrast in its final scenes as being " laughable " . Furthermore , the subplot between LaBeouf and Mulligan 's characters as unneeded and pointed out that their relationship leads viewers to wonder why Winnie , who despises Gekko , would be involved with a man who does exactly the same thing as him , which she condemns ; however , Lemire acknowledged that the movie is an uncommon sequel that seems to be both relevant and necessary and said that it proves that " greed can still be good " . Film critic Colin Newton of the Brisbane Sunday Mail felt that the plot lacked the enthusiasm of the first film . Along the same lines , Village Voice contributor Nick Pinkerton pointed out that the Wall Street sequel did not have the " clean , fable @-@ like arc " formula of its predecessor .
Kirk Honeycutt of The Hollywood Reporter said that the film succeeded in being one of the good sequels in a while , but that Stone " gets too fancy here and there " , the film 's " heavy reliance on multiple screens , graphics and digital tricks makes it feel like one is watching CNN with all its computer @-@ screen busyness . " Roger Ebert , reviewing the movie in the Chicago Sun @-@ Times , noted that it ended with a better conclusion when Stone had edited the film after its Cannes viewing , but still felt it was a little too long . He considered the film to be sophisticated and said its photography was aesthetically pleasing but stated he wanted it to be " outraged . " In The Guardian Peter Bradshaw gave the film two out of five stars , commenting that " despite the pious waffle about market craziness being like cancer , no one is ever shown enduring the actual misery of losing money . " Writing for Time magazine , Richard Corliss stated that the film has the " drive , luxe and sarcastic wit of the snazziest Hollywood movies . " David Edelstein , writing in New York Magazine , described the film as being " full of promise , with minuscule returns . " He concluded that , like Stone 's other recent work , it is difficult to distinguish what the project 's focus is supposed to be . New Zealand Herald 's Russell Baillie gave it two and a half out of five stars , with the verdict for the film being that it falls flat of its expectations and hype .
Joe Morgenstern from The Wall Street Journal wrote that the movie manages to keep a hold on its audience 's attention . He thought that Douglas measured up to Gekko 's standards in the film , believing that he was the only actor to sustain a " sense of nasty fun " , and felt that LaBeouf 's effectiveness was within the range of the film @-@ maker 's direction , but was unimpressed with Brolin 's portrayal of James . He concluded that the script takes an unconvincing jab at Gekko 's " spiritual regeneration , " which was due to a scene that he considered to be " inherently illogical and emotionally inert . " The Daily Telegraph 's David Gritten said that Wall Street : Money Never Sleeps lacked the " punch " of the original film and was annoyed by the number of cameos throughout the film . Wall Street : Money Never Sleeps received three out of five stars from Stephen Lambrechts of IGN Australia . Lambrechts felt that Stone 's growth as a film director might mirror Gekko 's as a person ; having had used time to calm down over the years and settle into a more relaxed state of being . He concluded that the film 's final result is not " quite the incendiary attack that it could have been , but it still has plenty to say while also managing to be an entertaining crowd pleaser . "
In contrast to the film 's detractors , Boxoffice Magazine journalist Pete Hammond said the film was " brilliantly cast " and labeled it a " crackerjack powerhouse of a movie that shines a light on the financial machinations " . He stated that Douglas does not lose any of the substance of Gekko and LaBeouf is firm as Jacob . The writer predicted the Wall Street sequel 's box office performance would be brisk , while the prospects were assured on DVD . Andrew O 'Hehir 's of Salon.com reviewed the film from Cannes , calling it an " ambitious , uneven , surprisingly talky melodrama , which mixes a quasi @-@ documentary approach to the crash of 2008 with the story . " O 'Hehir 's considered the film to express a more " personal , intimate sense of moral hazard " . Marshall Fine , writing in the Huffington Post , viewed the film as an " overstuffed blend of agitprop and melodrama " that contains a cautionary story pertaining to unchecked capitalism . He considered Stone to be proclaiming a message of the " cancerous effects of greed " . Bill Goodykoontz of Arizona Republic admitted that he was not surprised to see that the sequel is not as effective as its predecessor , though it was an engaging film at the top of its game when it is hostile , and less satisfying during romantic parts . He ended by saying that it is not a " great movie " , but explained that it is an " effective commentary on what greed cost " everyone . CEO of Tullett Prebon , Terry Smith , one of the largest inter @-@ dealer money brokers in the world , reviewed the movie for Today on BBC Radio 4 . He gave it three out of five saying that , although it was " a little bit corny in some respects " , it puts the events of the credit crunch into context and that " it rings reasonably true , " capturing some of the activities , the moods and the individuals quite well . "
= = = Accolades = = =
= = = Home media = = =
Wall Street : Money Never Sleeps was released on DVD and Blu @-@ ray on December 21 , 2010 , in the US . Since then it has made more than $ 15 @.@ 5 million in DVD sales revenue selling more than 983 @,@ 000 units .
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= Pennsylvania Route 402 =
Pennsylvania Route 402 ( PA 402 ) is a 29 @.@ 24 @-@ mile ( 47 @.@ 06 km ) north – south state route in the Pennsylvania counties of Pike and Monroe . The southern terminus of the route is at U.S. Route 209 Business ( US 209 Bus . ) in the Smithfield Township village of Marshalls Creek . The northern terminus is at US 6 in Palmyra Township .
PA 402 was designated in 1928 between US 611 north of Delaware Water Gap and US 6 in Palmyra Township . The route at the southern terminus became PA 612 in the 1930s before PA 402 was extended south to US 611 ( now PA 611 in Delaware Water Gap in the 1940s , replacing a portion of PA 612 . PA 402 was realigned to end at an interchange with Interstate 80 ( I @-@ 80 ) and US 611 in Delaware Water Gap by 1961 . The southern terminus was cut back to US 209 in Marshalls Creek in the 1960s , with most of the former route south of there becoming a realigned US 209 . In 1991 , a proposal to realign PA 402 and US 209 around the village of Marshalls Creek was proposed . Originally , PA 402 ended at a junction with US 209 and US 209 Bus. in Marshalls Creek . Over the years , the junction and the village had become heavily congested and a bypass was the only way to relieve traffic . After numerous delays for environmental issues , PA 402 's new alignment had construction begin in 2005 . Construction was suspended in 2008 and abandoned as PennDOT wanted a new bypass constructed without a realignment of PA 402 . The new bypass was completed in June 2012 , when US 209 was realigned away from the southern terminus of PA 402 , which ended at US 209 Bus. instead .
= = Route description = =
PA 402 begins at a junction with US 209 Bus . ( Milford Road or SR 2012 ) in the village of Marshalls Creek in Smithfield Township . PA 402 proceeds north along Resica Falls Road , leaving the village of Marshalls Creek after crossing the namesake tributary . Soon crossing into Middle Smithfield Township , PA 402 bends northeast , crossing south of White Heron Lake and through the lakeside residential area . At Oak Grove Drive , PA 402 bends northward again , passing a small pond and bypassing Pocono Highlands Lake after turning northeast at Coolbaugh Drive .
PA 402 soon reaches the village of Poplar Bridge , reaching the Middle Smithfield Township Park at the north end of the village . Passing the Country Club of the Poconos , the route turns northward through a residential area surrounded by woods . This soon recedes to just woods , soon crossing over the Bush Kill , right next to Resica Falls , which drop less than a 0 @.@ 25 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 40 km ) from the roadway . North of the Bush Kill , the route passes Timber Mountain Drive and soon returns to the dense woods before crossing the county line from Monroe County to Pike County . Now in Porter Township , crossing through the dense woods until passing Twelvemile Pond .
The route winds northward through woods in Porter Township for several miles , passing a small parking lot and a junction with Old Bushkill Road . After a bend to the northwest , PA 402 reaches Porters Lake , a large lake marking the center of Porter Township . The route then moves northwest and crosses Pickerel Lake . PA 402 continues northwest through more woodlands , soon reaching the village of Pecks Pond , a residential community on the southwest end of the namesake pond . At the junction with Ness Road , PA 402 turns northeast along the lakeshore , soon passing a junction with a former alignment of itself . The route crosses into Blooming Grove Township , continuing northwest through the rural portions of Pike County .
The route soon bends north , passing through woods east of Lake Scott , soon reaching an interchange with I @-@ 84 ( exit 30 ; formerly 8 ) . Just north of the interchange , PA 402 intersects with SR 4004 , which connects to PA 434 and PA 739 at its eastern terminus . The route winds northward through Blooming Grove Township , passing White Deer Lake Access , soon bending northwest again . The route bends northward , crossing into Palmyra Township , soon reaching a clearing and a junction with US 6 . This junction serves as the northern terminus of PA 402 , just east of the junction with PA 507 .
= = History = =
PA 402 was assigned by the Pennsylvania Department of Highways in the 1928 renumbering of state highways in the commonwealth of Pennsylvania . The route at the time of designation , was assigned from US 611 at the Brodhead Creek north of Delaware Water Gap to US 6 in Palmyra Township , just outside the village of Friendly Acres , crossing US 209 in the village of Marshalls Creek . At this time , the entire length of the route was unpaved . However , the route , not up to state standards , was completely under construction to meet said standards , with the portion between Marshalls Creek and Snowhill Road at Twelvemile Pond being completed in 1931 . The following year , 1932 , the portion between Twelvemile Pond and US 6 was completed . The section between Delaware Water Gap and Marshalls Creek was completed in the 1930s . By this time , the southern terminus was at PA 612 after that route swapped alignments with US 611 . PA 402 was extended south along Paper Mill Road to end at US 611 ( now PA 611 ) in Delaware Water Gap in the 1940s after the PA 612 designation was decommissioned . By 1961 , PA 402 was realigned to use River Road between an interchange with I @-@ 80 and US 611 in Delaware Water Gap and north of the Brodhead Creek . In the 1960s , the southern terminus of PA 402 was cut back to US 209 in Marshalls Creek , with the section between Minisink Hills and Marshalls Creek becoming a realigned US 209 while the former alignment south of there is now unnumbered River Road and Gap View Drive .
= = = Marshalls Creek Bypass = = =
A bypass of the southern terminus of PA 402 was proposed in 1991 to deter traffic off the congested intersection with US 209 and US 209 Bus. in the village of Marshalls Creek . The same year , the Pennsylvania Department of Transportation ( PennDOT ) got involved in the feasibility study , and preliminary engineering work was finished in 1995 . The project , notorious for delays , first hit a barrier in 1997 , when a pair of species of endangered fish ( Bridle shiners and Iron @-@ colored shiners ) were found in Marshalls Creek . In 2000 , after a Final Environmental Impact Statement had been completed , the route was approved by the Federal Highway Administration . In 2004 , a delay was created again , when pyrite was found in the area , which led to engineers finding a way to not harm the fish in Marshalls Creek .
By that point , the project had been delayed to opening in 2008 , 17 years after the proposal had been developed . Construction began on the new bypass of Marshalls Creek in 2005 , with Phase I of the project , which wrapped up in 2007 under the eye of J.D. Eckman Inc . , an Atglen @-@ based contractor . The original bypass plan had PA 402 being realigned at the junction with Oak Grove Drive , onto a new alignment that would have crossed over the Marshalls Creek and terminated at an interchange with US 209 at the northern end of the bypass . In 2008 , officials at PennDOT thought about a smaller bypass proposal , which would connect US 209 and US 209 Bus. and not cross Pond Creek .
At the same time , work was suspended in April for rising costs of the new bypass . Instead of costing $ 68 million ( 2008 USD ) , the cost of the new bypass had inflated to $ 200 million and the future of the project came into question . This upset local residents , who sold their land for the construction of the 3 @.@ 5 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 5 @.@ 6 km ) bypass , which was partially constructed for PA 402 . Locals , some of whom who had been in the area for decades , started comparing the bypass shutdown as another version of the Tocks Island Dam project from 1956 – 1992 , which led to numerous demonstrations to protect the Delaware River . At this point , PennDOT had to scale down the project and had no intent of the new PA 402 alignment to an interchange being finished , after grading and paving for the new alignment had already been started on the new alignment .
The Marshalls Creek Bypass was redesigned as a new project with a new park and ride at the Pocono Bazaar to the northeast of Marshalls Creek with an extended Oak Grove Drive , which would run around the back of the Bazaar and come to a new intersection with US 209 and a new bypass of the village of Marshalls Creek of US 209 only . Construction on the park and ride began in 2009 , marking the beginning of the third and final phase of the project . Construction on the US 209 bypass was slated for Spring 2010 , with a 2 @.@ 5 year span of completion at the cost of $ 20 million ( 2009 USD ) . The bypass opened on June 11 , 2012 , and PA 402 's southern terminus became US 209 Bus. as US 209 was rerouted onto the new bypass .
= = Major intersections = =
= = PA 402 Truck = =
Pennsylvania Route 402 Truck is a truck route around a weight @-@ restricted bridge over the Shohola Creek on which trucks over 34 tons and combination loads over 40 tons are prohibited .
The northbound route begins at the interchange of PA 402 and I @-@ 84 ( exit 30 on I @-@ 84 ) . It follows the exit ramp to I @-@ 84 east towards Hawley . I @-@ 84 interchanges PA 739 in Hawley as Truck PA 402 exits the I @-@ 84 . It follows PA 739 to Lords Valley , where it terminates PA 434 . Truck PA 402 north heads to US 6 , where PA 739 is terminated . Truck PA 402 north concurs with US 6 west . It terminates at the intersection of PA 402 and US 6 . The southbound truck route begins at the intersection of PA 402 and US 6 . It follows US 6 east to the intersection of US 6 and PA 739 . At Lords Valley , it terminates PA 434 . At Hawley it enters onto I @-@ 84 west . It ends at exit 30 back at PA 402 . The route was signed in 2013 .
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= The Fine Young Capitalists =
The Fine Young Capitalists ( commonly abbreviated as TFYC ) is a self @-@ described radical feminist group founded by Matthew Rappard set up to organize production initiatives for underrepresented labor in the media industry . Their first project was to facilitate the development of a video game by throwing a women @-@ only game design contest , whereby five nominees would offer proposals and the winner would see their game developed and released through Steam . The winning entry , Afterlife Empire , was designed and written by Danielle Maiorino , and was released on August 21 , 2015 . The group has also pursued two other projects , including a character design contest named SNless , and a STEM scholarship with funding raised from a pornographic web cam show .
The group became associated with the Gamergate controversy after independent game developer Zoë Quinn criticised the group 's initial design contest . 4chan users began providing significant financial backing for the project and collaborated with TFYC to create promotional videos on female game developers . During the group 's fundraising efforts , TFYC 's Indiegogo account was hacked and the campaign briefly shut down . After 4chan users donated over US $ 5 @,@ 000 to the Indiegogo campaign , they created Vivian James , a character designed to look like an ordinary female gamer .
= = History = =
The Fine Young Capitalists is a radical feminist group founded by Matthew Rappard and based in Toronto . In an interview with APGNation , Rappard said that the mission of the group was to create media with underrepresented labor and demographics for funding non @-@ profit organizations . Rappard noted that the inspiration for the group was the prevalence of underused game ideas due to a lack of interest from business communities , and the financial cost of hiring experienced developers to develop an idea for a video game . The group was also skeptical of education @-@ only projects , opining that these projects could not result in finished video games . The group noted that the lack of interest of game development or programming by women mostly comes from socialization , saying that women were in no way less capable than men in computing fields . The group accepts donations from people of any background .
= = Projects = =
The group 's first project was an initiative to increase the involvement of women in the video games industry , in which anyone who identified as a woman prior to the start of the contest was eligible to submit a proposal for a video game . Five nominees were selected and the nominee who received the most crowd @-@ funding would have their game produced and distributed . The winner would receive eight percent of the profits , with another eight percent going towards future contests , ten percent going to the production company , and the remainder donated to charity .
The winner of the contest was Afterlife Empire , designed and written by Danielle Maiorino , who worked with an all @-@ female team from Bogota , Colombia @-@ based developer Autobótika to create the game . The game was approved through the Greenlight system on the Steam video game service in late April 2015 , allowing it to be included on the Steam storefront . It was originally scheduled to be released on August 14 , 2015 , but was later delayed due to bug concerns . The game was finally released August 21 , 2015 .
Another project pursued by TFYC is SNless , which concerns the representation of minority groups in science fiction . SNless is a contest in which submitters who identify racially as black before August 12 , 2014 propose a black character design . The five winning entries will be reproduced in a graphic novel , which will be published under the Creative Commons Attribution @-@ NonCommercial @-@ ShareAlike 4 @.@ 0 International license .
In collaboration with a charity set up by pornographic actress Mercedes Carrera , TFYC administered a scholarship for people looking to work in the STEM fields . An Indiegogo campaign was set up along with a porn stream dubbed " The View of Sex " to help fund the scholarship . Carrera chose to collaborate with TFYC after a planned charity porn stream with The AbleGamers Foundation failed to pan out . The campaign managed to raise over $ 11 @,@ 000 on Indiegogo with an additional amount of over $ 3 @,@ 000 from the adult web cam show hosted by Carrera , half of the latter being in tips and the other half in matching donations from Webcams.com. Applications for the scholarship ended on March 15 , 2015 , and the winner of the scholarship , Jordan Newton , was announced in April 2015 .
= = Involvement in Gamergate controversy = =
After independent game developer Zoë Quinn learned of the women 's game design contest , she spoke out against TFYC on Twitter , saying that she disliked their stance on transgender people , and thought that the women involved would be working without being paid . The game design contest was also accused of being exploitative towards women and transphobic , which resulted in TFYC receiving harassment and having some of its personal information posted publicly without consent . TFYC made a statement in response reiterating that while the winner would receive a portion of the profits , most would go to charity , and that all rights would remain with the women who submitted proposals . They also clarified that their transgender policy only required submitters to have identified as female prior to the contest as a means to prevent men from lying about their gender identity in order to participate .
Social media attention remained negative and TFYC found itself losing financial support and struggling to gain media coverage due to the criticism , with many major video gaming websites avoiding TFYC . One business partner , who was planning to contribute $ 10 @,@ 000 dollars , left the project , because he did not want the rest of his work to be referred to as transphobic . After a delay to review the inclusiveness of their policies , TFYC decided not to change the wording and opened the project up to submissions on March 28 , 2014 .
After the Gamergate controversy began in August 2014 , the details of TFYC 's earlier dispute with Quinn over the women 's game design contest became one subject of discussion . Users of the site 4chan who were critical of Quinn began providing significant financial backing for the women in video games production project on Indiegogo . During the group 's fundraising efforts , TFYC 's Indiegogo account was hacked and the campaign was briefly shut down . Media suggested the hacking incident could have been retaliation from critics of TFYC for alleged hacking incidents targeting Quinn and her supporters .
After some 4chan users told TFYC that they wanted the group 's promotional videos to talk about female game developers , TFYC released a video on Roberta Williams and her influential role in the early gaming industry . Later , TFYC also released videos on Corrinne Yu and Anna Kipnis .
After 4chan users donated over US $ 5 @,@ 000 to the Indiegogo campaign , they were allowed to create a character who would appear in the winning game . The character created by 4chan , named Vivian James ( meant to sound similar to " video games " ) was designed to appear like an ordinary female gamer . The donations did not stop after the creation of Vivian , amassing over US $ 23 @,@ 000 total in funds for the group . Erik Kain of Forbes described Vivian as an “ every @-@ girl of sorts , and maybe not what you ’ d expect from 4chan " . Vivian James met some criticism , mainly for the character 's association with 4chan . Allegra Ringo of Vice called Vivian James " a character masquerading as a feminist icon for the express purpose of spiting feminists " . Allum Bokhari of TechCrunch , in turn , described her as " an entirely ordinary , non @-@ idealized female role model " . The 15 @-@ second opening cinematic of Afterlife Empire featured a still image of the Vivian James character and a shoutout to GamerGate .
TFYC later lowered the monetary requirement for donors to create a character to US $ 2 @,@ 000 , and announced that Reddit was also eligible to create a character . The character inspired by Reddit is named Gilda Mars , but some Reddit users have disputed whether the character is actually what they wanted .
The group 's decision to work with 4chan prompted criticism due to the alleged involvement of 4chan users in harassment of Quinn and feminist video game critic Anita Sarkeesian . TFYC responded to this criticism by stating social justice movements that would not let people take part in a project because they participated at 4chan were , by definition , oppressing them . Users saw a show of support for a feminist cause against Quinn and her supporters as something that could benefit their public image . David Auerbach said " It ’ s a good cause , and doing the right thing for the wrong reason is still doing the right thing . " TFYC responded to criticism of its association with Gamergate and alleged harassment of Quinn by offering to sell Vivian James T @-@ shirts with profits going to iFred , a charity Quinn was supporting . Later , the group was reported to have resolved its disagreement with Quinn , though founder Matthew Rappard later told an interviewer at APGNation that their agreement never went through .
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= 2002 FA Community Shield =
The 2002 FA Community Shield was the 80th FA Community Shield , an annual English football match played between the winners of the previous season 's Premier League and FA Cup . It was the first to be contested following the renaming of the competition , formerly titled the FA Charity Shield . The match was contested by Arsenal , who won a league and FA Cup double the previous season , and Liverpool , who finished runners @-@ up in the league . It was held at Cardiff 's Millennium Stadium , on 11 August 2002 . Arsenal won the match by one goal to nil , watched by a crowd of 67 @,@ 337 .
This was Arsenal 's 16th Shield appearance and Liverpool 's 20th . Arsenal was without several of their first choice players in midfield , who were absent through injury ; this prompted a shuffle in the team which saw striker Sylvain Wiltord positioned on the left wing . For Liverpool , defender Markus Babbel was named as a substitute ater a lengthy period out of the side through illness . New signing El Hadji Diouf started in a creative role , behind strikers Michael Owen and Emile Heskey to begin with .
The only goal of the match came in the second half ; Arsenal substitute Gilberto Silva on his debut collected a pass from Dennis Bergkamp and struck the ball through goalkeeper Jerzy Dudek 's legs . Arsenal manager Arsène Wenger praised the match @-@ winner in his post @-@ match interview , while opposing manager Gérard Houllier felt the result showed that his team needed more game time and attention to passing , in order to improve . The result meant Arsenal was the first team to win the Shield outright 11 times , while it marked Liverpool 's first defeat at the Millennium Stadium .
= = Background = =
Founded in 1908 as a successor to the Sheriff of London Charity Shield , the FA Charity Shield began as a contest between the respective champions of the Football League and Southern League , although in 1913 , it was played between an Amateurs XI and a Professionals XI . In 1921 , it was played by the league champions of the top division and FA Cup winners for the first time . Wembley Stadium acted as the host of the Shield from 1974 . Cardiff 's Millennium Stadium was hosting the Shield for the second time ; it took over as the venue for the event while Wembley Stadium underwent a six @-@ year renovation between 2001 and 2006 .
In February 2002 , the trophy was renamed the FA Community Shield . The then @-@ FA marketing director Paul Barber noted this was in order to reward the work of those contributing to the game , who go unnoticed : " The most important thing is that the many good causes that have benefited from the shield in the past will continue to benefit from the Community Shield in the future . " The FA also intended to prevent any interference made by the Charity Commission into where money raised by the game should go . In April 2002 , McDonald 's was announced as the main sponsor of the Community Shield , in a four @-@ year , £ 28 million pound contract . The deal included the company making an " invest [ ment ] in 8 @,@ 000 new community @-@ based coaches for young players " .
Arsenal qualified for the 2002 FA Community Shield as the holders of the FA Cup , beating Chelsea 2 – 0 in the 2002 FA Cup Final . The team later won the 2001 – 02 FA Premier League and completed the domestic double . The other Community Shield place went to league runners @-@ up Liverpool , who secured second place on the final day of the season . The game marked Arsenal 's 16th Charity Shield appearance and first since 1999 , where they beat Manchester United by two goals to one . By contrast this was Liverpool 's 20th , who incidentally played United and won by exactly the same scoreline to become holders of the trophy . The last meeting between the two teams was in the FA Cup ; a goal by Dennis Bergkamp ensured Arsenal progressed into the fifth round of the competition .
= = Pre @-@ match = =
In spite of the game 's traditional friendly feel , Liverpool manager Gérard Houllier highlighted in pre @-@ match press conference the importance of winning the Shield : " It is very important to me . This match is more than a friendly . It represents the start of the season . The Community Shield is like a final . There is a trophy at stake and we are the holders . " Arsène Wenger wanted to use the match as " the final preparation game for the championship " and commented that Liverpool , amongst four other teams ( Manchester United , Newcastle United , Chelsea and Leeds United ) would challenge Arsenal in the league .
= = Match = =
Arsenal was without injured trio Robert Pirès , Freddie Ljungberg and Giovanni van Bronckhorst and lined up in their traditional 4 – 4 – 2 formation ; striker Sylvain Wiltord was accommodated to the left wing , with Bergkamp playing off main striker Thierry Henry . After a lengthy illness , Liverpool defender Markus Babbel returned to the squad and was named as a substitute . Houllier deployed a 4 – 3 – 1 – 2 formation with Steven Gerrard , John Arne Riise and Dietmar Hamann as a midfield three and new signing , El Hadji Diouf positioned in a free role to begin with and as the game went on , moved to the right wing to stretch Arsenal 's defence .
= = = Summary = = =
Arsenal won the toss and kicked off . Within the first three minutes they fashioned their first opening : Wiltord found space outside the Liverpool box , yet failed to give the ball to Henry , as the through ball was cleared . Gerrard was booked for a tackle on Vieira in the sixth minute , which left the Frenchman seeking medical attention and moments after , he caught Henry late with a similar lunge ; Gerrard was given the benefit of the doubt by the referee . Bergkamp volleyed the ball " from close range " which was blocked by defender Abel Xavier and two of his efforts were saved in quick succession by Jerzy Dudek after the 20 @-@ minute mark . Liverpool managed their first shot on target before the half @-@ hour : a shot from Emile Heskey which hit goalkeeper David Seaman 's chest . After a quiet period towards the end of the first half , Ray Parlour went close to giving Arsenal the lead , through a long @-@ range shot that missed the post by fractions . A move from Arsenal soon after concluded with Wiltord firing the ball straight at Dudek , having been under pressure by Djimi Traoré .
Midfielder Gilberto Silva made his debut in the second half , coming on in place of fellow Brazilian Edu . In the 47th minute , Henry went close to scoring his first goal at the Millennium Stadium ; he collected a pass from Bergkamp and used his pace to get past the Liverpool defence . His shot caught Dudek and rebounded off the post . Henry created further chances in the 51st and 54th minutes , forcing more saves from the Liverpool goalkeeper . Owen was unable to reach the ball from a corner and Liverpool continued to pressure Arsenal , with Gerrard regaining control of the midfield and making a substitution which saw Danny Murphy come on for Hamann . In spite of this , it was Arsenal who scored the opening goal , in the 68th minute . A move by Liverpool , which had broken down , allowed Gilberto to pass the ball out to Ashley Cole , who in turn fed Bergkamp . His cut @-@ back met the Brazilian 's left foot " with a shot that squeezed through Dudek 's legs . " Diouf went down in the penalty box four minutes after , which provoked a reaction by Vieira , who believed he had dived . Both managers made numerous changes in the final 15 minutes , which included Milan Baroš replacing Heskey and midfielder Kolo Touré on for Bergkamp . The final notable chance went to Liverpool a minute before additional time : Sol Campbell was caught out of position in Arsenal 's half , but Diouf 's shot went over the goal bar .
= = = Details = = =
= = = Statistics = = =
= = Post @-@ match = =
The result marked the first time that Liverpool had lost at the Millennium Stadium . Wenger used his post @-@ match news interview to praise goalscorer Gilberto Silva and asserted that the Brazilian would be a " very strong player " for the team , in the incoming future . He noted that Dudek had " kept [ Liverpool ] in the game for a long time " and was critical of Gerrard , who he felt was fortunate not to have been sent off for a " reckless and dangerous " challenge on Vieira . Wenger believed Arsenal 's experience put the team in good stead for the upcoming season : " There are two attitudes to being champions . One is to get respect , another is to get kicked more and to face more aggression as people want to beat you more . We are quite used to that though as we have had some big fights in the past four or five years . "
Houllier argued that his team paid Arsenal " too much respect " in the match and blamed his full @-@ backs Xavier and Traoré for not providing width , adding : " We need to have more flow in our game , more safety in our passing construction " . Gerrard was unrepentant for tackling Vieira and stated he was trying to " stamp [ his ] authority " on the match . He accepted defeat and was optimistic Liverpool had the means to win the Premier League : " We 'd rather they beat us in this game and then we go on to pick up the title . That 's what we 're really looking at . Even though they got the better of us yesterday , it doesn 't mean they 'll do better than us over the whole season . " Diouf insisted he should have earned a penalty in the second half , given he felt there was " definite contact " from a challenge in the penalty box : " It was a penalty , definitely , but the referee is the master on the pitch and he didn 't give it . I know the Arsenal players think I dived , but I didn 't . "
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= Shin Megami Tensei IV =
Shin Megami Tensei IV ( Japanese : 真 ・ 女神転生IV , literally " True Goddess Reincarnation IV " ) is a Japanese post @-@ apocalyptic role @-@ playing video game developed by Atlus for the Nintendo 3DS . It is the fifth entry in the Shin Megami Tensei series , the central series of the Megami Tensei franchise , though no direct story connection exists to previous entries . It was released in May and July 2013 for Japan and North America respectively . It was released digitally in Europe in October 2014 . The gameplay is reminiscent of previous Shin Megami Tensei games , carrying over the turn @-@ based Press Turn battle system , where players and enemies fight and exploit weaknesses , allowing either side to gain additional turns or lose them .
The story focuses on Flynn , a Samurai who protects the medieval Kingdom of Mikado from attacks by hostile demons . When a mysterious Black Samurai begins transforming the population into demons , Flynn and three companions are sent to capture her . The pursuit of the Black Samurai drags Flynn and his comrades into a startling revelation and a power struggle between angelic and demonic forces .
Development began after the completion of Shin Megami Tensei : Strange Journey , with the team deciding to make a fourth numbered entry in the series based on fan requests . The team intended to evoke the style and feeling of the original Shin Megami Tensei . The original story was written by series designer Kazuma Kaneko . The main characters and some demons were designed by Masayuki Doi , previously known for his work on the Trauma Center series . It debuted to strong sales in Japan and was one of the better @-@ selling games of the year . Reception of the game has been generally positive in both Japan and the west .
= = Gameplay = =
Shin Megami Tensei IV puts the player in control of the samurai Flynn . Navigation takes place both in the third @-@ person perspective with 3D @-@ rendered environments and a 2D overhead overworld map . On the overworld map , icons represent the player party and enemy demons . Battles take place from a first @-@ person perspective , with the enemy visible on the upper screen and party status and commands on the lower screen . As with other role @-@ playing video games , the character grows stronger and advances by completing quests ; they also earn macca , an in @-@ game currency to buy items and equipment . Some quests relate to the main story and are mandatory , while other quests are optional . Should the player be defeated , they can return to the game by spending macca ( the in @-@ game currency ) . Nintendo Play Coins can be used in place of macca . Repeatedly dying unlocks an easy mode : in this mode , the player can flee from battle if they choose .
Enemies wander the environments Flynn explores . A battle starts when Flynn strikes an enemy ( granting the player an advantage ) , an enemy runs into Flynn from the side or behind ( granting the advantage to the enemy ) , or when they run into each other head @-@ on . In battle , the player controls Flynn and three demons , with one AI @-@ controlled human support character . During battle , both player and enemy actions are governed by the turn @-@ based Press Turn System , a battle system carried over from previous entries in the Shin Megami Tensei series . The system revolves around exploiting physical or elemental weaknesses : if a character strikes another character 's weak point or deals a critical hit , the party gains an extra turn , while if the attack is absorbed or blocked , they lose their turn . If a character strikes a weakness or gets a critical hit , there is a chance they will enter " Smirk " status : Smirking temporarily increases a character 's damage , eliminates their elemental weaknesses , and gives them a high probability of dodging attacks .
Other systems continuing from previous entries in the series are Demon Recruitment and Demon Fusion . To recruit demons , the player talks with a demon instead of fighting them , and must negotiate for their services : these negotiations can involve flattery , bribery , or threats . Up to 400 demons are available for recruitment . Demon Fusions allow the player to take two demons and fuse them into a new form , granting new abilities . During fusion , players can choose which skills are retained and which are discarded . The demon 's fusion history is recorded for players to look over during the later stages of the game . Negotiation and Fusions also grant experience points for the player . Some demons change forms on their own without needing fusion ; instead , they must be leveled up with experience in battle . As Flynn levels up , new fusions become available . Tamed demons teach new skills to Flynn . Using the Nintendo 3DS ' StreetPass system , players can trade demons .
= = Plot = =
= = = Setting and characters = = =
Shin Megami Tensei IV takes place in a world separate from the rest of the Shin Megami Tensei games , even though recurring demons and abilities are present . The two main locations are the Eastern Kingdom of Mikado , a feudal society inspired by Medieval Europe which is secretly controlled by angels ; and Tokyo , a modern @-@ era city enclosed in a rock dome and overrun by demons . Prior to the game 's events , when Tokyo became a demon stronghold and was threatened with destruction by angels , a member of Tokyo 's Counter @-@ Demon Force tamed the demon Masakado ( マサカド ) , fusing with him to create the protective dome over Tokyo . Mikado is built on the dome 's surface . After the dome is created , only twenty years pass in Tokyo while over a thousand years pass in the Kingdom of Mikado . Remnants of Tokyo 's technology , studied by the Mikado church as " mystic relics " , remain scattered throughout the land .
Players control a Samurai who is the reincarnation of Tokyo 's savior . His default name is Flynn ( フリン , Furin ) : as with previous Megami Tensei player characters , he is a silent protagonist , with his actions and attitudes determined by the player . Three other characters accompany Flynn on his journey , representing the game 's three main moral alignments . They are Jonathan ( ヨナタン , Yonatan ) , representing Law ; Walter ( ワルター , Warutā ) , representing Chaos ; and Isabeau ( イザボー , Izabō ) , representing Neutrality . Other important characters include Burroughs ( バロウズ , Barouzu ) , Flynn 's AI assistant ; Lilith ( リリス , Ririsu ) , a powerful demon from Tokyo ; and Issachar ( イサカル , Isakaru ) , a former childhood friend of Flynn 's .
= = = Story = = =
Shin Megami Tensei IV begins with Flynn and his friend Issachar traveling to Mikado Castle to undergo a test as to whether they are worthy of becoming Samurai , the guardians of Mikado who both confront and control demons . Issachar fails , yet Flynn succeeds and is promptly initiated along with other candidates , including Walter , Jonathan and Isabeau . The new Samurai prentices receive electronic gauntlets containing A.I.s : Flynn 's A.I. , Burroughs , supports him throughout the game with advice . Shortly after their initiation , unrest rises in the countryside as a figure calling herself the " Black Samurai " distributes cursed books written to spread " knowledge and wisdom " ; some residents of Mikado , including Issachar , are turned into demons after reading the books at gatherings called " Sabbaths " . The Samurai are sent to confront the resulting demons and the Black Samurai . After restoring order to Mikado and killing Issachar , the Samurai are told to pursue her to the legendary land that lies beneath Mikado , Tokyo . The Samurai climb down a tunnel which leads to the top of a skyscraper ; they discover Tokyo is a city covered by a rock dome which has enclosed it in eternal night , while Mikado lays upon the surface of the dome .
The party explores Tokyo searching for the Black Samurai , confronting a variety of foes : the demons which infest Tokyo ; the Ashura @-@ kai , a yakuza organization who rule the city and provide a semblance of order ; and the Ring of Gaea , a cult dedicated to its leader Yuriko . The party discovers that the Black Samurai was Yuriko , a demon whose true name is Lilith , and that she sought to bring chaos to the Eastern Kingdom of Mikado and undermine its ordered , stagnant structure . The party also rescues three mysterious masked men from Tokyo on the orders of Sister Gabby , a member of Mikado 's church . Walter is convinced by Yuriko that the Ashura @-@ kai should be defeated and more demons unleashed on Tokyo , while Jonathan is convinced by Gabby that Lilith must be slain . Flynn can support either Walter or Jonathan , but regardless of his choice , both are successful : both Lilith 's Ring of Gaea and the Ashura @-@ kai are defeated , and demons are released into Tokyo via the Yamato reactor , an energy source connecting parallel dimensions . Flynn , Jonathan , and Walter explore two different timelines of Tokyo : one where law dominates , and another where chaos reigns supreme . In both of them , Flynn 's previous incarnation was slain .
After viewing the alternate worlds , a score based on Flynn 's moral choices throughout the game decides whether the player is on the Law path , Chaos path , or Neutral path . Additionally , the player always has the option to destroy the world at the behest of The White , personifications of human despair who believe that the only escape from the eternal war between God and demons is oblivion . Jonathan will ally with the " new leaders " of Mikado , the four archangels Gabriel , Uriel , Raphael and Michael - Sister Gabby and the three imprisoned figures the Samurai rescued . They merge into Merkabah , God 's chariot . Walter will ally and merge with Lucifer , the most powerful demon ; they seek to destroy Mikado . Should Flynn side with Law , he and Merkabah defeat Lucifer . In order to prevent further corruption of the people of Mikado , they destroy Tokyo , killing themselves in the process . If Flynn sides with Chaos , he and Lucifer defeat Merkabah . After destroying Mikado , the two begin a new war against God . In both Law and Chaos routes , Isabeau returns to stop Flynn on behalf of humanity , but after he defeats her , she commits suicide . In the Neutral route , Flynn and Isabeau join forces against Merkabah and Lucifer , enlisting Masakado 's help against them . After Merkabah 's defeat , Isabeau evacuates Mikado 's population to Tokyo . After Flynn defeats Lucifer , Masakado uses his power to destroy the enclosing dome , which destroys Mikado and restores daylight to Tokyo .
= = Development = =
Development of Shin Megami Tensei IV began around August 2009 , after development had finished on Shin Megami Tensei : Strange Journey for the Nintendo DS , and lasted for three years and a half . After listening to fan demand , Atlus decided to make a fourth numbered entry in the Shin Megami Tensei subseries , something not seen in Japan since the release of Shin Megami Tensei III : Nocturne in 2003 . The reason for the ten @-@ year gap between III and IV was that the company had made other successful titles , and had not had the time to develop Shin Megami Tensei IV as well . It was planned from an early stage for Shin Megami Tensei IV to be on a portable platform for reasons of player convenience ; it was originally planned to be developed for the Nintendo DS using the Strange Journey engine , but eventually development was moved to the Nintendo 3DS , which led to the decision to use a different engine . The development team , which was dubbed Team Maniacs , included both staff who had worked on previous Shin Megami Tensei titles and newer staff who had not . There were differences in thinking between the two , which led to conflicts . As an example of this , game director Kazuyuki Yamai said that some of the staff would be used to contemporary games featuring " sweet " female characters who " say nice things " , and as a result would want to add that " sweetness " to Shin Megami Tensei IV ; meanwhile , Yamai saw the series as having " bitter " content , and thought that it would not be possible to add " sweetness " to it . Additionally , the staff members had differing images of the meaning of Shin Megami Tensei ; Yamai thought that the good points of each staff member 's interpretation should go into the aspects of the game they were in charge of , while not deviating from the " bitterness " .
The concept of the game was inspired by the punk feeling the original Shin Megami Tensei was emulating when it released . Kazuma Kaneko , a character designer and scenario writer for the series , came up with the original scenario . He came up with the original concept for the medieval Mikado and modern @-@ day Tokyo : the main reason for this was to present a contrast of values between the demon @-@ hunting inhabitants of Mikado and the people of Tokyo , who live under the demons ' control . While constructing the setting of the game , the development team referenced history books to learn about medieval customs and armor . The demons appearing in the game were chosen based on what bosses would be appearing in the scenario ; they also included some demons that they thought would grab players ' attention , and some based on their popularity . While Strange Journey 's dungeon traversal had been designed to be " old @-@ school Megami Tensei " , Shin Megami Tensei IV 's was designed to be similar to that of Nocturne . The Press Turn battle system , first introduced in Nocturne , was given an overhaul . The gameplay difficulty was designed to be adjustable to tempt new players to try out the Shin Megami Tensei series , which had gained a reputation for having a high difficulty . Also for the benefit of newer players was a " recommended fusion " feature ; it was implemented after seeing that a lot of players who were new to the series would not fuse their demons . The story and gameplay were designed to try and change the opinion of the Japanese player base that " social games " were good enough , and to appeal to an older generation of players .
Eiji Ishida , who worked on Nocturne and Strange Journey , acted as the game 's art director . Masayuki Doi designed the main characters . Doi had worked on the series before as an environment designer for Nocturne , but this was his first time as a character designer for the series . He was brought on due to his work on the Trauma Center series . The main characters were designed around certain archetypes : Jonathan and Walter was designed to represent law and chaos respectively , while Isabeau represents neutrality . Burroughs ( an evolution of the AI companion from Strange Journey ) , Isabeau and other female characters were also designed to be strong @-@ willed and have a strong physique , being based on " strong female archetypes " . The protagonist 's clothing was created to be fairly bland , emphasizing the player 's control over his actions and portrayal . Their outfits were designed to both represent the Kingdom of Mikado and elements of traditional Japanese clothing . The final design included a combination of eastern and western clothing elements . Their battle stances and the handles of their katanas were inspired by the Jedi of the Star Wars franchise . His design work was inspired by earlier designs by Kaneko . Doi also designed the accessories and equipment for the main protagonist and clothing for half the non @-@ playing characters . The demon designs were handled by multiple designers , including Doi , Keita Amemiya , Yoshihiro Nishimura and Kyouma Aki ; as Yamai liked Super Sentai and Kamen Rider , and aimed to have some demons matching Kaneko 's designs and some inspired by the Ultraman series , several of the chosen demon designers were tokusatsu artists . The artists were sent materials so they would understand the mythological backgrounds of the demons , but were otherwise free in designing the demons according to their own interpretations .
= = = Music = = =
The music to Shin Megami Tensei IV was composed and arranged primarily by Ryota Koduka , with additional compositions by Kenichi Tsuchiya and Toshiki Konishi . Their work began late in the development period and lasted roughly a year . They originally set a limit on the number of tracks at Yamai 's request , but as the work progressed , the number of tracks ballooned . Motifs from earlier Shin Megami Tensei games were also incorporated to add an air of familiarity for fans of the series . A four @-@ CD soundtrack was released in Japan on February 26 , 2014 by Mastard Records under the catalog number LNCM @-@ 1043 ～ 6 . It reached # 64 in the Oricon charts and remained on the charts for two weeks .
= = Reception = =
In its first week of release in Japan , the game topped the weekly chart with sales of 188 @,@ 562 copies , overtaking PlayStation 3 exclusive Kamen Rider : Battride War ( 2nd ) and the PS3 port of Resident Evil : Revelations . In a later assessment , this was cited as Atlus ' second best @-@ selling title in recent history , just 4000 units behind the debut sales of Persona 4 in 2008 . By the end of 2013 , the game had sold 251 @,@ 334 copies in Japan , and was the country 's 30th best @-@ selling video game of the year . By January 2014 , the game had sold 90 @,@ 000 copies in the United States since its release in July . By July 2015 , over 600 @,@ 000 copies had been sold worldwide .
The title has received positive reviews in both Japan and the west . Aggregate site Metacritic gave it a ranking of 83 / 100 based on 32 critic reviews . The battle system received universal praise : Famitsu , IGN , GameSpot , Eurogamer , Joystiq , Destructoid and Game Informer all cited the battle system as highly enjoyable despite difficulty spikes and praised the game making allowances for newcomers . The negotiation and fusions systems were also praised , with several reviewers noting it as both entertaining and an improvement on previous versions . A gameplay aspect that received criticism was navigation via the over world map , which was called either difficult to follow or poorly designed .
The story and characters had a mixed reception : while Destructoid was generally positive , other reviews such as Eurogamer and Game Informer felt that the characters were only there to represent the player 's moral pathways . IGN , Joystiq , and GameSpot were fairly negative about them , calling them either irritating or forgettable . The graphics , while praised by some reviewers , were sometimes seen as either " bland " or " of low @-@ quality . "
= = Sequel = =
Shin Megami Tensei IV : Apocalypse , a game set in the world of Shin Megami Tensei IV , was released in Japan on February 10 , 2016 for the Nintendo 3DS . It will also be released in North America sometime in 2016 .
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= Josef Philipp Vukassovich =
Baron Josef Philipp Vukassovich ( Croatian : Barun Josip Filip Vukasović ; 1755 – 9 August 1809 ) was a Croatian soldier who joined the army of Habsburg Monarchy and fought against both Ottoman Empire and the First French Republic . During the French Revolutionary Wars , he commanded a brigade in the 1796 – 1797 Italian campaign against Napoleon Bonaparte . He led a division during the Napoleonic Wars and received a fatal wound in action .
While serving in the Grenz infantry from the Croatian Military Frontier , Vukassovich received a coveted military award for notable actions in battle against the Ottomans . Still leading his Grenzers , he fought against the French in Italy . While still a colonel , he was entrusted with the command of an infantry brigade in early 1796 . Finally appointed a general officer , he participated in nearly every battle in Italy that year , including all four Austrian attempts to raise the Siege of Mantua . In 1799 , he led troops in Italy against the French with success . The following year saw him leading troops against Bonaparte again .
Appointed to lead a division in Italy in 1805 , Vukassovich was soon sacked for failing to halt a French attack . The year 1809 found him leading a division in the invasion of Bavaria . He fought capably in several actions near Regensburg in April . He was mortally wounded at the Battle of Wagram in July while leading his troops . Among Austrian generals , he demonstrated above @-@ average initiative and skill , particularly in 1796 and 1809 . He was Proprietor ( Inhaber ) of an Austrian infantry regiment .
= = Early career = =
Vukassovich was born in 1755 . Sources place his birthplace either in Senj or in Sveti Petar , present day village of Bruvno near Gračac . His father was major Petar Vukasović who commanded the fourth Grenz infantry company of the Croatian Military Frontier , headquartered in Sveti Petar . His mother Ana , née Bašić , was also of a Grenz infantry officer family . His birthplace which is in today 's Croatia , was initially a nominal part of Kingdom of Croatia within Habsburg Monarchy , but later fully transferred under direct imperial rule as part of the larger Military Frontier . Croatian Military Frontier was placed under the unified control of the Croatian General Command in 1783 .
Graduating in 1771 from the Theresian Military Academy located in the castle of Wiener Neustadt , he joined his home Liccaner ( Gospić ) Grenz regiment in 1775 . When promoted to Oberleutnant ( first lieutenant ) in 1780 , Vukassovich served in Montenegro .
The Austrians planned to start an uprising from within Montenegro , to liberate the Balkans , and Vukassovich and Ludvig Pernet were part of the delegation that were to win over the Montenegrin chiefs .
By 1787 , he had risen in rank to Hauptmann ( captain ) in the Liccaner ( Gospić ) Grenz Infantry Regiment # 1 . During the Austro @-@ Turkish War ( 1787 @-@ 1791 ) , he fought with distinction , earning the Military Order of Maria Theresa on 15 November 1788 . He was named to the nobility as a Freiherr in December 1788 . In 1789 he raised a freikorps , which soon reached a strength of 3 @,@ 000 men in 12 companies of infantry and 4 squadrons of hussars . During the Austro @-@ Turkish War , Vukassovich served as freikorps ' acting commander with the rank of Major , and was then promoted to Oberstleutnant ( lieutenant colonel ) .
Vukassovich married Johanna Pulcheria Malfatti von Kriegsfeld . She was 24 years younger and outlived him by many years , dying in 1854 . He had four children , sons Josip and Filip and daughters Marija and Ana .
= = French Revolutionary Wars = =
= = = First Coalition = = =
Vukassovich fought in Italy during the War of the First Coalition , being promoted to Oberst in 1794 . At the Battle of Loano in November 1795 , he and his troops conducted a stout defense in a monastery . During the Montenotte Campaign in April 1796 , he commanded a brigade in Johann Beaulieu 's Austrian army . He led the Austrian vanguard across the Turchino Pass on 10 April to attack Jean @-@ Baptiste Cervoni 's brigade near Genoa .
On 12 April , Bonaparte defeated Eugène @-@ Guillaume Argenteau 's Austrian force at the Battle of Montenotte . The next day , Beaulieu directed Vukassovich to take his brigade to Sassello to establish contact with Argenteau 's right wing , but due to a poorly written order , he started a day late and missed the 14 November fighting in the Second Battle of Dego . The next day , he marched his 3 @,@ 500 @-@ man brigade from Sassello to Dego . By good fortune , Vukassovich caught a brigade of André Masséna 's troops plundering the town and routed them . By the time Bonaparte and Masséna appeared with heavy reinforcements , " Wukassovitch intelligently seized the opportunity offered by this success and promptly put the village into a state of defense . " He only withdrew from the town after giving the French a tough fight .
Appointed Generalmajor ( brigadier general ) on 2 May 1796 , Vukassovich soon fought in the Battle of Lodi on 10 May . At Lodi , he led a rear guard consisting of two battalions of the Carlstädter Grenz Infantry Regiment . After the Grenzers fell back to the east end of the bridge , they were employed in the first line of defense . Subjected to continual cannon fire and a frontal attack by skirmishers and a column of elite troops , the Austrians were defeated . Such was his notoriety that the French falsely claimed to have killed him during the fighting . He commanded a 2 @,@ 400 @-@ man brigade at the Battle of Borghetto on 30 May and during the Siege of Mantua . When the siege was lifted on 1 August , he led 2 @,@ 000 men from the garrison to reinforce the main army before the Battle of Castiglione . During the second attempt to relieve the Siege of Mantua , he joined Paul Davidovich 's Tyrol Corps . He was badly injured in a fall the night before the Battle of Rovereto , which occurred on 4 September . Nevertheless , he led his brigade during the day 's fighting . His troops bravely tried to stop Masséna 's advance , but they were finally routed by superior numbers .
During the third attempt to relieve Mantua , Vukassovich participated in the Tyrol Corps ' victories at Cembra on 2 November and the Battle of Calliano on 6 – 7 November . On the 17th , his troops battled their way out of the Adige River gorge to link up with Joseph Ocskay von Ocsko 's column on the heights . Together they routed the French at Rivoli Veronese . After Bonaparte won the Battle of Arcole , the French army commander drove the Tyrol Corps back to Trento . During the fourth attempt to relieve Mantua , Jozsef Alvinczi directed Vukassovich to lead his 6th Column down the east bank of the Adige River . His artillery supported the attack of Prince Heinrich XV of Reuss @-@ Plauen on the west bank of the river , but he exerted little other influence on the disastrous result of the Battle of Rivoli because his troops were on the wrong side of the river .
= = = Second Coalition = = =
Vukassovich served in Italy during the War of the Second Coalition . As the French were driven back by Austrians and Alexander Suvorov , Pyotr Bagration captured Brescia in a decisive move on 21 April 1799 . Loss of Brescia compelled general Schérer to further retreat . The general , commanding the French forces , was replaced by Moreau , and new defensive positions were taken along the Adda River . Vukassovich surprised the French crossing the river at Brivio , while general Ott managed a crossing at Trezzo . On 28 April 1799 , Vukassovich trapped Jean Sérurier and 3 @,@ 000 French troops at Verderio . After a " sharp fight " Sérurier and his 2 @,@ 700 surviving soldiers laid down their arms . Vukassovich then led the army 's advance guard in the capture of numerous towns in northwest Italy . In July 1799 , he became the proprietor of the newly formed ( in 1798 ) Vukassovich Infantry Regiment # 48 . The similarly numbered Schmidfeld Regiment had been disbanded in 1795 . He would remain the regiment 's proprietor until his death .
Promoted to Feldmarschall @-@ Leutnant ( lieutenant general ) in October 1799 , Vukassovich took part in the 1800 Italian campaign . When Bonaparte invaded Italy via the Great Saint Bernard Pass , he commanded a division farther east in the area of Lake Maggiore and Lake Como . On 25 May , a cavalry patrol of Vukassovich 's scouts briefly captured Bonaparte before themselves becoming prisoners when the French general 's escort appeared . The sudden French offensive drove Vukassovich 's outnumbered troops out of Milan . Pursued by Guillaume Duhesme 's French corps , he retreated to Brescia and Cremona with his remaining 4 @,@ 000 men , missing the Battle of Marengo .
= = Napoleonic Wars = =
= = = 1805 = = =
During the War of the Third Coalition , Vukassovich led a division in Archduke Charles ' Army of Italy . His division consisted of 14 line and Grenz battalions and four squadrons organized into two brigades led by Hannibal Sommariva and Karl Hillinger . Tasked with guarding the east bank of the Adige opposite Verona and maintaining a link with Johann von Hiller 's corps in the Tyrol , he garrisoned the suburb of San Giorgio with two battalions while holding six battalions farther back in the hills . The rest of his troops watched the river farther north .
In the Battle of Verona on 18 October 1805 , André Masséna led the converged light companies of his army supported by two infantry divisions in an assault crossing of the river on Verona 's west side . The French stormed across the Castelvecchio Bridge and quickly captured San Giorgio , but Vukassovich threw more infantry and cavalry into the struggle for the heights , which lasted most of the day . A French diversion at Pescantina occupied his right flank brigade , keeping it out of the fight . Meanwhile , a second diversion at Albaredo d 'Adige fooled Charles into thinking it was the main attack . Only at the end of the day did Count Heinrich von Bellegarde appear with reinforcements , but it was too late to stop Masséna from establishing a bridgehead on the hills to the north of the city . Believing that Vukassovich held the riverbank with too few troops , archduke dismissed him from command and appointed Prince Franz Seraph of Rosenberg @-@ Orsini as his replacement . Another account asserts that Vukassovich was sacked because he placed a number of cannons in an exposed position in violation of Charles ' orders . At Verona , the Austrians suffered 1 @,@ 622 casualties and loss of four cannons , while the French only lost about 450 killed and wounded .
= = = 1809 = = =
At the beginning of the War of the Fifth Coalition , Vukassovich commanded the III Armeekorps light division in Archduke Charles ' main army in Bavaria . His two brigades were led by Moritz Liechtenstein and Josef Pfanzelter and included two Grenz and two Archduke Charles Legion battalions , plus two regiments of hussars and 22 artillery pieces .
On the eve of the Battle of Teugen @-@ Hausen , Vukassovich was instrumental in providing information about movement of Bavarian and French troops to Archduke Charles , including correspondence between marshals Lefebvre and Davout . Leading Prince Friedrich Hohenzollern 's advance guard at the Battle of Teugen @-@ Hausen on 19 April 1809 , he drove the French advance elements out of Hausen and occupied a commanding ridge . When Marshal Louis Davout attacked , he conducted a stout defense with his troops and the reinforcements that arrived . He was wounded in the action , but continued to lead his troops in a battle notable for an unusual degree of front @-@ line leadership by Austrian generals . On 21 April , his troops fought a rear guard action against Bavarian troops . His command formed the extreme left flank of the main body as Charles prepared to crush Davout on the morning of 22 April . His dispatch brought the first word to Charles that Napoleon was about to descend on the Austrian left flank . In the Battle of Eckmühl that day , Vukassovich " conducted his defense ably " , holding off the French and Württembergers long enough for Prince Rosenberg 's IV Armeekorps to deploy .
Vukassovich missed the Battle of Aspern @-@ Essling , being involved in Johann Kollowrat 's unsuccessful bid to cut Napoleon 's supply line near Linz on 17 May . He commanded the center column in an attack on the fortified suburb of Urfahr on the north bank of the Danube . Kollowrat 's " timid and badly coordinated " attack on the bridgehead failed . At the Battle of Wagram , he led one of two divisions in a reorganized III Armeekorps . On this occasion , he commanded the brigades of Joseph Grill ( 5 @,@ 736 infantry ) , Andreas Schneller ( 1 @,@ 100 infantry and 667 cavalry ) , and Emanuel Wratislaw ( 730 landwehr infantry ) . He was mortally wounded on 6 July , the second day of battle while defending against Jacques MacDonald 's attack . He lingered for a month and finally died of his wounds in Vienna on 9 August 1809 . He was one of four Austrian generals who were killed or fatally wounded at Wagram ; the others were Konstantin Ghilian Karl d 'Aspré , Peter von Vécsey , and Armand von Nordmann .
= = Construction design works = =
Vukassovich was instrumental in development of transport infrastructure in the present @-@ day Croatian Littoral at the shores of the Adriatic Sea . His most significant contributions in the field were construction of roads after his designs . The first one was Gospić – Karlobag road , also known as Theresiana road , completed between 1784 and 1786 — which replaced an earlier route which comprised very steep grades limiting its capacity . The new road permitted setting up of a free port in Karlobag and significantly improved connection to the seaward slopes of Velebit . Currently , the route largely corresponds to the western section of the D25 road . The other major route Vukassovich designed was the Louisiana road between Karlovac and Rijeka with a branch serving Bakar . The road was built between 1803 and 1811 , and the route is now used by the D3 road . Vukassovich also designed a coastal road between Senj and Sveti Juraj , port structures in Senj , and directed reconstruction of the Josephina road leading from Senj to Karlovac .
= = Annotations = =
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= Nan Chiau High School =
Nan Chiau High School ( NCHS ) ( simplified Chinese : 南侨中学 ; traditional Chinese : 南僑中學 ; pinyin : Nánqiáo Zhōngxué ; Wade – Giles : Nan2Ch 'iao2 Chung1hsüeh2 ) is a premier co @-@ educational institution in Singapore affiliated to Singapore Hokkien Huay Kuan , offering the four @-@ year Express course for secondary education .
Founded in 1947 , the institution currently operates under the Special Assistance Plan ( SAP ) for bilingualism and biculturalism with the mission to nurture bilingual and bicultural students who are highly knowledgeable in the Chinese language and culture . Affirmed as the North Zone Centre of Excellence for Chinese Language , the school is highly regarded of its strong Chinese foundation in terms of teaching of the language and promulgation of the heritage and culture , which are not confined in the classrooms .
The institution is currently one of Singapore 's leading ICT Schools , and is also one of the joint organisers for the National Secondary School Chinese Creative Writing Competition .
= = History = =
= = = Nan Chiau Teachers ' Training College ( 1941 – 1947 ) = = =
Nan Chiau High School was initially set up as Nan Chiau Teachers ' Training College in 1941 by Mr Tan Kah Kee , a Chinese businessman , community leader and philanthropist . The initial schooling site was incorporated from mansions donated by Mr Lee Kong Chian , on a plot of land in River Valley . The campus was used as the base and training barracks for Dalforce , a Chinese volunteers ’ army formed promptly before the Japanese invasion in 1942 .
= = = Nan Chiau Girls High School ( 1947 – 1984 ) = = =
In 1947 , Nan Chiau Teachers ' Training College was converted into a girls ' high school , featuring a primary school section . Mr Yang Zhen Li was the first Principal of the institution , with an initial student enrollment of 900 . A female hostel was also built in the 1950s . In 1965 , 2 million dollars was spent by the Singapore Hokkien Huay Kuan to rebuild Nan Chiau Girl 's High School to meet the needs of an increased student enrollment . During the re @-@ construction , the high school section conducted lessons at a temporary campus at Guillemard Road , whilst the primary school section continued lessons at the unaffected classroom blocks of the Kim Yam Road campus . The new campus was officially opened by then Minister for Education Mr. Ong Pang Boon , on 8 March 1969 .
In 1974 , the student population of the institution went up to 2692 , the highest in the school ’ s history , with 48 classes in the high school section and 24 classes at the primary school section . To cope with the increased enrollment , additional 300 thousand dollars was spent for constructing the 5th storey of the school building .
In 1978 , Nan Chiau Girls ' High was initially included in the list of newly established Special Assistance Plan Schools . However , with the concern from the Ministry of Education over the quality of students admitted , the number of SAP schools were amended to nine , which excluded Nan Chiau Girl 's High School . In 1980 the institution adopted English as its language medium . As student enrollment started to decline , the institution went co @-@ educational in 1984 with the enrollment of male students , and was renamed " Nan Chiau High School "
= = = Relocation to Sengkang ( 1984 – 2000 ) = = =
In the 1990s , the declining student population became more significant and the institution was on the verge of permanent closure . In 2000 , Nan Chiau High School relocated to Sengkang New Town under an agreement with the Singapore Land Authority . The primary section separated to form Nan Chiau Primary School and relocated to 50 Anchorvale Link . That year , Nan Chiau High School was also ranked the top value @-@ added school in the Ministry of Education 's 1999 ranking of Special / Express schools in Singapore .
= = = Designation of SAP Status ( 2001 – Present ) = = =
In November 2010 , Nan Chiau High School was formally recognised by the Ministry of Education to be included as the 11th Special Assistance Plan ( SAP ) school , with effect from 2012 . The news was brought forth by minister of education Dr Ng Eng Hen during his opening address at the Singapore Hokkien Festival , and was welcomed by numerous school alumni and educators , who were delighted to see that the institution can finally fulfill its mission to preserve and advocate the Chinese heritage and culture with more support from the government .
On 29 December 2013 , a home @-@ coming event was held at the former Nan Chiau High School campus at 46 Kim Yam Road , which thousands of alumni , former and present principals , teachers and staff of the institution gathered at the former school hall in a brunch buffet setting . The event was held before the official relaunch of the site of the former campus as a commercial development of offices , schools and F & B establishments .
In March 2015 , Nan Chiau High School celebrated its 68th School Anniversary . Themed “ Appreciating our Past , Inspiring the Future ” , the event was graced by Guest @-@ of @-@ Honour , Minister for Defence , Dr Ng Eng Hen , which saw the school and the community coming together to mark the occasion with a celebration of SG50 , the outstanding achievements of the students , as well as the completion of the school ’ s upgrading works which costed a total of 2 @.@ 67 million dollars . The school upgrading works were co @-@ funded by the Singapore Hokkien Huay Kuan , comprising a revamp of canteen , air @-@ conditioned library , as well as the construction of the park square and a new 300 seat auditorium .
= = Principals = =
= = Campus = =
Nan Chiau High School ’ s current campus covers 7 @.@ 2 acres of land off Sengkang East Avenue , constructed under the School Management Model granted by the Ministry of Education in 2000 . The campus was officially declared open by then Minister for Education and Second Minister for Defence Mr. Teo Chee Hean on 8 March 2003 . The five @-@ storey building cluster consists of an Administrative Block , a Science & Research Block , an Aesthetics block , and three classroom blocks .
The Kong Chian Hall ( main hall of Nan Chiau High School ) was named after the school ’ s co @-@ founder , Mr Lee Kong Chian . The air @-@ conditioned hall is the common venue for weekly assemblies and dialogue sessions , as well as hosting competitions and symposiums such as the National Secondary School Chinese Creative Writing Competition and the NYP @-@ YTSS @-@ NCHS Science Research Symposium .
The 300 @-@ seat Auditorium , housed at the fourth level of the Aesthetics Block , was converted from an Air Rifle Shooting Range under the two @-@ year school upgrading project in 2012 funded by the School Management and Singapore Hokkien Huay Kuan . The auditorium provides a venue for performances apart from the main hall , as well as conducting sharing talks and academic lectures .
The revamped Library , opened in 2013 , features dedicated study areas , a small platform to hold forums and press conferences , as well as three discussion rooms available for student @-@ teacher consultations , projects and group studies . As a North 4 Cluster Centre of Learning for Chinese Language , Nan Chiau High School also features 2 language labs catering for enhanced Chinese programmes and activities . The labs are currently used to host the Young Writer ’ s Programme for students of six schools in the North 4 Cluster , as well as the school ’ s Chinese calligraphy society .
Other facilities in NCHS include a gymnasium , an indoor sports hall , a central plaza , an open @-@ concept canteen , an eco @-@ garden and a 1 @.@ 3 acres field .
= = School Culture = =
= = = School Motto = = =
Nan Chiau High School 's motto , Sincerity & Perseverance ( 诚 、 毅 ) , is set after the philosophy of its founder , Mr Tan Kah Kee . The motto is also shared by all Hokkien Huay Kuan schools , as well as several institutions in mainland China with the same founder , such as Xiamen Jimei Middle School of Fujian , Jimei University & Xiamen University .
" Sincerity " or 诚 , meant to be truthful to self and others
" Perseverance " or 毅 , meant the dedication and persistence in the pursuit of excellence in the face of challenges .
= = = School Crest = = =
The school crest of Nan Chiau High School is represented by three interlocking rings , which symbolizes its students ' moral , physical and intellectual development .
The red colour of the rings depicts a persevering spirit in the pursuit of a bright and promising future , as represented by the golden background .
The heart shape in the centre of the overlapping rings symbolizes care and concern for the total welfare of the pupils in a student @-@ oriented system .
= = = School Anthem = = =
Nan Chiau High School keeps its original school anthem in Mandarin . The anthem was written by Ms Lin Zhen Ru , and moderated by Professor Zhao Xingdao ( Mr. ) in the early 1950s . The same anthem is shared with Nan Chiau Primary School , which was formerly its ancillary primary school before 2001 .
= = = Attire and Appearance = = =
Nan Chiau High School 's uniform is closely linked to its heritage as a former traditional Chinese school . Originally , the school uniform was in full white with the Chinese name of the school sewed on the right chest level of the blouse , much similar to other institutions with Chinese heritage . Nearing the 1990s , the school uniform was switched to be worn with dark coloured school pants or pinafore , with dark coloured school tag was sewed on the left side of the shirt . The uniform was redesigned to suit the school 's identity along with the relocation of the campus in 2000 .
Currently , male students wear white studded shirts with Traditional Chinese characters of the school name on it in red . Navy blue shorts are worn in secondary 1 & 2 , and long pants for upper secondary levels . Female students wear white blouses bearing the Traditional Chinese characters of the school name on it in red , with navy blue pleated skirts . During Assemblies and important functions , every student will wear a red @-@ coloured school tie .
= = = School Discipline = = =
Nan Chiau High School is known for its strict regulations and discipline , with minimal tolerance to misbehaviour of its students . Nevertheless , some recalled the incident in 2004 when the principal stepped down after admitting an overly harsh disciplinary action , despite the backing of many alumni and parents stressing that the disciplinary action taken on the student is justified .
= = Academic Details and Curriculum = =
= = = O Level Express Course = = =
As a Special Assistance Plan ( SAP ) school , Nan Chiau High School offers the four @-@ year Express course which leads up to the Singapore @-@ Cambridge GCE Ordinary Level national examination , complemented by its signature cultural intelligence and global classroom programmes . Throughout the 4 years , NCHS students are exposed to a broad range of cultural knowledge and life skills alongside the academic curriculum . All NCHS students expect a 2 @-@ week based timetable , with supplementary lessons for four days allocated to individual subjects according to their academic needs ( with the exception for Wednesdays ) . A common educational procedure for the four @-@ year Express course , subject combination streaming for NCHS students is carried out at Secondary Two level . Usually , nine classes ( A to I ) will be allocated per cohort for upper secondary levels , with 2 classes allocated for students taking 3 pure science subjects ( commonly known as “ Triple @-@ Science ” combinations ) .
Nan Chiau High students has sustained academic and non @-@ academic results . A Band 1 school since 2006 , the institution has developed students with exceptional results for both GCE ‘ O ’ Level academic subjects as well as Co @-@ Curricular Activities ( or CCA ) . In 2014 , Nan Chiau High School 's ‘ O ’ Level students achieved a Mean @-@ Subject Grade ( MSG , based on L1R5 Grading ) of 10 @.@ 6 , with more than 90 % of the students obtaining A1 grading for CCA involvement .
= = = = Academic Subjects = = = =
The examinable academic subjects for Singapore @-@ Cambridge GCE Ordinary Level offered by Nan Chiau High School for upper secondary level ( via. streaming in secondary 2 level ) , as of 2015 , are listed below .
Notes :
Subjects indicated with ‘ * ’ are Mandatory Subjects .
All students in Singapore are required to undertake a Mother Tongue Language as a examinable subject , as indicated by ‘ ^ ’ .
" SPA " in Pure Science subjects refers to the incorporation of School @-@ based Science Practical Assessment , which 20 % of the subject result in the national examination are determined by school @-@ based practical examinations , supervised by the Singapore Examinations and Assessment Board .
Science
Additional Mathematics *
Mathematics *
Physics ( SPA )
Chemistry ( SPA ) *
Biology ( SPA )
Science ( Combined )
Language & Literature
English Language *
English Literature
Chinese Language * ^
Higher Chinese Language
Chinese Literature
Malay ( Special Programme )
Humanities
Geography
History
Combined Humanities ( Social Studies & History Elective / Geography Elective ) *
Arts & Aesthetics
Art & Design
Design & Technology
Higher Art
Music
Higher Music
= = = SAP Flagship Programme ( Cultural Intelligence ) = = =
The SAP Flagship Programme forms a major part of Nan Chiau High ’ s niche curriculum as a SAP school . It is designed with the incorporation of Howard Gardner ’ s “ Five Minds for the Future ” ( Disciplined Mind , Synthesizing Mind , Ethical Mind , Creating Mind , Respectful Mind ) , with an additional sixth mind , the ‘ Bi @-@ cultural Mind ’ .
The flagship programme develops students ’ interests in learning about the eastern and the western cultures by providing them with opportunities to integrate both cultures and to be immersed in other cultures , and to have in @-@ depth understanding of the essence of both the east and the west , thus preparing students to become inclusive talents who are effectively bilingual and able to make strong and meaningful connections with the world . The four @-@ year flagship programme is mainly made up of two segments , namely ‘ Broad @-@ Base Curriculum ’ and ‘ Peaks of Excellence ’ , which include cultural intelligence and life education to groom students to be world @-@ ready . The ‘ Broad @-@ Base Curriculum ’ spans over the first year of the students ’ admission , with the introduction to the Chinese culture and history , the history of Chinese immigrants and understanding diversity of local cultures . This is inculcated through various platforms such as cultural intelligence forums , bi @-@ cultural camps , Chinese lyrics competitions , as well as local and regional learning journeys .
The ‘ Peaks of Excellence ’ curriculum is continuous with the ‘ Broad @-@ Base Curriculum ’ , with more elaborate programmes that cater to students ’ talent development . For instance , the Young Writers Programme , which is open to students who are interested in writing , has lessons conducted by various renowned Chinese language essayists in the region to expose and familiarise students to different forms of writing , and encourage them to appreciate different forms of written work . Students also have opportunities to attend cultural symposiums , national and international bi @-@ cultural forums , research on contemporary issues , and embark on refined overseas immersions to strengthen their world and cultural views under the Global Classroom Programme .
= = = Life Education Programme = = =
Apart from development of cultural intelligence , life skills are also incorporated into the curriculum to prepare students for the future , by assisting students in the acquisition of various life skills that will be useful as they become part of the 21st century workforce . The Learning for Life Programme ( LLP ) provides a unique cognitive @-@ aesthetic domain of learning through drama , public speaking , debate , puppetry and creative Chinese lyrical composition , to strengthen self @-@ expression and nurtures aesthetics appreciation in students , as well as to allow them to learn and embrace cultural diversity .
In the Science , Technology , Engineering and Mathematics Applied Learning Programme ( STEM ALP ) , students explore using Arduino Micro @-@ controller in health related science and technology . Students also acquire science research skills to deepen their proficiency in Sciences .
= = = Enhanced Art Programme ( EAP ) = = =
Since 2013 , Nan Chiau High School is a certified education centre for the Enhanced Art Programme ( EAP ) for students who have keen interest in pursuing arts and design . Introduced in 2011 by the Ministry of Education , the two @-@ year programme provide an enriched learning environment for Secondary 3 and 4 students who are inclined towards Art , as a complementary to the Art Elective Programme ( AEP ) . Enrichment programmes such as the Aesthetics Week , Student @-@ Initiated Project in Art and Lower Secondary Integrated Art Modules are also integrated for deepened understanding and application opportunities for the art students .
= = = Exchange Programmes ( Global Classroom Programme ) = = =
Nan Chiau High School has its unique overseas learning programme that offers all students an opportunity to go on subsidised learning trips to deepen their understanding on their academic subjects , perform community projects or involvement as part of the programmes within their Co @-@ Curricular Activities ( CCAs ) . Through this programme , opportunities are also infused for interaction with students , educators and subject specialists around the region and the globe . These included famous writers , entrepreneurs , and students from sister schools such as Ming @-@ Dao High School of Taiwan & Sagano High School of Kyoto , Japan .
= = Co @-@ curricular Activities = =
Nan Chiau High School offers a wide variety of extra @-@ curricular activities , labelled Co @-@ Curricular Activities ( CCA ) by the Ministry of Education , consisting of sports groups , uniformed groups , performing arts , clubs and societies . Of which , many CCAs have attained spectacular performances throughout the years of history of the institution since its relocation to Sengkang in 2001 .
The NCHS National Cadet Corps unit ( NCHSNCC ) has been awarded Gold for 19 consecutive years , winning the Best Unit Competition ( BUC ) in 2014 . The National Police Cadet Corps ( NPCC , currently the largest uniformed group in Singapore ) unit of the institution have attained Gold Award consecutively for 9 years in the annual Unit Overall Proficiency Award ( UOPA ) . The NCHS Red Cross Youth attained the Community Service Award ( Gold ) for years 2010 and 2013 , and the Excellence Unit Award ( Gold ) for years 2011 and 2012 . The Scouts of Nan Chiau High School , despite newly established in 2011 , have attained the National Patrol Camp Best Newcomer Award , and National Patrol Camp Overall Silver in 2013 .
A niche of Nan Chiau High School , the performing arts groups have consistently attained Certificates of Accomplishment and Certificates of Distinction in the Singapore Youth Festival ( SYF ) since the change of Central Judging Assessment to Arts Presentation Assessment in 2012 . The 2007 SYF Central Judging Assessment saw the Chinese dance , String Orchestra and Choir attained Gold with Honour , with Chinese Orchestra , Chinese LDDS , English LDDS , Contemporary Dance and Wind Orchestra attaining Silver . In 2011 saw the Chinese Dance , Choir and English LDDS attaining Gold with Honours at the SYF Central Judging . Performing Arts groups of the institution also reaches out to the community through public performances , for instance the FOCUS held in 2016 at the Anchorvale Community Club .
The clubs and societies of Nan Chiau High School allowed for more varieties of exposure to skills and interests of the students , and have achieved outstanding achievements . The NCHS Robotics Club is the retaining zonal champion of the DSTA @-@ DSO East Zone Robotics Challenge since 2014 , and have been organising annual competition for primary and secondary school students since 2009 . The Multimedia Club attained the Best School Award for consecutive years 2014 and 2015 in the Canon Photo Marathon .
The full listing of Co @-@ curricular Activities ( CCAs ) offered by Nan Chiau High School is featured below .
= = = Sports and Games = = =
Basketball
Badminton
Table Tennis
Wushu
Track & Field ( 2nd CCA )
= = = Uniformed Groups = = =
National Cadet Corps
National Police Cadet Corps
Red Cross Youth
Scouts
= = = Performing Arts = = =
Chinese Dance
Chinese Orchestra
Choir
Chinese LDDS
English LDDS
Contemporary Dance
String Orchestra
Wind Orchestra
= = = Clubs and Societies = = =
Multimedia and Photography Club
Infocomm Club
Robotics Club
Library Club
Green Club
Debate Club
= = = Visual Arts and Culture = = =
Mind Games ( Chinese Chess and Weiqi )
Visual Arts Club ( Ceramic / Art & Design )
Chinese Calligraphy
= = = Student Council = = =
The student council is distinguished by their striped ties . Members of the Council are involved in the running of several school events as well as certain daily functions of the school . Student Councillors also take up the role of ambassadors of the school during major school events and functions .
= = = Class Council = = =
The Class Council is formed by the representatives of individual classes . Apart maintaining discipline procedures in the class , the class council functions alongside the student council as a bridge between the school and the students , and building unity and class spirit through the participation in organising inter @-@ class competitions .
= = Events = =
= = = SHINES in Harmony = = =
Since 2012 , Nan Chiau High School organises the single day community fund raising event annually to raise funds for the community welfare organisations around the district such as the CDAC , REACH Family Service Centre . The event is open to the public , which the students , alumni and the parents support group of the institution set up food and games booths around the campus , as well as put up performances for the community to engage for a good cause .
= = Relation with Other Schools = =
= = = Combined Sports Meet = = =
Nan Chiau High School , Xinmin Secondary School & Yishun Town Secondary School hold combined sports meets yearly since 2013 to give student athletes from the participating schools a platform to showcase their physical talent and also for the schools to unite together to celebrate and enjoy . Apart from the inter @-@ school competitions among students , parent @-@ teacher races are also featured to engage the parents and school staff .
= = = NYP @-@ YTSS @-@ NCHS Science and Technology Research Programme = = =
The NYP @-@ YTSS @-@ NCHS Science and Technology Research Programme is a collaborated initiative between Nanyang Polytechnic , Yishun Town Secondary School and Nan Chiau High School for upper secondary levels with the aim of providing opportunities for capable science students to acquire science knowledge beyond academic syllabus , carry out research modules using contemporary technology , and interact with specialists in the relevant fields of Sciences and Information Technology . The research projects are presented in the form of an annual symposium hosted by Yishun Town Secondary and Nan Chiau High alternately , which serves as a platform for students involved to showcase their work to fellow schoolmates and counterparts from other schools .
= = School Alumni = =
Nan Chiau High School boosts a significant alumni community , comprising alumni from both Nan Chiau High School and Nan Chiau Primary School , which were once affiliated . The community under various bodies continues to organise events and programmes that bonds the alumni together , as well as contributing alongside the school committee to benefit the students ’ of both institutions .
= = = Nan Chiau Alumni Association = = =
Nan Chiau Alumni Association ( NCAA ) is the main alumni body of Nan Chiau High School and Nan Chiau Primary School . Formed on 12 January 1990 at the Kim Yam Road campus , the association works closely with the two institutions to preserve the traditional values of the schools while placing emphasis on the moral , physical , cognitive , social and aesthetic aspects of students ’ development . It also serves as a platform for all members from the Nan Chiau family to socialise and stay in contact with each other . With the relocation and separation of Nan Chiau High School with the ancillary primary school section in December 2000 , NCAA presently functions at both Nan Chiau Primary School and Nan Chiau High School . In 2001 , the NCAA started the Weekend Activities Program at Nan Chiau Primary School to complement the school curriculum , and is highly successful for providing a holistic education for the primary school pupils .
= = = Youth of Nan Chiau = = =
Youth of Nan Chiau is the youth wing of the Nan Chiau Alumni Association that comprises the youth graduates from both Nan Chiau High and Nan Chiau Primary . The youth wing plays a supportive role alongside the NCAA during events , gatherings when need arises . The youth wing also organizes activities for students of Nan Chiau High and Nan Chiau Primary on an ad @-@ hoc basis .
= = = Nan Chiau Youth Mentors = = =
The Nan Chiau Youth Mentors ( NCYM ) consists of young graduates from Nan Chiau High School who have strong passion of providing assistance to the juniors within the scope of a holistic education . The members of team works alongside the school to provide assistance and sharing for upper secondary levels preparing for the GCE O Level national examinations , as well as individual mentorship of their former Co @-@ curricular Activities ( CCAs ) .
= = Notable Alumni = =
= = = Education and Politics = = =
Mr. Peh Chin Hua : Former Member of Parliament , Jalan Besar Group Representation Constituency ( 1988 – 2001 ) ; Executive Chairman , White Group ( Singapore ) ; Former Executive Chairman ( 1992 – 2005 ) , Dragon Land Limited .
Dr. Leong Chan @-@ Hoong : Deputy Head , Social Lab , Lee Kuan Yew Institute of Policy Studies , National University of Singapore
Mdm . Goh Lay Kuan : Singapore pioneer dance choreographer and arts educator ; Winner , Cultural Medallion , 1995 ; Co @-@ founder , Singapore Performing Arts School
= = = Business and Enterprise = = =
Mr. Jason Yeo - Founder and Chief Executive of JCS Group .
Ms. Han Kim Ling : Product Lifecycle Manager , Volex ; Former Project Manager , Tyco Electronics )
= = Gallery = =
= = = Campus = = =
= = = Events = = =
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= Beauchamp – Sharp Tragedy =
The Beauchamp – Sharp Tragedy ( sometimes called the Kentucky Tragedy ) was the murder of Kentucky legislator Solomon P. Sharp by Jereboam O. Beauchamp . As a young lawyer , Beauchamp had been an admirer of Sharp until Sharp allegedly fathered an illegitimate child with Anna Cooke , a planter 's daughter . [ a ] Sharp denied paternity of the stillborn child . Later , Beauchamp began a relationship with Cooke , who agreed to marry him on the condition that he kill Sharp to avenge her honor . Beauchamp and Cooke married in June 1824 , and in the early morning of November 7 , 1825 , Beauchamp murdered Sharp at Sharp 's home in Frankfort .
An investigation soon revealed Beauchamp as the killer , and he was apprehended at his home in Glasgow , four days after the murder . He was tried , convicted , and sentenced to death by hanging . He was granted a stay of execution to allow him to write a justification of his actions . Anna Cooke @-@ Beauchamp was tried for complicity in the murder , but was acquitted for lack of evidence . Her devotion to Beauchamp prompted her to stay in his cell with him , where the two attempted a double suicide by drinking laudanum shortly before the execution . This attempt failed . On the morning of the execution , the couple again attempted suicide , this time by stabbing themselves with a knife Anna had smuggled into the cell . When the guards discovered them , Beauchamp was rushed to the gallows , where he was hanged before he could die of his stab wound . He was the first person legally executed in the state of Kentucky . Anna Cooke @-@ Beauchamp died from her wounds shortly before her husband was hanged . In accordance with their wishes , the couple 's bodies were positioned in an embrace when buried in the same coffin .
While Beauchamp 's primary motive in killing Sharp was to defend the honor of his wife , speculation raged that Sharp 's political opponents had instigated the crime . Sharp was a leader of the New Court party during the Old Court – New Court controversy in Kentucky . At least one Old Court partisan alleged that Sharp denied paternity of Cooke 's son by claiming the child was a mulatto , the son of a family slave . Whether Sharp made such a claim has never been verified . New Court partisans insisted that the allegation was concocted to stir Beauchamp 's anger and provoke him to murder . The Beauchamp – Sharp Tragedy served as the inspiration for numerous literary works , most notably Edgar Allan Poe 's unfinished Politian and Robert Penn Warren 's World Enough and Time ( 1950 ) .
= = Background = =
Jereboam Beauchamp was born in Barren County , Kentucky , in 1802 . Educated in the school of Dr. Benjamin Thurston , he resolved to study law at age eighteen . While observing the lawyers practicing in Glasgow and Bowling Green , Beauchamp was particularly impressed with the abilities of Solomon P. Sharp . Sharp had twice been elected to the state legislature and had served two terms in the U.S. House of Representatives . Beauchamp became disenchanted with Sharp when , in 1820 , a planter 's daughter named Anna Cooke claimed Sharp was the father of her child , who was stillborn . Sharp denied paternity , and public opinion favored him . The disgraced Cooke became a recluse at her mother 's plantation outside Bowling Green .
Beauchamp 's father lived a mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) from Cooke 's estate , and the young man wanted to meet her . Beauchamp gradually gained Cooke 's trust by visiting under the guise of borrowing books from her library . By summer 1821 , the two became friends and began a courtship . Beauchamp was eighteen ; Cooke was at least thirty @-@ four . As the courtship progressed , Cooke told Beauchamp that , before they could be married , he would have to kill Solomon Sharp . Beauchamp agreed to her request , expressing his own desire to dispatch Sharp .
The preferred method of honor killing in that day was a duel . Despite Cooke 's admonition that Sharp would not accept a challenge to duel , Beauchamp traveled to Frankfort to gain an audience with him . He had recently been named the state 's attorney general by Governor John Adair . Beauchamp 's account of the interview states that he bullied and humiliated Sharp , that Sharp begged for his life , and that Beauchamp promised to horsewhip Sharp every day until he consented to the duel . For two days , Beauchamp remained in Frankfort , awaiting the duel . He discovered that Sharp had left town , allegedly destined for Bowling Green . Beauchamp rode to Bowling Green , only to find that Sharp was not there and was not expected . Sharp was saved from Beauchamp 's first attempt on his life .
Cooke resolved to kill Sharp herself . The next time Sharp was in Bowling Green on business , she sent a letter to him that denounced Beauchamp 's actions and claimed she had broken off all contact with him . She asked Sharp to visit her at her plantation before he left town . Sharp questioned the messenger who delivered the letter , as he suspected a trap . He replied to her , saying he would visit at the time appointed . Beauchamp and Cooke awaited the visit , but Sharp never arrived . When Beauchamp rode to Bowling Green to investigate , he learned that Sharp had left for Frankfort two days earlier , leaving substantial unfinished business . Beauchamp concluded that Sharp would eventually have to return to Bowling Green to finish his business there . Determined to await Sharp 's return , Beauchamp opened a legal practice in the city . Throughout 1822 and 1823 , Beauchamp practiced law and waited for Sharp to return . He never did .
Although Beauchamp had not completed the task she set him , Cooke married the younger man in mid @-@ June 1824 . Beauchamp immediately hatched another plot to kill Sharp . He began sending letters – each from a different post office and signed with a pseudonym – requesting Sharp 's assistance in settling a land claim and asking when he would again be in Green River country . Sharp finally answered Beauchamp 's last letter – mailed in June 1825 – but gave no date for his arrival .
= = Murder = =
Serving as attorney general in Governor Adair 's administration , Sharp had become involved in the Old Court – New Court controversy . The conflict was primarily between debtors who sought relief from their financial burdens after the Panic of 1819 ( the New Court , or Relief , faction ) and the creditors to whom these obligations were owed ( the Old Court , or Anti @-@ Relief , faction ) . Sharp , who came from humble beginnings , sided with the New Court . By 1825 , the New Court faction 's power was on the decline . In an attempt to bolster the party 's influence , Sharp resigned as attorney general in 1825 to run for a seat in the Kentucky House of Representatives . His opponent was Old Court stalwart John J. Crittenden .
During the campaign , Old Court supporters again raised the issue of Sharp 's seduction and abandonment of Anna Cooke . Old Court supporter John Upshaw Waring printed handbills that not only accused Sharp of fathering Cooke 's child , but said that Sharp had denied paternity of the child on the grounds that it was a mulatto and the son of a Cooke family slave . Whether Sharp made such a claim has never been determined . Despite the allegations , Sharp won the election .
Word of Sharp 's alleged claims soon reached Jereboam Beauchamp , reviving his resolve to kill him . Beauchamp abandoned the idea of killing Sharp honorably in a duel . Instead , he decided to murder him and cast suspicion on his political enemies . To add to the intrigue , Beauchamp plotted to commit the murder on the eve of the General Assembly 's opening session .
Beauchamp rode to Frankfort on business , reaching it on November 6 . Unable to find lodging at the local inns , he rented a room in the private residence of Joel Scott , warden of the state penitentiary . Sometime after midnight , Scott heard a commotion from Beauchamp 's room . When he investigated , he found the door latch open and the room unoccupied . Beauchamp , clad in a disguise , buried a set of his clothes near the Kentucky River , then proceeded to Sharp 's house . Sharp was not at home , but Beauchamp soon found him at a local hotel . He returned to Sharp 's house , concealed himself nearby , and waited for Sharp 's return . He observed Sharp re @-@ enter the house about midnight .
Beauchamp approached the house at approximately two o 'clock in the morning on November 7 , 1825 . In his Confession , he described the encounter :
I put on my mask , drew my dagger and proceeded to the door ; I knocked three times loud and quick , Colonel Sharp said ; " Who 's there " - " Covington " I replied , quickly Sharp 's foot was heard upon the floor . I saw under the door as he approached without a light . I drew my mask over my face and immediately Colonel Sharp opened the door . I advanced into the room and with my left hand I grasped his right wrist . The violence of the grasp made him spring back and trying to disengage his wrist , he said , " What Covington is this . " I replied John A. Covington . " I don 't know you , " said Colonel Sharp , " I know John W. Covington . " Mrs. Sharp appeared at the partition door and then disappeared , seeing her disappear I said in a persuasive tone of voice , " Come to the light Colonel and you will know me , " and pulling him by the arm he came readily to the door and still holding his wrist with my left hand I stripped my hat and handkerchief from over my forehead and looked into Sharp 's face . He knew me the more readily I imagine , by my long , bush , curly suit of hair . He sprang back and exclaimed in a tone of horror and despair , " Great God it is him , " and as he said that he fell on his knees . I let go of his wrist and grasped him by the throat dashing him against the facing of the door and muttered in his face , " die you villain . " As I said that I plunged the dagger to his heart .
The wound severed Sharp 's aorta , killing him almost instantly . Sharp 's wife Eliza witnessed the entire scene from the top of the stairs in the house , but Beauchamp fled before he could be identified or captured . Returning to the site where he had buried a change of clothes , he stripped off his disguise , tied it up with a rock , and sank them in the Kentucky River . In his regular clothes , he returned to his room at Scott 's house , where he remained until the following morning .
= = Arrest = =
After learning of the murder , the Kentucky General Assembly authorized the governor to offer a reward of $ 3 @,@ 000 for the arrest and conviction of Sharp 's killer . The trustees of the city of Frankfort added a reward of $ 1 @,@ 000 , and friends of Sharp raised an additional $ 2 @,@ 000 reward . Suspicion for the killing rested on three men : Beauchamp , Waring , and Patrick H. Darby . During Sharp 's 1824 campaign for a seat in the Kentucky House of Representatives , Darby had remarked that , should Sharp be elected , " he would never take his seat and would be as good as a dead man " . Waring had made similar threats , boasting that he had already stabbed six men .
A warrant was sworn out for Waring 's arrest , but officials soon learned that he was incapacitated , after being shot through both hips the day before Sharp 's death . When Darby discovered that he was under suspicion , he began his own investigation into the murder . He traveled to Simpson County where he met Captain John F. Lowe , who told Darby that Beauchamp had related to him detailed plans for the assassination . He also furnished Darby with a letter that contained damaging admissions against Beauchamp .
The first night following the murder , Beauchamp stayed at the home of a relative in Bloomfield . The next day , he traveled to Bardstown , where he spent the night . He lodged with his brother @-@ in @-@ law in Bowling Green on the night of November 9 before returning to his home in Glasgow on November 10 . He and Anna had planned to flee to Missouri , but before nightfall , a posse had arrived from Frankfort to arrest him .
He was taken to Frankfort and tried before an examining court , but Commonwealth 's Attorney Charles S. Bibb said that he had not yet collected enough evidence to detain him . Beauchamp was released , but agreed to stay in Frankfort for ten days to allow the court to finish its investigation . During this time , Beauchamp wrote letters to John J. Crittenden and George M. Bibb requesting their legal aid in the matter . Neither letter was answered . Meanwhile , Beauchamp 's uncle , a state senator , gathered a defense team that included former U.S. Senator John Pope .
During the investigation , unsuccessful attempts were made to match a knife taken from Beauchamp upon his arrest to the type of wound observed on Sharp 's body . Efforts to match a footprint found near Sharp 's house to Beauchamp were similarly unsuccessful . The posse that arrested Beauchamp had taken a bloody handkerchief from the crime scene , but had lost it on the trip back to Frankfort after the arrest . The best evidence presented by the prosecution was the testimony of Sharp 's wife Eliza that she heard the killer 's voice and that it was distinctly high @-@ pitched . When given the opportunity to hear Beauchamp 's voice , she identified it as that of the killer .
When questioned , Patrick Darby testified that in 1824 , Beauchamp had solicited his services in order to bring suit against Sharp for unspecified charges . During their ensuing conversations , Beauchamp had related the story of Sharp 's abandonment of Anna Cooke and her child , swearing that he would kill him one day , even if he had to come to Frankfort and shoot him down in the street . The combined testimonies of Eliza Sharp and Patrick Darby were sufficient to persuade the city magistrates to hold Beauchamp for trial during the circuit court 's next term , which began in March 1826 .
= = Trial = =
Beauchamp was indicted , and his trial began May 8 , 1826 . Beauchamp pleaded not guilty , but never testified during the trial . Captain Lowe was called to repeat the story he had originally related to Patrick Darby regarding Beauchamp 's threats to kill Sharp . He further testified that Beauchamp returned home following the murder waving a red flag and declaring that he had " gained the victory . " He also turned over to the court a letter from the Beauchamps regarding the murder . In the letter , Beauchamp maintained his innocence , but told Lowe that his enemies were plotting against him and asked him to testify in his behalf . The letter gave Lowe several talking points to mention if called to testify , some true and some otherwise .
Eliza Sharp repeated her assertion that the murderer 's voice was that of Beauchamp . Joel Scott , the warden who gave Beauchamp lodging the night of the murder , testified that he heard Beauchamp leave during the night and return later that night . He also mentioned that Beauchamp was extremely inquisitive about the crime upon being told of it the next morning . The most extensive testimony came from Darby , who recounted his 1824 meeting with Beauchamp . According to Darby , Beauchamp claimed that Sharp offered him and Anna $ 1 @,@ 000 , a slave girl , and 200 acres ( 0 @.@ 81 km2 ) of land if they would leave him alone . Sharp later reneged on the offer .
Some witnesses maintained that the killer 's claim to be John A. Covington was telling . They said that both Sharp and Beauchamp had been acquainted with John W. Covington , and that Beauchamp often mistakenly called him John A. Covington . Other witnesses told of threats they had heard Beauchamp make against Sharp .
Beauchamp 's defense team attempted to discredit Patrick Darby by stressing his association with the Old Court and suggesting the murder was politically motivated . They also presented witnesses who testified that they knew of no hostility between Beauchamp and Sharp , and questioned whether Darby and Beauchamp 's 1824 meeting ever occurred .
During closing arguments , defense counsel John Pope attempted to discredit Darby ; the latter reacted by assaulting one of Pope 's co @-@ counselors with a cane . The trial lasted thirteen days , and despite the absence of any physical evidence , including a murder weapon , the jury returned a guilty verdict after only an hour of deliberation on May 19 . Beauchamp was sentenced to be executed by hanging on June 16 , 1826 .
During the trial , Anna Beauchamp appealed to John Waring for help on her husband 's behalf . She also tried to entice John Lowe to commit perjury and testify on her husband 's behalf . Both appeals were denied . On May 20 , Anna was examined by two justices of the peace on suspicion of being an accessory to the murder , but was acquitted due to lack of evidence . At her request , Anna was permitted to stay in the cell with Beauchamp .
Pope 's request to have the verdict overturned was denied , but the judge granted Beauchamp a stay of execution until July 7 to allow him to produce a written justification of his actions . In it , Beauchamp said he had killed Sharp to defend Anna 's honor . Beauchamp had hoped to publish his work before his execution , but the libelous charges it contained – that prosecution witnesses committed perjury and bribery to see him convicted – delayed its publication .
= = Execution = =
The Beauchamps were accused of trying to bribe a guard to let them escape , but this effort failed . They also tried to get a letter to Senator Beauchamp , asking for his help in escaping . A final plea to Governor Desha for another stay of execution was denied on July 5 . Later that day , the couple attempted a double suicide by taking large doses of laudanum , but both survived .
On July 7 , the morning of Beauchamp 's scheduled execution , Anna requested that the guard allow her privacy while she dressed . Anna tried another overdose on laudanum , but was unable to keep it down . She had smuggled a knife into the cell , and the couple attempted another double suicide by stabbing themselves with it . When they were discovered , Anna was taken to the jailer 's home and tended to by doctors .
Weakened by his own wounds , Beauchamp was loaded on a cart to be taken to the gallows and hanged before he bled to death . He insisted on seeing his wife before being executed , but doctors told him she was not severely injured and would recover . Beauchamp protested that not being allowed to see his wife was cruel , and the guards consented to take him to her . Upon arriving , he was angered to see that the doctors had lied to him ; Anna was too weak even to speak to him . He remained with her until he could no longer feel her pulse . He kissed her lifeless lips and declared " For you I lived — for you I die . "
On his way to the gallows , Beauchamp asked to see Patrick Darby , who was among the assembled spectators . Beauchamp smiled and offered his hand , but Darby declined the gesture . Beauchamp publicly denied that Darby had any involvement with the murder , but accused Darby of having lied about the 1824 meeting . Darby denied this accusation of perjury and tried to engage Beauchamp in a discussion about it , hoping he would retract the charge , but the prisoner ordered the cart driver to continue to the gallows .
At the gallows , Beauchamp assured the assembled clergy that he had a salvation experience on July 6 . Too weak to stand , he was held upright by two men while the noose was tied around his neck . At Beauchamp 's request , the Twenty @-@ Second Regiment musicians played Bonaparte 's Retreat from Moscow while 5 @,@ 000 spectators watched his execution . It was the first legal hanging in Kentucky 's history . Beauchamp 's father requested the bodies of his son and daughter @-@ in @-@ law for burial . The two bodies were placed in an embrace in a single coffin , as they had requested . They were buried in Maple Grove Cemetery in Bloomfield , Kentucky . The couple 's tombstone was engraved with a poem written by Anna Beauchamp .
= = Aftermath = =
Beauchamp 's confession was published in 1826 , the same year as The Letters of Ann Cook – the authorship of which is disputed . J. G. Dana and R. S. Thomas also published an edited transcript of Beauchamp 's trial . The following year , Sharp 's brother , Dr. Leander Sharp , wrote Vindication of the character of the late Col. Solomon P. Sharp to defend Sharp from the charges made in Beauchamp 's confession . Patrick Darby threatened to sue Dr. Sharp if the work were published . John Waring threatened Dr. Sharp 's life if he published Vindication . All copies of the work were left in the Sharps ' home in Frankfort , where they were discovered many years later during a remodel .
Though many regarded Sharp 's murder as an honor killing , some New Court partisans charged that Beauchamp had been incited to violence by members of the Old Court party , specifically Patrick Darby . Sharp was thought to be the minority party 's choice for Speaker of the House for the 1826 session . By enticing Beauchamp to murder Sharp , the Old Court could remove a political enemy . Sharp 's widow Eliza appeared to believe this notion . In an 1826 letter in the New Court Argus of Western America , she referred to Darby as " the chief instigator of the foul murder which has deprived me of all my heart held most dear on earth " .
Some Old Court partisans claimed that Governor Desha had offered Beauchamp a pardon if he would implicate Darby and Achilles Sneed , clerk of the Old Court , in his confession . Shortly before his execution , Beauchamp was heard to say he had " been New Court long enough , and would die an Old Court man . " Beauchamp had steadfastly identified with the Old Court , and his claim seems to imply that he had at least considered colluding with the New Court powers to secure his pardon . Such a deal is explicitly mentioned in one version of Beauchamp 's Confession . Beauchamp ultimately rejected the deal for fear that he would be double @-@ crossed by the New Court , leaving him imprisoned and deprived of the chivalrous motive for his actions .
Darby denied involvement with the murder , claiming that New Court partisans such as Francis P. Blair and Amos Kendall were seeking to defame him . He also countered that Eliza Sharp 's letter to the New Court Argus was written by New Court supporters , including Kendall , the newspaper 's editor . The claims and counterclaims between the two sides reached such an extreme that an 1826 letter in the New Court Argus suggested that New Court supporters had instigated Sharp 's murder in order to blame Old Court partisans and affix a stigma to them .
Darby eventually brought suit for libel against Kendall and Eliza Sharp , as well as Senator Beauchamp and Sharp 's brother Leander . Numerous delays and changes of venue prevented any of the suits from ever going to trial . Darby died in December 1829 .
= = In fiction = =
The Beauchamp – Sharp Tragedy inspired fictional works , notably Edgar Allan Poe 's unfinished play Politian and Robert Penn Warren 's World Enough and Time . William Gilmore Simms wrote three works based on the Sharp 's murder and aftermath : Beauchampe : or The Kentucky Tragedy , A Tale of Passion , Charlemont , and Beauchampe : A Sequel to Charlemonte . Greyslaer : A Romance of the Mohawk by Charles Fenno Hoffman , Octavia Bragaldi by Charlotte Barnes , Sybil by John Savage , and Conrad and Eudora ; or , The Death of Alonzo : A Tragedy and Leoni , The Orphan of Venice both by Thomas Holley Chivers , all draw to some degree on the events that surround Sharp 's murder .
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= Losing My Religion =
" Losing My Religion " is a song by the American alternative rock band R.E.M. The song was released as the first single from the group 's 1991 album Out of Time . Built on a mandolin riff , " Losing My Religion " was an unlikely hit for the group , garnering heavy airplay on radio as well as on MTV due to its critically acclaimed music video . The song became R.E.M. ' s highest @-@ charting hit in the United States , reaching No. 4 on the Billboard Hot 100 and expanding the group 's popularity beyond its original fanbase . It was nominated for several Grammy Awards , and won two for Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal and Best Short Form Music Video .
= = Background = =
R.E.M. guitarist Peter Buck wrote the main riff and chorus to the song on a mandolin while watching television one day . Buck had just bought the instrument and was attempting to learn how to play it , recording the music as he practiced . Buck said that " when I listened back to it the next day , there was a bunch of stuff that was really just me learning how to play mandolin , and then there 's what became ' Losing My Religion ' , and then a whole bunch more of me learning to play the mandolin . "
Recording of the song started in September 1990 at Bearsville Studio A in Woodstock , New York . The song was arranged in the studio with mandolin , electric bass , and drums . Bassist Mike Mills came up with a bassline inspired by the work of Fleetwood Mac bassist John McVie ; by his own admission he could not come up with one for the song that was not derivative . Buck said the arrangement of the song " had a hollow feel to it . There 's absolutely no midrange on it , just low end and high end , because Mike usually stayed pretty low on the bass . " The band decided to have touring guitarist Peter Holsapple play acoustic guitar on the recording . Buck reflected , " It was really cool : Peter and I would be in our little booth , sweating away , and Bill and Mike would be out there in the other room going at it . It just had a really magical feel . " Singer Michael Stipe 's vocal was recorded in a single take . Orchestral strings , arranged by Mark Bingham , were added to the song by members of the Atlanta Symphony Orchestra at Soundscape Studios in Atlanta , Georgia in October 1990 .
= = Composition and lyrics = =
" Losing My Religion " is based on Peter Buck 's mandolin @-@ playing . Buck said , " The verses are the kinds of things R.E.M. uses a lot , going from one minor to another , kind [ of ] like those ' Driver 8 ' chords . You can 't really say anything bad about E minor , A minor , D , and G – I mean , they 're just good chords . " Buck noted that " Losing My Religion " was " probably the most typical R.E.M.-sounding song on the record . We are trying to get away from those kind of songs , but like I said before , those are some good chords . " Orchestral strings play through parts of the song . The song is in natural minor .
In the song , Michael Stipe sings the lines " That 's me in the corner / That 's me in the spotlight / Losing my religion " . The phrase " losing my religion " is an expression from the southern region of the United States that means losing one 's temper or civility , or " being at the end of one 's rope . " Stipe told The New York Times the song was about romantic expression . He told Q that " Losing My Religion " is about " someone who pines for someone else . It 's unrequited love , what have you . " Stipe compared the song 's theme to " Every Breath You Take " by The Police , saying , " It 's just a classic obsession pop song . I 've always felt the best kinds of songs are the ones where anybody can listen to it , put themselves in it and say , ' Yeah , that 's me . ' "
= = Release and reception = =
" Losing My Religion " was released on February 19 , 1991 in the United States as the lead single from R.E.M. ' s forthcoming album Out of Time . The band 's record label , Warner Bros. , was wary about the group 's choice of the song as the album 's first single . Steven Baker , who was vice president of product management at Warner Bros. at the time , said there were " long , drawn @-@ out discussions " about releasing such an " unconventional track " as the single until the label agreed . While R.E.M. declined to tour to promote Out of Time , the band visited radio stations , gave numerous press interviews , and made appearances on MTV to promote the record . Meanwhile , Warner Bros. worked to establish the single at campus , modern rock , and album @-@ oriented rock radio stations before promoting it to American Top 40 stations , where it became a success . " The record crosses the boundaries of being just an alternative record " , one Top 40 radio station program director said ; he admitted that " Losing My Religion " was " a hard record to program ; you can 't play L.L. Cool J behind it . But it 's a real pop record — you can dance to it . "
" Losing My Religion " became R.E.M. ' s biggest hit in the U.S. , peaking at No. 4 on the Billboard Hot 100 . The single stayed on the chart for 21 weeks . It charted at number 19 on the UK Singles Chart , and peaked at No. 16 and No. 11 in Canada and Australia , respectively . Mills said years later , " Without ' Losing My Religion ' , Out of Time would have sold two or three million [ copies ] , instead of the ten [ million copies ] or so it did . But the phenomenon that is a worldwide hit is an odd thing to behold . Basically that record was a hit in almost every civilised country in the world . " The success of " Losing My Religion " and Out of Time broadened R.E.M. ' s audience beyond its original college radio @-@ based fanbase . When asked at the time if he was worried that the song 's success might alienate older fans , Buck told Rolling Stone , " The people that changed their minds because of ' Losing My Religion ' can just kiss my ass . "
The song received a number of critical plaudits . The single placed second in the Village Voice Pazz & Jop annual critics ' poll , behind Nirvana 's " Smells Like Teen Spirit " . R.E.M. was nominated for seven awards at the 1992 Grammy Awards . " Losing My Religion " alone earned several nominations , including Record of the Year and Song of the Year . The song won two awards , for Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals and Best Short Form Music Video . In 2004 , Rolling Stone listed the song at No. 169 on its list of the " 500 Greatest Songs of All Time " . In 2007 , the song was listed as No. 9 on VH1 's 100 Greatest Songs of the 90s . In 2009 , Blender ranked it at No. 79 on its list of " The 500 Greatest Songs Since You Were Born " . The song is also included on The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame 's list of 500 Songs that Shaped Rock and Roll .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Losing My Religion " was directed by Tarsem Singh . As opposed to previous R.E.M. videos , Michael Stipe agreed to lip sync the lyrics . The video originated as a combination of ideas envisioned by Stipe and Singh . Stipe wanted the promo to be a straightforward performance video , akin to Sinéad O 'Connor 's " Nothing Compares 2 U " . Singh wanted to create a video in the style of a certain type of Indian filmmaking , where everything would be " melodramatic and very dreamlike " , according to Stipe .
The video begins with a brief sequence inside a dark room where water drips from an open window . Buck , Berry , and Mills run across the room while Stipe remains seated . A pitcher of milk drops from the windowsill and shatters , and the song begins . Director Singh drew inspiration from the Italian painter Caravaggio and the Russian filmmaker Andrei Tarkovsky . The video is laden with religious imagery such as Saint Sebastian and Hindu deities , portrayed in a series of tableaux .
The music video was nominated in nine categories at the 1991 MTV Video Music Awards . The video won six awards , including Video of the Year , Best Group Video , Breakthrough Video , Best Art Direction , Best Direction , and Best Editing . " Losing My Religion " also ranked second in the music video category of the 1991 Pazz & Jop poll .
= = MTV Unplugged Session = =
R.E.M. recorded an MTV Unplugged session of " Losing My Religion " with members of the Atlanta Symphony Orchestra to celebrate the 10th anniversary of MTV . The 1991 recording was made in the auditorium of the Madison @-@ Morgan Cultural Center in Madison , Georgia , about 20 miles south of Athens . Subsequently the song won the award for Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals .
= = Cover versions = =
" Weird Al " Yankovic covered the song in his polka medley " Polka Your Eyes Out " from his 1991 album Off the Deep End .
Zambian singer Rozalla released as a cover of the song on her 1995 album Look No Further . It was issued as a US @-@ only single that same year .
Post @-@ hardcore band Scary Kids Scaring Kids covered this song in 2006 for the album Punk Goes 90 's .
Finn Hudson ( Cory Monteith ) covered the song in the 2010 Glee episode " Grilled Cheesus " .
Lacuna Coil covered the song in their 2012 album , Dark Adrenaline .
Graveworm published a cover of the song in their 2003 album Engraved in Black .
Trivium released a cover of the song on the Japanese special edition of their 2013 album Vengeance Falls .
Jacqui Naylor released a cover of the song on her 2008 album You Don 't Know Jacqui .
House music producer Hardwell sampled the song in his 2013 single " Three Triangles ( Losing My Religion ) " .
ApologetiX released a parody , " Proving My Religion " , as a single in September 2014 . The new lyrics are of a Christian trying to live out and share his faith despite adversity .
Gregorian covered this song on their 1999 album Masters of Chant , it was also re @-@ released on the video album The Masterpieces .
Tori Amos covered the song on the soundtrack to the 1995 film Higher Learning .
Runner @-@ up Dia Frampton covered the song on the first season of NBC 's The Voice .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written by Bill Berry , Peter Buck , Mike Mills , and Michael Stipe , except where noted
7 "
" Losing My Religion " – 4 : 29
" Rotary Eleven " – 2 : 32
12 " and Compact Disc
" Losing My Religion " – 4 : 29
" Rotary Eleven " – 2 : 32
" After Hours " ( Lou Reed ) ( Live ) 1 – 2 : 08
UK " Collector 's Edition " CD one
" Losing My Religion " – 4 : 29
" Stand " ( Live ) 1 – 3 : 21
" Turn You Inside @-@ Out " ( Live ) 1 – 4 : 23
" World Leader Pretend " ( Live ) 1 – 4 : 24
UK " Collector 's Edition " CD two
" Losing My Religion " – 4 : 29
" Fretless " – 4 : 51
" Losing My Religion " ( Live acoustic version / Rockline ) – 4 : 38
" Rotary Eleven " – 2 : 32
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
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= Slug ( song ) =
" Slug " is a song by Passengers , a side project of rock band U2 and musician Brian Eno . It is the second track on Passengers ' only release , the 1995 album Original Soundtracks 1 . The track was originally titled " Seibu " and was almost left off the album before it was rediscovered later during the recording sessions . Though Eno made most of the creative decisions during the recording sessions , " Slug " was one of the few tracks that the members from U2 tried to craft themselves .
Lyrically , it is a portrait of a desolate soul during a time of celebration . As Passengers were writing songs for fictional soundtracks , they tried to create a visual suggestion from the music that was more important than the story within the lyrics . In " Slug " , the instrumentation is intended to represent the lights turning on in a city a night . The group primarily drew inspiration for the song from U2 's experiences in Tokyo at the conclusion of the Zoo TV Tour . " Slug " was praised as one of the best songs on the album by critics from various publications .
= = Background and recording = =
U2 and musician Brian Eno intended to record a soundtrack for Peter Greenaway 's 1996 film The Pillow Book . The plan did not come to fruition , however Eno suggested they continue recording music suitable for film soundtracks , as Eno did with his Music for Films album series . The result was Original Soundtracks 1 , an album of ambient and electronic music , created as a side project between U2 and Eno under the pseudonym " Passengers " . Vocalist Bono felt the visual suggestion from the music was more important than the story told by the lyrics , so the band tried to create visual music when recording , continuing a trend that had begun with their 1993 song " Zooropa " . U2 spent time in Shinjuku , Tokyo , at the end of the Zoo TV Tour in 1993 , and their experience in the city influenced the recording sessions . The vivid colours of the street signs and billboards reminded them of the set of the 1982 science @-@ fiction film Blade Runner . Bono has said that Original Soundtracks 1 evoked the setting of a " bullet train in Tokyo " .
Recording sessions for Original Soundtracks 1 began with a two @-@ week session in November 1994 at Westside Studios in London , and continued for an additional five weeks in mid @-@ 1995 at Hanover Quay in Dublin . " Slug " was originally titled " Seibu " , after the Japanese department store of the same name . The song was written to create the visual of lights turning on at dusk in a city like Tokyo , beginning with " tinkling " opening notes resembling Christmas lights , and a gradually rising and falling synthesizer rhythm throughout the song . After recording " Seibu " , the band set it aside , and the piece was forgotten as the sessions progressed . It was almost left off the album , until guitarist The Edge rediscovered the track while looking through the session 's discarded songs . Recognizing its potential to become a great song , The Edge brought " Seibu " to Eno 's attention , and in early June 1995 , Eno listed " Seibu " as a late entry to be considered for the album .
As producer , Eno had most of the artistic control during the sessions , limiting U2 's creative input on the recordings , which prompted The Edge to ensure extra work was put into arranging the song . He has said that along with " Miss Sarajevo " and " Your Blue Room " , " Seibu " was one of only three tracks from the album in which U2 " really dug in [ their ] heels and did more work on and tried to craft " . By early July 1995 , the band renamed the song " Seibu / Slug " , and Eno noted that the piece started to sound better and described it as a " lovely song " . During the final editing of the track , Eno became angry with U2 because they seemed unfocused and he felt he was doing all the work . Bono decided to completely deconstruct the mix of the song . Eno initially disapproved , but was satisfied after hearing the changes . The editing of the track was finalised on 10 July , and The Edge later said he felt his effort to put extra work into the song " paid off " . It was released with the title " Slug " on 7 November 1995 , as the second track on the Passengers album Original Soundtracks 1 ; out of the fourteen tracks on the album , it is one of six tracks to feature vocals . Details of the song 's recording sessions were documented in Eno 's 1996 book , A Year with Swollen Appendices .
As the compositions on Original Soundtracks 1 were written as film soundtrack music , each track is associated with a specific film in the album 's liner notes , which were written by Eno . Four of the fourteen tracks are associated with real films , while " Slug " is credited as having been written for a fictional German film of the same name . The liner notes describe the plot of Slug as the story of a young car mechanic who aspires to attract the attention of a cashier by staging a robbery and pretending to be the hero . However , the " robbers " decide to abandon the scheme and commit an actual robbery , causing a shootout where the cashier accidentally shoots a security guard and is arrested , and the mechanic must find a way to get her released from prison .
= = Composition and lyrics = =
" Slug " runs for 4 minutes , 41 seconds and features a synthesizer rhythm laid over a drum track , with vocals sung by Bono in a murmured voice . Jon Pareles of The New York Times described the song 's sound as a mix of " shimmering echoed guitars with swampy electronic rhythms " . The lyrics are sung in a list @-@ like format and consist of 19 lines , most of which begin with the words " Don 't want " ; the song 's title is included in the lyrics " Don 't want to be a slug " . The line " Don 't want what I deserve " was written by Bono with a sense of " ironic , self @-@ deprecatory humour " . The end result is a depiction of celebration set against the thoughts of a desolate soul , as echoed in the closing verse " Don 't want to change the frame / Don 't want to be a pain / Don 't want to stay the same " , with an undercurrent of confusion regarding the differences between love and faith .
The lyrics were written in five minutes and are derived from U2 's experience in Shinjuku . Bono has compared the lyrics to those in U2 's 1991 song " Tryin ' to Throw Your Arms Around the World " , as both depict the nightlife of a city . Lyrics were also inspired by the presence of the yakuza in Shinjuku ; the group saw gang members with amputated fingers as punishment for their misbehaviour , which Bono has described as a " very , very surreal " experience . He has said that " Slug " was about avoiding harmful mistakes , stating " we all play with things we shouldn 't play with " .
= = Reception = =
" Slug " received positive feedback from critics and was praised as one of the best tracks from the album . Shortly following its release , Tony Fletcher wrote in Newsweek that it is one of the album 's " instantly rewarding songs " and that Bono 's vocals show " genuine tenderness " . The Orange County Register listed " Slug " as one of the best songs on the album , describing it as a " dreamy " track , and The Age and The Dominion both stated that the song features Bono providing his best vocals . Jim DeRogatis of Rolling Stone described " Slug " as one of the album 's most engaging tracks , commenting that it could have been an outtake from Zooropa because of Bono 's " minimal crooning over skeletal backing tracks " .
In retrospective reviews , Pitchfork Media wrote that " Slug " is the high point of the album , featuring a " beautiful , slow @-@ motion groove " , and Slate praised the experimental nature of the song , calling it " lovely and melodic " . Uncut reviewer Alastair McKay described the melody as " clockwork " while noting that Eno 's " yen for melodic simplicity " was evident . In an otherwise critical review of Original Soundtracks 1 , Irvin Tan of Sputnikmusic commented that " Slug " is one of several " strangely beautiful numbers " from the album , and that its " attempt at creating an overarching time / place set actually comes off quite well " . Hot Press editor Niall Stokes said " the song has a genuinely reflective quality and it underlines the fact that , some 15 years on since the release of their debut album Boy , U2 are still running . " The song was featured on Stereogum 's list of " The 31 Best U2 Non @-@ Album Tracks " , which claims the song is unlike any other track that U2 has recorded , describing it as a " hauntingly beautiful entry in U2 's canon " .
= = Personnel = =
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= Tropical Storm Georgette ( 2010 ) =
Tropical Storm Georgette was a short @-@ lived tropical storm that struck the Baja California Sur in September 2010 . Georgette originated from an area of disturbed weather over the eastern Pacific on September 20 . The next day , the system was upgraded into a tropical storm a short distance south of Baja California Sur . As the storm moved over the peninsula , it weakened to a topical depression . It continued north and as such made landfall on mainland Mexico on September 22 . Georgette dissipated early the next day while located inland over Sonora . Although officials noted the threat for heavy rainfall across northwest Mexico and Baja California , damage was minimal and no deaths were reported in the country . However , remnant moisture moved into New Mexico , producing flooding that killed one person .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origins of Tropical Storm Georgette were from a tropical wave that moved off the west coast of Africa on September 1 . Lacking organization , the wave was difficult to track as it moved across the Atlantic basin . Convection eventually increased on September 7 , as the system approached the Lesser Antilles . On September 14 , Hurricane Karl developed from the northern portion of the system over the western Caribbean Sea ; however , the southern portion of the wave crossed northern Central America and entered the Pacific Ocean on September 17 . The area of disturbed weather was first mentioned on the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) around that time , but signification development was initially not anticipated . Wind shear was forecast to decrease slightly ; however , and based on this the NHC gave the system a medium chance of undergoing tropical cyclogenesis during the next two days .
Gradual development took place as convection consolidated around the center of circulation while located west of Sonora . During the afternoon of September 20 , an area of low pressure developed within the system , prompting the NHC to classify it as a tropical depression . At this time , the depression was situated roughly 240 mi ( 390 km ) south @-@ southeast of Cabo San Lucas . Situated along the western edge of a subtropical ridge , the system was steered towards the north @-@ northwest throughout its existence .
Within hours of becoming a depression on September 20 , strong wind shear caused convection to diminish . However , data from an ASCAT scatterometer pass revealed that the system attained gale @-@ force winds , resulting in the depression being upgraded to a tropical storm on 0000 UTC September 21 . Operationally , the first advisory on storm was not issued until 1200 UTC , where it was named Georgette . Meanwhile , thunderstorm activity increased near the center of the storm . Little change took place throughout the day as the storm approached Baja California Sur . Around 1800 UTC , Georgette made landfall near San Jose del Cabo with winds of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) . Additionally , a barometric pressure of 999 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 5 inHg ) was measured . Shortly before entering the Gulf of California , Georgette weakened to a tropical depression . Maintaining winds of 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) , the storm later made a second landfall near San Carlos in Sonora . Shortly after moving inland , the low @-@ level circulation dissipated over the mountains of western Mexico .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Prior to the arrival of Georgette , the Mexican government issued a tropical storm warning for extreme southern Baja California Sur . , but was dropped when Georgette moved inland . Officials warned rural areas in Baja California Sur of heavy rain and high wind . Forecasters at the NHC noted the potential for up to 10 in ( 25 mm ) of rainfall , especially over the higher terrain . The forecasters also noted potential for deadly flooding and mudslides . Officials evacuated over 1 @,@ 000 families from floodplains and opened four shelters in Los Cabos .
In Sonora , the state 's civil protection committee placed the south portion of the state under an " orange " alert , and a " red " alert soon after ; the alert was lifted that same evening , after Georgette moved inland . A total of 52 shelters were opened in the Cajeme municipality . In Guaymas , 300 people from the city and surrounding areas were placed in shelters ; 250 more people sought shelter from Georgette in Empalme . Schools in Bahía Kino and coastal areas of the Hermosillo Municipality suspended classes as a precaution . Classes resumed statewide on September 23 .
Georgette caused the heaviest rains on Baja California Sur in the last 15 years , leaving many people homeless . Georgette also produced high waves . The tropical cyclone worsened Mexico 's flooding problem which started when Hurricane Karl made landfall several days earlier . A peak rainfall total of 5 @.@ 9 in ( 150 mm ) fell in Todos Santos . Throughout Sonora , rainfall up to 4 @.@ 7 in ( 120 mm ) triggered flooding that damaged 220 homes . Georgette caused 2 @.@ 61 in ( 66 mm ) of rainfall in Guaymas Flooding was reported in several places ( Empalme , Etchojoa , Navojoa , Guaymas , Los Mochis ) , causing 500 @,@ 000 people to be evacuated . Heavy runoff caused inflows of 18 @,@ 000 cu ft / s ( 510 m3 / s ) into El Novillo Dam , forcing the Comisión Nacional del Agua , the local water authorities , to release water from the dam .
Moisture from the system combined with an approaching trough to produce heavy rainfall and thunderstorms across New Mexico . A total of 6 @.@ 42 in ( 163 mm ) was reported in Gladstone . The rains caused flooding that killed a person along the Rio Grande near Carnuel .
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= Gilbert Stuart =
Gilbert Charles Stuart ( born Stewart ; December 3 , 1755 – July 9 , 1828 ) was an American painter from Rhode Island .
Gilbert Stuart is widely considered one of America 's foremost portraitists . His best known work is the unfinished portrait of George Washington that is sometimes referred to as The Athenaeum , begun in 1796 and never finished . Stuart retained the portrait and used it to paint 130 copies which he sold for $ 100 each . The image of George Washington featured in the painting has appeared on the United States one @-@ dollar bill for over a century , and on various U.S. Postage stamps of the 19th century and early 20th century .
Throughout his career , Gilbert Stuart produced portraits of over 1 @,@ 000 people , including the first six Presidents of the United States . His work can be found today at art museums throughout the United States and the United Kingdom , most notably the Metropolitan Museum of Art and Frick Collection in New York City , the National Gallery of Art in Washington , D.C. , the National Portrait Gallery , London , Worcester Art Museum in Massachusetts , and the Museum of Fine Arts in Boston .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
Gilbert Stuart was born on December 3 , 1755 in Saunderstown , Rhode Island , a village of North Kingstown , and baptized at Old Narragansett Church on April 11 , 1756 . He was the third child of Gilbert Stewart , a Scottish immigrant employed in the snuff @-@ making industry , and Elizabeth Anthony Stewart , a member of a prominent land @-@ owning family from Middletown , Rhode Island . Stuart 's father worked in the first colonial snuff mill in America , which was located in the basement of the family homestead .
Gilbert Stuart moved to Newport , Rhode Island at the age of six , where his father pursued work in the merchant field . In Newport , Stuart first began to show great promise as a painter . In 1770 , Stuart made the acquaintance of Scottish artist Cosmo Alexander , a visitor of the colonies who made portraits of local patrons and who became a tutor to Stuart . Under the guidance of Alexander , Stuart painted the famous portrait Dr. Hunter 's Spaniels when he was fourteen years old ; it hangs today in the Hunter House Mansion in Newport . The painting is also referred to as Dr. Hunter 's Dogs by some accounts .
In 1771 , Stuart moved to Scotland with Alexander to finish his studies ; however , Alexander died in Edinburgh one year later . Stuart tried to maintain a living and pursue his painting career , but to no avail , so he returned to Newport in 1773 .
= = = England and Ireland = = =
Stuart 's prospects as a portraitist were jeopardized by the onset of the American Revolution and its social disruptions . Stuart departed for England in 1775 following the example set by John Singleton Copley . He was unsuccessful at first in pursuit of his vocation , but he then became a protégé of Benjamin West with whom he studied for the next six years . The relationship was beneficial , with Stuart exhibiting at the Royal Academy as early as 1777 .
By 1782 , Stuart had met with success , largely due to acclaim for The Skater , a portrait of William Grant . It was Stuart 's first full @-@ length portrait and , according to art historian Margaret C. S. Christman , it " belied the prevailing opinion that Stuart ' made a tolerable likeness of a face , but as to the figure , he could not get below the fifth button ' " . Stuart said that he was " suddenly lifted into fame by a single picture " .
At one point , the prices for his pictures were exceeded only by those of renowned English artists Joshua Reynolds and Thomas Gainsborough . Despite his many commissions , however , Stuart was habitually neglectful of finances and was in danger of being sent to debtors ' prison . During this period , he married Charlotte Coates . In 1787 , he fled to Dublin , Ireland where he painted and accumulated debt with equal vigor .
= = = New York and Philadelphia = = =
Stuart ended his 18 @-@ year stay in the British Isles in 1793 , leaving behind numerous unfinished paintings . He returned to the United States and settled briefly in New York City . In 1795 , he moved to Germantown , Pennsylvania , near ( and now part of ) Philadelphia , where he opened a studio . It was here that he gained a foothold in the art world and lasting fame with pictures of many important Americans of the day .
Stuart painted George Washington in a series of iconic portraits , each of them leading in turn to a demand for copies , and keeping Stuart busy and highly paid for years . The most famous and celebrated of these likenesses is known as The Athenaeum and is currently portrayed on the United States one dollar bill . Stuart , along with his daughters , painted a total of 130 reproductions of The Athenaeum . However , he never completed the original version ; after finishing Washington 's face , he kept the original version to make the copies . He sold up to 70 of his reproductions for a price of US $ 100 each , but the original portrait was left unfinished at the time of Stuart 's death in 1828 . The painting was jointly purchased by the National Portrait Gallery and Museum of Fine Arts , Boston in 1980 , and was on display in the National Portrait Gallery in Washington , D.C. in late 2014 .
Another celebrated image of Washington is the Lansdowne portrait , a large portrait with one version hanging in the East Room of the White House . This painting was saved during the burning of Washington by British troops in the War of 1812 through the intervention of First Lady Dolley Madison and Paul Jennings , one of President James Madison 's slaves . Four versions of the portrait are attributed to Stuart , and additional copies were painted by other artists for display in U.S. government buildings . In 1803 , Stuart opened a studio in Washington , D. C.
= = = Boston , 1805 – 1828 = = =
Stuart moved to Devonshire Street in Boston in 1805 , continuing in both critical acclaim and financial troubles . He exhibited works locally at Doggett 's Repository and Julien Hall . He was sought out for advice by other artists , such as John Trumbull , Thomas Sully , Washington Allston , and John Vanderlyn . In 1824 , he suffered a stroke , which left him partially paralyzed ; but nevertheless , he continued to paint for two years until his death in Boston on July 9 , 1828 at the age of 72 . He was buried in the Old South Burial Ground of the Boston Common . Stuart left his family deeply in debt , and his wife and daughters were unable to purchase a grave site . He was , therefore , buried in an unmarked grave which was purchased cheaply from Benjamin Howland , a local carpenter .
The Boston Athenæum held a benefit exhibition of his works in August 1828 in an effort to provide financial aid for Stuart 's family . Over 250 portraits were lent for this critically acclaimed and well @-@ subscribed exhibition . This also marked the first public showing of Stuart 's unfinished 1796 Athenæum Head portrait of Washington .
Stuart 's family recovered from their financial troubles roughly ten years later , and they planned to move his body to a family cemetery in Newport , Rhode Island . However , they could not remember the exact location of his body , and it was never moved .
= = Legacy = =
By the end of his career , Gilbert Stuart had taken the likenesses of more than one thousand American political and social figures . He was praised for the vitality and naturalness of his portraits , and his subjects found his company agreeable . John Adams , for example , said :
Speaking generally , no penance is like having one 's picture done . You must sit in a constrained and unnatural position , which is a trial to the temper . But I should like to sit to Stuart from the first of January to the last of December , for he lets me do just what I please , and keeps me constantly amused by his conversation .
Stuart was known for working without the aid of sketches , beginning directly upon the canvas . This was very unusual for the time period . His approach is suggested by the advice which he gave to his pupil Matthew Harris Jouett : " Never be sparing of colour , load your pictures , but keep your colours as separate as you can . No blending , tis destruction to clear & bea [ u ] tiful effect . "
Stuart 's works can be found today at art museums and private collections throughout the United States and Great Britain , including the University Club in New York City , the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City , the National Gallery of Art in Washington , D.C. , the National Portrait Gallery in London , and the Museum of Fine Arts in Boston .
His daughter Jane Stuart ( 1812 – 1888 ) was also a painter . She sold many of his paintings and her replicas of them from her studios in Boston and Newport , Rhode Island .
A life mask of Stuart was created by John Henri Isaac Browere around 1825 .
In 1940 , the U.S. Post Office issued a series of Postage stamps called the " Famous Americans Series " commemorating famous artists , authors , inventors , scientists , poets , educators , and musicians . Gilbert Stuart is found on the 1 cent issue in the artists category , along with James McNeil Whistler , Augustus Saint @-@ Gaudens , Daniel Chester French , and Frederic Remington .
Today , Stuart 's birthplace in Saunderstown , Rhode Island is open to the public as the Gilbert Stuart Birthplace and Museum . The museum consists of the original house which Stuart was born in , with copies of paintings from throughout his career hanging throughout the house . The museum opened in 1930 .
= = Notable people painted = =
This is a partial list of portraits painted by Stuart .
Abigail Adams - Second First Lady of the United States , wife of John Adams
John Adams - Second President of the United States
John Quincy Adams - Sixth President of the United States
John Jacob Astor - First American multi @-@ millionaire , fur trader , art patron
John Bannister - Owner of Bannister 's Wharf in Newport , Rhode Island
Commodore John Barry - Father of the American Navy
Ann Willing Bingham - Philadelphia socialite
Horace Binney - Prominent Philadelphia lawyer
Hugh Henry Brackenridge - early American writer , Pennsylvania Supreme Court justice , and founder of the University of Pittsburgh
Jean Baptiste Casmiere Breschard - Performer and theatrical impresario
Rosalie Stier Calvert - Belgian born heiress and mother of Charles Benedict Calvert
Mary Willing Clymer - Philadelphia socialite
John Singleton Copley - American colonial portraitist
Horatio Gates - American Revolutionary War general
King George III - King of United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland , 1760 – 1820
King George IV - King of United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland , 1820 – 30
John Jay - First Chief Justice of the United States Supreme Court
Thomas Jefferson - Third President of the United States
Rufus King - a signer of United States Constitution .
Robert Kingsmill - Admiral in Royal Navy during American and French Revolutionary Wars
King Louis XVI - King of France , 1774 - 1792
James Madison - Fourth President of the United States
Daniel McCormick - New York merchant and banker
Samuel Miles - Revolutionary War General , Philadelphia Mayor , and America 's first faithless elector
James Monroe - Fifth President of the United States
Daniel Pinckney Parker - Prominent Boston Merchant
John Randolph of Roanoke - Virginia Congressman and Senator
Joshua Reynolds - English artist
Henry Rice - Boston merchant and Massachusetts state legislator
Thomas Townshend , 1st Viscount Sydney , in whose honour the cities of Sydney in New South Wales , Australia and Sydney in Nova Scotia , Canada , are named , in 1785 and 1788 respectively .
George Washington - First President of the United States
Martha Washington - First First Lady of the United States , wife of George Washington
Benjamin West - American painter
Catherine Brass Yates - Philadelphia socialite
= = Portrait gallery = =
= = Stuart 's art on postage stamps = =
Gilbert Stuart 's paintings of Washington , Jefferson and others have been served as models for the engravings found on dozens of U.S. Postage stamps released over the years . Washington 's image from the famous Washington portrait , The Athenaeum , is probably the most noted example of Stuart 's work on U.S. Postage .
For other examples of Stuart 's art on US Postage see : US Presidents on US postage stamps
= = Artworks = =
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= San Diego =
San Diego / ˌsæn diːˈeɪɡoʊ / ( Spanish for " Saint Didacus " ) is a major city in California , in San Diego County , on the coast of the Pacific Ocean in Southern California , approximately 120 miles ( 190 km ) south of Los Angeles and immediately adjacent to the border with Mexico .
With an estimated population of 1 @,@ 394 @,@ 928 as of July 1 , 2015 , San Diego is the eighth @-@ largest city in the United States and second @-@ largest in California . It is part of the San Diego – Tijuana conurbation , the second @-@ largest transborder agglomeration between the US and a bordering country after Detroit – Windsor , with a population of 4 @,@ 922 @,@ 723 people . San Diego is the birthplace of California and is known for its mild year @-@ round climate , natural deep @-@ water harbor , extensive beaches , long association with the United States Navy and recent emergence as a healthcare and biotechnology development center .
Historically home to the Kumeyaay people , San Diego was the first site visited by Europeans on what is now the West Coast of the United States . Upon landing in San Diego Bay in 1542 , Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo claimed the entire area for Spain , forming the basis for the settlement of Alta California 200 years later . The Presidio and Mission San Diego de Alcalá , founded in 1769 , formed the first European settlement in what is now California . In 1821 , San Diego became part of the newly @-@ independent Mexico , which reformed as the First Mexican Republic two years later . In 1850 , it became part of the United States following the Mexican – American War and the admission of California to the union .
The city is the seat of San Diego County and is the economic center of the region as well as the San Diego – Tijuana metropolitan area . San Diego 's main economic engines are military and defense @-@ related activities , tourism , international trade , and manufacturing . The presence of the University of California , San Diego ( UCSD ) , with the affiliated UCSD Medical Center , has helped make the area a center of research in biotechnology .
= = History = =
= = = Pre @-@ colonial period = = =
The original inhabitants of the region are now known as the San Dieguito and La Jolla people . The area of San Diego has been inhabited by the Kumeyaay people .
= = = Spanish period = = =
The first European to visit the region was Portuguese @-@ born explorer Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo sailing under the flag of Castile . Sailing his flagship San Salvador from Navidad , New Spain , Cabrillo claimed the bay for the Spanish Empire in 1542 , and named the site ' San Miguel ' . In November 1602 , Sebastián Vizcaíno was sent to map the California coast . Arriving on his flagship San Diego , Vizcaíno surveyed the harbor and what are now Mission Bay and Point Loma and named the area for the Catholic Saint Didacus , a Spaniard more commonly known as San Diego de Alcalá . On November 12 , 1602 , the first Christian religious service of record in Alta California was conducted by Friar Antonio de la Ascensión , a member of Vizcaíno 's expedition , to celebrate the feast day of San Diego .
In May 1769 , Gaspar de Portolà established the Fort Presidio of San Diego on a hill near the San Diego River . It was the first settlement by Europeans in what is now the state of California . In July of the same year , Mission San Diego de Alcalá was founded by Franciscan friars under Junípero Serra . By 1797 , the mission boasted the largest native population in Alta California , with over 1 @,@ 400 neophytes living in and around the mission proper . Mission San Diego was the southern anchor in California of the historic mission trail El Camino Real . Both the Presidio and the Mission are National Historic Landmarks .
= = = Mexican period = = =
In 1821 , Mexico won its independence from Spain , and San Diego became part of the Mexican territory of Alta California . In 1822 , Mexico began attempting to extend its authority over the coastal territory of Alta California . The fort on Presidio Hill was gradually abandoned , while the town of San Diego grew up on the level land below Presidio Hill . The Mission was secularized by the Mexican government in 1833 , and most of the Mission lands were sold to wealthy Californio settlers . The 432 residents of the town petitioned the governor to form a pueblo , and Juan María Osuna was elected the first alcalde ( " municipal magistrate " ) , defeating Pío Pico in the vote . ( See , List of pre @-@ statehood mayors of San Diego . ) However , San Diego had been losing population throughout the 1830s and in 1838 the town lost its pueblo status because its size dropped to an estimated 100 to 150 residents . Beyond town Mexican land grants expanded the number of California ranchos that modestly added to the local economy .
In 1846 , the United States went to war against Mexico and sent a naval and land expedition to conquer Alta California . At first they had an easy time of it capturing the major ports including San Diego , but the Californios in southern Alta California struck back . Following the successful revolt in Los Angeles , the American garrison at San Diego was driven out without firing a shot in early October 1846 . Mexican partisans held San Diego for three weeks until October 24 , 1846 , when the Americans recaptured it . For the next several months the Americans were blockaded inside the pueblo . Skirmishes occurred daily and snipers shot into the town every night . The Californios drove cattle away from the pueblo hoping to starve the Americans and their Californio supporters out . On December 1 the Americans garrison learned that the dragoons of General Stephen W. Kearney were at Warner 's Ranch . Commodore Robert F. Stockton sent a mounted force of fifty under Captain Archibald Gillespie to march north to meet him . Their joint command of 150 men , returning to San Diego , encountered about 93 Californios under Andrés Pico . In the ensuing Battle of San Pasqual , fought in the San Pasqual Valley which is now part of the city of San Diego , the Americans suffered their worst losses in the campaign . Subsequently a column led by Lieutenant Gray arrived from San Diego , rescuing Kearny 's battered and blockaded command .
Stockton and Kearny went on to recover Los Angeles and force the capitulation of Alta California with the " Treaty of Cahuenga " on January 13 , 1847 . As a result of the Mexican – American War of 1846 – 48 , the territory of Alta California , including San Diego , was ceded to the United States by Mexico , under the terms of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in 1848 . The Mexican negotiators of that treaty tried to retain San Diego as part of Mexico , but the Americans insisted that San Diego was " for every commercial purpose of nearly equal importance to us with that of San Francisco , " and the Mexican @-@ American border was eventually established to be one league south of the southernmost point of San Diego Bay , so as to include the entire bay within the United States .
= = = American period = = =
The state of California was admitted to the United States in 1850 . That same year San Diego was designated the seat of the newly established San Diego County and was incorporated as a city . Joshua H. Bean , the last alcalde of San Diego , was elected the first mayor . Two years later the city was bankrupt ; the California legislature revoked the city 's charter and placed it under control of a board of trustees , where it remained until 1889 . A city charter was re @-@ established in 1889 and today 's city charter was adopted in 1931 .
The original town of San Diego was located at the foot of Presidio Hill , in the area which is now Old Town San Diego State Historic Park . The location was not ideal , being several miles away from navigable water . In 1850 , William Heath Davis promoted a new development by the Bay shore called " New San Diego " , several miles south of the original settlement ; however , for several decades the new development consisted only a few houses , a pier and an Army depot . In the late 1860s , Alonzo Horton promoted a move to the bayside area , which he called " New Town " and which became Downtown San Diego . Horton promoted the area heavily , and people and businesses began to relocate to New Town because of its location on San Diego Bay convenient to shipping . New Town soon eclipsed the original settlement , known to this day as Old Town , and became the economic and governmental heart of the city . Still , San Diego remained a relative backwater town until the arrival of a railroad connection in 1878 .
In the early part of the 20th century , San Diego hosted two World 's Fairs : the Panama @-@ California Exposition in 1915 and the California Pacific International Exposition in 1935 . Both expositions were held in Balboa Park , and many of the Spanish / Baroque @-@ style buildings that were built for those expositions remain to this day as central features of the park . The buildings were intended to be temporary structures , but most remained in continuous use until they progressively fell into disrepair . Most were eventually rebuilt , using castings of the original façades to retain the architectural style . The menagerie of exotic animals featured at the 1915 exposition provided the basis for the San Diego Zoo . During the 1950s there was a citywide festival called Fiesta del Pacifico highlighting the area 's Spanish and Mexican past . In the 2010s there was a proposal for a large @-@ scale celebration of the 100th anniversary of Balboa Park , but the plans were abandoned when the organization tasked with putting on the celebration went out of business .
The southern portion of the Point Loma peninsula was set aside for military purposes as early as 1852 . Over the next several decades the Army set up a series of coastal artillery batteries and named the area Fort Rosecrans . Significant U.S. Navy presence began in 1901 with the establishment of the Navy Coaling Station in Point Loma , and expanded greatly during the 1920s . By 1930 , the city was host to Naval Base San Diego , Naval Training Center San Diego , San Diego Naval Hospital , Camp Matthews , and Camp Kearny ( now Marine Corps Air Station Miramar ) . The city was also an early center for aviation : as early as World War I , San Diego was proclaiming itself " The Air Capital of the West " . The city was home to important airplane developers and manufacturers like Ryan Airlines ( later Ryan Aeronautical ) , founded in 1925 , and Consolidated Aircraft ( later Convair ) , founded in 1923 . Charles A. Lindbergh 's plane The Spirit of St. Louis was built in San Diego in 1927 by Ryan Airlines .
During World War II , San Diego became a major hub of military and defense activity , due to the presence of so many military installations and defense manufacturers . The city 's population grew rapidly during and after World War II , more than doubling between 1930 ( 147 @,@ 995 ) and 1950 ( 333 @,@ 865 ) . During the final months of the war , the Japanese had a plan to target multiple U.S. cities for biological attack , starting with San Diego . The plan was called " Operation Cherry Blossoms at Night " and called for kamikaze planes filled with fleas infected with plague ( Yersinia pestis ) to crash into civilian population centers in the city , hoping to spread plague in the city and effectively kill tens of thousands of civilians . The plan was scheduled to launch on September 22 , 1945 , but was not carried out because Japan surrendered five weeks earlier .
After World War II , the military continued to play a major role in the local economy , but post @-@ Cold War cutbacks took a heavy toll on the local defense and aerospace industries . The resulting downturn led San Diego leaders to seek to diversify the city 's economy by focusing on research and science , as well as tourism .
From the start of the 20th century through the 1970s , the American tuna fishing fleet and tuna canning industry were based in San Diego , " the tuna capital of the world " . San Diego 's first tuna cannery was founded in 1911 , and by the mid @-@ 1930s the canneries employed more than 1 @,@ 000 people . A large fishing fleet supported the canneries , mostly staffed by immigrant fishermen from Japan , and later from the Portuguese Azores and Italy whose influence is still felt in neighborhoods like Little Italy and Point Loma . Due to rising costs and foreign competition , the last of the canneries closed in the early 1980s .
Downtown San Diego was in decline in the 1960s and 1970s , but experienced some urban renewal since the early 1980s , including the opening of Horton Plaza , the revival of the Gaslamp Quarter , and the construction of the San Diego Convention Center ; Petco Park opened in 2004 .
= = Geography = =
According to SDSU professor emeritus Monte Marshall , San Diego Bay is " the surface expression of a north @-@ south @-@ trending , nested graben " . The Rose Canyon and Point Loma fault zones are part of the San Andreas Fault system . About 15 miles ( 24 km ) east of the bay are the Laguna Mountains in the Peninsular Ranges , which are part of the backbone of the American continents .
The city lies on approximately 200 deep canyons and hills separating its mesas , creating small pockets of natural open space scattered throughout the city and giving it a hilly geography . Traditionally , San Diegans have built their homes and businesses on the mesas , while leaving the urban canyons relatively wild . Thus , the canyons give parts of the city a segmented feel , creating gaps between otherwise proximate neighborhoods and contributing to a low @-@ density , car @-@ centered environment . The San Diego River runs through the middle of San Diego from east to west , creating a river valley which serves to divide the city into northern and southern segments . The river used to flow into San Diego Bay and its fresh water was the focus of the earliest Spanish explorers . Several reservoirs and Mission Trails Regional Park also lie between and separate developed areas of the city .
Notable peaks within the city limits include Cowles Mountain , the highest point in the city at 1 @,@ 591 feet ( 485 m ) ; Black Mountain at 1 @,@ 558 feet ( 475 m ) ; and Mount Soledad at 824 feet ( 251 m ) . The Cuyamaca Mountains and Laguna Mountains rise to the east of the city , and beyond the mountains are desert areas . The Cleveland National Forest is a half @-@ hour drive from downtown San Diego . Numerous farms are found in the valleys northeast and southeast of the city .
In its 2013 ParkScore ranking , The Trust for Public Land reported that San Diego had the 9th @-@ best park system among the 50 most populous U.S. cities . ParkScore ranks city park systems by a formula that analyzes acreage , access , and service and investment .
= = = Communities and neighborhoods = = =
The city of San Diego recognizes 52 individual areas as Community Planning Areas . Within a given planning area there may be several distinct neighborhoods . Altogether the city contains more than 100 identified neighborhoods .
Downtown San Diego is located on San Diego Bay . Balboa Park encompasses several mesas and canyons to the northeast , surrounded by older , dense urban communities including Hillcrest and North Park . To the east and southeast lie City Heights , the College Area , and Southeast San Diego . To the north lies Mission Valley and Interstate 8 . The communities north of the valley and freeway , and south of Marine Corps Air Station Miramar , include Clairemont , Kearny Mesa , Tierrasanta , and Navajo . Stretching north from Miramar are the northern suburbs of Mira Mesa , Scripps Ranch , Rancho Peñasquitos , and Rancho Bernardo . The far northeast portion of the city encompasses Lake Hodges and the San Pasqual Valley , which holds an agricultural preserve . Carmel Valley and Del Mar Heights occupy the northwest corner of the city . To their south are Torrey Pines State Reserve and the business center of the Golden Triangle . Further south are the beach and coastal communities of La Jolla , Pacific Beach , Mission Beach , and Ocean Beach . Point Loma occupies the peninsula across San Diego Bay from downtown . The communities of South San Diego , such as San Ysidro and Otay Mesa , are located next to the Mexico – United States border , and are physically separated from the rest of the city by the cities of National City and Chula Vista . A narrow strip of land at the bottom of San Diego Bay connects these southern neighborhoods with the rest of the city .
For the most part , San Diego neighborhood boundaries tend to be understood by its residents based on geographical boundaries like canyons and street patterns . The city recognized the importance of its neighborhoods when it organized its 2008 General Plan around the concept of a " City of Villages " .
= = = Cityscape = = =
San Diego was originally centered in the Old Town district , but by the late 1860s the center of focus had relocated to the bayfront in the belief that this new location would increase trade . As the " New Town " – present @-@ day Downtown – waterfront location quickly developed , it eclipsed Old Town as the center of San Diego .
The development of skyscrapers over 300 feet ( 91 m ) in San Diego is attributed to the construction of the El Cortez Hotel in 1927 , the tallest building in the city from 1927 to 1963 . As time went on multiple buildings claimed the title of San Diego 's tallest skyscraper , including the Union Bank of California Building and Symphony Towers . Currently the tallest building in San Diego is One America Plaza , standing 500 feet ( 150 m ) tall , which was completed in 1991 . The downtown skyline contains no super @-@ talls , as a regulation put in place by the Federal Aviation Administration in the 1970s set a 500 feet ( 152 m ) limit on the height of buildings within a one @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) radius of the San Diego International Airport . An iconic description of the skyline includes its skyscrapers being compared to the tools of a toolbox .
= = = Climate = = =
San Diego is one of the top @-@ ten best climates in the Farmers ' Almanac and is one of the two best summer climates in America as scored by The Weather Channel . Under the Köppen – Geiger climate classification system , the San Diego area has been variously categorized as having either a semi @-@ arid climate ( BSh in the original classification and BSkn in modified Köppen classification ) or a Mediterranean climate ( Csa and Csb ) . San Diego 's climate is characterized by warm , dry summers and mild winters with most of the annual precipitation falling between December and March . The city has a mild climate year @-@ round , with an average of 201 days above 70 ° F ( 21 ° C ) and low rainfall ( 9 – 13 inches [ 230 – 330 mm ] annually ) . Dewpoints in the summer months range from 57 @.@ 0 ° F ( 13 @.@ 9 ° C ) to 62 @.@ 4 ° F ( 16 @.@ 9 ° C ) .
The climate in San Diego , like most of Southern California , often varies significantly over short geographical distances resulting in microclimates . In San Diego , this is mostly because of the city 's topography ( the Bay , and the numerous hills , mountains , and canyons ) . Frequently , particularly during the " May gray / June gloom " period , a thick " marine layer " cloud cover keeps the air cool and damp within a few miles of the coast , but yields to bright cloudless sunshine approximately 5 – 10 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 – 16 @.@ 1 km ) inland . Sometimes the June gloom lasts into July , causing cloudy skies over most of San Diego for the entire day . Even in the absence of June gloom , inland areas experience much more significant temperature variations than coastal areas , where the ocean serves as a moderating influence . Thus , for example , downtown San Diego averages January lows of 50 ° F ( 10 ° C ) and August highs of 78 ° F ( 26 ° C ) . The city of El Cajon , just 10 miles ( 16 km ) inland from downtown San Diego , averages January lows of 42 ° F ( 6 ° C ) and August highs of 88 ° F ( 31 ° C ) .
A sign of global warming , scientists at Scripps Institution of Oceanography say the average surface temperature of the water at Scripps Pier in the California Current has increased by almost 3 degrees since 1950 .
Rainfall along the coast averages about 10 inches ( 250 mm ) of precipitation annually . The average ( mean ) rainfall is 10 @.@ 65 inches ( 271 mm ) and the median is 9 @.@ 6 inches ( 240 mm ) . Most of the rainfall occurs during the cooler months . The months of December through March supply most of the rain , with February the only month averaging 2 inches ( 51 mm ) or more of rain . The months of May through September tend to be almost completely dry . Though there are few wet days per month during the rainy period , rainfall can be heavy when it does fall . Rainfall is usually greater in the higher elevations of San Diego ; some of the higher elevation areas of San Diego can receive 11 – 15 inches ( 280 – 380 mm ) of rain a year . Variability of rainfall can be extreme : in the wettest years of 1883 / 1884 and 1940 / 1941 more than 24 inches ( 610 mm ) fell in the city , whilst in the driest years as little as 3 @.@ 2 inches ( 80 mm ) has fallen for a full year . The wettest month on record has been December 1921 with 9 @.@ 21 inches ( 234 mm ) .
Snow in the city is so rare that it has been observed only five times in the century @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half that records have been kept . In 1949 and 1967 , snow stayed on the ground for a few hours in higher locations like Point Loma and La Jolla . The other three occasions , in 1882 , 1946 , and 1987 , involved flurries but no accumulation .
= = = Ecology = = =
Like most of southern California , the majority of San Diego 's current area was originally occupied by chaparral , a plant community made up mostly of drought @-@ resistant shrubs . The endangered Torrey pine has the bulk of its population in San Diego in a stretch of protected chaparral along the coast . The steep and varied topography and proximity to the ocean create a number of different habitats within the city limits , including tidal marsh and canyons . The chaparral and coastal sage scrub habitats in low elevations along the coast are prone to wildfire , and the rates of fire have increased in the 20th century , due primarily to fires starting near the borders of urban and wild areas .
San Diego 's broad city limits encompass a number of large nature preserves , including Torrey Pines State Reserve , Los Peñasquitos Canyon Preserve , and Mission Trails Regional Park . Torrey Pines State Reserve and a coastal strip continuing to the north constitute the only location where the rare species of Torrey Pine , P. torreyana torreyana , is found .
Due to the steep topography that prevents or discourages building , along with some efforts for preservation , there are also a large number of canyons within the city limits that serve as nature preserves , including Switzer Canyon , Tecolote Canyon Natural Park , and Marian Bear Memorial Park in the San Clemente Canyon , as well as a number of small parks and preserves .
San Diego County has one of the highest counts of animal and plant species that appear on the endangered species list among counties in the United States . Because of its diversity of habitat and its position on the Pacific Flyway , San Diego County has recorded the presence of 492 bird species , more than any other region in the country . San Diego always scores very high in the number of bird species observed in the annual Christmas Bird Count , sponsored by the Audubon Society , and it is known as one of the " birdiest " areas in the United States .
San Diego and its backcountry are subject to periodic wildfires . In October 2003 , San Diego was the site of the Cedar Fire , which has been called the largest wildfire in California over the past century . The fire burned 280 @,@ 000 acres ( 1 @,@ 100 km2 ) , killed 15 people , and destroyed more than 2 @,@ 200 homes . In addition to damage caused by the fire , smoke resulted in a significant increase in emergency room visits due to asthma , respiratory problems , eye irritation , and smoke inhalation ; the poor air quality caused San Diego County schools to close for a week . Wildfires four years later destroyed some areas , particularly within the communities of Rancho Bernardo , Rancho Santa Fe , and Ramona .
= = Demographics = =
The city had a population of 1 @,@ 307 @,@ 402 according to the 2010 census , distributed over a land area of 372 @.@ 1 square miles ( 963 @.@ 7 km2 ) . The urban area of San Diego extends beyond the administrative city limits and had a total population of 2 @,@ 956 @,@ 746 , making it the third @-@ largest urban area in the state , after that of the Los Angeles metropolitan area and San Francisco metropolitan area . They , along with the Riverside – San Bernardino , form those metropolitan areas in California larger than the San Diego metropolitan area , with a total population of 3 @,@ 095 @,@ 313 at the 2010 census .
As of the Census of 2010 , there were 1 @,@ 307 @,@ 402 people living in the city of San Diego . That represents a population increase of just under 7 % from the 1 @,@ 223 @,@ 400 people , 450 @,@ 691 households , and 271 @,@ 315 families reported in 2000 . The estimated city population in 2009 was 1 @,@ 306 @,@ 300 . The population density was 3 @,@ 771 @.@ 9 inhabitants per square mile ( 1 @,@ 456 @.@ 3 / km2 ) . The racial makeup of San Diego was 45 @.@ 1 % White , 6 @.@ 7 % African American , 0 @.@ 6 % Native American , 15 @.@ 9 % Asian ( 5 @.@ 9 % Filipino , 2 @.@ 7 % Chinese , 2 @.@ 5 % Vietnamese , 1 @.@ 3 % Indian , 1 @.@ 0 % Korean , 0 @.@ 7 % Japanese , 0 @.@ 4 % Laotian , 0 @.@ 3 % Cambodian , 0 @.@ 1 % Thai ) . 0 @.@ 5 % Pacific Islander ( 0 @.@ 2 % Guamanian , 0 @.@ 1 % Samoan , 0 @.@ 1 % Native Hawaiian ) , 12 @.@ 3 % from other races , and 5 @.@ 1 % from two or more races . The ethnic makeup of the city was 28 @.@ 8 % Hispanic or Latino ( of any race ) ; 24 @.@ 9 % of the total population were Mexican American , and 0 @.@ 6 % were Puerto Rican .
As of December 2012 , San Diego has the third @-@ largest homeless population in the United States ; the city 's homeless population has the largest percentage of homeless veterans in the nation .
As of January 1 , 2008 estimates by the San Diego Association of Governments revealed that the household median income for San Diego rose to $ 66 @,@ 715 , up from $ 45 @,@ 733 , and that the city population rose to 1 @,@ 336 @,@ 865 , up 9 @.@ 3 % from 2000 . The population was 45 @.@ 3 % non @-@ Hispanic whites , down from 78 @.@ 9 % in 1970 , 27 @.@ 7 % Hispanics , 15 @.@ 6 % Asians / Pacific Islanders , 7 @.@ 1 % blacks , 0 @.@ 4 % American Indians , and 3 @.@ 9 % from other races . Median age of Hispanics was 27 @.@ 5 years , compared to 35 @.@ 1 years overall and 41 @.@ 6 years among non @-@ Hispanic whites ; Hispanics were the largest group in all ages under 18 , and non @-@ Hispanic whites constituted 63 @.@ 1 % of population 55 and older .
In 2000 there were 451 @,@ 126 households out of which 30 @.@ 2 % had children under the age of 18 living with them , 44 @.@ 6 % were married couples living together , 11 @.@ 4 % had a female householder with no husband present , and 39 @.@ 8 % were non @-@ families . Households made up of individuals account for 28 @.@ 0 % and 7 @.@ 4 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older . The average household size was 2 @.@ 61 and the average family size was 3 @.@ 30 .
The U.S. Census Bureau reported that in 2000 , 24 @.@ 0 % of San Diego residents were under 18 , and 10 @.@ 5 % were 65 and over . As of 2011 the median age was 35 @.@ 6 ; more than a quarter of residents were under age 20 and 11 % were over age 65 . Millennials ( ages 18 through 34 ) constitute 27 @.@ 1 % of San Diego 's population , the second @-@ highest percentage in a major U.S. city . The San Diego County regional planning agency , SANDAG , provides tables and graphs breaking down the city population into 5 @-@ year age groups .
In 2000 , the median income for a household in the city was $ 45 @,@ 733 , and the median income for a family was $ 53 @,@ 060 . Males had a median income of $ 36 @,@ 984 versus $ 31 @,@ 076 for females . The per capita income for the city was $ 23 @,@ 609 . According to Forbes in 2005 , San Diego was the fifth wealthiest U.S. city but about 10 @.@ 6 % of families and 14 @.@ 6 % of the population were below the poverty line , including 20 @.@ 0 % of those under age 18 and 7 @.@ 6 % of those age 65 or over . Nonetheless , San Diego was rated the fifth @-@ best place to live in the United States in 2006 by Money magazine .
San Diego was named the ninth @-@ most LGBT @-@ friendly city in the U.S. in 2013 . The city also has the seventh @-@ highest percentage of gay residents in the U.S. Additionally in 2013 , San Diego State University ( SDSU ) , one of the city 's prominent universities , was named one of the top LGBT @-@ friendly campuses in the nation .
According to a 2014 study by the Pew Research Center , 68 % of the population of the city identified themselves as Christians , with 22 % professing attendance at a variety of churches that could be considered Protestant , and 32 % professing Roman Catholic beliefs. while 27 % claim no religious affiliation . The same study says that other religions ( including Judaism , Buddhism , Islam , and Hinduism ) collectively make up about 5 % of the population .
= = Economy = =
The largest sectors of San Diego 's economy are defense / military , tourism , international trade , and research / manufacturing , respectively . In 2014 , San Diego was designated by a Forbes columnist as the best city in the country to launch a small business or startup company .
= = = Defense and military = = =
The economy of San Diego is influenced by its deepwater port , which includes the only major submarine and shipbuilding yards on the West Coast . Several major national defense contractors were started and are headquartered in San Diego , including General Atomics , Cubic , and NASSCO .
San Diego hosts the largest naval fleet in the world : In 2008 it was home to 53 ships , over 120 tenant commands , and more than 35 @,@ 000 sailors , soldiers , Department of Defense civilian employees and contractors . About 5 percent of all civilian jobs in the county are military @-@ related , and 15 @,@ 000 businesses in San Diego County rely on Department of Defense contracts .
Military bases in San Diego include US Navy facilities , Marine Corps bases , and Coast Guard stations . The city is " home to the majority of the U.S. Pacific Fleet 's surface combatants , all of the Navy 's West Coast amphibious ships and a variety of Coast Guard and Military Sealift Command vessels " .
= = = Tourism = = =
Tourism is a major industry owing to the city 's climate , its beaches , and numerous tourist attractions such as Balboa Park , Belmont amusement park , San Diego Zoo , San Diego Zoo Safari Park , and SeaWorld San Diego . San Diego 's Spanish and Mexican heritage is reflected in the many historic sites across the city , such as Mission San Diego de Alcala and Old Town San Diego State Historic Park . Also , the local craft brewing industry attracts an increasing number of visitors for " beer tours " and the annual San Diego Beer Week in November ; San Diego has been called " America 's Craft Beer Capital . "
San Diego County hosted more than 32 million visitors in 2012 ; collectively they spent an estimated $ 8 billion locally . The visitor industry provides employment for more than 160 @,@ 000 people .
San Diego 's cruise ship industry used to be the second @-@ largest in California . Numerous cruise lines operate out of San Diego . However , cruise ship business has been in steady decline since peaking in 2008 , when the Port hosted over 250 ship calls and more than 900 @,@ 000 passengers . By 2011 the number of ship calls had fallen to 103 ( estimated ) .
Local sight @-@ seeing cruises are offered in San Diego Bay and Mission Bay . Also available are whale @-@ watching cruises to observe the migration of gray whales , peaking in mid @-@ January . Sport fishing is another popular tourist attraction ; San Diego is home to Southern California 's biggest sport fishing fleet .
= = = International trade = = =
San Diego 's commercial port and its location on the United States @-@ Mexico border make international trade an important factor in the city 's economy . The city is authorized by the United States government to operate as a Foreign Trade Zone .
The city shares a 15 @-@ mile ( 24 km ) border with Mexico that includes two border crossings . San Diego hosts the busiest international border crossing in the world , in the San Ysidro neighborhood at the San Ysidro Port of Entry . A second , primarily commercial border crossing operates in the Otay Mesa area ; it is the largest commercial crossing on the California @-@ Baja California border and handles the third @-@ highest volume of trucks and dollar value of trade among all United States @-@ Mexico land crossings .
One of the Port of San Diego 's two cargo facilities is located in Downtown San Diego at the Tenth Avenue Marine Terminal . This terminal has facilities for containers , bulk cargo , and refrigerated and frozen storage , so that it can handle the import and export of many commodities . In 2009 the Port of San Diego handled 1 @,@ 137 @,@ 054 short tons of total trade ; foreign trade accounted for 956 @,@ 637 short tons while domestic trade amounted to 180 @,@ 417 short tons .
Historically tuna fishing and canning was one of San Diego 's major industries , and although the American tuna fishing fleet is no longer based in San Diego , seafood companies Bumble Bee Foods and Chicken of the Sea are still headquartered there .
= = = Companies = = =
San Diego hosts several major producers of wireless cellular technology . Qualcomm was founded and is headquartered in San Diego , and is one of the largest private @-@ sector employers in San Diego . Other wireless industry manufacturers headquartered here include Nokia , LG Electronics , Kyocera International . , Cricket Communications and Novatel Wireless . The largest software company in San Diego is security software company Websense Inc . San Diego also has the U.S. headquarters for the Slovakian security company ESET . San Diego has been designated as an iHub Innovation Center for collaboration potentially between wireless and life sciences .
The presence of the University of California , San Diego and other research institutions has helped to fuel biotechnology growth . In 2013 , San Diego has the second @-@ largest biotech cluster in the United States , below the Boston area and above the San Francisco Bay Area . There are more than 400 biotechnology companies in the area . In particular , the La Jolla and nearby Sorrento Valley areas are home to offices and research facilities for numerous biotechnology companies . Major biotechnology companies like Illumina and Neurocrine Biosciences are headquartered in San Diego , while many biotech and pharmaceutical companies have offices or research facilities in San Diego . San Diego is also home to more than 140 contract research organizations ( CROs ) that provide a variety of contract services for pharmaceutical and biotechnology companies .
= = = Top employers = = =
According to the City 's 2015 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report , the top employers in the city are :
= = = Real estate = = =
San Diego has high real estate prices . As of May 2015 the median price of a house in San Diego was $ 520 @,@ 000 . However , since February 2016 the median home price has significantly dropped to $ 455 @,@ 000 . The San Diego metropolitan area had one of the worst housing affordability of all metropolitan areas in the United States .
Consequently , San Diego has experienced negative net migration since 2004 . A significant number of people moved to adjacent Riverside County , commuting daily to jobs in San Diego , while others are leaving the region altogether and moving to more affordable regions of the country .
San Diego home prices peaked in 2005 , then declined as part of a nationwide trend . As of December 2010 , home prices were down 36 percent from the peak in 2005 . The median home price declined by more than $ 200 @,@ 000 between 2005 and 2010 .
= = Culture = =
Many popular museums , such as the San Diego Museum of Art , the San Diego Natural History Museum , the San Diego Museum of Man , the Museum of Photographic Arts , and the San Diego Air & Space Museum are located in Balboa Park , which is also the location of the San Diego Zoo . The Museum of Contemporary Art San Diego ( MCASD ) is located in La Jolla and has a branch located at the Santa Fe Depot downtown . The downtown branch consists of two building on two opposite streets . The Columbia district downtown is home to historic ship exhibits belonging to the San Diego Maritime Museum , headlined by the Star of India , as well as the unrelated San Diego Aircraft Carrier Museum featuring the USS Midway aircraft carrier .
The San Diego Symphony at Symphony Towers performs on a regular basis and is directed by Jahja Ling . The San Diego Opera at Civic Center Plaza , directed by Ian Campbell , was ranked by Opera America as one of the top 10 opera companies in the United States . Old Globe Theatre at Balboa Park produces about 15 plays and musicals annually . The La Jolla Playhouse at UCSD is directed by Christopher Ashley . Both the Old Globe Theatre and the La Jolla Playhouse have produced the world premieres of plays and musicals that have gone on to win Tony Awards or nominations on Broadway . The Joan B. Kroc Theatre at Kroc Center 's Performing Arts Center is a 600 @-@ seat state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art theatre that hosts music , dance , and theatre performances . The San Diego Repertory Theatre at the Lyceum Theatres in Horton Plaza produces a variety of plays and musicals . Hundreds of movies and a dozen TV shows have been filmed in San Diego , a tradition going back as far as 1898 .
= = Sports = =
San Diego is home to two major professional teams — the National Football League 's San Diego Chargers , who play at Qualcomm Stadium , and Major League Baseball 's San Diego Padres , who play at Petco Park .
San Diego hosts three NCAA universities . NCAA Division I San Diego State Aztecs men 's and women 's basketball games are played at Viejas Arena . Other prominent Aztec sports include college football , as well as soccer , basketball and volleyball . The San Diego State Aztecs ( MWC ) and the San Diego Toreros ( WCC ) are NCAA Division I teams . The UCSD Tritons are members of NCAA Division II .
San Diego has hosted several sports events . Three NFL Super Bowl championships have been held at Qualcomm Stadium . Two of college football 's annual bowl games are also held at Qualcomm Stadium : the Holiday Bowl and the Poinsettia Bowl . Parts of the World Baseball Classic were played at Petco Park in 2006 and 2009 .
Qualcomm Stadium also hosts international soccer games and supercross events . Soccer , American football , and track and field are also played in Balboa Stadium , the city 's first stadium , constructed in 1914 .
Rugby union is a developing sport in the city . The San Diego Breakers begins play in the PRO Rugby competition at Torero Stadium in 2016 . The USA Sevens , a major international rugby event , was held there from 2007 through 2009 . San Diego is represented by Old Mission Beach Athletic Club RFC , the former home club of USA Rugby 's former Captain Todd Clever . San Diego will participate in the Western American National Rugby League which starts in 2011 .
The San Diego Surf of the American Basketball Association is located in the city . The annual Farmers Insurance Open golf tournament ( formerly the Buick Invitational ) on the PGA Tour occurs at Torrey Pines Golf Course . This course was also the site of the 2008 U.S. Open Golf Championship . The San Diego Yacht Club hosted the America 's Cup yacht races three times during the period 1988 to 1995 . The amateur beach sport Over @-@ the @-@ line was invented in San Diego , and the annual world Over @-@ the @-@ line championships are held at Mission Bay every year .
= = Government = =
= = = Local government = = =
The city is governed by a mayor and a 9 @-@ member city council . In 2006 , the city 's form of government changed from a council – manager government to a strong mayor government . The change was brought about by a citywide vote in 2004 . The mayor is in effect the chief executive officer of the city , while the council is the legislative body . The City of San Diego is responsible for police , public safety , streets , water and sewer service , planning and zoning , and similar services within its borders . San Diego is a sanctuary city , however , San Diego County is a participant of the Secure Communities program . As of 2011 , the city had one employee for every 137 residents , with a payroll greater than $ 733 million .
The members of the city council are each elected from single member districts within the city . The mayor and city attorney are elected directly by the voters of the entire city . The mayor , city attorney , and council members are elected to four @-@ year terms , with a two @-@ term limit . Elections are held on a non @-@ partisan basis per California state law ; nevertheless , most officeholders do identify themselves as either Democrats or Republicans . In 2007 , registered Democrats outnumbered Republicans by about 7 to 6 in the city , and Democrats currently ( as of 2015 ) hold a 5 @-@ 4 majority in the city council . The current mayor , Kevin Faulconer , is a Republican .
San Diego is part of San Diego County , and includes all or part of the 1st , 2nd , 3rd and 4th supervisorial districts of the San Diego County Board of Supervisors , Other county officers elected in part by city residents include the Sheriff , District Attorney , Assessor / Recorder / County Clerk , and Treasurer / Tax Collector .
Areas of the city immediately adjacent to San Diego Bay ( " tidelands " ) are administered by the Port of San Diego , a quasi @-@ governmental agency which owns all the property in the tidelands and is responsible for its land use planning , policing , and similar functions . San Diego is a member of the regional planning agency San Diego Association of Governments ( SANDAG ) . Public schools within the city are managed and funded by independent school districts ( see above ) .
= = = State and federal representation = = =
In the California State Senate , San Diego is split between the 38th , 39th and 40th districts , represented by Joel Anderson ( R ) , Marty Block ( D ) , and Ben Hueso ( D ) , respectively .
In the California State Assembly , San Diego is split between the 77th , 78th , 79th , and 80th districts , represented by Brian Maienschein ( R ) , and Toni Atkins ( D ) , Shirley Weber ( D ) , and Lorena Gonzalez ( D ) , respectively .
In the United States House of Representatives , San Diego is split between California 's 49th , 50th , 51st , 52nd , and 53rd congressional districts , represented by Darrell Issa ( R ) , Duncan D. Hunter ( R ) , Juan Vargas ( D ) , Scott Peters ( D ) , and Susan Davis ( D ) , respectively .
= = = Major scandals = = =
San Diego was the site of the 1912 San Diego free speech fight , in which the city restricted speech , vigilantes brutalized and tortured anarchists , and the San Diego Police Department killed an IWW member .
In 1916 , rainmaker Charles Hatfield was blamed for $ 4 million in damages and accused of causing San Diego 's worst flood , during which about 20 Japanese American farmers died .
Then @-@ mayor Roger Hedgecock was forced to resign his post in 1985 , after he was found guilty of one count of conspiracy and twelve counts of perjury , related to the alleged failure to report all campaign contributions . After a series of appeals , the twelve perjury counts were dismissed in 1990 based on claims of juror misconduct ; the remaining conspiracy count was reduced to a misdemeanor and then dismissed .
A 2002 scheme to underfund pensions for city employees led to the San Diego pension scandal . This resulted in the resignation of newly re @-@ elected Mayor Dick Murphy and the criminal indictment of six pension board members . Those charges were finally dismissed by a federal judge in 2010 .
On November 28 , 2005 , U.S. Congressman Randy " Duke " Cunningham resigned after being convicted on federal bribery charges . He had represented California 's 50th congressional district , which includes much of the northern portion of the city of San Diego . In 2006 , Cunningham was sentenced to a 100 @-@ month prison sentence .
In 2005 two city council members , Ralph Inzunza and Deputy Mayor Michael Zucchet – who briefly took over as acting mayor when Murphy resigned – were convicted of extortion , wire fraud , and conspiracy to commit wire fraud for taking campaign contributions from a strip club owner and his associates , allegedly in exchange for trying to repeal the city 's " no touch " laws at strip clubs . Both subsequently resigned . Inzunza was sentenced to 21 months in prison . In 2009 , a judge acquitted Zucchet on seven out of the nine counts against him , and granted his petition for a new trial on the other two charges ; the remaining charges were eventually dropped .
In July 2013 , three former supporters of mayor Bob Filner asked him to resign because of allegations of repeated sexual harassment . Over the ensuing six weeks , 18 women came forward to publicly claim that Filner had sexually harassed them , and multiple individuals and groups called for him to resign . Filner agreed to resign effective August 30 , 2013 , subsequently pleaded guilty to one felony count of false imprisonment and two misdemeanor battery charges , and was sentenced to house arrest and probation .
= = = Crime = = =
San Diego was ranked as the 20th @-@ safest city in America in 2013 by Business Insider . According to Forbes magazine , San Diego was the ninth @-@ safest city in the top 10 list of safest cities in the U.S. in 2010 . Like most major cities , San Diego had a declining crime rate from 1990 to 2000 . Crime in San Diego increased in the early 2000s . In 2004 , San Diego had the sixth lowest crime rate of any U.S. city with over half a million residents . From 2002 to 2006 , the crime rate overall dropped 0 @.@ 8 % , though not evenly by category . While violent crime decreased 12 @.@ 4 % during this period , property crime increased 1 @.@ 1 % . Total property crimes per 100 @,@ 000 people were lower than the national average in 2008 .
According to Uniform Crime Report statistics compiled by the Federal Bureau of Investigation ( FBI ) in 2010 , there were 5 @,@ 616 violent crimes and 30 @,@ 753 property crimes . Of these , the violent crimes consisted of forcible rapes , 73 robberies and 170 aggravated assaults , while 6 @,@ 387 burglaries , 17 @,@ 977 larceny @-@ thefts , 6 @,@ 389 motor vehicle thefts and 155 acts of arson defined the property offenses . In 2013 , San Diego had the lowest murder rate of the ten largest cities in the United States .
= = Education = =
Public schools in San Diego are operated by independent school districts . The majority of the public schools in the city are served by the San Diego Unified School District , the second @-@ largest school district in California , which includes 11 K @-@ 8 schools , 107 elementary schools , 24 middle schools , 13 atypical and alternative schools , 28 high schools , and 45 charter schools .
Several adjacent school districts which are headquartered outside the city limits serve some schools within the city ; these include the Poway Unified School District , Del Mar Union School District , San Dieguito Union High School District and Sweetwater Union High School District . In addition , there are a number of private schools in the city .
= = = Colleges and universities = = =
According to education rankings released by the U.S. Census Bureau , 40 @.@ 4 percent of San Diegans ages 25 and older hold bachelor 's degrees . The census ranks the city as the ninth @-@ most educated city in the United States based on these figures .
Public colleges and universities in the city include San Diego State University ( SDSU ) , University of California , San Diego ( UCSD ) , and the San Diego Community College District , which includes San Diego City College , San Diego Mesa College , and San Diego Miramar College .
Private colleges and universities in the city include University of San Diego ( USD ) , Point Loma Nazarene University ( PLNU ) , Alliant International University ( AIU ) , National University , California International Business University ( CIBU ) , San Diego Christian College , John Paul the Great Catholic University , California College San Diego , Coleman University , University of Redlands School of Business , Design Institute of San Diego ( DISD ) , Fashion Institute of Design & Merchandising 's San Diego campus , NewSchool of Architecture and Design , Pacific Oaks College San Diego Campus , Chapman University 's San Diego Campus , The Art Institute of California – San Diego , Platt College , Southern States University ( SSU ) , UEI College , and Woodbury University School of Architecture 's satellite campus .
There is one medical school in the city , the UCSD School of Medicine . There are three ABA accredited law schools in the city , which include California Western School of Law , Thomas Jefferson School of Law , and University of San Diego School of Law . There is also one law school , Western Sierra Law School , not accredited by the ABA .
= = = Libraries = = =
The city @-@ run San Diego Public Library system is headquartered downtown and has 34 branches throughout the city . The libraries have had reduced operating hours since 2003 due to the city 's financial problems . In 2006 the city increased spending on libraries by $ 2 @.@ 1 million . A new nine @-@ story Central Library on Park Boulevard at J Street opened on September 30 , 2013 .
In addition to the municipal public library system , there are nearly two dozen libraries open to the public which are run by other governmental agencies and by schools , colleges , and universities . Noteworthy among them are the Malcolm A. Love Library at San Diego State University and the Geisel Library at the University of California , San Diego .
= = Media = =
The following are published within the city : the daily newspaper , U @-@ T San Diego and its online portal , of the same name , and the alternative newsweeklies , the San Diego CityBeat and San Diego Reader . Times of San Diego is a free online newspaper covering local news in the metropolitan area . Voice of San Diego is a non @-@ profit online @-@ only news outlet covering government , politics , education , neighborhoods , and the arts . The San Diego Daily Transcript is a business @-@ oriented daily newspaper .
San Diego led U.S. local markets with 69 @.@ 6 percent broadband penetration in 2004 according to Nielsen / / NetRatings .
San Diego 's first television station was KFMB , which began broadcasting on May 16 , 1949 . Since the Federal Communications Commission ( FCC ) licensed seven television stations in Los Angeles , two VHF channels were available for San Diego because of its relative proximity to the larger city . In 1952 , however , the FCC began licensing UHF channels , making it possible for cities such as San Diego to acquire more stations . Stations based in Mexico ( with ITU prefixes of XE and XH ) also serve the San Diego market . Television stations today include XHTJB 3 ( Once TV ) , XETV 6 ( CW ) , KFMB 8 ( CBS ) , KGTV 10 ( ABC ) , XEWT 12 ( Televisa Regional ) , KPBS 15 ( PBS ) , KBNT @-@ CD 17 ( Univision ) , XHTIT @-@ TDT 21 ( Azteca 7 ) , XHJK @-@ TDT 27 ( Azteca 13 ) , XHAS 33 ( Telemundo ) , K35DG @-@ D 35 ( UCSD @-@ TV ) , KDTF @-@ LD 51 ( Telefutura ) , KNSD 39 ( NBC ) , KZSD @-@ LP 41 ( Azteca America ) , KSEX @-@ CD 42 ( Infomercials ) , XHBJ @-@ TDT 45 ( Gala TV ) , XHDTV 49 ( MNTV ) , KUSI 51 ( Independent ) , XHUAA @-@ TDT 57 ( Canal de las Estrellas ) , and KSWB @-@ TV 69 ( Fox ) . San Diego has an 80 @.@ 6 percent cable penetration rate .
Due to the ratio of U.S. and Mexican @-@ licensed stations , San Diego is the largest media market in the United States that is legally unable to support a television station duopoly between two full @-@ power stations under FCC regulations , which disallow duopolies in metropolitan areas with fewer than nine full @-@ power television stations and require that there must be eight unique station owners that remain once a duopoly is formed ( there are only seven full @-@ power stations on the California side of the San Diego @-@ Tijuana market ) . Though the E. W. Scripps Company owns KGTV and KZSD @-@ LP , they are not considered a duopoly under the FCC 's legal definition as common ownership between full @-@ power and low @-@ power television stations in the same market is permitted regardless to the number of stations licensed to the area . As a whole , the Mexico side of the San Diego @-@ Tijuana market has two duopolies and one triopoly ( Entravision Communications owns both XHAS @-@ TV and XHDTV @-@ TV , Azteca owns XHJK @-@ TV and XHTIT @-@ TV , and Grupo Televisa owns XHUAA @-@ TV and XHWT @-@ TV along with being the license holder for XETV @-@ TV , which is run by California @-@ based subsidiary Bay City Television ) .
San Diego 's television market is limited to only San Diego county . The Imperial Valley has its own market ( which also extends into western Arizona ) , while neighboring Orange and Riverside counties are part of the Los Angeles market . ( Sometimes in the past , a missing network affiliate in the Imperial Valley would be available on cable TV from San Diego . )
The radio stations in San Diego include nationwide broadcaster , Clear Channel Communications ; CBS Radio , Midwest Television , Lincoln Financial Media , Finest City Broadcasting , and many other smaller stations and networks . Stations include : KOGO AM 600 , KFMB AM 760 , KCEO AM 1000 , KCBQ AM 1170 , K @-@ Praise , KLSD AM 1360 Air America , KFSD 1450 AM , KPBS @-@ FM 89 @.@ 5 , Channel 933 , Star 94 @.@ 1 , FM 94 / 9 , FM News and Talk 95 @.@ 7 , Q96 96 @.@ 1 , KyXy 96 @.@ 5 , Free Radio San Diego ( AKA Pirate Radio San Diego ) 96.9FM FRSD , KSON 97 @.@ 3 / 92 @.@ 1 , KXSN 98 @.@ 1 , Jack @-@ FM 100 @.@ 7 , 101 @.@ 5 KGB @-@ FM , KLVJ 102 @.@ 1 , Rock 105 @.@ 3 , and another Pirate Radio station at 106.9FM , as well as a number of local Spanish @-@ language radio stations .
= = Infrastructure = =
= = = Utilities = = =
Water is supplied to residents by the Water Department of the City of San Diego . The city receives most of its water from the Metropolitan Water District of Southern California .
Gas and electric utilities are provided by San Diego Gas & Electric , a division of Sempra Energy .
= = = Street lights = = =
In the middle part of the 20th century the city had mercury vapor street lamps . In 1978 the city decided to replace them with more efficient sodium vapor lamps . The proposal triggered an outcry from astronomers at Palomar Observatory 60 miles ( 97 km ) north of the city ; they said the proposed lamps would increase light pollution and interfere with astronomical observation . The city altered its lighting regulations to limit light pollution within 30 miles ( 48 km ) of Palomar .
In 2011 , the City announced plans to upgrade 80 % of its street lighting to new energy @-@ efficient street lights which use induction technology , a modified form of fluorescent lamp that produces a broader spectrum than sodium @-@ vapor lamps . The new system is predicted to save $ 2 @.@ 2 million per year in energy and maintenance costs . The city stated the changes would " make our neighborhoods safer . " They also increase light pollution .
In 2014 , San Diego announced plans to become the first U.S. city to install cyber @-@ controlled street lighting , using an " intelligent " lighting system to control 3 @,@ 000 LED street lights .
= = = Transportation = = =
With the automobile being the primary means of transportation for over 80 percent of its residents , San Diego is served by a network of freeways and highways . This includes Interstate 5 , which runs south to Tijuana and north to Los Angeles ; Interstate 8 , which runs east to Imperial County and the Arizona Sun Corridor ; Interstate 15 , which runs northeast through the Inland Empire to Las Vegas and Salt Lake City ; and Interstate 805 , which splits from I @-@ 5 near the Mexican border and rejoins I @-@ 5 at Sorrento Valley .
Major state highways include SR 94 , which connects downtown with I @-@ 805 , I @-@ 15 and East County ; SR 163 , which connects downtown with the northeast part of the city , intersects I @-@ 805 and merges with I @-@ 15 at Miramar ; SR 52 , which connects La Jolla with East County through Santee and SR 125 ; SR 56 , which connects I @-@ 5 with I @-@ 15 through Carmel Valley and Rancho Peñasquitos ; SR 75 , which spans San Diego Bay as the San Diego @-@ Coronado Bridge , and also passes through South San Diego as Palm Avenue ; and SR 905 , which connects I @-@ 5 and I @-@ 805 to the Otay Mesa Port of Entry .
The stretch of SR 163 that passes through Balboa Park is San Diego 's oldest freeway , and has been called one of America 's most beautiful parkways .
San Diego 's roadway system provides an extensive network of routes for travel by bicycle . The dry and mild climate of San Diego makes cycling a convenient and pleasant year @-@ round option . At the same time , the city 's hilly , canyon @-@ like terrain and significantly long average trip distances — brought about by strict low @-@ density zoning laws — somewhat restrict cycling for utilitarian purposes . Older and denser neighborhoods around the downtown tend to be utility cycling oriented . This is partly because of the grid street patterns now absent in newer developments farther from the urban core , where suburban style arterial roads are much more common . As a result , a vast majority of cycling @-@ related activities are recreational . Testament to San Diego 's cycling efforts , in 2006 , San Diego was rated as the best city for cycling for U.S. cities with a population over 1 million .
San Diego is served by the San Diego Trolley light rail system , by the SDMTS bus system , and by Coaster and Amtrak Pacific Surfliner commuter rail ; northern San Diego county is also served by the Sprinter light rail line . The Trolley primarily serves downtown and surrounding urban communities , Mission Valley , east county , and coastal south bay . A planned Mid @-@ Coast extension of the Trolley will operate from Old Town to University City and the University of California , San Diego along the I @-@ 5 Freeway , with planned operation by 2018 . The Amtrak and Coaster trains currently run along the coastline and connect San Diego with Los Angeles , Orange County , Riverside , San Bernardino , and Ventura via Metrolink and the Pacific Surfliner . There are two Amtrak stations in San Diego , in Old Town and the Santa Fe Depot downtown . San Diego transit information about public transportation and commuting is available on the Web and by dialing " 511 " from any phone in the area .
The city 's primary commercial airport is the San Diego International Airport ( SAN ) , also known as Lindbergh Field . It is the busiest single @-@ runway airport in the United States . It served over 17 million passengers in 2005 , and is dealing with an increasingly larger number every year . It is located on San Diego Bay three miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) from downtown . San Diego International Airport maintains scheduled flights to the rest of the United States including Hawaii , as well as to Mexico , Canada , Japan , and the United Kingdom . It is operated by an independent agency , the San Diego Regional Airport Authority . In addition , the city itself operates two general @-@ aviation airports , Montgomery Field ( MYF ) and Brown Field ( SDM ) . By 2015 , the Tijuana Cross @-@ border Terminal in Otay Mesa will give direct access to Tijuana International Airport , with passengers walking across the U.S. – Mexico border on a footbridge to catch their flight on the Mexican side .
Numerous regional transportation projects have occurred in recent years to mitigate congestion in San Diego . Notable efforts are improvements to San Diego freeways , expansion of San Diego Airport , and doubling the capacity of the cruise ship terminal of the port . Freeway projects included expansion of Interstates 5 and 805 around " The Merge , " a rush @-@ hour spot where the two freeways meet . Also , an expansion of Interstate 15 through the North County is underway with the addition of high @-@ occupancy @-@ vehicle ( HOV ) " managed lanes " . There is a tollway ( The South Bay Expressway ) connecting SR 54 and Otay Mesa , near the Mexican border . According to a 2007 assessment , 37 percent of streets in San Diego were in acceptable driving condition . The proposed budget fell $ 84 @.@ 6 million short of bringing the city 's streets to an acceptable level . Port expansions included a second cruise terminal on Broadway Pier which opened in 2010 . Airport projects include expansion of Terminal 2 , currently under construction and slated for completion in summer 2013 .
= = Notable people = =
= = Sister cities = =
San Diego has 16 sister cities , as designated by Sister Cities International :
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= 1917 Nueva Gerona hurricane =
The 1917 Nueva Gerona hurricane was the most intense tropical cyclone to strike the Florida Panhandle until Hurricane Opal in 1995 . The eighth tropical cyclone and fourth tropical storm of the season , this system was identified as a tropical storm east of the Lesser Antilles on September 20 . After crossing the Lesser Antilles , the system entered the Caribbean Sea and achieved hurricane intensity on September 21 . After becoming a Category 2 hurricane , the storm struck the northern coast of Jamaica on September 23 . Early on September 25 , the cyclone reached Category 4 status and attained maximum sustained winds of 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) soon thereafter . Later that day , the hurricane made landfall in eastern Pinar del Río Province , Cuba . The system entered the Gulf of Mexico shortly thereafter and weakened slightly . Recurving to the northeast , the hurricane briefly threatened Louisiana before turning toward Florida . Early on September 29 , the hurricane made landfall near Fort Walton Beach , Florida , with winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) . Once over land , the cyclone rapidly weakened and transitioned into an extratropical cyclone before dissipating on September 30 .
Some islands in the Lesser Antilles experienced strong winds and heavy rainfall , including Dominica , Guadeloupe , and Saint Lucia . In Jamaica , the hurricane caused significant damage to banana and coconut plantations . Communications from Holland Bay were disrupted when the station was demolished . The greatest damages were reported from the northern half of the island . Nine deaths occurred in the city of Port Antonio . In Nueva Gerona , Cuba , strong winds destroyed well @-@ constructed buildings and all but 10 homes . The Isla de la Juventud overall experienced about $ 2 million ( 1917 USD ) in damage and there were at least 20 fatalities . Orchards and crops were destroyed on the Pinar del Río Province . In Louisiana and Mississippi , impact was generally limited to damaged crops and timber stands . Ten deaths from drowning were reported in Louisiana . Farther east in Mobile , Alabama , portions of roofs , trees , and other debris littered streets . Communications were severed in Pensacola , Florida . Several small watercraft washed ashore , and numerous wharves , docks , and boat storages suffered impact . Total damages were estimated near $ 170 @,@ 000 in Pensacola area . Five deaths were reported in Florida , all of them in Crestview . The storm and its remnants also produced rainfall in Georgia , North Carolina , and South Carolina .
= = Meteorological history = =
A open trough of low pressure , possibly a tropical wave , developed into a tropical storm about 160 miles ( 260 km ) east @-@ northeast of Barbados at 00 : 00 UTC on September 20 . Steadily intensifying , the storm moved west @-@ northwestward and crossed the Lesser Antilles between the islands of Saint Lucia and Martinique several hours later . Upon entering the Caribbean Sea on September 21 , the system intensified quicker , becoming a Category 1 hurricane on the modern @-@ day Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale later that day . While passing south of the Tiburon Peninsula on the following day , the storm strengthened into a Category 2 hurricane . Later on September 23 , the hurricane struck the northern coast of Jamaica , before re @-@ emerging into the Caribbean Sea . Around 06 : 00 UTC on September 24 , it intensified into a Category 3 hurricane while moving northwestward . Around that time , it struck Cayman Brac . Early on September 25 , the storm achieved Category 4 status .
At 12 : 00 UTC on September 25 , the hurricane attained its minimum barometric pressure of 928 mbar ( 27 @.@ 4 inHg ) , an estimate made by Ramón Perez of the Instituto de Meteorología de la República de Cuba . Using a pressure @-@ wind relationship , researchers at the National Hurricane Center estimated peak maximum sustained winds at 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) . Shortly after peak intensity , the cyclone brushed Isla de la Juventud . By 18 : 00 UTC on September 25 , the hurricane made landfall at the same intensity in the eastern part of Pinar del Río Province in Cuba . The system entered the Gulf of Mexico later on September 25 . The storm fell to Category 3 intensity early on September 27 . It briefly tracked generally northward and approached southeastern Louisiana before re @-@ curving northeastward late the next day . At 02 : 00 UTC on September 29 , the hurricane made landfall near Fort Walton Beach , Florida , with winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) . Once over land , the system rapidly weakened to a tropical storm within 12 hours . Early on September 30 , it transitioned into an extratropical cyclone over Georgia after merging with a frontal system . About six hours later , the remnants of the hurricane dissipated .
The minimum atmospheric pressure of 928 mbar ( 27 @.@ 42 inHg ) established the cyclone as the third most intense landfalling Cuban hurricane . Deeper pressures of 921 mbar ( 27 @.@ 23 inHg ) and 915 mbar ( 27 @.@ 02 inHg ) were measured in the 1924 and 1932 hurricanes , respectively . The cyclone ( 949 mbar ; 28 @.@ 02 inHg ) was also the most intense tropical cyclone in the Florida Panhandle until Hurricane Opal ( 942 mbar ; 27 @.@ 82 inHg ) . At the time , it was tied with an 1882 storm , which also had a central pressure of 949 mbar ( 28 @.@ 02 inHg ) at landfall in northwest Florida .
= = Preparations and impact = =
= = = Caribbean = = =
On September 21 , the United States Weather Bureau issued advisories because of strong swells in the Leeward Islands , indicating the presence of a tropical disturbance .
The system produced heavy precipitation and strong winds in the eastern Caribbean islands . In Jamaica , the hurricane caused significant damages to banana and coconut plantations . Communications from Holland Bay were disrupted when the station was demolished . The greatest damages were reported from the northern half of the island . At Port Antonio , the custom house was destroyed , while a hotel was several damaged . Nine deaths occurred in the city . In Nueva Gerona , Cuba , severe winds destroyed well constructed buildings , devastating the town . Only ten homes remained standing . At a large plantation , every building but the house was destroyed . Nearly all of the chickens on the property were killed during the storm . Throughout Isla de la Juventud , damage reached approximately $ 2 million . The island 's food supply was also ruined . Offshore , a number of ships capsized or went missing , resulting in " many " deaths . There were at least 20 fatalities on the island , while other accounts state that there were hundreds killed . Orchards and crops were destroyed on the Pinar del Río Province . A relief committed issued an appeal for aid to then @-@ Cuban president Mario García Menocal and Americans . At the Burnside Hotel , among few buildings were demolished , a soup kitchen was opened to feed storm victims .
= = = United States = = =
On September 23 , northeast storm warnings were issued for the Florida coast from West Palm Beach to Boca Grande . On September 25 , the Weather Bureau advised marine traffic to remain alert in the Gulf of Mexico , noting that the intensity of the storm was unknown . Later , hurricane warnings were issued from Apalachicola , Florida , to Mobile , Alabama , on September 25 . Warnings were also released from Pascagoula , Mississippi , to New Orleans , Louisiana , on September 26 . The warnings were briefly discontinued because of track uncertainties , but they were re @-@ issued when the cyclone began to curve northeast . On September 27 and September 28 , scheduled vessel trips were cancelled in New Orleans , Louisiana . Marine traffic resumed after the storm passed east of the city . The storm struck the Gulf Coast later than anticipated because of slow forward motion .
In Louisiana , rain bands produced 6 @.@ 40 in ( 160 mm ) of rain in Burrwood . The Louisville and Nashville Railroad sent trains on alternate routes because of eroded tracks near Lake Catherine . The effects of the cyclone also damaged crops and timber stands in Louisiana and Mississippi . The storm surge associated with the hurricane moved several structures from their foundations in Buras , Louisiana . There , the storm was blamed for the death of an 8 @-@ year @-@ old boy . Nine additional fatalities occurred near Houma after the fishing bark Wanna was wrecked . In Biloxi , warnings prevented considerable loss of shrimp boats . Street cars and other traffic were practically suspended in Gulfport .
In Alabama , more than 5 in ( 125 mm ) of rain was measured in Montgomery , prompting flood advisories for the lower Alabama River watershed . At Camp Sheridan , a United States Army World War I training camp , the streets were inundated with at least a few inches of water . In Mobile , trees and telephone and telegraph wires were downed , cutting off communications . Roofs were detached and the galleries of houses were torn away . Police stopped the streets cars were operating and shut off the electricity . No boats from the area were lost , and waterfront damage was negligible .
The hurricane severed communication from Pensacola , Florida , though reports eventually indicated that the wireless radio plant was not destroyed . Several small watercraft washed ashore , including the USS Quincy , and numerous wharves , docks , and boat storages received damage . Total damages reached about $ 170 @,@ 000 in the vicinity of Pensacola . Near the city , a portion of the Louisville and Nashville Railroad was 8 ft ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) underwater , while several of their bridges washed away . At Valparaiso , tides reached 7 @.@ 5 ft ( 2 @.@ 3 m ) above normal . Significant destruction of timber occurred in Okaloosa and Santa Rosa counties , and crops , structures , and livestock were affected . Strong winds occurred along the southwest coast of Florida , and a wind gust of 44 mph ( 70 km / h ) was reported in Jacksonville . A total of five people were killed in Crestview .
The storm and its remnants also produced rainfall in Georgia , North Carolina , and South Carolina .
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= Sunderland A.F.C. =
Sunderland Association Football Club ( / ˈsʌndərlənd / , local / ˈsʊndlən / ) is an English professional football club based in the North East city of Sunderland in the larger metropolitan area of Tyne and Wear . The club is currently playing in the Premier League , the top league of English football . Since its formation in 1879 , the club has won six top @-@ flight First Division ( now the Premier League ) titles ( 1892 , 1893 , 1895 , 1902 , 1913 , and 1936 ) , a total only bettered by five other clubs , and has finished runners @-@ up five times . The club has also won the FA Cup twice ( 1937 and 1973 ) and been runners @-@ up twice ( 1913 and 1992 ) , as well as winning the FA Community Shield in 1936 and being finalists the following year . Sunderland have also been Football League Cup finalists in 1985 and 2014 .
Sunderland won their first FA Cup in 1937 with a 3 – 1 victory over Preston North End , and remained in the top league for 68 successive seasons until they were relegated for the first time in 1958 . Sunderland 's most notable trophy after the Second World War was their second FA Cup in 1973 , when the club secured a 1 – 0 victory over Leeds United . The team has won the second tier title five times in that period and the third tier title once .
Sunderland play their home games at the 49 @,@ 000 @-@ capacity all @-@ seater Stadium of Light having moved from Roker Park in 1997 . The original ground capacity was 42 @,@ 000 which was increased to 49 @,@ 000 following expansion in 2000 . Sunderland have a long @-@ standing rivalry with their neighbouring club Newcastle United , with whom they have contested the Tyne – Wear derby since 1898 . Since their most recent promotion to the Premier League in 2007 , Sunderland have become one of the world 's wealthiest football brands , being valued at USD $ 93 million in 2014 , 31st in the world overall .
= = History = =
= = = Early years and league triumphs = = =
Founded 17 October 1879 as ' Sunderland and District Teachers A.F.C. ' by schoolmaster James Allan , Sunderland joined The Football League for the 1890 – 91 season . They replaced Stoke , who had failed to be re @-@ elected , becoming the first new club to join the league since its inauguration in 1888 . During the late 19th century , they were declared the " Team of All Talents " by William McGregor , the founder of the league , after a 7 – 2 win against Aston Villa . Sunderland won the league championship in the 1891 – 92 season , one season after joining The Football League . The club 's 42 points were five clear of nearest rivals Preston North End , and this performance led The Times to describe the players as " a wonderfully fine team " . Sunderland successfully defended the title the following season , aided by centre forward Johnny Campbell , who broke the 30 @-@ goal mark for the second time in consecutive seasons . In the process , they became the first team to score 100 goals in a season , a feat not matched until 1919 – 20 , when West Bromwich Albion set a new record .
Sunderland came close to winning a third successive league championship in the 1893 – 94 season , finishing second behind Aston Villa . However , they regained the title in the 1894 – 95 season , ending the season five points ahead of Everton . After winning the English League Championship , Sunderland played against Heart of Midlothian , the champions of the Scottish League , in a game described as the Championship of the World title match . Sunderland won the game 5 – 3 and were announced " Champions of the world " . Sunderland came close to winning another league title in the 1897 – 98 season , when they finished as runners @-@ up to Sheffield United . That season was their last at Newcastle Road , as they moved to Roker Park the following season . After coming second in 1900 – 01 , the club won their fourth league title in the 1901 – 02 season , beating Everton by a three @-@ point margin .
In 1904 , Sunderland 's management was embroiled in a payment scandal involving player Andrew McCombie . The club was said to have given the player £ 100 ( £ 9 @.@ 7 thousand today ) to help him start his own business , on the understanding that he would repay the money after his benefit game . However , McCombie refused to repay the money , claiming it had been a gift . An investigation conducted by the Football Association concluded that the money given to McCombie was part of a " re @-@ signing / win / draw bonus " , which violated the Association 's rules . Sunderland were fined £ 250 ( £ 24 @.@ 3 thousand today ) , and six directors were suspended for two and a half years for not showing a true record of the club 's financial dealings . Sunderland manager Alex Mackie was also suspended for three months for his involvement in the affair .
= = = Further league championship titles = = =
On 5 December 1908 , Sunderland achieved their highest ever league win , against north @-@ east rivals Newcastle United . They won the game 9 – 1 ; Billy Hogg and George Holley each scored hat @-@ tricks . The club won the league again in 1913 , but lost their first FA Cup final 1 – 0 to Aston Villa , in a very tough loss . This was the closest the club has come to winning the league title and the FA Cup in the same season . Two seasons later the First World War brought the league to a halt . After the league 's resumption , Sunderland came close to winning another championship in the 1922 – 23 season , when they were runners @-@ up to Liverpool . They also came close the following season , finishing third , four points from the top of the league . The club escaped relegation from the First Division by one point in the 1927 – 28 season despite 35 goals from Dave Halliday .
The point was won in a match against Middlesbrough , and they finished in fifteenth place . Halliday improved his goal scoring to 43 goals in 42 games the following season , an all @-@ time Sunderland record for goals scored in a single season .
The club 's sixth league championship came in the 1935 – 36 season , and they won the FA Cup the following season , after a 3 – 1 victory against Preston North End at Wembley Stadium . The remainder of the decade saw mid @-@ table finishes , until the league and FA Cup were suspended for the duration of the Second World War . Some football was still played as a morale boosting exercise , in the form of the Football League War Cup . Sunderland were finalists in the tournament in 1942 , but were beaten by Wolverhampton Wanderers .
For Sunderland , the immediate post @-@ war years were characterised by significant spending ; the club paid £ 18 @,@ 000 ( £ 574 thousand today ) for Carlisle United 's Ivor Broadis in January 1949 . Broadis was also Carlisle 's manager at the time , and this is the first instance of a player transferring himself to another club . This , along with record @-@ breaking transfer fees to secure the services of Len Shackleton and Welsh international Trevor Ford , led to a contemporary nickname , the " Bank of England club " . The club finished third in the First Division in 1950 , their highest finish since the 1936 championship .
= = = Financial troubles and three cup finals = = =
The late 1950s saw a sharp downturn in Sunderland 's fortunes , and the club was once again implicated in a major financial scandal in 1957 . Found guilty of making payments to players in excess of the maximum wage , they were fined £ 5 @,@ 000 ( £ 109 @,@ 000 today ) , and their chairman and three directors were suspended . The following year , Sunderland were relegated from the highest division for the first time in their 68 @-@ year league history .
Sunderland 's absence from the top flight lasted six years . The club came within one game of promotion back to the First Division in the 1962 – 63 season . Sunderland required only a draw in their final game against promotion rivals Chelsea , who had another game left to play after this match , to secure promotion . However , they were defeated , and Chelsea won their last game 7 – 0 to clinch promotion , finishing ahead of Sunderland on goal average . After the close call in the previous season , the club was promoted to Division One in 1964 after finishing in second place . Sunderland beat Charlton Athletic in the final stages of the season , where they clinched promotion with a game to spare . At the end of the decade , they were again relegated to the Second Division after finishing 21st .
Sunderland won their last major trophy in 1973 , in a 1 – 0 victory over Don Revie 's Leeds United in the FA Cup Final . A Second Division club at the time , Sunderland won the game thanks mostly to the efforts of their goalkeeper Jimmy Montgomery , who saved two of Leeds shots at goal in quick succession , one being from hot @-@ shot Peter Lorimer . Ian Porterfield scored a volley in the 30th minute to beat Leeds and take the trophy . Since 1973 only two other clubs , Southampton in 1976 , and West Ham United in 1980 , have equalled Sunderland 's achievement of lifting the FA Cup while playing outside the top tier of English football .
By winning the 1973 FA Cup Final , Sunderland qualified for the UEFA Cup Winners ' Cup , the club 's only appearance in European competition to date . Sunderland beat Vasas Budapest 3 – 0 on aggregate , and were drawn against Lisbon club Sporting in the second round . They won the first leg at Roker Park 2 – 1 but were defeated 2 – 0 in the away leg , and were knocked out of the competition 3 – 2 on aggregate . After spending six seasons in the Second Division , Sunderland were promoted to Division One in the 1975 – 76 season ; they topped the table over Bristol City by three points . However , Sunderland were relegated the following season back into Division Two , without their FA Cup Final winning manager Bob Stokoe , who had resigned because of health problems at the start of the season . The club celebrated its 100 @-@ year centenary in the 1979 – 80 season with a testimonial against an England XI side , which they lost 2 – 0 .
Sunderland appeared in their first League Cup final in 1985 , but lost 1 – 0 to Norwich City . In 1987 , Sunderland saw one of the lowest points in their history , when they were relegated to the Third Division of the English league for the first time . Under new chairman Bob Murray and new manager Denis Smith , the club was promoted the following season . In 1990 , they were promoted back to the top flight in unusual circumstances . Sunderland lost to Swindon Town in the play @-@ off final , but Swindon 's promotion was revoked after the club was found guilty of financial irregularities and Sunderland were promoted instead . They stayed up for one year before being relegated on the final day of the following season .
Sunderland 's next outing in a major final came in 1992 when , as a Second Division club , they returned to the FA Cup final . There was to be no repeat of the heroics of 1973 , as Sunderland lost 2 – 0 to Liverpool .
= = = New stadium , promotions and relegations = = =
In 1995 , they faced the prospect of a return to the third @-@ tier of English football . Peter Reid was brought in as manager , and quickly turned things around . Reid 's time in charge had a stabilising effect ; he remained manager for seven years . After promotion from Division One in the 1995 – 96 season , Sunderland began their first season in the Premier League , but finished third from the bottom and were relegated back to the First Division . In 1997 , Sunderland left Roker Park , their home for 99 years . Bearing fond memories of the stadium , former Sunderland player Len Shackleton said , " There will never be another place like Roker " . The club moved to the Stadium of Light , a 42 @,@ 000 @-@ seat arena that , at the time , was the largest stadium built in England after the Second World War . The capacity was later increased to 49 @,@ 000 . Sunderland returned to the Premier League as First Division champions in 1999 with a then @-@ record 105 points . Sunderland 's 1999 – 2000 season started at Stamford Bridge , where Chelsea beat them 4 – 0 . However , in the return match later in the season Sunderland turned the tables on Chelsea , avenging their 4 – 0 defeat with a 4 – 1 win at the Stadium of Light . Sunderland also achieved a 2 – 1 victory over rivals Newcastle United at St. James ' Park , a result which helped bring about the resignation of Newcastle 's manager , Ruud Gullit . At the end of the season Sunderland finished seventh , with Kevin Phillips winning the European Golden Shoe in his first top @-@ flight season , scoring 30 goals .
Another seventh @-@ place finish in the 2000 – 01 season was followed by two less successful seasons , and they were relegated to the second @-@ tier with a then @-@ record low 19 points in 2003 . Former Ireland manager Mick McCarthy took over at the club , and , in 2005 , he took Sunderland up as champions for the third time in less than ten years . However , the club 's stay in the top flight was short @-@ live as Sunderland were once again relegated , this time with a new record @-@ low total of 15 points . McCarthy left the club in mid @-@ season , and he was replaced temporarily by former Sunderland player Kevin Ball . The record @-@ low fifteen @-@ point performance was surpassed in the 2007 – 08 season by Derby County , who finished on eleven points .
= = = Drumaville Consortium takeover and Ellis Short era = = =
Following Sunderland 's relegation from the Premier League , the club was taken over by the Irish Drumaville Consortium , headed by ex @-@ player Niall Quinn , who appointed former Manchester United captain Roy Keane as the new manager . Under Keane , the club rose steadily up the table with an unbeaten run of 17 games to win promotion to the Premier League , and were named winners of the Championship after beating Luton Town 5 – 0 at Kenilworth Road on 6 May 2007 .
The club 's form in the 2007 – 08 season was better than during their last season in the Premier League , as they finished 15th with 39 points . Following an inconsistent start to the 2008 – 09 season Keane resigned , to be replaced by coach Ricky Sbragia as caretaker until the end of the season . After keeping Sunderland in the Premier League , Sbragia stepped down from his managerial post . Meanwhile , off the pitch , Irish @-@ American tycoon Ellis Short completed a full takeover of the club from the Irish Drumaville Consortium , and Steve Bruce was announced as the new manager on 3 June .
One of Bruce 's first signings , Darren Bent , cost a club record fee of £ 10 million . Sunderland started their first season under Bruce strongly but then went 14 matches without a win over the winter , eventually finishing the 2009 – 10 season in 13th . Sunderland completed the signing of Ghana international Asamoah Gyan in Aug 2010 for a fee around £ 13 million , becoming their new record transfer fee . Sunderland started the next season strongly and the club challenged for a European qualification place by the end of 2010 . However , striker Darren Bent left Sunderland for Aston Villa in Jan 2011 in a deal potentially worth £ 24 million ( a record transfer fee received for the club ) . Following Bent 's departure Sunderland suffered a mid @-@ season slump and finished 10th — which was still their highest top @-@ flight finish for 10 years .
Ellis Short replaced Quinn as chairman in Oct 2011 , with Quinn becoming Director of International Development . Bruce was sacked on 30 November 2011 , following a poor run of results , and was replaced by Martin O 'Neill . O 'Neill made an instant impact , with Sunderland taking 13 points from a possible 18 in his first six games in charge . O 'Neill was named the Premier League Manager of the Month for December , and went on to guide the club to the FA Cup quarter @-@ finals for the first time since 2004 . On 20 Feb , Niall Quinn left the club with immediate effect . Sunderland endured a difficult start to 2012 – 13 season , with their first victory not coming until late Sept , against Wigan . With the threat of relegation looming , O 'Neill was sacked on 30 March and Italian Paolo Di Canio was announced as O 'Neill 's replacement the following day . The appointment prompted the immediate resignation of club Vice Chairman David Miliband due to Di Canio 's " past political statements " . The appointment of Di Canio also sparked opposition from the Durham Miners ' Association , which threatened to remove one of its mining banners from Sunderland 's Stadium of Light , which is built on the former site of the Wearmouth Colliery . The threat by the Durham Miners ' Association was removed after meeting with the management of the club . After a 2 – 1 loss at Chelsea , Di Canio 's second match in charge saw Sunderland beat Newcastle 3 – 0 at St James ' Park in the Tyne Wear Derby and their first win at St James Park since Nov 2000 . Sunderland went on to survive relegation with one game to go . Over the summer , the club appointed Italian former agent Roberto De Fanti as the club 's first director of football .
Di Canio was sacked after a poor start to the 2013 – 14 season , and reports of a complete breakdown in relations with his players . Gus Poyet was announced as his replacement on 8 Oct 2013 . Poyet brought a turnaround in Sunderland 's fortunes as they brought their way back into contention for survival with wins against Newcastle , Manchester City and Everton . Poyet also led Sunderland to the 2014 Football League Cup Final against Manchester City , winning a penalty shoot @-@ out at Manchester United in the semi @-@ final . Sunderland were defeated 3 – 1 by Manchester City in the final , despite leading 1 – 0 at half time through a Fabio Borini goal . Despite a major post @-@ final slump , which left the club bottom of the table 7 points adrift with 6 games remaining , they drew at Manchester City and then defeated Chelsea 1 – 2 , becoming the first side to beat Chelsea at Stamford Bridge in the Premier League under José Mourinho , ending a streak of 77 games over two spells . The Black Cats went on to win their next 3 games , including away at Man Utd , to avoid relegation with a game to spare . De Fanti was sacked as Director of Football in Jan 2014 and was replaced with Lee Congerton as Sporting Director .
Poyet signed a new two @-@ year deal after the last game of the season . However , on 16 March 2015 Poyet was sacked , following a run of 1 win in 12 games that left the club just one place above the relegation zone . Veteran Dutchman Dick Advocaat was appointed as the club 's new head coach the following day on a deal to the end of the season . Advocaat led Sunderland to Premier League safety with a game to spare following a 0 – 0 draw away at Arsenal . Eight games into the 2015 – 16 season he resigned from the position , leaving Sunderland second from bottom and without a win . Sam Allardyce was appointed the next manager in Oct 2015 , and secured a 3 – 0 victory over Newcastle Utd in his second game , giving the club a record beating six wins in a row against their local rivals . Congerton left the club in Dec 2015 , with the club apparently no longer wishing to use the Director of Football role. n the January transfer window Allardyce signed centre @-@ backs Lamine Koné and Jan Kirchhoff and attacking midfielder Wahbi Khazri . On 6 February 2016 , Sunderland scored two late goals to draw 2 @-@ 2 with Liverpool at Anfield , having trailed 2 @-@ 0 with ten minutes remaining . Later that week winger Adam Johnson was sacked by the club after pleading guilty to one count of sexual activity with a child and one charge of grooming . Sunderland remained in the relegation zone for much of the remainder of the 2015 – 16 season , before they boosted their survival chances by beating Norwich City 3 – 0 at Carrow Road on 16 April , closing the gap on 17th @-@ place Norwich to just one point . Allardyce successfully led Sunderland to safety from relegation after beating Everton 3 – 0 on 11 May , a result which also ensured the relegation of rivals ( and one of his former clubs ) Newcastle United . Allardyce earned praise for his management of Sunderland from some pundits , particularly for his organized approach and emphasis on a strong defence
= = Colours and crest = =
Sunderland played in an all blue strip from their formation until 1884 , when they adopted a red and white halved strip . They assumed the current strip of red and white stripes in the 1887 – 88 season . Their badge included a ship , the upper part of the Sunderland coat of arms , a black cat , and a football in front of Sunderland 's red and white stripes . In 1977 the badge was changed , but still included the ship , football and the background of red and white stripes .
This badge was used until the relocation from Roker Park to the Stadium of Light . To coincide with the move , Sunderland released a new crest divided into four quarters ; the upper right and lower left featured their traditional red and white colours , but the ship was omitted . The upper left section features the Penshaw Monument and the lower right section shows the Wearmouth Bridge . A colliery wheel at the top of the crest commemorates County Durham 's mining history , and the land the Stadium of Light was built on , formerly the Monkwearmouth Colliery . The crest also contains two lions , the black cats of Sunderland , and a banner displaying the club 's motto , Consectatio Excellentiae , which means " In pursuit of excellence " .
= = Stadium = =
Sunderland have had seven stadiums throughout their history ; the first was at Blue House Field in Hendon in 1879 . The ground was close to the place where Sunderland formed , at Hendon Board School ; at that time the rent for use of the ground was £ 10 ( £ 900 today ) . The club relocated briefly to Groves Field in Ashbrooke in 1882 , before moving again the following season . The club 's third stadium was Horatio Street in Roker , the first Sunderland stadium north of the River Wear ; the club played a single season there before another move , this time to Abbs Field in Fulwell for two seasons . Abbs Field was notable for being the first Sunderland ground to which they charged admission .
Sunderland moved to Newcastle Road in 1886 . By 1898 , the ground reached a capacity of 15 @,@ 000 after renovations , and its rent had risen to £ 100 ( £ 10 thousand today ) a year . Near the turn of the 20th century , Sunderland needed a bigger stadium . They returned to Roker and set up home in Roker Park . It was opened on 10 September 1898 , and the home team played a match the same day against Liverpool , which they won . The stadium 's capacity increased to 50 @,@ 000 after redevelopment with architect Archibald Leitch in 1913 . Sunderland were nearly bankrupted by the cost of renovating the Main Stand , and Roker Park was put up for sale but no further action was taken . On 8 March 1933 , an overcrowded Roker Park recorded the highest ever attendance at a Sunderland match , 75 @,@ 118 against Derby County in a FA Cup sixth round replay . Roker Park suffered a bombing in 1943 , in which one corner of the stadium was destroyed . A special constable was killed while patrolling the stadium . By the 1990s , the stadium was no longer large enough , and had no room for possible expansion . In January 1990 , the Taylor Report was released after overcrowding at the Hillsborough Stadium resulted in 96 deaths , an incident known as the Hillsborough Disaster . The report recommended that all major stadiums must be converted to an all @-@ seater design . As a result , Roker Park 's capacity was reduced . It was demolished in 1997 and a housing estate built in its place .
In 1997 , Sunderland moved to their present ground , Stadium of Light in Monkwearmouth , which was opened by Prince Andrew , Duke of York . Built with an original capacity of 42 @,@ 000 , it hosted its first game against Dutch team Ajax . The stadium bears a similar name to the Portuguese club Benfica 's ground Estádio da Luz , albeit in a different language . Stadium expansion in 2000 saw the capacity increase to 49 @,@ 000 . A Davy lamp monument stands outside the stadium , and a miners banner was presented to the club by the Durham Miners ' Association , as a reminder of the Monkwearmouth Colliery pit the stadium was built on .
= = Supporters and rivalries = =
Sunderland held the seventh highest average home attendance out of the 20 clubs in the Premier League at the end of the 2013 – 14 season with an average of 41 @,@ 089 , and held the sixth highest average attendance in the 2014 – 15 season with an average of over 43 @,@ 000 . Sunderland fans often sell out allocations for away games : in the 2013 – 14 season , 9 @,@ 000 Sunderland fans attended Old Trafford for the second leg of the Football League Cup semi @-@ final , which they won to go through to the final . At Wembley , London was taken over by thousands of Mackems , the sights of Covent Garden and Leicester Square were awash with red and white , local shops completely sold out of alcohol but only one arrest was reported by the police . Support is drawn from across the North East , in particular County Durham , and beyond . The club has many supporter branches across the world , including the United States , Australia , Canada , Cambodia , and Greece . According to YouGov statistics they are the most left @-@ wing supporters in the Premier League , and often sing " The Red Flag " during games . Former chairman Bob Murray described Sunderland as a " Labour Club " .
Traditionally , Sunderland 's main rivals are Newcastle United , with whom they contest the Tyne – Wear derby . The club was rivals with the now defunct Sunderland Albion in the 1880s and 1890s ; a breakaway club formed by Sunderland 's founder James Allan . Sections of fans share a mutual friendship with Dutch club Feyenoord , this was developed after Wearside shipbuilders found jobs in Rotterdam during the 1970s and 80s .
The club has an official quarterly magazine , called the Legion of Light , which season ticket holders receive for no cost . One of the club 's current fanzine is A Love Supreme . Others in the past have been It 's The Hope I Can 't Stand , It 's An Easy One For Norman / It 's An Easy One For Given , Sex and Chocolate , Wise Men Say and The Roker Roar ( later The Wearside Roar ) .
= = = Affiliated clubs = = =
Sunderland have recently created affiliations with several African clubs including Ghana 's Asante Kotoko , Eqypt 's El @-@ Ittihad El @-@ Iskandary and South Africa 's Bidvest Wits . Sunderland also have an affiliation with Belgian side Lierse S.K. , allowing the possibility for young African players who would not qualify for a UK work permit to spend three years with Lierse to gain a Belgian passport . In August 2014 , Sunderland announced a commercial partnership with Washington D.C. based MLS club D.C. United .
= = Statistics and records = =
The holder of the record for the most league appearances is Jimmy Montgomery , having made 527 first team appearances between 1961 and 1976 . The club 's top league goal scorer is Charlie Buchan , who scored 209 goals from 1911 – 1925 ; Bobby Gurney is the record goalscorer over all competitions with 227 goals between 1926 and 1939 . Dave Halliday holds the record for the most goals scored in a season : 43 in the 1928 – 29 season in the Football League First Division . As of October 2014 John O 'Shea is the most capped player for the club , making 100 appearances for the Republic of Ireland .
The club 's widest victory margin in the league was in the 9 – 1 win against Newcastle United in the First Division in 1908 . Sunderland 's biggest ever win in the FA cup was against Fair field ( a non @-@ league team ) and the final score was 11 – 1 . Their heaviest defeats in the league were 8 – 0 against Sheffield Wednesday in 1911 , West Ham United in 1968 , Watford in 1982 and Southampton in 2014 Sunderland joined the top division in England , The Football League , in the 1890 – 91 season and were not relegated until 1957 – 58 ( a span of 67 seasons ) . In October 2015 , Sunderland defeated rivals Newcastle United for the sixth consecutive time , a new record .
Sunderland 's record home attendance is 75 @,@ 200 for a sixth round replay FA Cup match against Derby County on 8 March 1933 .
= = = Transfers = = =
The biggest transfer fee Sunderland have ever received for one of their players is £ 24 million for Darren Bent who moved to Aston Villa on 18 January 2011 . The biggest fee Sunderland have received for a player produced by the Sunderland academy is £ 16 million ( rising to a possible £ 20 million ) for Jordan Henderson , who moved to Liverpool on 9 July 2011 . The biggest transfer fee paid by Sunderland is the eventual £ 16 million after add @-@ ons for Bent , who was bought from Tottenham Hotspur in July 2009 .
= = = Overall = = =
Seasons spent at Level 1 of the football league system : 86
Seasons spent at Level 2 of the football league system : 29
Seasons spent at Level 3 of the football league system : 1
Seasons spent at Level 4 of the football league system : 0
As of the 2015 @-@ 16 season
= = Nicknames = =
Sunderland 's official nickname is The Black Cats . They have other nicknames , such as ' The Rokerites ' , ' The Lads ' or ' The Mackems ' . After leaving Roker Park for the Stadium of Light in 1997 , the club decided on a vote to settle the nickname for the last time . The Black Cats won the majority of the 11 @,@ 000 votes , beating off other used nicknames such as the Light Brigade , the Miners , and the Sols . There is a long historical link between black cats and Sunderland , including the " Black Cat Battery " , an Artillery battery based on the River Wear .
Around the early 19th century , the southern side of the River Wear contained four gun batteries , which guarded the river mouth during the Napoleonic wars . In 1805 , the battery was manned by local militia , the Sunderland Loyal Volunteers , one of whom was a cooper by trade named Joshua Dunn . He was said to have " fled from the howling of an approaching black cat , convinced by the influence of the full moon and a warming dram or two that it was the devil incarnate " . From that point onwards the John Paul Jones Battery was known as the Black Cat Battery .
A Sunderland supporter , Billy Morris , took a black cat in his top pocket as a good luck charm to the 1937 FA Cup final in which Sunderland brought home the trophy for the first time . During the 1960s a black cat lived in Roker Park , fed and watered by the football club . Since the 1960s the emblem of the Sunderland A.F.C. Supporters Association has been a black cat .
As well as the " Team of All Talents " at the turn of the 20th century , Sunderland were known as the " Bank of England club " during the 1950s . This was a reference to the club 's spending in the transfer market at the time , which saw the transfer @-@ record broken twice . At the beginning of the 2006 – 07 season , the purchase of the club by the Irish Drumaville Consortium , the appointments of Niall Quinn and Roy Keane to their respective roles as chairman and manager , as well as the relatively large number of Irish players in the squad , led some fans to jokingly dub the team " Sund @-@ Ireland " .
= = Kit sponsorship = =
The first sponsor to appear on Sunderland kits was Cowie 's , the business group of then chairman Tom Cowie , between 1983 – 85 . The club was sponsored by the Vaux Breweries between 1985 and 1999 , with drink brands such as Lambtons sometimes appearing on kits . Subsequently , the club were sponsored by Sunderland car dealership company Reg Vardy from 1999 to 2007 . Sunderland were sponsored by the Irish bookmaker Boylesports , who signed a four @-@ year contract with the club in 2007 worth up to £ 12 million . In April 2010 , Sunderland signed a two @-@ year shirt sponsorship deal with tombola , a local online bingo company . On 25 June 2012 , Sunderland announced the strengthening of their partnership with the Invest in Africa initiative , with the initiative becoming the club 's shirt sponsor for two years . The project is closely linked with Tullow Oil . However , after a year the club announced a new sponsorship deal with South African company Bidvest . On June 1 , 2015 Sunderland announced a new sponsorship with Dafabet to appear on the kits for the following season .
The first kit manufacturer to appear on Sunderland kits was Umbro , between 1975 – 81 . French brand Le Coq Sportif produced kits between 1981 – 83 . Nike 's first stint as kit manufacturer came between 1983 – 86 , before kits from Patrick ( 1986 – 88 ) , Hummel ( 1988 – 94 ) , Avec ( 1994 – 97 ) and Asics ( 1997 – 00 ) . Nike returned between 2000 – 04 . Diadora produced kits for a solitary season , 2004 – 05 , and Lonsdale made kits between 2005 – 07 . Umbro returned for five seasons between 2007 – 12 , before Adidas became the club 's kit manufacturer for the first time in 2012 .
= = Players = =
= = = First team squad = = =
As of 26 July 2016 .
Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality .
= = = = Out on loan = = = =
Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality .
= = = Reserves and Academy = = =
= = Club officials = =
= = = Board of Directors = = =
= = = Coaching staff = = =
= = Managers = =
= = Honours = =
The following are the honours Sunderland have achieved since their foundation in 1879 .
= = = League = = =
First Division / Premier League : 6 ( level 1 )
1891 – 92 , 1892 – 93 , 1894 – 95 , 1901 – 02 , 1912 – 13 , 1935 – 36
Second Division / First Division / Championship : 5 ( level 2 )
1975 – 76 , 1995 – 96 , 1998 – 99 , 2004 – 05 , 2006 – 07
Promotion ( 1 ) : 1989 – 90
Third Division / Second Division / League One : 1 ( level 3 )
1987 – 88
= = = Cup = = =
FA Cup :
Winners ( 2 ) : 1937 , 1973
Charity Shield
Winners ( 1 ) : 1936
Sheriff of London Charity Shield :
Winners ( 1 ) : 1903
= = = Other = = =
BBC Sports Personality Team of the Year Award : 1
1973
Football World Championship : 1
1895
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= William Gibson =
William Ford Gibson ( born March 17 , 1948 ) is an American and Canadian speculative fiction writer and essayist widely credited with pioneering the science fiction subgenre known as cyberpunk . Beginning his writing career in the late 1970s , his early works were bleak , noir , near @-@ future stories that explored the effects of technology , cybernetics , and computer networks on humans — a " combination of lowlife and high tech " — and helped to create an iconography for the information age before the ubiquity of the Internet in the 1990s .
Gibson notably coined the term " cyberspace " in his short story " Burning Chrome " ( 1982 ) and later popularized the concept in his acclaimed debut novel Neuromancer ( 1984 ) . These early works have been credited with " renovating " science fiction literature after it had fallen largely into insignificance in the 1970s .
After expanding on Neuromancer with two more novels to complete the dystopic Sprawl trilogy , Gibson collaborated with Bruce Sterling on the alternate history novel The Difference Engine ( 1990 ) , which became an important work of the science fiction subgenre steampunk . In the 1990s , Gibson composed the Bridge trilogy of novels , which explored the sociological developments of near @-@ future urban environments , postindustrial society , and late capitalism .
Following the turn of the century and the events of 9 / 11 , Gibson emerged with a string of increasingly realist novels — Pattern Recognition ( 2003 ) , Spook Country ( 2007 ) , and Zero History ( 2010 ) — set in a roughly contemporary world . These works saw his name reach mainstream bestseller lists for the first time . His more recent novel , The Peripheral ( 2014 ) , returned to a more overt engagement with technology and recognizable science fiction concerns .
In 1999 , The Guardian described Gibson as " probably the most important novelist of the past two decades , " while the Sydney Morning Herald called him the " noir prophet " of cyberpunk . Throughout his career , Gibson has written more than 20 short stories and 10 critically acclaimed novels ( one in collaboration ) , contributed articles to several major publications , and collaborated extensively with performance artists , filmmakers , and musicians . His work has been cited as an influence across a variety of disciplines spanning academia , design , film , literature , music , cyberculture , and technology .
= = Early life = =
= = = Childhood , itinerance , and adolescence = = =
William Ford Gibson was born in the coastal city of Conway , South Carolina , and he spent most of his childhood in Wytheville , Virginia , a small town in the Appalachians where his parents had been born and raised . His family moved frequently during Gibson 's youth owing to his father 's position as manager of a large construction company . In Norfolk , Virginia , Gibson attended Pines Elementary School , where the teachers ' lack of encouragement for him to read was a cause of dismay for his parents . While Gibson was still a young child , a little over a year into his stay at Pines Elementary , his father choked to death in a restaurant while on a business trip . His mother , unable to tell William the bad news , had someone else inform him of the death . Tom Maddox has commented that Gibson " grew up in an America as disturbing and surreal as anything J. G. Ballard ever dreamed " .
A few days after the death , Gibson 's mother returned them from their home in Norfolk to Wytheville . Gibson later described Wytheville as " a place where modernity had arrived to some extent but was deeply distrusted " and credits the beginnings of his relationship with science fiction , his " native literary culture " , with the subsequent feeling of abrupt exile . At the age of 12 , Gibson " wanted nothing more than to be a science fiction writer " . He spent a few unproductive years at basketball @-@ obsessed George Wythe High School , a time spent largely in his room listening to records and reading books . At 13 , unbeknownst to his mother , he purchased an anthology of Beat generation writing , thereby gaining exposure to the writings of Allen Ginsberg , Jack Kerouac , and William S. Burroughs ; the lattermost had a particularly pronounced effect , greatly altering Gibson 's notions of the possibilities of science fiction literature .
A shy , ungainly teenager , Gibson grew up in a monoculture he found " highly problematic " , consciously rejected religion and took refuge in reading science fiction as well as writers such as Burroughs and Henry Miller . Becoming frustrated with his poor academic performance , Gibson 's mother threatened to send him to a boarding school ; to her surprise , he reacted enthusiastically . Unable to afford his preferred choice of Southern California , his then " chronically anxious and depressive " mother , who had remained in Wytheville since the death of her husband , sent him to Southern Arizona School for Boys in Tucson . He resented the structure of the private boarding school but was in retrospect grateful for its forcing him to engage socially . On the SAT ( Scholastic Aptitude Test ) exams , he scored 148 out of 150 in the written section but 5 out of 150 in mathematics , to the consternation of his teachers .
= = = Draft @-@ dodging , exile , and counterculture = = =
After his mother 's death when he was 18 , Gibson left school without graduating and became very isolated for a long time , traveling to California and Europe , and immersing himself in the counterculture . In 1967 , he elected to move to Canada in order " to avoid the Vietnam war draft " . At his draft hearing , he honestly informed interviewers that his intention in life was to sample every mind @-@ altering substance in existence . Gibson has observed that he " did not literally evade the draft , as they never bothered drafting me " ; after the hearing he went home and purchased a bus ticket to Toronto , and left a week or two later . In the biographical documentary No Maps for These Territories ( 2000 ) , Gibson said that his decision was motivated less by conscientious objection than by a desire to " sleep with hippie chicks " and indulge in hashish . He elaborated on the topic in a 2008 interview :
After weeks of nominal homelessness , Gibson was hired as the manager of Toronto 's first head shop , a retailer of drug paraphernalia . He found the city 's émigré community of American draft dodgers unbearable owing to the prevalence of clinical depression , suicide , and hardcore substance abuse . He appeared , during the Summer of Love of 1967 , in a CBC newsreel item about hippie subculture in Yorkville , Toronto , for which he was paid $ 500 – the equivalent of 20 weeks rent – which financed his later travels . Aside from a " brief , riot @-@ torn spell " in the District of Columbia , Gibson spent the rest of the 1960s in Toronto , where he met Vancouverite Deborah Jean Thompson , with whom he subsequently traveled to Europe . Gibson has recounted that they concentrated their travels on European nations with fascist regimes and favourable exchange rates , including spending time on a Greek archipelago and in Istanbul in 1970 , as they " couldn 't afford to stay anywhere that had anything remotely like hard currency " .
The couple married and settled in Vancouver , British Columbia in 1972 , with Gibson looking after their first child while they lived off his wife 's teaching salary . During the 1970s , Gibson made a substantial part of his living from scouring Salvation Army thrift stores for underpriced artifacts he would then up @-@ market to specialist dealers . Realizing that it was easier to sustain high college grades , and thus qualify for generous student financial aid , than to work , he enrolled at the University of British Columbia ( UBC ) , earning " a desultory bachelor 's degree in English " in 1977 . Through studying English literature , he was exposed to a wider range of fiction than he would have read otherwise ; something he credits with giving him ideas inaccessible from within the culture of science fiction , including an awareness of postmodernity . It was at UBC that he attended his first course on science fiction , taught by Susan Wood , at the end of which he was encouraged to write his first short story , " Fragments of a Hologram Rose " .
= = = Early writing and the evolution of cyberpunk = = =
After considering pursuing a master 's degree on the topic of hard science fiction novels as fascist literature , Gibson discontinued writing in the year that followed graduation and , as one critic put it , expanded his collection of punk records . During this period he worked at various jobs , including a three @-@ year stint as teaching assistant on a film history course at his alma mater . Impatient at much of what he saw at a science fiction convention in Vancouver in 1980 or 1981 , Gibson found a kindred spirit in fellow panelist , punk musician and author John Shirley . The two became immediate and lifelong friends . Shirley persuaded Gibson to sell his early short stories and to take writing seriously .
Through Shirley , Gibson came into contact with science fiction authors Bruce Sterling and Lewis Shiner ; reading Gibson 's work , they realised that it was , as Sterling put it , " breakthrough material " and that they needed to " put down our preconceptions and pick up on this guy from Vancouver ; this [ was ] the way forward . " Gibson met Sterling at a science fiction convention in Denver , Colorado in the autumn of 1981 , where he read " Burning Chrome " – the first cyberspace short story – to an audience of four people , and later stated that Sterling " completely got it " .
In October 1982 , Gibson traveled to Austin , Texas for ArmadilloCon , at which he appeared with Shirley , Sterling and Shiner on a panel called " Behind the Mirrorshades : A Look at Punk SF " , where Shiner noted " the sense of a movement solidified " . After a weekend discussing rock and roll , MTV , Japan , fashion , drugs and politics , Gibson left the cadre for Vancouver , declaring half @-@ jokingly that " a new axis has been formed . " Sterling , Shiner , Shirley and Gibson , along with Rudy Rucker , went on to form the core of the radical cyberpunk literary movement .
= = Literary career = =
= = = Early short fiction = = =
Gibson 's early writings are generally near @-@ future stories about the influences of cybernetics and cyberspace ( computer @-@ simulated reality ) technology on the human race . His themes of hi @-@ tech shanty towns , recorded or broadcast stimulus ( later to be developed into the " sim @-@ stim " package featured so heavily in Neuromancer ) , and dystopic intermingling of technology and humanity , are already evident in his first published short story , " Fragments of a Hologram Rose " , in the Summer 1977 issue of Unearth . The latter thematic obsession was described by his friend and fellow author , Bruce Sterling , in the introduction of Gibson 's short story collection Burning Chrome , as " Gibson 's classic one @-@ two combination of lowlife and high tech . "
Beginning in 1981 , Gibson 's stories appeared in Omni and Universe 11 , wherein his fiction developed a bleak , film noir feel . He consciously distanced himself as far as possible from the mainstream of science fiction ( towards which he felt " an aesthetic revulsion " , expressed in " The Gernsback Continuum " ) , to the extent that his highest goal was to become " a minor cult figure , a sort of lesser Ballard . " When Sterling started to distribute the stories , he found that " people were just genuinely baffled ... I mean they literally could not parse the guy 's paragraphs ... the imaginative tropes he was inventing were just beyond peoples ' grasp . "
While Larry McCaffery has commented that these early short stories displayed flashes of Gibson 's ability , science fiction critic Darko Suvin has identified them as " undoubtedly [ cyberpunk 's ] best works " , constituting the " furthest horizon " of the genre . The themes which Gibson developed in the stories , the Sprawl setting of " Burning Chrome " and the character of Molly Millions from " Johnny Mnemonic " ultimately culminated in his first novel , Neuromancer .
= = = Neuromancer = = =
Neuromancer was commissioned by Terry Carr for the second series of Ace Science Fiction Specials , which was intended to exclusively feature debut novels . Given a year to complete the work , Gibson undertook the actual writing out of " blind animal terror " at the obligation to write an entire novel – a feat which he felt he was " four or five years away from " . After viewing the first 20 minutes of landmark cyberpunk film Blade Runner ( 1982 ) which was released when Gibson had written a third of the novel , he " figured [ Neuromancer ] was sunk , done for . Everyone would assume I 'd copped my visual texture from this astonishingly fine @-@ looking film . " He re @-@ wrote the first two @-@ thirds of the book twelve times , feared losing the reader 's attention and was convinced that he would be " permanently shamed " following its publication ; yet what resulted was a major imaginative leap forward for a first @-@ time novelist .
Neuromancer 's release was not greeted with fanfare , but it hit a cultural nerve , quickly becoming an underground word @-@ of @-@ mouth hit . It became the first winner of one science fiction " triple crown " — both Nebula and Hugo Awards as the year 's best novel and Philip K. Dick Award as the best paperback original — eventually selling more than 6 @.@ 5 million copies worldwide .
Lawrence Person in his " Notes Toward a Postcyberpunk Manifesto " ( 1998 ) identified Neuromancer as " the archetypal cyberpunk work " , and in 2005 , Time included it in their list of the 100 best English @-@ language novels written since 1923 , opining that " [ t ] here is no way to overstate how radical [ Neuromancer ] was when it first appeared . " Literary critic Larry McCaffery described the concept of the matrix in Neuromancer as a place where " data dance with human consciousness ... human memory is literalized and mechanized ... multi @-@ national information systems mutate and breed into startling new structures whose beauty and complexity are unimaginable , mystical , and above all nonhuman . " Gibson later commented on himself as an author circa Neuromancer that " I 'd buy him a drink , but I don 't know if I 'd loan him any money , " and referred to the novel as " an adolescent 's book " . The success of Neuromancer was to effect the 35 @-@ year @-@ old Gibson 's emergence from obscurity .
= = = Sprawl trilogy , The Difference Engine , and Bridge trilogy = = =
Although much of Gibson 's reputation has remained rooted in Neuromancer , his work continued to evolve conceptually and stylistically . Despite adding the final sentence of Neuromancer , " He never saw Molly again " , at the last minute in a deliberate attempt to prevent himself from ever writing a sequel , he did precisely that with Count Zero ( 1986 ) , a character @-@ focused work set in the Sprawl alluded to in its predecessor . He next intended to write an unrelated postmodern space opera , titled The Log of the Mustang Sally , but reneged on the contract with Arbor House after a falling out over the dustjacket art of their hardcover of Count Zero . Abandoning The Log of the Mustang Sally , Gibson instead wrote Mona Lisa Overdrive ( 1988 ) , which in the words of Larry McCaffery " turned off the lights " on cyberpunk literature . It was a culmination of his previous two novels , set in the same universe with shared characters , thereby completing the Sprawl trilogy . The trilogy solidified Gibson 's reputation , with both later novels also earning Nebula and Hugo Award and Locus SF Award nominations
The Sprawl trilogy was followed by the 1990 novel The Difference Engine , an alternative history novel Gibson wrote in collaboration with Bruce Sterling . Set in a technologically advanced Victorian era Britain , the novel was a departure from the authors ' cyberpunk roots . It was nominated for the Nebula Award for Best Novel in 1991 and the John W. Campbell Memorial Award in 1992 , and its success drew attention to the nascent steampunk literary genre of which it remains the best @-@ known work .
Gibson 's second series , the " Bridge trilogy " , is composed of Virtual Light ( 1993 ) , a " darkly comic urban detective story " , Idoru ( 1996 ) , and All Tomorrow 's Parties ( 1999 ) . The first and third books in the trilogy center on San Francisco in the near future ; all three explore Gibson 's recurring themes of technological , physical , and spiritual transcendence in a more grounded , matter @-@ of @-@ fact style than his first trilogy . Salon.com 's Andrew Leonard notes that in the Bridge trilogy , Gibson 's villains change from multinational corporations and artificial intelligences of the Sprawl trilogy to the mass media – namely tabloid television and the cult of celebrity . Virtual Light depicts an " end @-@ stage capitalism , in which private enterprise and the profit motive are taken to their logical conclusion " . This argument on the mass media as the natural evolution of capitalism is the opening line of the major Situationist work The Society of the Spectacle . Leonard 's review called Idoru a " return to form " for Gibson , while critic Steven Poole asserted that All Tomorrow 's Parties marked his development from " science @-@ fiction hotshot to wry sociologist of the near future . "
= = = Late period novels = = =
After All Tomorrow 's Parties , Gibson began to adopt a more realist style of writing , with continuous narratives – " speculative fiction of the very recent past . " Science fiction critic John Clute has interpreted this approach as Gibson 's recognition that traditional science fiction is no longer possible " in a world lacking coherent ' nows ' to continue from " , characterizing it as " SF for the new century " . Gibson 's novels Pattern Recognition ( 2003 ) , Spook Country ( 2007 ) and Zero History ( 2010 ) are set in the same contemporary universe — " more or less the same one we live in now " — and put Gibson 's work onto mainstream bestseller lists for the first time . As well as the setting , the novels share some of the same characters , including Hubertus Bigend and Pamela Mainwaring , employees of the enigmatic marketing company Blue Ant .
A phenomenon peculiar to this era was the independent development of annotating fansites , PR @-@ Otaku and Node Magazine , devoted to Pattern Recognition and Spook Country respectively . These websites tracked the references and story elements in the novels through online resources such as Google and Wikipedia and collated the results , essentially creating hypertext versions of the books . Critic John Sutherland characterised this phenomenon as threatening " to completely overhaul the way literary criticism is conducted " .
After the September 11 , 2001 attacks , with about 100 pages of Pattern Recognition written , Gibson had to re @-@ write the main character 's backstory , which had been suddenly rendered implausible ; he called it " the strangest experience I 've ever had with a piece of fiction . " He saw the attacks as a nodal point in history , " an experience out of culture " , and " in some ways ... the true beginning of the 21st century . " He is noted as one of the first novelists to use the attacks to inform his writing . Examination of cultural changes in post @-@ September 11 America , including a resurgent tribalism and the " infantilization of society " , became a prominent theme of Gibson 's work . The focus of his writing nevertheless remains " at the intersection of paranoia and technology " .
= = = Latest novel = = =
William Gibson 's most recent work is a novel titled The Peripheral . He described the story briefly in an appearance he made at the New York Public Library on April 19 , 2013 , and read an excerpt from the first chapter of the book entitled “ The Gone Haptics . ” The story takes place in two eras , one about thirty years into the future and the other further in the future . The Peripheral was released on October 28 , 2014 .
= = Collaborations , adaptations , and miscellanea = =
= = = Literary collaborations = = =
Three of the stories that later appeared in Burning Chrome were written in collaboration with other authors : " The Belonging Kind " ( 1981 ) with John Shirley , " Red Star , Winter Orbit " ( 1983 ) with Sterling , and " Dogfight " ( 1985 ) with Michael Swanwick . Gibson had previously written the foreword to Shirley 's 1980 novel City Come A @-@ walkin ' and the pair 's collaboration continued when Gibson wrote the introduction to Shirley 's short story collection Heatseeker ( 1989 ) . Shirley convinced Gibson to write a story for the television series Max Headroom for which Shirley had written several scripts , but the network canceled the series .
Gibson and Sterling collaborated again on the short story " The Angel of Goliad " in 1990 , which they soon expanded into the novel @-@ length alternate history story The Difference Engine ( 1990 ) . The two were later " invited to dream in public " ( Gibson ) in a joint address to the U.S. National Academy of Sciences Convocation on Technology and Education in 1993 ( " the Al Gore people " ) , in which they argued against the digital divide and " appalled everyone " by proposing that all schools be put online , with education taking place over the Internet . In a 2007 interview , Gibson revealed that Sterling had an idea for " a second recursive science novel that was just a wonderful idea " , but that Gibson was unable to pursue the collaboration because he was not creatively free at the time .
In 1993 , Gibson contributed lyrics and featured as a guest vocalist on Yellow Magic Orchestra 's Technodon album , and wrote lyrics to the track " Dog Star Girl " for Deborah Harry 's Debravation .
= = = Film adaptations , screenplays , and appearances = = =
Gibson was first solicited to work as a screenwriter after a film producer discovered a waterlogged copy of Neuromancer on a beach at a Thai resort . His early efforts to write film scripts failed to manifest themselves as finished product ; " Burning Chrome " ( which was to be directed by Kathryn Bigelow ) and " Neuro @-@ Hotel " were two attempts by the author at film adaptations that were never made . In the late 1980s he wrote an early version of Alien 3 ( which he later characterized as " Tarkovskian " ) , few elements of which survived in the final version . Gibson 's early involvement with the film industry extended far beyond the confines of the Hollywood blockbuster system . At one point , he collaborated on a script with Kazakh director Rashid Nugmanov after an American producer had expressed an interest in a Soviet @-@ American collaboration to star Russian @-@ Korean star Victor Tsoi . Despite being occupied with writing a novel , Gibson was reluctant to abandon the " wonderfully odd project " which involved " ritualistic gang @-@ warfare in some sort of sideways @-@ future Leningrad " and sent Jack Womack to Russia in his stead . Rather than producing a motion picture , a prospect that ended with Tsoi 's death in a car crash , Womack 's experiences in Russia ultimately culminated in his novel Let 's Put the Future Behind Us and informed much of the Russian content of Gibson 's Pattern Recognition . A similar fate befell Gibson 's collaboration with Japanese filmmaker Sogo Ishii in 1991 , a film they planned on shooting in the Walled City of Kowloon until the city was demolished in 1993 .
Adaptations of Gibson 's fiction have frequently been optioned and proposed , to limited success . Two of the author 's short stories , both set in the Sprawl trilogy universe , have been loosely adapted as films : Johnny Mnemonic ( 1995 ) with screenplay by Gibson and starring Keanu Reeves , Dolph Lundgren and Takeshi Kitano , and New Rose Hotel ( 1998 ) , starring Christopher Walken , Willem Dafoe , and Asia Argento . The former was the first time in history that a book was launched simultaneously as a film and a CD @-@ ROM interactive video game . As of 2013 , Vincenzo Natali still hoped to bring Neuromancer to the screen , after some years in development hell . Count Zero was at one point being developed as The Zen Differential with director Michael Mann attached , and the third novel in the Sprawl trilogy , Mona Lisa Overdrive , has also been optioned and bought . An anime adaptation of Idoru was announced as in development in 2006 , and Pattern Recognition was in the process of development by director Peter Weir , although according to Gibson the latter is no longer attached to the project . Announced at International Film Festival Rotterdam in 2015 is an adaptation of Gibson 's short story Dogfight by BAFTA award @-@ winning writer and director Simon Pummell . Written by Gibson and Michael Swanwick and first published in Omni in July 1985 , the film is being developed by British producer Janine Marmot at Hot Property Films .
Television is another arena in which Gibson has collaborated ; he co @-@ wrote with friend Tom Maddox , The X @-@ Files episodes " Kill Switch " and " First Person Shooter " , broadcast in the U.S. on 20th Century Fox Television in 1998 and 2000 . In 1998 he contributed the introduction to the spin @-@ off publication Art of the X @-@ Files . Gibson made a cameo appearance in the television miniseries Wild Palms at the behest of creator Bruce Wagner . Director Oliver Stone had borrowed heavily from Gibson 's novels to make the series , and in the aftermath of its cancellation Gibson contributed an article , " Where The Holograms Go " , to the Wild Palms Reader . He accepted another acting role in 2002 , appearing alongside Douglas Coupland in the short film Mon Amour Mon Parapluie in which the pair played philosophers . Appearances in fiction aside , Gibson was the focus of a biographical documentary by Mark Neale in 2000 called No Maps for These Territories . The film follows Gibson over the course of a drive across North America discussing various aspects of his life , literary career and cultural interpretations . It features interviews with Jack Womack and Bruce Sterling , as well as recitations from Neuromancer by Bono and The Edge .
= = = Exhibitions , poetry , and performance art = = =
Gibson has contributed text to be integrated into a number of performance art pieces . In October 1989 , Gibson wrote text for such a collaboration with acclaimed sculptor and future Johnny Mnemonic director Robert Longo titled Dream Jumbo : Working the Absolutes , which was displayed in Royce Hall , University of California Los Angeles . Three years later , Gibson contributed original text to " Memory Palace " , a performance show featuring the theater group La Fura dels Baus at Art Futura ' 92 , Barcelona , which featured images by Karl Sims , Rebecca Allen , Mark Pellington with music by Peter Gabriel and others . It was at Art Futura ' 92 that Gibson met Charlie Athanas , who would later act as dramaturg and " cyberprops " designer on Steve Pickering and Charley Sherman 's adaptation of " Burning Chrome " for the Chicago stage . Gibson 's latest contribution was in 1997 , a collaboration with critically acclaimed Vancouver @-@ based contemporary dance company Holy Body Tattoo and Gibson 's friend and future webmaster Christopher Halcrow .
In 1990 , Gibson contributed to " Visionary San Francisco " , an exhibition at the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art shown from June 14 to August 26 . He wrote a short story , " Skinner 's Room " , set in a decaying San Francisco in which the San Francisco – Oakland Bay Bridge was closed and taken over by the homeless – a setting Gibson then detailed in the Bridge trilogy . The story inspired a contribution to the exhibition by architects Ming Fung and Craig Hodgetts that envisioned a San Francisco in which the rich live in high @-@ tech , solar @-@ powered towers , above the decrepit city and its crumbling bridge . The architects exhibit featured Gibson on a monitor discussing the future and reading from " Skinner 's Room " . The New York Times hailed the exhibition as " one of the most ambitious , and admirable , efforts to address the realm of architecture and cities that any museum in the country has mounted in the last decade " , despite calling Ming and Hodgetts 's reaction to Gibson 's contribution " a powerful , but sad and not a little cynical , work " . A slightly different version of the short story was featured a year later in Omni .
= = = Cryptography = = =
A particularly well @-@ received work by Gibson was Agrippa ( a book of the dead ) ( 1992 ) , a 300 @-@ line semi @-@ autobiographical electronic poem that was his contribution to a collaborative project with artist Dennis Ashbaugh and publisher Kevin Begos , Jr . Gibson 's text focused on the ethereal nature of memories ( the title refers to a photo album ) and was originally published on a 3 @.@ 5 " floppy disk embedded in the back of an artist 's book containing etchings by Ashbaugh ( intended to fade from view once the book was opened and exposed to light — they never did , however ) . Gibson commented that Ashbaugh 's design " eventually included a supposedly self @-@ devouring floppy @-@ disk intended to display the text only once , then eat itself . " Contrary to numerous colorful reports , the diskettes were never actually " hacked " ; instead the poem was manually transcribed from a surreptitious videotape of a public showing in Manhattan in December 1992 , and released on the MindVox bulletin board the next day ; this is the text that circulated widely on the Internet .
Since its debut in 1992 , the mystery of Agrippa remained hidden for 20 years . Although many had tried to hack the code and decrypt the program , the uncompiled source code was lost long ago . Alan Liu and his team at " The Agrippa Files " created an extensive website with tools and resources to crack the Agrippa Code . They collaborated with Matthew Kirschenbaum at the Maryland Institute for Technology in the Humanities and the Digital Forensics Lab , and Quinn DuPont , a PhD student of cryptography from the University of Toronto , in calling for the aid of cryptographers to figure out how the program works by creating " Cracking the Agrippa Code : The Challenge " , which enlisted participants to solve the intentional scrambling of the poem in exchange for prizes . The code was successfully cracked by Robert Xiao in late July 2012 .
= = = Essays and short @-@ form nonfiction = = =
Gibson is a sporadic contributor of non @-@ fiction articles to newspapers and journals . He has been a sporadic contributor of longer @-@ form articles to Wired and of op @-@ eds to The New York Times , and has written for The Observer , Addicted to Noise , New York Times Magazine , Rolling Stone , and Details Magazine . His first major piece of nonfiction , the article " Disneyland with the Death Penalty " concerning the city @-@ state of Singapore , resulted in Wired being banned from the country and attracted a spirited critical response . He commenced writing a blog in January 2003 , providing voyeuristic insights into his reaction to Pattern Recognition , but abated in September of the same year owing to concerns that it might negatively affect his creative process .
Gibson recommenced blogging in October 2004 , and during the process of writing Spook Country – and to a lesser extent Zero History – frequently posted short nonsequential excerpts from the novel to the blog . The blog was largely discontinued by July 2009 , after the writer had undertaken prolific microblogging on Twitter under the nom de plume " GreatDismal " . In 2012 , Gibson released a collection of his non @-@ fiction works entitled Distrust That Particular Flavor .
= = Influence and recognition = =
Hailed by Steven Poole of The Guardian in 1999 as " probably the most important novelist of the past two decades " in terms of influence , Gibson first achieved critical recognition with his debut novel , Neuromancer . The novel won three major science fiction awards ( the Nebula Award , the Philip K. Dick Award , and the Hugo Award ) , an unprecedented achievement described by the Mail & Guardian as " the sci @-@ fi writer 's version of winning the Goncourt , Booker and Pulitzer prizes in the same year " . Neuromancer gained unprecedented critical and popular attention outside science fiction , as an " evocation of life in the late 1980s " , although The Observer noted that " it took the New York Times 10 years " to mention the novel .
Gibson 's work has received international attention from an audience that was not limited to science fiction aficionados as , in the words of Laura Miller , " readers found startlingly prophetic reflections of contemporary life in [ its ] fantastic and often outright paranoid scenarios . " It is often situated by critics within the context of postindustrialism as , according to academic David Brande , a construction of " a mirror of existing large @-@ scale techno @-@ social relations " , and as a narrative version of postmodern consumer culture . It is praised by critics for its depictions of late capitalism and its " rewriting of subjectivity , human consciousness and behaviour made newly problematic by technology . " Tatiani Rapatzikou , writing in The Literary Encyclopedia , identifies Gibson as " one of North America 's most highly acclaimed science fiction writers " .
= = = Cultural significance = = =
In his early short fiction , Gibson is credited by Rapatzikou in The Literary Encyclopedia with effectively " renovating " science fiction , a genre at that time considered widely " insignificant " , influencing by means of the postmodern aesthetic of his writing the development of new perspectives in science fiction studies . In the words of filmmaker Marianne Trench , Gibson 's visions " struck sparks in the real world " and " determined the way people thought and talked " to an extent unprecedented in science fiction literature . The publication of Neuromancer ( 1984 ) hit a cultural nerve , causing Larry McCaffery to credit Gibson with virtually launching the cyberpunk movement , as " the one major writer who is original and gifted to make the whole movement seem original and gifted . " Aside from their central importance to cyberpunk and steampunk fiction , Gibson 's fictional works have been hailed by space historian Dwayne A. Day as some of the best examples of space @-@ based science fiction ( or " solar sci @-@ fi " ) , and " probably the only ones that rise above mere escapism to be truly thought @-@ provoking " .
Gibson 's early novels were , according to The Observer , " seized upon by the emerging slacker and hacker generation as a kind of road map " . Through his novels , such terms as cyberspace , netsurfing , ICE , jacking in , and neural implants entered popular usage , as did concepts such as net consciousness , virtual interaction and " the matrix " . In " Burning Chrome " ( 1982 ) , he coined the term cyberspace , referring to the " mass consensual hallucination " of computer networks . Through its use in Neuromancer , the term gained such recognition that it became the de facto term for the World Wide Web during the 1990s . Artist Dike Blair has commented that Gibson 's " terse descriptive phrases capture the moods which surround technologies , rather than their engineering . "
Gibson 's work has influenced several popular musicians : references to his fiction appear in the music of Stuart Hamm , Billy Idol , Warren Zevon , Deltron 3030 , Straylight Run ( whose name is derived from a sequence in Neuromancer ) and Sonic Youth . U2 's Zooropa album was heavily influenced by Neuromancer , and the band at one point planned to scroll the text of Neuromancer above them on a concert tour , although this did not end up happening . Members of the band did , however , provide background music for the audiobook version of Neuromancer as well as appearing in No Maps for These Territories , a biographical documentary of Gibson . He returned the favour by writing an article about the band 's Vertigo Tour for Wired in August 2005 . The band Zeromancer take their name from Neuromancer .
The film The Matrix ( 1999 ) drew inspiration for its title , characters and story elements from the Sprawl trilogy . The characters of Neo and Trinity in The Matrix are similar to Bobby Newmark ( Count Zero ) and Molly ( " Johnny Mnemonic " , Neuromancer ) . Like Turner , protagonist of Gibson 's Count Zero , characters in The Matrix download instructions ( to fly a helicopter and to " know kung fu " , respectively ) directly into their heads , and both Neuromancer and The Matrix feature artificial intelligences which strive to free themselves from human control . Critics have identified marked similarities between Neuromancer and the film 's cinematography and tone . In spite of his initial reticence about seeing the film on its release , Gibson later described it as " arguably the ultimate ' cyberpunk ' artifact . " In 2008 he received honorary doctorates from Simon Fraser University and Coastal Carolina University . He was inducted by Science Fiction Hall of Fame that same year , presented by his close friend and collaborator Jack Womack .
= = = Visionary influence and prescience = = =
In Neuromancer , Gibson first used the term " matrix " to refer to the visualised Internet , two years after the nascent Internet was formed in the early 1980s from the computer networks of the 1970s . Gibson thereby imagined a worldwide communications network years before the origin of the World Wide Web , although related notions had previously been imagined by others , including science fiction writers . At the time he wrote " Burning Chrome " , Gibson " had a hunch that [ the Internet ] would change things , in the same way that the ubiquity of the automobile changed things . " In 1995 , he identified the advent , evolution and growth of the Internet as " one of the most fascinating and unprecedented human achievements of the century " , a new kind of civilization that is – in terms of significance — on a par with the birth of cities , and in 2000 predicted it would lead to the death of the nation state .
Observers contend that Gibson 's influence on the development of the Web reached beyond prediction ; he is widely credited with creating an iconography for the information age , long before the embrace of the Internet by the mainstream . Gibson introduced , in Neuromancer , the notion of the " meatpuppet " , and is credited with inventing — conceptually rather than participatorally — the phenomenon of virtual sex . His influence on early pioneers of desktop environment digital art has been acknowledged , and he holds an honorary doctorate from Parsons The New School for Design . Steven Poole claims that in writing the Sprawl trilogy Gibson laid the " conceptual foundations for the explosive real @-@ world growth of virtual environments in video games and the Web " . In his afterword to the 2000 re @-@ issue of Neuromancer , fellow author Jack Womack suggests that Gibson 's vision of cyberspace may have inspired the way in which the Internet ( and the Web particularly ) developed , following the publication of Neuromancer in 1984 , asking " what if the act of writing it down , in fact , brought it about ? "
Gibson scholar Tatiani G. Rapatzikou has commented , in Gothic Motifs in the Fiction of William Gibson , on the origin of the notion of cyberspace :
Gibson 's vision , generated by the monopolising appearance of the terminal image and presented in his creation of the cyberspace matrix , came to him when he saw teenagers playing in video arcades . The physical intensity of their postures , and the realistic interpretation of the terminal spaces projected by these games – as if there were a real space behind the screen — made apparent the manipulation of the real by its own representation .
In his Sprawl and Bridge trilogies , Gibson is credited with being one of the few observers to explore the portents of the information age for notions of the sociospatial structuring of cities . Not all responses to Gibson 's visions have been positive , however ; virtual reality pioneer Mark Pesce , though acknowledging their heavy influence on him and that " no other writer had so eloquently and emotionally affected the direction of the hacker community , " dismissed them as " adolescent fantasies of violence and disembodiment . " In Pattern Recognition , the plot revolves around snippets of film footage posted anonymously to various locations on the Internet . Characters in the novel speculate about the filmmaker 's identity , motives , methods and inspirations on several websites , anticipating the 2006 lonelygirl15 internet phenomenon . However , Gibson later disputed the notion that the creators of lonelygirl15 drew influence from him . Another phenomenon anticipated by Gibson is the rise of reality television , for example in Virtual Light , which featured a satirical extrapolated version of COPS .
When an interviewer in 1988 asked about the Bulletin Board System jargon in his writing , Gibson answered " I 'd never so much as touched a PC when I wrote Neuromancer " ; he was familiar , he said , with the science @-@ fiction community , which overlapped with the BBS community . Gibson similarly did not play computer games despite appearing in his stories . He wrote Neuromancer on a 1927 olive @-@ green Hermes portable typewriter , which Gibson described as " the kind of thing Hemingway would have used in the field " . By 1988 he used an Apple IIc and AppleWorks to write , with a modem ( " I don 't really use it for anything " ) , but until 1996 Gibson did not have an email address , a lack he explained at the time to have been motivated by a desire to avoid correspondence that would distract him from writing . His first exposure to a website came while writing Idoru when a web developer built one for Gibson . In 2007 he said , " I have a 2005 PowerBook G4 , a gig of memory , wireless router . That 's it . I 'm anything but an early adopter , generally . In fact , I 've never really been very interested in computers themselves . I don 't watch them ; I watch how people behave around them . That 's becoming more difficult to do because everything is ' around them ' . "
= = Selected bibliography = =
Nonfiction
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= The Doon School =
The Doon School ( informally Doon ) is a boys @-@ only independent boarding school in Dehradun , Uttarakhand , India . It was founded in 1935 by Satish Ranjan Das , a Kolkata lawyer . He prevised a school modelled on the British public school , but alive to Indian ambitions and desires . The school 's first headmaster was an Englishman , Arthur E. Foot , who had spent nine years as a science master at Eton College , England before coming to Doon , and returned to England right after India 's independence . The present headmaster is Peter McLaughlin , who has occupied the post since 2009 and is the ninth headmaster of the school . He is a member of Headmasters ' and Headmistresses ' Conference .
The school is a member of G20 Schools and Round Square group . Doon houses roughly 500 pupils aged 13 to 18 . Admission to the school is based on a competitive entrance examination and an interview . Every year in January and April , the school admits pupils aged 13 in Grade 7 ( known as D @-@ form ) and aged 14 in Grade 8 ( C @-@ form ) respectively . Doon pupils take the Indian Certificate of Secondary Education in tenth grade and are thereafter offered two strands for the final two years : International Baccalaureate ( IB ) or Indian School Certificate ( ISC ) . The school began offering the IB curriculum only in 2006 , before which all pupils had to sit the ISC examinations in twelfth grade .
Doon has consistently been ranked the best residential school of India by media such as BBC , The Times of India and Outlook . Although the school has often been cited as ' Eton of India ' by media outlets such as the BBC , The Guardian , Financial Times , The Economist , The Daily Telegraph and Forbes , it strongly eschews the label . Doon remains a boys @-@ only school despite continued pressure from political leaders , including President Pratibha Patil , to become coeducational . Old boys of the school are commonly known as Doscos . Although the total number of Doscos is relatively small ( estimated at 5 @,@ 000 since the school 's founding ) , they include some of India 's most prominent politicians , government officials and business leaders . The best known alumnus is former Indian Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi .
= = History = =
= = = Origins = = =
Doon was founded by Satish Ranjan Das , a lawyer from Calcutta and advocate @-@ general of Bengal , who in 1927 became a member of the Viceroy 's Executive Council of Lord Irwin on the condition that he would use the prestige of this position to raise funds for a new type of school in India . He decided to name the new school " Doon " , as it was situated in the Doon Valley . He travelled widely in India with the goal of collecting ₹ 4 millions , but at the time of his death had raised only ₹ 1 million in cash and a further ₹ 1 million in promises . With the money , Das formed the Indian Public Schools ' Society ( IPSS ) , which had the objective of founding new public schools in India that would admit students regardless of caste , creed or social status . Under the IPSS , a Board of Governors supervises all matters of Doon . Jawaharlal Nehru encouraged a move towards establishing the school , but Mahatma Gandhi " would have nothing to do with it " .
After the death of Das in 1928 , the IPSS accomplished little , and by 1934 some of the original presenter had begun to inquire about the return of their money . To solve this problem , Sir Joseph Bhore , then Railway Minister of Lord Willingdon 's Council , became IPSS chairman and , with Sir Akbar Hydari as secretary , worked to obtain the former estate of the Forest Research Institute in Dehra Dun on favourable terms . Sir Frank Noyce also joined the team . Lord Halifax , then President of the British Board of Education , led a selection committee that nominated Arthur E. Foot , a science teacher at Eton College , to be the first headmaster . On 27 October 1935 , the Viceroy , Lord Willingdon , presided over the formal opening of the school . Seventy boys enrolled in the first term , and 110 more signed up for the second .
The houses at the new school were originally named after their respective housemasters , but later renamed in honour of the largest presenter to the IPSS : Hyderabad House was named after Sir Akbar Hydari secured a contribution of ₹ 200 @,@ 000 from the Nizam of Hyderabad 's government ; . Kashmir House , after Maharajah Hari Singh , then ruler of Jammu and Kashmir , promised a contribution of ₹ 100 @,@ 000 ( 100 @,@ 000 rupees ) , which was delivered in 1935 ; . Tata House , after the Tata and Wadia Trusts promised ₹ 150 @,@ 000 , half of which was delivered in 1935 ; . Jaipur House , after Rai Bahadur Amarnath Atal arranged for contributions of ₹ 100 @,@ 000 from the Durbar of Jaipur . No building was named after Rai Bahadur Rameshwar Nathany , since his donation of ₹ 100 @,@ 000 was initially anonymous .
= = = Founding ethos = = =
Arthur Foot had never visited India before accepting the position of headmaster , and knew little of Dehradun beyond what he learned by consulting an atlas . He noted that it appeared to be surrounded by forests and close to mountains , and the possibilities of outdoor recreation and mountaineering seem to have influenced his decision as much as the chance to create a completely new type of school in India . Foot 's first action upon being offered the position was to recruit J.A.K. ( John ) Martyn from Harrow School as his deputy . Doon 's ethos and guiding principles were determined early in its life by Foot , Martyn , R.L. Holdsworth and Jack Gibson , who went on to become Principal of Mayo College . While these masters all came from very traditional British schools , they were determined to create a uniquely Indian public school rather than a transplanted British institution , and they were soon joined in their efforts by equally influential Indians such as Sudhir Khastgir ( the school 's first art teacher , who had trained previously in Santiniketan ) and Gurdial Singh , a pioneering mountaineer who taught at Doon for several decades .
In an essay entitled The Objects of Education published in the school magazine , Foot offered a template for a complete education for boys , which included teaching them to distinguish clearly between good and evil , form a habit of choosing good over evil , think logically , express their thoughts and views clearly , and maintain a healthy body . In other essays , Foot identified the milestones in the development of each student :
By 14 he should have learnt all the ordinary principles of social behaviour . He should know how to stand up and speak to a variety of different types of people – to his own mother , to someone else 's mother , to his father , to his schoolmasters , to servants , to Mahatma Gandhi or to the Viceroy , and to do this without any self @-@ consciousness ... At fourteen a boy should have constructed a framework of competence in language , in mathematical ability , and in social behaviour . After that age he is , as it were , filling in a design on to the framework . In short he is learning to exercise taste ... At 16 , he acquired taste , a sense of the beautiful and the ugly , of the strong and the weak , of good and evil ... At 17 must come another quality , less instinctive and requiring a maturer mind : he must acquire a capacity of judgement .
Martyn , who was involved with Doon for several decades and became its second headmaster , acknowledged the influence of the very remarkable German man , Kurt Hahn , in the development of the school 's ethos . Although Martyn had not visited India before , he immediately accepted Foot 's offer because of the opportunity it afforded to implement Hahn 's ideas , which he had not been able to do at Harrow . Martyn acknowledged Foot 's leadership in the development of the school , but added that they both had similar ideas : " I would not have been as bold as he was in trying to eliminate punishments , but we were equally keen on providing as wide a range as possible of activities that were creative and challenging ... The problem , as we saw it , was to create an atmosphere in which boys would learn the importance of public spirit at the same time as they acquired self @-@ confidence and initiative . "
= = = Headmasters = = =
Foot and Martyn , the first two headmasters at Doon , were both from elite British institutions – Eton College and Harrow School . They were determined to model Doon on those two schools , but both agreed that it should cater primarily for Indian boys rather than the sons of British expatriates . The public school jargon introduced by these headmasters is still in use . For example , the weekly masters ' meeting , started by Foot , is called Chambers , a term taken from Eton , and evening " prep " ( the boarding @-@ school equivalent of homework ) is called Toye @-@ time , a term taken from Winchester College .
Though Foot modelled Doon on Eton and Harrow ( and the school is often called the " Eton of India " by various press agencies ) , he did not want Doon to be considered elitist . Foot once said , " our boys will join an aristocracy , but it ’ s an aristocracy of service , not one of wealth , privilege or position " . The school 's first Indian headmaster was Eric Simeon appointed in 1970 . He came from a military background and laid great emphasis on disciplined living . The next headmaster , Gulab Ramchandani , was the first alumnus to become headmaster . Ramchandani 's successor Shomie Das , another alumnus , was the grandson of school founder Satish Ranjan Das . During his tenure , the Oberoi house was added to the original four houses .
The main emphasis of the next headmaster , John Mason , was to make Doon affordable for school pupils ; Doon did not raise its fees during his tenure . Kanti Bajpai became the third old boy to become headmaster . He oversaw the introduction of numerous punishments , notably " yellow cards " , to control an outburst of bullying at Doon . Peter McLaughlin , a member of the Headmasters ' and Headmistresses ' Conference ( HMC ) , became the first non @-@ Indian headmaster for almost four decades when he was appointed in 2009 . Shortly before taking up his appointment he said , " We will be adhering to the school credo of engaging individuals in socially productive work , at the same time delivering on quality education . "
In June 2016 the school announced the appointment of Matthew Raggett , principal of the Leipzig International School 's secondary department , to succeed Peter McLaughlin from the end of the summer term .
= = = DS @-@ 75 celebrations = = =
The annual Founder 's Day celebration of the school is an event of three or four @-@ days in the Autumn Term , usually in the last week of October . Many ex @-@ pupils come from all parts of the world to celebrate the event . Security on campus is tight , since alumni attending the event often include senior politicians and government officials , and the chief guest is usually a very prominent person . The event includes productions of English dramas followed by an orchestral concert given by members of the school 's Music Society .
Doon celebrated its 75th Founder 's Day ( Platinum Jubilee ) in October 2010 with an event christened DS @-@ 75 . Among the chief guests were the then President Pratibha Patil of India , King Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck of Bhutan and Kapil Sibal , ( then Union Minister for Human Resource Development ) . Pratibha Patil , in her address , urged the school authorities to make Doon a co @-@ educational institution . Rahul Gandhi , General Secretary of the Indian National Congress , who studied at Doon for two years , stayed away for security reasons . One of the main attractions was a discussion ( dubbed the " Chandbagh Debate " ) held between alumni including Vikram Seth , Kamal Nath , Manpreet Singh Badal , Jyotiraditya Madhavrao Scindia and retired headmaster Kanti Bajpai , on the topic Can India lead ? . It was moderated by television commentator Karan Thapar , an alumnus of the school .
Ashvin Kumar made the film Dazed in Doon for the celebrations , using pupils for the cast and crew . Most of it was shot in June and July during the summer break , and those scenes which required the entire student body were filmed after the school reopened in August . The Doon School , however , objected to the film and its distribution , obtaining a court order to delay its release and labelling it " defamatory " . Shayan Italia , another alumnus , composed and gave a live performance of the song " Doscos Forever , Brothers for Life " to mark the event . On 22 October 2010 , a commemorative postage stamp depicting the school 's main building was released by the Indian Postal Service to mark the occasion of the 75th Founder 's Day .
= = Campus = =
The school occupies a single campus covering approximately 72 acres ( 290 @,@ 000 m2 ) flanked by Chakrata Road and Mall Road in the Dehradun Cantonment area of Dehradun city , Uttarakhand , India . To house the school , the IPSS acquired Chandbagh Estate in Dehradun from the Forest Research Institute . Part of the estate was once a deer park . The IPSS also acquired an adjoining estate , now known as Skinner 's Field , from the descendants of James Skinner . At the time of acquisition it was overgrown and somewhat neglected , its most prominent features being two sheds formerly used to house elephants . The new Art and Media School , located on the site of the old Music School and inaugurated in October 2010 by Kapil Sibal , was shortlisted for the 2010 World Architecture News Education Award . The school 's South Garden has been mentioned in Inside Outside Magazine 's Annual Awards for its green principles and GRIHA standards of environmental compatibility .
The Chandbagh estate is located in a green part of Dehradun and a wide variety of flora and fauna are found on the estate , including many rare trees that date back to the days of the Forest Research Institute . The school has over 150 species of trees on its campus , and the formal gardens attract a variety of birds . In 1996 , a book titled Trees of Chandbagh was released which provided a comprehensive account of vegetation found on Doon 's campus , known as Chandbagh .
= = = Houses = = =
Doon follows the house system . When the school opened in 1935 , there were only three houses . Today there are five main houses ( Hyderabad , Jaipur , Kashmir , Tata and Oberoi ) and two holding houses ( Foot and Martyn , named after former headmasters ) , where new students live for a year before moving to one of the main houses .
Each house is run by a housemaster , who is also an active member of the teaching staff . The housemaster is assisted by a senior boy known as the house captain . One senior boy serves as school captain and is assisted by prefects from each house . Boys are assigned to houses at the time of admission and develop great loyalty to them , since all intramural sports involve fierce competition between houses . For some alumni , inter @-@ house rivalry continues well into middle @-@ age . Boys with even the most distant family connections to a particular house are invariably assigned to that house .
For many decades , housemasters were always men , but now there are housemistresses as well . Each housemaster and housemistress is assisted by a matron known as " The Dame " , who provides pastoral care for pupils , some of whom take several terms to adjust fully to life in a boarding school , particularly given Doon 's monastic lifestyle and strict routine . The homes of housemasters and housemistresses are adjacent or physically attached to their houses to enable close supervision and support .
= = Academic life = =
The school follows flexible modular scheduling to educate the pupils . The school practices a five @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ day week consisting of 40 periods ( or " schools " ) , each of 40 minutes . The school day begins with " first bell " soon after 6 : 15 am . The boys have chhota haazri before doing calisthenics outdoors on the playing fields . There are eight classes in total with a 20 @-@ minute break and lunch in between . All meals are served in a central dining hall , and boys from each table take turns acting as waiters for their table @-@ mates .
The academic year has always consisted of two terms : the Spring Term and the Autumn Term . In the early decades , the academic year followed the calendar year . This changed in the late 1970s so that the Spring Term now runs from February to the end of May . New pupils ( " D @-@ Formers " ) join Doon at the beginning of April . The Autumn Term runs from August to the year @-@ end examinations in November after which the boys are promoted to the new class beginning in February . These internal examinations are known as " trials " , while examinations leading to certificates such as the Indian School Certificate are known as " finals " .
Social work , known formally as " Socially Useful Productive Work " , is also part of school life . All boys of the school must complete a mandatory quota of social service hours every term . Pupils and alumni have frequently organised efforts across India to assist people affected by natural disasters . During the 1991 Uttarkashi earthquake the school 's amateur radio club was used by the government for communication purposes . Doon also oversees a Panchayat Ghar teaching impoverished children , and many building projects and workshops for the local community . Discipline has always been strict , and the school has expelled children from well @-@ known families . In the 1950s , Martyn 's suggestion that Sanjay Gandhi finish his senior year elsewhere was accepted without question by his mother , Indira Gandhi . In contrast , Doon 's decision to expel a ward of Chief Minister Nityanand Swami of Uttarakhand in 2000 led to allegations of threats to disrupt power and water supplies ; the difficulty was overcome by the prime minister 's intervention .
= = = Pupils = = =
Pupils are known as " Doscos " , a contraction of " Doon " and " school " . The press often calls alumni Doscos , but in Doon itself they are called ex @-@ Doscos , or simply Old Boys . The vast majority of alumni are Indians , but a dwindling number are from Pakistan having studied at Doon before the Partition of India forced them to leave in 1947 . Relations between Indian and Pakistani alumni have remained warm over the years , despite the long history of conflict between the two countries . Boys from Bangladesh and Nepal continue to study at Doon . Doon remains a boys @-@ only school despite continued pressure from political leaders , including President Pratibha Patil , to become coeducational .
= = School activities = =
= = = Sports = = =
Sports are compulsory at the school . It has over 30 acres ( 120 @,@ 000 m2 ) of playing fields , the largest of which are Skinner 's Field and the Main Field . Cricket , hockey , athletics , boxing and association football are played seasonally . Tennis , table tennis , badminton , squash , basketball , swimming and gymnastics tournaments are also available . Sport is dominated by cricket and hockey during the spring term and by football , athletics and boxing in the autumn term . Inter @-@ house matches are played in cricket , hockey and football . Sports facilities include a 25 @-@ metre swimming pool , a boxing ring and a multi @-@ purpose hall with a gymnasium and facilities for indoor badminton , basketball and table tennis . There are two artificial turf cricket pitches , five basketball courts , six tennis courts , four squash courts , ten cricket nets , seven fields for hockey and football ( which can be converted to four cricket pitches to accommodate seasonal sports ) , a modern cricket pavilion and two 400 @-@ metre athletics tracks .
Doon hosts the annual Afzal Khan Memorial Basketball Tournament , an inter @-@ school basketball tournament .
= = = Clubs and societies = = =
Extracurricular activities are also a compulsory element of school life , and magazines are published in English and Hindi . There are around 23 clubs and societies , including politics , drama , photography , aeromodelling , first @-@ aid , dramatics , painting , sculpture , carpentry , amateur radio , music ( including Trinity Guildhall music examinations ) , senior and junior English debating societies , Model United Nations , chess and astronomy . In many societies pupils come together to discuss a particular topic , presided over by a schoolmaster and often including a guest speaker . The school has often invited prominent figures to give speeches and talks to the students ; these have included heads of state , politicians , ornithologists , naturalists , artists , writers , economists , diplomats and industrialists .
The Doon School Weekly is the official school newspaper , distributed every Saturday morning . It chronicles school activities and is a platform for creative and political writing . It was founded in 1936 and is edited by pupils . Although it is subject to censorship , satire and criticism of school policies have been published in the past . More subversive publications , far more critical of teachers and the school establishment , have occasionally been produced without official sponsorship . Other school magazines include The Yearbook and The Doon School Information Review . Publications by academic departments include Echo ( Science ) , The Econocrat ( Economics ) , Infinity ( Mathematics ) , Grand Slam ( Sports ) and The Circle ( History and Political Science ) .
= = = Mountaineering = = =
Halfway through each term , the boys take a one @-@ week " midterm " – a rugged trip , often through the Siwalik Hills or Himalayas . Senior boys make treks of up to five days , unaccompanied by teachers , camping out in tents , cooking their own food and hiking . They plan these trips themselves . Alumni have credited these midterms as being among their most formative and character @-@ building experiences .
Doon has been credited with pioneering mountaineering in India , due to the accomplishments of masters such as R.L. Holdsworth , Jack Gibson and Gurdial Singh and alumni such as Nandu Jayal . Notable climbs by staff and alumni include Bandarpunch ( 6 @,@ 316 m ) in 1950 , Kala Nag ( 6 @,@ 387 m ) in 1956 , Trisul ( 7 @,@ 120 m ) in 1951 , Kamet ( 7 @,@ 756 m ) in 1955 , Abi Gamin ( 7 @,@ 355 m ) in 1953 and 1955 , Mrigthuni ( 6 @,@ 855 m ) in 1958 and Jaonli ( 6 @,@ 632 metres ) in 1964 .
Some of these expeditions have had their idiosyncrasies . After Gurudial Singh led a successful climb of Trisul , he performed a headstand asana on the summit as a tribute to the Hindu god Shiva , who is said to abide there . Holdsworth has been claimed to hold the high @-@ altitude record for smoking a pipe , which he did on the summit of Kamet after the first ascent in 1931 . Two Doon pupils climbed the Matterhorn in 1951 wearing cricket boots .
= = = Theatre and music = = =
An amphitheatre known as the Rose Bowl was built largely by pupils in two years during the 1930s and underwent a major structural change in 2009 . It can seat up to 1 @,@ 000 people and has been the setting for numerous Shakespeare plays and other classics of western theatre , as well as musical performances and speeches during school ceremonies such as Founder 's Day . The Multi @-@ Purpose Hall is a more modern indoor theatre that can accommodate approximately 2 @,@ 000 people . Plays are regularly staged in English and Hindi , with 8 – 9 productions each year including 2 major productions as part of the Founder 's Day celebrations . The Inter House Once @-@ Act Play competition is held each year , alternatively in English and Hindi . Many of the plays historically have been joint productions with the Welham Girls ' School in Dehradun .
In 2001 a new music school was built beside the Rose Bowl . It houses a music library , a concert hall and several practice and teaching rooms where students learn various western and Indian instruments . Pupils of the school have an option to appear for the Trinity Guildhall music examinations , conducted by Trinity College London , in piano , violin , drums and classical guitar . In 2002 the school choir raised ₹ 2 million for victims of the 2001 Gujarat earthquake by organising a charity concert with the title Concerto 2000 , in which drummer Sivamani also took part . To commemorate its Platinum Jubilee , the school launched a music album called Spirit of Doon in collaboration with EMI . The school choir sang two songs ( " Lab pe Aati Hai Dua " and " Anand Loke " ) for the project but only the former was included in the final recording . The tracks were written by the lyricist Gulzar and were sung by Sonu Nigam , Shayan Italia and Bhajan Sopori .
= = School songs = =
Attendance at the morning assembly is required of all pupils and teachers . It traditionally begins with a song from the school 's Song Book :
Song No. 1 – " Jana Gana Mana " by Rabindranath Tagore
Song No. 2 – " Chisti Ne Jis Zamin Mein " by Muhammad Iqbal
Song No. 3 – " Anand Loke " by Rabindranath Tagore
Song No. 4 – " Saare Jahan Se Achcha " by Muhammad Iqbal
Song No. 5 – " Lab Pe Aati Hai Dua " by Muhammad Iqbal
Song No. 6 – " Vandana Ke in Swaron Mein " ( a Bhajan )
Song No. 7 – " Ghungat Ke Pat Khol Re " ( attributed to Meerabai )
Song No. 8 – " He Jagtrata Vishv Vidhata "
Song No. 9 – " Pitu Matu Sahayak " ( a Bhajan )
Song No. 10 – " Vande Mataram " ( from a poem by Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay )
Although Jana Gana Mana is India 's National anthem , it is traditionally referred to as " Song No. 1 " at Doon since it was adopted as the School Song in 1935 , fifteen years before it was adopted as India 's national anthem . The school songs were deliberately chosen to include both Urdu poetry and Hindu bhajans as a way of emphasising Doon 's secular ethos ; similarly , the school prayers include a mix of Anglican hymns and Indian poetry .
= = Affiliations = =
= = = Ties with other schools = = =
From its foundation in 1937 until the early 1980s , Welham Boys ' School was a feeder school for Doon School and Mayo College . This ended when Surendra Kandhari , an old boy and former housemaster at Doon , became Principal of Welham and transformed it into a high school . Several families who send their sons to Doon send their daughters to Welham Girls ' School , and many Doon alumni have married alumnae of Welham . The two schools hold an annual " dance social " , and their alumni sometimes collaborate in organising events . Pakistani ex @-@ pupils from Doon established the Chand Bagh School 40 km north of Lahore , Pakistan , in 1998 , modelling it on the general structure of Doon . Doon also has exchange programmes with a number of overseas schools . As of September 2011 , a small number of Doon students were attending Eton College , Harrow School , Millfield , Schule Schloss Salem , The Armidale School , Bridge House School , Deerfield Academy , King 's Academy , Stowe School , Scotch College , Melbourne and St. Mark 's School ( Texas ) . In 2011 Doon twinned with The Thomas Hardye School , Dorchester , England , through a cultural exchange project organised by the BBC and British Council in light of the 2012 Summer Olympic Games held in the UK .
= = = Schools with similar names = = =
As private schools became more widespread in India , several other schools used " Doon " as part of their names , causing some confusion . Among them are Doon Global School , Doon Presidency School , Doon International School , Doon Preparatory School , Doon Cambridge School , Doon Girls School , Doon Public School ( in West Delhi , not the Doon Valley ) and the Doon College of Spoken English . None of them is related to The Doon School .
= = = Memberships = = =
The Doon School is a member of following organisations : G20 Schools , Round Square , Rotary International 's Interact Club , Headmasters ' and Headmistresses ' Conference , International Boys ' Schools Coalition , Council for the Indian School Certificate Examinations , International Baccalaureate Organization ( IBO ) , Indian Public Schools ' Conference , Rashtriya Life Saving Society ( India ) , International Award Association
The school is the regional test centre for University of Cambridge ESOL Examinations and SAT Tests .
= = Public image = =
Doon in films & television
The film Dazed in Doon , which was commissioned by the School on the occasion of its 75th anniversary and produced by old boy Ashvin Kumar , was banned by the school authorities because it " doesn 't give the school a good name " . The dispute remains unresolved .
In September 2010 , BBC Sport made a documentary on the Doon School for the World Olympic Dreams Project . The documentary was produced in association with the British Council . Its main purpose was to show the school where Abhinav Bindra , the first Indian individual Olympic gold medallist , spent his formative years .
In the 2010 Bollywood film Aisha , the character Randhir Gambhir is a Doon School alumnus .
Doon in literature
Vikram Seth used his own experiences of being bullied at Doon to model the character of Tapan in A Suitable Boy .
In Salman Rushdie 's short @-@ story anthology East , West , the protagonists Zulu and Chekhov are Doscos .
In Tenzing Norgay 's autobiography Man of Everest , he refers to Bandarpunch as " The Doon School mountain " due to the fact that the mountain was frequented by two Doon School teachers Jack Gibson and John Martyn .
Doon in research
Doon School Chronicles is the first of five ethnographic films called the Doon School Quintet , made by David MacDougall between 1997 and 2000 about the culture of the School . Macdougall has written of a tendency of some alumni to idealise a Golden Age set in the first decade of the school 's life , which sometimes makes them resistant to change .
Constructing Post @-@ Colonial India : National Character and the Doon School by Sanjay Srivastva is a detailed sociological study of the school 's culture and how it has influenced India 's national character .
'Poor ' Children in ' Rich ' Schools , a 2005 report by the Institute of Social Studies Trust , discusses why the Doon School has no reservations ( quotas for specific social groups ) in its admissions process . The post quotes an unnamed student who explains , " passing the Doon School entrance exam means that you have proved yourself worthy of the school . Reserving seats for students seems to imply that the school must prove itself worthy of you . "
In 1969 , Asian Survey ( then Asian Review ) - an Asian studies academic journal of University of California , Berkeley - produced a report on The Doon School as a part of their project which documented Indian history after the entry of East India Company .
In Indian Tales of the Raj , Zareer Masani studies how Doon School 's alumni affected the Indian political scene in the ' 60s .
= = Notable people = =
= = = Alumni = = =
Pupils of Doon have gone on to achieve prominence in politics , government service , the armed forces of India and Pakistan , commerce , journalism , the arts and literature . They include nine Cabinet Ministers , two chief ministers , several members of the Indian Parliament and state Legislative Assemblies ; a Naxalite , nineteen generals , two admirals , former heads of the Indian and Pakistani Air Forces and twenty @-@ four ambassadors , including those from India , Pakistan , Nepal and the United Kingdom . The best @-@ known alumnus is former Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi , who appointed so many old boys to his administration that his inner circle was called a " Doon cabinet " . Gandhi 's reliance on Doon alumni for political advice was criticised in the media , and they seldom held public office for some time afterward . Though this has changed with the political ascendance of Jyotiraditya Madhavrao Scindia , Kamal Nath and Rahul Gandhi .
Notable Doon alumni to have held senior positions in Indian and Pakistani politics include the former Indian diplomat turned politician Mani Shankar Aiyar , currently a Rajya Sabha nominee , the former Defence Secretary of Pakistan Ghulam Jilani Khan , Kamal Nath ( Politician , class of 1964 ) , Rahul Gandhi ( Congress Politician , class of 1986 ) , Sanjay Gandhi ( Congress Politician , class of 1964 ) , Naveen Patnaik ( Politician , class of 1964 ) , Jyotiraditya Madhavrao Scindia ( Politician , class of 1989 ) , Dr. Karan Singh ( Politician , class of 1948 ) In the field of Literature and Poetry , Doon alumni include Amitav Ghosh ( class of 1972 ) , Ramachandra Guha ( class of 1973 ) , Vikram Seth ( class of 1970 ) , Ardashir Vakil .
Doon alumni in Journalism include Prannoy Roy ( class of 1965 ) , Aroon Purie ( class of 1962 ) , Karan Thapar , Virendra Prabhakar and Vikram Chandra . The first Indian Rhodes scholar was a Doon School alumni - Lovraj Kumar . Doon is also the alma mater of the first Indian individual Olympic gold medallist , Abhinav Bindra ( class of 1999 ) and the mountaineering pioneer Nandu Jayal . In the field of Arts and Entertainment , Doon 's alumni include Roshan Seth ( Class of 1960 ) , Himani Shivpuri ( class of 1971 ) , Chandrachur Singh and Abhishek Poddar , a prominent art collector . The sculptor Anish Kapoor ( class of 1970 ) also attended Doon .
In Business , the Doon alumni included Anil Kumar , former senior partner at McKinsey & Company and co @-@ founder of the Indian School of Business , Gautam Thapar , founder and chairman of the Avantha Group , Malvinder Mohan Singh and Shivinder Mohan Singh , former owners of Ranbaxy Laboratories and presently owning Fortis Healthcare .
= = = Faculty = = =
Doon has benefited from the services of the following academics in the past :
Peter Lawrence
Jack Gibson
J. A. K. Martyn
Sheel Vohra
R. L. Holdsworth
Gurdial Singh
Sudhir Khastgir
Chetan Anand
Simon Singh
Vikram Seth
Satendra Nandan
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= West Bengal =
West Bengal ( / wɛst bɛŋˈɡɔːl / ; Bengali pronunciation : [ pɔʃtʃimbɔŋɡɔ ] ) is a state in eastern India and is the nation 's fourth @-@ most populous state , with over 91 million inhabitants . Spread over 34 @,@ 267 sq mi ( 88 @,@ 750 km2 ) , it is bordered by the countries of Bangladesh , Nepal and Bhutan , and the Indian states of Odisha , Jharkhand , Bihar , Sikkim and Assam . The state capital is Kolkata . Together with the neighbouring nation of Bangladesh , it makes up the ethno @-@ linguistic region of Bengal .
Ancient Bengal was the site of several major janapadas ( kingdoms ) . It was also part of large empires such as the Maurya Empire ( second century BC ) and Gupta Empire ( fourth century AD ) ; and part of the regional Buddhist Pala Empire ( 8th to 11th century ) and Sena dynasty ( 11th – 12th century ) . From the 13th century onward , the region was controlled by the Bengal Sultanate , Hindu kings and Baro @-@ Bhuyan landlords under the suzerainty of the Mughal Empire , until the British East India company took control of the region from the Mughals in the late 18th century . The company consolidated their hold on the region following the Battle of Plassey in 1757 and Battle of Buxar in 1764 and by 1793 took complete control of the region . Kolkata ( or Calcutta ) served for many years as the capital of British controlled territories in India . The early and prolonged exposure to British administration resulted in the expansion of Western education , culminating in development of science , institutional education , and social reforms in the region , including what became known as the Bengali renaissance . A hotbed of the Indian independence movement through the early 20th century , Bengal was divided during India 's independence in 1947 along religious lines into two separate entities : West Bengal — a largely Hindu state of India — and East Bengal — a mostly Muslim part of the newly created Dominion of Pakistan . East Bengal later became the independent nation of Bangladesh in 1971 .
A major agricultural producer , West Bengal is the sixth @-@ largest contributor to India 's net domestic product . Noted for its political activism , the state was ruled by democratically elected communist governments for 34 years from 1977 . It is noted for its cultural activities and the presence of cultural and educational institutions ; the state capital Kolkata is known as the " cultural capital of India " . The state 's cultural heritage , besides varied folk traditions , ranges from stalwarts in literature including Nobel @-@ laureate Rabindranath Tagore to scores of musicians , film @-@ makers and artists . West Bengal is also distinct from most other Indian states in its appreciation and practice of playing Association football besides cricket , the national favourite sport .
= = Etymology = =
The origin of the name Bengal ( known as Bangla and Bongo in Bengali language ) is unknown . One theory suggests that the word derives from " Bang , " a Dravidian tribe that settled the region around 1000 BC . The word might have been derived from the ancient kingdom of Vanga ( or Banga ) . Although some early Sanskrit literature mentions the name , the region 's early history is obscure .
At the end of British Rule over the Indian subcontinent , the Bengal region was partitioned in 1947 along religious lines into east and west . The east came to be known as East Bengal and the west came to known as West Bengal , which continued as an Indian state . In 2011 , the Government of West Bengal proposed a change in the official name of the state to Poschimbongo ( Bengali : পশ ্ চিমবঙ ্ গ Pôshchimbônggô ) . This is the native name of the state , literally meaning western Bengal in the native Bengali language .
= = History = =
Stone Age tools dating back 20 @,@ 000 years have been excavated in the state , showing human occupation 8 @,@ 000 years earlier than scholars had thought based on prior evidence . The region was a part of the Vanga Kingdom , according to the Indian epic Mahabharata . Several Vedic realms were present in Bengal region , including Vanga , Rarh , Pundravardhana and the Suhma Kingdom .
One of the earliest foreign references to Bengal is a mention by the Ancient Greeks around 100 BC of a land named Gangaridai , which was located at the mouths of the Ganges . Bengal had overseas trade relations with Suvarnabhumi ( Burma , Lower Thailand , Lower Malay Peninsula , and the Sumatra ) . According to the Sri Lankan chronicle Mahavamsa , Prince Vijaya , a Vanga Kingdom prince , conquered Lanka ( modern @-@ day Sri Lanka ) and gave the name Sinhala Kingdom to the country .
= = = Era of the janapadas = = =
The kingdom of Magadha was formed in 7th century BCE , consisting of the regions now comprising Bihar and Bengal . It was one of the four main kingdoms of India at the time of the lives of Mahavira , founder of Jainism , and Gautama Buddha , founder of Buddhism . It consisted of several janapadas or kingdoms . Under Ashoka , the Maurya Empire of Magadha in the 3rd century BCE extended over nearly all of South Asia , including Afghanistan and parts of Balochistan . From the 3rd to the 6th centuries CE , the kingdom of Magadha served as the seat of the Gupta Empire .
= = = Later rulers = = =
Two kingdoms – Vanga or Samatata and Gauda – are mentioned in some texts to have appeared after the end of Gupta Empire , although details of their ruling time are uncertain . The first recorded independent king of Bengal was Shashanka , who reigned in the early 7th century . Shashanka is often recorded in Buddhist annals as an intolerant Hindu ruler who is noted for his persecution of the Buddhists . Shashanka murdered Rajyavardhana , the Buddhist King of Thanesar , and is noted for destroying the Bodhi tree at Bodhgaya , and replacing Buddha statues with Shiva lingams . After a period of anarchy , the Pala dynasty ruled the region for four hundred years starting from the eighth century . It was followed by a shorter reign of the Hindu Sena dynasty .
Some areas of Bengal were invaded by Rajendra Chola I of the Chola dynasty between 1021 and 1023 . Islam made its first appearance in Bengal during the 12th century when Sufi missionaries arrived . Later , occasional Muslim raiders reinforced the process of conversion by building mosques , madrasas and khanqahs . Between 1202 and 1206 , Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khilji , a military commander from the Delhi Sultanate , overran Bihar and Bengal as far east as Rangpur , Bogra and the Brahmaputra River . Although he failed to bring Bengal under his control , the expedition defeated Lakshman Sen. His two sons moved to a place then called Vikramapur ( present @-@ day Munshiganj District ) , where their diminished dominion lasted until the late 13th century .
Subsequent Muslim conquests helped spread Islam throughout the region . Consequently , the region was ruled by dynasties of Bengal Sultanate and feudal lords under the Delhi Sultanate for the next few hundred years . Smaller Hindu states , landlords , and Baro @-@ Bhuyans also ruled in parts of Bengal . The Bengal Sultanate was interrupted for 20 years by an uprising by the Hindus under Raja Ganesha . In the sixteenth century , Mughal general Islam Khan conquered Bengal . However , administration by governors appointed by the court of the Mughal Empire gave way to semi @-@ independence of the area under the Nawabs of Murshidabad , who nominally respected the sovereignty of the Mughals in Delhi . Several independent Hindu states were established in Bengal during the Mughal period , like those of Pratapaditya of Jessore District and Raja Sitaram Ray of Bardhaman . The Koch dynasty in northern Bengal flourished during the period of 16th and the 17th centuries ; it weathered the Mughals and survived till the advent of the British colonial era .
= = = Colonial era = = =
Several European traders reached this area late in the fifteenth century . Their influence increased into the 18th century , when the British East India Company gained rights to collect revenue in Bengal subah ( province ) in 1765 as per the treaty between the East India company and Mughal emperor following the Battle of Buxar in 1764 . Mir Qasim , the last independent Nawab , was defeated by the British .
The Bengal Presidency was established in 1765 ; it later incorporated all British territories controlled north of the Central Provinces ( now Madhya Pradesh ) , from the mouths of the Ganges and the Brahmaputra to the Himalayas and the Punjab . The Bengal famine of 1770 claimed millions of lives due to tax policies enacted by the British company . Calcutta , the headquarters of the East India company , was named in 1772 as the capital of British @-@ held territories in India . In 1793 East India company abolished local rule ( Nizamat ) and annexed the former Mughal province .
The Bengal Renaissance and Brahmo Samaj socio @-@ cultural reform movements had great effects on the cultural and economic life of Bengal . The failed Indian rebellion of 1857 started near Calcutta and resulted in transfer of authority to the British Crown , administered by the Viceroy of India . Between 1905 and 1911 , an abortive attempt was made to divide the province of Bengal into two zones . Bengal suffered from the Great Bengal famine in 1943 , which claimed 3 million lives during World War II .
= = = Indian independence movement = = =
Bengal played a major role in the Indian independence movement , in which revolutionary groups such as Anushilan Samiti and Jugantar were dominant . Armed attempts against the British Raj from Bengal reached a climax when Subhas Chandra Bose led the Indian National Army from Southeast Asia against the British .
= = = After independence = = =
When India gained independence in 1947 , Bengal was partitioned along religious lines . The western part went to Dominion of India ( and was named West Bengal ) , while the eastern part went to Dominion of Pakistan as a province called East Bengal ( later renamed as East Pakistan in 1956 ) . The latter became independent Bangladesh in 1971 .
In 1950 , the Princely State of Cooch Behar merged with West Bengal . In 1955 , the former French enclave of Chandannagar , which had passed into Indian control after 1950 , was integrated into West Bengal ; portions of Bihar were also subsequently merged with West Bengal . Both West and East Bengal suffered from large refugee influxes during and after the partition in 1947 . Refugee resettlement and related issues continued to play a significant role in the politics and socio @-@ economic condition of the state .
During the 1970s and 1980s , severe power shortages , strikes and a violent Naxalite movement damaged much of the state 's infrastructure , leading to a period of economic stagnation . The Bangladesh Liberation War of 1971 resulted in the influx of millions of refugees to West Bengal , causing significant strains on its infrastructure . The 1974 smallpox epidemic killed thousands . West Bengal politics underwent a major change when the Left Front won the 1977 assembly election , defeating the incumbent Indian National Congress . The Left Front , led by Communist Party of India ( Marxist ) , governed the state for the subsequent three decades .
= = = Recent history = = =
The state 's economic recovery gathered momentum after economic liberalisations were introduced in the mid @-@ 1990s by the central government . This was aided by the advent of information technology and IT @-@ enabled services . Since mid @-@ 2000s , armed activists conducted minor terrorist attacks in some parts of the state , while clashes with the administration took place at several sensitive places over the issue of industrial land acquisition , which became a crucial reason behind the defeat of ruling Left Front government in 2011 assembly election .
Although the state 's GDP has risen significantly since the 1990s , West Bengal has remained affected by political instability and bad governance . The state continues to suffer from regular bandhs ( strikes ) , substandard healthcare services , a lack of socio @-@ economic development , poor infrastructure , political corruption and civil violence .
= = Geography and climate = =
West Bengal is on the eastern bottleneck of India , stretching from the Himalayas in the north , to the Bay of Bengal in the south . The state has a total area of 88 @,@ 752 square kilometres ( 34 @,@ 267 sq mi ) . The Darjeeling Himalayan hill region in the northern extreme of the state belongs to the eastern Himalaya . This region contains Sandakfu ( 3 @,@ 636 m or 11 @,@ 929 ft ) — the highest peak of the state . The narrow Terai region separates this region from the North Bengal plains , which in turn transitions into the Ganges delta towards the south . The Rarh region intervenes between the Ganges delta in the east and the western plateau and high lands . A small coastal region is on the extreme south , while the Sundarbans mangrove forests form a geographical landmark at the Ganges delta .
The Ganges is the main river , which divides in West Bengal . One branch enters Bangladesh as the Padma or Pôdda , while the other flows through West Bengal as the Bhagirathi River and Hooghly River . The Farakka barrage over Ganges feeds the Hooghly branch of the river by a feeder canal , and its water flow management has been a source of lingering dispute between India and Bangladesh . The Teesta , Torsa , Jaldhaka and Mahananda rivers are in the northern hilly region . The western plateau region has rivers such as the Damodar , Ajay and Kangsabati . The Ganges delta and the Sundarbans area have numerous rivers and creeks . Pollution of the Ganges from indiscriminate waste dumped into the river is a major problem . Damodar , another tributary of the Ganges and once known as the " Sorrow of Bengal " ( due to its frequent floods ) , has several dams under the Damodar Valley Project . At least nine districts in the state suffer from arsenic contamination of groundwater , and an estimated 8 @.@ 7 million people drink water containing arsenic above the World Health Organisation recommended limit of 10 µg / L.
West Bengal 's climate varies from tropical savanna in the southern portions to humid subtropical in the north . The main seasons are summer , rainy season , a short autumn , and winter . While the summer in the delta region is noted for excessive humidity , the western highlands experience a dry summer like northern India , with the highest day temperature ranging from 38 ° C ( 100 ° F ) to 45 ° C ( 113 ° F ) . At nights , a cool southerly breeze carries moisture from the Bay of Bengal . In early summer brief squalls and thunderstorms known as Kalbaisakhi , or Nor 'westers , often occur . West Bengal receives the Bay of Bengal branch of the Indian ocean monsoon that moves in a northwest direction . Monsoons bring rain to the whole state from June to September . Heavy rainfall of above 250 cm is observed in the Darjeeling , Jalpaiguri and Cooch Behar district . During the arrival of the monsoons , low pressure in the Bay of Bengal region often leads to the occurrence of storms in the coastal areas . Winter ( December – January ) is mild over the plains with average minimum temperatures of 15 ° C ( 59 ° F ) . A cold and dry northern wind blows in the winter , substantially lowering the humidity level . The Darjeeling Himalayan Hill region experiences a harsh winter , with occasional snowfall at places .
= = Flora and fauna = =
As of 2013 , recorded forest area in the state is 16 @,@ 805 km2 ( 6 @,@ 488 sq mi ) which is 18 @.@ 93 % of the state 's geographical area , compared to the national average of 21 @.@ 23 % . Reserves , protected and unclassed forests constitute 59 @.@ 4 % , 31 @.@ 8 % and 8 @.@ 9 % , respectively , of the forest area , as of 2009 . Part of the world 's largest mangrove forest , the Sundarbans , is located in southern West Bengal .
From a phytogeographic viewpoint , the southern part of West Bengal can be divided into two regions : the Gangetic plain and the littoral mangrove forests of the Sundarbans . The alluvial soil of the Gangetic plain , compounded with favourable rainfall , make this region especially fertile . Much of the vegetation of the western part of the state shares floristic similarities with the plants of the Chota Nagpur plateau in the adjoining state of Jharkhand . The predominant commercial tree species is Shorea robusta , commonly known as the Sal tree . The coastal region of Purba Medinipur exhibits coastal vegetation ; the predominant tree is the Casuarina . A notable tree from the Sundarbans is the ubiquitous sundari ( Heritiera fomes ) , from which the forest gets its name .
The distribution of vegetation in northern West Bengal is dictated by elevation and precipitation . For example , the foothills of the Himalayas , the Dooars , are densely wooded with Sal and other tropical evergreen trees . However , above an elevation of 1 @,@ 000 metres ( 3 @,@ 300 ft ) , the forest becomes predominantly subtropical . In Darjeeling , which is above 1 @,@ 500 metres ( 4 @,@ 900 ft ) , temperate @-@ forest trees such as oaks , conifers , and rhododendrons predominate .
West Bengal has 3 @.@ 26 % of its geographical area under protected areas comprising 15 wildlife sanctuaries and 5 national parks — Sundarbans National Park , Buxa Tiger Reserve , Gorumara National Park , Neora Valley National Park and Singalila National Park . Extant wildlife include Indian rhinoceros , Indian elephant , deer , leopard , gaur , tiger , and crocodiles , as well as many bird species . Migratory birds come to the state during the winter . The high @-@ altitude forests of Singalila National Park shelter barking deer , red panda , chinkara , takin , serow , pangolin , minivet and kalij pheasants . The Sundarbans are noted for a reserve project conserving the endangered Bengal tiger , although the forest hosts many other endangered species , such as the Gangetic dolphin , river terrapin and estuarine crocodile . The mangrove forest also acts as a natural fish nursery , supporting coastal fishes along the Bay of Bengal . Recognising its special conservation value , Sundarban area has been declared as a Biosphere Reserve .
= = Government and politics = =
West Bengal is governed through a parliamentary system of representative democracy , a feature the state shares with other Indian states . Universal suffrage is granted to residents . There are two branches of government . The legislature , the West Bengal Legislative Assembly , consists of elected members and special office bearers such as the Speaker and Deputy Speaker , that are elected by the members . Assembly meetings are presided over by the Speaker or the Deputy Speaker in the Speaker 's absence . The judiciary is composed of the Calcutta High Court and a system of lower courts . Executive authority is vested in the Council of Ministers headed by the Chief Minister , although the titular head of government is the Governor . The Governor is the head of state appointed by the President of India . The leader of the party or coalition with a majority in the Legislative Assembly is appointed as the Chief Minister by the Governor , and the Council of Ministers are appointed by the Governor on the advice of the Chief Minister . The Council of Ministers reports to the Legislative Assembly . The Assembly is unicameral with 295 Members of the Legislative Assembly , or MLAs , including one nominated from the Anglo @-@ Indian community . Terms of office run for 5 years , unless the Assembly is dissolved prior to the completion of the term . Auxiliary authorities known as panchayats , for which local body elections are regularly held , govern local affairs . The state contributes 42 seats to the Lok Sabha and 16 seats to the Rajya Sabha of the Indian Parliament .
The main players in the regional politics are the All India Trinamool Congress , the Indian National Congress , and the Left Front alliance ( led by the Communist Party of India ( Marxist ) or CPI ( M ) ) . Following the West Bengal State Assembly Election in 2011 , the All India Trinamool Congress and Indian National Congress coalition under Mamata Banerjee of the All India Trinamool Congress was elected to power ( getting 225 seats in the legislature ) . Prior to this , West Bengal was ruled by the Left Front for 34 years ( 1977 – 2011 ) , making it the world 's longest @-@ running democratically elected communist government .
= = Subdivisions = =
The following is a list of nineteen districts of West Bengal by rank in India .
Each district is governed by a district collector or district magistrate , appointed either by the Indian Administrative Service or the West Bengal Civil Service . Each district is subdivided into Sub @-@ Divisions , governed by a sub @-@ divisional magistrate , and again into Blocks . Blocks consists of panchayats ( village councils ) and town municipalities .
The capital and largest city of the state is Kolkata – the third @-@ largest urban agglomeration and the seventh @-@ largest city in India . Asansol is the second largest city & urban agglomeration in West Bengal after Kolkata . Siliguri is an economically important city , strategically located in the northeastern Siliguri Corridor ( Chicken 's Neck ) of India . Other major cities and towns in West Bengal are Howrah , Sainthia , Durgapur , Baharampur , Raniganj , Haldia , Jalpaiguri , Kharagpur , Burdwan , Darjeeling , Midnapore , Malda .
= = Economy = =
As of 2015 , West Bengal has the fifth highest GSDP in India . GSDP at current prices ( base 2004 @-@ 05 ) has increased from 208 @,@ 656 crores in 2004 @-@ 05 to 800 @,@ 868 crores in 2014 @-@ 15 . GSDP Percent growth at current prices has varied from a low of 10 @.@ 3 % in 2010 @-@ 11 to a high of 17 @.@ 11 % in 2013 @-@ 14 . The growth rate was 13 @.@ 35 % in 2014 @-@ 15 . The state ’ s per capita income has lagged the all India average for over two decades . As of 2014 @-@ 15 per capita NSDP at current prices was Rs 78 @,@ 903 . Per capita NSDP growth rate at current prices has varied from 9 @.@ 4 % in 2010 @-@ 11 to a high of 16 @.@ 15 % in 2013 @-@ 14 . The growth rate was 12 @.@ 62 % in 2014 @-@ 15
In 2015 @-@ 16 , percentage share of Gross Value Addded ( GVA ) at factor cost by Economic Activity at constant price ( base year 2011 @-@ 12 ) was Agriculture @-@ Forestry & Fishery – 14 @.@ 84 % , Industry 18 @.@ 51 % and Services 66 @.@ 65 % . It has been observed that there has been a slow but steady decline in the percentage share of industry and agriculture over the years . Agriculture is the leading occupation in West Bengal . Rice is the state 's principal food crop . Rice , potato , jute , sugarcane and wheat are the top five crops of the state . Tea is produced commercially in northern districts ; the region is well known for Darjeeling and other high quality teas . State industries are localised in the Kolkata region , the mineral @-@ rich western highlands , and Haldia port region . The Durgapur – Asansol colliery belt is home to a number of major steel plants . Manufacturing industries playing an important economic role are engineering products , electronics , electrical equipment , cables , steel , leather , textiles , jewellery , frigates , automobiles , railway coaches , and wagons . The Durgapur centre has established a number of industries in the areas of tea , sugar , chemicals and fertilisers . Natural resources like tea and jute in and nearby parts has made West Bengal a major centre for the jute and tea industries .
Years after independence , West Bengal was still dependent on the central government for meeting its demands for food ; food production remained stagnant and the Indian green revolution bypassed the state . However , there has been a significant spurt in food production since the 1980s , and the state now has a surplus of grains . The state 's share of total industrial output in India was 9 @.@ 8 % in 1980 – 81 , declining to 5 % by 1997 – 98 . However , the service sector has grown at a rate higher than the national rate .
In the period 2004 – 2005 to 2009 – 2010 , the average gross state domestic product ( GSDP ) growth rate was 13 @.@ 9 % ( calculated in Indian rupee term ) , lower than 15 @.@ 5 % , the average for all states of the country . The state 's total financial debt stood at ₹ 1 @,@ 918 @,@ 350 million ( US $ 29 billion ) as of 2011 .
The state has promoted foreign direct investment , which has mostly come in the software and electronics fields ; Kolkata is becoming a major hub for the Information technology ( IT ) industry . Rapid industrialisation process has given rise to debate over land acquisition for industry in this agrarian state . NASSCOM – Gartner ranks West Bengal power infrastructure the best in the country . Notably , many corporate companies are now headquartered in Kolkata include ITC Limited , India Government Mint , Kolkata , Haldia Petrochemicals , Exide Industries , Hindustan Motors , Bata India , Birla Corporation , CESC Limited , Coal India Limited , Damodar Valley Corporation , PwC India , Peerless Group , Berger Paints India , Emami , ABP Group , Bandhan Bank , United Bank of India , UCO Bank and Allahabad Bank . In 2010s , events such as adoption of " Look East " policy by the government of India , opening of the Nathu La Pass in Sikkim as a border trade @-@ route with China and immense interest in the South East Asian countries to enter the Indian market and invest have put Kolkata in an advantageous position for development in future , particularly with likes of Myanmar , where India needs oil from military regime .
= = Transport = =
As of 2011 , the total length of surface road in West Bengal is over 92 @,@ 023 km ( 57 @,@ 180 mi ) ; national highways comprise 2 @,@ 578 km ( 1 @,@ 602 mi ) and state highways 2 @,@ 393 km ( 1 @,@ 487 mi ) . As of 2006 , the road density of the state is 103 @.@ 69 km per 100 km2 ( 166 @.@ 92 mi per 100 sq mi ) , higher than the national average of 74 @.@ 7 km per 100 km2 ( 120 mi per 100 sq mi ) .
As of 2011 , the total railway route length is around 4 @,@ 481 km ( 2 @,@ 784 mi ) . Kolkata is the headquarters of three zones of the Indian Railways — Eastern Railway and South Eastern Railway and the Kolkata Metro which is the newly formed 17th Zone of the Indian Railways . The Northeast Frontier Railway ( NFR ) plies in the northern parts of the state . The Kolkata metro is the country 's first underground railway . The Darjeeling Himalayan Railway , part of NFR , is a UNESCO World Heritage Site .
Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose International Airport at Dum Dum , Kolkata , is the state 's biggest airport . Bagdogra Airport near Siliguri is a customs airport that has international services to Bhutan and Thailand besides regular domestic services . Kazi Nazrul Islam Airport , India 's first private sector airport , serves the twin cities of Asansol @-@ Durgapur at Andal , Bardhaman .
Kolkata is a major river @-@ port in eastern India . The Kolkata Port Trust manages the Kolkata and the Haldia docks . There is passenger service to Port Blair on the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and cargo ship service to ports in India and abroad , operated by the Shipping Corporation of India . Ferry is a principal mode of transport in the southern part of the state , especially in the Sundarbans area . Kolkata is the only city in India to have trams as a mode of transport and these are operated by the Calcutta Tramways Company .
Several government @-@ owned organisations operate bus services in the state , including the Calcutta State Transport Corporation , the North Bengal State Transport Corporation , the South Bengal State Transport Corporation , the West Bengal Surface Transport Corporation , and the Calcutta Tramways Company . There are also private bus companies . The railway system is a nationalised service without any private investment . Hired forms of transport include metered taxis and auto rickshaws which often ply specific routes in cities . In most of the state , cycle rickshaws , and in Kolkata , hand @-@ pulled rickshaws , electric rickshaw are used for short @-@ distance travel .
= = Demographics = =
According to the provisional results of the 2011 national census , West Bengal is the fourth most populous state in India with a population of 91 @,@ 347 @,@ 736 ( 7 @.@ 55 % of India 's population ) . Bengali Hindus comprise the majority of the population . The Marwaris and Bihari minorities are scattered throughout the state ; various indigenous ethnic Buddhist communities such as the Sherpas , the Bhutias , the Lepchas , the Tamangs , the Yolmos and the ethnic Tibetans can be found in the Darjeeling Himalayan hill region . The Darjeeling district also has a large number of Nepali immigrant population , making Nepali a widely @-@ spoken language in this region . West Bengal is home to indigenous tribal Adivasis such as Santhal , Kol , and Toto tribe . There are a small number of ethnic minorities primarily in the state capital , including Chinese , Tamils , Gujaratis , Anglo @-@ Indians , Armenians , Punjabis , and Parsis . India 's sole Chinatown is in eastern Kolkata .
The official language is Bengali and English . Nepali language also has an official status in the three subdivisions of Darjeeling district . As of 2001 , in decreasing order of number of speakers , the languages of the state are : Bengali , Hindi , Santali , Urdu and Nepali .
West Bengal is religiously diverse , with region wise cultural and religious specificities . As of 2011 , Hinduism is the largest religion followed by 70 @.@ 53 % of the total population , while Muslims comprise 27 @.@ 01 % of the total population , being the second @-@ largest community as also the largest minority group . Sikhism , Christianity , Buddhism and other religions make up the remainder . Buddhism remains a prominent religion in the Himalayan region of the Darjeeling hills , and almost the entirety of West Bengal 's Buddhist population are from this region .
The state contributes 7 @.@ 8 % of India 's population . Hindu population is 6 @,@ 43 @,@ 85 @,@ 546 in West Bengal while Muslim population is 2 @,@ 46 @,@ 54 @,@ 825 as per 2011 census . The state 's 2001 – 2011 decennial growth rate was 13 @.@ 93 % , lower than 1991 – 2001 growth rate of 17 @.@ 8 % , and also lower than the national rate of 17 @.@ 64 % . The gender ratio is 947 females per 1000 males . As of 2011 , West Bengal has a population density of 1 @,@ 029 inhabitants per square kilometre ( 2 @,@ 670 / sq mi ) making it the second @-@ most densely populated state in India , after Bihar .
The literacy rate is 77 @.@ 08 % , higher than the national rate of 74 @.@ 04 % . Data of 1995 – 1999 showed the life expectancy in the state was 63 @.@ 4 years , higher than the national value of 61 @.@ 7 years . About 72 % of people live in rural areas . The proportion of people living below the poverty line in 1999 – 2000 was 31 @.@ 9 % . Scheduled Castes and Tribes form 28 @.@ 6 % and 5 @.@ 8 % of the population respectively in rural areas , and 19 @.@ 9 % and 1 @.@ 5 % respectively in urban areas . A study conducted in three districts of West Bengal found that accessing private health services to treat illness had a catastrophic impact on households . This indicates the value of public provision of health services to mitigate against poverty and the impact of illness on poor households .
In 2011 , the police in West Bengal recorded 143 @,@ 197 cognisable offences under the Indian Penal Code ; the all @-@ India statistic for the year was 2 @,@ 325 @,@ 575 . The crime rate in the state was 158 @.@ 1 per 100 @,@ 000 people , less than the all @-@ India average of 192 @.@ 2 . This is the twelfth @-@ lowest crime rate among the 32 states and union territories of India . In 2011 , in reported crimes against women , the state showed a crime rate of 29 compared to the national rate of 18 . West Bengal accounted for about 12 @.@ 2 % of total crime against women ( 26 @,@ 125 cases out of India 's 213 @,@ 585 cases ) .
= = Culture = =
= = = Literature = = =
The Bengali language boasts a rich literary heritage , shared with neighbouring Bangladesh . West Bengal has a long tradition in folk literature , evidenced by the Charyapada , Mangalkavya , Shreekrishna Kirtana , Thakurmar Jhuli , and stories related to Gopal Bhar . In the nineteenth and twentieth century , Bengali literature was modernised in the works of authors such as Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay , Michael Madhusudan Dutt , Rabindranath Tagore , Kazi Nazrul Islam , Sharat Chandra Chattopadhyay , Jibananda Das and Manik Bandyopadhyay . In modern times Jibanananda Das , Bibhutibhushan Bandopadhyay , Tarashankar Bandopadhyay , Manik Bandopadhyay , Ashapurna Devi , Shirshendu Mukhopadhyay , Buddhadeb Guha , Mahashweta Devi , Samaresh Majumdar , Sanjeev Chattopadhyay and Sunil Gangopadhyay among others are well known .
= = = Music and dance = = =
The Baul tradition is a unique heritage of Bengali folk music , which has also been influenced by regional music traditions . Other folk music forms include Gombhira and Bhawaiya . Folk music in West Bengal is often accompanied by the ektara , a one @-@ stringed instrument . West Bengal also has a heritage in North Indian classical music . " Rabindrasangeet " , songs composed and set into tune by Rabindranath Tagore and " Nazrul geeti " ( by Kazi Nazrul Islam ) are popular . Also prominent are other musical forms like Dwijendralal , Atulprasad and Rajanikanta 's songs , and " adhunik " or modern music from films and other composers .
Bengali dance forms draw from folk traditions , especially those of the tribal groups , as well as the broader Indian dance traditions . Chau dance of Purulia is a rare form of mask dance .
= = = Films = = =
Mainstream Hindi films are popular in Bengal , and the state is home to a Tollywood . Tollygunj in Kolkata is the location of numerous Bengali movie studios , and the name " Tollywood " ( similar to Hollywood and Bollywood ) is derived from that name . The Bengali film industry is well known for its art films , and has produced acclaimed directors like Satyajit Ray , Mrinal Sen , Tapan Sinha and Ritwik Ghatak . Prominent contemporary directors include veterans like Buddhadev Dasgupta , Tarun Majumdar , Goutam Ghose , Aparna Sen , Rituparno Ghosh and a newer pool of directors like Kaushik Ganguly and Srijit Mukherji .
= = = Fine arts = = =
Bengal had been the harbinger of modernism in fine arts . Abanindranath Tagore , called the father of Modern Indian Art had started the Bengal School of Art which was to create styles of art outside the European realist tradition which was taught in art colleges under the colonial administration of the British Government . The movement had many adherents like Gaganendranath Tagore , Ramkinkar Baij , Jamini Roy and Rabindranath Tagore . After Indian Independence , important groups like the Calcutta Group and the Society of Contemporary Artists were formed in Bengal which dominated the art scene in India .
= = = Reformist heritage = = =
The capital , Kolkata , was the workplace of several social reformers , like Raja Ram Mohan Roy , Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar , and Swami Vivekananda . These social reforms have eventually led to a cultural atmosphere where practices like sati , dowry , and caste @-@ based discrimination or untouchability , the evils that crept into the Hindu society , were abolished.The region was also home to several religious teachers , such as Chaitanya , Ramakrishna , Prabhupada and Paramahansa Yogananda .
= = = Cuisine = = =
Rice and fish are traditional favourite foods , leading to a saying in Bengali , machhe bhate bangali , that translates as " fish and rice make a Bengali " . Bengal 's vast repertoire of fish @-@ based dishes includes hilsa preparations , a favourite among Bengalis . There are numerous ways of cooking fish depending on the texture , size , fat content and the bones . Sweets occupy an important place in the diet of Bengalis and at their social ceremonies . It is an ancient custom among both Hindu and Muslim Bengalis to distribute sweets during festivities . The confectionery industry has flourished because of its close association with social and religious ceremonies . Competition and changing tastes have helped to create many new sweets . Bengalis make distinctive sweetmeats from milk products , including Rôshogolla , Chômchôm , Kalojam and several kinds of sondesh . Pitha , a kind of sweet cake , bread or dimsum are specialties of winter season . Sweets like coconut @-@ naru , til @-@ naru , moa , payesh , etc. are prepared during the festival of Lakshmi puja . Popular street food includes Aloor Chop , Beguni , Kati roll , and phuchka .
The variety of fruits and vegetables that Bengal has to offer is incredible . A host of gourds , roots and tubers , leafy greens , succulent stalks , lemons and limes , green and purple eggplants , red onions , plantain , broad beans , okra , banana tree stems and flowers , green jackfruit and red pumpkins are to be found in the markets or anaj bazaar as popularly called . Panta bhat ( rice soaked overnight in water ) with onion & green chili is a traditional dish consumed in rural areas . Common spices found in a Bengali kitchen are cumin , ajmoda ( radhuni ) , bay leaf , mustard , ginger , green chillies , turmeric , etc . People of erstwhile East Bengal use a lot of ajmoda , coriander leaves , tamarind , coconut and mustard in their cooking ; while those aboriginally from West Bengal use a lot of sugar , garam masala and red chilli powder . Vegetarian dishes are mostly without onion and garlic .
= = = Costumes = = =
Bengali women commonly wear the shaŗi , often distinctly designed according to local cultural customs . In urban areas , many women and men wear Western attire . Among men , western dressing has greater acceptance . Men also wear traditional costumes such as the panjabi with dhuti , often on cultural occasions .
= = = Weaving = = =
West Bengal has a rich heritage of handloom weaving , and produces some of the finest varieties of cotton and silk sarees in the country . From an economic standpoint , handlooms come second only to agriculture in providing livelihood to the rural population of the state . Every district has weaving ‘ clusters ’ , which are home to artisan communities , each specialising in specific varieties of handloom weaving . Famous handloom sarees woven in the state include tant , jamdani , garad , korial , baluchari , tussar and muslin .
= = = Festivals = = =
Durga Puja in September – October is the most popular and most widely celebrated festival in West Bengal . The whole city of Kolkata undergoes a transformation during Durga Puja , decked in light and colour , as various pandals to the goddess are made on an eclectic array of themes . The idols of the goddess as brought in from Kumortuli , where idol @-@ makers work throughout the year fashioning the clay @-@ models of the goddess . Durga Puja is often labelled as India 's largest open air art exhibition , spilling over from the domain of the religious into becoming a cultural event , where people across diverse religious and cultural spectrum partake in the festival . Tourists from all across the country come to the city of Kolkata to witness this major event . The state tourism department , as of 2015 , has been attempting to promote and market the event to international tourists as well . Durga Puja is a six @-@ day long annual holiday in West Bengal . Vijayadashami , the last day of the festival , witnesses long processions carrying the idols towards rivers and ponds , traditional dhunuchi @-@ nritya and sindoor @-@ khela , beatings of dhak and exchange of sweets .
Poila Baishakh , Rathayatra , Dolyatra or Holi , Nobanno , Poush Parbon , Kali Puja , Saraswati Puja , Diwali , Lakshmi Puja , Janmashtami , Jagaddhatri Puja , Vishwakarma Puja , Bhai Phonta , Rakhi Bandhan , Kalpataru Day , Shivratri , Ganesh Chathurthi , Maghotsav , Kartik Puja , Akshay Tritiya , Raasyatra , Guru Purnima , Basanti Puja , Charak Puja , Gajan , Buddha Purnima , Christmas , Eid ul @-@ Fitr , Eid ul @-@ Adha and Muharram are other major festivals . Both Rabindra Jayanti and Nazrul Jayanti are important socio @-@ cultural festivals .
Christmas , called Bôŗodin ( Great day ) is perhaps the next major festival celebrated in Kolkata , after Durga Puja . Just like Durga Puja , Christmas in Kolkata is an occasion in which all communities and people across religions take part . The state tourism department organises the gala Christmas Festival every year in Park Street . The whole of Park Street is decked up in colourful lights , various food stalls are set up selling cakes , chocolates , Chinese cuisines , momo and various other items . Musical groups from Darjeeling and other states of North East India are invited by the state to perform choir recitals , carols and jazz numbers . Buddha Purnima , which marks the birth of Gautama Buddha , is one of the most important Hindu / Buddhist festivals and is celebrated with much gusto in the Darjeeling hills . On this day , processions are taken out of each of the various Buddhist monasteries or gumpas , and these congregate at the Mall , Chowrasta . The Lamas chant mantras and sound their bugles , and students as well as people from all communities carry the holy books or pustaks on their heads . Besides Buddha Purnima , Dashain , Diwali , Losar , Namsoong or the Lepcha New Year and Losoong are the other major festivals of the Darjeeling Himalayan region .
Poush mela is a popular festival of Shantiniketan in winter .
= = Education = =
West Bengal schools are run by the state government or by private organisations , including religious institutions . Instruction is mainly in English or Bengali , though Urdu is also used , especially in Central Kolkata . The secondary schools are affiliated with the Council for the Indian School Certificate Examinations ( CISCE ) , the Central Board for Secondary Education ( CBSE ) , the National Institute of Open School ( NIOS ) or the West Bengal Board of Secondary Education .
Under the 10 + 2 + 3 plan , after completing secondary school , students typically enroll for two years in a junior college , also known as pre @-@ university , or in schools with a higher secondary facility affiliated with the West Bengal Council of Higher Secondary Education or any central board . Students choose from one of three streams : liberal arts , commerce or science . Upon completing the required coursework , students may enroll in general or professional degree programs .
Some of the renowned schools in the city are La Martiniere Calcutta , St. Xavier 's Collegiate School , and Loreto House - which consistently rank amongst the best schools in the country . Many of the schools in Kolkata and Darjeeling are renowned colonial @-@ era establishments and boast of fantastic neo @-@ classical architecture . The famous schools of Darjeeling include St. Paul 's , St. Joseph 's North Point , Goethals Memorial School and Dow Hill in Kurseong .
West Bengal has 18 universities . Kolkata has played a pioneering role in the development of the modern education system in India . It is the gateway to the revolution of European education . Sir William Jones established the Asiatic Society in 1794 for promoting oriental studies . People like Ram Mohan Roy , David Hare , Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar , Alexander Duff and William Carey played leading roles in the setting up of modern schools and colleges in the city .
The University of Calcutta , the oldest public university in India , has 136 affiliated colleges . The Fort William College was established in 1810 . The Hindu College was established in 1817 . The Scottish Church College , which is the oldest Christian liberal arts college in South Asia , started its journey in 1830 . In 1855 the Hindu College was renamed as the Presidency College . In 2010 , it was granted university status by the state government and was renamed Presidency University . The Kazi Nazrul University was established in 2012 . The University of Calcutta and Jadavpur University are prestigious technical universities . Visva @-@ Bharati University at Santiniketan is a central university and an institution of national importance .
The state has several higher education institutes of national importance including Indian Institute of Foreign Trade , Indian Institute of Management Calcutta ( the first IIM ) , Indian Institute of Science Education and Research , Kolkata , Indian Statistical Institute , Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur ( the first IIT ) , Indian Institute of Engineering Science and Technology , Shibpur ( the first IIEST ) , National Institute of Technology , Durgapur and West Bengal National University of Juridical Sciences . After 2003 the state govt supported the creation of West Bengal University of Technology , West Bengal State University and Gour Banga University .
Jadavpur University ( Focus Area - Mobile Computing and Communication and Nano @-@ Science ) and University of Calcutta ( Modern Biology ) are among two of the fifteen universites selected under the scheme - University with Potential for Excellence . University of Calcutta ( Focus Area - Electro @-@ Physiological and Neuro @-@ imaging studies including mathematical modeling ) has also been selected under the scheme Centre with Potential for Excellence in Particular Area .
Besides these , the state has Kalyani University , The University of Burdwan , Vidyasagar University and North Bengal University — all well @-@ established and nationally renowned — to cover the education needs at the district level and an Indian Institute of Science Education and Research , Kolkata . Apart from this there is a private university run by Ramakrishna mission named Ramakrishna Mission Vivekananda University at Belur Math .
There are a number of research institutes in Kolkata . The Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science is the first research institute in Asia . C. V. Raman got the Nobel Prize for his discovery ( Raman Effect ) done in IACS . The Bose Institute , Saha Institute of Nuclear Physics , S.N. Bose National Centre for Basic Sciences , Indian Institute of Chemical Biology , Central Glass and Ceramic Research Institute , National Institute of Biomedical Genomics ( NIBMG ) , Kalyani and the Variable Energy Cyclotron Centre are most prominent .
Notable scholars who were born , worked or studied in the geographic area of the state include physicists Satyendra Nath Bose , Meghnad Saha , and Jagadish Chandra Bose ; chemist Prafulla Chandra Roy ; statisticians Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis and Anil Kumar Gain ; physician Upendranath Brahmachari ; educator Ashutosh Mukherjee ; and Nobel laureates Rabindranath Tagore , C. V. Raman , and Amartya Sen.
= = Media = =
West Bengal had 505 published newspapers in 2005 , of which 389 were in Bengali . Ananda Bazar Patrika , published from Kolkata with 1 @,@ 277 @,@ 801 daily copies , has the largest circulation for a single @-@ edition , regional language newspaper in India . Other major Bengali newspapers are Bartaman , Sangbad Pratidin , Aajkaal , Jago Bangla , Uttarbanga Sambad and Ganashakti . Major English language newspapers which are published and sold in large numbers are The Telegraph , The Times of India , Hindustan Times , The Hindu , The Statesman , The Indian Express and Asian Age . Some prominent financial dailies like The Economic Times , Financial Express , Business Line and Business Standard are widely circulated . Vernacular newspapers such as those in Hindi , Nepali Gujarati , Odia , Urdu and Punjabi are also read by a select readership .
Doordarshan is the state @-@ owned television broadcaster . Multi system operators provide a mix of Bengali , Nepali , Hindi , English and international channels via cable . Bengali 24 @-@ hour television news channels include ABP Ananda , Tara Newz , Kolkata TV , News Time , 24 Ghanta , Mahuaa Khobor , CTVN Plus , Channel 10 and R Plus . All India Radio is a public radio station . Private FM stations are available only in cities like Kolkata , Siliguri and Asansol . Vodafone , Airtel , BSNL , Reliance Communications , Uninor , Aircel , MTS India , Idea Cellular and Tata DoCoMo are available cellular phone operators . Broadband internet is available in select towns and cities and is provided by the state @-@ run BSNL and by other private companies . Dial @-@ up access is provided throughout the state by BSNL and other providers .
= = Sports = =
Cricket and soccer are popular sports in the state . West Bengal , unlike most other states of India , is noted for its passion and patronage of football . Kolkata is one of the major centres for football in India and houses top national clubs such as East Bengal , Mohun Bagan and Mohammedan Sporting Club .
West Bengal has several large stadiums — The Eden Gardens is one of only two 100 @,@ 000 @-@ seat cricket amphitheaters in the world , although renovations will reduce this figure . Kolkata Knight Riders , East Zone and Bengal play there , and the 1987 World Cup final was there although in 2011 World Cup . Calcutta Cricket and Football Club is the second @-@ oldest cricket club in the world . Notable sports persons from West Bengal include former Indian national cricket captain Sourav Ganguly , Pankaj Roy Olympic tennis bronze medallist Leander Paes , and chess grand master Dibyendu Barua .
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= Rachel Henderson =
Rachel Henderson ( born 8 September 1992 ) is an Australian goalball player and is classified as a B2 competitor . While only starting playing the game in 2010 , she made the national team in 2011 and competed in the 2011 IBSA Goalball World Cup and 2011 African @-@ Oceania regional Paralympic qualifying competition . She was selected to represent Australia at the 2012 Summer Paralympics in goalball .
= = Personal life = =
Henderson was born in Nuriootpa , South Australia , on 8 September 1992 . She has the visual disability of retinitis pigmentosa , a heredity disease she was diagnosed with when she was four years old . As a child , Henderson was involved in javelin , and only stopped competing in 2010 following taking up goalball . She was also involved in swimming , representing South Australia in a few national competitions , before leaving the sport at the same time she quit athletics . She graduated from Nuriootpa High School in 2010 . As of 2012 , she is studying with the goal of becoming a preschool teacher .
= = Goalball = =
Henderson is a goalball player , and is classified as a B2 competitor . She has a goalball scholarship with the South Australian Institute of Sport . In 2011 / 2012 , the Australian Sports Commission gave her a A $ 7 @,@ 000 as part of their DAS grant program . She does not play for a state team . Rather , she is coached by Australian Paralympic Committee ( APC ) Development Coordinator and athletics coach Cathy Lambert . Having not even heard of goalball a few months before , Henderson took up the sport in 2010 following an invitation to attend a team training camp . She made the national team in January 2011 at the national trials , and her national team debut in 2011 at the IBSA Goalball World Cup , where her team finished sixth , and she scored four total goals . Her team made it the quarter finals before losing to Russia 3 – 6 . It then met the Spain women 's national goalball team to try to earn a spot in the fifth / sixth place match , where Australia walked away 8 – 7 victors . In the fifth / sixth place match , it lost to the Israel women 's national goalball team 6 – 8 . She played in the 2011 African @-@ Oceania regional Paralympic qualifying competition and in its gold medal game against the New Zealand women 's national goalball team , which Australia won .
Henderson was a named a member of the Aussie Belles that was going to the 2012 Summer Paralympics . She was the youngest member of the team , and the only South Australian . That the team qualified for the Games came as a surprise , as the Australian Paralympic Committee had been working on player development with the idea of qualifying for the 2016 Summer Paralympics . An Australian team had not participated since the 2000 Summer Paralympics , when they earned an automatic selection as hosts , and the team finished last in the competition . The country has not medalled in the event since 1976 . Going into the Paralympics , the team was ranked eighth in the world . In the 2012 Summer Paralympics tournament , the Belles played games against Japan , Canada , the United States and Sweden . They lost every game , and did not advance to the finals .
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= Sparsely @-@ spotted stingaree =
The sparsely @-@ spotted stingaree , white @-@ spotted stingaree , or Dixon 's stingaree ( Urolophus paucimaculatus ) is a species of stingray in the family Urolophidae , common off the southern Australian coast . Preferring sandy flats and seagrass beds , this benthic ray can be found from close to shore to a depth of at least 150 m ( 490 ft ) , and tends to occur deeper in the northern portion of its range . Reaching a length of 57 cm ( 22 in ) , this species has a broad , diamond @-@ shaped pectoral fin disc that is typically plain gray in color above with a V @-@ shaped marking between the eyes . Individuals from southerly waters also generally exhibit a smattering of small , dark @-@ edged white spots . This ray is further characterized by a distinctively bell @-@ shaped curtain of skin between the nostrils . Its tail has a skin fold running along either side and a leaf @-@ shaped caudal fin , but no dorsal fin .
Relatively inactive during daytime , the sparsely @-@ spotted stingaree preys mainly on crustaceans , and to a much lesser extent on polychaete worms and other small benthic organisms . It is aplacental viviparous , with the mother provisioning her young with histotroph ( " uterine milk " ) . Life history differs between the eastern and western subpopulations : eastern females bear litters of up to six pups with a twelve @-@ month gestation period , while western females bear litters of only one or two pups with a ten @-@ month gestation period . Also , western rays mature later and live longer than eastern rays . The venomous sting of the sparsely @-@ spotted stingaree is potentially injurious to humans , and it has been reported to react aggressively if disturbed . The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has listed it under Least Concern , as there is little fishing activity over the majority of its range .
= = Taxonomy = =
The sparsely @-@ spotted stingaree was described in a 1969 issue of The Victorian Naturalist by Joan Dixon of the Museum Victoria . The specific epithet paucimaculatus is derived from the Latin paucus , meaning " few " , and maculatus , meaning " spotted " . The type specimen was collected from the Bass Strait , near Cape Patton in Victoria . Subpopulations from the eastern and western portions of its range differ in aspects of life history and merit further taxonomic investigation , according to the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
One of the most abundant cartilaginous fishes off southern Australia , the sparsely @-@ spotted stingaree has a relatively wide distribution extending from Crowdy Head in New South Wales to Lancelin in Western Australia , including the entirety of Tasmania . Its range has expanded southward in the past few decades , apparently due to climate change . In Port Phillip , its numbers increased from 1970 to 1991 , likely as a result of fisheries depleting its ecological competitors .
Bottom @-@ dwelling in nature , the sparsely @-@ spotted stingaree inhabits a variety of sandy or seagrass @-@ bottomed habitats , ranging from very shallow , sheltered bays and inlets to the open continental shelf , 150 m ( 490 ft ) deep or more . Rays found further north , such as in the Great Australian Bight , tend to be found at depths greater than 80 – 100 m ( 260 – 330 ft ) . By contrast , rays found further south , off Victoria and Tasmania , are most common in less than 30 m ( 100 ft ) of water . There is no evidence for segregation by age or sex , though there may be an offshore migration during winter .
= = Description = =
The sparsely @-@ spotted stingray has a more or less diamond @-@ shaped pectoral fin disc wider than long , with rounded outer corners . The anterior margins of the disc are nearly straight and converge at an obtuse angle on the fleshy snout , the tip of which barely protrudes from the disc . The small eyes are immediately followed by comma @-@ shaped spiracles with angular or rounded posterior rims . The outer rim of each nostril is enlarged into a knob towards the back . Between the nostrils is a bell @-@ shaped curtain of skin with a finely fringed trailing margin ; only the Kapala stingaree ( U. kapalensis ) has a similarly shaped nasal curtain . The small mouth contains five or six papillae ( nipple @-@ like structures ) on the floor , most of which have forked tips . Additional small papillae are present on the outside of the lower jaw . The teeth in both jaws are small with roughly oval bases , and are arranged in a quincunx pattern . The five pairs of gill slits are short . The pelvic fins are small and rounded .
The tail measures 77 – 98 % as long as the disc ; it is very flattened at the base and slender towards the tip , which bears a deep , leaf @-@ shaped caudal fin . There is a prominent fold of skin running along either side of the tail , and a serrated stinging spine placed on the upper surface about halfway along its length . There is no dorsal fin . The skin is completely devoid of dermal denticles . This species is uniformly light gray above with a darker V @-@ shaped marking between the eyes , and white below with slightly darker lateral disc margins . Most rays from the southern portion of its range also have a handful of small , regularly arranged spots atop the disc , each white with a dark border . Juveniles have a black caudal fin , which lightens with age ( except sometimes for the margin ) . The largest individual on record was 57 cm ( 22 in ) long .
= = Biology and ecology = =
During the day , the sparsely @-@ spotted stingaree spends much time resting motionless on the bottom , often buried in sand . Crustaceans form the main component of its diet , accounting for over 80 % of food intake by volume with amphipods , mysids , and shrimps being most important . Polychaete worms , mostly of the relatively mobile , shallowly buried " errant " type , are a major secondary food source . On rare occasions , molluscs , echinoderms , and small bony fishes are also eaten . This species incorporates a progressively greater diversity of prey into its diet as it grows older ; specifically , mysids , isopods , and amphipods decline in importance , while shrimps , polychaete worms , penaeid prawns , and crabs are consumed in greater proportions . The sparsely @-@ spotted stingaree is preyed upon by the broadnose sevengill shark ( Notorynchus cepedianus ) . It is known to be parasitized by a tapeworm in the genus Acanthobothrium , and the monogeneans Calicotyle urolophi and Merizocotyle urolophi .
Like other stingrays , the sparsely @-@ spotted stingaree is aplacental viviparous : once the developing embryos exhaust their supply of yolk , the mother supplies them with nutrient @-@ rich histotroph ( " uterine milk " ) via specialized extensions of the uterine epithelium called " trophonemata " . Females have a single functional ovary and uterus , on the right side , and an annual reproductive cycle . In the eastern subpopulation , ovulation occurs in spring or early summer and the litter size ranges from one to six , increasing with female size . The gestation period lasts approximately one year , and the newborns measure about 15 – 16 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 – 6 @.@ 3 in ) long . Males reach sexual maturity at around 28 cm ( 11 in ) long and two and a half years of age , and females at around 27 cm ( 11 in ) long and three years of age . The maximum lifespan is at least 8 years for males and 9 years for females . In the western subpopulation , mating occurs in early or mid @-@ summer and females only bear litters of one or two pups . The gestation period lasts ten months , with birthing taking place in late spring or early summer . The newborns measure 13 cm ( 5 @.@ 1 in ) across . Males mature sexually at around 21 cm ( 8 @.@ 3 in ) across and three years of age , and females at around 22 cm ( 8 @.@ 7 in ) across and five years of age . The maximum lifespan is 14 years . In both subpopulations , females grow more slowly and to a larger ultimate size than males .
= = Human interactions = =
Reported to be more aggressive than other stingarees , the sparsely @-@ spotted stingaree readily employs its venomous sting if disturbed and can inflict a painful injury on a human . It is edible , but seldom brought to market . Fishing pressure is insignificant across large portions of this ray 's range , including in the Great Australian Bight , though substantial numbers are caught incidentally by commercial fisheries off southeastern and southwestern Australia in beach seines and bottom trawls . The sparsely @-@ spotted stingaree generally survives being captured , sorted , and discarded , though the process often causes it to abort any unborn young . Nevertheless , losses to fisheries appear to be sustainable at present , and thus the IUCN has listed this species under Least Concern . There are a number of small Marine Protected Areas ( MPAs ) within its range , and it would potentially benefit from the implementation of the 2004 Australian National Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks .
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= Yugoslav monitor Vardar =
The Yugoslav monitor Vardar was a Sava @-@ class river monitor built for the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy as SMS Bosna , but was renamed SMS Temes ( II ) before she went into service . During World War I she was the flagship of the Danube Flotilla , and fought the Serbian Army , the Romanian Navy and Army , and the French Army . She reverted to the name Bosna in May 1917 , after the original SMS Temes was raised and returned to service . After World War I , she was transferred to the newly created Kingdom of Serbs , Croats and Slovenes ( later Yugoslavia ) , and renamed Vardar .
During the German @-@ led Axis invasion of Yugoslavia in April 1941 , she was the flagship of the 1st Monitor Division , and along with her fellow monitor Sava , she laid mines in the Danube near the Romanian border during the first few days of the invasion . The two monitors fought off several attacks by the Luftwaffe , but were forced to withdraw to Belgrade . Due to high river levels and low bridges , the monitors ' navigation was difficult , and they were scuttled by their crews on 11 April . Some of her crew may have been killed when a demolished bridge collapsed onto a tugboat after they abandoned ship . A number tried to escape cross @-@ country towards the southern Adriatic coast , but most were obliged to surrender to the Germans at Sarajevo on 14 April . The remainder made their way to the Bay of Kotor , where they were captured by the Italian XVII Corps on 17 April .
= = Description and construction = =
Vardar was a Sava @-@ class river monitor built for the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy by Stabilimento Tecnico Triestino , and was laid down as Bosna at Linz in 1914 , as part of the Austro @-@ Hungarian 1914 – 15 Naval Program . She was named after the river Bosna , but was renamed Temes ( II ) during construction , after the sinking of the original SMS Temes by a mine on the Sava River on 23 October 1914 . Along with her sister ship Sava , she had an overall length of 62 m ( 203 ft 5 in ) , a beam of 10 @.@ 3 m ( 33 ft 10 in ) , and a normal draught of 1 @.@ 3 m ( 4 ft 3 in ) . Her displacement was 580 tonnes ( 570 long tons ) , and her crew consisted of 91 officers and enlisted men . The ship was powered using steam generated by two Yarrow boilers driving two triple @-@ expansion steam engines , and the ship carried 75 tonnes ( 74 long tons ) of fuel oil . Its engines were rated at 1 @,@ 750 ihp ( 1 @,@ 300 kW ) and she was designed to reach a top speed of 13 @.@ 5 knots ( 25 @.@ 0 km / h ; 15 @.@ 5 mph ) .
Her main armament was a twin gun turret of 120 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) / L45 guns forward of the conning tower and a twin turret of 120 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) / L10 howitzers aft of the conning tower . She also mounted twin 66 mm ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) / L26 anti @-@ aircraft guns , two 47 mm ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) / L44 guns , and seven machine guns . The maximum range of her Škoda 120 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) L / 45 guns was 15 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) . Her armour consisted of belt and bulkheads 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) thick , deck armour 25 mm ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) thick , and her conning tower , gun turrets and cupolas were 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) thick . Temes was completed on 9 July 1915 .
= = Career = =
= = = World War I = = =
Temes was commissioned into the Danube Flotilla in 1915 , and was in action against the Serbian Army at Belgrade in early October , when the Serbs evacuated the city in the face of an Austro @-@ Hungarian assault . During the final river crossing and reinforcement of the resulting bridgehead , Temes provided close support . During this task , she attempted to draw fire away from the battle @-@ damaged monitor Enns but after receiving a direct hit in the crew quarters aft , she had to move out of range . She was run ashore to put out fires and stop leaks , before being towed out of the battle area by an armed steamer , and taken to Budapest for repairs .
In November 1915 , the other monitors were assembled at Rustschuk , Bulgaria . The geopolitical position of Romania was uncertain , with the Central Powers being aware that the Romanians were negotiating to enter the war on the side of the Entente . To protect the 480 @-@ kilometre ( 300 mi ) Danubian border between Romania and Bulgaria , the flotilla established a sheltered base in the Belene Canal . When the Romanians entered the war on 27 August 1916 , the monitors were again at Rustschuk , having been joined by Temes after her repairs were completed . The monitors were immediately attacked by three improvised torpedo boats operating out of the Romanian river port of Giurgiu . The torpedoes that were fired missed the monitors , but struck a lighter loaded with fuel . The 1st Monitor Division , including Temes , was tasked with escorting supply ships back to the Belene anchorage . This was followed by forays of the Division both east and west of Belene , during which both Turnu Măgurele and Zimnicea were shelled . On 9 May 1917 , she was renamed SMS Bosna as the original SMS Temes was due to return to service after a complete rebuild .
In April 1918 , Bosna , along with three other monitors , two patrol boats and a tug were formed into Flottenabteilung Wulff ( Fleet Division Wulff ) under the command of Flottenkapitän ( Fleet Captain ) Olav Wulff . Flottenabteilung Wulff was sent through the mouth of the Danube and across the Black Sea to Odessa , where it spent several months supporting the Austro @-@ Hungarian troops enforcing the peace agreement with Russia . It returned to the Danube at the end of August , and was anchored at Brăila on 12 September . On 16 October , Bosna and the rest of the 1st Monitor Division sailed from Brăila to Belene . The Danube Flotilla then protected Austro @-@ Hungarian troops withdrawing towards Budapest , fighting French and irregular Serbian forces as they withdrew , and arrived on 6 November .
= = = Interwar period and World War II = = =
Immediately after the armistice , Bosna was crewed by sailors of the newly created Kingdom of Serbs , Croats and Slovenes ( KSCS , later the Kingdom of Yugoslavia ) in 1918 – 19 . Under the terms of the Treaty of Saint @-@ Germain @-@ en @-@ Laye concluded in September 1919 , Bosna was transferred to the KSCS along with a range of other vessels , including three other river monitors , but was officially handed over to the KSCS Navy and renamed Vardar in 1920 . In 1925 – 26 , Vardar was refitted , but by the following year only two of the four river monitors of the KSCS Navy were being retained in full commission at any time . In 1932 , the British naval attaché reported that Yugoslav ships were engaging in little gunnery training , and few exercises or manoeuvres , due to reduced budgets .
On 6 April 1941 , the German @-@ led Axis invasion of Yugoslavia began , and Vardar was based at Dubovac , as the flagship of the 1st Monitor Division , responsible for the Romanian border on the Danube , under the operational control of the 3rd Infantry Division Dunavska . She was commanded by Poručnik bojnog broda Milivoj Kockar . On that day , Vardar and her fellow monitor Sava fought off several attacks by individual Luftwaffe aircraft on their base . Over the next three days , the two monitors laid mines in the Danube near the Romanian border .
On 11 April , the two monitors were forced to withdraw from Dubovac towards Belgrade , during which they came under repeated attacks by Junkers Ju 87 Stuka dive bombers . Vardar and her fellow monitor were undamaged , and anchored at the confluence of the Danube and Sava near Belgrade about 20 : 00 , where they were joined by the monitor Morava . The three captains conferred , and decided to scuttle their vessels due to the high water levels in the rivers and low bridges , which meant there was insufficient clearance for the monitors to navigate freely . The crews of the monitors were transshipped to two tugboats , but when one of the tugboats was passing under a railway bridge , charges on the bridge accidentally exploded and the bridge fell onto the tugboat . Of the 110 officers and men aboard the vessel , 95 were killed .
After the scuttling of the monitors , around 450 officers and men from the Vardar and various other riverine vessels gathered at Obrenovac . Armed only with personal weapons and some machine guns stripped from the scuttled vessels , they started towards the Bay of Kotor in the southern Adriatic in two groups . The smaller of the two groups reached its objective , but the larger group only made it as far as Sarajevo by 14 April when they were obliged to surrender by German troops approaching the city . The Bay of Kotor was captured by the Italian XVII Corps on 17 April .
= = = Books = = =
= = = Web = = =
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= Thomas de Dundee =
Thomas de Dundee , also called Thomas Nicholay , was a Scottish prelate who held the bishopric of Ross during the First War of Scottish Independence . Coming from a family of Dundee burghesses , he was educated as the University of Bologna , before entering into career in the church .
He obtained benefices in the diocese of Glasgow and the diocese of Brechin , as well as in Ross , and served as the chaplain to a cardinal before being appointed Bishop of Ross by papal provision in 1295 . After some delay , he was able to take up his position and held it until his death in early 1325 .
= = Biography = =
= = = Family background = = =
Thomas was the son of a burghess of Dundee named Nicholas . Detailed knowledge of Thomas ' father is lacking , but one " Nicholas son of Robert " is found as a burghess of Dundee in a Lindores Abbey document dated between 1237 and 1243 . Another relevant Nicholas , " Nicholas the Chaplain " , is found in 1281 residing in a Dundee tenement located next the tenement of Radulf de Dundee . It is possible both names referred to the same person , but at any rate either could have been Thomas ' father .
Another Dundee burghess family in the period produced prominent churchman , the family of Hervey de Dundee , Bishop of Caithness . There is no proof that the two families were kindred , although in the early 1310s Thomas was recorded as assisting Hervey 's brother Radulf de Dundee obtain a loan for his daughter 's marriage portion .
Thomas ' father was prosperous , wealthy enough to send Thomas to the University of Bologna in Italy . Thomas was recorded as Magister ( " Master " ) , i.e. possessing a Master 's degree , at Bologna in 1286 . He probably studied there alongside the aforementioned Radulf de Dundee , as well as one Michael de Dundee , whose exact family origin cannot be determined .
= = = Early career = = =
Documents dating to 18 February and 24 April 1293 , have Thomas as Subdean of Glasgow Cathedral . On the former date he was at Scone acting as proctor for the cathedral chapter of Glasgow at an arbitration conducted by Robert Wishart , Bishop of Glasgow . Thomas had this role because the dean , Thomas Wishart , was absent , having travelled to Bologna . The arbitration agreement was settled at Glasgow on the latter date .
Perhaps soon after or soon before , Thomas inspected charters of Paisley Abbey on behalf of Laurence de Ergadia , Bishop of Argyll . Here he is called Thomas Nicholay ( " Thomas , son of Nicholas " ) . The reports confirm that he was the Glasgow subdean but the date of the inspection can be fixed no more precisely than some time between 1286 and 1295 .
In 1295 he is found at the papal court acting as the commensalis ( " table companion " ) and chaplain of Cardinal Hugh Aycelin ( Hugh Seguin ) , the Dominican Cardinal @-@ Bishop of Ostia . Hugh was probably making use of Dundee 's training as a lawyer . At this time Thomas is said to be Dean of Brechin Cathedral . The last known dean , William , is attested in 1269 , and another dean was in possession by 24 May 1275 , but the name of this dean is not known . This person is probably not Thomas as it is unlikely that he was Dean of Brechin and Subdean of Glasgow at the same time .
= = = Election and appointment as Bishop of Ross = = =
It is possible that Thomas was still at the papal court when the cathedral chapter of the diocese of Ross were carrying out their elections for the successor of Robert de Fyvie . Two separate elections took place in the period between 17 November 1292 and 18 November 1295 , and it appears that the chapter elected both the cathedral precentor , Adam de Darlington , as well as Thomas de Dundee , who then held a canonry in the diocese .
Both Adam de Darlington and Thomas de Dundee resigned their rights to this episcopal see , but nevertheless Cardinal Hugh Aycelin used his influence to secure Thomas papal provision as bishop on 18 November . In the following year Adam de Darlington was compensated by being appointed Bishop of Caithness , the bishopric which adjoined Ross to the north .
Perhaps because of the political troubles in Scotland at the time , there is a two @-@ year gap between Thomas receiving provision to the see and gaining its " temporalities " , i.e. gaining actual possession of the office . Scotland 's king , John de Balliol , had been in a conflict of authority with the King of the English , who deposed King John in 1296 . It was not until 31 July 1297 that the temporalities of the see were released to Thomas by King Edward I of England , probably after a meeting between Thomas and King Edward at London . According to one source King Edward had been told by Pope Boniface VIII to install Thomas as bishop , Edward proceeded to judge the matter for himself . After doing so , and having received Thomas ' oath of fealty , King Edward ordered John de Warrene , the Earl of Surrey , to install Thomas into his episcopal temporalities .
= = = Episcopate = = =
Thomas had taken up his diocese in Scotland by 17 August 1298 . On this date his seal was attached to a document which recorded the losses suffered by Scone Abbey following the Scottish rebel defeat by the English crown at the Battle of Falkirk . In the first few years of the 14th century Thomas witnessed three charters of Coupar Angus Abbey in the company of Robert Wishart , Bishop of Glasgow , a known opponent of the English crown .
He witnessed another charter relating to that abbey , between 1300 and 1302 , by John de Soules , who issued it as Guardian of Scotland acting in King John Balliol 's name . After the resurgence of English power in Scotland in 1304 Thomas can be found co @-@ operating with King Edward 's officials . In the autumn of 1305 King Edward planned a council of advisors to assist his new governor , John of Brittany , and Bishop Thomas was thought trustworthy enough to be included in this council .
It appears that Bishop Thomas remained pro @-@ English and pro @-@ Balliol after the rising in 1306 of Robert de Brus , Earl of Carrick . Bruce had himself crowned king on 25 March ( becoming King Robert I of Scotland ) . Bishop Thomas ' positions mirrored those of William II , Earl of Ross . On 7 December 1307 King Edward II of England was seeking Bishop Thomas ' support against King Robert .
However , the realities of de Brus power in this part of Scotland were pushed home in the following year . On 13 December 1307 King Robert secured the submission of Bishop Thomas ' temporal protector , Earl William . After this submission Bishop Thomas acted as one of the sureties for Earl William 's future loyalty . The other guarantor was David de Moravia , Bishop of Moray ) .
Record of Bishop Thomas ' activity in the following years is scarce . The sources do not name him as an attendee of the St Andrews parliament of 17 March 1309 , a parliament at which many of the Scottish clergy declared their support for King Robert . However , very few prelates or churchmen were mentioned individually , so that it is not possible to conclude anything about Bishop Thomas ' attendance . He may have attended most or all of the assemblies and parliaments of the following decade , but only for the parliament held at Scone on 3 December 1318 is he specifically recorded as being present .
On 29 October 1312 he attached his seal to a treaty between King Robert and the King of Norway . Thomas was the recipient of a papal mandate issued on 1 June 1317 authorising him to give dispensation for the wrongful marriage between King Robert 's brother Edward de Brus and a daughter of Earl William of Ross . He is found on 1 November 1321 arranging to pay a loan which had been granted by Coupar Angus Abbey to Radulf de Dundee , a loan that had been granted all the way back in 1312 .
His probable last occurrence in the sources concerned a conflict with Kinloss Abbey regarding the prebendal parish church of Avoch . The parish of Avoch lay within Thomas ' diocese , but the Abbot of Kinloss claimed the primary right to possess it . A papal mandate was issued on 5 January 1325 to William de Lindores , the Chancellor of Ross , commanding him to judge the dispute . Bishop Thomas was almost certainly alive on that date , but he was dead by 17 April , when Roger , canon of Abernethy , received papal provision to the bishopric of Ross , said to be vacant by Thomas ' death .
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= John Dudley , 2nd Earl of Warwick =
John Dudley , 2nd Earl of Warwick , KB ( 1527 ( ? ) – 21 October 1554 ) was an English nobleman and the heir of John Dudley , 1st Duke of Northumberland , leading minister and regent under Edward VI of England from 1550 – 1553 . As his father 's career progressed , John Dudley respectively assumed his father 's former titles , Viscount Lisle and Earl of Warwick . Interested in the arts and sciences , he was the dedicatee of several books by eminent scholars , both during his lifetime and posthumously . His marriage to the former Protector Somerset 's eldest daughter , in the presence of the King and a magnificent setting , was a gesture of reconciliation between the young couple 's fathers . However , their struggle for power flared up again and ended with the Duke of Somerset 's execution . In July 1553 , after King Edward 's death , Dudley was one of the signatories of the letters patent that attempted to set Lady Jane Grey on the throne of England , and took arms against Mary Tudor , alongside his father . The short campaign did not see any military engagements and ended as the Duke of Northumberland and his son were taken prisoners at Cambridge . John Dudley the younger was condemned to death yet reprieved . He died shortly after his release from the Tower of London .
= = Education and court life = =
John Dudley was the third of thirteen children born to Sir John Dudley and Jane Guildford , daughter of Sir Edward Guildford . When John was born , his father was a young knight , son of the executed Edmund Dudley , councillor to Henry VII ; in 1537 he became vice @-@ admiral and later Lord Admiral . In 1542 he received his mother 's title of Viscount Lisle . The elder John Dudley was a family man and happily married , as was noted by contemporaries and is evident from letters . The Dudleys moved in evangelical circles from the early 1530s , and their children were educated in Renaissance humanism and science by tutors and companions such as Roger Ascham , John Dee , and Thomas Wilson . Of the brothers , John in particular had scholarly and artistic leanings . He was the dedicatee of Walter Haddon 's Cantabrigienses ( 1552 ) and Thomas Wilson 's Arte of Rhetoricke ( 1553 ) . As late as 1570 , John Dee dedicated his Mathematicall Praeface to Euclid 's Elements to the long @-@ deceased young man 's memory , praising his use of arithmetics and " hearty love to virtuous sciences " . Dudley had his own small library with books in French , Italian and Latin as well as a Greek grammar , and " a tragedie in english of the unjust supremacie of the bushope of Rome " .
John Dudley became his father 's heir after his eldest brother Henry was killed in 1544 during the siege of Boulogne under King Henry VIII . At the coronation of Edward VI in 1547 he was made a Knight of the Bath . Some weeks into Edward 's reign the new Privy Council awarded themselves a round of promotions based on Henry VIII 's wishes , and the elder John Dudley was created Earl of Warwick , the younger assumed his father 's old title of Viscount Lisle . The younger John Dudley and his brothers Ambrose and Robert frequently took part in tournaments and other court festivities . On 3 June 1550 he was married to Anne Seymour , eldest daughter of Edward Seymour , 1st Duke of Somerset and former Lord Protector of England . The marriage was a grand affair attended by the twelve @-@ year @-@ old King Edward at the palace of Sheen . According to his diary Edward had a lot of fun ; he watched mock battles , masques , and there was " a fair dinner made " , a great banquet . The match was to express the renewed amity between the young couple 's fathers , who had been political rivals , but the peace would not last . The Earl of Warwick leading the English government since early 1550 , Somerset began to plot his removal and was executed for felony in January 1552 .
After King Edward , now fourteen , had raised his father to the dukedom of Northumberland in October 1551 , John Dudley became styled Earl of Warwick . In January 1553 he was summoned to Parliament in his own right , so that he could attend the House of Lords . This he did but made no impact , and it is even unclear whether the other Lords allowed him to participate in debates . In April 1552 Warwick became Master of the Horse , a major position in the royal household normally held by more experienced men . In 1551 he travelled with a diplomatic mission to France . At one point he ran into financial difficulties , possibly due to bad company , as a knowing letter from his father to him reveals :
I had thought you had had more discretion than to hurt yourself through fantasies or care , specially for such things as may be remedied and holpen . ... And therefore you should not hide from me your debts whatsoever it be ... send me word in any wise of the whole sum of your debts , for I and your mother will see them forthwith paid and whatsoever you do spend in the honest service of our master and for his honour , so you do not let wild and wanton men consume it , as I have been served in my days , you must think all is spent as it should be , and all that I have must be yours ... Your loving Father . Northumberland .
In February 1553 Princess Mary visited London and was welcomed in the outskirts by the Earl of Warwick at the head of numerous gentlemen . It was a splendid occasion , Mary being received by the Lords of the Council " as if she had been Queen of England " . Still without a proper income of his own , in the next month , Warwick received the wardship of his fourteen @-@ year @-@ old brother @-@ in @-@ law , Edward Seymour .
= = Downfall = =
In January 1553 the King became ill and by the beginning of June his condition was hopeless . For more than a year , the Imperial ambassador Jehan de Scheyfye had been convinced of Northumberland being engaged in some " mighty plot " to settle the Crown on his own head . Always looking out for signs as to this respect , he reported talk that the Duke was contemplating the divorce of his eldest son in order to marry him to Princess Elizabeth . In fact , it was Warwick 's youngest brother , Guildford Dudley , who had recently been married . His bride was Lady Jane Grey . The potential importance of this and two simultaneous weddings escaped ambassador Jehan de Scheyfye . Lady Jane was to ascend the English throne after the King 's death , according to Edward 's will , headed " My Devise for the Succession " , in which he bypassed his half @-@ sisters Mary and Elizabeth . The Earl of Warwick was among the hundred and two personages who signed the letters patent of 21 June , which were supposed to settle the Crown on Jane . When the Duke of Northumberland took arms against Mary Tudor on 14 July , his eldest son went with him .
They passed a week that saw no action in Cambridge and Bury St Edmunds , hearing on 20 July that the Council in London had declared for Mary . Staying at Cambridge , Northumberland himself proclaimed Mary Tudor as queen at the market place . Warwick was with him as he threw up his cap and " so laughed that the tears ran down his cheeks for grief . " The city that had welcomed the Duke splendidly was nervous to please the new queen . A large group of townsmen and university scholars surrounded King 's College to arrest the Duke , who was with his son lodged on the premises . In contrast to his father , Warwick resisted arrest . A letter from the Council arrived that everyman could go his way , so the Duke asked to be set free , " and so continued they all night [ at liberty ] " . At dawn the Earl of Warwick " was booted ready to have ridden in the morning " , and escape . It was too late , however , as the Earl of Arundel arrived to again arrest the Duke and his entourage . The prisoners returned riding side by side through London , the guards having difficulties protecting them against the hostile populace .
After a few days , almost all the Dudley family were imprisoned in the Tower . All the men were eventually attainted and condemned to death . Warwick was tried on 18 August 1553 in Westminster Hall , alongside his father and the Marquess of Northampton . Warwick 's turn was last and he , unlike the other defendants , pleaded guilty immediately . After sentence was passed Northumberland asked : " that her Majesty may be gracious to my children ... considering they went by my commandment who am their father , and not of their own free wills " . His execution was planned for 21 August at eight in the morning , however , it was suddenly cancelled ; Northumberland was instead escorted to St Peter ad Vincula , where he publicly took the Catholic communion , forswearing his hitherto Protestant faith , in what was a great propaganda coup for the new , Catholic , government . Any hopes of a pardon were in vain for the Duke who , after short notice , was now to be beheaded the next day . An hour before his father 's execution the Earl of Warwick was likewise led to St Peter ad Vincula to receive the sacrament ; he then returned to his prison cell .
From mid @-@ September Warwick was allowed visits by his wife . The rebellion of Thomas Wyatt in February 1554 led to the executions of Jane Grey and her husband , Guildford Dudley . John , Ambrose , Robert , and Henry Dudley remained imprisoned in a room of the Beauchamp Tower . They made carvings in the walls , John carving their heraldic devices with his name " IOHN DVDLI " . He was allowed to perambulate on the leads , " being crazed for want of air " . During 1554 Jane Dudley , John 's mother , and his brother @-@ in @-@ law , Henry Sidney , were busy befriending the Spanish nobles around the new king consort , Prince Philip of Spain , as well in England as in Spain . In October , John Dudley and his brothers Robert and Henry were released due to their efforts , but John Dudley died immediately afterwards at Henry Sidney 's house Penshurst in Kent .
= = Ancestry = =
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= Robert Furman =
Robert Ralph Furman ( August 21 , 1915 – October 14 , 2008 ) was a civil engineer who during World War II was the chief of foreign intelligence for the Manhattan Engineer District directing espionage against the German nuclear energy project . He participated in the Alsos Mission , which conducted a series of operations with the intent to place all uranium in Europe into Allied hands , and at the end of the war rounded up German atomic scientists to keep them out of the Soviet Union . He personally escorted half of the uranium @-@ 235 necessary for the Little Boy atomic bomb to the Pacific island of Tinian . He was also a key figure overseeing the construction of The Pentagon building . After the war he founded Furman Builders Inc . , a construction company that built hundreds of structures , including the Potomac Mills shopping mall in Woodbridge , Virginia .
= = Early life = =
Robert Ralph Furman was born on August 21 , 1915 , in Trenton , New Jersey , one of five sons of William and Leila Ficht Furman . His father was a bank teller , and his mother worked as a riveter during World War II . He attended Princeton University and graduated in 1937 with a degree in civil engineering . He then worked for the Pennsylvania Railroad and a construction company in New York .
= = World War II = =
In December 1940 , Furman was activated as a member of the United States Army Reserve and assigned to the Quartermaster Corps Construction Division , where he worked for Colonel Leslie R. Groves , Jr . , supervising the day @-@ to @-@ day construction of The Pentagon . When the building was completed in 1943 , Groves was reassigned to the " Manhattan Project " and brought his aide , Furman , with him .
In August 1943 Furman was put in charge of an intelligence effort formed by Groves in response to concerns raised by atomic bomb project scientists about the German nuclear energy project . As director of intelligence , Furman was responsible for ascertaining the progress the Germans were making . In December 1943 , Groves sent Furman to Britain to discuss the establishment of a London Liaison Office for the Manhattan Project and the British government , and to confer over coordinating the intelligence effort .
Furman sent the spy Moe Berg to Switzerland to meet the head of the German project , Werner Heisenberg . After chatting with Heisenberg at a cocktail party , Berg concluded that the Germans were a long way behind the Allied effort . Furman travelled to Rome in June 1944 , where he interviewed Italian scientists about the German project .
When the Alsos Mission found documentation in office of Union Minière in Antwerp that indicated over 1 @,@ 000 tons of refined uranium had been sent to Germany , but about 150 tons still remained at Olen , Belgium , Groves sent Furman back to Europe with orders to secure the Olen cache . The Alsos Mission located 68 tons there , but another 80 tons was missing , having been shipped to France in 1940 ahead of the German invasion of Belgium . Groves had the Olen uranium shipped to England and , ultimately , to the United States .
Documentation indicated that the missing uranium had been sent to Toulouse . An Alsos Mission team under Boris Pash 's command reached Toulouse on October 1 and inspected a French Army arsenal with a Geiger counter . When the needle jumped near some barrels , they were inspected and found to be the 31 tons of uranium from Belgium . The 3342nd Quartermaster Truck Company was released from the Red Ball Express to retrieve the shipment . The barrels were collected and transported to Marseilles , where Furman supervised their loading on a ship bound for the United States .
In April 1945 , Furman participated in Operation Harborage . The Alsos Mission and the 1269th Engineer Combat Battalion occupied Haigerloch , where they found and destroyed a German experimental nuclear reactor , and recovered uranium and heavy water . The Alsos Mission took Heisenberg into custody on May 2 . Furman supervised his detention and that of nine other German scientists , who were taken to Rheims , then Versailles , and finally to the country estate of Farm Hall in England , where their conversations were monitored and where they could not defect to the Soviet Union .
In July 1945 , Furman personally escorted half of the uranium @-@ 235 necessary for the Little Boy atomic bomb to the Pacific island of Tinian . Accompanied by Captain James F. Nolan , a radiologist with Project Alberta , Furman set out by car from Santa Fe to Albuquerque on July 14 , then travelled by air to Hamilton Field , California . The men boarded the cruiser USS Indianapolis at Hunters Point Naval Shipyard , and crossed the Pacific to Tinian , arriving on July 26 . A few days after leaving Tinian , the Indianapolis was torpedoed and sunk by a Japanese submarine with the loss of over 800 men .
= = Later life = =
Furman left the army the year after the war ended and founded Furman Builders Inc. in Rockville , Maryland . The firm built hundreds of homes , schools and commercial buildings , including the Potomac Mills shopping mall in Woodbridge , Virginia , the Metropolitan Baptist Church in Washington , D.C. , and the United States embassy in Nicaragua . He married Mary Eddy in 1952 . They had four children : a son , David , and three daughters , Martha Keating , Julia Costello and Serena Furman .
For the most part , Furman kept quiet about his exploits during the war . He served as president of the local rotary club and sang baritone in a barbershop quartet . He retired in 1993 , and died of metastatic melanoma on October 14 , 2008 at Buckingham 's Choice retirement community in Adamstown , Maryland at the age of 93 .
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= Like Crazy =
Like Crazy is a 2011 American romantic drama film directed by Drake Doremus and starring Anton Yelchin , Felicity Jones and Jennifer Lawrence . Written by Doremus and Ben York Jones , the film tells the story of Anna ( Felicity Jones ) , a British exchange student who falls in love with an American student , Jacob ( Yelchin ) , only to be separated from him when she is denied re @-@ entry into the United States after staying in the country longer than her student visa allows .
Doremus based the storyline of the film partly on his own long @-@ distance relationship with a woman living in London while he lived in Los Angeles . Rather than writing a traditional screenplay , he and Ben York Jones compiled a 50 @-@ page outline of the film from which the actors improvised almost all of the dialogue . Filming took place over four weeks in Los Angeles and London with a budget of $ 250 @,@ 000 .
Like Crazy premiered on January 22 , 2011 at the Sundance Film Festival , where it won the festival 's Grand Jury Prize . It was released in theaters on October 28 , 2011 and grossed over $ 3 @.@ 7 million at the box office . Most reviews of the film were positive , with reviewers giving particular praise to the performances of Yelchin and Jones , although some found the plot unrealistic and contrived .
= = Plot = =
Anna Gardner ( Felicity Jones ) , a British exchange student attending college in Los Angeles , meets and falls in love with Jacob Helm ( Anton Yelchin ) , an American student who returns her affections . After graduation , Anna decides to spend the summer with Jacob rather than return to the United Kingdom , unaware of the consequences of staying longer than her student visa , which expired upon her graduation , allows . After returning to London for a family engagement , Anna flies back to Los Angeles , where she is detained , denied entry , and sent back to the United Kingdom by immigration officials .
The couple 's love for each other grows strained by their separation and long @-@ distance relationship . Despite her efforts at appealing the immigration decision , Anna is told she is banned from entering the United States . Meanwhile , Jacob leaves behind his successful design business and visits Anna in London for a few weeks . There , he learns that Anna 's parents , Bernard ( Oliver Muirhead ) and Jackie ( Alex Kingston ) , have hired an immigration lawyer to try to get the ban lifted . Bernard suggests that marrying may help their efforts . Jacob is uncomfortable with the suggestion , and the couple struggle with their feelings .
After Jacob returns to the United States , he and Anna grow apart , and Jacob begins a relationship with his colleague , Samantha ( Jennifer Lawrence ) . Anna also tries to find a new life for herself , beginning work as a secretary for a magazine , but she is unable to abandon her feelings for Jacob . She eventually phones him from London and says that they will never find in others what they found in each other , and that they should marry . Soon after , Jacob breaks up with Samantha , returns to London and marries Anna in a small registry office ceremony with her parents as witnesses — both affirming that they will " never allow anything to destroy the feelings we share for each other " . With a tearful parting , Jacob returns to his business in Los Angeles while the couple wait six months before they appeal the ban on Anna 's visa .
Six months later , Jacob flies back to the United Kingdom for the appeal , but it is rejected . With their relationship compromised and no hope of resolving the visa issue , Anna and Jacob begin to fight with each other out of jealousy and frustration . Jacob leaves the UK , and soon both are seeing other people . Anna eventually gets promoted at work to the position of editor — something she wanted very much . Her love life , however , is not as positive or fulfilling — her new boyfriend Simon ( Charlie Bewley ) does not evoke the same feelings in her as Jacob , whom she still misses .
Sometime later , Anna is finally offered a new visa . She gives up her job , her current boyfriend and her apartment , and flies to Los Angeles to Jacob , who greets her with flowers at the airport where they have an awkward reunion . Jacob brings Anna to his house where he joins her in the shower , and as the water falls over them , they remember happier memories they had together at the beginning of their relationship , which has now become strained due to their indiscretions during the time spent apart .
= = Cast = =
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Drake Doremus was inspired to make Like Crazy by the end of his eight @-@ year long @-@ distance relationship with Desiree Pappenscheller , who lived in London while Doremus lived in Los Angeles . Many elements of the film resemble their real @-@ life relationship , such as frequent travelling between Los Angeles and London , trouble with American immigration laws , a brief marriage , a trip to Santa Catalina Island ( where Jacob takes Anna in the early stages of their relationship ) , and the gift of a bracelet ( in the film , a bracelet is given to Anna by Jacob ) . The story was co @-@ written by Ben York Jones , who had also been involved in long @-@ distance relationships . Together , they assembled a 50 @-@ page outline of the film which read more like a short story than a traditional screenplay . The outline included backstory , plot points , specific scene objectives , themes and emotional moments , but had minimal dialogue .
Anton Yelchin was Doremus 's first choice to play Jacob , based on Yelchin 's previous work , and was cast almost immediately after meeting Doremus to discuss the role . After auditioning a number of actresses from Los Angeles and London to play Anna , Doremus talked to English actress Felicity Jones over the phone and asked her to tape rough versions of two scenes from the film . He was so impressed with her rendition of the film 's final scene — in which Anna and Jacob stand silently in a shower — that he decided to cast her . After Jones arrived in Los Angeles , she and Yelchin began an intensive week @-@ long rehearsal before filming began . Yelchin and Jones met in a Mexican restaurant to get to know one another and , during the week prior to shooting , spent " all day and often all night " discussing Anna and Jacob 's relationship with each other and Doremus .
= = = Filming = = =
Like Crazy was filmed over four weeks — the first three in Los Angeles and the last in London . The production budget was $ 250 @,@ 000 , which included the cost of airfares for the cast and crew . The film was shot on a Canon EOS 7D still camera with cinema lenses , mounted on a rig constructed by cinematographer John Guleserian . He chose the 7D for its portability and the ease it provided for shooting improvised scenes , where he found other cameras too cumbersome . Guleserian said that many of the film 's scenes were shot " really far away from our characters [ followed by ] really tight close ups " due to the technological limitations of the camera , but he noted that this added to the tone of the film .
Only a small number of crew members were employed to maintain the sense of intimacy that Doremus wanted on set . At its largest , the crew consisted of around 20 people , while some scenes were shot with as few as three crew members , such as a scene on a Santa Monica beach where only Doremus , Guleserian and " a sound guy " were present in addition to the actors . Doremus would often ask members of the crew to leave when filming intimate scenes between Jones and Yelchin so that the two actors would feel more comfortable . These scenes would be shot in improvised takes of up to 30 minutes in length , with Doremus providing only occasional direction . The film 's dialogue was almost entirely improvised by the actors , whose lines Doremus believed would come about " by virtue of being fully involved in the character and the moment " .
= = = Music = = =
The film 's original score was composed by pianist Dustin O 'Halloran . Other music used in the film included songs by Paul Simon , M83 , Stars , The Mary Onettes and Figurine . Doremus listened to several of these artists as he developed the story ; he said that their songs " became the fabric of the film " . He assembled a similar set of songs on a CD which he gave to the cast and crew to listen to throughout production .
An official soundtrack , titled Like Crazy : Music from the Motion Picture , was released on CD and in digital format in conjunction with the film 's release . The track listing is as follows :
= = Release = =
Like Crazy premiered at the Sundance Film Festival on January 22 , 2011 , where it won the Grand Jury Prize . During the festival , the film 's distribution rights were acquired by Paramount Vantage for $ 4 million .
The film was given a limited release in theaters on October 28 , 2011 . It earned $ 123 @,@ 140 on its opening weekend with a per @-@ theater average of $ 30 @,@ 785 from four theaters . Its widest release was 162 theaters , and it closed on January 12 , 2012 after playing for 11 weeks , earning $ 3 @,@ 395 @,@ 391 in total at the domestic box office . Internationally , it grossed $ 336 @,@ 098 , making a total box office gross of $ 3 @,@ 731 @,@ 489 .
In the United States , Like Crazy was released by Paramount Home Media on DVD and Blu @-@ ray and made available for digital download on March 6 , 2012 . It was released on DVD in the United Kingdom on May 28 , 2012 . The DVD release included an audio commentary recorded by Doremus , Guleserian and editor Jonathan Alberts , while the Blu @-@ ray included deleted and alternate scenes in addition to the commentary .
= = Reception = =
Reviews for Like Crazy have been favorable . The film has a 73 % " certified fresh " rating on the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes , based on 146 reviews ; the consensus states " It has the schmaltzy trappings of many romantic films , but Like Crazy allows its characters to express themselves beyond dialogue , crafting a true , intimate study . " At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the film received an average score of 71 based on 37 reviews , indicating " generally favorable reviews " .
In a review for The Wall Street Journal , Joe Morgenstern described Like Crazy as a " wise and beautiful little film " , giving particular praise to Guleserian 's cinematography and Yelchin and Jones 's improvised performances . David Edelstein of New York magazine claimed that Like Crazy was " the most infectious love story in decades " , comparing its " wonderfully sane " perspective to other romance films and romantic comedies . Entertainment Weekly 's Lisa Schwarzbaum gave the film an A – grade and praised Doremus , Yelchin and Felicity Jones 's storytelling ability in creating " a palpably real , universally identifiable manifestation of young love in all its ecstasy and agony " . In a review for Rolling Stone , Peter Travers gave the film 3 @.@ 5 out of 4 stars , writing that " Drake Doremus has crafted a crazily inventive and totally irresistible tale of first love that makes the familiar seem bittersweet and heart @-@ stoppingly new " . He described Felicity Jones as " a marvel " and Yelchin as " outstanding " . Time magazine 's Mary Pols commended the film 's ambiguous ending and wrote , " Like Crazy is a cinematic love potion and you leave it feeling bewitched . " Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times gave the film 3 out of 4 stars , praising Jones and Yelchin 's performances and the " intelligent , graceful indie style " of the film , although he found the storyline somewhat unrealistic . Indiewire 's Eric Kohn gave the film a B + grade and felt that while the plot developed slowly , Yelchin and Jones shared " an indelible and entirely realistic chemistry " . Variety film critic Andrew Barker , who described the film as " an exquisite , beautifully acted gem " , gave particular praise to the film 's " dexterous editing " , given that it " contains nary an extraneous detail , while still managing to luxuriate in the tender and awkward silences of young love " .
A more negative review of the film came from Manohla Dargis of The New York Times , who found it " a conventional , wan affair , despite its art @-@ cinema flourishes " and thought that Anna 's inability to obtain a visa was a contrived plot point that conflicted with Doremus 's attempt at creating realism . The Globe and Mail 's Rick Groen also found Like Crazy unrealistic , giving the film 2 out of 4 stars and writing that " nothing feels more false than a failed attempt at getting real " . Writing for Salon , Andrew O 'Hehir opined that the film was uninteresting , unmemorable , and " sickly sweet " . Nick Pinkerton of The Village Voice found Jones and Yelchin 's performances " aggressively average " and described the film as " a rote story , arbitrarily scattered into abstraction " .
= = Accolades = =
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= Fool 's Gold Loaf =
Fool 's Gold Loaf is a sandwich made by the Colorado Mine Company , a restaurant in Denver , Colorado . The sandwich consists of a single warmed , hollowed @-@ out loaf of bread filled with the contents of one jar of creamy peanut butter and one jar of grape jelly , and a pound of bacon . The sandwich 's connection to Elvis Presley is the source of its legend and prolonged interest . According to The Life and Cuisine of Elvis Presley , it was the focus of a midnight sandwich run by Elvis Presley and his friends . Taking his private jet from Graceland , Presley and his friends purchased 30 of the sandwiches and spent three hours eating them and drinking Perrier and champagne before flying home . The story became legend and the sandwich became the subject of continued media interest and part of numerous cookbooks , typically focused around Presley 's love of food .
= = Origin = =
There are two accounts on the origin of Fool 's Gold Loaf . According to Graeme Wood , the Fool 's Gold Loaf was created by Cindy and Buck Scott , owners of the Colorado Mine Company restaurant . Wood writes that Elvis obtained the recipe from the Scotts , so his personal chef could make it , but noted that " the Fool 's Gold Loaf never made a recorded encore " .
According to Nick Andurlakis , he helped create the sandwich while he was working at the Colorado Mine Company as a chef and suggested the Fool 's Gold Loaf to Elvis . Andurlakis claims that he personally delivered the sandwiches to Elvis on the famous night .
The sandwich was named to fit the mining motif of the restaurant .
= = Preparation = =
The recipe has been repeated numerous sources and across the internet , including The Life and Cuisine of Elvis Presley and Andurlakis , a chef of the Colorado Mine Company .
The Fool 's Gold Loaf begins with a loaf of French white bread that is covered in two tablespoons of margarine and baked in the oven at 350F / 180C until brown . One pound of sliced bacon is fried in oil until crispy and drained . The loaf is sliced lengthwise , hollowed out , and filled with peanut butter , grape jelly and bacon .
According to Andurlakis , he personally served Elvis the Fool 's Gold Loaf with bacon , peanut butter , and blueberry preserves on a loaf of French bread . The specific type of preserves was allegedly Dickinson 's blueberry preserves .
= = Elvis connection = =
David Adler 's book contains a detailed account of the event that made both Elvis and the Fool 's Gold Loaf sandwich famous . On the night of February 1 , 1976 , Elvis Presley was at his home Graceland in Memphis , entertaining Capt. Jerry Kennedy of the Denver , Colorado police force , and Ron Pietrafeso of Colorado 's Strike Force Against Crime . The three men began discussing the sandwich , and Presley decided he wanted one right then . Presley had been to the restaurant before , while in Denver . Kennedy and Pietrafeso were friends of the owners and hung out there often , so they were driven to the Memphis airport and boarded Presley 's private jet , the Lisa Marie , and flew the two hours to Denver . When they arrived at Stapleton International Airport at 1 : 40 AM , the plane taxied to a special hangar where the passengers were greeted by Buck Scott , the owner of the Colorado Mine Company , and his wife Cindy who had brought 30 fresh Fool 's Gold Loaves for the men . They spent two hours in the hangar eating the sandwiches , washing them down with Perrier and champagne . Presley invited the pilots of the plane , Milo High and Elwood Davis , to join them . When they were done , they flew back to Memphis without ever having left the Denver airport .
= = Coverage = =
The Fool 's Gold Loaf connection to Elvis dominates the media 's coverage of the subject . It was widely reported as " legend " by the media ; including the NBC 's Today , Joplin Globe , and Gloucester Times . Doug Clark , a columnist for The Spokesman Review , recounts the popular story and writes that the Fool 's Gold Recipe is " surprisingly tasty " and notes that it contains around 8 @,@ 000 calories . The popular legend and sandwich were also noted by the Smithsonian Magazine .
The Fool 's Gold Loaf has been included in numerous publications and cookbooks . The Fool 's Gold Loaf was included and generated national interest with David Alder 's book The Life and Cuisine of Elvis Presley . Alder 's work would continue with the television documentary : The Burger and The King . Another publication by Alder , Eating the Elvis Presley Way was later released .
The Fool 's Gold Loaf has been detailed in Ramble Colorado : The Wanderer 's Guide to the Offbeat , Overlooked , and Outrageous . The The Peanut Butter and Co . Cookbook refers to the Fool 's Gold Loaf legend and ties it to the peanut butter , banana and bacon sandwich , also known as the " Elvis sandwich " .
In addition , the sandwich and its connection to Elvis Presley is featured in the 2013 romantic comedy The F Word ( What If ) , with The Last Leg showing it off as well in order to promote the film .
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= The Book of est =
The Book of est is a fictional account of the training created by Werner Erhard , ( est ) , or Erhard Seminars Training , first published in 1976 by Holt , Rinehart and Winston . The book was written by est graduate Luke Rhinehart . Rhinehart is the pen name of writer George Cockroft . The book was endorsed by Erhard , and includes a foreword by him . Its contents attempts to replicate the experience of the est training , with the reader being put in the place of a participant in the course . The end of the book includes a comparison by the author between Erhard 's methodologies to Zen , The Teachings of Don Juan by Carlos Castaneda , and to Rhinehart 's own views from The Dice Man .
Reception to the book was mixed . There were critical reviews in Library Journal , Kirkus Reviews , and The New York Times Book Review . An article about Erhard and est in the religious journal Quarterly Review placed the book among " the most accessible sources about est " . Professor Walter A. Effross of the American University Washington College of Law cites The Book of est in an article in the Buffalo Law Review analyzing the control of new age movements over their intellectual property .
= = Background = =
Werner Erhard ( born John Paul Rosenberg ) originally from Pennsylvania , he migrated to California . He was a former salesman , training manager and executive in the encyclopedia business , . He created the Erhard Seminars Training ( est ) course in 1971 @.@ est was a form of Large Group Awareness Training , and was part of the Human Potential Movement. est was a four @-@ day , 60 @-@ hour self @-@ help program given to groups of 250 people at a time . The program was very intensive : each day would contain 15 – 20 hours of instruction . During the training , est personnel utilized jargon to convey key concepts , and participants had to agree to certain rules which remained in effect for the duration of the course . Participants were taught that they were responsible for their life outcomes .
By 1977 over 100 @,@ 000 people completed the est training , including public figures and mental health professionals . Est was controversial . It had its critics and proponents . Werner Erhard and Associates repackaged the course as " The Forum " , a seminar focused on " goal @-@ oriented breakthroughs " . By 1988 , approximately one million people had taken some form of the trainings . A group of his associates formed the company Landmark Education in 1991 . In 2013 they renamed it Landmark Worldwide LLC . Landmark fully purchased from Erhard the intellectual property in the Forum and other courses by 2002 .
= = Publication = =
The book was first published in 1976 in a hardcover format by Holt , Rinehart and Winston , and a paperback edition was released later in the same year . It was published in German in 1983 by Hugendubel . In November 2008 , Luke Rhinehart , in association with Joe Vitale and Mark J. Ryan , re @-@ released The Book of est as an E @-@ book .
= = Contents = =
The Book of est includes a one @-@ page foreword by Werner Erhard . Erhard writes in the foreword that Rhinehart 's book " brilliantly ... communicates clearly to the reader both a sense of being in the training room and the spirit of what takes place there . " Erhard 's foreword notes : " although this book dramatizes the highlights of the training and attempts to give you the vicarious experience of being at a training , this is a book , and the est experience cannot result from reading any book " .
With Erhard 's endorsement , Rhinehart attempts to replicate the " transformation " experience from est . The book imparts the message that the participant 's life " doesn 't work " , and that after two weekends the individual will come to understand how to " win " . The book presents a fictional dramatization of the est training . Punctuation style usage , including exclamation points and boldface type , bring the reader 's attention to key items in the text .
Rhinehart describes the est training as a form of participatory theatre , writing : " Seeing the trainer as a master actor ... permits us to evaluate his acts and words more intelligently than if we misinterpret him as being a scholar or scientist giving a lecture . " In an analysis of how to approach the est training , Rhinehart comments that " It might best be described , if it can be described at all , as theater — as living theater , participatory theater , encounter theater . Once we begin to see est in these terms , much that fails to fit the scheme of therapy or religion or science begins to make sense . "
In Rhinehart 's fictional account of the training , the est course leader begins with the instruction : " Let me make one thing clear . I don 't want any of you to believe a thing I 'm saying . Get that . Don 't believe me . Just listen . " The est trainer explains that the course techniques are used because " Werner has found that they work . " When one of the est participants asks why the instructor says certain statements during the course , the instructor responds : " I 'm saying them because Werner has found that the trainer 's saying them works . "
Participants in est are told that they cannot take notes during the course , and at the end of the seminar the instructor declines to go over a review of the training . In order to participate in the course , trainees must adhere to agreements which include : they may not exit the course facility except during specified break time , they cannot sit next to someone they knew before coming to the course , and they cannot take unprescribed medications or alcohol for the week prior to the training .
Individuals are given a chance to receive a full refund and leave the course after the instructor goes over the course agreements . A second chance to leave the course and receive a refund is offered on the third day of the course . At the end of the training , the seminar participants are strongly encouraged to bring guests to sign up for the course – participants are instructed that " bringing guests is a manifestation of a person 's willingness to participate in life . "
The concluding portion of the book includes a comparison of Werner Erhard 's methodologies to Zen , The Teachings of Don Juan by Carlos Castaneda , and to Rhinehart 's views from The Dice Man . Drawing a parallel to the " controlled folly " described in Castaneda 's A Separate Reality , Rhinehart argues that in almost all cases , enlightenment is linked to humor : " One can rarely have an enlightenment experience except under the impact of nonsense ... Every time we laugh we are in a way experiencing a mini enlightenment , a tiny letting go of some attachment to some bit of belief or sense . Full enlightenment , in these terms , is accepting what is , which leads to experiencing fully whatever one is experiencing . "
Rhinehart comments that those who have taken part in the est training feel the need for a sense of community : " Most graduates indicate that the value of the seminar series depends not so much on it 's ostensible data content or on the processes introduced , but on the sharing on an intimate basis with others . " He notes that some of the graduates of the est training " treat him [ Erhard ] with the love and awe normally associated with that of disciples for spiritual teachers " . He likens Erhard 's relationship to his staff members to the way in which a guru interacts with disciples : " [ It is ] the essentially eastern phenomenon of a powerful being ( usually a guru or a spiritual teacher ) attracting other powerful beings who nevertheless choose to channel their power through their leader . " Rhinehart argues that est " may be seen as in many ways the culmination to date of the ' Easternization of America ' , a process that first became notable in the late fifties and early sixties " .
= = Critical reception = =
James Charney notes in his review of the book for Library Journal , " Questions of effectiveness or possible harm are hardly considered . " Charney characterizes the problem of the book and its subject matter as a " kind of with @-@ it diffuseness which disallows any intelligent understanding on principle " . In a review of the book for The New York Times Book Review , Zane Berzins was critical of the work , commenting : " There isn 't much to be said for the book except that it exudes a kind of repellent fascination . " A review of the book in Kirkus Reviews was negative ; the review characterizes it as , " Not a book , really . A verbatim transcription of one of Werner Erhard 's weekend sessions in $ 250 doublethink . " Kirkus Reviews criticizes the author for not engaging in any judgmental analysis of the est training methodology . The review concludes , " at least the reader finally has an opportunity to see what an estian seminar is , with vomit bags , circuitous logic , pathetic interplay between overbearing trainer and angst @-@ ridden trainee , and all . "
In an article about Erhard and est for the religious journal Quarterly Review , Florida International University assistant religious studies professor Robert R. Hann places the book among " the most accessible sources about est " . Hann comments that since the book has been " reviewed by Erhard and carries his statement of support for the author " , it " can therefore be presumed to be , if not ' canonical , ' then at least not significantly at odds with the perspective of est itself . "
Professor Walter A. Effross of the American University Washington College of Law cites The Book of est along with Adelaide Bry 's est : 60 Hours That Transform Your Life , in an article in the Buffalo Law Review analyzing the control of new age movements over their intellectual property . Effross notes that the copyright page of The Book of est gives a notice that : " material based in part on unpublished lectures created and copyrighted by Werner Erhard and used by the author with his permission . No material created and copyrighted by Werner Erhard may be used or disseminated in any medium or language without his prior written authorization . " Effross comments on the potential loss of control over his material that Erhard may have invited due to endorsing these books about his methodology : " ... because it enabled commentators to make ' fair use ' of the disclosed information , it was not helpful for ... Werner Erhard , the founder of est , to endorse a first @-@ person account of an est training , even one which provided only simulations of est 's ' processes , ' or guided meditations . ( However , the publicity [ Erhard 's organization ] achieved from such exposure during crucial periods of ... expansion may have been seen as justifying the intellectual property risk . ) "
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= Cuisine of the Thirteen Colonies =
The cuisine of the Thirteen Colonies includes the foods , eating habits , and cooking methods of the Thirteen British colonies in North America before the American revolution . It was derived from familiar traditions from the colonists ’ home countries in the British Isles and particularly England . Many agricultural items came through trade with England and the West Indies . Certain familiar items grew better in the Old World than others , and this led to a dependence on imports which drove the daily lives of the colonists . However , the colonial diet was increasingly supplemented by new animal and plant foods indigenous to the New World .
In the years leading up to 1776 , a number of events led to a drastic change in the diet of the American colonists . As they could no longer depend on British and West Indian imports , agricultural practices of the colonists began to focus on becoming completely self @-@ sufficient .
= = Regional cuisines = =
The majority of immigrants to North America in the 17th and 18th centuries came from various parts of Britain in four waves . These four migration waves established the four major regional cultures that still affect life in the United States to this day . Each of the migrations settled in different regions and were dominated by regional cultures from the British Isles that were transplanted across the Atlantic . Along with specific customs related to everything from religion to language , the British migrants brought with them food habits that formed major regional cuisines of English @-@ speaking America .
= = = Virginia = = =
In the early 17th century the first wave of English immigrants began arriving in North America , settling mainly around Chesapeake Bay in Virginia and Maryland . The Virginian settlers were dominated by English noblemen with their servants ( many were Cavaliers fleeing in the aftermath of the English Civil War 1642 – 51 ) and poor peasants from southern England .
The society the Cavaliers brought with them was highly stratified and this was reflected in food and eating habits . The aristocrats that would be the basis for the First Families of Virginia were very fond of game and red meat . Roast beef was a particular favorite , and even when oysters and goose were available , wealthy colonists could complain about the absence of meat . Virginia was the only place in North America where haute cuisine of any kind was practiced before the 19th century . Virginians such as William Byrd ( 1652 – 1704 ) would indulge in extravagant dishes such as stewed swan or roast snipe , dinners were important social events , and the art of dinner conversation was considered an important skill in affluent households .
Poor white farmers and black slaves ate much more humble fare and were quicker to incorporate American and African foodstuffs and flavorings . The food of the poor whites in the 17th century was similar to soul food of the 20th century . Overall , both rich and poor southerners ate spicier and more pungent food than elsewhere in the early colonies , and feasting was an important part of life for all social classes .
Cooking in southern England was noted for a tendency toward frying , simmering and roasting , and this also became true for Virginian cooking . While wealthy households tended to vary cooking methods greatly , poor households were generally confined to boiling and frying . The only form of cooking that was slow to develop was baking . Typical dishes among the upper classes were fricassees of various meats with herbs , and sometimes a good amount of claret . Common food among the lower classes was corn porridge , or mush , and hominy with greens and salt @-@ cured meat , and later the traditional southern fried chicken and chitlins .
= = = New England = = =
New England was first settled beginning in 1620 , and it was dominated by East Anglian Calvinists , better known as the Puritans . The religious fundamentalism of the Puritans created a cuisine that was austere , disdainful of feasting and with few embellishments . Eating was seen as a largely practical matter and one of the few occasions when New Englanders would engage in massive bouts of eating and drinking was at funerals , times when even children might drink large amounts of alcohol . Age was one of the most important signs of authority and determined eating practices ; though Puritan society was less stratified , particularly compared to the southern colonies , heads of the household and their spouses would often eat separately from both children and servants . Though New England had a great abundance of wildlife and seafood , traditional East Anglian fare was preferred , even if it had to be made with New World ingredients . Baked beans and pease porridge were everyday fare , particularly during the winter , and usually eaten with coarse , dark bread . At first it was made with a mixture of wheat and maize ( corn ) , but after a disease called wheat rust struck in the 1660s , it was made of rye and maize , creating what has later been known as " rye ' n ' injun " . Vegetables with meat boiled thoroughly was a popular dish , and unlike many other regions in North American colonies , they were cooked together , rather than separately , and frequently without seasoning . Baking was a particular favorite of the New Englanders and was the origin of dishes today seen as quintessentially American , such as apple pie and the baked Thanksgiving turkey .
= = = Delaware Valley and Mid @-@ Atlantic region = = =
The Quakers emigrated to the New World from the Northern English Midlands during the 17th century , and eventually settled primarily in the Delaware Valley . They were similar to the Puritans in the strictness that they applied to everyday life , though their religious teachings were far more egalitarian . The food was plain and simple . Excessive consumption was discouraged and failure to eat or drink moderately was punished with public acts of self @-@ criticism . William Penn , the founder of Pennsylvania and an important figure in the development of the Quaker movement encouraged frugality in his followers with advice such as " If thou rise with an appetite thou are sure never to sit down without one " . Just like the Puritans , the Quakers encountered an abundance of food in the New World ; forests rich with game and berries , streams teeming with fish , and flocks of birds so abundant that they would sometimes block the sun for several hours . Still the asceticism persevered . Many Quakers avoided eating butter as a form of self @-@ mortification , and the most eccentric followers would avoid tea and meat . The idealist and pacifist ideas of the Quakers also encouraged many to boycott products that were considered to be tainted by sin . This included butter , due to its role in raising war taxes , and coffee , because it was produced by slave labor . Eating habits were more egalitarian than those of either the Puritans or the Virginian Anglicans . At meals , entire households would dine at the same table , including children and servants .
The most typical cooking method of the Quakers was boiling , a method brought from ancestral northern England . Boiled breakfast and dinner were standard fare , as well as " pop @-@ robbins " , balls of batter made from flour and eggs boiled in milk . Boiled dumplings and puddings were so common in Quaker homes that they were referred to by outsiders as " Quakers ' food " . Travelers noted apple dumplings as an almost daily dish in the Delaware Valley and cook books specialized in puddings and dumplings . Food was mostly preserved through boiling , simmering or standing . A popular genre of dishes made from this favored method of food preparation was " cheese " ( or " butter " ) , a generic term for dishes prepared by slow boiling or pressing . It could be made from ingredients as varying as apples ( i.e. , apple butter ) , plums and walnuts . Cream cheese had its origins in Quaker cooking , but was in colonial times not true cheese made with rennet or curds , but rather cream that was warmed gently and then allowed to stand between cloth until it became semi @-@ solid . Dried beef was widely popular in the Delaware Valley and was eaten along with puddings and dumplings to add flavor . The use of dried beef was so widespread that it was often called " Quaker gravy " in the 18th century . Though the Quaker influence from the Northern Midlands was the most dominant , there was some influence from German immigrants during the 18th century . Scrapple , a pot pudding made from meat scraps and grain , became a staple of the regional cuisine for many generations .
= = = Backcountry = = =
The last major wave of British immigrants to the colonies took place from 1720 – 1775 . About 250 @,@ 000 people travelled across the Atlantic primarily to seek economic betterment and to escape hardships and famine . Most of these came from the borderlands of northern Britain and were of Scots @-@ Irish or Scottish descent . Many were poor and therefore accustomed to hard times , setting them apart from the other major British immigrant groups . They settled in what would come to be known generally as the " Backcountry " , on the frontier and in the highlands in the north and south .
A typical breakfast could be toasted bread , cheese , and any leftover meat or vegetables from the previous dinner . In summer , people drank fresh milk .
The backcountry relied heavily on a diet based on mush made from soured milk or boiled grains . Clabber , a yogurt @-@ like food made with soured milk , was a standard breakfast dish and was eaten by backcountry settlers of all ages . This dietary habit was not shared by other British immigrant groups and was equally despised by those still in Britain . The Anglican missionary Charles Woodmason , who spent time among Ulster Irish immigrants , described them as depending " wholly on butter , milk , clabber and what in England is given to hogs " . Oatmeal mush was a popular meal in the British borderlands and remained popular in America . The only difference was that the oatmeal was replaced by corn , and is still known today in the South as grits . Cakes of unleavened dough baked on bakestones or circular griddles were common and went by names such as " clapbread " , " griddle cakes " and " pancakes " . While the potato had originated in South America , it did not become established in North America until it was brought to the colonies by northern British settlers in the 18th century and became an important backcountry staple along with corn . Pork had been a food taboo among northern Britons and the primary meat had been sheep . In the American colonies the raising of sheep was not as efficient and mutton was therefore replaced with pork . The habit of eating " sallet " or " greens " remained popular , but the vegetables of the Old World were replaced with plants like squashes , gourds , beans , corn , land cress and pokeweed . The distinctive cooking style of the British borderlands and the American backcountry was boiling . Along with clabber , porridge and mushes , the typical dishes were various stews , soups and pot pies .
Food was eaten from wooden or pewter trenchers with two @-@ tined forks , large spoons and hunting knives . Dishware was not popular since it was easily breakable and tended to dull knives quickly . Unlike the Quakers and Puritans , feasting with an abundance of food and drink was never discouraged and practiced as often as was feasible . Generally , the backcountry cuisine did not share the religious austerity of the North nor the refinement of the South and was therefore denigrated by outside commentators . An apparent lack of fastidiousness in preparing the food provoked further criticism from many sources . The Anglican Woodmason characterized backcountry cooking as " exceedingly filthy and most execrable " . Others told of matrons washing their feet in the cookpot , that it was considered unlucky to wash a milk churn and that human hairs in butter were considered a sign of quality . These descriptions seem to be confirmed by an old saying attributed to Appalachian housewives : " The mair [ more ] dirt the less hurt " . Another expression of backcountry hardiness was the lack of appreciation of coffee and tea . Both were described as mere " slops " and were deemed appropriate only for those who were sick or unfit for labor .
= = Diet before the American Revolution = =
When colonists arrived in America , they planted familiar crops from the Old World with varying degrees of success and raised domestic animals for meat , leather , and wool , as they had done in Britain . The colonists faced difficulties owing to different climate and other environmental factors , but trade with Britain , continental Europe , and the West Indies allowed the American colonists to create a cuisine similar to the various regional British cuisines . Local plants and animals offered tantalizing alternatives to the Old World diet , but the colonists held on to old traditions and tended to use these items in the same fashion as they did their Old World equivalents ( or even ignore them if more familiar foods were available ) . The American colonial diet varied depending on region , with local cuisine patterns established by the mid @-@ 18th century .
A preference for British cooking methods is apparent in cookbooks brought to the New World . There was a general disdain for French cookery , even among the French Huguenots in South Carolina and French Canadians . One cookbook common in the colonies , The Art of Cookery Made Plain and Easy , by Hannah Glasse , held the French style of cookery in disdain , stating " the blind folly of this age that would rather be imposed on by a French booby , than give encouragement to a good English cook ! " She does add French recipes to the text but speaks out flagrantly against the dishes , " ... think ( ing ) it an odd jumble of trash . " The French and Indian War ( 1754 – 1764 ) reinforced anti @-@ French sentiment . The conflict strengthened an age @-@ old English distrust of the French , and led the English to deport French @-@ speaking people , as in the forced migration of the Acadians to Louisiana . The Acadian French brought a profound French influence to the diet of settlers in Louisiana , but had little influence outside of that region .
= = = Northern colonies = = =
A striking characteristic of the diet in New England was the seasonal availability of food . While farming in the southern colonies took place for most of the year , northern growing seasons were more restricted , limiting the availability of fresh fruit and vegetables . However , the coastal colonists ' close proximity to the ocean gave them a bounty of fresh fish to supplement their diet year @-@ round , especially in the north . Wheat , the grain primarily used in English bread , was almost impossible to grow in the North , and imports of wheat were far from cost productive . Substitutes included corn ( maize ) in the form of cornmeal . The johnnycake was generally considered a poor substitute for wheaten bread , but was accepted by residents in both the northern and southern colonies .
= = = Animal proteins = = =
Game hunting was a familiar beneficial skill to the colonists when they immigrated to the New World . Most northern colonists depended upon hunting , whether they hunted themselves or purchased game from others . As a method of obtaining protein for consumption , hunting was preferred over animal husbandry as domestic animals were expensive and more work was required to defend domestic animals against natural predators , Native Americans or the French . Commonly hunted game included deer , bear , buffalo and turkey . The larger parts of the animals were roasted and served with currant and other sauces , while smaller portions went into soups , stews , sausages , pies and pasties .
Venison was the most popular game . The plentiful meat was often potted or jerked , and its tripe was popular as well . Venison was especially popular during the Thanksgiving season . Buffalo was an important protein source until roughly 1770 , when the animals were over @-@ hunted in the eastern United States . Bear were numerous in the northern colonies , especially in New York , and many considered the leg meat to be a delicacy . Bear meat was frequently jerked as a preservation method .
In addition to game , mutton was consumed from time to time . Keeping sheep provided wool to the household , and when a sheep reached an age when it was unmanageable for wool production ; it could be harvested as mutton . Sheep were originally introduced to the Americas through the Spanish in Florida . In the north , the Dutch and English also introduced several varieties of sheep . The casual English practice of animal husbandry allowed sheep to roam free , consuming a variety of forage . Forage – based diets produce meat with a characteristically strong , gamey flavor and a tough consistency , which requires aging and slow cooking to tenderize .
Fats and oils derived from animals were used to cook many colonial foods . Rendered pork fat , especially from bacon , was the most popular cooking medium . Pork fat was used more often in the southern colonies than the northern colonies as the Spanish introduced pigs earlier to the south . Many homes kept a deerskin sack filled with bear oil for use in cooking . Solidified bear fat resembled shortening . The colonists enjoyed butter in cooking as well , but it was rare prior to the American Revolution , as cattle were not yet plentiful .
Colonists near the shores in New England often dined on fish , crustaceans and other sea animals . Colonists ate large quantities of turtle , a delicacy also exportable to Europe . Cod was enjoyed in both fresh and salted form , salted cod being suitable for long @-@ term storage . Lobsters proliferated in the waters as well , and were commonplace in the New England diet . Some complained about dining on lobster and codfish too often and they were even used as pig fodder . The highest quality cod was usually dried and salted , however , and exported to the Mediterranean in exchange for fruits not grown in American colonies .
= = = = Fruits and vegetables = = = =
A number of vegetables were grown in the northern colonies , including turnips , onions , cabbage , carrots , and parsnips , along with pulses and legumes . These vegetables stored well through the colder months . Other vegetables , such as cucumbers , could be salted or pickled for preservation . Agricultural success in the northern colonies came from following the seasons , with consumption of fresh greens only occurring during summer months . In addition to vegetables , a large number of seasonal fruits were grown . Fruits not eaten in season were often preserved as jam , wet sweetmeats , dried , or cooked into pies that could be frozen during the winter months . Some vegetables originating in the New World , including beans , squashes , and corn , were readily adopted and grown by the European colonists . Pumpkins and gourds grew well in the northern colonies and were often used for fodder for animals in addition to human consumption .
= = = = Alcohol = = = =
Hard apple cider was by far the most common alcoholic beverage available to colonists . This is because apple trees could be grown locally throughout the colonies , unlike grapes and grain which did not grow well at all in New England . Cider was also easier to produce than beer or wine , so it could be made by farmers for their own consumption . Since it was not imported , it was much more affordable to the average colonist than beer or wine . Apple trees were planted in both Virginia and the Massachusetts Bay Colony as early as 1629 . Most of these trees were not grafted , and thus produced apples too bitter or sour for eating ; they were planted expressly for making cider . Cider was sometimes also distilled or freeze @-@ distilled into applejack ( so called because freeze @-@ distillation was called " jacking " ) ; the cold climate of the Northeast in the wintertime encouraged the process . The beverage was particularly popular in New Jersey , where applejack was occasionally called " Jersey Lightning " and was sometimes used to pay road @-@ construction crews .
Before the Revolution , New Englanders consumed large quantities of rum and beer as maritime trade provided relatively easy access to the goods needed to produce these items . Rum was the distilled spirit of choice as molasses , the main ingredient , was readily available from trade with the West Indies . In the continent 's interior , colonists drank whiskey , as they had ready access to corn and rye but did not have good access to sugar cane . However , up until the Revolution , many colonists considered whiskey to be a coarse beverage unfit for human consumption , believing that it caused the poor to become raucous and disorderly .
Beer was such an important consumable to Americans that they would closely watch the stocks of barley held by farmers to ensure quality beer production . In John Adams ' correspondence with his wife Abigail , he asked about the quality of barley crops to ensure adequate supply for the production of beer for himself and their friends . However , hops , essential to production of beer , did not grow well in the colonies . It only grew wild in the New World , and needed to be imported from England and elsewhere . In addition to these alcohol @-@ based products produced in America , merchants imported wine and brandy . Beer was not only consumed for its flavor and alcohol content , but because it was safer to drink than water , which often harbored disease @-@ causing microorganisms . Even children drank small beer .
= = = Southern colonies = = =
Unlike the north , the south did not have a central cultural origin or a single culinary tradition . The southern colonies were also more diverse in their agricultural products . Slaves and poor Europeans in the south shared a similar diet , based on many of the indigenous New World crops . The rural poor often hunted and ate squirrel , opossum , rabbit , and other woodland animals . Salted or smoked pork often supplemented the vegetable diet . Those on the " rice coast " ate ample amounts of rice , while the southern poor and slaves used cornmeals in breads and porridges . Wheat was not an option for most poorer residents in the southern colonies .
Well into the eighteenth century , the Chesapeake region still relied on home @-@ brewed cider as a primary beverage . In most small planters ' households , women were responsible for the production of the drink and relied on local products to make the different ciders . This production was seasonal , as only large planters had the funds and the technology necessary to produce alcohol year round .
The southern colonies can be culturally divided between the uplands and the lowlands , and this distinction is seen in diet and food preparation in the two regions . The diet of the uplands often included cabbage , string beans , white potatoes , while most affluent whites in the uplands avoided crops imported from Africa because they were associated with , and reflected the social inferiority of , black slaves . Those who could grow or afford wheat often had biscuits on their table for breakfast , along with healthy portions of pork . Salted pork was a staple of any meal , as it was used in the preparations of vegetables for flavor , in addition to its direct consumption as a protein .
The coastal lowlands , particularly surrounding Charleston and New Orleans and which also included much of the Acadian French regions of Louisiana and the surrounding area , more varied diet was heavily influenced by Africans and Caribbeans , as well as the French . Rice played a large part in the diet . In addition , unlike the uplands , the lowlands ' protein came mostly from coastal seafood and game meats . Much of the diet involved the use of peppers , as it still does today . Although the English had an inherent disdain for French food as well as many of the native foods , the French had no such disdain for indigenous foodstuffs . In fact , they expressed an appreciation for native ingredients and dishes .
= = Dietary changes through boycott = =
The colonists were quite dependent on their " parent " England for imports of food and other basic products . When taxes and British Parliamentary tariffs on products used by the American colonists increased , the colonists were forced into paying the taxes if they were to continue importing English and West Indian goods . As a result , a number of colonists began to boycott imported goods in favor of domestic goods . The boycott was not initially widespread , especially as it could not be officially enforced , and so lacked luster in a number of regions . Increasing support for this boycott , however , helped generate the revolution against England .
As England imposed its series of acts upon the colonists , changes in the American colonist ’ s purchases and trades eventually altered the American diet . Starting with the Molasses Act of 1733 , followed by the Sugar Act of 1760 , a shift in alcohol consumption occurred . This was more than a protest against taxation of molasses , the main ingredient in rum production . Whiskey became the spirit of choice for many American colonists who wished to thumb their noses at England . In the northern colonies , whiskey was made with rye , while the southern colonies preferred corn . Rye was seen as a more civilized grain , while corn whiskey was presented as a more patriotic version as it was produced from an indigenous American crop .
The production of whiskey was certainly not a norm in the colonies in the early years . The upper echelon of colonial society looked down upon American whiskey up until the time of the American Revolution . Some even saw the harsh spirit as a bastion of debauchery in the American colonies . Whatever the sentiment , the Scottish , Irish , and Germans brought a taste for hard spirits from their homelands to the American colonies in the 1730s . These groups continued to produce hard spirits in imported stills , or stills based on Old World designs , in retaliation against the English economic controls .
The Revenue Act of 1764 that heavily taxed Madeira and other wines led to yet another boycott , this time against imported wines . This promoted another indigenous agricultural item of the American Colonies , the Vitis labrusca grapes . In 1765 , Benjamin Franklin decided to use Poor Richard 's Almanack to promote the growing of American grapes in order to encourage the production of domestic wines . One of Franklin 's friends , Benjamin Gale , stated one evening at one of their gatherings " We must drink wine of our own making or none at all ; " this opinion seemed to be a prevailing sentiment in the colonies from 1764 until the Revolution . Many who supported temperance in the colonies also supported the production of American wine at this time since the colonial form of temperance at the time was to drink only wine or beer instead of hard spirits .
The Quartering Act of 1765 , probably more than anything else , stripped the colonists of funds and thus the ability to purchase imported luxuries . The Stamp Act of 1765 resulted in a boycott on imported goods by many merchants , which was further strengthened by the passage of the Townshend Act of 1767 . These boycotts , however , were short lived , to the dismay of more radical colonists who hoped to take control of superficial goods imported by the English and imports from the West Indies . Once the Townshend Act was repealed , colonists flocked back to markets to purchase non @-@ essentials .
The enforcement of the Tea Act of 1773 became a heated issue with the colonists , with the well @-@ known demonstration at the Boston harbor , the Boston Tea Party , a direct reaction to the act . However , a much more important shift occurred in the colonists ' drink of choice . In 1773 , John Adams wrote a letter to his wife stating , " Tea must be universally renounced and I must be weaned , and the sooner the better . " Thus began the American shift from tea to coffee . In a concentrated boycott , the housewives of Falmouth , Massachusetts publicly united , vowing to serve only coffee in their homes . This inspired other households throughout the colonies , both in the north and south , to do the same .
= = Effects of the American Revolution = =
In 1775 , the Continental Congress decreed that no imports would enter the American colonies , nor would any exports move from America to England . Some historians state that this had a profound effect on the agriculture of America , while others state that there was no effect as the domestic market was strong enough to sustain American agriculturists . The dispute lies in the fact that the American economy was highly diverse ; there was no standard form of currency , and records were not consistently kept .
By the declaration of the American Revolution , with George Washington as its military leader , a number of dietary changes had already occurred in America . Coffee was quickly becoming the normal hot drink of the colonies and a taste for whiskey had been acquired among many of those who could produce it . In fact , in 1774 , the first corn was grown in Kentucky specifically for production of American Bourbon whiskey . This step may have established this American spirit in American culture , just as the country was going to war with England . In addition to whiskey coming into favor , a shift began in the consumption of cider over beer . Colonists opted to grow less barley as it was easier to ferment apple cider than to brew beer . Another reason for this change would have been the lack of imported hops needed to brew beer .
As the American colonies went to war , they needed soldiers , supplies , and lots of them . Soldiers needed uniforms and , as all shipping into the colonies had ceased , wool became an integral commodity to the war effort . During the Revolution the consumption of mutton ceased almost entirely in many areas , and in Virginia it became illegal to consume except in cases of extreme necessity .
Game had begun to become scarce in the region east of the Mississippi river . This could have been from over @-@ hunting , or the game could have been driven westward as the colonial population increased . Fortunately , Irish and Scottish immigrants had been importing cattle into the American colonies during the early part of the 18th century . Consequently , when game was becoming scarce and mutton had a moratorium placed upon it , cattle were available to take their place as a protein source . This change increased farmers ' profit from animal husbandry . Cattle raising had begun on a small scale during the French @-@ Indian War , but when the American Revolution came , farmers were able to increase their cattle holdings and increase the presence of beef in the American diet . In addition to beef production , the cattle also increased the production of milk and dairy products like butter . This may have contributed to the preference of butter over pork fat , especially in the northern colonies .
With the arrival of English soldiers by ship , and naval battles on the seas , areas used for salt water fishing became perilous , and lay dormant for much of the war . In addition , many of the fishing vessels were converted into warships . Before the war , there was often talk about the excess of lobsters and cod off the shores of New England . This seemed to change during and after the war , due to the vast numbers of ships and artillery entering the ocean waters . Once lobster harvesting and cod fishing was reestablished , most fishermen found that the lobster and cod had migrated away from the shores .
Where Americans had a historic disdain for the refineries of French cooking , that opinion , at least in a small part , began to change with the American alliance with the French . In the first American publication of Hannah Glasse ’ s Art of Cookery Made Easy , the insults toward French dishes disappeared . A number of Bostonians even attempted to cook French cuisine for their French allies , sometimes with comedic results when entire frogs were put into soups rather than just their legs . Nonetheless , the alliance supported a friendship with France that later resulted in a large migration of French cooks and chefs to America during the French Revolution .
The American diet was changed through this friendship as well as due to the changes forced through boycott and hostilities with England . After a time , trade did resume with the West Indies but was limited to necessities . Items that sustained the war effort in America were traded , with crops such as rice from the Carolinas shipped out and coffee beans imported in order to brew America ’ s new beverage of choice .
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= James " Honest Dick " Tate =
James William " Honest Dick " Tate ( January 2 , 1831 – unknown ) was the Kentucky State Treasurer . He was nicknamed " Honest Dick " because of his good reputation and rapport with his colleagues . The nickname turned ironic , however , when Tate absconded with nearly a quarter of a million dollars from the state 's treasury in 1888 . He was never found .
Tate 's thievery was frequently cited during Kentucky 's fourth constitutional convention as a reason to impose term limits on Kentucky 's elected officials . The one @-@ term limit remained in force on most of Kentucky 's officials until the state 's constitution was amended in 1992 to allow the Governor , Lieutenant Governor , State Treasurer and other state officeholders to serve two consecutive terms .
= = Early life = =
James William Tate was born the only child of Nancy ( Taylor ) Tate and her second husband , Colonel Thomas L. Tate in Franklin County , Kentucky . His father was descended from a Virginia family of Scots @-@ Irish ancestry . His father was a farmer and a veteran of the War of 1812 , and his paternal grandfather was a veteran of the American Revolutionary War . His maternal grandfather was Reverend John Taylor , a pioneer Baptist minister in Kentucky .
Tate received his education in Franklin and Woodford counties and finished his schooling in 1848 . Later that year , at age 17 , Tate began work as a clerk at the Frankfort post office . On 3 June 1856 , he married Lucy Hawkins . On 28 June 1858 , the couple had their first child , a son named Howard , who died at the age of three . The couple also had a daughter , Edmonia .
= = Political career = =
Tate 's political career began with an appointment by Governor Lazarus W. Powell to the position of Assistant Secretary of State for the state of Kentucky in 1854 . A model Democrat , he resigned the post when Know @-@ Nothing Governor Charles S. Morehead was elected in 1855 . Four years later , he was appointed to the post again under Democratic Governor Beriah Magoffin , and supported the Breckinridge wing of Kentucky 's Democratic party during the American Civil War . Though Magoffin resigned in 1862 due to disagreements with the General Assembly , Tate continued to serve under Magoffin 's hand @-@ picked successor , James F. Robinson , resigning again at the end of Robinson 's term in 1863 . From 1865 – 7 , Tate served as Assistant Clerk to the Kentucky House of Representatives . At the end of his service in the house , Tate successfully ran for state treasurer , a post to which he would be re @-@ elected every two years for the next two decades .
In 1878 , Tate was mentioned in the Biographical Encyclopedia of Kentucky . The biographer gushed that in 1867 , Tate had " materially contributed , by his personal popularity , to the great success of the Democratic party " adding :
Biennially , since that time , without opposition in his own party , he has been successively re @-@ elected by popular majorities , perhaps exceeding those obtained by any other candidate for office in the State . From these evidences of popularity , it would seem that his lease on the office might be regarded as a fixed fact .
In the gubernatorial race of 1887 , Republican challenger William O. Bradley made an issue of the need to examine the treasury . Though Bradley ultimately lost the race , the idea of auditing the treasurer 's records took root , and the General Assembly began calling for a commission to undertake the audit in the 1887 – 8 session . Tate claimed to need time to get his books in order ; this effectively delayed the establishment of the commission , but it was ultimately formed .
= = Disappearance and aftermath = =
In the first quarter of 1888 , Tate began a pattern of behavior that would have aroused considerable suspicion in a man of lesser repute . He began depositing only checks in the state 's bank account , instead of cash , as was usual . In a short period of time , he paid a number of personal debts . On 14 March 1888 , Henry Murray , one of Tate 's clerks , noticed him filling two tobacco sacks with gold and silver coins later determined to be worth about $ 100 @,@ 000 . He departed for Louisville , leaving a note saying he would return in two days . Again , due to the nature of his job and his perceived record of trustworthiness , nobody found his actions questionable . After a week passed with no word from Tate , it became clear what had happened . Records would later show that , after a few days in Louisville , Tate boarded a train for Cincinnati , and then vanished , leaving his wife and daughter behind .
During the investigation that followed , the state 's ledger , which was almost indecipherable , was found to show Tate giving some state officials loans that were many times left unpaid and advances on their salaries , including an advance of several thousand dollars to Governor Preston H. Leslie in 1872 . Tate had apparently used some of the state 's money to make personal investments in mines and real estate . Governor Simon B. Buckner announced that between his atrocious bookkeeping , his embezzlement and his outright theft , Tate had misappropriated $ 247 @,@ 128 @.@ 50 from the state 's treasury .
Impeachment hearings followed in the House of Representatives , and the Senate removed Tate from office , convicting him on four counts . A criminal indictment followed . An 1895 case marked " Not to be officially reported " freed those implicated in the scandal from any obligation to repay the state . " Tateism " became synonymous with political corruption in the state , and Tate 's crime was frequently cited at the state 's fourth constitutional convention in 1891 . The resulting constitution expanded the one @-@ term limit that had applied to the governor since 1800 to all statewide elected officials . The legislature and voters adopted a two @-@ term limit for such officials in 1992 .
Despite the General Assembly 's offer of $ 5 @,@ 000 for information leading to Tate 's arrest , he was never found . Though his family at first claimed they had heard nothing from Tate and presumed he may have committed suicide , his daughter eventually admitted that she had received at least four letters from her father between April and December 1888 . The letters were postmarked from British Columbia ( Canada ) , Japan , China , and San Francisco . Another witness claimed to have seen a letter to one of Tate 's friends written in 1890 and postmarked from Brazil . That was the last known communication from " Honest Dick " Tate . An article in The New York Times , citing " friends who should know " , claimed that Tate was believed to have died in China in 1890 .
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= Something There =
" Something There " is a song written by lyricist Howard Ashman and composer Alan Menken for Walt Disney Pictures 30th animated feature film Beauty and the Beast ( 1991 ) . Sung by the majority of the film 's main cast , the song was recorded by American actors Paige O 'Hara as Belle and Robby Benson as the Beast via voice over , featuring actors Jerry Orbach , Angela Lansbury and David Ogden Stiers as Lumiere , Mrs. Potts and Cogsworth , respectively . The only song performed by the Beast , " Something There " is heard midway through Beauty and the Beast during a scene in which Belle and the Beast finally begin to acknowledge their own feelings for each other .
A last @-@ minute addition to the film , the simple love song was quickly written by Ashman and Menken to replace the more elaborate and ambitious " Human Again " after the latter was cut from Beauty and the Beast . O 'Hara based her own vocal performance on that of American singer and actress Barbra Streisand , who Howard advised the actress to impersonate , while O 'Hara herself convinced the songwriters to have Benson record the song . Critical reception towards " Something There " has been positive , with film and music critics alike praising Ashman 's abilities as both a songwriter and a storyteller .
= = Background = =
" Something There " was written by lyricist Howard Ashman and composer Alan Menken . According to Menken , " Something There " was written as " a very quick replacement for ... ' Human Again ' , " the latter of which was ultimately cut from Beauty and the Beast because it was considered " too ambitious " for the film . Eleven minutes in length , producer Don Hahn explained that the song was cut because " We just couldn 't figure out how to make it work and not take away from the central story of Belle . " Upon learning that " Human Again " was removed from Beauty and the Beast , Ashman and Menken were forced to return " to the drawing board to write something more contained and simple , " the ultimate result of which was the love song " Something There , " which has been described as " shorter and more direct " than " Human Again " . The creative team also believed that the Beast saving Belle was enough to justify the dance sequence near the end of the film , though later realised they had in fact not yet earned this moment ; this quiet song where Beast gives Belle his library was pitched and written by Howard Ashman and " and as soon as that was written , we knew the movie was going to work " .
In his biography I 'm Not Dead ... Yet ! , actor Robby Benson , voice of the Beast , revealed that it was co @-@ star Paige O 'Hara 's idea to have Benson 's character duet with O 'Hara 's Belle in " Something There " . According to Benson , the actress " explained to Ashman and Menken that [ Benson ] had made records and sang in Broadway musicals . " O 'Hara briefly struggled to record one of the song 's lines – " a bit alarming " – to which an ailing Ashman , who was forced to communicate with O 'Hara and the studio via telephone from his hospital bed in New York due to his illness , simply responded " Streisand . " By this , Ashman meant that he wanted O 'Hara to impersonate singer and actress Barbra Streisand , and by doing so O 'Hara finally recorded the song successfully . " Something There " was recorded by O 'Hara and Benson accompanied by a live orchestra .
= = Context , sequence and analysis = =
In the book The Meanings of " Beauty and the Beast " : A Handbook , author Jerry Griswold observed that the " Something There " musical sequence is preceded by " the once feisty Belle ... bandaging and nursing [ the Beast ] " after he rescues her from the wolves . Contextually , the purpose of the song has been identified as " Dramatizing [ Belle and the Beasts ' ] partnership . " Leading up to the musical sequence , the Beast first " surprises Belle by showing her his library and then they learn to eat together . " Author Robin O. Winter observed that " During the scene they begin to see beneath their outer appearances and start to appreciate each other 's inner qualities , " while one critic identified this as one of the scenes in " which Belle and the Beast hesitantly slowly open up to one another . " Writing for Wesleyan University , Rachel Anne Silverman observed that " Something There " depicts " The first time Belle and the Beast 's attraction is introduced , " describing the couple 's relationship as " a passion that has developed over time . " Initially , Belle is alarmed " as she realizes her growing love for the Beast , " briefly hiding behind a tree as she sings . According to the Hal Leonard Corporation and Music Theatre International , the castle 's staff of enchanted objects also discover " something different between Belle and the Beast . " " Something There " concludes with Belle and the Beast retreating to a fireplace and reading . In the original film , " Something There " immediately precedes the film 's title song . However , for its special edition re @-@ release , the song is immediately followed by the newly reinstated " Human Again " .
Identifying the song as " where the genius of music as storytelling kicks in , " Simon Brew of Den of Geek felt that " Something There " is " the track with the heaviest workload . " The author observed that " In two minutes and 19 seconds , [ the song ] gets across just how the position and feelings of the characters have changed . " For instance , " At the beginning of ' Something There , ' Belle admits that she thought the Beast was mean , coarse , and unrefined . By the end , she ’ s feeling pretty smitten , " according to Oh My Disney . The song also depicts the film 's passing of time , while providing audiences with an opportunity " to appreciate Beast and first see the potential for Belle and him . " On the song 's role in the special edition version of the film , co @-@ director Kirk Wise explained , " There 's a ... little suite of music now that starts with ' Something There ' ... which segues into ' Human Again ' which gives the object perspective on what they hope for when [ Belle and the Beast ] fall in love and that transitions into ' Beauty and the Beast ' the ballad , which is the culmination of their relationship . " Dubbing the song " soliloquies of Belle and the Beast , " TV Guide drew comparisons between " Something There " and songs from the musical South Pacific .
The " Something There " musical sequence was added towards the end of Beauty and the Beast 's filmmaking process . Belle was animated by Mark Henn , while the Beast was animated by Aaron Blaise . Henn described " Something There " as " a great sequence , " continuing , " I love to animate songs . " Los Angeles Times ' Charles Solomon felt that Belle was drawn inconsistently throughout the film , observing that the character appears " noticeably slimmer " during " Something There " .
= = Composition = =
Written in the key of D major at a quick allegretto tempo of 108 beats per minute in common time , the " playful " " Something There " is a Broadway musical @-@ inspired duet in which Belle and the Beast finally conclude that " there 's something there that wasn 't there before . " The song spans a duration of two minutes and eighteen seconds , making it the third shortest song on the soundtrack behind the reprises of " Belle " and " Gaston " , respectively . Describing " Something There " as " a fluffy song , " Filmtracks.com observed that the song " shares many instrumental devices with ' Belle ' ; " one of Belle 's verses in " Something There " serves as " a reprise of the secondary phrase from [ ' Belle ' ] " . Combined , O 'Hara and Benson 's vocal ranges span two octaves , from the low note of G3 to the high note of E5 . The song , described as " a poignant character number " performed " Against a background of the easy rhythms of soft , lilting violins , " " allowed [ O 'Hara and Benson ] to blend their voices . " In addition , Women 's Studies in Communication observed that the " tentative bursts of notes symbolize the uncertainties of this new way of relating " .
In the song 's first verse , " Belle articulates how her attraction to [ the Beast ] stems from his shut @-@ off demeanor , " singing , " There 's something sweet / And almost kind / But he was mean / And he was coarse and unrefined / But now he 's dear / And so unsure / I wonder why I didn 't see it there before . " The Beast 's verse reads , " when we touched she didn 't shudder at my paw . " According to Laurence E. MacDonald , author of the book The Invisible Art of Film Music : A Comprehensive History , Benson " shocked many filmgoers with his richly resonant baritone . " Finally , Belle sings the song 's bridge , which reads , " New and a bit alarming / Who 'd have ever thought that this could be ? / True , that he 's no Prince Charming / But there 's something in him that I simply didn 't see . " According to the Los Angeles Times , by the end of " Something There " , " the audience understands what Belle and Beast feel and how disconcerting those emotions seem . "
= = Reception = =
" Something There " has garnered mostly positive reviews from film and music critics . Writing for Den of Geek , Simon Brew felt that " Something There " is " where the genius of music as storytelling kicks in . " In Brew 's opinion , the " utterly convincing and un @-@ mawkish " song works " because the two characters aren 't on screen singing directly at each other . " Brew concluded , " Everyone who makes an animated film that has a love story at the heart should watch this . " Filmtracks.com described " Something There " as an " affable " song . Particularly praising Ashman 's songwriting , Charles Solomon of the Los Angeles Times wrote that " Ashman 's songs advance the plot by exploring the characters ' emotions and making story points more concisely than conventional exposition . " Solomon concluded , " By the end of the deceptively simple @-@ sounding ' Something There , ' the audience understands what Belle and Beast feel and how disconcerting those emotions seem . " O 'Hara continues to cite " Something There " as her favorite of the film 's songs , elaborating , " Every time I see the Beast with that grin on his face and the bird in his hand , my heart just melts . "
For the studio 's pending live @-@ action adaptation of Beauty and the Beast , Julia Emmanuele of Hollywood.com suggested that the filmmakers " feel free to drop ' Something There ' if there ’ s no room for it " because " it won 't be missed . " However , when English actress Emma Watson confirmed in January 2015 that she will be portraying Belle via Facebook , she cited " Something There " as one of her favorite songs from her childhood . Irving Tan of Sputnikmusic jokingly called " Something There " " the closest the movie comes to admitting its horrendously inappropriate stance on human @-@ animal sexual relations . "
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= Bad ( Michael Jackson song ) =
" Bad " is a song by an American singer Michael Jackson . " Bad " was released by Epic Records on September 7 , 1987 , as the second single from Jackson 's third major @-@ label and seventh studio album of the same name . The song was written and composed by Jackson and co @-@ produced by Quincy Jones and Jackson . Jackson stated that the song was influenced by a real @-@ life story he had read about .
" Bad " was well received by contemporary music critics , with some critics noting that " Bad " helped Jackson 's image become edgier during the Bad @-@ era . The song peaked at number one on the Billboard Hot 100 , and remained at the top position of the chart for two weeks , becoming Jackson 's Bad album 's second number one single , and Jackson 's eighth number one entry on the chart . Internationally , the song was also commercially successful , charting within the top ten in eleven countries as well as charting within the top five in the United Kingdom , France , Italy , Norwegian , Switzerland and Swedish charts . The song peaked at number one on the Netherlands and European charts .
The full version of the music video for " Bad " , released in August 1987 , and broadcast as a CBS prime time special , was directed entirely by Martin Scorsese and co @-@ starred Wesley Snipes in one of his first appearances prior to being discovered as an actor . The video portrays Michael Jackson and various backup dancers shown performing complex choreography in a subway station . " Bad " has been covered and parodied by many different artists since its release and has become a song used frequently in tributes to Jackson after his death in June 2009 .
The song is featured in the 2010 animated film Megamind . It is also featured in the first theatrical trailer for the 2016 animated film The Angry Birds Movie .
= = Synopsis = =
Jackson plays a teenager named Darryl , who has just completed a term at an expensive private school . He returns to the city and takes the subway back to his neglected neighborhood . Darryl finds his home is empty where he is greeted by his old friends . The leader of the group is Mini Max ( an emerging Wesley Snipes ) . At first , relations are friendly but slightly awkward . Then , the situation begins deteriorate as the gang starts to realize how much Darryl has changed . They especially notice how uncomfortable he has become with their criminal activities . Darryl takes the gang to the subway station ( The Hoyt Schermerhorn Station in Brooklyn ) In an attempt to show his friends he is still " bad " by robbing an elderly man . He has a change of heart at the last minute and Mini Max chastises him telling Darryl he 's no longer bad . After more disrespect from Mini Max , the video cuts to Darryl and a group of street kids dancing while Jackson sings " Bad " . Darryl insists that Max is headed for a fall which is nearly Darryl 's undoing . Eventually , Mini Max accepts that and after a final handshake , leaves Darryl in peace . At the end of the video Darryl is left alone watching his gang leave .
= = Background and inspiration = =
" Bad " is a song that was written ( in 1986 ) and recorded by Michael Jackson in January 1987 for his seventh studio album of the same name and produced by Quincy Jones ( with Jackson serving as co @-@ producer ) . " Bad " was originally intended to be a duet between Jackson and musician Prince ; although the plans were not fruitful . In Jackson 's 1988 autobiography Moonwalk , Jackson discussed the concept of " Bad " , elaborating that ,
" ' Bad ' is a song about the street . It 's about this kid from a bad neighborhood who gets to go away to a private school . He comes back to the old neighborhood when he 's on a break from school and the kids from the neighborhood start giving him trouble . He sings , ' I 'm bad , you 're bad , who 's bad , who 's the best ? ' He 's saying when you 're strong and good , then you 're bad . "
In a 1988 interview with Ebony and Jet magazines ( which was released on Hulu shortly after his death ) , Jackson said that he had gotten the idea for the song from a true story that he had read about in Time or Newsweek magazine . Jackson stated that the story said that a student that went to school in upstate New York , who was " from the ghetto " , had tried to make something of his life and planned to leave all of his friends behind when he returned from Thanksgiving break . He added that the student 's friends ' jealousy resulted in them killing the student ; Jackson stated that the student 's death was not included in the music video . The only case that fits these details is that of Edmund Perry . However , Perry was not killed by kids in his neighborhood ; he was killed by a plainclothes police officer when Perry and his brother allegedly attacked and badly beat the officer in a mugging attempt .
= = Composition = =
The song is written in the key of A Minor with a time signature in common time . Jackson 's vocal range spans from G3 to C6 . The track has a tempo of 114 beats per minute . " Bad " was viewed as a rived " Hit the Road , Jack " progression . Davitt Sigerson , a writer for Rolling Stone magazine , commented on the track 's lyrical content while reviewing Bad , " When Jackson declares that ' the whole world has to answer right now , ' he is not boasting but making a statement of fact regarding his extraordinary stardom . If anything , he is scorning the self @-@ coronation of lesser funk royals and inviting his fickle public to spurn him if it dare . " Sigerson compared the track to material by James Brown , whose " It 's a Man 's Man 's Man 's World " is openly referenced by the four chromatic note brass introduction to the song . Lyrically , " Bad " pertains to proving to people that you are tough boasting , with Jackson asking " who 's bad ? " in a repeating lyric in the song 's chorus .
= = Critical reception = =
" Bad " was well received by contemporary music critics . Some critics noted that the song helped Jackson 's image become more edgy during the Bad @-@ era . Davitt Sigerson , a writer for Rolling Stone magazine , commented that the track " needs no " defense " and he generally praised Jackson 's vocal performance in the song . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic listed " Bad " , along with two other songs from the album , as being top picks from the album 's eleven tracks . In separate review of the song , Erlewine commented that Jackson 's vocals " sounded like [ he was ] the love child of James Brown and Mavis Staples " and added that " musically speaking , in this case , ' Bad ' is very good " . He also noted that the track 's " authority and boasting helped to humanize " Jackson and " changed his image " , remarking that it was " fun hearing him talking trash and being his own bigger booster " . Jennifer Clay of Yahoo Music noted that while Jackson 's new edgier image was a " little hard to swallow " , the image worked musically on the album 's songs " Bad " , " Man in the Mirror " , and " Dirty Diana " .
= = Chart performance = =
" Bad " charted within the top ten , at number eight , on the Billboard Hot 100 on October 10 , 1987 and peaked at number one on October 24 , 1987 . " Bad " stayed at the top position for two consecutive weeks . " Bad " was Jackson 's Bad album 's second number one single on the Billboard Hot 100 , and Jackson 's eighth number one entry on the chart . The track also charted on the Billboard Hot R & B Singles and Billboard Hot Dance Club Play at number one . " Bad " was commercially successful internationally , generally charting within the top ten , as well as reaching the top position , on music charts . " Bad " debuted at number five on the United Kingdom charts on September 26 , 1987 . The following week , the song charted at its peak position of number three , where it remained for two consecutive weeks . " Bad " remained within the chart 's top ten positions for four weeks , and charted within the top 100 for a total of eleven weeks in 1987 . " Bad " peaked at number five on Canadian music charts on November 7 , 1987 . " Bad " peaked at number four in Sweden on October 14 , 1987 . The song spent four weeks within the chart 's top ten . On October 3 , " Bad " debuted at number nine in France , and after six weeks of charting within the top ten , the song peaked at number four on November 14 . " Bad " debuted on New Zealand music charts at number four on October 18 , and the following week moved to its peak position of number two . The song then stayed within the top ten for the next five weeks . The track charted within the top fifty positions for fifteen weeks in 1987 and 1988 .
The song also charted at number two in Norway in the thirty @-@ ninth week of 1987 , and charted within the top ten positions for eight weeks in 1987 . The song was also very successful on the Australian music charts , peaking at number four . " Bad " debuted on Austrian charts at number ten on November 1 , 1987 . The following week the song charted out of the top ten and the next week returned to the top ten at number nine , which was its peak position . The song debuted at number eighty @-@ seven in Dutch on September 9 , 1987 . The following week , the song moved up to number eleven , which was seventy @-@ three positions higher than its previous week . The song peaked at number one , and remained at the top position for two consecutive weeks . In 2006 , Jackson 's music re @-@ entered charts following his music being re @-@ issued for his Visionary album . The track entered Spanish charts for the first time on April 4 , 2006 , and debuted at the top position . " Bad " remained within the top twenty positions for nine consecutive weeks . The song debuted at its peak position at number five in Italy on April 6 . After Jackson 's death in June 2009 , his music re @-@ entered charts again worldwide . In July , the track peaked at number eleven in Italy , number twenty in Spain , number twenty @-@ five in Sweden , number thirty @-@ seven in Denmark and number forty in the United Kingdom .
= = Music video = =
The full music video for " Bad " is an 18 @-@ minute short film written by novelist and screenwriter Richard Price and directed by Martin Scorsese . The video has many references to the 1961 film West Side Story , especially the " Cool " sequence . The soundtrack for the full length video used a different audio track than the album recording . This soundtrack included an instrumental organ solo which was not a part of the album recording .
The video was not commercially released until it was included in the video albums ; Video Greatest Hits - HIStory ( long version on DVD and short version in VHS ) , Number Ones ( short version ) , Michael Jackson 's Vision ( long version ) and the Target version DVD of Bad 25 ( short version ) . The full video was introduced in a TV special Michael Jackson : The Magic Returns on Primetime , a CBS television show on August 31 , 1987 .
The full video won awards at various prestigious award ceremonies including Favorite Single ( Soul / R & B ) at the American Music Awards and Biggest Selling Album by a Male Soloist in the UK from the Guinness Book of World Records .
After Jackson 's death in June 2009 , Letitia James of the New York City Council , began trying to convince the agency to rename or co @-@ name the station or to hang a plaque at the station in Jackson 's honor , but her request was denied by the Metropolitan Transportation Authority of New York in September 2009 . James commented , " Having Michael Jackson visit and moonwalk at this station was a huge deal not only for Brooklyn , but all of New York in the ' 80s [ ... ] And renaming this station in his honor would put it on the map and help ensure that people don 't forget . " A source from the MTA commented that no subway stations in the MTA system are named or co @-@ named after individuals , mostly because it could confuse riders .
= = Choreography = =
The choreographer Gregg Burge confirmed the influence , although they intended to do a more contemporary version of it . Assistant choreographer Jeffrey Daniel commented , " It 's like a train coming across the screen [ ... ] and that 's the effect I was looking for and it worked " .
The video 's choreographers Jeffrey Daniel and Gregg Burge were influenced by West Side Story when designing the dance routines but wanted to keep the scene more contemporary and incorporated the " moonwalk " into the movements . The music video received a nomination for choreography at the 1988 MTV Video Music Awards Ceremony . The video for " Bad " and Michael Jackson 's " The Way You Make Me Feel " video were both nominated for Best Choreography . However , Janet Jackson 's video " The Pleasure Principle " .
= = Live performances = =
" Bad " was performed during Jackson 's Bad world tour concert series from 1987 to 1989 , in both the first and second leg , as the final song in the first leg and sixteenth song in the second leg in the setlist . The song was also included on the first leg only of Jackson 's Dangerous World Tour . A small snippet of the song was sung during his performance of They Don 't Care About Us during his This Is It concerts which never occurred due to his death . It was rumored that Jackson had plans to perform the song during certain dates of the This Is It tour . A live version of the song is available on the DVD Live at Wembley July 16 , 1988 .
= = Cover versions = =
" Weird Al " Yankovic recorded a parody of the song , titled " Fat " , for his 1988 album Even Worse .
Lenny Henry made a parody video of " Bad " , called " Mad " , the parody was first shown in The Lenny Henry Show .
Ray Stevens performed a country / bluegrass version on his album I Never Made a Record I Didn 't Like .
Alvin and the Chipmunks covered the song for their 1988 album The Chipmunks and The Chipettes : Born to Rock .
After Jackson 's death in June 2009 , " Bad " was performed ( usually in a medley with other of Jackson 's songs ) as a tribute to Jackson . Shaun Micallef created his version in the 2010 New Year 's Special . At the 2009 MTV Video Music Awards tribute to Jackson , dancers performed dance routines from Jackson 's music videos while the music to the song was played in the background . The songs that were chosen were " Bad " , " Thriller " ( 1982 ) and " Smooth Criminal " ( 1987 ) .
In February 2010 , the song was parodied by The Fringemunks in " The iPad Song " , which criticized the device .
American TV series Glee did a Michael Jackson tribute episode in 2012 entitled " Michael " , which included an a cappella version of " Bad " featuring the Beelzebubs as part of The Warblers . This cover debuted and peaked at number 80 at Billboard Hot 100 , number 48 at Billboard Digital Songs , number 90 at Billboard Canadian Hot 100 , and number 29 at Billboard Adult Pop Songs chart at the week of February 18 , 2012 .
A version of this song was played on The Super Mario Bros. Super Show ! in an episode called " King Mario of Cramlot " .
Tohru Nakabayashi rearranged the song for the arcade version of Michael Jackson 's Moonwalker .
Takayuki Nakamura rearranged the song for the Sega Genesis and Sega Master System versions of the game .
= = Track listings and formats = =
= = Official versions = =
Album version – 4 : 06
7 " single mix ( new album version ) – 4 : 06
Dance extended mix includes " false fade " – 8 : 23
Dance remix radio edit – 4 : 56
Dub version – 4 : 06
A cappella – 3 : 49
Afrojack Club Mix – 7 : 36
Afrojack remix featuring Pitbull DJ Buddha Edit – 4 : 31
" Remember the Time " / " Bad " ( Immortal version ) – 4 : 39
= = Personnel = =
= = Charts = =
= = 2012 reissue = =
On August 14 , 2012 , the remix was released as a digital single via iTunes and Amazon.com. It is a new remix of the 1987 hit " Bad " worked on as a collaboration between Afrojack , DJ Buddha and Pitbull .
= = = Track listing = = =
Digital Single
Bad ( Afrojack Remix ) [ feat . Pitbull ] [ DJ Buddha Edit ] - Single - 4 : 29
HMV Exclusive CD Single ( HMV Bad 25 pre @-@ order only bonus CD )
Bad [ Remix By Afrojack Featuring Pitbull - The Derry Mix ] - 3 : 54
= = = Chart performance = = =
As a digital single prior to the album release , the single appeared on several country 's music charts . It debuted at Number 52 on Billboard Japan Hot 100 chart as the title " Bad 2012 " on the week of September 15 , 2012 , and peaked at Number 6 several weeks later . It also appeared on US Billboard Dance / Electronic Digital Songs Chart with Number 45 for one week on September 1 , 2012 . On the week of September 29 , 2012 , it debuted on Hot Dance Club Songs chart at Number 42 , and peaked at Number 18 .
= = = Critical reception = = =
This remix received overwhelmingly negative reviews from the music criticism . Randall Roberts from Los Angeles Times Pop Music Critic said , the song is " an insult " to Jackson memory , and the remix is " so ungracefully " Evan Sawdey from PopMatters said , the version " with two guest verses from Pitbull , is just outright trash " MisterCharlie from supajam.com reviews this single extremely negative . The single 's review from The Guardian said it was " a clubbed @-@ up remix featuring the world 's worst rapper " .
= = = Chart = = =
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= Hurricane Alberto ( 1982 ) =
Hurricane Alberto caused the worst flooding in western Cuba in 32 years . The first tropical storm and hurricane of the 1982 Atlantic hurricane season , Alberto developed from a tropical disturbance on June 2 in the southern Gulf of Mexico . It rapidly organized and attained hurricane status the following day , the earliest date for a hurricane in the Atlantic Ocean since Hurricane Alma in May 1970 . Shortly after reaching peak winds off 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) , Alberto rapidly weakened due to approaching upper @-@ level winds . Initial forecasts predicted the hurricane would continue northeastward into Florida ; it turned sharply westward and drifted erratically for several days across the eastern Gulf of Mexico , before dissipating on June 6 .
Alberto produced heavy rainfall in western Cuba , causing flash flooding and severe damage . The storm damaged 8 @,@ 745 houses and destroyed 154 buildings , leaving hundreds homeless . Heavy rainfall continued in the country for several weeks after the storm , and damage from Alberto totaled about $ 85 million ( 1982 USD , $ 208 million 2016 USD ) . At least 23 people were killed in the country . Initially , Alberto was forecast to continue northeastward and strike Florida , though it turned and rapidly weakened , resulting in minor effects in the state .
= = Meteorological history = =
In late May , a tropical disturbance gradually developed over the northwestern portion of the Caribbean . It drifted westward into the Yucatán Peninsula , and on June 1 the convection organized into a circular cloud pattern in association with a low pressure system . The system tracked northeastward into the Gulf of Mexico while continuing to organize , and subsequent to the formation of a low @-@ level circulation it developed into Tropical Depression One while located about 40 miles ( 65 km ) north @-@ northwest of Cancún . Reconnaissance Aircraft confirmed the existence of the tropical depression later that day . Early on June 3 , it is estimated the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Alberto while located about 150 miles ( 240 km ) north @-@ northwest of the western tip of Cuba , based on a ship report of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) winds about 115 miles ( 185 km ) south of its center . An Air Force flight was scheduled into the storm , though was forbidden by the Cuban government due to its presence in Cuban airspace .
Alberto quickly strengthened while moving northeastward through the southeastern Gulf of Mexico , and intensified into a hurricane about nine hours after attaining tropical storm status . Late on June 3 , Alberto attained peak winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) while located about 120 miles ( 195 km ) west @-@ southwest of Key West , Florida . Shortly after peaking in intensity , strong upper @-@ level westerly winds impacted the deep convection of the storm . By early on June 4 Alberto weakened to a tropical storm after turning sharply westward due to weak steering currents . It drifted erratically as the circulation became exposed , and early on June 5 it degenerated into a convectiveless tropical depression . As a tropical depression , Alberto drifted to the east @-@ northeast and later turned to the east , and late on June 6 it dissipated while located about 70 miles ( 115 km ) off the coast of Florida .
= = Preparations and impact = =
= = = Cuba = = =
The rainbands of Alberto produced heavy rainfall and flash flooding across western Cuba . The rainfall peaked at 39 @.@ 84 inches ( 1012 mm ) , the fourth highest rainfall total in the country since 1963 . More than 50 @,@ 000 were forced to evacuate from the resulting floods , which were described as the worst flooding in the northwestern portion of the country since 1950 .
Hurricane Alberto damaged a total of 8 @,@ 745 houses in the country . In Pinar del Río Province , 71 homes were destroyed , and across the nation hundreds of people were left homeless . 83 buildings were collapsed in the capital city of Havana , while six factories in Havana Province received damage . The passage of Alberto left several districts in Havana without electricity , telegraph , telephone , and mail service . The Cuban military was deployed to rescue those trapped in flooded homes and also to remove fallen trees . Agricultural damage included about 250 @,@ 000 downed banana trees and 400 drowned cattle . Heavy rainfall continued for weeks after the passage of Alberto , resulting in severe damage to the tobacco crop . Subsequent winds and rains destroyed storage sheds which ruined 1 @.@ 8 million lb . ( 900 @,@ 000 kg ) of the recently finished harvest ; 2 @.@ 6 million lb . ( 1 @.@ 3 million kg ) of tobacco leaves were also damaged . Two days after its closest approach , the death toll in Cuba reached 11 , and a day later it was raised to 23 fatalities . The final death toll was reported as either 23 or 24 , with one report indicating 17 people missing ; Pinar del Río Province reported at least 20 deaths and Havana reported three casualties . Damage was estimated at $ 85 million ( 1982 USD , $ 208 million 2016 USD ) .
= = = Florida = = =
Due to its sudden development and project track into southwest Florida , the National Hurricane Center issued a tropical storm warning and hours later a hurricane warning from the Dry Tortugas to Marathon in the Florida Keys and along the southwestern coastline northward to Fort Myers . A hurricane watch was also issued from Marathon to Jupiter Inlet . At the time of the issuance of the hurricane warning , Alberto had been moving steadily northeastward ; extrapolating its motion indicated a landfall on Key West within 12 hours and a mainland landfall at Key Largo within 24 hours . Additionally , most computer models predicted Alberto to continue northeastward across south Florida . Only one model , not available until later , suggested a weakness in steering currents that would prevent a Florida landfall .
Officials ordered mandatory evacuations along the southwest coast of Florida . More than 1 @,@ 000 left their homes to stay in nine emergency shelters . Air Florida canceled all flights from Miami to Key West . Many residents in the lower Florida Keys were unable to evacuate to the mainland , with about 50 people in Key West evacuating to four emergency shelters set up in the city . Officials closed schools in Monroe County at midday on June 3 and also sent all nonessential city and county employees home .
Gale force winds and heavy rainfall were reported in the lower Florida Keys ; Key West reported 6 @.@ 25 inches ( 160 mm ) during a 24 @-@ hour period , with the maximum reported winds at a land station being 70 mph ( 115 km / h ) in the Dry Tortugas . Moderate rainfall was reported throughout southern Florida and the eastern Florida Keys , as well , peaking at 16 @.@ 47 inches ( 418 mm ) at Tavernier . Alberto spawned three tornadoes and a waterspout in the Florida Keys , one of which at Stock Island which damaged several boats . One of the three tornadoes picked up a moving car and lightly injured the driver . Another knocked down two telephone poles on the Overseas Highway , which resulted in an hour traffic delay . Damage from the tornadoes totaled $ 275 @,@ 000 ( 1982 USD , $ 620 @,@ 000 2010 USD ) .
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= Prosaurolophus =
Prosaurolophus ( / ˌproʊsɔːˈrɒləfəs / ; meaning " before Saurolophus " , in comparison to the later dinosaur with a similar head crest ) is a genus of hadrosaurid ( or duck @-@ billed ) dinosaur from the Late Cretaceous of North America . It is known from the remains of at least 25 individuals belonging to two species , including skulls and skeletons , but it remains obscure . Around 9 m ( 30 ft ) , its fossils have been found in the late Campanian @-@ age Upper Cretaceous Dinosaur Park Formation in Alberta , and the roughly contemporaneous Two Medicine Formation in Montana , dating to around 75 @.@ 5 @-@ 74 @.@ 0 million years ago . Its most recognizable feature is a small solid crest formed by the nasal bones , sticking up in front of the eyes .
The type species is P. maximus , described by American paleontologist Barnum Brown of the American Museum of Natural History in 1916 . A second species , P. blackfeetensis , was described by Jack Horner of the Museum of the Rockies in 1992 . The two species were differentiated mainly by crest size and skull proportions .
= = Description = =
Prosaurolophus was a large @-@ headed duckbill ; the most complete described specimen has a skull around 0 @.@ 9 metres ( 3 @.@ 0 ft ) long on a skeleton about 8 @.@ 5 metres ( 28 ft ) long . It had a small , stout , triangular crest in front of the eyes ; the sides of this crest were concave , forming depressions . The upper arm was relatively short .
When originally described by Brown , Prosaurolophus maximus was known from a skull and jaw . Half of the skull was badly weathered at the time of examination , and the level of the parietal was distortedly crushed upwards to the side . The different bones of the skull could be easily defined , with the exception of the parietals and nasal bones . Brown found that the skull of the already described genus Saurolophus is very similar overall to , but also smaller than the skull of P. maximus . A unique feature of a shortened frontal in lambeosaurines is also found in Prosaurolophus , and the other horned hadrosaurines Brachylophosaurus , Maiasaura , and Saurolophus . Although they lack a shorter frontal , the genera Edmontosaurus and Shantungosaurus share with saurolophins an elongated dentary .
= = History of discovery = =
Well @-@ known paleontologist Barnum Brown recovered a duckbill skull in 1915 for the American Museum of Natural History ( AMNH 5836 ) from the Red Deer River of Alberta , near Steveville . He described the specimen in 1916 as a new genus , Prosaurolophus . Brown 's choice of name comes from a comparison to the genus Saurolophus , which he had described in 1912 . Saurolophus had a similar but longer and more spike @-@ like head crest . The skull had a damaged muzzle and was inadvertently reconstructed too long , but better remains were soon found that showed the true shape ; one is a nearly complete skeleton and skull , described by William Parks in 1924 . Twenty to twenty @-@ five individuals are known for this species , including seven skulls with at least some of the rest of the skeleton .
The second species , P. blackfeetensis , is based on a specimen in the Museum of the Rockies ( MOR 454 ) , which was described by another notable paleontologist , Jack Horner . This specimen , and the remains of three or four other individuals , were found in Glacier County , Montana . In this case , the fossils were found in a bonebed of Prosaurolophus remains , which indicates that the animals lived together for at least some time . The bonebed is interpreted as reflecting a group of animals that congregated near a water source during a drought .
Horner differentiated the two species by details of the crest . He interpreted P. blackfeetensis as having a steeper , taller face than P. maximus , with the crest migrating backward toward the eyes during growth . More recent studies have regarded the differences as insufficient to support two species .
= = Classification = =
Because of its name , Prosaurolophus is often associated with Saurolophus . However , this is contentious ; some authors have found the animals to be closely related , whereas others have not , instead finding it closer to Brachylophosaurus , Edmontosaurus , Gryposaurus , and Maiasaura .
= = = History of classification = = =
In 1918 , Lawrence Lambe revised the classifications of Hadrosauridae ( then Trachodontidae ) . He invalidated the family name and Trachodontinae , replacing them with Hadrosauridae and Hadrosaurinae . The other subfamily in Hadrosauridae then was Saurolophinae , which included Stephanosaurus ( = Lambeosaurus ) , Cheneosaurus , Corythosaurus , Prosaurolophus , and Saurolophus . Lambe , in 1920 , split Saurolophinae and found only two genera remaining in it , Prosaurolophus , and the type genus . The previous genera were then reclassified into Stephanosaurinae or Hadrosaurinae . In 1928 , Prosaurolophus was assigned to Saurolophinae by Franz Nopcsa . The group contained hadrosaurids with a " males with median horn @-@ like protuberance on the skull " and " very numerous teeth " , found by Nopsca to be Parasaurolophus , Saurolophus , and Prosaurolophus .
In 1954 , Charles Sternberg reevaluated the genera in Hadrosauridae , invoking the probability that Saurolophinae should be sunk into Hadrosaurinae . This greatly changed the classifications of the family , as the " saurolophines " were kept separate because of their supposedly " footed " ischium . Sternberg identified that the " footed " ischium assigned to Saurolophus was not found with the holotype , and was only assigned to it because of the location of the find . Also , he noted that William Parks ( 1924 ) found a complete skeleton of Prosaurolophus clearly showing a " unfooted " ischium , which Sternberg realized meant that it was unlikely that Saurolophus possessed a " footed " ischium . Sternberg 's reevaluation led to the abandonment of Saurolophinae .
Young ( 1958 ) found that the subfamily Saurolophinae , however , was not to be abandoned , and in it placed his new genus Tsintaosaurus , as well as Prosaurolophus and Saurolophus , and also Kritosaurus ( which included Gryposaurus and excluded K. navajovius ) . Two years previous , Friedrich von Huene separated Saurolophinae from Hadrosauridae , naming Saurolophidae . Saurolophidae was a family in Huene 's Hadrosauria , including the genera Prosaurolophus , Saurolophus , and the probably unrelated Bactrosaurus . Another author to support the separation of Saurolophinae was John Ostrom ( 1961 ) . Ostrom found that the saurolophines Brachylophosaurus , Prosaurolophus , and Saurolophus all possessed a " pseudonarial crest " , a feature which united them , while distinguishing them from hollow @-@ crested lambeosaurines .
Hopson ( 1975 ) supported the division of Hadrosauridae into two subfamilies , Hadrosaurinae and Lambeosaurinae , and was first to suspect what modern analyses find . Hopson found that Hadrosaurinae could clearly be divided into groups , the " kritosaurs " , the " edmontosaurs " , and the " saurolophines " , including Prosaurolophus , Saurolophus , Tsintaosaurus and Lophorhothon , and intermediate between the " kritosaurs " and " saurolophines " . Brett @-@ Surman ( 1975 ) also followed Sternberg with sinking Saurolophinae into Hadrosaurinae , and like Hopson , he recognized three groups within the subfamily . Like Hopson , one group was called the Edmontosaurus lineage , the second the Kritosaurus group , and the third uniting Prosaurolophus and Saurolophus . Over a decade later in 1989 , Brett @-@ Surman scientifically named the groups of hadrosaurines , the first becoming Edmontosaurini , the second Kritosaurini , and the third Saurolophini .
= = = Phylogeny = = =
The first cladistic analysis to encompass the interrelationships of Hadrosauridae was conducted by Weishampel and Horner ( 1990 ) . They found Saurolophinae synonymous with Hadrosaurinae , but only separated the subfamily into two groups . The first group included Gryposaurus , Aralosaurus , Maiasaura , and Brachylophosaurus . The other contained Edmontosaurus , Saurolophus , Prosaurolophus , Lophorhothon , and Shantungosaurus .
A detailed cladgram of hadrosaurid relationships was published in 2013 by Acta Palaeontologica Polonica . The study was led by Alberto Prieto @-@ Márquez , and recovered Prosaurolophus in a similar position as suggested by Brown in 1916 . The below cladogram was the one recovered by their analysis :
In 2001 , Prosaurolophus was studied with other hadrosaurids by Wagner . The genus , along with Corythosaurus and Maiasaura , were considered by Wagner to be synonymous with Saurolophus , Hypacrosaurus and Brachylophosaurus respectively . Prosaurolophus maximus was reassigned to Saurolophus as S. maximus . The same year however , Prosaurolophus was found to be distinct from Saurolophus , in an analysis of Hu et al .. Their analysis was unique from any of the time , and they recovered Prosaurolophus in Saurolophinae , with Saurolophus , Lophorhothon , Tsintaosaurus , Jaxartosaurus , and Kritosaurus . No other analysis has recovered this group of dinosaurs .
Horner et al . ( 2004 ) also recovered a different phylogeny of Saurolophinae . Prosaurolophus was , for the first time , recovered separate from Saurolophus , in fact not even closely related . Prosaurolophus was found in a group with Brachylophosaurus , Maiasaura , Grpyosaurus , and Edmontosaurus , while Saurolophus was grouped with Naashoibitosaurus ( = Kritosaurus ) and " Kritosaurus " australis .
The Prosaurolophus @-@ Saurolophus clade has been a problematic grouping when trying to place among hadrosaurines . Many skull features are similar to Edmontosaurus , while other are closer to Gryposaurus , so the group has been classified as close to both . However , the clade might be closer to Edmontosaurus , as the features are more numerous uniting them .
= = Paleobiology = =
As a hadrosaurid , Prosaurolophus would have been a large herbivore , eating plants with a sophisticated skull that permitted a grinding motion analogous to chewing . Its teeth were continually replaced and packed into dental batteries that contained hundreds of teeth , only a relative handful of which were in use at any time . Plant material would have been cropped by its broad beak , and held in the jaws by a cheek @-@ like structure . Feeding would have been from the ground up to around 4 meters ( 13 ft ) above . Like other hadrosaurs , it could have moved both bipedally and quadrupedally . Comparisons between the scleral rings of Prosaurolophus and modern birds and reptiles suggest that it may have been cathemeral , active throughout the day at short intervals .
= = = Social behavior = = =
As noted , there is bonebed evidence that this genus lived in groups during at least part of the year . Additionally , it had several potential methods for display in a social setting . The bony facial crest is an obvious candidate , and nasal diverticula may also have been present . These postulated diverticula would have taken the form of inflatable soft @-@ tissue sacs housed in the deep excavations flanking the crest and elongate holes for the nostrils . Such sacs could be used for both visual and auditory signals .
= = Paleoecology = =
The Dinosaur Park Formation , home to Prosaurolophus maximus , is interpreted as a low @-@ relief setting of rivers and floodplains that became more swampy and influenced by marine conditions over time as the Western Interior Seaway transgressed westward . The climate was warmer than present @-@ day Alberta , without frost , but with wetter and drier seasons . Conifers were apparently the dominant canopy plants , with an understory of ferns , tree ferns , and flowering plants . In this well @-@ studied formation , P. maximus is only known from the upper part , which had more of a marine influence than the lower section . It was the most common hadrosaurine of this section , which was deposited about 75 @.@ 5 million years ago . The Dinosaur Park Formation was also home to well @-@ known dinosaurs like the horned Centrosaurus , Styracosaurus , and Chasmosaurus , fellow duckbills Gryposaurus , Corythosaurus , Lambeosaurus , and Parasaurolophus , tyrannosaurid Gorgosaurus , and armored Edmontonia and Euoplocephalus .
The roughly contemporaneous Two Medicine Formation , home to P. maximus , is well known for its fossils of dinosaur nests , eggs , and young , produced by the hadrosaurids Hypacrosaurus stebingeri and Maiasaura , and the troodontid Troodon . The tyrannosaurid Daspletosaurus , caenagnathid Chirostenotes , dromaeosaurids Bambiraptor and Saurornitholestes , armored dinosaurs Edmontonia and Euoplocephalus , hypsilophodont Orodromeus , and horned dinosaurs Achelousaurus , Brachyceratops , Einiosaurus , and Styracosaurus ovatus were also present . This formation was more distant from the Western Interior Seaway , and higher and drier than the Dinosaur Park Formation . The age of Prosaurolophus maximus remains from this formation is from approximately 75 @.@ 5 to 74 @.@ 0 million years ago .
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= Bart Simpson =
Bartholomew JoJo " Bart " Simpson is a fictional character in the American animated television series The Simpsons and part of the Simpson family . He is voiced by Nancy Cartwright and first appeared on television in The Tracey Ullman Show short " Good Night " on April 19 , 1987 . Cartoonist Matt Groening created and designed Bart while waiting in the lobby of James L. Brooks ' office . Groening had been called to pitch a series of shorts based on his comic strip , Life in Hell , but instead decided to create a new set of characters . While the rest of the characters were named after Groening 's family members , Bart 's name is an anagram of the word brat . After appearing on The Tracey Ullman Show for three years , the Simpson family received its own series on Fox , which debuted December 17 , 1989 .
At ten years old , Bart is the eldest child and only son of Homer and Marge , and the brother of Lisa and Maggie . Bart 's most prominent and popular character traits are his mischievousness , rebelliousness and disrespect for authority . He has appeared in other media relating to The Simpsons – including video games , The Simpsons Movie , The Simpsons Ride , commercials , and comic books – and inspired an entire line of merchandise .
In casting , Nancy Cartwright originally planned to audition for the role of Lisa , while Yeardley Smith tried out for Bart. Smith 's voice was too high for a boy , so she was given the role of Lisa . Cartwright found that Lisa was not interesting at the time , so instead auditioned for Bart , which she thought was a better role .
Hallmarks of the character include his chalkboard gags in the opening sequence ; his prank calls to Moe ; and his catchphrases " Eat my shorts " , " ¡ Ay , caramba ! " , and " Don 't have a cow , man ! "
During the first two seasons of The Simpsons , Bart was the show 's breakout character and " Bartmania " ensued , spawning Bart Simpson @-@ themed merchandise touting his rebellious attitude and pride at underachieving , which caused many parents and educators to cast him as a bad role model for children . Around the third season , the series started to focus more on the family as a whole , though Bart still remains a prominent character . Time named Bart one of the 100 most important people of the 20th century , and he was named " entertainer of the year " in 1990 by Entertainment Weekly . Nancy Cartwright has won several awards for voicing Bart , including a Primetime Emmy Award in 1992 and an Annie Award in 1995 . In 2000 , Bart , along with the rest of his family , was awarded a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame .
= = Role in The Simpsons = =
The Simpsons uses a floating timeline in which the characters do not age at all , and as such , the show is always assumed to be set in the current year . In several episodes , events have been linked to specific times , though sometimes this timeline has been contradicted in subsequent episodes . Bart 's year of birth was stated in " I Married Marge " ( season three , 1991 ) as being in the early 1980s . He lived with his parents in the Lower East Side of Springfield until the Simpsons bought their first house . When Lisa was born , Bart was at first jealous of the attention she received , but he soon warmed to her when he discovered that " Bart " was her first word . Bart 's first day of school was in the early 1990s . His initial enthusiasm was crushed by an uncaring teacher and Marge became worried that something was truly wrong with Bart. One day during recess , Bart met Milhouse and started entertaining him and other students with various gestures and rude words . Principal Skinner told him " you 've just started school , and the path you choose now may be the one you follow for the rest of your life ! Now , what do you say ? " In his moment of truth , Bart responded , " eat my shorts " . The episode " That ' 90s Show " ( season nineteen , 2008 ) contradicted much of the backstory 's time frame ; for example , it was revealed that Homer and Marge were childless in the early 1990s .
Bart 's hobbies include skateboarding , watching television ( especially The Krusty the Clown Show which includes The Itchy & Scratchy Show ) , reading comic books ( especially Radioactive Man ) , playing video games and generally causing mischief . His favorite movies are Jaws and the Star Wars Trilogy . For the duration of the series , Bart has attended Springfield Elementary School and has been in Edna Krabappel 's fourth grade class . While he is too young to hold a full @-@ time job , he has had occasional part @-@ time jobs . He works as a bartender at Fat Tony 's social club in " Bart the Murderer " ( season three , 1991 ) ; as Krusty the Clown 's assistant in " Bart Gets Famous " ( season five , 1994 ) ; as a doorman in Springfield 's burlesque house , the Maison Derrière in " Bart After Dark " ( season eight , 1996 ) ; and briefly owns his own factory in " Homer 's Enemy " . ( season eight , 1997 )
= = Character = =
= = = Creation = = =
Matt Groening first conceived of Bart and the rest of the Simpson family in 1986 , while waiting in the lobby of producer James L. Brooks ' office . Groening had been called in to pitch a series of animated shorts for The Tracey Ullman Show , and had intended to present an adaptation of his Life in Hell comic strip . When he realized that animating Life in Hell would require him to rescind publication rights , Groening decided to go in another direction . He hurriedly sketched out his version of a dysfunctional family , naming the characters after members of his own family . For the rebellious son , he substituted " Bart " , an anagram of the word brat , for his own name , as he decided it would have been too obvious for him to have named the character ' Matt ' . Bart 's middle initial J is a " tribute " to animated characters such as Bullwinkle J. Moose and Rocket J. Squirrel from The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show , who received their middle initial from Jay Ward . According to the book Bart Simpson 's Guide to Life , Bart 's full middle name is " JoJo " .
Bart had originally been envisioned as " a much milder , troubled youth given to existential angst who talks to himself " , but the character was changed based on Cartwright 's voice acting . Groening has credited several different figures with providing inspiration for Bart : Matt Groening 's older brother Mark provided much of the motivation for Bart 's attitude . Bart was conceived as an extreme version of the typical misbehaving child character , merging all of the extreme traits of characters such as Tom Sawyer and Huckleberry Finn into one person . Groening describes Bart as " what would happen if Eddie Haskell [ from Leave It to Beaver ] got his own show " . Groening has also said that he found the premise of Dennis the Menace disappointing and was inspired to create a character who was actually a menace .
Bart made his debut with the rest of the Simpson family on April 19 , 1987 in The Tracey Ullman Show short " Good Night " . In 1989 , the shorts were adapted into The Simpsons , a half @-@ hour series airing on the Fox Broadcasting Company . Bart and the Simpson family remained the main characters on this new show .
= = = Design = = =
The entire Simpson family was designed so that they would be recognizable in silhouette . The family was crudely drawn , because Groening had submitted basic sketches to the animators , assuming they would clean them up ; instead , they just traced over his drawings . Bart 's original design , which appeared in the first shorts , had spikier hair , and the spikes were of different lengths . The number was later limited to nine spikes , all of the same size . At the time Groening was primarily drawing in black and " not thinking that [ Bart ] would eventually be drawn in color " gave him spikes which appear to be an extension of his head . The features of Bart 's character design are generally not used in other characters ; for example , no other characters in current episodes have Bart 's spiky hairline , although several background characters in the first few seasons shared the trait .
The basic rectangular shape of Bart 's head is described by director Mark Kirkland as a coffee can . Homer 's head is also rectangular ( with a dome on top ) , while spheres are used for Marge , Lisa , and Maggie . Different animators have different methods of drawing Bart. Former director Jeffrey Lynch starts off with a box , then adds the eyes , then the mouth , then the hair spikes , ear , and then the rest of the body . Matt Groening normally starts with the eyes , then the nose , and the rest of the outline of Bart 's head . Many of the animators have trouble drawing Bart 's spikes evenly ; one trick they use is to draw one on the right , one on the left , one in the middle , then continue to add one in the middle of the blank space until there are nine . Originally , whenever Bart was to be drawn from an angle looking down so the top of his head was seen , Groening wanted there to be spikes along the outline of his head , and in the middle as well . Instead , Wes Archer and David Silverman drew him so that there was an outline of the spikes , then just a smooth patch in the middle because " it worked graphically . " In " The Blue and the Gray " , Bart ( along with Lisa and Maggie ) finally questions why his hair has no visible border to separate head from hair .
In the season seven ( 1995 ) episode " Treehouse of Horror VI " , Bart ( along with Homer ) was computer animated into a three @-@ dimensional character for the first time for the " Homer3 " segment of the episode . The computer animation was provided by Pacific Data Images . While designing the 3D model of the character , the animators did not know how they would show Bart 's hair . They realized that there were vinyl Bart dolls in production and purchased one to use as a model .
= = = = Appearance = = = =
Bart , like the rest of his family , has yellow skin . Bart usually wears a red T @-@ shirt , blue shorts and blue trainers . When the Simpson family goes to church in the episodes , or to school events or shows , Bart wears a blue suit with a white shirt , a purple tie , blue shorts and a blue jacket .
= = = Voice = = =
Bart 's voice is provided by Nancy Cartwright , who voices several other child characters on The Simpsons , including Nelson Muntz , Ralph Wiggum , Todd Flanders , and Kearney . While the roles of Homer and Marge were given to Dan Castellaneta and Julie Kavner because they were already a part of The Tracey Ullman Show cast , the producers decided to hold casting for the roles of Bart and Lisa . Yeardley Smith had initially been asked to audition for the role of Bart , but casting director Bonita Pietila believed her voice was too high . Smith later recalled , " I always sounded too much like a girl . I read two lines as Bart and they said , ' Thanks for coming ! ' " Smith was given the role of Lisa instead . On March 13 , 1987 , Nancy Cartwright went in to audition for the role of Lisa . After arriving at the audition , she found that Lisa was simply described as the " middle child " and at the time did not have much personality . Cartwright became more interested in the role of Bart , who was described as " devious , underachieving , school @-@ hating , irreverent , [ and ] clever " . Matt Groening let her try out for the part instead , and upon hearing her read , gave her the job on the spot . Cartwright is the only one of the six main Simpsons cast members who had been professionally trained in voice acting prior to working on the show .
Cartwright 's normal speaking voice is said to have " no obvious traces of Bart " . The voice came naturally to Cartwright ; prior to The Tracey Ullman Show , she had used elements of it in shows such as My Little Pony , Snorks , and Pound Puppies . Cartwright describes Bart 's voice as easy to perform , saying , " Some characters take a little bit more effort , upper respiratory control , whatever it is technically . But Bart is easy to do . I can just slip into that without difficulty . " She usually does five or six readings of every line in order to give the producers more to work with . In flashforward episodes , Cartwright still provides the voice of Bart. For " Lisa 's Wedding " , ( season six , 1995 ) Bart 's voice was electronically lowered .
Despite Bart 's fame , Cartwright is rarely recognized in public . When she is recognized and asked to perform Bart 's voice in front of children , Cartwright refuses as it " freaks [ them ] out " . During the first season of The Simpsons , the Fox Network did not allow Cartwright to give interviews because they did not want to publicize that Bart was voiced by a woman .
Until 1998 , Cartwright was paid $ 30 @,@ 000 per episode . During a pay dispute in 1998 , Fox threatened to replace the six main voice actors with new actors , going as far as preparing for casting of new voices . The dispute was resolved and Cartwright received $ 125 @,@ 000 per episode until 2004 , when the voice actors demanded that they be paid $ 360 @,@ 000 an episode . The dispute was resolved a month later , and Cartwright 's pay rose to $ 250 @,@ 000 per episode . After salary renegotiations in 2008 , the voice actors receive approximately $ 400 @,@ 000 per episode . Three years later , with Fox threatening to cancel the series unless production costs were cut , Cartwright and the other cast members accepted a 30 percent pay cut to just over $ 300 @,@ 000 per episode .
= = = Hallmarks = = =
In the opening sequence of many Simpsons episodes , the camera zooms in on Springfield Elementary School , where Bart can be seen writing a message on the chalkboard . This message , which changes from episode to episode , has become known as the " chalkboard gag " . Chalkboard messages may involve political humor such as " The First Amendment does not cover burping " , pop culture references such as " I can 't see dead people " , and meta @-@ references such as " I am not a 32 year old woman " and " Nobody reads these anymore " . The animators are able to produce the chalkboard gags quickly and in some cases have changed them to fit current events . For example , the chalkboard gag for " Homer the Heretic " ( season four , 1992 ) read , " I will not defame New Orleans . " The gag had been written as an apology to the city for a controversial song in the previous week 's episode , " A Streetcar Named Marge " , which called the city a " home of pirates , drunks and whores " . Many episodes do not feature a chalkboard gag because a shorter opening title sequence , where the chalkboard gags are cut , is used to make more room for story and plot development .
One of Bart 's early hallmarks were his prank calls to Moe 's Tavern owner Moe Szyslak in which Bart calls Moe and asks for a gag name . Moe tries to find that person in the bar , but rapidly realizes it is a prank call and ( despite not knowing who actually made the call ) angrily threatens Bart. These calls were based on a series of prank calls known as the Tube Bar recordings . Moe was based partly on Tube Bar owner Louis " Red " Deutsch , whose often profane responses inspired Moe 's violent side . The prank calls debuted in " Homer 's Odyssey " , ( season one , 1990 ) the third episode to air , but were included in " Some Enchanted Evening " , the first episode of the series that was produced . As the series progressed , it became more difficult for the writers to come up with a fake name and to write Moe 's angry response , so the pranks were dropped as a regular joke during the fourth season but they have occasionally resurfaced on the show .
The catchphrase " Eat My Shorts " was an ad @-@ lib by Cartwright in one of the original table readings , harking back to an incident when she was in high school . Cartwright was in the marching band at Fairmont High School , and one day while performing , the band chanted " Eat my shorts " rather than the usual " Fairmont West ! Fairmont West ! " Bart 's other catchphrases , " ¡ Ay , caramba ! " and " Don 't have a cow , man ! " , were featured on T @-@ shirts manufactured during the production of the early seasons of The Simpsons . " Cowabunga " is also commonly associated with Bart , although it was mostly used on the show after it had been used as a slogan on the T @-@ shirts . The use of catchphrase @-@ based humor was mocked in the episode " Bart Gets Famous " ( season five , 1994 ) in which Bart lands a popular role on Krusty the Clown 's show for saying the line " I didn 't do it . " The writers chose the phrase " I didn 't do it " because they wanted a " lousy " phrase " to point out how really crummy things can become really popular " .
Bart commonly appears nude in the show , although in every case only his buttocks are visible . In The Simpsons Movie ( 2007 ) , Bart appears in a sequence where he is skateboarding while fully nude ; several different items cover his genitalia , but for a brief moment his penis can be seen . The scene was one of the first worked on for the film , but the producers were nervous about the segment because they thought it would earn the movie an R rating . Despite this , the film was rated PG @-@ 13 by the Motion Picture Association of America for " Irreverent Humor Throughout . " The scene was later included by Entertainment Weekly in their list of " 30 Unforgettable Nude Scenes . "
= = = Personality = = =
Bart 's character traits of rebelliousness and disrespect for authority have been compared to that of America 's founding fathers , and he has been described as an updated version of Tom Sawyer and Huckleberry Finn , rolled into one . In his book Planet Simpson , Chris Turner describes Bart as a nihilist , a philosophical position that argues that existence is without objective meaning , purpose , or intrinsic value .
Bart 's rebellious attitude has made him a disruptive student at Springfield Elementary School , where Bart is an underachiever and proud of it . He is constantly at odds with his teacher Ms. Krabappel , Principal Skinner , and occasionally Groundskeeper Willie . Bart does poorly in school and is well aware of it , having once declared , " I am dumb , okay ? Dumb as a post ! Think I 'm happy about it ? " On one occasion , Lisa successfully proves that Bart is dumber than a hamster , although Bart ultimately outsmarts her in the end . In " Separate Vocations " ( season three , 1992 ) Bart becomes hall monitor and his grades go up , suggesting that he struggles mainly because he does not pay attention , not because he is stupid . This idea is reinforced in " Brother 's Little Helper " , ( season eleven , 1999 ) in which it is revealed that Bart suffers from attention deficit disorder . His lack of smarts can also be attributed to the hereditary " Simpson Gene " , which affects the intelligence of most male members of the Simpson family . Although he gets into endless trouble and can be sadistic , shallow and selfish , Bart also exhibits many qualities of high integrity . He has , on a few occasions , helped Principal Skinner and Mrs. Krabappel : In " Sweet Seymour Skinner 's Baadasssss Song " ( season five , 1994 ) , Bart accidentally got Skinner fired and befriended him outside the school environment . Bart missed having Skinner as an adversary and got him rehired , knowing that this would mean that the two could no longer be friends .
Due to Bart 's mischievousness and Homer 's often uncaring and incompetent behavior , the two have a turbulent relationship . Bart regularly addresses Homer by his given name instead of " Dad " , while Homer in turn often refers to him as " the boy " . Homer has a short temper and when enraged by Bart will strangle him on impulse in a cartoonishly violent manner . One of the original ideas for the show was that Homer would be " very angry " and oppressive toward Bart , but these characteristics were toned down somewhat as their characters were explored . Marge is a much more caring , understanding and nurturing parent than Homer , but she also refers to Bart as " a handful " and is often embarrassed by his antics . In " Marge Be Not Proud " , ( season seven , 1995 ) she felt she was mothering Bart too much and began acting more distant towards him after he was caught shoplifting . At the beginning of the episode , Bart protested at her over @-@ mothering but as her attitude changed , he felt bad and made it up to her . Despite his attitude , Bart is sometimes willing to experience humiliation if it means pleasing his mom . Marge has expressed an understanding for her " special little guy " and has defended him on many occasions . She once said " I know Bart can be a handful , but I also know what he 's like inside . He 's got a spark . It 's not a bad thing ... Of course , it makes him do bad things . "
Bart shares a sibling rivalry with his younger sister , Lisa , but has a buddy @-@ like relationship with his youngest sister Maggie , due to her infant state . While Bart has often hurt Lisa , and even fought her physically , the two are often very close . Bart cares for Lisa deeply and has always apologized for going too far . He also believes Lisa to be his superior when it comes to solving problems and frequently goes to her for advice . Bart is also highly protective of Lisa : When a bully destroys her box of cupcakes in " Bart the General " , ( season one , 1990 ) , Bart immediately stands up for her .
Bart is portrayed as a popular cool boy and has many friends at school . Out of all of them his best friend is Milhouse Van Houten , although Bart has at times shown embarrassment about their friendship . Bart is a bad influence on Milhouse , and the two have been involved in a lot of mischief together . Because of this behavior , Milhouse 's mother forbids Milhouse from playing with Bart in " Homer Defined " ( season three , 1991 ) . While at first he pretended that he did not care , Bart eventually realizes that he needs Milhouse , and Marge manages to convince Mrs. Van Houten to reconsider . Milhouse is a frequent target for local bullies Nelson Muntz and his friends Jimbo , Dolph , and Kearney . At times , Bart also finds himself at the hands of their abuse . Milhouse describes their social standing as " Three and a half . We get beat up , but we get an explanation . " While Bart and the bullies have been adversaries at times , with Bart once declaring war on Nelson , the school bullies actually like Bart for his ways and hang out with him at times , especially Nelson who eventually becomes close friends with him .
Bart is one of the biggest fans of children 's television host Krusty the Clown . He once declared , " I 've based my whole life on Krusty 's teachings , " and sleeps in a room filled with Krusty merchandise . He has helped the clown on many occasions , for example , foiling Sideshow Bob 's attempt to frame Krusty for armed robbery in " Krusty Gets Busted " ( season one , 1990 ) , reuniting Krusty with his estranged father in " Like Father , Like Clown " . and helping Krusty return to the air with a comeback special and reignite his career in " Krusty Gets Kancelled " . For his part , Krusty has remained largely ignorant of Bart 's help and treats Bart with disinterest . One summer , Bart enthusiastically attended Kamp Krusty , which turned out to be a disaster , with Krusty nowhere to be seen . Bart keeps his hopes up by believing that Krusty would show up , but is soon pushed over the edge , and finally decides that he is sick of Krusty 's shoddy merchandise and takes over the camp . Krusty immediately visits the camp in hopes of ending the conflict and manages to appease Bart. One of the original ideas for the series was that Bart worshiped a television clown but had no respect for his father , although this was never directly explored . Because of this original plan , Krusty 's design is basically Homer in clown make @-@ up . When Bart foiled Sideshow Bob 's plans in " Krusty Gets Busted " , it sparked a long @-@ standing feud between the two . The writers decided to have Bob repeatedly return to get revenge on Bart. They took the idea of the Coyote chasing the Road Runner and depicted Bob as an intelligent person obsessed with catching a bratty boy . Bob has appeared in fourteen episodes , generally plotting various evil schemes , but is always foiled in the end .
Despite being currently portrayed as an underachiever , Bart was actually very happy and looking forward about going to school . However , the boy 's initial enthusiastic nature is crushed by an uncaring and bitter teacher who said that he would be a failure at life and never amount to anything . Deeply hurt by this comment , Bart then began the process of developing his path into the mischievous , rebellious , disruptive , disrespectful , snarky , nihilistic , school @-@ hating , prankster @-@ pulling , trouble @-@ making delinquent he is known for being today .
= = Reception and cultural influence = =
= = = Bartmania = = =
In 1990 , Bart quickly became one of the most popular characters on television in what was termed " Bartmania " . He became the most prevalent Simpsons character on memorabilia , such as T @-@ shirts . In the early 1990s , millions of T @-@ shirts featuring Bart were sold ; as many as one million were sold on some days . Believing Bart to be a bad role model , several American public schools banned T @-@ shirts featuring Bart next to captions such as " I 'm Bart Simpson . Who the hell are you ? " and " Underachiever ( ' And proud of it , man ! ' ) " . The Simpsons merchandise sold well and generated $ 2 billion in revenue during the first 14 months of sales . The success of Bart Simpson merchandise inspired an entire line of black market counterfeit items , especially T @-@ shirts . Some featured Bart announcing various slogans , others depicted redesigns of the character , including " Teenage Mutant Ninja Bart , Air Simpson Bart , [ and ] RastaBart " . Matt Groening generally did not object to bootleg merchandise , but took exception to a series of " Nazi Bart " shirts which depicted Bart in Nazi uniform or as a white power skinhead . 20th Century Fox sued the creator of the shirts , who eventually agreed to stop making them .
Due to the show 's success , over the summer of 1990 the Fox Network decided to switch The Simpsons ' timeslot so that it would move from 8 : 00 p.m. EST on Sunday night to the same time on Thursday , where it would compete with The Cosby Show on NBC , the number one show at the time . Through the summer , several news outlets published stories about the supposed " Bill vs. Bart " rivalry . The August 31 , 1990 issue of Entertainment Weekly featured a picture of Bill Cosby wearing a Bart Simpson T @-@ shirt . " Bart Gets an " F " " ( season two , 1990 ) was the first episode to air against The Cosby Show , and it received a lower Nielsen rating , tying for eighth behind The Cosby Show , which had an 18 @.@ 5 rating . The rating is based on the number of household televisions that were tuned into the show , but Nielsen Media Research estimated that 33 @.@ 6 million viewers watched the episode , making it the number one show in terms of actual viewers that week . At the time , it was the most watched episode in the history of the Fox Network , and it is still the highest rated episode in the history of The Simpsons . Because of his popularity , Bart was often the most promoted member of the Simpson family in advertisements for the show , even for episodes in which he was not involved in the main plot .
Bart was described as " television 's king of 1990 " , " television 's brightest new star " and an " undiminished smash " . Entertainment Weekly named Bart the " entertainer of the year " for 1990 , writing that " Bart has proved to be a rebel who 's also a good kid , a terror who 's easily terrorized , and a flake who astonishes us , and himself , with serious displays of fortitude . " In the United States congressional , senatorial and gubernatorial elections of 1990 , Bart was one of the most popular write @-@ in candidates , and in many areas was second only to Mickey Mouse amongst fictional characters . In the 1990 Macy 's Thanksgiving Day Parade , Bart made his debut as one of the giant helium @-@ filled balloons for which the parade is known . The Bart Simpson balloon has appeared at every parade since . This was referenced in The Simpsons in the episode " Bart vs. Thanksgiving " , which aired the same day as the parade , where Homer tells Bart , " If you start building a balloon for every flash @-@ in @-@ the @-@ pan cartoon character , you turn the parade into a farce ! " Meanwhile , behind and unbeknownst to him , the television briefly shows a Bart Simpson balloon .
The album The Simpsons Sing the Blues was released in September 1990 and was a success , peaking at # 3 on the Billboard 200 and becoming certified 2x platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America . The first single from the album was the pop rap song " Do the Bartman " , performed by Nancy Cartwright and released on November 20 , 1990 . The song was written by Michael Jackson , although he did not receive any credit . Jackson was a fan of The Simpsons , especially Bart , and had called the producers one night offering to write Bart a number one single and do a guest spot on the show . Jackson eventually guest starred in the episode " Stark Raving Dad " ( season three , 1991 ) under the pseudonym John Jay Smith . While the song was never officially released as a single in the United States , it was successful in the United Kingdom . In 1991 it was the number one song in the UK for three weeks from February 16 to March 9 and was the seventh best @-@ selling song of the year . It sold half a million copies and was certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry on February 1 , 1991 .
= = = Bart as a role model = = =
Bart 's rebellious nature , which frequently resulted in no punishment for his misbehavior , led some parents and conservatives to characterize him as a poor role model for children . Robert Bianco of the Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette wrote that " [ Bart ] outwits his parents and outtalks his teachers ; in short , he 's the child we wish we 'd been , and fear our children will become . " In schools , educators claimed that Bart was a " threat to learning " because of his " underachiever and proud of it " attitude and negative attitude regarding his education . Others described him as " egotistical , aggressive and mean @-@ spirited . " In response to the criticism , James L. Brooks said , " I 'm very wary of television where everybody is supposed to be a role model , you don 't run across that many role models in real life . Why should television be full of them ? "
In 1990 William Bennett , who at the time was drug czar of the United States , visited a drug treatment centre in Pittsburgh and upon noticing a poster of Bart remarked , " You guys aren 't watching The Simpsons , are you ? That 's not going to help you any . " When a backlash over the comment ensued , Bennett apologized , claiming he " was just kidding " and saying " I 'll sit down with the little spike head . We 'll straighten this thing out . " In a 1991 interview , Bill Cosby described Bart as a bad role model for children , calling him " angry , confused , frustrated . " In response , Matt Groening said , " That sums up Bart , all right . Most people are in a struggle to be normal . He thinks normal is very boring , and does things that others just wished they dare do . " On January 27 , 1992 , then @-@ President George H. W. Bush said , " We are going to keep on trying to strengthen the American family , to make American families a lot more like the Waltons and a lot less like the Simpsons . " The writers rushed out a tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek reply in the form of a short segment which aired three days later before a rerun of " Stark Raving Dad " in which Bart replied , " Hey , we 're just like the Waltons . We 're praying for an end to the Depression , too . "
Although there were many critics of the character , favorable comments came from several quarters . Columnist Erma Bombeck wrote , " Kids need to know that somewhere in this world is a contemporary who can pull off all the things they can only fantasize about , someone who can stick it to their parents once in a while and still be permitted to live . " In 2003 , Bart placed first in a poll of parents in the United Kingdom who were asked " which made @-@ up character had the most influence " on children under 12 years old .
= = = Commendations = = =
In 1998 , Time named Bart one of the 100 most important people of the 20th century . He was the only fictional character to make the list . He had previously appeared on the cover of the December 31 , 1990 edition . He was also ranked # 48 in TV Guide 's " 50 Greatest TV Stars of All Time " in 1996 and both he and Lisa ranked # 11 in TV Guide 's " Top 50 Greatest Cartoon Characters of All Time " in 2002 .
At the 44th Primetime Emmy Awards in 1992 , Cartwright won a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Voice @-@ Over Performance for voicing Bart in the season three episode " Separate Vocations " . She shared the award with five other voice actors from The Simpsons . Various episodes in which Bart is strongly featured have been nominated for Emmy Awards for Outstanding Animated Program , including " Radio Bart " in 1992 , " Future @-@ Drama " in 2005 , " The Haw @-@ Hawed Couple " in 2006 and " Homer 's Phobia " , which won the award in 1997 . In 1995 , Cartwright won an Annie Award for " Voice Acting in the Field of Animation " for her portrayal of Bart in an episode . In 2000 , Bart and the rest of the Simpson family were awarded a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame located at 7021 Hollywood Boulevard .
In 2014 Bart Simpson became the second mascot of Russian football club FC Zenit Saint Petersburg , wearing number 87 on his back ( referring to The Simpsons debut in 1987 ; the club 's first mascot is a blue @-@ maned lion ) .
= = = Merchandising = = =
Alongside T @-@ shirts , Bart has been included in various other The Simpsons @-@ related merchandise , including air fresheners , baseball caps , bumper stickers , cardboard standups , refrigerator magnets , key rings , buttons , dolls , posters , figurines , clocks , soapstone carvings , Chia Pets , bowling balls and boxer shorts . The Bart Book , a book about Bart 's personality and attributes , was released in 2004 . Other books include Bart Simpson 's Guide to Life . The Simpsons and Philosophy : The D 'oh ! of Homer , which is not an official publication , includes a chapter analyzing Bart 's character and comparing him to the " Nietzschean ideal " .
Bart has appeared in other media relating to The Simpsons . He has appeared in every one of The Simpsons video games , including Bart vs. the World , Bart Simpson 's Escape from Camp Deadly , Bart vs. the Space Mutants , Bart 's House of Weirdness , Bart vs. The Juggernauts , Bartman Meets Radioactive Man , Bart 's Nightmare , Bart & the Beanstalk and The Simpsons Game , released in 2007 . Alongside the television series , Bart regularly appears in issues of Simpsons Comics , which were first published on November 29 , 1993 and are still issued monthly , and also has his own series called Bart Simpson Comics which have been released since 2000 . Bart also plays a role in The Simpsons Ride , launched in 2008 at Universal Studios Florida and Hollywood .
Bart , and other The Simpsons characters , have appeared in numerous television commercials for Nestlé 's Butterfinger candy bars from 1990 to 2001 , with the slogan " Nobody better lay a finger on my Butterfinger ! " Lisa would occasionally advertise it too . Matt Groening would later say that the Butterfinger advertising campaign was a large part of the reason why Fox decided to pick up the half @-@ hour show . The campaign was discontinued in 2001 , much to the disappointment of Cartwright . Bart has also appeared in commercials for Burger King and Ramada Inn . In 2001 , Kellogg 's launched a brand of cereal called " Bart Simpson Peanut Butter Chocolate Crunch " , which was available for a limited time . Before the half @-@ hour series went on the air , Matt Groening pitched Bart as a spokesperson for Jell @-@ O. He wanted Bart to sing " J @-@ E @-@ L @-@ L @-@ O " , then burp the letter O. His belief was that kids would try to do it the next day , but he was rejected .
On April 9 , 2009 , the United States Postal Service unveiled a series of five 44 @-@ cent stamps featuring Bart and the four other members of the Simpson family . They are the first characters from a television series to receive this recognition while the show is still in production . The stamps , designed by Matt Groening , were made available for purchase on May 7 , 2009 .
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= Oh , What a Knight ! =
Oh , What a Knight ! is a 1910 American silent short drama produced by the Thanhouser Company . The film follows a young woman , named May Brandon , who dreams a medieval fantasy in which she is wooed , rescued and married by a loyal knight . When she awakes , she dismisses her fiancé and tells him of her dream . He decides to become the knight of her dreams and dresses as one , but the experience is unpleasant and ruins her fantasy . There are no known staff or cast credits for the film , but a surviving film still shows three actors . The film was released on October 18 , 1910 and was met with praise by The New York Dramatic Mirror . The film had a wide national release and was also shown in Canada , but is now presumed lost .
= = Plot = =
Though the film is presumed lost , a synopsis survives in The Moving Picture World from October 22 , 1910 . It states : " May Brandon is a young woman of the present day who finds that the course of true love can sometimes run too smooth . She is engaged to the man of her choice , but no one objects . In fact , there is not the slightest opposition to her marriage in any quarter . And , being a woman , she does not like it . Perhaps she would have been married in the orthodox way had it not been for a dream that she had . In her sleep she found herself a beautiful young woman , persecuted because she was loyal to the knight she had selected . Her father was obdurate , and finally practically made her a prisoner in his gloomy old castle . Her sweetheart called with a rope ladder . They escaped , and after a number of thrilling adventures were married , and presumably lived happy forever afterwards . When May awoke , she was more discontented than ever . She flouted her fiancé , and returned his ring and swore she would never marry him . But finally she told him of her dream , and he won forgiveness by promising to run away with her like the knight of her dreams . Being a man of his word , he did . But the romance all faded out of it . The adventures they passed through were not to the woman 's liking , and her experience convinced her that swashbuckling knights are as much out of date as are stagecoaches . "
= = Production = =
The writer of the scenario is unknown , but it was most likely Lloyd Lonergan . He was an experienced newspaperman employed by The New York Evening World while writing scripts for the Thanhouser productions . The film director is unknown , but it may have been Barry O 'Neil . Film historian Q. David Bowers does not attribute a cameraman for this production , but at least two possible candidates exist . Blair Smith was the first cameraman of the Thanhouser company , but he was soon joined by Carl Louis Gregory who had years of experience as a still and motion picture photographer . The role of the cameraman was uncredited in 1910 productions . The cast credits are unknown , but many 1910 Thanhouser productions are fragmentary . In late 1910 , the Thanhouser company released a list of the important personalities in their films . The list includes G.W. Abbe , Justus D. Barnes , Frank H. Crane , Irene Crane , Marie Eline , Violet Heming , Martin J. Faust , Thomas Fortune , George Middleton , Grace Moore , John W. Noble , Anna Rosemond , Mrs. George Walters . A surviving film still gives the possibility of identifying three of the actors in the film .
= = Release and reception = =
The single reel drama , approximately 1 @,@ 000 feet long , was released on October 18 , 1910 . The film is known to have had a wide national release , with showing theaters in South Dakota , New Hampshire , Oklahoma , Kansas , Pennsylvania , Indiana , Maryland , Nebraska , North Carolina , Montana , and Missouri . The film was also shown in Vancouver , Canada by the Province Theatre .
The Moving Picture News and The Moving Picture World were both neutral in their review of the film , giving neither specific praise nor criticism of the production . The New York Dramatic Mirror review was positive : " This idea has been used quite recently in an Independent film , but not nearly so effectively as in the hands of the capable Thanhouser players . They give the farcical events an air of reality that goes far to strengthen the comical results . ... She insists on her lover rigging himself up in knightly costume and carrying her off on a horse to be married . The absurdity of this business in modern times is not made as much of as might have been , but it brings plenty of laughter . The actress who played the part of the girl marred her work by turning too often to face the camera . She is very pretty and attractive but she should not permit it to appear that she is so well aware of her beauty . " Some advertisements by theaters heavily promoted the comedy aspect of the film with generic quips .
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= 1981 – 82 South @-@ West Indian Ocean cyclone season =
The 1981 – 82 South @-@ West Indian Ocean cyclone season was destructive and deadly in Madagascar , where four cyclones killed 100 people and caused $ 250 million ( USD ) in damage . The season was fairly active , lasting from October to May . There were nine named storms that attained gale @-@ force winds , or at least 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) . Five of the storms attained tropical cyclone status , which have 10 minute sustained winds of at least 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) .
The first storm was Tropical Cyclone Alex , which was named by the Australian Bureau of Meteorology ( BoM ) . this was due to the boundary of the basin at the time , which incorporated the Indian Ocean south of the equator and extended from the east coast of Africa to 80 ° E ; the eastern extent was later moved to 90 ° E. Two other storms – Armelle and Damia – also originated in the Australian basin . The latter was the strongest cyclone on record in the basin at the time by barometric pressure , estimated at 898 millibars ( 898 hPa ) . The first storm to affect Madagascar was Benedicte in December , and was followed by tropical storms Frida and Electre in February and Justine in March . The final storm of the season was Cyclone Karla , which remained in the eastern periphery of the basin while reaching winds of 170 km / h ( 105 mph ) .
= = Season summary = =
Météo @-@ France 's meteorological office at Réunion ( MFR ) issued advisories for storms in the basin during the year . At the time , the MFR area of warning responsibility was from the coast of Africa to 80 ° E , and the agency primarily used the Dvorak technique to estimate the intensities of tropical cyclones . The nine tropical storms and five tropical cyclones was identical to the long @-@ term average from 1981 to 2011 .
The Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) , which is a joint United States Navy – United States Air Force task force that issues tropical cyclone warnings for the region , also issued advisories for storms in the year . The agency tracked a tropical depression in July 1982 . The system formed on July 4 southeast of Seychelles , and initially curved to the southwest . It failed to intensify beyond winds of 55 km / h ( 35 mph ) , and dissipated on July 4 after turning to the northwest . At the time , the annual tropical cyclone year was from August 1 to July 31 of the subsequent year .
Four storms struck Madagascar in the season between December and March , collectively killing 100 people and causing $ 250 million ( 1982 United States dollars ) in damage . The storms caused widespread flooding and a state of disaster for four months , compounded by floods in January . About 180 @,@ 000 people were forced to evacuate , and there were increased levels of flood @-@ related diseases . The storms closed down many roads and destroyed widespread crops , forcing the government to import 400 @,@ 000 metric tons of rice . After the floods , workers repaired damaged roads and dykes while the government provided relief supplies . However , the ongoing floods strained the Madagascar 's resources , and the government appealed for aid to the international community on February 4 . The United States Agency for International Development provided nearly $ 9 million in aid , mostly for rice and rebuilding roads . Other countries donated about $ 7 @.@ 5 million in money or relief goods , such as building materials , food , clothing , and medicine .
= = Storms = =
= = = Tropical Cyclone Alex = = =
While still in the Southern Hemisphere spring , the intertropical convergence zone ( ITCZ ) was active across the southern Indian Ocean in the middle of October . On October 18 , a low pressure area formed , based on reports from nearby ships . It moved southeastward and slowly intensified , given the name Alex . Located southwest of Sumatra , the storm curved to the south . Late on October 21 , Alex attained peak winds of 150 km / h ( 90 mph ) , or above tropical cyclone status . For several days , it maintained much of its intensity while curving to the southwest . The storm eventually weakened due to strong wind shear deteriorating the convection . On October 27 , Alex dissipated .
The storm developed east of 80 ° E but west of 90 ° E , which at the time was part of the warning responsibility for the Australian Bureau of Meteorology ( BoM ) . However , the MFR expanded its area of responsibility to 90 ° E in 1985 .
= = = Severe Tropical Storm Bessi @-@ Armelle = = =
On November 1 , an area of convection formed southwest of Sumatra just south of the equator . It moved southwestward and slowly developed a distinct low pressure area . On November 6 , the system strengthened enough for the BoM to name it Bessi while the storm was west of 90 ° E. The MFR began tracking the storm on November 8 once it reached 85 ° E , estimating winds of 100 km / h ( 65 mph ) . Two days later , a nearby ship reported winds of 63 km / h ( 39 mph ) . During this time , the storm moved generally west @-@ southwestward , crossing 80 ° E on November 11 ; at that time , the Mauritius Meteorology Service renamed it Armelle . The storm continued westward and gradually weakened . On November 18 , Armell deteriorated to tropical depression status , dissipating two days later between Tromelin Island and the Seychelles .
= = = Tropical Cyclone Benedicte = = =
In the middle of December , the ITCZ was active across the southern Indian Ocean , northeast of Madagascar . A circulation developed on December 16 , which preceded the development of a tropical disturbance on December 17 . Moving to the west @-@ northwest , the system slowly developed before shifting to the southwest . On December 19 , the system intensified into a moderate tropical storm while passing 75 km ( 45 mi ) north of Madagascar . After briefly developing an eye feature , the satellite presentation degraded due to land interaction . Convection increased as the storm progressed through the Mozambique Channel , and the Madagascar Meteorological Service named it Benedicte on December 20 . The organization improved over the next few days as the eye feature became better defined . On December 23 , Benedicte intensified to tropical cyclone status , reaching peak winds of 135 km / h ( 85 mph ) . That day , the storm turned westward toward the Mozambique coast , weakening as it approached land . Benedicte made landfall on central Mozambique on December 24 and turned northward , straddling the border with Malawi . The storm dissipated on the next day , with only a remnant area of clouds present on satellite imagery by December 26 .
While passing just north of Madagascar , Benedicte brought wind gusts of 252 km / h ( 157 mph ) to Antsiranana , with several other localities reporting gale force winds . Antsiranana also reported 178 mm ( 7 @.@ 0 in ) . The storm damaged thousands of homes and wrecked much of the region 's coffee and pepper crops . Benedicte killed 13 people and was the first in a succession of six storms that flooded the country .
= = = Tropical Depression Clarissee = = =
Toward the end of December , strong convection persisted southeast of Diego Garcia . These storms consolidated into a distinct center on December 29 , warranting its classification as a tropical depression . For several days the system meandered – it moved northward on December 30 due to a ridge to the south , although soon thereafter turned back to the south and later to the west . Due to a Dvorak rating of 2 @.@ 5 , the Mauritius Meteorology Service named the system Clarisse . According to the MFR , the system only had peak winds of 50 km / h ( 30 mph ) , as lack of atmospheric instability prevented strengthening . However , the JTWC estimated 1 minute winds of 85 km / h ( 50 mph ) . Clarisse dissipated on January 7 about 500 km ( 310 mi ) east of St. Brandon .
= = = Intense Tropical Cyclone Chris @-@ Damia = = =
A low pressure area developed on January 5 near Christmas Island in the Australian basin . Moving westward due to a large anticyclone to the south , it gradually intensified and was named Chris by the BoM . The storm developed an eye on January 9 , and that day crossed 90 ° E into the south @-@ west Indian Ocean . On January 11 , the Mauritius Meteorology Service renamed the storm as Damia . On the next day , the Dvorak rating reached 6 @.@ 0 for the storm , and the MFR estimated peak 10 minute winds of 215 km / h ( 130 mph ) , making it an intense tropical cyclone . The agency also estimated a minimum barometric pressure of 898 mbar ( 26 @.@ 5 inHg ) . Damia turned southwestward and slowly weakened ; by January 16 , the cyclone weakened to tropical storm status , although it reintensified into a tropical cyclone the next day . Around that time , the storm passed about 20 km ( 12 mi ) north of Rodrigues and later approached Mauritius before curving to the south . As a weakened tropical storm , Damia later curved more to the southeast and dissipated on January 23 .
On Rodrigues , Damia produced wind gusts of 113 km / h ( 70 mph ) as well as nearly 300 mm ( 12 in ) of rainfall in 24 hours . The storm damaged or destroyed 70 houses , forcing 500 people to shelters , while 100 km ( 60 mi ) of unpaved roads were wrecked . Power , telephone , and water access was disrupted . Damia heavily damaged the island 's agriculture , with 25 % of the corn crop destroyed . Several fishing boats were wrecked , and 15 % of forest areas were damaged . Monetary damage was estimated at $ 650 @,@ 000 ( USD ) , which prompted the government to request international aid for rebuilding . Estimated by pressure , Tropical Cyclone Chris @-@ Damia was the strongest tropical cyclone on record in the basin until Cyclone Gafilo in 2004 reached a minimum pressure of 895 mbar ( 26 @.@ 4 inHg ) .
= = = Moderate Tropical Storm Electre = = =
The ITCZ became active toward the end of January from the coast of Madagascar to Diego Garcia , spawning a distinct circulation on January 31 southeast of Tromelin Island , which became a tropical disturbance . Due to a trough , the system moved west @-@ southwestward toward Madagascar . On February 1 , the system was named Electre as it gradually intensified . Two days later , the storm moved ashore eastern Madagascar between Toamasina and Mahanoro with peak winds of 80 km / h ( 50 mph ) . Electre weakened as it crossed the country and emerged into the Mozambique Channel on February 4 south of Maintirano . The storm re @-@ intensified to its former peak intensity as it turned west @-@ northwest . On February 5 , Electre made its final landfall on central Mozambique between Lumbo and Quelimane , dissipating soon thereafter .
Striking the country just two days after Tropical Storm Frida affected the region , Electre brought additional rainfall , with a peak 24 ‑ hour total of 151 @.@ 1 mm ( 5 @.@ 95 in ) at Mahanoro . The storm also produced peak winds of 119 km / h ( 74 mph ) in Mananjary . Electre caused flooding and landslides , particularly in the area around Lake Alaotra . The storm damaged all roads from eastern Madagascar to the capital city Antananarivo , as well as the rail connecting the city with Toamasina . There were 13 deaths in the country .
= = = Moderate Tropical Storm Frida = = =
Tropical Storm Frida developed on January 31 over east @-@ central Madagascar , between Fianarantsoa and Mahanoro . It moved offshore and turned to the south . On February 1 , the storm intensified to peak winds of 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) before turning westward and moving back ashore , steered by a ridge . Frida dissipated later that day , producing wind gusts of 119 km / h ( 74 mph ) in Farafangana . As the storm moved through the former Fianarantsoa Province , it dropped rainfall that flooded and isolated several towns . The floods washed away bridges and knocked down power lines .
= = = Moderate Tropical Storm Gabrielle = = =
On February 5 , a tropical disturbance formed north of St. Brandon , and quickly intensified into Tropical Storm Gabrielle by the next day . Moving to the southwest , the storm attained peak winds of 80 km / h ( 50 mph ) . On February 6 , Gabrielle passed northwest of Mauritius and Réunion ; on the latter island , the mountainous peak Plaine des Cafres recorded gusts of 158 km / h ( 98 mph ) . The storm continued to the southwest without much change in intensity , weakening slightly on February 9 . That day , Gabrielle turned to the west @-@ northwest and executed a tight loop before progressing southward . After turning to the southeast , the storm dissipated on February 11 .
= = = Tropical Cyclone Justine = = =
The ITCZ became active in the middle of March northeast of Madagascar , which spawned two low pressure areas on March 15 . The westernmost became a tropical disturbance on the next day between Madagascar and Tromelin . It quickly intensified while tracking to the southwest and was named Justine on March 17 . On March 18 , the storm intensified into tropical cyclone status and developed a well @-@ defined eye . At 15 : 00 UTC that day , Justine moved ashore northeastern Madagascar near Sambava . It continued southwestward and weakened over the island , emerging into the Mozambique Channel near Besalampy as a tropical storm . It re @-@ intensified into a tropical cyclone over waters , reaching peak winds of 150 km / h ( 95 mph ) on March 22 only 20 km ( 12 mi ) offshore Mozambique . That day , a ridge over southern Africa steered Justine to the southeast away from land , although the ridge weakened and allowed the storm to move back to the west @-@ southwest . It weakened to a tropical storm during this time . The storm turned again to the southeast on March 24 after the ridge moved to the east . Justine passed north of Europa Island before striking Madagascar again early on March 25 just north of Toliara . It became extratropical over land , and soon again reached open waters while turning to the south . Justine dissipated on March 27 within the flow of the westerlies .
While entering the Mozambique Channel , Justine was restrengthening and produced peak winds of 180 km / h ( 110 mph ) in Besalampy . The storm also dropped heavy rainfall , with a 24 ‑ hour peak of 404 @.@ 5 mm ( 15 @.@ 93 in ) in Sambava where it moved ashore . The storm was the final in a series of storms affecting the country , damaging coastal towns in the northeast and southwest . Justine damaged houses , crops , and roads , while destroying a vanilla storage shed in Sambava . While the storm was changing its trajectory offshore Mozambique , the Commandant Bourdais ship attempted to avoid the storm , only to sail through 102 km / h ( 62 mph ) gusts and 14 m ( 46 ft ) waves , which flooded the deck and damaged a gangway . Later , Justine passed near Europa island , producing 6 to 9 m ( 20 to 30 ft ) waves .
= = = Intense Tropical Cyclone Karla = = =
A low pressure persisted toward the end of April between Diego Garcia and the equator . It developed a spiral area of convection on April 24 , which preceded the development of a tropical disturbance the next day . By that time , the system was already at tropical storm status and was given the name Karla . Moving southwest , the storm strengthened and organized . A ridge to the south steered Karla to the east on April 27 , although an approaching trough turned it to the southeast on the following day . Enhanced atmospheric instability helped the storm strengthen to tropical cyclone status on April 29 . On the next day , Karla attained peak winds of 170 km / h ( 105 mph ) after developing a well @-@ defined eye . Increased wind shear and progressively cooler waters weakened the cyclone as it turned more to the south . By May 3 , the storm weakened to tropical depression status and dissipated the next day within the westerlies .
= = = Other storms = = =
A tropical depression formed south of Diego Garcia on February 12 . Given the name Heberte , it moved southward initially , reaching winds of only 50 km / h ( 30 mph ) . A ridge to the south turned the system back north , and Heberte dissipated on February 14 near where it formed .
There were three short @-@ lived tropical depressions toward the end of February . The first formed on February 19 about 350 km ( 220 mi ) northeast of Tromelin Island . It moved southward toward Mauritius , bringing several days of heavy rainfall there and Réunion . The depression turned to the west @-@ northwest and dissipated on February 23 . That day , the other two depressions formed , including one between Réunion and Madagascar . Given the name Isabeau , it moved westward and dissipated on February 24 , reaching winds of only 50 km / h ( 30 mph ) . The other depression originated in the Mozambique Channel off the southwest coast of Madagascar . On February 24 , the system passed south of the island while moving southeastward , bringing wind gusts of 79 km / h ( 49 mph ) at Tôlanaro . It gradually became extratropical , dissipating within the westerlies on February 26 . The JTWC classified the system as Tropical Cyclone 20S , estimating 1 minute winds of 85 km / h ( 50 mph ) , although it was only officially classified as a tropical depression .
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= George Washington Truett =
George Washington Truett , also known as George W. Truett ( May 6 , 1867 – July 7 , 1944 ) , was an American clergyman who was the pastor of the First Baptist Church of Dallas , Texas , from 1897 until 1944 , and the president of the Southern Baptist Convention from 1927 to 1929 . He was one of the " most famous Southern Baptist " preachers and writers of his era .
= = Early life and education = =
Truett was born on a farm in Hayesville in Clay County in far western North Carolina as the seventh child of Charles L. Truett and the former Mary R. Kimsey . He entered school at Hayesville Academy in 1875 and graduated in 1885 . He taught in a Towns County , Georgia schoolhouse and , in 1887 , founded the Hiawassee Academy in that same county , with the intention of making enough money to pay for law school . In 1889 , however , he left his position with the Academy to move with his parents to Whitewright , Texas , where he joined the Whitewright Baptist Church , and attended Grayson College . He was ordained to the Baptist ministry at the Whitewright church in 1890 . He preached his first sermon at the First Baptist Church in nearby Sherman , Texas .
= = = Baylor University = = =
In 1891 , Truett was hired by the president of Baylor University in Waco , Texas , to serve as its financial secretary . Enterprising and energetic , Truett raised $ 92 @,@ 000 in less than two years and completely wiped out the school 's indebtedness . After his stint as the school 's financial secretary , Truett enrolled as a freshman at Baylor in 1893 . From 1893 to 1897 he studied at Baylor and served as a student @-@ pastor of the East Waco Baptist Church to pay for his tuition . He graduated in June 1897 with an A.B. degree . Truett would later serve as a Baylor trustee from 1934 to 1939 .
= = Pastoral career = =
Truett accepted the position of pastor of the First Baptist Church in Dallas in September 1897 , a position he would hold until his death . During his 47 @-@ year pastorate , membership increased from 715 to 7 @,@ 804 ; a total of 19 @,@ 531 new members were received , and total contributions were $ 6 @,@ 027 @,@ 741 @.@ 52 . The church was rebuilt three times during his tenure there due to the expanding congregation .
Truett was the president of the Southern Baptist Convention from 1927 to 1929 and of the Baptist World Alliance from 1934 to 1939 . During World War I he was appointed by President Woodrow Wilson as one of 20 preachers sent by the president for a six @-@ month tour to preach to the Allied forces .
One of Truett 's most famous sermons , " Baptists and Religious Liberty " , was delivered on the steps of the Capitol in Washington , D.C. , on May 16 , 1920 . In this sermon he claimed that the United States was founded on the principles of religious freedom and separation of church and state .
Over the course of his pastoral career , he published ten volumes of sermons , two volumes of addresses , and two volumes of Christmas messages .
Truett worried that cowboys who worked the cattle drives were too isolated from family , church and society . He made annual trips through the Davis Mountains of West Texas for thirty @-@ seven years , traveling with cattle drives there and preaching .
= = Personal life and death = =
Truett married fellow Baylor student Josephine Jenkins on June 28 , 1894 , with whom he had three children , all daughters . He died in Dallas on July 7 , 1944 , and was survived by his wife , who would die twelve years later . Both are interred at Sparkman @-@ Hillcrest Memorial Park Cemetery in Dallas .
= = Legacy = =
In 1957 Truett was portrayed by Victor Jory in the episode " Lone Star Preacher " of the syndicated television series , Crossroads . The actress Barbara Eiler was cast as Truett 's wife , Jo , who died eleven months before the episode aired .
An authorized biography of Truett written by James Powhatan was published in 1939 by Macmillan .
= = = Namesakes = = =
The seminary at Baylor University , George W. Truett Theological Seminary
Truett @-@ McConnell College ( named for both Truett and Truett 's cousin , Fernando C. McConnell )
George W. Truett Elementary School , part of the Dallas Independent School District .
S. Truett Cathy , founder of Chick @-@ fil @-@ A restaurant chain
Truett Memorial First Baptist Church , Hayesville , North Carolina
Truett Hospital , located at Baylor University Medical Center at Dallas
= = Published works = =
George W. Truett ( 1915 ) . We Would see Jesus : and other Sermons . New York : Fleming H. Revell .
George W. Truett ( 1917 ) . A Quest for Souls . Harper & Brothers .
George W. Truett ( 1946 ) . Some Vital Questions . Grand Rapids : Eerdmans .
George W. Truett ( 1954 ) . After His likeness . Grand Rapids : Eerdmans .
George W. Truett ( 1973 ) . Sermons from Paul ( George W. Truett Library ) . Grand Rapids : Baker Book House . ISBN 0 @-@ 8010 @-@ 8796 @-@ 1 .
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= Hitman Go =
Hitman Go is a turn @-@ based puzzle video game developed by Square Enix Montréal and published by Square Enix . Announced in February 2014 , the game was released for iOS in April 2014 and for Android on in June 2014 . Microsoft Windows and Windows Phone versions were released the following year in April 2015 . In February 2016 , a " Definitive Edition " version was released on PlayStation 4 , PlayStation Vita , and on Linux and Windows via Steam . It is the first game developed by Square Enix Montréal , a studio founded in 2011 . Development entered full production in 2013 and was completed by eleven people using the Unity game engine .
The player uses touchscreen controls to guide Agent 47 , protagonist of the Hitman franchise , through a series of grid @-@ based levels . Levels are composed of nodes and lines , and presented like a board game with characters modelled as miniature figures . Enemy characters can be dispatched by moving onto the node they occupy during a turn , similar to chess . As the player advances through levels , new enemy types and mechanics are introduced to increase the complexity of puzzle solutions .
Following its announcement , Hitman Go was met with some scepticism from critics . However , upon release the game received a positive reception with praise directed towards the game 's art , aesthetics , simple gameplay mechanics , and translation of Hitman to a mobile device . The game also received several nominations and awards from gaming publications and award organisations . A successor set within the Tomb Raider franchise , titled Lara Croft Go , was released in August 2015 .
= = Gameplay = =
Hitman Go is a turn @-@ based puzzle video game part of the Hitman video game series . In the game each level is set on a grid @-@ based board composed of interconnected nodes and lines . Nodes are positions that the player or enemies can occupy and lines are used for moving between nodes during a turn . Players take control of the series ' protagonist , Agent 47 . Using touchscreen controls , during a turn the player swipes along a line in the direction they want Agent 47 to move . Once the player completes a turn , all enemies on the board will simultaneously move . Each level has a main objective for completion , some levels require the player to guide Agent 47 to the end node and others will require the player to assassinate a specific target . The player can assassinate enemies by moving onto the target 's node , and similarly the player can be killed by enemies that move onto the player 's node .
Levels become more complex as the player progresses , introducing different mechanics and new types of enemies . Each enemy type is dressed in a unique colour , allowing the player to recognise their movement patterns . Some enemies remain static or rotate on a single node , while others will patrol the board along a specific route . Later stages may require the player to collect keys located on the board and unlock doors that block access to the level objective . Trapdoors connect one location on the board to another and allow the player to move between them during a turn . Some nodes contain potted plants , the player will not be detected while occupying these nodes . Coloured disguises can be found and equipped to let the player walk past an enemy type of that colour without being detected . There are throwable objects that are used to disrupt and change enemy behaviour patterns . Firearms can also be found on certain levels , they are used to shoot targets or obstacles from a distance .
Most levels have bonus objectives such as collecting a briefcase or finishing the level without killing anyone , completing these will reward the player with stars . Stars are used to unlock the next chapter of levels . The game launched with five different chapters , one of which was inspired by a level from Hitman : Blood Money . Post @-@ launch , two additional chapters were added , one based upon a level from Hitman 2 : Silent Assassin . The game features in @-@ app purchases which provide hints to the puzzles or unlock level chapters immediately .
= = Development and release = =
Hitman Go was developed by Canadian video game studio Square Enix Montréal . It is the first game from the developer , which was founded in late 2011 by employees of existing Square Enix Europe studios . Upon establishment , the studio announced that their first project would be a new video game in the Hitman franchise . The studio 's original aspiration was creating triple @-@ A console games within the series and expanding to a team size of 150 people . After a year , while the team was still expanding , the console game was cancelled and the studio shifted its focus to mobile games . This transition led to around one third of the staff leaving the development team .
During the concept phase there were four people working on the Hitman Go . Initial prototypes were built on paper using printed out characters . The project was pitched and greenlit for production in mid 2013 . Daniel Lutz served as creative director , and the team size peaked at eleven people throughout the remainder of the game 's development . The studio looked at several different engines for building the game , but opted with Unity early on as it had a low barrier of entry , provided support for the main mobile platforms , and some members of the development team had previous experience creating projects in the game engine . An initial working prototype and a basic level editor were developed in a few days and after two weeks the first version of the game was presented to the remainder of the studio .
While designing Hitman Go , Lutz and his team considered some specific factors such as the game 's price , gameplay time , the brand , the genre , the audience 's expectation , production restraints , and the business model . Speaking about that game 's genre , Lutz noted that the team could have developed an endless running game for Hitman . However , they thought that this style of game did not align with the series ' values and would not be well received by its audience . Instead , they felt that translating Hitman into a board game was more appropriate as it gave players time to think and plan before executing moves . This fell in line with the idea of Hitman being a " thinking man ’ s game " . Designers tested a feature that would let players lie in wait for targets , similar to the mainline Hitman games . This feature was cut from the final version for gameplay reasons as it allowed players to kill any target on the board and prevented the puzzles from working as intended . The artistic inspiration for the game was drawn from architectural models and dioramas . Characters were created in fixed poses without any limb animations , like chess pieces . Instead of creating detailed textures which requires additional memory , the artists chose to use colour swatches so that most characters shared materials . This method allowed them to use many different colours for characters without incurring lots of draw calls . The team chose not include dialogue , cutscenes , or a heavy narrative structure in the game , citing that people often play video games in short sessions on mobile devices .
Hitman Go was announced in February 2014 . It was released for iOS on 17 April 2014 , and Android on 4 June 2014 . Microsoft Windows and Windows Phone versions were released on 27 April 2015 . At the Electronic Entertainment Expo 2015 , virtual reality technology company Oculus VR showcased a version of Hitman Go for the Samsung Gear VR device . On 5 December 2015 , at the PlayStation Experience , Hitman Go was announced for PlayStation 4 and PlayStation Vita with a 2016 release date . This version was released on 23 February 2016 , as the " Definitive Edition " , which includes improved visuals and all additional content . The " Definitive Edition " was also released on Linux and Windows via the Steam storefront .
= = Reception = =
Hitman Go received " generally favorable " reviews from professional critics , according to video game review aggregator Metacritic . Several reviewers noted that they were sceptical about the idea of Hitman departing from its roots in third @-@ person stealth action and taking form as a mobile puzzle game , but upon playing the game admitted that it was a pleasant and creative take on the franchise .
The game 's visual presentation and board game aesthetic were widely praised . Joystiq editor , Anthony John Agnello thought the colouring and motif of Hitman Go was more appealing than the visual design employed in Hitman : Absolution . He highlighted the level selection screen and use of board game boxes in the menus as positives . Writing for Destructoid , Brittany Vincent also expressed approval of the clean menus and user interface icons , and thought that the game levels resembled dollhouses . Eurogamer and IGN writers compared the character design to miniature board game pieces . The simplicity of the gameplay mechanics and minimalistic approach were praised by Polygon reviewer Arthur Gies . He believed that Hitman Go brilliantly captured and expressed elements of the series through the use of a sophisticated board game . Joystiq reviewer , Agnello called Hitman Go an impressive debut title for Square Enix Montréal and said that the play style suited touch @-@ based devices . Reviewers complimented the replay value and challenge found in completing the additional bonus objectives .
One aspect of the game 's design that drew criticism was that limitations of the grid system had led to a lack of paths available to complete a level . While Gies of Polygon thought that the mechanics of distraction and murder had been interpreted well in the board game setup , he was disappointed that some levels could not be completed without killing non @-@ target guards . Vincent of Destructoid also shared this opinion , disappointed that an element core to the Hitman series had been stripped away . Both Eurogamer and IGN writers thought that the in @-@ app purchases were overpriced but remarked that they could be easily ignored when level solutions are so regularly shared on the Internet .
Hitman Go received two nominations — Best Visual Design , Best Mobile Game — at the 2014 Golden Joystiq Awards , and in 2015 the game was nominated in two categories — Debut Game , Mobile & Handheld — at the 11th British Academy Games Awards . GameSpot and IGN both listed Hitman Go as a nominee for Best Mobile Game of 2014 in their end of year lists . The game also received two awards in the Best Game Design and Best iOS Game categories at the 2014 Canadian Videogame Awards .
= = Successors = =
At E3 2015 , Square Enix Montréal announced Lara Croft Go , a successor to Hitman Go set within the Tomb Raider universe . It was released on 27 August 2015 . In the game , players use touchscreen controls to move Lara Croft around a level composed of nodes and lines . While the core mechanics and design are similar to Hitman Go , the developers did not want Lara Croft Go to feel like a re @-@ skin , so an emphasis has been placed on the puzzle @-@ driven exploration and gameplay elements of the Tomb Raider brand . The following year , Square Enix Montréal announced a similar title Deus Ex Go , based on the Deus Ex series .
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= Resident Evil 2 =
Resident Evil 2 , known in Japan as Biohazard 2 , is a 1998 survival horror video game originally released for the PlayStation . Developed by Capcom as the second installment in the Resident Evil series , its story takes place two months after the events of the first game , Resident Evil . It is set in Raccoon City , an American community whose residents have been transformed into zombies by the T @-@ virus , a biological weapon developed by the pharmaceutical company Umbrella . In their escape from the city , the two protagonists , Leon S. Kennedy and Claire Redfield , encounter other survivors , and are confronted by William Birkin , the mutated creator of the even more powerful weaponized virus called the G @-@ virus .
The gameplay of Resident Evil 2 focuses on exploration , puzzle solving and combat , and features typical survival horror elements such as limited saves and ammunition . The game 's main difference from its predecessor is the " Zapping System " , which provides each player character with unique storylines and obstacles . Developed by a team of 40 – 50 people over the course of one year and nine months , Resident Evil 2 was directed by Hideki Kamiya and produced by Shinji Mikami . The initial version of the game , commonly referred to as Resident Evil 1 @.@ 5 , differed drastically from the released product and was scrapped at a development stage of 60 – 80 percent , after being deemed " dull and boring " by the producer . The resulting redesign introduced different settings and a more cinematic story presentation , supported by a soundtrack that employs " desperation " as an underlying theme .
Resident Evil 2 was widely acclaimed by critics , who praised its atmosphere , setting , graphics and audio . Its controls , voice acting and inventory system garnered some criticism , however , and certain reviewers disliked its puzzles . The game has become a million @-@ seller , and is the franchise 's most successful title on a single platform . Years after its first release , Resident Evil 2 was included in several lists of the 100 best games . Following its initial success on the PlayStation , it was ported to Microsoft Windows , the Nintendo 64 , Dreamcast and GameCube , and was released as a modified 2.5D version for the Game.com handheld . The story of Resident Evil 2 was retold and built upon in several later games , and has been adapted into a variety of licensed works . Capcom released a sequel in 1999 , and a Resident Evil 2 remake is in development .
= = Gameplay = =
As a survival horror title , Resident Evil 2 features the same basic gameplay mechanics as its predecessor , Resident Evil . The player explores a fictional city while solving puzzles and fighting monsters . The game 's two protagonists may be equipped with firearms , but limited ammunition adds a tactical element to weapon use . On the status screen , the player can check the condition of the protagonists , use medicine to heal their wounds , and assign weapons . The characters ' current health can also be determined by their posture and movement speed . For example , a character will hold their stomach in pain if wounded , and will limp slowly if on the verge of death . The protagonists may carry a limited number of items , and must store others in boxes placed throughout the game world , where they may later be retrieved . Each protagonist is joined by a support partner during the course of the story . These characters accompany the player in certain scenes , and occasionally become playable . Certain rooms contain typewriters that the player may use to save the game . However , each save expends one of a limited number of ink ribbons , which the player must collect in the game world . The graphics of Resident Evil 2 are composed of real @-@ time generated – and thus movable – polygonal character and item models , superimposed over pre @-@ rendered backgrounds that are viewed from fixed camera angles .
The main addition over the preceding game is the " Zapping System " , by which each of the two playable characters is confronted with different puzzles and storylines in their respective scenarios . After finishing the " A " scenario with one protagonist , a " B " scenario , in which the events are depicted from the other character 's perspective , is unlocked . The player has the option of starting the " A " scenario with either of the two protagonists , resulting in a total of four different scenarios . Actions taken during the first playthrough affect the second . For example , the availability of certain items may be altered . After each game , the player receives a ranking based on the total time taken to complete the scenario , and on the number of saves and special healing items used . Depending on the player 's accomplishments , bonus weapons and costumes may be unlocked as a reward . The original version of Resident Evil 2 contains two stand @-@ alone minigames : " The 4th Survivor " and " The To @-@ fu Survivor " . In both of these minigames , the player must reach the goal while fighting every enemy along the way with only the default item loadout . All the later versions ( except the N64 version ) add a third minigame titled " Extreme Battle " , which consists of four playable characters and three stages .
= = Plot = =
The game is set two months after the events of the first Resident Evil , in the Midwestern American mountain community of Raccoon City . Nearly all of its citizens have been transformed into zombies by an outbreak of the T @-@ virus , a new type of biological weapon secretly developed by the pharmaceutical company Umbrella . The game 's two protagonists are Leon S. Kennedy , a rookie police officer on his first day in the local force , and Claire Redfield , a college student looking for her brother Chris . Having just arrived in the city , Leon and Claire make their way to the Raccoon Police Department , seeking protection from the mutated population . However , after a runaway truck crashes into their police car and they are forced to split up after some zombies attack , Leon / Claire make it to the Police Headquarters . The player discover that the police station is abandoned and that most of the police officers have been killed , and that Chris has left town to investigate the Umbrella headquarters in Europe . With no remaining motivation to stay , the two protagonists split up to look for other survivors and flee the city . While searching for an escape route , Claire meets a little girl named Sherry , who is on the run from an unknown creature , and Leon encounters Ada Wong , who claims to be looking for her boyfriend John , an Umbrella researcher .
It is revealed that Leon 's superior officer , Raccoon City police chief Brian Irons , had been bribed by Umbrella to hide evidence of the company 's experiments in the outskirts of the city . He also concealed their development of the new G @-@ virus , an agent capable of mutating a human into the ultimate bioweapon . Irons tries to murder Claire but is killed by a G @-@ virus mutant in the police department . Then , Claire and Sherry escape through the sewers and become separated . After splitting up with Leon , Ada comes upon Sherry and picks up a golden pendant the girl loses while running away . Further into the sewers , Ada reluctantly teams up with Leon again , after he insists on his duty to protect her . They encounter a middle @-@ aged woman who fires at Ada , but Leon dives between them and takes a bullet himself . Ada ignores the unconscious Leon and follows the woman , who reveals herself to be Sherry 's mother Annette and the wife of William Birkin , the Umbrella scientist who created the G @-@ virus . In an attempt to protect his life 's work from special agents sent by the Umbrella headquarters , he injected himself with the virus , which turned him into the malformed creature that is now chasing Sherry . Annette recognizes her daughter 's pendant and attempts to take it from Ada . A fight ensues , during which Annette is thrown over a railing . Ada learns that the golden locket contains a sample of the G @-@ virus , and later – taken over by her emotions – returns to Leon , tending to his bullet wound .
Meanwhile , Claire is reunited with Sherry and discovers that the mutated Birkin has implanted his daughter with an embryo to produce offspring . Leon , Ada , Claire and Sherry advance through an abandoned factory connected to Umbrella 's secret underground research facility . An attack by Birkin leaves Ada heavily wounded , and Leon explores the laboratory to find something to treat her wounds . He is interrupted by a psychotic Annette , who explains to him that Ada 's relationship with John was only a means of getting information about Umbrella : Ada is a spy sent to steal the G @-@ virus for an unknown organization . Just as Annette is about to shoot Leon , a Tyrant monster appears , and she is forced to retreat . Ada returns to save Leon and defeats the Tyrant seemingly at the cost of her own life . She confesses her love to Leon , who leaves behind her motionless body . Meanwhile , Annette tries to escape with another sample of the G @-@ virus but is fatally wounded by her mutated husband . However , before she dies , she tells Claire how to create a vaccine that will stop the mutations caused by the embryo within Sherry . After preparing the cure , Leon and Claire reunite at an emergency escape train and inject Sherry with the vaccine , which saves her life . Birkin – now mutated into a large agglomeration of flesh and teeth – follows them , but is destroyed when a self @-@ destruct system causes the train to explode . After escaping from the city with Sherry , Leon intends to take down Umbrella , while Claire continues to search for her brother . Ada is implied to have survived and to have made away with the G @-@ virus in the pendant . The minigame " The 4th Survivor " depicts the successful G @-@ virus retrieval mission of Hunk , one of the special agents sent by Umbrella . " The To @-@ fu Survivor " and " Extreme Battle " are stand @-@ alone missions that are unconnected to the plot of the game .
= = Development = =
= = = Resident Evil 1 @.@ 5 = = =
Development of Resident Evil 2 began one month after the completion of its predecessor in early 1996 . The first footage of the game was shown at the V Jump Festival ' 96 in July . This early build , later dubbed " Resident Evil 1 @.@ 5 " ( " Biohazard 1 @.@ 5 " in Japan ) by producer Shinji Mikami , differed drastically from the released version in its scenario , presentation and gameplay mechanics . Its plot followed the same basic outline as that of Resident Evil 2 , and featured a zombie outbreak in Raccoon City two months after the events of the first game . In this version of the story , however , Umbrella had already been closed down as a consequence of their illegal experiments . The development team sought to retain the level of fear from the original game , and thus introduced to the narrative two new characters who lacked experience with terrifying situations : Leon S. Kennedy , largely identical to his persona in the final build , and Elza Walker , a college student and motorcycle racer vacationing in Raccoon City , her hometown . Unlike the final version , the story paths of Leon and Elza did not cross , and each playable character had two support partners instead of just one . Leon received help from fellow police officer Marvin Branagh and a researcher named Ada , while Elza was aided by Sherry Birkin and a man named John , whose design was used for gun shop owner Robert Kendo in the released Resident Evil 2 .
Real @-@ world influences had an impact on several character designs by artists Isao Ohishi and Ryoji Shimogama . For example , Ohishi based Leon on his bloodhound , and Annette Birkin was modeled after actress Jodie Foster . The police department in which Resident Evil 1 @.@ 5 began had a more modern and realistic design , and was smaller than the final building seen in Resident Evil 2 . There were more encounters with surviving policemen , such as a superior officer of Leon called Roy . The number of polygons used for enemy models was far lower than in the released version . This allowed many zombies to appear on the screen , a method of invoking fear in the player that recurred throughout Resident Evil 1 @.@ 5 . Furthermore , the game employed dynamic music , and frequently applied alterations to the pre @-@ rendered backgrounds in response to events during the gameplay . The playable characters could be equipped with gear , such as protective clothes that enhanced their defense and enabled them to carry more items . The characters ' polygonal models were altered by costume changes and by damage received from enemies .
= = = Final version = = =
The development was carried out by a 40- to 50 @-@ person group that would later be part of Capcom Production Studio 4 . Director Hideki Kamiya led the team , which was composed of newer Capcom employees and over half of the staff from the original Resident Evil . In the initial stages of development , producer Mikami often had creative disagreements with Kamiya , and tried to influence the team with his own direction . He eventually stepped back to an overseeing role as producer , and only demanded to be shown the current build once a month . Believing the game 's assets to be good individually , but not yet satisfactory as a whole , Mikami expected that everything would coalesce in the three months leading up to the projected May 1997 release date . Shortly thereafter , however , Resident Evil 1 @.@ 5 was scrapped at a development stage of 60 – 80 percent . Mikami later explained that the game would not have reached the desired quality in the aforementioned period , and especially frowned upon the gameplay and locations for being " dull and boring " .
The story of Resident Evil 1 @.@ 5 , with which Mikami planned to end the series , was criticized by supervisor Yoshiki Okamoto , who found it to be too conclusive to allow for future installments . Instead , Okamoto proposed the creation of a fictional universe that would turn Resident Evil into a metaseries – similar to the Gundam and James Bond franchises – in which self @-@ contained stories with common elements could be told . During a period in which the team made no progress rewriting the scenario , Okamoto was introduced to professional screenwriter Noboru Sugimura , who was enthusiastic about the first game 's story . Sugimura was initially consulted on a trial basis , but Okamoto was impressed by the ease with which the writer came up with solutions to the problems that plagued the script , and soon asked him to compose the entire scenario for Resident Evil 2 . One fundamental modification to the story was the reworking of Elza Walker into Claire Redfield , in order to introduce a connection to the plot of the first game . To fulfill Capcom 's sales plan of two million copies , director Kamiya tried to attract new customers with a more ostentatious and Hollywood @-@ like story presentation . As Okamoto did not want to simply enforce the new direction , he had Sugimura discuss the plot revisions with Mikami and the development staff . The planners redesigned the game from the ground up to fit the changes , and the programmers and other remaining members of the team were sent to work on Resident Evil Director 's Cut , which was shipped with a playable preview disc of the new Resident Evil 2 version in order to promote the sequel and to apologize to the players for its belated release .
Only a few assets from Resident Evil 1 @.@ 5 could be recycled , as the principal locations in the final build were made to look more extravagant and artistic , based on photographs taken of the interiors of Western @-@ style buildings in Japanese cities . These environments were created with a software program called O2 , and each background took two to three weeks to render . The maximum number of zombies displayed on the screen at one time was limited to seven , making it possible to use 450 polygons for the comparatively detailed models of Leon and Claire . The protagonists , instead of being given visible wounds , were made to limp slowly upon receiving heavy damage . Apart from the graphics , one of the most important new features was the " Zapping System " , which was partly inspired by Back to the Future Part II , a time travel @-@ themed film sequel that offers a different perspective on the story of the original film . The voice @-@ overs by the all @-@ Canadian cast of Resident Evil 2 were recorded before the actual cutscenes were completed , with each of the actors selected from a roster of ten people per role . Thereafter , the full @-@ motion videos ( FMVs ) were created by filming stop motion animations of action figures , which were then rendered to completed pictures with computer graphics ( CG ) tools . Ada 's movie model could not be finished in time . Thus , she is the only main character not to appear in a pre @-@ rendered cutscene .
Several changes had to be made between the regional releases of Resident Evil 2 . The North American version contains more violent " game over " screens , which were removed from the Japanese Biohazard 2 . Resident Evil 2 was also made more difficult than its Japanese equivalent to prevent rentals from affecting U.S. sales .
= = = Music = = =
The music for Resident Evil 2 was composed by Masami Ueda , Shusaku Uchiyama and Syun Nishigaki , with one song ( The Underground Laboratory ) composed by Naoshi Mizuta . The compositions were meant to convey " desperation " as their underlying theme . In his role as lead composer , Ueda provided the motifs , while Uchiyama was responsible for the horror @-@ themed music used for the investigation and movie scenes . The main theme of the score , a versatile three @-@ note leitmotif , appears several times throughout the course of the story , being included in compositions such as " Prologue " , " Raccoon City " and " The Third Malformation of G " . Various musical styles , ranging from ambient horror music to industrial pieces , are used to represent the different environments of the game . For example , the streets of Raccoon City are emphasized with militaristic percussion @-@ based music , while the police department features ominous piano underscores . Key events of the story are supported with orchestral and cinematic compositions – a move that was inspired by blockbuster films .
Two albums containing music from the game were released in January and August 1998 , respectively . The first , Biohazard 2 Original Soundtrack , is the main release and includes most of the significant compositions . The second , Biohazard 2 Complete Track , largely encompasses less prevalent themes , but offers an orchestral medley and a second CD with sound effects and voice collections , as well as an interview with the sound staff . Biohazard 2 Original Soundtrack received an identical European CD titled Resident Evil 2 Original Soundtrack . In the North American album of the same name , the opening theme " The Beginning of Story " is split up into four individual tracks . Five orchestral arrangements of the game 's music were included on the Bio Hazard Orchestra Album , a recording of a live concert performed by the New Japan Philharmonic . Disc jockey Piston Nishizawa created electronic remixes for several of the compositions , which were later released as the album Biohazard 2 Remix : Metamorphoses .
= = Releases and ports = =
After its initial release for the PlayStation in January 1998 , Resident Evil 2 was reissued and ported to other systems , often gaining new features in the process . The first re @-@ release was the Dual Shock Ver . , which incorporated support for the vibration and analog control functions of the PlayStation 's DualShock controller . Other additions include a new unlockable minigame called " Extreme Battle " , and a " Rookie " mode that enables the player to start the main story with a powerful weapon that features infinite ammunition . The Japanese release of the Dual Shock Ver. contained a " U.S.A. Version " mode based on the difficulty level of Resident Evil 2 's Western versions .
The Dual Shock Ver. served as the basis for the majority of ports , such as the Windows 9x @-@ based PC @-@ CD release , which was titled Resident Evil 2 Platinum in North America . Aside from retaining all previously added features , the PC version can be run in higher resolutions . A " Data Gallery " was added to the main menu , allowing the player to view movies , rough sketches , illustrations and 3D models . In February 2006 , a Japan @-@ exclusive , Windows XP @-@ compatible PC @-@ DVD re @-@ release was published . Developed by Sourcenext , it included high @-@ quality FMVs encoded at a resolution of 640 × 480 pixels . The Dreamcast version keeps the additions from the original PC release , and incorporates real @-@ time display of the character 's condition on the Visual Memory Unit peripheral . The Japanese edition of the Dreamcast port was given the subtitle Value Plus and came with a playable demo of Resident Evil Code : Veronica . An unmodified port of the Dual Shock Ver. was released for the GameCube . The initial PlayStation version was re @-@ released on the Japanese PlayStation Network in 2007 , while the service 's North American counterpart received the Dual Shock Ver. two years later .
The Nintendo 64 version of Resident Evil 2 differs most from the other releases is the first of very few games released for the console to have FMVs despite the limited storage space on the cartridge . Over the course of twelve months and with a budget of $ 1 million , Resident Evil 2 was ported to the console by a staff of about 20 employees from Capcom Production Studio 3 , Angel Studios and Factor 5 . This version offers features that were not included on any other system , such as alternate costumes , the ability to adjust the degree of violence and to change the blood color , a randomizer to place items differently during each playthrough , and a more responsive first @-@ person control scheme . Additionally , the port features 16 new in @-@ game documents known as the " Ex Files " , written by Tetsuro Oyama . Hidden throughout the four scenarios , they reveal new information about the series ' lore and connect the story of Resident Evil 2 to those of the other installments . The Nintendo 64 version adjusts its display resolution depending on the number of polygonal models currently on screen , and supports the console 's Expansion Pak accessory for a maximum resolution of 640 × 480 during gameplay . Other visual enhancements include smoother character animations and sharper , perspective @-@ corrected textures for the 3D models . The music of the Nintendo 64 version uses Dolby Surround , and was converted by Chris Hülsbeck , Rudolf Stember and Thomas Engel . The team reworked the sound set from the ground up to provide each instrument with a higher sample rate than on the PlayStation , thus resulting in higher @-@ quality music . Some features from the other enhanced ports based on the Dual Shock Ver. do not appear in the Nintendo 64 version , such as the " Extreme Battle " minigame .
A port of Resident Evil 2 for the Sega Saturn was developed internally at Capcom for a time , but technical difficulties led to its cancellation in October 1998 . Tiger Electronics released a sprite @-@ based 2.5D version for their Game.com handheld in late 1998 . It included only Leon 's story path , and removed several of the original game 's core features . In February 2013 , an unfinished build of Resident Evil 1 @.@ 5 was leaked onto the Internet .
A Tech Demo for the Game Boy Advance was created by Raylight Studios to show off the power of the Game Boy Advance . The demo was never authorized by Capcom , and a version of the game can be found online .
= = Reception = =
= = = Sales = = =
Promoted with a US $ 5 million advertising campaign , Resident Evil 2 became the fastest @-@ selling video game in North America . On the weekend following its release , it sold 380 @,@ 000 copies and grossed US $ 19 million . It therefore surpassed the revenue of all but one Hollywood movie at that time and broke previous sales records set by the video games Final Fantasy VII and Super Mario 64 . With 4 @.@ 96 million copies sold , the PlayStation version of Resident Evil 2 was a commercial success , and is the franchise 's best @-@ selling game on a single platform . Another 810 @,@ 000 copies of the Dual Shock Ver. were shipped by March 1999 .
= = = Initial reviews = = =
Resident Evil 2 received critical acclaim from critics . Its original PlayStation release holds average scores of 93 percent at GameRankings and 89 out of 100 points at Metacritic . The majority of reviews praised Resident Evil 2 for its atmosphere , setting , graphics and audio , but criticized its controls , voice acting and certain gameplay elements . [ b ]
IGN 's Ricardo Sanchez thought that the game 's atmosphere was " dead on " , and claimed that " [ the ] graphics , sound effects , music and level design all work together to create a spooky , horror @-@ filled world " . Ryan Mac Donald of GameSpot shared the opinion , and found the game to be " like a product out of Hollywood " . He believed that it was " more an interactive , cinematic experience than a video game " . Writing for ComputerAndVideoGames.com , Paul Mallinson considered the game 's atmosphere , story and film @-@ like presentation its most outstanding features . Although he found its plot to be " far @-@ fetched " , he noted that it was ultimately " kept down to earth by clever scripting and gritty storytelling " . GamePro staff writer Mike Weigand called the narrative " engrossing and dramatic " , and the dialogue " well @-@ written " and " spell @-@ binding " . Sanchez , GameSpy 's Brian Davis and Eurogamer.net 's Martin Taylor praised the " Zapping System " for adding to the story and increasing the replay value . Mac Donald thought that the idea of actions in the first scenario affecting the second was " cool in concept " , but underused in the game .
Resident Evil 2 was also praised for its graphics , which many critics felt were a substantial improvement upon those of the first installment . Sanchez and Weigand thought that the pre @-@ rendered backgrounds were an impressive leap ahead of those in the original Resident Evil , thanks to their increased detail and interactivity . Mac Donald praised the model animations for having reached " true realism " , and commended the game 's use of body language as a means of seamlessly communicating the condition of the protagonists ' health . Allgame 's Shawn Sackenheim awarded its graphics the highest possible score , as he found the backgrounds to be " rendered to perfection " , the cutscenes " a work of art " and the animation " fluid and eerie " . The audio was well received by critics . Weigand cited it as an " excellent accompaniment to the visuals " . Sanchez went as far as to say that Resident Evil 2 " may have the best sound design yet for a console game " . Sackenheim described the music and sound effects as " spot on perfect " , and called the soundtrack " perfectly composed " , while Mac Donald likened the game 's use of audio to that of classic horror films .
A common point of criticism was the inventory system , which Sanchez called " a pain " . He frowned upon the player 's need to retrieve objects from item boxes , and Mac Donald criticized the system for being unrealistic , as the boxes are " [ magically ] " interconnected and all items take the same amount of space when being carried , regardless of their size . Furthermore , Mallinson and Mac Donald disapproved of certain puzzles , which they believed were out of place in a police station setting . Sanchez thought that the puzzles were paced better than in the first game , but also found them less interesting and too easy for experienced players . Sackenheim noted the game 's brevity in his review , and remarked that the individual scenarios are not different enough to hold the interest of casual players until the end of the game . He found the controls to be " easy to pick up and play " , while Sanchez thought that aiming weapons was difficult . Certain reviewers panned the voice acting , calling it " cheesy " , " terrible " and " barbaric " . [ c ]
= = = Later reviews = = =
With the exception of the game 's critically acclaimed Nintendo 64 port , most later releases of Resident Evil 2 have received slightly lower scores than the PlayStation version . [ d ] Weigand advised players who already owned Resident Evil 2 to rent the Dual Shock Ver. for the " Extreme Battle " minigame , and recommended that newcomers buy the updated edition instead of the original release . The Windows port was praised for its additional content , but criticized for not allowing the player to save at will , and for lacking updated backgrounds to fit the higher in @-@ game resolution . [ e ] The Nintendo 64 version was widely commended for the technical achievement of fitting a two @-@ disc game on a single 512 @-@ Mbit ( 64MB ) cartridge . However , Taylor criticized the game for retaining scenes from the PlayStation version that were used to conceal loading times – a technical disadvantage of optical discs that cartridges do not share . [ f ] A GamePro writer under the pseudonym " The Freshman " was impressed with the enhanced graphics of the Nintendo 64 port , but was disappointed by its heavily compressed CG FMVs . GameSpot 's Joe Fielder found the compression to be forgivable given the cartridge format , and noted that the new exclusive features made up for the lack of the " Extreme Battle " mode . IGN reviewer Matt Casamassina applauded the implementation of Dolby Surround support , and called the Nintendo 64 release the " best version of the game " .
The clearer sound effects of the Dreamcast port were received well by Game Revolution 's Shawn Sparks , who also remarked that the character models look slightly sharper . However , Steve Key of ComputerAndVideoGames.com disliked the Dreamcast release 's low @-@ resolution backgrounds , which he thought made the characters stand out too much from the environments , and thus lessened the game 's atmosphere . GameSpot staff writer James Mielke did not believe that the Dreamcast port was " an essential purchase " , but still called it a " great game " and , thanks to its low retail price , an attractive offer . The GameCube release was heavily criticized for its high price and dated graphics . [ g ] However , " Four @-@ Eyed Dragon " of GamePro noted that it offered the best in @-@ game visuals of any version of the game . Davis and 1UP.com 's Mark MacDonald were disappointed by the port 's lack of features that were included in the Nintendo 64 release . Peer Schneider of IGN found the 2.5D version for the Game.com to be frustrating and only " partially faithful " to the original release of Resident Evil 2 . Although he felt that its graphics and sound effects managed to recreate the original game 's atmosphere to a certain extent , he thought that its controls were too " sluggish " to allow for an enjoyable experience .
= = = Retrospective = = =
Resident Evil 2 has been held in high regard in the years following its initial release , and was named the fourth best game on the PlayStation by Famitsu . Electronic Gaming Monthly , IGN , Game Informer and Official UK PlayStation Magazine included it in their lists of the 100 best games of all time ; it came in 62nd , 58th , 34th and sixth place , respectively . [ a ] Readers of Retro Gamer voted Resident Evil 2 the 97th top retro game , with the staff noting that it was " considered by many to be the best in the long @-@ running series " . GameTrailers ranked it fourth on a list of the games that most needed remakes .
= = Legacy = =
The story of Resident Evil 2 was the basis for several licensed works and later games . Ted Adams and Kris Oprisko loosely adapted it into the comics " Raccoon City – R.I.P. " and " A New Chapter of Evil " , which were released in the first and second issues of Resident Evil : The Official Comic Book Magazine in March and June 1998 . The 60 @-@ issue Cantonese manhua Shēnghuà Wēijī 2 ( lit . " Biological Crisis 2 " ) was published weekly from February 1998 to April 1999 . A romantic comedy retelling of the game 's story , centered on Leon , Claire and Ada , was released as the Taiwanese two @-@ issue comic Èlíng Gǔbǎo II ( lit . " Demon Castle II " ) . Resident Evil : City of the Dead , a 1999 book written by author S. D. Perry , is a more direct adaptation of the narrative , and is the third release in her series of Resident Evil novelizations , published by Pocket Books in 1999 .
The mobile game Resident Evil : Uprising contains a condensed version of the Resident Evil 2 story , adapted by Megan Swaine . Resident Evil : The Darkside Chronicles , an on @-@ rails shooter released for the Wii in 2009 , includes a scenario named " Memories of a Lost City " , which reimagines the original Resident Evil 2 plot while retaining key scenes from the game 's four scenarios . In 2008 , Resident Evil 5 producer Jun Takeuchi , who had previously worked on the series as weapons designer and graphics animator , alluded to the possibility of a full @-@ fledged remake of Resident Evil 2 . Such a project had already been considered for the GameCube in 2002 , but Mikami abandoned the idea as he did not want to delay the in @-@ development Resident Evil 4 .
The story arcs introduced in Resident Evil 2 continue in drama albums and later game releases . Kyoko Sagiyama , Junichi Miyashita , Yasuyuki Suzuki , Noboru Sugimura , Hirohisa Soda and Kishiko Miyagi – screenwriters employed by Capcom 's former scenario subsidiary Flagship – created two radio dramas titled Chiisana Tōbōsha Sherry ( lit . " The Little Runaway Sherry " ) and Ikiteita Onna Spy Ada ( lit . " The Female Spy Ada Lives " ) . The dramas were broadcast on Radio Osaka in early 1999 , and later released by publisher Suleputer as two separate CDs with the common title Biohazard 2 Drama Album . Chiisana Tōbōsha Sherry begins shortly after the events of the game . Sherry is separated from Claire while fleeing from Umbrella soldiers sent to kill all witnesses of the viral outbreak . Raccoon City is burned down by the U.S. Government and Umbrella in an attempt to cover up the disaster . Sherry seeks refuge in the neighboring town of Stone Ville , and later escapes to Canada with the help of a girl named Meg , who vows to help her reunite with Claire .
Ikiteita Onna Spy Ada is set a few days after Resident Evil 2 , and deals with Ada 's mission to retrieve Sherry 's pendant with the G @-@ virus sample , which is said to be in the possession of Hunk in the backstory of the drama album . Ada intercepts the delivery of the locket in France , and kills Hunk and his men . As a consequence of an accidental T @-@ virus leak in Loire Village , the destination of the delivery , Ada is forced to retreat to an old castle . Along with a unit of the French Air Force sent to burn down the village , she encounters Christine Henry , the Umbrella facility director who gave Hunk the order to deliver the G @-@ virus to France . Jacob , the leader of the airborne unit , is revealed to be Christine 's co @-@ conspirator . However , he plans to keep the G @-@ virus sample for himself , and shoots her . Philippe , another member of the unit , convinces Ada to give him the pendant , after which he injects himself with the G @-@ virus to give himself the power to stop Jacob . Ada escapes and realizes her feelings for Leon , deciding to quit the spy business and return to him . The two drama albums are considered " what @-@ if " scenarios and are not acknowledged in later series releases . The characters ' story arcs are continued differently : Sherry is taken into custody by the U.S. Government immediately after the events of Resident Evil 2 , and Ada keeps the pendant with the G @-@ virus and resumes her activities as a spy . Hunk successfully delivers a separate G @-@ virus sample to Umbrella .
On August 12 , 2015 , Capcom producer Yoshiaki Hirabayashi confirmed that a remake of Resident Evil 2 is in development .
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= Guitar Hero : On Tour series =
Guitar Hero : On Tour is a series of music video games based on the Guitar Hero series for the Nintendo DS handheld game system . The series is developed by Vicarious Visions and distributed by RedOctane and Activision . Three games in the series have been released since June 2008 : Guitar Hero : On Tour , Guitar Hero On Tour : Decades and Guitar Hero On Tour : Modern Hits .
As with other games in the Guitar Hero series , the player is challenged to play through the lead or bass guitar portions of rock songs by matching colored notes that scroll on screen towards the player in time with physical actions to score points and keep the virtual crowd pleased . While the console versions of Guitar Hero use a separate guitar @-@ shaped peripheral , Vicarious Visions developed a " Guitar Grip " unit that slips into the Game Boy Advance port on the DS or the DS Lite to be used with the games ; the Grip is incompatible with the Nintendo DSi and Nintendo 3DS . The Guitar Grip provides a strap to hold the game unit while providing the player with four fret buttons ; the player uses the fret buttons in combination with using the stylus to simulate strumming on the touch @-@ sensitive screen of the DS . Each game features more than 25 songs , with some variation in track lists depending on the region of release , and multiple single @-@ player modes . The local wi @-@ fi capabilities of the DS are used for multiplayer mode , and allow a player to use songs from one installment of the series in competitive modes with a player with a different installment .
= = Gameplay = =
The core gameplay remains unchanged from the other games in the series . The Guitar Grip is required to play the game and comes as part of a bundle that can be purchased for each installment . The Grip is designed for the DS Lite , but features a small adapter that can be removed for use in the older Nintendo DS models . Four fret buttons are located on the side of the unit near the cartridge slot . This is one less than the normal five frets , included an orange @-@ colored one , managed by other Guitar Hero controllers . A wriststrap is attached to the underside to provide support while playing . The player holds the unit in a vertical book orientation ( similar to Ninja Gaiden : Dragon Sword or Hotel Dusk : Room 215 ) , and uses a special guitar pick @-@ shaped stylus to strum on the touchscreen of the DS with their free hand . The " note highway " and the performance of the chosen character in the band are shown on the opposite screen . As notes scroll down on the note highway , the player must press the correct fret button and strum the touchscreen at the same time to successfully score points . While holding a long note , the player can also use the touch screen to apply a whammy effect by moving the stylus across the on @-@ screen whammy bar or anywhere on the screen . After the player has successfully hit a selected series of notes , he or she will gain " Star Power " which doubles their score until the meter has run out . This is activated by yelling or blowing into the DS 's microphone , by pressing any of the face buttons on the DS , or by tapping the Star Power meter on the touchscreen .
There is a single player Career Mode , allowing the player to select from new characters introduced for On Tour or previous characters from the other games in the Guitar Hero series . Completing Career Mode will unlock more venues and options for the selected character 's appearance . The game uses the local wireless abilities of the Nintendo DS to support both 2 @-@ player co @-@ operative play and competitive play . The competitive play introduces concepts found in Guitar Hero III : Legends of Rock 's " Battle Mode " which is called " Guitar Duel " . In Guitar Duel , one player can create a temporary distraction for the other player by successfully completing certain sections of the song . In On Tour , these distractions require the affected player to use features of the DS to remove the distraction . Modern Hits introduces a new single player gameplay feature called " Fan Requests " that is used to progress in the single player career . These requests prompt the player to complete songs with certain requirements , such as hitting a minimum number of consecutive notes or hitting a minimum percentage of the notes in the song . Other requests are based on the effects players use in multiplayer mode , such as playing an entire song at " Hyperspeed " ( notes moving on the screen faster than normal ) or by using the whammy bar on every sustained note .
= = Development = =
Work on a Nintendo DS version of Guitar Hero started in early 2007 according to Vicarious Visions CEO , Karthik Bala . Bala stated that the inspiration for the game was to " see if it was even possible to do a really good music rhythm game on a handheld " . The first six months of development were " touch and go " , according to Bala , and it took nearly a year of testing and experimentation to determine the best strumming mechanism for the game . Bala claimed that Vicarious Visions had gone through more than 20 different combinations of software and hardware peripherals until they " hit upon the idea of creating a peripheral that would have the fret buttons plugging into the GBA slot of the DS " . This also gave the advantage of making the peripheral compact , allowing it to be easily carried by the user . Other designs that were tested but dropped included a larger guitar @-@ shaped unit that the DS was attached to ( dubbed " Ukelele Hero " by the design team ) , different grips with three to six to twelve buttons , and gameplay that was built only around using the stylus . Not until the initial prototype was done did Vicarious Visions approach Nintendo and RedOctane ; both companies were skeptical of the game but helped to support the team , Nintendo by assisting in the hardware interaction with the DS , and RedOctane by helping with the ergonomics of the Guitar Grip . This peripheral is not compatible with the Nintendo DSi because it lacks a GBA slot to insert the grip into , but Vicarious Visions has stated that it is eager to continue development of the series on the DSi .
Even with the hardware designed , Vicarious Visions spent additional time refining the game play . According to lead designer Jeremy Russo , the team had the largest number of playtesters brought in for any Vicarious Vision project in order to refine the touchscreen " strumming " action , using a range of testers , including those that had never played a Guitar Hero game , the " ' DragonForce ' Expert " players , and real guitar players . In addition , the team wanted to expand the " Guitar Duel " mode to include several DS @-@ specific mini @-@ games that could not be recreated on other consoles , but found themselves running out of time . RedOctane wanted to see On Tour as a " polished AAA title on a handheld " and insisted that the " Guitar Duel " be a key feature of the game , giving Vicarious Visions more time to complete the game . The additional time allowed the team to develop the software to recognize every type of strumming approach , including finding a solution to handle the expert players that strummed faster than could be previously recognized . This time also was used to strengthen the " Guitar Duel " gameplay , and as a result , this mode became the testers ' favorite feature of the game . While some tracks were brought over from Guitar Hero III : Legends of Rock , Vicarious Visions recreated all the note tracks for the game , aiming to keep the same difference in difficulty from Easy to Expert as in the console versions . Each song has been divided into three separate compressed tracks that play back simultaneously during gameplay . Vicarious Visions developed a method to overcome the 2 @,@ 000 @-@ polygon drawing limit imposed by the Nintendo DS hardware in order to allow the characters , each composed of about 2 @,@ 000 polygons , to be recognizable .
Bala stated that Vicarious Visions envisioned the " On Tour " series as a trilogy , and despite the availability of the DSi before the release of " Modern Hits " , it wanted to finish out the series on the DS system . While Bala has not revealed what plans the development team has for the DSi for Guitar Hero , they have used their experience in creating the DSiWare game Mixed Messages to prepare for further Guitar Hero games on the unit , including the possibility of downloadable content . Much of the core aspects of the On Tour series will be reused in the DS version of Band Hero , also being developed in part by Vicarious Visions ; the game will reutilize the " Guitar Grip " while adding drumming support through a " drum skin " and vocals through the DS ' microphone , and support for four player localized play has been included .
= = = On Tour = = =
Guitar Hero : On Tour was officially announced on September 7 , 2007 , at the Austin GDC ' 07 , and released on June 22 , 2008 . During a conference call on May 8 , 2008 , Activision revealed that the game would be sold as an individual game ( along with the " Guitar Grip " ) as well as bundled with the DS hardware itself . In North America , Nintendo released a bundle which included Guitar Hero : On Tour and a limited edition Silver / Black Nintendo DS Lite branded with the Guitar Hero logo . This bundle was available with the release of Guitar Hero : On Tour in the United Kingdom . This is the first third @-@ party DS game to be included in such a bundle . When pre @-@ ordered in certain stores , the consumer received either a special Guitar Hero : On Tour set of headphones , Nintendo DS Lite " wrap " pack ( two stickers for use on the console ) or an exclusive guitar pick stylus . The headphones and stylus feature the Guitar Hero : On Tour logo . On June 14 , Toys " R " Us stores across the US hosted a " First to Play " event , where players tried out the game more than a week before its release . Also at the event , anyone who attended received a free Guitar Hero sticker , a temporary tattoo , and a special dog tag .
= = = Decades = = =
Guitar Hero On Tour : Decades was announced on July 15 , 2008 , at the 2008 E3 conference , and released on November 16 , 2008 . Executive Producer David Nathanielsz stated that the short time between releases was to help give DS players the same depth of content as available to the console players of Guitar Hero . Additionally , Vicarious Visions incorporated the ability to share songs between different versions of the game through the wi @-@ fi capabilities of the DS in order to expand the number of potential songs to more than 50 .
= = = Modern Hits = = =
Guitar Hero On Tour : Modern Hits was announced on March 5 , 2009 , and released on June 9 , 2009 . Reflecting its title , Modern Hits incorporates songs published within the last five years of its release , and the developers had to balance what songs were included in order to make a setlist with a wide appeal . The engine of the game has no major changes , but Vicarious Visions stated that it has continued to work on strum detection on the DS touchpad to meet a wide range of playstyles . The interface , however , has been revised over the previous two On Tour titles to feature a more modernized look ( particularly in @-@ game on the touch screen side ) . The game includes a new single player career progression using " Fan Requests " to create a new non @-@ linear progression through the songs in the games . These were added to help move away from gameplay that was " just going , playing a venue , and then moving on to the next one " and instead to " open the world up " . The developers also noted that the Fan Requests helped to tap into the way that players had previously played games in the series , setting their own personal goals for certain songs . Audio designer Jason Willey created the game 's theme song through his two @-@ man band , S.U.P.R.A.H.U.M.A.N. – Protoshredanoid , to capture the Modern Hits theme of the game , and after demonstrating a sampling of the song to the rest of the team , were asked to create the whole song . The theme song was released as a free download for Guitar Hero World Tour the week before the game 's release .
= = = Band Hero = = =
In addition to the above games , a Nintendo DS version of Band Hero was also released . It is compatible with the On Tour Guitar Grip , as well as a unique " Drum Skin " and microphone support , but is not considered part of the On Tour series .
= = Soundtracks = =
Each game in the series contains 25 or more songs , generally consisting of rock music over the past 50 years . The songlist varies ; some songs replace others depending on the region of release . On Tour used a number of cover versions of the songs in addition to master recordings , while both Decades and Modern Hits feature complete soundtracks based on master recordings . The games support the local wi @-@ fi connection of the Nintendo DS to allow players to play against each other even if using different versions of the game , with songs being share in an ad hoc manner during play .
= = Reception = =
= = = Reviews of On Tour = = =
Guitar Hero : On Tour received somewhat positive reviews . In general , critics felt the game captured the majority of the elements of the Guitar Hero series , and IGN commented that the note tracks were well done as to provide " a great challenge with a solid difficulty curve " . However , the primary concern of reviewers was the Guitar Grip , as it was both difficult to hold and caused hand cramps in some players . The Grip was also reported to seat poorly in the GBA slot and came out of the unit at times , which caused the game to stop unexpectedly . Reviews reported difficulty in keeping the DS unit steady while playing with the Grip , making it difficult to follow the note patterns on the screen . Reviewers found the set list to be both short and somewhat skewed towards recent music , and some commented that the sound quality of the tracks was poor . The multiplayer aspects of the game were well received . While some reviewers considered the game as an " absolute Guitar Hero experience " , others noted that the social aspect of the series was not present , and that the game felt " more like an experiment than a full @-@ fledged game , as if Activision just wanted to see if it could be pulled off . "
Guitar Hero : On Tour has won several Nintendo awards from IGN for their 2008 Nintendo DS Best of 2008 feature , including Best Music / Rhythm Game , Most Innovative Design , and Best Local Multiplayer . It was also nominated for several other Nintendo DS awards , including Best Use of Sound , Best Graphics Technology , and Game of the Year .
The game was the top selling DS game in North America the week of its release , selling over 300 @,@ 000 units , and setting the record for any Activision DS release and as one of the top five releases from Activision on any platform . The game continued to be the best selling DS title in North America in its second week of release . On Tour was the second best @-@ selling game across all systems for the month of June 2008 , according to the NPD Group selling more than 422 @,@ 000 units . In July and August 2008 , it sold an additional 309 @,@ 700 and 110 @,@ 000 units in North America , respectively , placing on NPD 's top ten game sales for both months . The worldwide release of On Tour took in over $ 15 million in sales during the month of July 2008 . The bundled version of Guitar Hero : On Tour is the 19th best @-@ selling Nintendo DS game in the United States , selling 1 @.@ 1 million copies as of November 2008 .
= = = Reviews of Decades = = =
Decades received better reviews than On Tour , with reviewers noting that the game , released only a short time after the original On Tour , felt more like an expansion pack than a new title . Critics noted that there was no change in the hardware design and the gameplay mechanics , such that the same issues with hand @-@ cramping and the inability to keep the DS steady while playing still persisted in Decades . Reviewers did praise the compatibility with the previous On Tour title , the improved touch screen interface , and the ability to play competitively with other users regardless of which version of the game they possessed .
The tracklist was considered to be well @-@ rounded ; IGN explained the game 's tracklist " starts out bad but starts getting more enjoyable as you unlock the earlier decades " though attributed this partially to personal taste . However , reviewers also noted that with the songs presented in chronological order , the difficulty curve presented in other Guitar Hero games was not present . The poor audio quality of the songs , a problem that was also noted with On Tour , was found to persist in this sequel . Hyper 's Tracey Lien commends the game for " staying as true to Guitar Hero as the DS can possibly allow " but criticises it for " major hand cramps , poor song selection , and too few tracks ! "
= = = Reviews of Modern Hits = = =
Modern Hits received moderate reviews from the gaming press . The game 's change of form from having fixed set lists that must be completed to move on , to the fan requests system , though found it still tedious to work through the game in this fashion , according to IGN 's Craig Harris . Albert García of Eurogamer considered that the series is still lacking features found in the console @-@ based games , but remains a consistent " little brother " to the main series ' titles . The soundtrack was considered to have stronger guitar portions than from previous games , but still felt like a " disco " collection . Modern Hits was criticized in part for being a " victim of Nintendo 's timing " , according to Harris , as the game was released shortly after the arrival of the Nintendo DSi unit , which lacks the necessary port to use the Guitar Grip , thus making Modern Hits unplayable on the system .
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= U Gambira =
U Gambira ( Burmese : ရှင ် ဂမ ္ ဘီရ ; born 19 June 1979 ) , is a former Buddhist monk , activist and a leader of the All @-@ Burma Monks ' Alliance , a group which helped lead the 2007 protests against Burma 's military government . Following the protests , he went into hiding and published two editorials critical of the Burmese government in the Washington Post and The Guardian on 4 November 2007 . He was arrested the same day .
In October 2008 , he was sentenced to 68 years in prison , including 12 years hard labour ; the sentence was reduced to 65 years on appeal . Gambira reportedly protested his imprisonment by organising chanting with other imprisoned monks , boycotting his trial , and going on hunger strike . Human rights groups including Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch also protested his imprisonment .
Gambira was released during a mass pardon of prisoners on 13 January 2012 as part of the 2011 – 2012 Burmese political reforms . He ceased to be a monk in April 2012 , stating that he had been unable to find a monastery to join due to his status as a former prisoner . He was re @-@ arrested at least three times in 2012 .
= = Early life = =
Gambira started attending school at age five , but the 1988 pro @-@ democracy protests caused school closings that interrupted Gambira 's schooling . According to the Assistance Association for Political Prisoners ( AAPP ) , he ran away from home at age 12 and was recruited as a child soldier by a military unit in Yangon . Once his parents located him , they removed him from the unit and returned with him to their home in Pauk Township . When the authorities came to investigate , Gambira 's parents enrolled him in a local monastery to protect him from arrest or conscription into further military service .
= = 2007 protests and aftermath = =
Gambira first became well known in August 2007 during widespread protests against the State Peace and Development Council ( SPDC ) , the military government which had ruled the country since suppressing the previous uprising in 1988 . The protests were sparked when the SPDC cut fuel subsidies without warning , causing fuel and other commodity prices to suddenly rise .
The city 's Buddhist monks took on a leadership role in these demonstrations , forming the All @-@ Burma Monks ' Alliance and lending the uprising its nickname of " the Saffron Revolution " , after the colour of the monks ' robes . Gambira , then a 29 @-@ year @-@ old monk , became one of the new organisation 's leaders . He later stated that the monks had been planning an uprising since 2003 or 2004 . Because monks are revered in Burma 's Buddhist @-@ majority society , the government at first appeared reluctant to suppress their demonstrations .
On 24 September 2007 , the All @-@ Burma Monks ' Alliance released a statement condemning the military government : " In order to banish the common enemy evil regime from Burmese soil forever , united masses of people need to join hands with the united clergy forces ... We pronounce the evil military despotism , which is impoverishing and pauperizing our people of all walks , including the clergy , as the common enemy of all our citizens . " During the demonstrations , Gambira split his time between Mandalay and Yangon , moving between the two cities to avoid arrest .
After government forces violently broke up the protests , killing some monks and other protesters , Gambira went into hiding . His brother Aung Kyaw Kyaw was arrested on 17 October , in what the AAPP called an attempt by the government to force Gambira out of hiding . On 4 November , Gambira published editorials in the Washington Post and The Guardian calling for the international community to continue sanctions against Burma 's leadership , for Russia and China to cease supporting the SPDC on the United Nations Security Council , and for Burma 's people to continue to peacefully protest against the military rulers . " The regime 's use of mass arrests , murder , torture and imprisonment has failed to extinguish our desire for the freedom that was stolen from us so many years ago . We have taken their best punch " , he wrote in the Post . The day that the editorials appeared , Gambira was arrested in Sagaing Region . His father was arrested as well and detained in Mandalay prison for a month .
= = Imprisonment = =
Gambira stated after his release that authorities had beaten him and deprived him of sleep during his imprisonment , and Human Rights Watch reported that he was " badly tortured " and stripped of his monk 's robes .
In April 2008 , Gambira 's sister reported that he was leading a mettā chanting campaign among other imprisoned monks of Insein Prison to protest against their being issued " layperson " identification cards for the upcoming constitutional referendum . He was subsequently placed in solitary confinement . In speaking later of conditions in the prison , Gambira stated that he had malaria for seven of his eight months there . Tomas Ojea Quintana , the United Nations Special Rapporteur on Human Rights for Burma , visited Gambira and four other political prisoners at Insein in August .
Gambira faced a total of sixteen charges for his role in the protests , including membership in an unlawful association and illegal movement across borders . In October 2008 , Gambira 's lawyer , Aung Thein , resigned from his case , saying that the military government would not allow him the materials to prepare an adequate defence . On one occasion , Gambira refused to appear in court himself , stating that the trial of a forcibly disrobed monk was disrespectful to Buddhism .
In November , Gambira was sentenced to 68 years in prison , at least 12 years of which would be hard labour . In early 2009 , five years were taken off his total sentence , reducing it to 63 years . Both Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International protested his sentence , calling for his immediate release . Aung Ko Ko Lwin , Gambira 's brother who had sheltered him from authorities , was sentenced to twenty years in prison , and Moe Htet Hlyan , Gambira 's brother @-@ in @-@ law , was also imprisoned . Aung Ko Ko Lwin and Moe Htet Hlyan were sent to Arakan State and Mon State , respectively , to serve their sentences .
Gambira was transferred to a labour camp in Sagaing Region . When his mother visited him in early 2009 , she reported that he was on hunger strike , refusing to eat in protest of the conditions of his confinement . Amnesty International reported that he suffered from nervous tension and was in generally ill health . On 31 October 2011 , the organisation issued an " urgent action " identifying Gambira as a prisoner of conscience and stating that he was being denied hospitalisation necessary to treat complications from being tortured at Hkamti prison in April 2009 . Democratic Voice of Burma reported that Gambira was being regularly beaten by guards during the same period and was having seizures as a result .
During his imprisonment , Gambira won the Bindmans Law and Campaigning Award in absentia at the 2008 Index on Censorship Freedom of Expression Awards . The prize recognises " lawyers and campaigners who have fought repression or who have struggled to change political climates and perceptions , especially those who have used or established legal means to fight injustice in the field of freedom of expression " , and is sponsored by Bindmans LLP . Also in 2008 , the official website of Morbegno , Italy announced that Gambira had been made an honorary citizen of the town .
= = 2012 release and re @-@ arrests = =
On 13 January 2012 , Gambira was released in a mass presidential pardon of political prisoners that also included 88 Generation activists Min Ko Naing , Htay Kywe , and Nilar Thein , as well as Shan leader Khun Htun Oo . Gambira stated in an interview that his imprisonment had left him with depression , frequent headaches , and failing memory ; however , he said he had difficulty finding a doctor willing to treat him , for fear that it would draw government reprisals . He attempted to leave the country for treatment , but could not get the necessary paperwork . Gambira told reporters that his organisation would continue to boycott the government despite the amnesty : " The government has transformed its external appearance into a civilian one but their efforts to implement democracy are still rather weak , while many cases of human rights violations continue " .
After breaking into and reopening several monasteries closed during the Saffron Revolution , Gambira was rearrested on 10 February during a 2 a.m. raid , and was released after a night in jail . Authorities announced that he was undergoing investigation for illegally squatting at the Maggin Monastery in Yangon 's Thingangyun Township without officially registering with the Ministry of Religious Affairs after his release , and for breaking and entering the Sasana Theikpan and Sasana Gonyi Monasteries in Bahan Township .
On 6 March 2012 , he was once again detained and interrogated over a recent visit he had made to Kachin State , where local ethnic minority groups were engaged in guerrilla warfare against the government . He was released two days later . The following month , he was forced to formally cease to be a monk after several monasteries refused him membership , which he said was due to their fear of government reprisals if they were to allow him to enter . He then returned to his birth name of Nyi Nyi Lwin .
In November 2012 , Gambira was seated in the front row for a speech by visiting US President Barack Obama , who cautiously praised seeming democratic reforms including the release of political prisoners like Gambira . A few weeks after the speech , authorities arrested Gambira again and sent him to Insein prison . The US Embassy released a statement on the arrest , saying , " We 're monitoring reports of U Gambira 's detention . We urged the government of Burma to be fully transparent and follow due process of law " . Gambira 's family believed that he had been arrested to prevent him from joining protests by a group of monks against a copper mining project . On 11 December , Gambira was released on a bail of 4 million kyat ( US $ 4 @,@ 686 ) .
On 19 January 2016 , he was arrested in Mandalay on a charge of illegal border crossing and sentenced to 6 months in prison . He was released on 1 July 2016 .
= = Personal life = =
Gambira , who is no longer a monk , has been living in Thailand after being re @-@ arrested several times in 2012 , and married to Marie Siochana , an Australian citizen .
= = Health problems = =
He has been suffering from serious physical and mental health issues , including schizophrenia and post @-@ traumatic stress disorder .
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= 1926 Atlantic hurricane season =
The 1926 Atlantic hurricane season featured the highest number of major hurricanes at the time . At least eleven tropical cyclones developed during the season , all of which intensified into a tropical storm and eight further strengthened into hurricanes . Six hurricanes deepened into a major hurricane , which is Category 3 or higher on the modern @-@ day Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale . The first system , the Nassau hurricane , developed near the Lesser Antilles on July 22 . Moving west @-@ northwest for much of its duration , the storm struck or brush several islands of the Lesser and Greater Antilles . However , the Bahamas later received greater impact . At least 287 deaths and $ 7 @.@ 85 million ( 1926 USD ) in damage was attributed to this hurricane . The next cyclone primarily effected mariners in and around the The Maritimes of Canada , with boating accidents and drownings resulting in between 55 and 58 fatalities . In late August , the third hurricane brought widespread impact to the Gulf Coast of the United States , especially Louisiana . Crops and buildings suffered $ 6 million ( 1926 USD ) in damage and there were 25 people killed . The next three storms left relatively little to no damage on land .
The strongest and most damaging storm of the season was Hurricane Seven , nicknamed the Miami hurricane . Peaking as a Category 4 hurricane , the hurricane struck the Bahamas and Florida at a slightly weaker intensity . Much of the Miami metropolitan area was devastated by the storm . Inland , a storm surge on Lake Okeechobee flooded towns such as Clewiston and Moore Haven . The storm was a factor in ending the Florida land boom of the 1920s . Overall , the Miami hurricane resulted in at least 372 deaths and $ 125 million ( 1926 USD ) in damage . However , adjusted for wealth normalization in 2010 , the damage toll would be $ 164 @.@ 8 billion – far higher than Hurricane Katrina in 2005 . The eight , ninth , and eleventh tropical cyclones left only minor or not impact on land . However , the tenth storm , nicknamed the Havana @-@ Bermuda , devastated Cuba , the Bahamas , and ships in the vicinity of Bermuda . At least 709 deaths were linked to the system , with 600 in Cuba alone . Damage to towns on the island exceeded $ 100 million ( 1926 USD ) . Collectively , the storms of this season left over $ 267 @.@ 4 million in damage and at least 1 @,@ 554 fatalities .
= = Season summary = =
The season featured twelve named storms and eight of which strengthened into hurricanes . With six of those storms reaching major hurricane intensity , this was the highest number in a season on record , until being tied in 1933 and 1950 and then being surpassed in 1961 . There were several cyclones that brought devastating effects , including the Nassau hurricane , the Louisiana hurricane , the Miami hurricane , and the Havana @-@ Bermuda . Collectively , the storms of this season left over $ 267 @.@ 4 million in damage and at least 1 @,@ 554 fatalities .
Tropical cyclogenesis began on July 22 with Nassau hurricane , followed by the second storm on July 29 . Only one system , the Louisiana hurricane , developed in the month of August . September was much more active , featuring the forth , fifth , six , seventh ( Miami hurricane ) , and eighth storms of the season . On September 17 , four tropical cyclones existed simultaneously in the Atlantic Ocean , three of which , in an uncommon occurrence , were then hurricanes . The Miami hurricane was the most intense tropical cyclone of the season , peaking as a 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) Category 4 hurricane on the modern @-@ day Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale with a minimum barometric pressure of 930 mbar ( 27 inHg ) . In October , the ninth and tenth ( Havana @-@ Bermuda ) storms formed . One final tropical cyclone formed in November and existed until November 16 .
The season 's activity was reflected with an accumulated cyclone energy ( ACE ) rating of 230 , the forth highest value on record , behind only the 1893 , 2005 , and 1933 seasons . ACE is , broadly speaking , a measure of the power of the hurricane multiplied by the length of time it existed , so storms that last a long time , such as the forth hurricane , as well as particularly strong hurricanes , such as the Miami hurricane and Havana , have high ACEs . It is only calculated for full advisories on tropical systems at or exceeding 39 mph ( 63 km / h ) , which is tropical storm strength .
= = Storms = =
= = = Hurricane One = = =
The first storm of the season formed early on July 22 about 200 miles ( 320 km ) east of the island of Barbados and gradually strengthened into a hurricane a day later . At 00 : 00 UTC on July 24 , the hurricane made landfall at Cabo Rojo , Puerto Rico , with winds of 105 mph ( 169 km / h ) . Weakening as it crossed Puerto Rico , the cyclone quickly regained strength on July 25 as it moved through the Bahamas ; rapidly reaching maximum sustained winds of 130 mph ( 210 km / h ) , it attained the equivalence of Category 4 intensity — one of only four Atlantic hurricanes to have done so in or before the month of July . After peaking at 140 mph ( 230 km / h ) with an estimated central pressure of 938 mb ( 27 @.@ 70 inHg ) , based on ship observations , the cyclone struck the island of New Providence , the seat of the Bahamian capital Nassau , on the morning of July 26 , with sustained winds of 135 mph ( 215 km / h ) . Weakening thereafter , the storm moved northwestward , paralleling the east coast of Florida , but came ashore near New Smyrna Beach early on July 28 with winds of 105 mph ( 169 km / h ) . Thereafter , the cyclone quickly diminished in intensity , becoming a tropical depression on July 29 , as it curved west @-@ northwestward over Georgia ; three days later , it became an extratropical cyclone and dissipated over Ontario , Canada , on August 2 .
In Puerto Rico , the storm produced hurricane @-@ force winds and heavy rainfall that flooded all the rivers in the southern half of the island ; crops in the western portion of the island were greatly damaged , and the entire island was affected by strong winds . At least 25 people were reported to have died as a result . In the Bahamas , the cyclone killed at least 146 people and produced severe damage to the capital Nassau ; it was called the worst storm to affect Nassau since the 1866 Nassau hurricane , also a Category 4 cyclone that struck New Providence and caused major flooding throughout the Bahamas . More than a week after the storm , 400 people were reported to be missing . On the east coast of Florida , the hurricane produced a large storm tide that damaged boats , docks , and coastal structures , and damaging winds destroyed barns and crops well inland ; severe damage to structures and communications wires was reported at New Smyrna Beach , where the storm struck the state . The storm also produced heavy rainfall along the coast , peaking at 10 @.@ 02 inches ( 254 @.@ 51 mm ) at Merritt Island . One person died from the effects of the storm in Florida . In all , the hurricane caused at least 287 deaths — the fourth deadliest July hurricane since 1492 — and $ 16 @.@ 4 million ( 1926 USD ) in losses , at least $ 8 million of which were in the Bahamas . It remains only the second of three recorded hurricanes since 1851 to have struck the east coast of Florida north of Cape Canaveral from the Atlantic Ocean , the others being a hurricane in 1915 and Hurricane Dora in 1964 .
= = = Hurricane Two = = =
Early on July 29 , a tropical depression formed more than 1 @,@ 200 mi ( 1 @,@ 930 km ) east of the Leeward Islands . Over the next few days , it moved west @-@ northwest , becoming a tropical storm by 00 : 00 UTC on July 31 . On August 1 , the cyclone turned northwestward and began strengthening rapidly , reaching hurricane intensity by the early afternoon . The next day , it attained major hurricane intensity — winds of at least 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) , equivalent to the modern @-@ day classification of Category 3 intensity — and over the next few days its track varied between north @-@ northwest and northwest . Early on August 5 , it reached a peak intensity of 120 mph ( 190 km / h ) , based on the pressure – wind relationship . It curved to the north and weakened , then passed about 80 mi ( 129 km ) west of Bermuda on August 6 . A few days later , it transitioned into an extratropical cyclone and then struck near Port Hawkesbury , Nova Scotia , with winds of 75 mph ( 121 km / h ) and a central pressure at or below 1 @,@ 000 mb ( 29 @.@ 5 inHg ) .
Several ships recorded hurricane @-@ force winds and pressures as low as 968 mb ( 28 @.@ 59 inHg ) , though none entered the eye of the hurricane and sampled the lowest pressure in the storm . The system produced winds of 54 mph ( 87 km / h ) on Bermuda as it passed very close to that island . About this time , five ocean liners near each other encountered the storm ; some portholes on the Orca were damaged and 15 passengers were treated for cuts , bruises , and contusions . Off Nova Scotia , the cyclone produced an unspecified number of casualties , including the sinking of the schooners Sylvia Mosher and Sadie Knickle . Between 55 and 58 deaths occurred , including 49 from two ships crashing ashore Sable Island . In Nova Scotia , the storm downed trees and electrical poles , damaging some homes and leaving telephone service outages . Crops and fruit trees were also damaged . High winds also interrupted telegraph communications in Newfoundland .
= = = Hurricane Three = = =
On August 20 , a low pressure area producing unsettled weather in the western Caribbean Sea , and centered about 400 mi ( 644 km ) west @-@ northwest of Maracaibo , Venezuela , was determined to have become a tropical depression . However , prior to scientific reanalysis in April 2012 based upon a 1975 report , it was not believed to have done so until two days later . Moving west @-@ northwest , the depression strengthened to a tropical storm on August 21 , and then turned northwestward while strengthening steadily . After brushing Cape San Antonio at the western tip of Cuba on August 22 , the cyclone then veered to the west @-@ northwest . Early on August 23 , the storm became a hurricane over the southern Gulf of Mexico . Later that day , the cyclone continued to intensify and began curving northwestward . By August 24 , with winds of 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) , it turned north . Early on August 25 , the cyclone peaked as a modern @-@ day 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) Category 3 , based on the pressure – wind relationship . In the afternoon , it struck west of Houma , Louisiana , at that intensity . Less than 24 hours later , the storm rapidly weakened to a moderate tropical storm and curved west @-@ northwestward , weakening to a tropical depression on August 27 and dissipating over Texas .
No known effects were reported from the Caribbean due to the cyclone . On the morning of August 24 , the United States Weather Bureau in Washington , D.C. , advised that the storm was likely to make landfall between Galveston , Texas , and Burrwood , Louisiana . Late that day , hurricane warnings were issued from Morgan City , Louisiana , to Mobile , Alabama . Although small in size at landfall , the storm caused a storm surge of 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) south of Houma and hurricane @-@ force winds in a small area near the center . The lowest recorded pressure was 959 mb ( 28 @.@ 32 inHg ) at Houma , though this was taken inland and is not believed to have been in the exact center , as recent estimates place the central pressure slightly lower at 955 mb ( 28 @.@ 20 inHg ) . Along the Gulf Coast of the United States , the storm caused $ 6 million ( 1926 USD ) in damage to crops and buildings , with substantial damage to vegetation . In all , 25 deaths were reported , although extensive ship reports and timely warnings by mail , telephone , radio , and telegraph reduced the number of casualties .
= = = Hurricane Four = = =
At 00 : 00 UTC on September 1 , an area of low pressure about 1 @,@ 000 mi ( 1 @,@ 610 km ) west of the Cape Verde islands organized into a tropical depression , though prior to hurricane reanalysis it was estimated to have formed a day later as a tropical storm . Moving generally west @-@ northwest over the next three days , the cyclone gradually intensified , first into a tropical storm on September 2 and later , based upon a report from the ship Stornest of hurricane @-@ force winds and 990 @.@ 5 mb ( 29 @.@ 25 inHg ) , a minimal hurricane by 00 : 00 UTC on September 5 . Late on September 7 , the cyclone strengthened to a major hurricane with winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) and turned northwest ; early the next day , the steamship Narenta passed through the eye of the storm and recorded a central pressure of 957 mb ( 28 @.@ 26 inHg ) , the lowest associated with the cyclone . Thereafter , the storm for two days maintained its intensity while resuming a west @-@ northwest track . Late on September 10 , the storm abruptly turned north @-@ northwest . On September 12 , while centered about 400 mi ( 644 km ) southwest of Bermuda , the cyclone briefly peaked at 135 mph ( 217 km / h ) — equivalent to Category 4 intensity — though the cyclone was rather small and observations near the center were scarce .
Over the next two days , the cyclone headed north @-@ northwest again and slowly weakened to Category 2 strength with winds of 110 mph ( 180 km / h ) , then afterward curved west @-@ northwest for about a day . As the storm passed west of Bermuda on September 13 , the island recorded a pressure of 1 @,@ 006 mb ( 29 @.@ 71 inHg ) . As a trough approached , the hurricane suddenly turned northeast late on September 16 , and over the next three days , while located about 500 mi ( 805 km ) south @-@ southeast of Halifax in Nova Scotia , it executed a counterclockwise , S @-@ shaped curve . It then weakened to a tropical storm , recurved northeast , and transitioned into an extratropical cyclone on September 22 , whence it reacquired hurricane @-@ force winds . The next day , the system weakened and hit Cape St. Mary 's , Newfoundland , with winds of 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) . As an extratropical storm it continued north @-@ northeastward until dissipating near Greenland on September 24 . The storm produced a pressure of 994 @.@ 2 mb ( 29 @.@ 36 inHg ) at St. John 's , Newfoundland and Labrador on September 23 , along with gale @-@ force winds along the coast of Newfoundland that affected an Arctic expedition led by George P. Putnam of the American Museum of Natural History . Strong winds in the province downed telegraph lines and demolished a post office in the town of Lamaline .
= = = Hurricane Five = = =
By 06 : 00 UTC on September 10 , a strong tropical storm with winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) was first observed over the open Atlantic Ocean about 1 @,@ 000 mi ( 1 @,@ 610 km ) southeast of Bermuda , but likely formed earlier and remained undetected due to a lack of ship observations . Over the next two days it headed north @-@ northwestward and strengthened , remaining approximately 730 mi ( 1 @,@ 170 km ) east of Hurricane Four . Based upon a ship report of hurricane conditions — 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) from the east @-@ southeast along with a pressure of 1 @,@ 000 mb ( 29 @.@ 53 inHg ) — the cyclone was ascertained to have peaked at 105 mph ( 169 km / h ) , equivalent to Category 2 intensity , early on September 12 , although no meteorological data were available near the eye . Shortly thereafter , the system began turning north and then north @-@ northeast on September 13 , followed by steady weakening . At 00 : 00 UTC on September 14 , the cyclone diminished in intensity to a tropical storm and moved southeast , dissipating less than 24 hours later .
= = = Tropical Storm Six = = =
Early on September 11 , a weak tropical depression formed in the western Caribbean Sea about 200 mi ( 322 km ) east @-@ southeast of the Swan Islands , Honduras . Without strengthening substantially , the depression moved west @-@ northwest for the next day and a half , passing north of the Swan Islands based upon weather reports , and then curved northward . On September 13 , the depression gradually curved to the northeast , and on the afternoon of September 14 it made landfall southeast of Cienfuegos , Cuba . The cyclone then crossed the central region of Cuba , entering the Bahamian islands in the evening . Shortly thereafter , by 00 : 00 UTC on September 15 the depression became a tropical storm and peaked with maximum sustained winds of 40 mph ( 64 km / h ) . The cyclone then turned north , passing about 15 mi ( 24 km ) west of Nassau in the afternoon . The weak storm then turned abruptly to the northwest , having been trapped by a building ridge , and early the next day , while centered north of Andros Island , it assumed a gradual curve to the southwest . Late that day , it degenerated into a tropical depression and dissipated over the Straits of Florida on September 17 , as the Great Miami hurricane approached from just 550 mi ( 885 km ) to the east @-@ southeast .
In Cuba , impacts were minimal . The cyclone produced sustained winds up to 43 mph ( 69 km / h ) and pressures as low as 1 @,@ 004 mb ( 29 @.@ 65 inHg ) in the Bahamas . In South Florida , the cyclone did not produce tropical storm @-@ force winds , although thunderstorms produced 1 @.@ 20 inches ( 30 @.@ 48 mm ) of rainfall at Miami , Florida , on September 16 . No severe effects occurred and the storm was not mentioned in the monthly notations of the local U.S. Weather Bureau office in Miami . However , its presence and that of the Great Miami hurricane , then of Category 4 intensity and in the South @-@ Central Bahamas , caused confusion in the local press . On the morning of September 17 , one day before the Miami hurricane struck , the Miami Herald published a front @-@ page story on the weak tropical storm in the Straits of Florida and included statements by the editors that it was not anticipated to strike Florida ; news articles on the hurricane , which was expected to deliver " destructive winds " to the area , were not published by other local newspapers until the afternoon , leaving Miami residents confused as to the extent of the danger .
= = = Hurricane Seven = = =
By 12 : 00 UTC on September 11 — just twelve hours after the formation of the preceding cyclone — a new tropical storm formed in the Atlantic about 1 @,@ 100 mi ( 1 @,@ 770 km ) east of the island of Martinique , though it probably originated earlier and was undetected ; operationally , the storm was not tracked until September 14 . Steadily moving north of due west , the cyclone quickly became a hurricane the next day , and over the next three days , while bypassing the Greater Antilles to the north , it continued to intensify to a major hurricane , with maximum sustained winds of at least 111 mph ( 179 km / h ) , yet few ships were near the eye with which to determine its path . On the afternoon of September 16 , the cyclone peaked at 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) , near the upper threshold of the modern @-@ day classification of Category 4 , and shortly thereafter passed just 10 mi ( 16 @.@ 1 km ) north of the island of Grand Turk , striking Mayaguana at peak intensity early the next day . Continuing over the South @-@ Central Bahamas and Andros Island on September 17 – 18 , the cyclone , with winds of 145 mph ( 233 km / h ) , then struck South Florida near Perrine , 15 mi ( 24 km ) south of Downtown Miami , shortly before 12 : 00 UTC on September 18 , with its large eye passing over the Miami metropolitan area . Swiftly crossing southernmost Florida , the potent hurricane weakened slightly before entering the Gulf of Mexico near Punta Rassa in the afternoon , and its path gradually curved northwest on September 19 . Late on September 20 , its path slowed drastically and curved west , making landfall near Perdido Beach , Alabama , with winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) and a measured pressure of 954 @.@ 9 mb ( 28 @.@ 20 inHg ) in the calm eye . Quickly weakening thereafter , the cyclone paralleled the coasts of Alabama and Mississippi , dissipating more than two days later over Louisiana .
Throughout the Bahamas , reports of damage were relatively scarce despite the intensity with which the storm struck the region . However , numerous structures were completely destroyed . The storm was attributed to 372 deaths in the Southeastern United States , 114 of which took place in Miami and at least 150 at Moore Haven , where a storm surge estimated as high as 15 ft ( 4 @.@ 57 m ) overtopped portions of a levee on Lake Okeechobee . Many people in Miami , transients who knew little of hurricanes , perished after examining damage during the passage of the eye , unaware that the back end of the storm was approaching . Flimsy structures built to house workers during the Florida land boom of the 1920s were completely leveled . The hurricane partially contributed to the end of the land boom , which was in decline by early 1926 . In terms of monetary losses , damage from the hurricane was estimated to be as high as $ 125 million ( 1926 USD ) . Up to 4 @,@ 725 structures throughout southern Florida were destroyed and 8 @,@ 100 damaged , leaving at least 38 @,@ 000 people displaced . A storm surge of 14 ft ( 4 @.@ 27 m ) occurred south of Miami and winds on Miami Beach were recorded at 130 mph ( 210 km / h ) before the anemometer blew away . The lowest pressure was estimated at 930 mb ( 27 @.@ 46 inHg ) , the seventh most intense in a storm to strike the United States . The storm also produced significant damage , rainfall up to 16 @.@ 2 in ( 411 @.@ 48 mm ) , and a storm surge up to 14 @.@ 2 ft ( 4 @.@ 33 m ) in the Florida Panhandle . The entire state of Florida lost 35 % of its grapefruit and orange crops combined , including nearly 100 % losses in the Miami area . In a study of hurricane damage statistics conducted in 2008 , it was estimated that if a storm similar to that of the Miami hurricane were to occur in 2005 it would result in over $ 140 – 157 billion in damage . In all , the storm caused at least 478 deaths along its path accounting for the revised toll in the United States since 2003 . The storm 's slow movement caused it to produce substantial effects to coastal regions between Mobile and Pensacola ; these areas experienced heavy damage from wind , rain , and storm surge . Wind records at Pensacola indicate that the city encountered sustained winds of hurricane force for more than 20 hours , including winds above 100 mph ( 161 km / h ) for five hours . The storm tide destroyed nearly all waterfront structures on Pensacola Bay and peaked at 14 ft ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) near Bagdad , Florida . Rainfall maximized at Bay Minette , Alabama , where 18 @.@ 5 in ( 470 mm ) fell .
= = = Hurricane Eight = = =
Twelve hours after the Great Miami hurricane struck Alabama , the eighth tropical storm of the season formed in the east @-@ central Atlantic about 2 @,@ 000 mi ( 3 @,@ 220 km ) southwest of Horta in the Azores on September 21 . Over the next three days , it moved north of due east and rapidly strengthened , becoming a minimal hurricane by 12 : 00 UTC on September 22 and later peaking at 105 mph ( 169 km / h ) — equivalent to a moderately strong Category 2 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale — on the morning of September 24 . For about 24 hours thereafter , the cyclone briefly curved to the northeast before turning sharply to the east early on September 26 . Late that day , the cyclone swerved precipitously to the north , making landfall on the island of São Miguel near Ponta Delgada at peak intensity . Curving northwest and then south of due west , the cyclone weakened after striking São Miguel and reverted to a minimal hurricane late on September 27 . It gradually completed a counter @-@ clockwise loop through the western Azores , curving due south as a tropical storm , though its cool surface temperatures and enlarged size suggest it might have been a subtropical cyclone then . Just afterward , late on September 28 , it hit Faial Island near Horta with sustained winds near 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) . Over the next two days , it moved generally south @-@ southeast and slowly weakened , curving suddenly east @-@ southeast beginning on September 30 . Turning south of due east , it dissipated by 18 : 00 UTC on October 1 .
= = = Tropical Storm Nine = = =
Early on October 3 , a tropical depression developed in the South @-@ Central Caribbean about 100 mi ( 160 km ) east of Serrana Bank and the Miskito Cays . It quickly intensified into a minimal tropical storm with maximum sustained winds of 40 mph ( 64 km / h ) , the strongest in its life span . Curving west @-@ northwest without further intensification , the weak cyclone made landfall near Barra Patuca in Gracias a Dios Department , Honduras , shortly before 12 : 00 UTC on October 4 . Shortly thereafter , the storm gradually turned just north of due west , and early on October 5 , after degenerating into a tropical depression , it made a second landfall over Belize just south of Alabama Wharf in Toledo District . Less than 12 hours later , the cyclone dissipated over eastern Guatemala .
= = = Hurricane Ten = = =
On October 14 a tropical depression developed in the southern Caribbean Sea about 350 mi ( 563 km ) north @-@ northwest of Colón , Panama . Strengthening into a minimal tropical storm the next day , it gradually curved to the north @-@ northwest over the next four days , becoming a hurricane on October 18 . It then quickly intensified to a major hurricane early on October 19 as it turned northward toward western Cuba . Shortly before striking the Isla de la Juventud south of Nueva Gerona , it attained maximum sustained winds of 145 mph ( 233 km / h ) on October 20 . The cyclone then continued strengthening , peaking at 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) before making landfall on the Cuban mainland south of Güira de Melena . The center passed just 10 mi ( 16 km ) east of the capital Havana before entering the Straits of Florida about 80 mi ( 129 km ) south of Key West , Florida . The cyclone then weakened and turned to the northeast on October 21 , passing within 20 mi ( 32 @.@ 2 km ) of the Florida Keys while remaining east of Florida . Nearly two days later , about 48 hours after turning east @-@ northeast , the cyclone passed over Bermuda late on October 22 with sustained winds up to 120 mph ( 190 km / h ) ; Hamilton , Bermuda , recorded calm winds and 963 @.@ 4 mb ( 28 @.@ 45 inHg ) in the eye , along with sustained winds up to 102 mph ( 164 km / h ) with gusts to 138 mph ( 222 km / h ) afterward . Three days thereafter , on October 25 the storm executed a clockwise , semicircular loop to the south @-@ southwest , and a day later it lost hurricane intensity . Gradually curving to the west , the cyclone dissipated early on October 28 , though it was once believed to have been an extratropical cyclone as early as October 23 .
The hurricane inflicted devastation along its path , causing at least 709 deaths in Cuba and Bermuda . Upon striking Cuba , the hurricane caused catastrophic damage and as many as 600 deaths . Several small towns in the storm 's path were completely destroyed and damage estimates exceeded $ 100 million ( 1928 USD ) . In the upper Florida Keys and on Key Biscayne , minimal hurricane conditions occurred , causing minor damage in South Florida . In Bermuda , 40 % of the structures were damaged and two homes destroyed , but otherwise damage was light in the harbor . While weather forecasters knew of the storm 's approach on Bermuda , it covered the thousand miles from the Bahamas to Bermuda so rapidly it apparently struck with few warning signs aside from heavy swells . On October 21 , with the eye of the storm still 700 mi ( 1 @,@ 130 km ) from Bermuda , weather forecasts from the United States called for the hurricane to strike the island on the following morning with gale force . The Arabis @-@ class sloop HMS Valerian , based at the HMD Bermuda , was returning from providing hurricane relief in the Bahamas and was overtaken by the storm shortly before she could make harbour . Unable to enter through Bermuda 's reefline , she fought the storm for more than five hours before she was sunk with the loss of 85 men . The British merchant ship Eastway was also sunk near Bermuda . When the centre of the storm passed over Bermuda , winds increased to 114 mph ( 183 km / h ) at Prospect Camp , whereupon the Army took down its anemometer to protect it . The Royal Naval Dockyard was being hammered and never took its anemometer down . It measured 138 mph ( 222 km / h ) at 13 : 00 UTC , before the wind destroyed it .
= = = Tropical Storm Eleven = = =
Around 06 : 00 UTC on November 12 , a tropical depression developed about 115 mi ( 185 km ) north of El Porvenir , Kuna Yala , Panama . Moving northwest , the cyclone rapidly attained peak winds of 40 mph ( 64 km / h ) early on November 13 but failed to intensify further over the next three days . Passing less than 50 mi ( 80 @.@ 47 km ) west of the Swan Islands , Honduras , early on November 14 , the cyclone gradually turned north by the afternoon . Curving parabolically to the northeast on October 15 , it weakened to a tropical depression early the next day before hitting the Isla de la Juventud in Cuba . 12 hours later , after striking mainland Cuba , it dissipated over the southern Straits of Florida .
= = Other storms = =
Reports from the government of the Mexican state of Veracruz indicate that in late September 1926 a tropical disturbance formed in the northwest Caribbean Sea , then moved across the Yucatán Peninsula and the Bay of Campeche to strike Veracruz as a hurricane on September 28 . The storm reportedly began with sudden fury at 16 : 00 UTC and produced unspecified winds as high as 124 mph ( 200 km / h ) — if sustained , equal to those of a strong Category 3 hurricane — causing boats to be stranded , roofs to be torn off , and trees and electric cables to be blown down , though the worst conditions reportedly lasted only two hours . The reported storm ruined most of the seashore as a storm tide destroyed the local breakwater , including at the historic Hotel Villa del Mar in the city of Veracruz , demolishing most of the hotel as well as the yacht club there , and forced train service to be suspended . The city was flooded to a depth of 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 52 m ) , but well constructed buildings in the city center survived the wind . Several ships were sunk in the harbor , and several sailors were feared drowned . However , a peer @-@ reviewed publication in 2012 , which reanalyzed the 1926 Atlantic hurricane season , did not confirm its supposed existence .
= = Seasonal effects = =
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= Hadleigh Castle =
Hadleigh Castle in the English county of Essex overlooks the Thames estuary from a ridge to the south of the town of Hadleigh . Built after 1215 during the reign of Henry III by Hubert de Burgh , the castle was surrounded by parkland and had an important economic , as well as defensive role . Hadleigh was significantly expanded and remodelled by Edward III , who turned it into a grander property , designed to defend against potential French attack as well as provide the King with a convenient private residence close to London . Built on a geologically unstable hill of London clay , the castle has often been subject to subsidence ; this , combined with the sale of its stonework in the 16th century , has led to it now being ruined . The remains are now preserved by English Heritage and protected under UK law as a Grade I listed building and scheduled monument .
= = History = =
= = = 13th century = = =
Hadleigh Castle was first built by Hubert de Burgh , the 1st Earl of Kent , who was a key supporter of King John . De Burgh was given the honour of Rayleigh by John in 1215 as a reward for his services , but chose not to develop the existing caput of Rayleigh Castle , instead building a new fortification south of the town of Hadleigh . The exact date of construction is uncertain , but it is now believed the work was conducted early in de Burgh 's tenure of the site , permission being retrospectively officially confirmed through a licence to crenellate in 1230 under Henry III .
The site was chosen on top of a local ridge , overlooking the Thames estuary , formed from a geologically unstable outcrop of London clay . In the 13th century , marshlands would have stretched away to the south of the castle , with the tide occasionally reaching up as far as the base of the hill itself , and the area would have been more wooded than today . By 1235 the park of Hadleigh had been formed around the castle , including woodland , a fishpond , stables and a park lodge , but the castle was also associated with a wider estate including Rayleigh , Thundersley and Eastwood Parks .
The first castle built on the site was probably of an octagonal design , running along the top of the ridge , protected by square and semi @-@ circular mural towers , with a barbican guarding the eastern entrance . It probably resembled White Castle , remodelled by de Burgh in the same period , or Bolingbroke and Beeston Castles , both built in the 1220s . The castle was built of Kentish ragstone and cemented by a mortar containing a large proportion of seashells , particularly cockleshells from the cockle beds of neighbouring Canvey Island . A valuable tidal watermill had been built by 1249 , essential for making bread for the castle ; recent archaeological work suggests that it was positioned on a wharf reaching out into the estuary just to the south @-@ east of the castle . Terraced gardens were built along the south side of the castle overlooking the estuary , probably including vineyards .
De Burgh finally fell out of favour with Henry III ; he was imprisoned and then finally stripped of Hadleigh Castle in 1239 . For the rest of the century , Hadleigh was retained as a royal castle , as part of an estate containing 142 acres ( 57 ha ) of agricultural land , the park and the castle mill . By the 1250s , the castle had fallen into neglect and , despite some investment after it was given to Queen Eleanor in 1273 , it remained in relatively poor condition . Only the mill , vital for the operation of the wider estate , appears to have been well @-@ maintained . A new 17 @-@ metre @-@ wide by 9 @-@ metre @-@ long ( 56 foot by 30 foot ) hall and an adjacent solar complex were built at the castle around 1290 , but collapsed due to subsidence shortly afterwards . In 1299 the castle was given to Queen Margaret , who complained about the quality of the building and insisted that repairs were carried out . Her husband , Edward I , visited the castle twice , using it as a base for hunting in the area .
= = = 14th century = = =
Edward II took a much closer interest in Hadleigh , leading to a period of renewal and rebuilding during his reign and that of his son , Edward III . Edward II first stayed there in 1311 , and work was done to renovate the castle before he arrived , including building new royal quarters and repairing some of the castle walls that had succumbed to subsidence . Amongst the buildings known to be in the castle during the period were the castle hall , larder , kitchen , cellar , a long house , prison , an " old chamber " and armoury ; they were guarded by a garrison of 24 soldiers during crises . Edward stayed there frequently during his reign up until 1324 , on occasion travelling to Hadleigh Castle from London on his royal barge , which docked at a wharf to the south of the castle .
Edward III acquired Hadleigh Castle in 1330 , when he recovered it from his mother , Isabella of France , who had taken it from Edward when she deposed him in 1326 . Edward paid little initial interest to the castle , but in the 1360s decided to make much greater use of the property , ordering large parts of it to be rebuilt at a cost of more than £ 2200 . Between 1361 and 1363 the internal buildings were renovated and new royal lodgings built along the south walls , after which the east side of the castle was rebuilt entirely , with two large circular towers installed in a new stretch of curtain wall , completed by 1365 . The north side of the castle was rebuilt to include a main entrance with a portcullis and a drawbridge , protected by a barbican and a large circular tower called the " High Tower " , which was complete by 1370 . The work was probably overseen by William of Wykeham .
Originally , historians believed that Edward 's decision to rebuild much of the castle was in response to the growing tensions with France ; in this version of events , Hadleigh would have formed an importance coastal fortification along the Thames estuary , protecting it from French raids . Current historical opinion plays down this motivation , noting that at the time of the work on Hadleigh relations with France were unusually good . Instead , it is suspected that the increasing elderly Edward intended Hadleigh more as a personal retreat close to London , where he could stay in privacy and considerable comfort . Whilst the entrance on the inland side remained relatively basic , the building work created a grander impression from the estuary – any visitors to London , English or French , would have passed by Queenborough Castle on the south bank and Hadleigh on the north , the combination communicating a strong sense of royal power .
= = = 15th – 19th centuries = = =
Edward III 's grandson , Richard II , made little use of Hadleigh , and the use of the castle was granted to Aubrey de Vere until his death in 1400 . The castle was passed amongst a number of high @-@ status owners during the 15th century , but saw little use by the crown . Edmund of Langley and his son Edward of Norwich , the Dukes of York , used the castle in the early years , before passing it on to Humphrey of Lancaster , the Duke of Gloucester . Richard , Duke of York , used the castle next , before it passed to Edmund Tudor in the middle of the century . The tradition of the castle forming part of the queen 's property was then reinstated and it was granted to Elizabeth Woodville , the wife of Edward IV . Henry VIII made no known use of the castle himself , but it formed part of the dower of three of his wives - Catherine of Aragon , Anne of Cleves , and Catherine Parr - and the castle 's parks were used as sources of timbers for his navy .
After 1544 the estate began to be broken up ; first the parks were sold and then the castle itself , bought by Lord Richard Rich from Edward VI for £ 700 in 1551 . Rich dismantled the castle for the value of its stone , primarily between 1551 and 1575 , and the castle , now thoroughly ruined , passed through Rich 's descendants .
The English painter John Constable visited Hadleigh in 1814 and made a drawing of the castle as preparation for ten oil sketches and a single painting . The oil painting Hadleigh Castle was produced in 1829 and exhibited at the Royal Academy in the same year . One of the sketches is currently displayed at the Tate Gallery , London , while the painting now hangs in the Yale Center for British Art at New Haven , United States . Constable 's painting , " one of his most monumental works " according to the art historians Tammis Groft and Mary Mackay , depicts the early 19th @-@ century Hadleigh Castle as a decaying , man @-@ made structure , succumbing to the elemental power of nature .
William Booth purchased Hadleigh Castle and its surrounding site in 1891 for the use of the Salvation Army , which established a farm to train the English poor prior to them being sent overseas to the British colonies . Considerable subsidence and slippage on the ridge occurred between 1898 and 1923 , causing a collapse of the southern curtain wall .
= = = Today = = =
The Salvation Army gave the castle to the Ministry of Works in 1948 , and it is now owned by English Heritage , classed as a scheduled monument and a Grade I listed building . Subsidence and landslips have continued ; the north @-@ east tower largely collapsed in the 1950s , and further major slippages occurred in 1969 , 1970 , and 2002 . One of the three @-@ storey towers at the eastern side stands to nearly full height with narrow rectangular windows in the upper levels . The second tower has only about one @-@ third of its original form . Some sections of the curtain wall have survived , as well as the foundations of the great hall , solars , and the kitchen .
The castle is still surrounded by the 19th @-@ century Salvation Army farm , and beyond that by Hadleigh Country Park , owned and managed by Essex County Council and a Site of Special Scientific Interest with special regard for invertebrates . In 2008 , Hadleigh Farm , close to the castle , was announced as the venue for the mountain biking competition in the 2012 Summer Olympic Games .
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= Pyrrhus ' invasion of the Peloponnese =
Pyrrhus ' invasion of the Peloponnese in 272 BC was an invasion of south Greece by Pyrrhus , King of Epirus . He was opposed by Macedon and a coalition of Greek city @-@ states ( poleis ) , most notably Sparta . The war ended in a joint victory by Macedonia and Sparta .
After being defeated by the Roman Republic in the Pyrrhic War in 275 BC , Pyrrhus ( r . 297 – 272 BC ) decided to turn his attention to Greece . He declared war on Antigonus Gonatas ( r . 283 – 239 BC ) of Macedon and in a rapid campaign , managed to defeat him and make himself king of Macedon . In 272 BC , Pyrrhus agreed to assist the disgruntled Spartan prince , Cleonymus , who requested his assistance in securing the Spartan throne .
Pyrrhus advanced with his army through central Greece and upon reaching the Peloponnese , he marched against Sparta . The city was sparsely defended at the time as the majority of its army had been taken to Crete by King Areus I ( r . 309 – 265 BC ) . The Spartans led by Crown Prince Acrotatus were able to withstand a series of Epiriote assaults until Macedonian reinforcements and Areus ' army arrived to relieve the defenders .
Following the arrival of the relieving force , Pyrrhus lifted the siege and prepared to winter in Laconia . However , he was approached by an Argive citizen who requested his assistance in overthrowing the government of Argos . Seeking to take advantage of the opportunity , Antigonus took his army to Argos , being harried along the way by the Spartans . Whilst attempting to seize Argos by night , Pyrrhus was set upon by his Argive opponents as well as the Spartans and Antigonus ' Macedonians . In the ensuing mêlée , Pyrrhus was slain . His death prompted the capitulation of his army and the reestablishment of a Macedonian hegemony over Greece .
= = Prelude = =
Following entreaties from the Greek polis of Tarentum in 281 BC , Pyrrhus , the king of Epirus in northern Greece , invaded Italy with an army of 25 @,@ 500 and 20 war elephants . The aim of the expedition was to combat the aggression of the Roman Republic , which was increasingly annexing the Greek cities of Magna Graecia . Upon arriving in Italy in 280 BC , Pyrrhus assumed command of an army consisting of the Greeks of Magna Graecia . Adding these forces to his own from Epirus , he engaged and defeated the Roman army at the Battle of Heraclea , near Tarentum in 280 BC . The Epiriote victory caused a number of native groups such as the Samnites and the Lucanians , who were also fearful of Roman expansionism to join Pyrrhus . Subsequently , Pyrrhus advanced towards Rome and at the Battle of Asculum he vanquished another Roman army .
Despite having bested the Romans in their battles , Pyrrhus had sustained heavy casualties . With his Italian allies wavering , Pyrrhus decided to abandon his campaign against Rome . At this point in time , Pyrrhus had two options available . Firstly , he could return to Greece where the throne of Macedon had been left vacant by the death of King Ptolemy Keraunos at the hands of the Gallic invaders of Greece . Pyrrhus had coveted the Macedonian throne and had briefly held it from 287 BC to 285 BC . Alternatively , he could respond to the appeal of the Greek poleis of Sicily which were requesting his assistance to combat Carthaginian aggression .
Ultimately , in 278 BC , Pyrrhus decided to direct his army against the Carthaginians in Sicily . Pyrrhus was highly successful in his campaign against Carthage and by 275 BC had managed to restrict them to the settlement of Lilybaeum in the far west of the island . Despite these victories , Pyrrhus ' despotic disposition and pretensions alienated his Sicilian allies who began to abandon him . In light of these developments , Pyrrhus decided to return to mainland Italy to continue his war against Rome . The Epiriotes attacked the Roman army but after the inconclusive Battle of Beneventum , he returned to Epirus . Despite Pyrrhus leaving a garrison there , Tarentum succumbed to Rome in 272 BC .
= = War against Macedon = =
On his return to his homeland , Pyrrhus found himself in a difficult position . His Italian sojourn had emptied his coffers and crippled his army , leaving him reliant on Sicilian mercenaries who required payment . In order to secure funds to pay his troops , Pyrrhus planned a war against Antigonus II Gonatas , the new king of Macedon . Citing Antigonus ' refusal to provide him with aid during his Italian expedition as a casus belli , Pyrrhus invaded Macedon in the spring of 274 BC . He was accompanied by an army consisting of 8 @,@ 000 infantry and 500 cavalry although their numbers were probably augmented by Gallic mercenaries . It has been speculated that by invading Macedon , Pyrrhus was acting as the agent of the monarchs of Ptolemaic Egypt , Ptolemy II and Arsinoe II , however N. G. L. Hammond posits that this is highly unlikely .
Initially , Pyrrhus had simply viewed his incursion into Macedon as an opportunity to plunder . However , the capture of numerous towns and the defection to his side of 2 @,@ 000 Macedonian soldiers caused him to make his objective the seizure of the Macedonian throne . Antignous marched with his army to western Macedon and was confronted by Pyrrhus at the Battle of the Aous . Pyrrhus began the engagements by slaughtering Antigonus ' Gallic rearguard before securing the surrender of the Macedonian war elephants . Demoralised by these sudden reverses , the Macedonian phalangites responded to Pyrrhus ' appeals and defected to the Epiriote side . Abandoned by his army , Antigonus managed to escape to Thessaloniki with a small force of cavalry . He was able to entrench himself there , protected by his strong navy which enabled him to maintain links with his possessions in southern Greece .
Antigonus ' flight left Pyrrhus in complete control of the Macedonian hinterland and Thessaly in central Greece . However , not all of Macedon surrendered to the Epiriote king and he was compelled to send his general , the Spartan Prince Cleonymus to capture Edessa . Despite initially being welcomed with enthusiasm by the Macedonians , he managed to alienate his new subjects when his Gallic troops ransacked the royal Macedonian tombs at Vergina . By late 274 BC or early 273 BC , Pyrrhus secured the occupation of Macedonia and returned to Epirus , leaving his son Ptolemy to govern the region .
= = Advance into the Peloponnese = =
Following his Macedonian triumph , Pyrrhus was approached by his officer Cleonymus . The Spartan convinced the Epiriote king to aid him in a scheme to seize control of his homeland . Cleonymus ' reasons for seeking to attack Sparta were twofold . Firstly , he was angry that he had been overlooked for the Agiad kingship of Sparta in favour of his nephew , Areus II . Plutarch ascribes Cleonymus ' failure to secure the throne to his arbitrariness and violent nature . Furthermore , Cleonymus had become a target of ridicule in Sparta by the fact that his new wife , Chilonis , was engaging in an affair with Acrotatus , the son of Areus .
Pyrrhus ' motivation for agreeing to assist Cleonymus is more complex . By installing Cleonymus on the throne , the Epiriote would secure Sparta as an ally . Additionally , by invading the Peloponnese , Pyrrhus would be able to subdue any cities which had remained loyal to Antigonus . In doing so , he could prevent Antigonus using the peninsula as a base from which to launch a counter @-@ attack on Macedon . The size of the force assembled by Pyrrhus is indicative of his intention to extend his hegemony into the Peloponnese . The Epiriote king mustered an army consisting of 25 @,@ 000 infantry and 2 @,@ 000 cavalry as well as 24 war elephants . In 272 BC , Pyrrhus marched his army through Central Greece to the city of Pleuron from where they were ferried across the Gulf of Corinth to the Peloponnese . This suggests that the invasion was supported by the Aetolian League , a powerful confederate in Central Greece which was allied with Pyrrhus and hostile to Antigonus .
Antigonus attempted to exploit Pyrrhus ' absence from Macedon by launching an invasion to reclaim his kingdom . However , his attack on Macedon was unsuccessful as he was defeated in battle by Pyrrhus ' son , Ptolemy . Unperturbed by Antigonus ' offensive , Pyrrhus advanced into the Peloponnese where he was welcomed in Achaia . The Epiriote army marched to Megalopolis , a central Peloponnesian city which lay on the border with Sparta . Several of Sparta 's neighbours , namely Megalopolis , Elis and many of the Achaians poleis , supported Pyrrhus invasion as they would profit from the reduction of Spartan influence in the region . While his force was camped at Megalopolis , Pyrrhus received ambassadors from Messene , Athens , the Achaian League and Sparta . In response to the Spartans ' inquires as to the reasons for his Peloponnesian incursion , Pyrrhus managed to dupe the envoys . He told the Spartans that he had come to liberate any cities still held by Antigonus and that he hoped to send his sons to Sparta to obtain a traditional education at the agoge . However , when the emissaries returned to Sparta , Pyrrhus advanced into Laconia . He advanced south , following the course of the Eurotas River and ravaging the lands of the Spartan perioeci . It may have been at this time that Pyrrhus assigned Cleonymus a series of independent commands as he is recorded as subjugating the city of Alifeira in Elis as well as sacking Zarax in the Parnon region of Laconia . Pyrrhus ' perfidy was met with anger in Sparta and ambassadors were immediately sent to Pyrrhus to rebuke him .
= = Siege of Sparta = =
The Spartans were caught unawares by Pyrrhus ' invasion . Areus had taken the majority of the Spartan army with him to Crete , where he was campaigning on behalf of Gortyn at the request of Ptolemaic Egypt . The result was that the settlement was lightly defended . Arriving at Sparta as night fell , Cleonymus advised Pyrrhus to attack the city immediately . However , the Epiriote declined to as he was fearful of the damage that would be wrought by Gallic troops if they entered the city at night and moreover expected the sparsely defended city to surrender in the morning .
The Spartan council of Elders , the gerousia , suggested that the Spartan women be sent to Crete for their protection . They were dissuaded from doing so by Arachidamia , the former queen and grandmother of the Eurypontid King Eudamidas II who convinced them that the women could assist in the city 's defence . In order to guarantee the fighting men some rest , the women and the elderly began bolstering defences . Aware that Pyrrhus had elephants with him , the defenders dug a large trench and sunk wagons into the ground at its flanks in order to hinder the Epiriote advance . Moreover , messengers were sent both to summon Areus back and to request aid from Antigonus , despite the fact the Sparta and Macedon had traditionally been hostile . Pausanias , the Greek geographer , claims that Sparta received some aid from Messene and the pro @-@ Spartan faction at Argos .
The Epiriotes launched their first assault against the city at daybreak . However , they were unable to get a firm footing because of the trench and were repulsed by the defenders , who were encouraged by the women . In order to circumvent this obstacle . Pyrrhus ordered a 2 @,@ 000 picked force of Gauls and Chaonians commanded by Ptolemy to attempt to go around the trench . Finding their path blocked by the wagons , they began to pulling them out of the ground . Aware of the danger , Acrotatus used a series of depressions to attack this force from the rear and managed to the push the Epiriote flanking group into the trench after inflicting heavy casualties upon them . Unable to make an impact on the defences , Pyrrhus ordered his troops to withdraw to their camp at nightfall .
After receiving a favourable omen during the night Pyrrhus renewed his assault . An effect of the shortage of warriors was that the Spartan women were active in providing the defenders with missiles and refreshments as well as taking away the wounded . In an attempt to nullify the Spartans ' advantage , the Epiriotes tried to fill up with trench with debris and bodies but were prevented from doing so by the Sparta . Responding to this Spartan counter @-@ attack , Pyrrhus personally led a charge against the Spartan lines and succeeded in entering the city , spreading panic amongst the defenders . However , at this point his horse threw him after it was wounded by a javelin in the belly . Pyrrhus ' fall threw his companions into a state of dismay , permitting the Spartans to rally and they managed to slay many of the companions in a barrage of missiles . Despite this , Pyrrhus was taken safely back to his camp .
Prompted by this unsuccessful foray , Pyrrhus order his army to return to its camp . He now expected the Spartans seek terms as the severity of their casualties would make the defence unsustainable . However , Sparta was saved by the arrival of unexpected reinforcements . In the interim , Antigonus had launched another offensive in northern Greece and succeeded in evicting Pyrrhus ' garrisons from Macedon ( this possibly accounts for the presence of Ptolemy in Pyrrhus ' army ) . Having reclaimed his kingdom , Antigonus moved south into the Peloponnese , probably using the sea route to avoid a confrontation with the Aetolian League . Upon his arrival in Corinth , he sent his general Ameinias the Phocian with a group of mercenaries to assist the Spartans . The arrival of the Macedonia mercenaries was closely followed by Areus ' return from Crete with 2 @,@ 000 men . Enheartened by the arrival of these reinforcements , the defenders prepared to face Pyrrhus ' next assault . The Epiriotes launched an attack in the morning but after this was repelled Pyrrhus became convinced of the futility of the situation and ordered his men to lift the siege .
= = March to Argos = =
Pyrrhus retreated with his army into the Laconian hinterland with the purpose of wintering there before making another attempt against Sparta . However , as his troops were ravaging the surrounding countryside , he received news that Antigonus was marching on Argos from Corinth on his way to trap Pyrrhus in Laconia . Pyrrhus was approached by Aristeas , the leader of the democratic faction in Argos , who sought Epiriote support to counter the pro @-@ Macedonian aristocratic party of Argos led by Aristippos . Accepting Aristeas ' proposal , Pyrrhus began his march north to the Argolis .
Pyrrhus ' advance on Argos did not go smoothly as his army was constantly harassed by vengeful Spartan troops led by Areus . By setting up ambushes and occupying strategic positions along the Epiriote line of retreat , the Spartans were able to inflict heavy casualties on Pyrrhus ' rearguard of Gauls and Molossians . In an attempt to restore the wavering morale of his rear , Pyrrhus sent Ptolemy to assume its command . Pyrrhus hoped that the presence of his son amongst the troops would stiffen their resolve and enable to him to extricate the remainder of his troops from the narrow pass through which they were passing . Ptolemy 's position was attacked by a picked Spartan war band under the command of Evaclus . In the ensuing struggle , Ptolemy was slain by the Spartans causing his remaining troops to rout . The victorious Spartans pursued the fleeing Epiriote rearguard until they were checked by some Epiriote infantry .
Upon hearing of his son 's death and the collapse of his rearguard , Pyrrhus summoned his Molossian cavalry and charged the Spartans . In the battle that followed , Pyrrhus killed the Spartan leader Evaclus with his own hand and succeeded in annihilating the pursuing Spartan troops . After this skirmish , the Epiriotes continued their march to Argos . However , upon reaching his destination , he found that Antigonus had arrived at Argos first and camped to the city 's north . The Macedonian presence compelled Pyrrhus to pitch camp at Nauplion to the south of Argos .
Pyrrhus attempted to goad Antigonus into fighting a pitched battle on the plain in front of Argos but the Macedonian king was unmoved . The Argives sent ambassadors to both kings , beseeching them to respect the city 's neutrality . Antigonus agreed to the Argives ' terms and gave his son as a hostage in order to demonstrate his sincerity . While Pyrrhus agreed to retreat from Argos , he failed to give a pledge and as a result was regarded with suspicion .
= = Battle of Argos = =
During the night , Pyrrhus was able to enter Argos . While Pausanias recounts that he did so by force , Plutarch asserts that Diamperes Gate had been left open for the Epiriotes by Aristeas . Hammond opines that it is more likely that Aristeas admitted Pyrrhus into the city . Although Pyrrhus ' Gauls were able to occupy the Argive agora , the rest of the army was delayed due to the war elephants being too large to pass through the gate . In order for them to enter , the towers need to be taken off their backs and reattached once they were inside the city . Furthermore , Pyrrhus left the majority of his army outside the city walls under the command of his son Helenus . This delay gave the Argives enough time to reach their citadel , the Aspis , and seek aid from Antigonus . The Macedonian king responded immediately , advancing towards the city walls and sending a relief force inside under the command of his son Halcyoneus .
The situation further deteriorated for Pyrrhus when Areus entered Argos with a force of 1 @,@ 000 lightly armed Cretans and Spartans . The Argives , assisted by their Spartan and Macedonian allies , launched a counter @-@ attack on Pyrrhus ' Gallic troops in the agora and threw them into a state of panic . Due to the labyrinthine layout of the city and the darkness , both Pyrrhus ' advancing troops and those of his opponents become scattered throughout Argos . The result was that Pyrrhus , entering the city at the head of his cavalry to assist the Gauls , was unable to effectively communicate his commands to his soldiers . Realising the difficulty of his situation , Pyrrhus ordered his army to retreat from Argos as day broke .
Understanding that the gates were too narrow for his army to exit in an orderly fashion , Pyrrhus ordered Helenus to tear down part of the wall and to be prepared to fend off any enemy counter @-@ attacks against the retreating troops . However , the instructions brought by the messenger were unclear and instead of organising the retreat , Helenus advanced with the rest of the army into Argos . With the majority of his troops streaming in through the gates , Pyrrhus ' line of retreat was blocked off . The disorder was exacerbated when Pyrrhus ' largest elephant fell and blocked the gateway and another elephant started running amok after his mahout was felled . The weight of the enemy 's assault pushed Pyrrhus and his troops from the agora and compelled them to fight in the narrow street leading to the Diamperes Gate . In the fighting which ensued , Pyrrhus was wounded by a spear wielded by an Argive . As Pyrrhus turned to strike down his assailant , he was hit on the head by a roof tile thrown by his attacker 's mother . Pyrrhus was either killed by the force of the tile 's impact or , alternately , having fallen dazed from his horse he was decapitated by one of Antigonus ' Macedonian soldiers , Zopyrus . Pyrrhus ' head was brought by Halcyoneus to Antigonus , who expressed dismay when he saw it and upbraided his son for acting in such a barbarous manner . Upon Pyrrhus ' death , Epiriote resistance crumbled and Antigonus accepted the surrender of Helenus , giving him Pyrrhus ' body for burial .
= = Aftermath = =
The expedition into the Peloponnese was a disaster for Epiriote ambitions . Although Helenus was permitted by Antigonus to return to his homeland with the remainder of his army , Epirus ceased to be a regional power . Pyrrhus ' son and successor , Alexander II of Epirus was granted generous terms by the Macedonian king . Epirus was able to keep Pyrrhus ' conquests of Tymphaea , Parauaea and Atintania in western Macedon . Antigonus realised that an independent Epirus was essential in order to act as a buffer against the Illyrians to the north .
Antigonus emerged from the conflict as the unchallenged ruler of Macedon and the leading power in Greece . After his victory in Argos , Antigonus was able to install his supporter Aristippos as tyrant of the city and appointed various pro @-@ Macedonian leaders as tyrants in other Greek cities . His support for tyrants over democratic rulers would lead to growing resentment amongst the Greek cities against Macedon . On his journey north to Macedon , Antigonus succeeded in placing garrisons in the cities of Chalcis and Eretria on the important island of Euboia with the outcome being that he further consolidated his power in Greece . The Spartan @-@ Macedon alliance proved to be transient . Angered by Macedon 's supremacy and full of ambition , Areus formed a coalition with several Greek poleis , most notably Athens . In the resulting Chremonidean War , Areus was slain by his former ally Antigonus in a battle on the Isthmus of Corinth in 265 BC . The war ended in a defeat that was so crushing for Sparta that it would not rise as a regional power again until the reign of Cleomenes III thirty years later .
= = = Ancient sources = = =
Pausanias ; Jones , W. H. S. ( translator ) ( 1918 ) . Description of Greece . New York : Harvard University Press .
Plutarch ; Scott @-@ Kilvert , Ian ( translator ) ( 1973 ) . Life of Pyrrhus . New York : Penguin Classics . ISBN 0 @-@ 14 @-@ 044286 @-@ 3 .
= = = Modern sources = = =
Cartledge , Paul ; Spawforth , Antony ( 1989 ) . Hellenistic and Roman Sparta : A tale of two cities . London : Routledge . ISBN 0 @-@ 415 @-@ 03290 @-@ 3 .
Cross , Geoffrey ( 2015 ) . Epirus . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press . ISBN 9781107458673 .
Fox , Robert Lane ( 2006 ) . The Classical World . Maryborough : Penguin Books . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 14 @-@ 103761 @-@ 5 .
Green , Peter ( 1993 ) . Alexander to Actium : The Historical Evolution of the Hellenistic Age . Los Angeles : University of California Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 500 @-@ 01485 @-@ X.
Hammond , N. G. L. ( 1988 ) . A History of Macedonia : 336 – 167 BC . Oxford : Oxford University Press . ISBN 0198148151 .
Pomeroy , Sarah ( 2002 ) . Spartan Women . Oxford : Oxford University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 415 @-@ 03290 @-@ 3 .
Walbank , F. W. ( 1984 ) . The Cambridge Ancient History , Volume 7 , Part 1 : The Hellenistic World . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press .
Wylie , Graham ( 1999 ) . " Pyrrhus Πολεμιστής " . Latomus . 58 ( Societe d 'Etudes Latines de Bruxelles ) 2 .
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= Hurricane Liza ( 1968 ) =
Hurricane Liza was the third hurricane of the 1968 Pacific hurricane season . Forming from an area of the Intertropical Convergence Zone ( ITCZ ) on August 28 and reaching tropical storm strength in the same day , Liza meandered generally westward over the Pacific Ocean , reaching hurricane strength on August 29 while far from land . It maintained that intensity until September 2 , when the hurricane was downgraded to a tropical storm , but avoided tropical depression status despite the presentation seen by an Air Force reconnaissance plane . After weakening , the storm moved northwestward , weakening to a depression on September 4 , when it began a turn to the east . There is a possibility that the depression completed a small loop between the downgrade and its dissipation on September 6 .
Although it remained far from land , the waves triggered by Liza were able to reach California , where they combined with high tide , threatening beachfront homes that had weakened foundations after a previous tide . The hurricane was responsible for sweeping hundreds of Labor Day swimmers out into the ocean in Zuma Beach and Newport Beach , all of whom were saved by lifeguards . The waves also tore off a group of sundecks estimated at $ 5 @,@ 000 ( 1968 USD ) near Laguna Beach .
= = Meteorological history = =
For a period beginning on August 25 , the ITCZ was active near the border between Mexico and Guatemala . A report of 40 mph ( 64 km / h ) winds , a barometric pressure of 1010 @.@ 5 mbar , and heavy thundershowers was received from a Coast Guard cutter called the Androscoggin while the ship was 150 mi ( 240 km ) south of Tehuantepec . The report also mentioned that the thundershowers were generating 9 @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) high swells . The conditions developed in a northward bend in the ITCZ that was moving westward . No activity other than clusters of rain were shown on satellite until August 28 , when a tropical disturbance suddenly developed along the bend , reaching tropical depression status as the day began . The depression became Tropical Storm Liza later that day , when the ship Jag Jawan reported winds of 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) and 1003 @.@ 2 mbar . Another ship named Teverya , which was 60 mi ( 97 km ) northwest of the Jag Jawan , reported similar wind speeds , but a pressure of 998 mbar , the lowest barometric pressure recorded from the storm throughout its life . Satellite pictures showed a vortex arrangement consisting of three cloud masses and two arching bands of cumulonimbus clouds , all of which were producing cirrus outflow .
The tropical storm moved west @-@ northwest for 48 hours after being named , reaching hurricane intensity on August 29 , with satellite pictures showing an eye . Until September 1 , all ships kept out of range of the hurricane , leaving satellite imagery as the only method for obtaining information . The August 30 ESSA @-@ 6 satellite image of the hurricane showed a circular eye embedded in a nearly circular central dense overcast ( CDO ) spanning 5 ° of latitude in diameter . Inflow was apparent in feeder bands from the south , but a large area of dry air and clear skies spanned to the north and west of the hurricane . It was estimated that the hurricane was at its peak intensity at this time . On August 31 , the CDO had shrunk , but the cyclone still maintained intensity until September 1 , when the hurricane had moved over cooler water and began to weaken due to cold inflow . Around this time , an unnamed ship passing north of the center going eastward reported winds of 85 mph ( 137 km / h ) and 40 @-@ foot ( 12 m ) to 45 @-@ foot ( 14 m ) high seas . The weakening of the hurricane accelerated , becoming uncoupled from the warm waters and losing its cirrus cap , exposing the center . An Air Force reconnaissance plane sent to investigate the storm on September 2 showed that the hurricane had weakened into a tropical storm . However , the cyclone was so disorganized at this time that the observer remarked that there was a possibility that Liza was no longer even a tropical storm . The storm continued to evaporate and was downgraded to a depression on September 4 and drifted southwestward until it dissipated on September 6 .
= = = Disputes = = =
There are two disputes between the Joint Typhoon Warning Center , the best track data , and the post @-@ season report concerning the hurricane . The first involved the peak intensity of the hurricane . The post @-@ season report released by the Environmental Science Services Administration noted that the 85 mph ( 137 km / h ) winds recorded by the unknown ship on September 1 were received two days after cool inflow , and gave the hurricane a peak intensity estimate of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) on August 30 , making Liza a Category 3 hurricane and the most intense hurricane of the season . However , the JTWC and the best track data both gave peak intensities equivalent to the ship report on September 1 . Liza was the first of three hurricanes of the season that was thought to have reached Category 3 strength . The other two were Pauline and Rebecca .
Another dispute exists concerning the track the hurricane took , specifically between the downgrade to tropical depression and dissipation . The best track and ESSA report both showed that Liza went southwestward through the time period . However , the JTWC final report on Liza reported that Liza made a tiny loop that was entirely within 24 ° N to 25 ° N latitude and 125 ° W to 126 ° W longitude from September 4 to September 6 .
= = Impact and records = =
Despite never making landfall , the United States Weather Bureau warned that Liza could cause damage in California due to 4 @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) to 6 @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) swells it generated merging with high tide , creating 5 @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) to 10 @-@ foot ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) breaker waves which they reported could sweep over jetties and breakwaters as well as cause riptides on beaches . Officials at Long Beach were keeping an eye on breakwater activity and Laguna Beach lifeguards were prepared in case the swells reported there grew . At Newport Beach , the Corps of Engineers were brought in to create a buffer with sand and rock to protect homes between 41st Street and 46th Street , and concern in West Newport Beach was that the hurricane would cause more damage to oceanfront homes that were weakened by swirling seas the previous week . The waves were expected to be the only cause of damage from the hurricane , which forecaster Emii Kurtz remarked was " much too far away " to affect atmospheric weather conditions .
From September 2 to September 3 , large waves , some as high as 12 @-@ foot ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) , impacted beaches throughout southern California , with Los Angeles and Orange Counties experiencing growing breakers , and Cabrillo Beach experiencing riptides for two days straight . Due to the Labor Day beach turnout , many reports of rescuing swimmers who were swept up by waves caused by the hurricane were received . On September 2 , forty @-@ seven swimmers in Zuma Beach had to be rescued despite warnings to stay out of deep water , and an additional 261 rescues were reported in Newport . More rescues were reported the next day , although no exact total from the second day is known . At the El Morro Beach Trailer Park near Laguna Beach , a group of sundecks estimated at $ 5 @,@ 000 ( 1968 USD ) were ripped from their supports by rough seas . Long Beach , in terms of damage , was particularly hit hard by Liza , with debris and sea foam from the heavy surf clogging storm drains . A group of tidal pools formed along an area of the beach , draining out from a parking lot on 72nd Street onto Ocean Boulevard , resulting in flooding that closed a section of the boulevard between 68th Place and 72nd Place to traffic . Various flower gardens were also reported to have been swamped by the flooding , but no damage to housing was reported . The weakened properties in West Newport Beach also sustained no additional damage .
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= The Boat Race 1929 =
The 81st Boat Race took place on 23 March 1929 . Held annually , the Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . The event featured three Olympic medallists and included the first Danish rower ever to participate in the Boat Race . In a race umpired by former Oxford rower Charles Burnell , Cambridge won by seven lengths in a time of 19 minutes 24 seconds , the fastest winning time since the 1924 race . The victory , their sixth in a row and their tenth in the previous eleven years , levelled the overall record for the first time since 1863 , at 40 wins each .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . The race was first held in 1829 , and since 1845 has taken place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities ; it is followed throughout the United Kingdom and , as of 2014 , broadcast worldwide . Cambridge went into the race as reigning champions , having won the 1928 race by ten lengths , with Oxford leading overall with 40 victories to Cambridge 's 39 ( excluding the " dead heat " of 1877 ) .
Cambridge were coached by Francis Escombe and P. Haig @-@ Thomas ( four @-@ time Blue who had rowed between 1902 and 1905 ) . Oxford 's coaches were Harcourt Gilbey Gold ( Dark Blue president for the 1900 race and four @-@ time Blue ) , Guy Oliver Nickalls ( who had rowed three times between 1921 and 1923 ) and Arthur Wiggins ( who had rowed for Oxford in the 1912 , 1913 and 1914 races ) . For the third year the umpire was Charles Burnell who had rowed for Oxford in the 1895 , 1896 , 1897 and 1898 races . Charles Kent , who rowed for Oxford in the 1891 race , was the finishing judge for the second consecutive year .
Bad weather plagued the practice and build @-@ up to the race : Heavy fog caused the postponement of at least one outing . The Times rowing correspondent described Cambridge 's style as " so easy as to be almost sluggish " while Oxford were " lively to the point of punishing their boat " .
= = Crews = =
The Cambridge crew weighed an average of 12 st 10 lb ( 80 @.@ 5 kg ) , 5 @.@ 5 pounds ( 2 @.@ 5 kg ) per rower more than their opponents . Oxford saw two rowers return in George Godber and H. C. Morphett . Cambridge 's boat contained five participants with Boat Race experience , including Richard Beesly who was making his third consecutive appearance . He and Michael Warriner were gold medallists in the coxless four at the 1928 Summer Olympics . Their cox Arthur Sulley won a silver medal in the men 's eight . Three of the Oxford crew were registered as non @-@ British : H. C. Morphett and J. A. Ingles were from Australia , while C. F. Juel @-@ Brockdorff was the first Danish rower in the history of the event .
= = Race = =
Cambridge won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station , handing the Middlesex side of the river to Oxford . The umpire Burnell started the race at 12 : 12 p.m. in " gloriously fine weather " , and both boats got off to quick starts , with Oxford just ahead after the first strokes . Level past the boathouses , Cambridge edged ahead to hold a canvas @-@ length lead by Craven Steps . Taking advantage of the Dark Blues ' struggle in rough water by Craven Cottage , Cambridge slowly drew ahead and held a three @-@ quarter length lead by the time the crews passed the Mile Post . A push from the Dark Blues saw them keep in contention until Hammersmith Bridge where , according to L. Cecil Smith writing in The Observer , they " went ahead so fast and steadily as to suggest that even had they lost the toss they would have been able safely to take the Surrey water " while Oxford " had been taken out of their stride " . The Light Blues passed below the bridge with a two @-@ length lead .
A spurt from Cambridge around the Chiswick Reach bend effectively ended the race as a contest . A final surge from Oxford was held off by Cambridge who passed below Barnes Bridge five lengths ahead . Here , some of the Dark Blues started to show signs of distress , in particular their bow P. D. Barr who , it was later noted , had been suffering from influenza . Cambridge pulled away from the Dark Blues with every stroke and rated 36 strokes per minute towards the finish , passing the finishing post with a lead of seven lengths in a time of 19 minutes 24 seconds . It was their sixth consecutive victory , the tenth in the previous eleven years and was the fastest winning time since the 1924 race , and the ninth fastest time in the history of the event . The win took the overall record to 40 – 40 , the first time since the 1863 race that the scores had been levelled .
According to E. P. Evans , former Oxford rower in the 1904 , 1905 and 1906 races , writing in The Manchester Guardian , the Cambridge crew was " worthy to be classed with some of the best that Cambridge has turned out " , while Oxford " rowed distinctly below their practice form and were a most disappointing crew " . The rowing correspondent for The Times described it as a " crushing defeat " for Oxford , stating that they were " completely outpaced " yet while Cambridge " upheld the tradition of skill " , Oxford " upheld that of courage " .
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= Letting Go ( Body of Proof ) =
" Letting Go " is the second episode of the first season of the American medical drama Body of Proof . It was originally broadcast in the United States on ABC on April 3 , 2011 . The episode was directed by Nelson McCormick and written by Matthew Gross and series creator Christopher Murphey .
In this episode , Megan Hunt ( Dana Delany ) and Detectives Bud Morris ( John Carroll Lynch ) and Samantha Baker ( Sonja Sohn ) inspect the case of an interracial couple who are shot dead in their car at Fairmount Park . This case leads them to many suspects , including one of the victim 's parents , Al ( Barry Shabaka Henley ) and Laura ( Brenda Pressley ) , both who seem to be hiding secrets about the couple 's relationship .
The episode received positive reviews , and was watched by 8 @.@ 49 million viewers , according to Nielsen ratings , on the Sunday night it aired in the United States . Critics pointed out Curtis Brumfield ( Windell Middlebrooks ) as giving " some of the best lines of the night " and providing some " much needed comic relief " . Although this episode received positive reviews , it received significantly lower ratings than both the previous and the subsequent episodes , most likely due to the episode moving from the normal Tuesday timeslot to a Sunday night .
= = Plot = =
Dave Piaseki ( Steven Demarco ) and Linda Chapman ( Zakiya Cook ) are found shot dead in their car at Fairmount Park . When Megan Hunt ( Dana Delany ) and detectives Bud Morris ( John Carroll Lynch ) and Samantha Baker ( Sonja Sohn ) arrive , they think the case is a Murder – suicide , but Megan finds two bullets in Dave and concludes that someone murdered them . Megan meets Linda 's parents , Al ( Barry Shabaka Henley ) and Laura ( Brenda Pressley ) , and tells them the news , leaving them devastated . Megan links Linda 's ex @-@ boyfriend Brian Hall ( Brian White ) to Dave and finds out that Dave was at Brian 's restaurant the night he died . However , Brian has an alibi as he was with employee Nina Wheeler ( Sherri Saum ) . The police find out that Linda used to work at Brian 's restaurant and received psychological abuse until Dave found out and confronted him . Brian has started to abuse Nina , so the police get Nina away from Brian , as he caused Linda to suffer from bulimia due to the abuse .
Ethan Gross ( Geoffrey Arend ) and Curtis Brumfield ( Windell Middlebrooks ) find out that Dave was planning on marrying Linda ; however , as the two were an interracial couple , they gained an enemy in Eric Singleton ( Alexander Cendese ) , who stole the engagement ring out of the couple ’ s car , but after they were dead . Megan later finds residue in Linda 's eyes to suggest that the killer closed her eyes after she died , which leads them back to Linda 's parents , who knew that Dave intended to propose . When they call the two into the office , Al admits he killed Dave and Linda . He had only wanted to scare them so they would not marry ; however , the gun discharged , killing Linda , and in panic , he killed Dave too . After apologizing to Laura , Al is taken away . Throughout the day , Megan tries to reconnect with her daughter Lacey ( Mary Mouser ) ; however , her attempts to create a better relationship with her backfire .
= = Production = =
" Letting Go " was written by series creator Christopher Murphey and Matthew Gross , who is best known for directing episodes of Dirty Sexy Money and Day Break , and films such as Fired Up ! and Joe Somebody . Gross later directed the fifth episode of season 1 , " Dead Man Walking " , alongside Murphey . It was directed by Nelson McCormick making it the second episode in a row in which he was the director ; he also directed the previous episode " Pilot " . Daniel Licht , who has worked on the series since its inception , returned to compose the music for the episode . Actor Barry Shabaka Henley guest starred in the episode as Al Chapman and Brian J. White appeared as Brian Hall . Sherri Saum – best known for her roles in Sunset Beach and One Life to Live – also guest starred , playing Nina Wheeler . Mary Mouser – best known for her role in Life Is Wild – made another re @-@ appearance as Lacey Fleming , Megan 's daughter . The show was moved to a Sunday from the normal timeslot of Tuesday before Body of Proof 's pilot episode had aired . In a press statement , ABC said , " The second episode of new drama Body Of Proof will air on a special night and time , SUNDAY , APRIL 3 ( 10 : 01 @-@ 11 : 00 p.m. , ET ) , following an original episode of Desperate Housewives " .
" Letting Go " , along with the eight episodes from Body of Proof 's first season , were released on a two @-@ disc DVD set in the United States on September 20 , 2011 . The sets included brief audio commentaries from various crew and cast members for several episodes , a preview of season 2 , a 10 @-@ minute " featurette " on the making of the show with commentaries from the medical consultants who helped with the script , and a " Contaminated Evidence " blooper reel .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
In its original American broadcast on 3 April 2011 , " Letting Go " was seen by 8 @.@ 49 million viewers , according to Nielsen ratings . Among viewers between ages 18 and 49 , it received a 2 @.@ 0 rating / 9 share . This means that it was seen by 2 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 9 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . This episode achieved a much lower number of viewers than the previous episode , " Pilot " , as well as the subsequent episode , " Helping Hand " . However , the lower ratings than both " Pilot " and " Helping Hand " were likely due to the move from the normal Tuesday timeslot to a Sunday night . Body of Proof came sixth in the ratings on Sunday night ; it was outperformed by the ABC 's Desperate Housewives and Secret Millionaire , CBS 's 60 Minutes and airing of the ACM Awards , and NBC 's Celebrity Apprentice . " Helping Hand " was watched by 1 @.@ 69 million viewers upon its airing on Channel 5 in the United Kingdom .
= = = Critical response = = =
The episode received positive reviews . Christine Orlando from TV Fanatic stated that this episode gave her " hope for this procedural that the pilot didn 't " . She called the storyline " heartbreaking " , " sad " , shocking " , and " chilling " and added that there were " plenty of twists and turns that kept me guessing throughout the hour " . She was upset that Al Chapman was the murderer , saying that it would have been " wonderful to see Brian , Linda 's bad tempered , control freak of an ex hauled away in cuffs " . She added that the look that Eric Singleton gave Detective Baker was " positively evil " . She praised the interaction between the Megan and the rest of the main cast , saying , " We got to know more about the cast of characters in Megan 's office and Curtis was the standout . Last week Megan questioned Curtis ' abilities as a doctor . This week , Curtis not only proved her wrong but turned out to be the much needed comic relief delivering some of the best lines of the night " . She finished , " " Letting Go " definitely left me looking forward to what this new hit show has in store for us next " . After the ratings for " Pilot " were high , Matt Roush of TV Guide hoped that Body of Proof would " continue to improve " adding that he preferred this episode to " Pilot " , despite the lower ratings .
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= Iowa Highway 182 =
Iowa Highway 182 ( Iowa 182 ) is a 9 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 14 km ) state highway in the northwestern corner of Iowa . It begins at U.S. Route 18 ( US 18 ) in Inwood and ends at Iowa 9 southeast of Larchwood . The highway has been in the primary highway system since 1930 , when it was known as Iowa 26 . On January 1 , 1969 , Iowa 26 and Iowa 182 swapped designations .
= = Route description = =
Iowa Highway 182 begins at an intersection with US 18 and County Road A42 ( CR A42 ) . At the intersection , eastbound US 18 approaches from the west , eastbound US 18 approaches from the south , and CR A42 approaches from the east . Iowa 182 travels north through Inwood for one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) and continues due north through the farmland of Lyon County for eight miles ( 13 km ) to an intersection with Iowa Highway 9 . The intersection with Iowa 9 is very similar to the intersection with US 18 ; eastbound Iowa 9 approaches from the north and westbound Iowa 9 approaches from the east .
= = History = =
Between 1930 and 1968 , the highway now known as Iowa 182 was called Iowa 26 . This was the second instance of Iowa 26 . The first was designated in 1920 with the rest of the primary highway system . It was originally a spur route from Primary Road No. 19 ( now US 18 ) to Rock Valley . Iowa 26 was extended north from Rock Valley back to US 18 in 1929 .
In 1930 , US 18 was rerouted in Lyon and Sioux counties . The new routing of US 18 went through Rock Valley , thus eliminating the need for Iowa 26 , which had connected Rock Valley to US 18 . The Iowa 26 designation was moved northwest . It replaced County Road S , which followed the same course Iowa 182 now follows .
On January 1 , 1969 , the Iowa State Highway Commission , now known as the Iowa Department of Transportation , renumbered several state highways . The changes to the highway system fixed a number of issues : creating continuous route numbers across state lines , removing duplicate route numbers where they were unnecessary , and extending route numbers in some locations . In this case , the former Iowa 182 in Allamakee County crossed into Minnesota and became Trunk Highway 26 . The two routes ' numbers were switched and have remained the same since then .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Lyon County .
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= Lord Guildford Dudley =
Lord Guildford Dudley ( also spelt Guilford ) ( c . 1535 – 12 February 1554 ) was the husband of Lady Jane Grey who , declared as his heir by King Edward VI , occupied the English throne from 10 July until 19 July 1553 . Guildford Dudley enjoyed a humanist education and was married to Jane in a magnificent celebration about six weeks before the King 's death . After Guildford 's father , the Duke of Northumberland , had engineered Jane 's accession , Jane and Guildford spent her brief rule residing in the Tower of London . They were still in the Tower when their regime collapsed and remained there , in different quarters , as prisoners . They were condemned to death for high treason in November 1553 . Queen Mary I was inclined to spare their lives , but Thomas Wyatt 's rebellion against her plans to marry Philip of Spain led to the young couple 's execution , a measure that was widely seen as unduly harsh .
= = Family and marriage = =
Lord Guildford Dudley was the second youngest surviving son of John Dudley , 1st Duke of Northumberland , and his wife , Jane Guildford . The Dudley lineage goes back to a family called Sutton . In the early 14th century they became the lords of Dudley Castle , from whom Guildford descended through his paternal grandfather . This was Edmund Dudley , a councillor to Henry VII , who was executed after his royal master 's death . Through his father 's mother , Elizabeth Grey , Viscountess Lisle , Guildford descended from the Hundred Years War heroes , Richard Beauchamp , Earl of Warwick , and John Talbot , 1st Earl of Shrewsbury .
The Dudley children — there were thirteen born in all — grew up in a Protestant household and enjoyed a humanist education . Under the young King Edward VI , Guildford 's father became Lord President of the Privy Council and de facto ruled England from 1550 – 1553 . The chronicler Richard Grafton , who knew him , described Guildford as " a comely , virtuous and goodly gentleman " . In 1552 Northumberland unsuccessfully tried to marry Guildford to Margaret Clifford , a cousin of Jane Grey . Instead , in the spring of 1553 , Guildford was engaged to the sixteen @-@ year @-@ old Jane Grey herself . Jane Grey figured higher in the line of succession than Margaret Clifford . On 25 May 1553 , three weddings were celebrated at Durham Place , the Duke of Northumberland 's town mansion . Guildford married Jane , his sister Katherine was matched with Henry Hastings , the Earl of Huntingdon 's heir , and another Catherine , Jane 's sister , married Lord Herbert , the heir of the Earl of Pembroke . It was a magnificent festival , with jousts , games , and masques . For the latter , two different companies had been booked , one male , one female . The Venetian and French ambassadors were guests , and there were " large numbers of the common people ... and of the most principal of the realm " . Guildford and some others suffered an attack of food poisoning , because of " a mistake made by a cook , who plucked one leaf for another . "
= = De facto consort = =
Mortally ill , King Edward , in his " Device of the Succession " , settled the Crown on his cousin once removed , Jane Grey , bypassing his half @-@ sisters , Mary and Elizabeth . After Edward 's death on 6 July 1553 the Duke of Northumberland undertook the enforcement of the King 's will . The envoys of the Holy Roman Empire and France were sure of the plan 's success . Jane was reluctant to accept the Crown : She gave in after remonstrances by an assembly of nobles , including her parents and in @-@ laws ; Guildford chimed in with a lovelier approach , with " prayers and caresses " . On 10 July Jane and Guildford made their ceremonial entry into the Tower of London . Residing in there , Guildford wanted to be made king ; according to her own later account , Jane had a long discussion about this with Guildford , who " assented that if he were to be made king , he would be so by me , by Act of Parliament " . But then , Jane would agree only to make him Duke of Clarence ; Guildford replied that he did not want to be a duke , but king . When the Duchess of Northumberland heard of the argument she became furious and forbade Guildford to sleep any longer with his wife . She also commanded him to leave the Tower and go home , but Jane insisted that he remain at court , at her side .
According to later remarks by the Imperial ambassadors the daily Council meetings were presided by Guildford , who allegedly also dined in state alone and had himself addressed in regal style . Antoine de Noailles , the French ambassador , described Guildford as " the new King " . The Imperial court in Brussels also believed in the existence of King Guildford .
= = Imprisonment = =
On 10 July , the same day as Jane 's proclamation , a letter from Mary Tudor arrived in London , saying that she was now queen and demanding the obedience of the Council . Mary was assembling her supporters in East Anglia ; it was decided to take the field against her after some discussion over who should go , in which Jane made sure that her father should not . The Duke of Northumberland marched to Cambridge with his troops and passed a week that saw no action , until he heard on 20 July that the Council in London had declared for Mary . Northumberland now proclaimed Mary Tudor himself at the market @-@ place and was arrested the next morning . On 19 July , a few hours before Queen Mary I 's proclamation in London , the baptism of one of the Gentlemen Pensioners ' children took place . Jane had agreed to be the godmother and wished the child 's name to be Guildford . The Bishop of Winchester , Stephen Gardiner , who had been imprisoned in the Tower for five years , took great offence at this fact as he heard of it .
A majority of the Privy Council moved out of the Tower before switching their allegiance . Becoming aware of his colleagues ' change of mind , Jane 's father , the Duke of Suffolk , abandoned his command over the fortress and proclaimed Mary I on nearby Tower Hill . After he had left , his wife was told she could also go home , while Jane , Guildford , and the Duchess of Northumberland were not allowed to . Jane was later moved from the royal apartments to the Gentleman Gaoler 's lodgings and Guildford was imprisoned in the Bell Tower . There he was soon joined by his brother , Robert . His remaining brothers were imprisoned in other towers , as was his father , who was for the moment the only prominent person to go to the scaffold ; Mary was prepared to spare Jane 's and Guildford 's lives .
Jane and Guildford were indicted on 12 August , and Jane submitted a letter of explanation to the Queen , " asking forgiveness ... for the sin she was accused of , informing her majesty about the truth of events . " In this account she spoke of herself as " a wife who loves her husband " . On 13 November 1553 Jane and Guildford were tried at Guildhall , together with Archbishop Cranmer and Guildford 's brothers Ambrose and Henry . They were all convicted of high treason after pleading guilty . Guildford was convicted of compassing to depose Queen Mary I by sending troops to the Duke of Northumberland and by proclaiming and honouring Jane as queen .
In December , Jane was allowed to walk freely in the Queen 's Garden . " Lord Robert and Lord Guildford " had to be content with taking the air on the leads of the Bell Tower . Jane and Guildford may have had some contact with each other , and at some point Guildford wrote a message to his father @-@ in @-@ law in Jane 's prayer book :
Your loving and obedient son wishes unto your grace long life in this world with as much joy and comfort as ever I wish to myself , and in the world to come joy everlasting . Your humble son to his death , G. Dudley
= = Execution = =
Queen Mary I 's plan to marry Philip II of Spain was greeted with widespread opposition , not just among the populace but also among Members of Parliament and privy councillors . Thomas Wyatt 's Rebellion in early 1554 , in which the Duke of Suffolk took part , was a result of this dislike . It was not the intention of the conspirators to bring Jane Grey on the throne again . Nevertheless , the government , at the height of the military crisis around 7 February , decided to execute Jane and her husband , possibly out of panic . It was also an opportunity for removing possible inspirations for future unrest and unwelcome reminders of the past . It troubled Mary to let her cousin die , but she accepted the Privy Council 's advice . Bishop Gardiner pressed for the young couple 's execution in a court sermon , and the Imperial ambassador Simon Renard was happy to report that " Jane of Suffolk and her husband are to lose their heads . "
The day before their executions Guildford asked Jane for a last meeting , which she refused , explaining it " would only ... increase their misery and pain , it was better to put it off ... as they would meet shortly elsewhere , and live bound by indissoluble ties . " Around ten o 'clock in the morning of 12 February Guildford was led towards Tower Hill , where " many ... gentlemen " waited to shake hands with him . Guildford made a short speech to the assembled crowd , as was customary . " Having no ghostly father with him " , he knelt , prayed , and asked the people to pray for him , " holding up his eyes and hands to God many times " . He was killed with one stroke of the axe , after which his body was conveyed on a cart to the Tower chapel of St Peter ad Vincula . Watching the scene from her window , Jane exclaimed : " Oh , Guildford , Guildford ! " He was buried in the chapel with Jane who was dead within an hour after him .
The executions did not contribute to the government 's popularity . Five months after the couple 's death , John Knox , the future Scottish reformer , wrote of them as " innocents ... such as by just laws and faithful witnesses can never be proved to have offended by themselves " . Of Guildford , the chronicler Grafton wrote ten years later : " even those that never before the time of his execution saw him , did with lamentable tears bewail his death " .
= = Ancestry = =
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= New York State Route 322 =
New York State Route 322 ( NY 322 ) is a state highway in the Southern Tier of New York in the United States . The western terminus of the route is at an intersection with NY 83 in Balcom Corners , a hamlet within the Chautauqua County town of Villenova . Its eastern terminus is at a junction with U.S. Route 62 ( US 62 ) in the Cattaraugus County town of Dayton . In between , the route passes through the village of South Dayton .
NY 322 was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York to its current alignment . Originally , maintenance of the Cattaraugus County portion of the route was split between the village of South Dayton and the county , the latter of which co @-@ designated the highway as County Route 3 ( CR 3 ) . The state of New York assumed ownership and maintenance of the Cattaraugus County segment in 1980 as part of a highway maintenance swap between the state , the county , and South Dayton .
= = Route description = =
NY 322 is classified by the New York State Department of Transportation as a rural collector road . It serves as a connector from NY 83 to US 62 by way of the village of South Dayton . Most of the traffic along the route is made up of non @-@ commercial vehicles ; trucks account for only nine percent of all traffic along NY 322 . The roadway has an asphalt surface that is two lanes wide and varies in width from 21 feet ( 6 @.@ 4 m ) to 22 feet ( 6 @.@ 7 m ) . NY 322 travels through flat , open land outside of South Dayton and through residential areas within the village .
The route begins at an intersection with NY 83 and CR 87 at Balcom Corners , a hamlet within the town of Villenova . It heads eastward , passing through open fields and a handful of homes . Roughly 0 @.@ 75 miles ( 1 @.@ 21 km ) east of NY 83 , the route meets the west branch of Conewango Creek and turns southeastward to follow the southern bank of the waterway . NY 322 passes over the creek just before crossing into Cattaraugus County and the village of South Dayton , located it the town of Dayton , that sits on the western county line .
In South Dayton , NY 322 is known as Pine Street as it proceeds through the village . The amount of development along the route rises as it approaches the center of the village at Main Street . The route continues on , traveling by four blocks of homes and businesses before curving eastward and entering another area dominated by open fields . It exits the village limits shortly afterward . East of South Dayton , NY 322 is known as Dexter Corners Road as it heads through a rural area of the town of Dayton . NY 322 continues to the community of Dexter Corners , where it ends at an intersection with US 62 .
In 2008 , the portion of NY 322 between NY 83 and the county line handled an estimated average of 1 @,@ 810 vehicles per day . The traffic volume increases to 2 @,@ 300 per day from there to Main Street in the village of South Dayton . East of Main Street , traffic volume falls to 1 @,@ 280 cars per day .
= = History = =
NY 322 was assigned to its modern alignment as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York . Initially , NY 322 was maintained by Cattaraugus County between the eastern village limits of South Dayton and its junction with NY 241 ( now US 62 ) in Dayton and by the village of South Dayton within the village limits . The Cattaraugus County @-@ maintained portion of the route was co @-@ designated as CR 3 . On April 1 , 1980 , ownership and maintenance of NY 322 in Cattaraugus County was transferred from the village of South Dayton and the county to the state of New York as part of a highway maintenance swap between the three levels of government . The entirety of the route is now state @-@ maintained .
= = Major intersections = =
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= Hurricane Alice ( June 1954 ) =
Hurricane Alice was the second @-@ strongest Atlantic hurricane to make landfall in the month of June since reliable records began in the 1850s . While not a major hurricane , the storm was linked to catastrophic flooding in southern Texas and northern Mexico , especially along the Rio Grande and its tributaries . The third tropical cyclone and first hurricane of the 1954 Atlantic hurricane season , Alice was one of two storms to receive the same name that year , the other being an unusual post @-@ season hurricane that persisted into the new year of 1955 , becoming one of only two January hurricanes on record ( the other having formed in 1938 ) . The first Alice developed rather suddenly on June 24 over the Bay of Campeche , though it may well have formed earlier but went undetected due to limited surface weather observations . Moving northwestward , Alice strengthened rapidly as it neared the Mexican coastline , becoming a hurricane early the next day . By midday on June 25 , the hurricane reached peak winds of 110 miles per hour ( 177 km / h ) before moving inland well south of the U.S. – Mexico border . The storm struck an area with few inhabitants and caused relatively minimal impacts from wind near the point of landfall and in southern Texas .
As it moved inland , however , Alice produced prolific rains along and near the Rio Grande , resulting in some of the worst flooding ever seen in parts of northern Mexico and southern Texas ; in some areas , the flooding amounted to a one @-@ in @-@ 2 @,@ 000 @-@ year event . The Pecos River crested at 96 @.@ 24 ft ( 29 @.@ 33 m ) , which joined with the Rio Grande to produce significant flooding . The floods destroyed bridges and dikes and flooded many cities along the inner reaches of the river , which reached its highest water levels since 1865 . As the river overflowed its banks , floods breached the dikes at Piedras Negras , Coahuila , destroying large sections of the town . Other communities in Mexico reported significant flood damage . In the United States , damage was heaviest in Ozona , Texas , where the floods killed 15 people and caused $ 2 million in damage ( 1954 USD ) . Rainfall peaked at over 24 @.@ 07 in ( 611 mm ) , most of which fell in a 24 ‑ hour period . In all , flooding from Hurricane Alice killed at least 55 people , including 17 in the U.S. and 38 in Mexico , though many deaths in rural Mexico may have gone unreported ; the total death toll could have exceeded 150 .
= = Meteorological history = =
At 12 : 00 UTC on June 24 , 1954 , a moderate tropical storm formed about 270 miles ( 435 km ) east of Tampico , Tamaulipas , with winds of 60 miles per hour ( 97 km / h ) . In 2015 , NOAA researchers working on reanalysis with the Hurricane Research Division examined observations to determine whether Alice formed earlier , but were unsuccessful due to sparse surface weather observations over the Bay of Campeche . The first observation of gale @-@ force winds occurred at 18 : 00 UTC on June 24 , when a ship reported 60 @-@ mile @-@ per @-@ hour ( 97 km / h ) winds and an atmospheric pressure of 999 millibars ( 29 @.@ 50 inHg ) , indicating a well @-@ developed cyclone in the area . Based on these data , scientists concluded that Alice likely formed earlier than indicated , but went undetected until that day . Regardless , Alice steadily intensified almost immediately upon detection as it headed northwestward , strengthening into the equivalent of a Category 1 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson hurricane wind scale by 00 : 00 UTC on June 25 . Early on that day , a ship calibrated the rapid strengthening of the storm , measuring winds of 85 mph ( 137 km / h ) at 08 : 17 UTC . As Alice neared the coast of Mexico , reconnaissance aircraft known as Hurricane Hunters began tracking the eye of the hurricane , but apparently did not penetrate the center of the storm . They did , however , provide information about the position of the storm .
The storm continued to intensify rapidly as it approached the coastline south of the United States – Mexico border . Based on aircraft observations , research suggests that Alice made landfall about 60 mi ( 97 km ) south of Matamoros , Tamaulipas , at 14 : 00 UTC on June 25 . The storm affected a thinly populated segment of the Mexican coastline , and few observations were available to determine the strength of the hurricane . One report , taken about 100 mi ( 161 km ) south of Brownsville , Texas , suggested top winds of at least 70 to 80 mph ( 113 to 129 km / h ) . Prior to scientific reexamination , HURDAT — the official database containing tracks and intensities of cyclones in the North Atlantic and Eastern North Pacific regions — listed top winds of 80 mph ( 129 km / h ) at landfall in Mexico . However , a radiosonde , launched from Brownsville in time for the 12 : 00 UTC observation , recorded winds of 150 mph ( 241 km / h ) from the southeast at 3 @,@ 000 feet ( 914 m ) in elevation . Based on this measurement , which may have represented winds in the eyewall , researchers determined that Hurricane Alice was likely significantly stronger at landfall than previously assessed . They analyzed Alice as having struck Mexico with winds of 110 mph ( 177 km / h ) , while noting the great uncertainty and the possibility that the storm may have even been much stronger than this . The central pressure in the eye was probably 975 mb ( 28 @.@ 79 inHg ) or lower , as corroborated by observations well inland in Texas . Therefore , Alice was at least equivalent to a high @-@ end Category 2 hurricane at landfall and conceivably could have attained major hurricane status .
After hitting land , Hurricane Alice gradually weakened as it approximately followed the Rio Grande , crossing into southern Texas near La Grulla just before 00 : 00 UTC on June 26 . The storm by then had weakened back to a moderate tropical storm with winds of 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) , but it still produced gale @-@ force winds in several communities across southern Texas ; a few areas in Texas may have even experienced hurricane @-@ force winds for brief periods before the storm entered the state , but there are no observations to confirm such winds . The storm likely caused winds of at least 70 mph ( 113 km / h ) in southern Texas . As it crossed into Texas , Tropical Storm Alice curved more to the north @-@ northwest early on June 26 before assuming a sharp bend back westward later in the day . The storm degenerated into a tropical depression by 18 : 00 UTC and dissipated early on June 27 near the Big Bend National Park in Texas .
= = Impact = =
Before Alice moved ashore , about 50 Girl Scouts at a camp were evacuated to a center in Brownsville , Texas . The residents of Padre Island were also evacuated . Residents in the storm 's path were unprepared due to the storm forming suddenly . The United States Coast Guard spread the word about the storm by traversing the coast and advising residents to seek shelter . Officials at the U.S. Weather Bureau posted northwest storm warnings for the Brownsville area , recommending that small boats to stay at harbor . Damages along the coastline at the point of landfall were relatively light . Winds in Brownsville reached 62 mph ( 100 km / h ) , which created flying debris that injured one man . Moderate to strong gales affected the Rio Grande Valley inland over southern Texas . Across the border , minor damage was reported in Matamoros , Tamaulipas , and one person there was killed by a fallen power line . A few shrimp fishing boats were driven ashore by heavy winds . Although later there was severe flooding further inland , a dam along the Rio Grande prevented significant flooding in the Brownsville area .
Most of the damage resulting from Alice was caused by heavy rain in the inland areas of Texas , Tamaulipas and Coahuila ; damage was exacerbated in these areas by drought conditions that rendered the soil especially vulnerable to erosion . Estimates of peak rainfall within 12 hours vary from 22 inches ( 56 cm ) to 26 inches ( 132 cm ) , and a total of 35 inches ( 89 cm ) of rain fell in 24 hours , approaching the world record that had been set by an unnamed hurricane in Texas in 1921 . However , a 2010 report on the storm 's rainfall indicated a maximum of 24 @.@ 07 in ( 611 mm ) near Pandale , of which 16 @.@ 02 in ( 407 mm ) fell in a 24 ‑ hour period .
The peak rainfall occurred in a small area centered near the Pecos River . A location along the Johnson Draw reported 11 in ( 280 mm ) of rainfall after receiving minimal precipitation in the previous three years . In addition , some locals in western Texas experienced rainfall from Alice that exceed yearly averages . This contributed to significant flooding along the Pecos River , reaching a flood stage of 55 ft ( 17 m ) in Pandale . The flooding swept away a group of fishermen in Sheffield as well as at a location 10 mi ( 16 km ) north of Pandale , killing four . Downstream , the river crested at 96 @.@ 24 ft ( 29 @.@ 33 m ) , which washed out a highway and three railroad bridges . A temporary bridge was built between Eagle Pass and Piedro Negro by July 10 , or two weeks after the storm . The destroyed rail lines stranded a Sunset Limited train , which prompted the passengers to evacuate to nearby Langtry . The flooding also stranded a Southern Pacific train , whose occupants were later evacuated by helicopters . The peak river crest corresponded to a discharge rate of 948 @,@ 000 ft ³ / s ( 26 @,@ 800 m ³ / s ) , which the International Boundary and Water Commission remarked was " probably the greatest rate of runoff for a watershed of [ that ] size in the United States . " Heavy rain fell across all of southern Texas and northern Mexico as a result of Alice , causing flash floods in inland areas . Ozona , Texas was the town most affected by the floods , sustaining $ 2 million in damage ( 1954 USD ) , as well as 15 deaths . Early on the morning of June 25 , a " wall of water " as high as 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 2 m ) poured out of a dry gully and overwhelmed most of the town . Roughly a third of Ozona had to be evacuated , and many livestock there were killed . About 500 families were left homeless in the town . United States military helicopters worked to rescue people trapped by the floodwaters . In all , at least seven towns experienced flooding from the storm on either side of the border , including Lamesa and Laredo , Texas which were badly damaged by flash floods .
The Rio Grande rose well above flood level at the cities of Eagle Pass , Texas and Piedras Negras , Coahuila . While the city of Eagle Pass was evacuated , Piedras Negras was not . Both cities were completely flooded , and the dike intended to protect Piedras Negras from floods was washed away . At least 38 people ( some sources say 39 ) were killed in Piedras Negras after the dike collapsed . In Eagle Pass , the commercial sector was flooded by over 8 ft ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) of waters , which let heavy losses . Before the storm began producing heavy rainfall , officials anticipated moderate river flooding that would peak at less than the flood of 1948 . The river crested at Laredo , Texas , where waters reached a peak of 62 @.@ 2 feet ( 19 m ) , at least 10 feet ( 3 m ) above the previous record flood . High waters caused the water treatment plants to fail there , which prevented the safe delivery of fresh water until July 1 . The International Bridge connecting Laredo and Nuevo Laredo was swept away . Although severe damage occurred in the latter city , no deaths were recorded in either city due to evacuations . Flooding along the Rio Grande was the highest since 1865 , and was considered a 1 in 2000 year event . About 12 @,@ 000 people were evacuated from nearby Ciudad Acuña following the flood . There , the floods left heavy damage .
Estimates for total death toll range from 55 to 153 . Death toll estimates for Texas range from 17 to 38 , though official records indicate that the 38 deaths occurred in Mexico rather than Texas . Estimates of the deaths in Mexico , where records are less complete , vary more widely . Several of the deaths in Texas were homeless people attempting to enter the United States , and as a result their deaths were not counted . Monetary damage figures are not available , but it is known that flooding from Alice caused considerable damage to crops , primarily cotton .
= = Aftermath and records = =
While Alice left almost unprecedented flooding in its wake , the storm itself was not an unheard @-@ of occurrence : a similar storm in 1921 , which followed a comparative track , caused significant flooding in Texas as well , albeit not in the same areas affected by the floods of 1954 . Following the devastation left by Alice , members of the U.S. Air Force , Navy , and Army flew 21 helicopters with over 81 tons of relief supplies to the affected people of Mexico and Texas , including food , water , medicine , and clothing . The disastrous flooding caused by Hurricane Alice along the Rio Grande accelerated the joint US – Mexico Amistad Dam project , a series of flood control dams designed to prevent similar catastrophes in the future . The project , in the planning stages for decades before the storm , was finally begun in 1960 .
Leftover waters from the storm led to an increase in mosquitoes in Texas , which prompted a widespread application of larvicide via airplane . On July 1 , the flood areas of southern Texas were declared a major disaster area . This followed a delivery of 2 flood specialists , 20 laborers , 2 portable water treatment plants , 7 trucks , and a quantity of insecticides and water treatment tablets . Residents in Laredo , Texas provided citizens of its neighboring city Nuevo Laredo , Mexico with food and water . The Mexican government provided temporary homes for the affected citizens of the flood . American officials distributed typhoid vaccinations , water purification tablets , and insecticides to the American cities along the Rio Grande . Safe water was eventually restored to Laredo , Texas on July 12 . All emergency work related to the disaster was finished by September 3 .
Besides flooding , Hurricane Alice was also notable for another reason : it made landfall with some of the strongest winds in a June hurricane on record . With top winds of 110 mph ( 177 km / h ) , the cyclone was the second @-@ strongest Atlantic hurricane to make landfall in the month of June , behind only Hurricane Audrey in 1957 , which made landfall in Louisiana with winds of 145 mph ( 233 km / h ) . The storm was somewhat analogous to Hurricane Alex , which also affected the same region in 2010 with winds of 110 mph ( 177 km / h ) , though Alex made landfall in early July .
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= New York State Route 31 =
New York State Route 31 ( NY 31 ) is a state highway that extends for 208 @.@ 74 miles ( 335 @.@ 93 km ) across western and central New York in the United States . The western terminus of the route is at an intersection with NY 104 in the city of Niagara Falls . Its eastern terminus is at a traffic circle with NY 26 in Vernon Center , a hamlet within the town of Vernon . Over its routing , NY 31 spans 10 counties and indirectly connects three major urban areas in Upstate New York : Buffalo – Niagara Falls , Rochester , and Syracuse . The route is one of the longest routes in New York State , paralleling two similarly lengthy routes , NY 104 to the north and NY 5 to the south , as well as the Erie Canal , as it proceeds east .
Much of NY 31 west of Jordan was originally designated as part of a legislative route from the late 1900s to the early 1920s . NY 31 itself was assigned in the mid @-@ 1920s , utilizing all of legislative Route 30 ( modern NY 31 , NY 429 , and NY 104 ) west of Rochester and much of its current alignment from Rochester to Lenox . At Lenox , NY 31 turned southeast to follow what is now NY 316 and NY 46 to NY 5 in Oneida . It was realigned by 1929 to continue west to Lewiston on Ridge Road and altered in the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York to continue east to Utica via Verona . With the advent of U.S. Route 104 ( US 104 ) c . 1935 , NY 31 was realigned west of Rochester to follow most of its modern routing .
NY 31 was truncated westward to NY 365 in Verona in the early 1940s , moving the eastern terminus of NY 31 to the same junction that also had served as the northern terminus of New York State Route 234 , a north – south route that extended southeastward to Vernon Center , since the early 1930s . The two routes continued to share a terminus until 1981 , when ownership and maintenance of part of NY 234 was transferred from the state of New York to Oneida County as part of a highway maintenance swap between the two levels of government . In return , the state acquired a pair of county roads that followed a routing parallel to that of the transferred section of NY 234 . The new state highways and the remainder of NY 234 became an extension of NY 31 .
= = Route description = =
Most of NY 31 is owned by the state of New York and maintained by the New York State Department of Transportation ( NYSDOT ) ; however , some sections of the route — mostly within cities — are locally owned and maintained . In the cities of Niagara Falls and Rochester , NY 31 is completely city @-@ owned . Another city @-@ maintained section exists in the city of Lockport from Washburn Street ( five blocks east of NY 78 ) to the eastern city line . Two villages — Medina and Newark — also maintain parts of NY 31 . In Medina , the locally owned section begins at the Falls Road Railroad crossing in the village center and ends at Center Street ( NY 31E ) . The portion in Newark , meanwhile , extends from Mason Street ( one block west of NY 88 ) to the eastern village line .
As of 2009 , the most heavily trafficked segments of NY 31 lie in and around the city of Rochester . The busiest of these , from Interstate 590 ( I @-@ 590 ) to NY 65 in the eastern suburb of Brighton , carries in excess of 40 @,@ 000 vehicles per day on average . Two other segments — between South and Woodbury Avenues in downtown Rochester and from NY 65 to French Road in Brighton and Pittsford — have traffic volumes in excess of 30 @,@ 000 vehicles . On the other hand , the portion of NY 31 in the Oneida County town of Vernon between the Vernon Downs racetrack and Youngs Road handles just 910 cars per day on average , making it the least @-@ traveled segment of the route .
= = = Western New York = = =
NY 31 begins at an intersection with NY 104 in northern Niagara Falls . After a short distance eastward through the northern fringe of the city as College Avenue , the road encounters NY 61 at the northeastern city line . NY 31 continues northeastward into the town of Niagara , following Witmer Road to an interchange with I @-@ 190 at exit 24 . Past I @-@ 190 , NY 31 meets NY 265 south of the Robert Moses Niagara Power Plant reservoir . At the intersection , NY 31 becomes Saunders Settlement Road , a name it retains for almost 15 miles ( 24 km ) . Continuing through Niagara County , NY 31 passes the south end of the Tuscarora Indian Reservation ahead of a brief overlap with NY 429 . Past the east end of the concurrency , NY 429 travels north toward NY 104 while NY 31 continues east past Niagara County Community College to an intersection with NY 425 , the final state route that NY 31 intersects before entering the Lockport area .
West of Lockport , NY 31 crosses NY 270 and NY 93 . Continuing into the city , NY 31 meets NY 78 ( Transit Street ) at an intersection partially located over the Erie Canal . NY 31 heads eastward through Lockport , intersecting the northern terminus of NY 77 at the eastern edge of the city . While NY 77 continues along the right @-@ of @-@ way of NY 31 , NY 31 exits , following a northeasterly alignment through Gasport to Middleport , where it acts as the western and southern terminus of NY 31E and NY 271 , respectively . Just east of town , NY 31 crosses the first of nine county lines along its routing , entering Orleans County .
At an intersection south of Medina , NY 31A branches off , continuing straight from NY 31 while NY 31 turns north to overlap NY 63 for a short distance between NY 31A and NY 31E in Medina . At NY 31E , NY 31 separates from NY 63 , following the path of NY 31E east out of the village . 10 miles ( 16 km ) to the east , NY 31 crosses NY 98 in Albion . Midway between Albion and Holley , NY 31 intersects the southern end of NY 387 . NY 31 continues to the southeast , entering Holley and intersecting NY 237 in the village center . The route quickly leaves Holley soon after , crossing into Monroe County just over a mile ( about 1 @.@ 6 km ) from the village line .
= = = Rochester area = = =
= = = = Western suburbs and downtown = = = =
Just inside the Monroe County line , the road traverses the Erie Canal before intersecting Redman Road about 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) west of the village of Brockport . NY 31 turns south here , following Redman Road back across the Erie Canal and past the western fringe of the SUNY Brockport campus to a junction with Fourth Section Road . NY 31A enters the intersection from the west and ends at NY 31 while the latter turns east onto Fourth Section Road . NY 31 progresses eastward , intersecting NY 19 in a commercialized area directly south of Brockport and becoming Brockport – Spencerport Road . East of the village in the surrounding town of Sweden , NY 31 meets the southern terminus of NY 260 . The route continues eastward , paralleling the Erie Canal as it enters Ogden , where NY 31 comes to the current western terminus of NY 531 , the Spencerport Expressway , and , shortly after , the northern terminus of NY 36 . NY 31 , now sandwiched by the canal to the north and NY 531 to the south , heads eastward into the village of Spencerport , where it becomes Nichols Street and meets NY 259 in the center of the community .
Outside of Spencerport , NY 31 becomes Spencerport Road as it heads eastward into the town of Gates . The route heads past residential neighborhoods to the north and mostly undeveloped land to the south as it enters the hamlet of Elmgrove , built up around NY 31 's junction with NY 386 . Not far to the east , NY 31 enters North Gates , a densely populated residential community near the northern town line of Gates . In the southeastern outskirts of the community , NY 31 intersects Lyell and Howard Roads at a junction that once served as the western terminus of NY 47 . NY 31 continues east from here as Lyell Avenue , meeting NY 390 at an interchange immediately north of the route 's larger interchange with I @-@ 490 . Not far to the east is the Rochester city line , which NY 31 crosses upon traversing the Erie Canal once again .
NY 31 follows Lyell Avenue through the city to West Broad Street , where it turns to follow Broad Street southeastward past Sahlen 's Stadium . It heads onward toward a pair of overpasses , one carrying I @-@ 490 and another holding the CSX Transportation @-@ owned Rochester Subdivision . NY 31 continues under both , following the former path of the Erie Canal southeast through the city to the eastern terminus of NY 33 at West Main Street . NY 31 follows West Main Street to the east , passing under I @-@ 490 once again before breaking from Main Street and occupying East Broad Street . The street proceeds to the east , passing through the commercial heart of the city . Just east of Exchange Boulevard , the northern terminus of NY 383 , the route crosses the Genesee River on the Broad Street Aqueduct .
East of the waterway , NY 31 follows East Broad Street to South Avenue , where it turns south for two blocks to a junction with Woodbury Boulevard . It turns east here , following Woodbury Boulevard for two blocks to Chestnut Street , at which point NY 31 turns southward to follow Chestnut Street . Westbound NY 31 in the area , however , follows one block of Woodbury Boulevard and two blocks of South Clinton Avenue to reach East Broad Street . At the Inner Loop , Chestnut Street becomes Monroe Avenue , the name NY 31 retains to Pittsford . Over this stretch , NY 31 maintains a constant southeasterly progression as it passes though southeastern Rochester and the town of Brighton . As the route exits downtown Rochester , it intersects I @-@ 490 at exit 18 . The route continues onward , passing Cobbs Hill Park and entering Brighton , where it traverses areas more commercial in nature and meets the former routing of NY 47 a second time in an area of town known as Twelve Corners .
= = = = Eastern suburbs and Wayne County = = = =
In the eastern portion of Brighton , NY 31 meets I @-@ 590 by way of an interchange and intersects NY 65 . From NY 65 , NY 31 continues southeast into the town of Pittsford , passing along the southern fringe of Oak Hill Country Club and paralleling the former right @-@ of @-@ way of the Auburn Road railroad line to the village of Pittsford . Just inside the village limits , NY 31 crosses the Erie Canal once more and intersects the West Shore Subdivision at @-@ grade . In the village center , NY 31 intersects NY 96 . East of NY 96 , the route crosses over the Erie Canal once again and exits the village . Outside of the village , NY 31 parallels I @-@ 490 for a short distance across slightly open areas before connecting to the freeway near the Perinton town line at exit 26 . The route continues east into Perinton , where it traverses the Erie Canal for one final time within the county and crosses NY 250 near Perinton Square Mall .
East of the mall , the route passes through increasingly rural areas , with the exception of the hamlet of Egypt midway between NY 250 and the Wayne County line . NY 31 progresses onward into Wayne County , where the Rochester suburbs end as the route heads eastward through the mostly rural town of Macedon to the village of the same name . Prior to exiting the village , NY 31 meets the southern terminus of NY 350 and the eastern terminus of NY 31F . The highway continues on , exiting the village and proceeding eastward through the town of Macedon , bordered by the Erie Canal to the north and Ganargua Creek to the south . In Palmyra , NY 31 joins NY 21 through the center of the village .
From Palmyra east , the route parallels the Erie Canal for a considerable distance . Between Palmyra and Newark , NY 31 dips into Ontario County for less than a mile ( about 1 @.@ 6 km ) before reentering Wayne County . In Newark , NY 31 intersects NY 88 . Farther east , in Lyons , it crosses NY 14 and the Erie Canal . At Clyde , NY 31 briefly overlaps NY 414 in the center of the village . Outside of Clyde , the Erie Canal veers off to the southeast while NY 31 continues east alongside the Rochester Subdivision to the hamlet of Savannah , the final centralized community within Wayne County . Here , NY 31 intersects NY 89 and follows it southward toward the Seneca County line . At the county line , NY 89 turns west to follow the county line while NY 31 heads southeast into Seneca County . The route proceeds across the northeastern most corner of the county before crossing into Cayuga County via a bridge over the Erie Canal after just 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) .
= = = Central New York = = =
Shortly after entering Cayuga County , NY 31 crosses and begins to parallel the New York State Thruway ( I @-@ 90 ) , which NY 31 does for most of its routing west of the outer Syracuse suburbs . In Port Byron , NY 31 intersects NY 38 in the center of the village . The routes embark on an overlap through the village before separating near the eastern edge of Port Byron . NY 31 continues alone to Weedsport , where the route meets NY 34 and County Route 31B ( CR 31B , formerly NY 31B ) north of the village . East of Weedsport , NY 31 and the Thruway are joined by the CSX Rochester Subdivision mainline , which runs down the center of the strip of land created by the Thruway to the north and NY 31 to the south .
Continuing into Onondaga County and the village of Jordan , NY 31 begins to make a turn northward while connecting to the northern end of NY 317 ( the former northern terminus of NY 31C ) a short distance north of the village center . With the turn complete , NY 31 traverses the CSX mainline and the Thruway via successive overpasses before returning to level ground and resuming an eastward alignment in the shadow of the Thruway . Once inside the limits of Van Buren , NY 31 separates from the Thruway , curving north and intersecting the western terminus of NY 173 in quick succession . The alignment remains fairly straight to the outskirts of Baldwinsville , where NY 31 turns to the right onto Downer Street to avoid the Seneca River to the immediate north . The eastward progression is limited , however , as NY 31 merges with NY 690 northward , traversing the Seneca River and straddling the western edge of Baldwinsville .
On the north bank of the river , NY 31 exits NY 690 but joins NY 370 at the end of the exit ramp . Together , NY 31 and 370 enter Baldwinsville , intersecting NY 48 in the village center . Three blocks from NY 48 , NY 370 splits from NY 31 . As NY 370 heads for downtown Syracuse , NY 31 continues east , overlapping NY 631 for a short distance before passing through Lysander New Community and crossing the Seneca River again . Now in the town of Clay , NY 31 meets NY 481 at an interchange in the shadow of the Great Northern Mall . NY 31 continues eastward through the town to Cicero , where it meets US 11 and I @-@ 81 at exit 30 . As NY 31 heads away from I @-@ 81 , Oneida Lake slowly becomes visible to the north . NY 31 comes within a mile ( about 1 @.@ 6 km ) of the lakeshore before turning slightly to parallel the shoreline . Near the Madison County line , here delimited by Chittenango Creek , NY 31 enters the western half of Bridgeport and meets the eastern terminus of NY 298 near the banks of the creek . NY 31 continues eastward , crossing the creek and entering Madison County and the remaining portion of Bridgeport .
East of Bridgeport , NY 31 moves closer to Oneida Lake , eventually coming to within 200 yards ( 180 m ) of the lakeshore at points . Near the eastern edge of Oneida Lake , NY 31 intersects NY 13 in the hamlet of South Bay . To the east , NY 31 meets the northern terminus of NY 316 at a junction adjacent to the Oneida County line , again marked by a body of water , the Oneida Creek . NY 31 traverses the creek and proceeds eastward through the Oneida County town of Verona . Northeast of Oneida , NY 31 intersects NY 46 adjacent to the path of the old routing of the Erie Canal . Farther east , NY 31 intersects NY 365 just north of its interchange with the Thruway . The Turning Stone Resort & Casino , located 2 miles ( 3 km ) south of the intersection , is accessible via NY 365 .
Past NY 365 , NY 31 passes over the Thruway ( I @-@ 90 ) for the final time . The route continues southeast into the town of Vernon and the village of the same name within , where NY 31 intersects NY 5 . NY 31 joins NY 5 , following the route eastward for about 0 @.@ 75 miles ( 1 @.@ 21 km ) out of the village to Stuhlman Road . Here , NY 31 splits from NY 5 and follows Stuhlman Road southward , passing to the east of Vernon Downs before intersecting Youngs Road . Stuhlman Road ends here ; however , NY 31 turns eastward onto Youngs Road , following it into the hamlet of Vernon Center . The route continues eastward into the center of the community , where it ends at a large traffic circle with NY 26 .
= = History = =
= = = Early designations = = =
In 1908 , the New York State Legislature established a statewide legislative route system that initially consisted of 37 unsigned routes . Much of what is now NY 31 west of Jordan became part of one of three routes , namely Route 14 , Route 20 , and Route 30 . Route 30 began at the Niagara Falls city line ( delimited by modern NY 61 ) and followed current NY 31 east to Sanborn , where it turned north onto modern NY 429 . The route followed current NY 429 to Ridge Road in Porter , at which point it turned to follow Ridge Road eastward to what is now NY 63 in Ridgeway . Route 30 went south here , utilizing modern NY 63 between Ridgeway and Medina . It rejoined what is now NY 31 in the latter location and proceeded eastward on roughly current NY 31 to the Rochester city line . In the vicinity of Brockport , however , Route 30 was routed on West Avenue and modern NY 19 instead . From the southeastern city line to NY 96 in the village of Pittsford , Monroe Avenue ( modern NY 31 ) was part of Route 14 , which turned south onto South Main Street in the center of Pittsford . Lastly , the segment what is now NY 31 between current NY 31F and NY 350 in the village of Macedon and NY 317 in Jordan was part of Route 20 .
Two spur routes were added to the definition of Route 30 in 1914 . One of these , a route connecting Lockport to Medina , utilized what is now NY 31 from the Lockport city line to NY 77 and from Gasport Road in Gasport to Medina ( via modern NY 31E ) . On March 1 , 1921 , several routes were altered or eliminated as part of a partial renumbering of the legislative route system . Among these was Route 30 , which was modified to follow Ridge Road instead between Ridgeway and Rochester . Its former routing from Medina eastward and the Lockport spur of Route 30 mostly became part of an extended Route 20 , which now began in North Tonawanda and followed modern NY 425 and Lower Mountain , Gothic Hill , and Upper Mountain Roads north and east through Cambria Center to Lockport . From Middleport to Medina , however , Route 20 was routed on modern NY 31 instead . East of Rochester , the section of Route 20 between Fairport and Macedon was reconfigured to utilize what is now NY 250 and NY 31 .
= = = Assignment = = =
The first set of posted routes in New York were assigned in 1924 . At this time , all of legislative Route 20 west of Rochester became part of NY 3 , a cross @-@ state route that began in North Tonawanda and ended in Plattsburgh . By 1926 , NY 31 was assigned to an alignment extending from Niagara Falls to Oneida . The route began at NY 34 ( now NY 104 ) in Niagara Falls and followed College Avenue east to the city line , from where it continued eastward to Rochester on the alignment of legislative Route 30 . Within the city of Rochester , NY 31 continued east on Ridge Road to Lake Avenue , where it turned south to enter downtown Rochester , becoming State Street at Lyell Avenue . At East Main Street , NY 31 resumed its eastward alignment , crossing the Genesee River and continuing on Main Street to Monroe Avenue , which , at the time , connected directly with Main Street . NY 31 turned right on Monroe Avenue , rejoining its present alignment of NY 31 near Union Street .
East of Rochester , NY 31 continued eastward to Jordan , utilizing the Rochester – Pittsford portion of legislative Route 14 , the Perinton – Jordan segment of Route 20 , and its current alignment between Pittsford and Perinton . From Weedsport to Jordan , NY 31 used a slightly different routing . It initially exited the village on Clinton Road and followed that road to Jordan , where NY 31 turned north and followed modern NY 317 and NY 31 north and east to modern CR 84 . NY 31 turned north here , using what is now Old Route 31 , current NY 31 , and Downer Street to reach Baldwinsville . Within the village , NY 31 followed Downer Street and what is now NY 48 along Syracuse Street between Downer and Genesee Streets . Outside of Baldwinsville , NY 31 remained on its current routing to Cicero , where it followed a more northerly alignment along Lakeshore Road . It rejoined its modern alignment near the eastern town line , and followed it east to what is now NY 316 in Lenox . From here , NY 31 went southeastward to NY 5 in Oneida by way of modern NY 316 and NY 46 .
= = = Truncations and extensions = = =
In the late 1920s , NY 31 was rerouted west of what is now NY 429 to follow Ridge Road to Lewiston , where it ended at then @-@ NY 34 . The former routing of NY 31 into downtown Niagara Falls was redesignated as NY 31A . In the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , NY 31 was realigned east of Oneida Valley to continue east to Utica by way of its modern alignment plus Spring and Lowell Roads and several city streets . At the same time , NY 3 was realigned to continue west to Niagara Falls over modern NY 31 , overlapping NY 31A west of Sanborn . Two other portions of NY 3 — from the modern junction of NY 31 and NY 77 east of Lockport to Gasport and between Middleport and Medina — were also realigned at this time to use modern NY 31 and the old routing of legislative Route 30 Spur along modern NY 31E , respectively .
What is now NY 31 from NY 365 in Verona to NY 5 in Vernon became part of NY 234 c . 1932 . The new north – south highway continued south to NY 26 in Vernon Center by way of NY 5 and Churton and Youngs Roads . Also around this time , NY 3 was realigned between Shawnee and Lockport to use Saunders Settlement Road . US 104 , meanwhile , was assigned c . 1935 , following Ridge Road from Niagara Falls east to Maple View in Oswego County . The assignment of the highway led to the reconfiguration of several state highways in western and central New York , including NY 3 and NY 31 . The latter route was rerouted west of Rochester to follow the former alignment of NY 3 to Niagara Falls while NY 3 was truncated to a location in northern Cayuga County . At the same time , NY 31A was reassigned to a new alignment extending from Middleport to Knowlesville via Medina .
NY 31 was truncated to NY 365 in Verona in the early 1940s ; as a result , NY 31 and NY 234 now had a common terminus . Despite this fact , the two routes continued to co @-@ exist for the next 40 years . On April 1 , 1981 , ownership and maintenance of the Churton Road portion of NY 234 was transferred from the state of New York to Oneida County as part of a highway maintenance swap between the two levels of government . Two of highways that the state received in return were Stuhlman Road ( CR 81 ) and the segment of Youngs Road ( CR 13 ) between Stuhlman Road and Churton Road ( NY 234 ) . The two new state highways did not become a rerouting of NY 234 , however , as the NY 234 designation was eliminated at this time . Instead , NY 31 was extended southeastward over NY 234 's former routing to Vernon , from where it continued to Vernon Center by way of NY 5 , Stuhlman and Youngs Roads . Churton Road was redesignated as CR 94 .
= = = Realignments = = =
Several small @-@ scale realignments of NY 31 have occurred over the years . NY 31 was altered c . 1938 to follow its modern alignment through Cicero , bypassing Lakeshore Road to the south . In the late 1930s , NY 31 was moved onto a new , more northern highway between Weedsport and Jordan . The section of the route between Middleport and Medina was shifted southward on January 1 , 1949 , to follow what had been NY 31A between the two villages . NY 31 's old northerly routing became NY 31E . The portion of NY 31 northeast of Jordan was straightened at some point in the late 1970s or early 1980s to bypass the hamlet of Jacks Reef to the south and east . In the early 1980s , NY 31 was rerouted near Baldwinsville to follow NY 690 and NY 370 into the village .
Around the same time as the Baldwinsville realignment , NY 31 was moved onto its current alignment southwest of Brockport , bypassing the village on Redman and Fourth Section Roads and eliminating an overlap with NY 19 . The new alignment of NY 31 utilized part of NY 31A , which was truncated westward to the junction of Redman and Fourth Section Roads . Reference markers along the Fourth Section Road segment still read " 31A " . The former routing of NY 31 into Brockport became NY 943B , an unsigned reference route , and later also became part of NY 19 Truck . The Redman Road portion of NY 31 , meanwhile , was initially maintained by Monroe County as part of CR 236 . In 2007 , ownership and maintenance of the Redman Road segment of NY 31 was transferred from Monroe County to the state of New York as part of a highway maintenance swap between the two levels of government . A bill ( S4856 , 2007 ) to enact the swap was introduced in the New York State Senate on April 23 and passed by both the Senate and the New York State Assembly on June 20 . The act was signed into law by Governor Eliot Spitzer on August 28 . Under the terms of the act , it took effect 90 days after it was signed into law ; thus , the maintenance swap officially took place on November 26 , 2007 .
= = = Rochester = = =
The portion of NY 31 in downtown Rochester between Brown Street and South Avenue runs along the old path of the Erie Canal through the city . When the canal was diverted to bypass the city to the south in 1920 , the canal bed became part of the Rochester Subway while a 4 @,@ 000 @-@ foot ( 1 @,@ 219 m ) bridge was built over the bed to carry a new street named Broad Street . None of Broad Street was initially part of NY 31 , however ; when NY 31 replaced NY 3 west of Rochester c . 1935 , it entered the city by way of NY 3 's old routing on Lyell Avenue and rejoined its original alignment at State Street . In the late 1930s , NY 31 was realigned through downtown to follow Smith and Bausch Streets east across the Genesee River and St. Paul Street and South Avenue south to Woodbury Boulevard , which at the time connected to Monroe Avenue one block to the east at South Clinton Avenue . NY 31 was altered once again c . 1964 to leave Lyell Avenue at Broad Street and follow West and East Broad Streets through downtown to South Avenue .
From West Main Street to South Avenue , the bridge supports were largely built with concrete while the supports on the section between Brown Street and West Main Street were mostly built with steel . Unlike the concrete supports , the steel supports flexed throughout the year , creating holes and gaps in the pavement on the deck above . The city of Rochester , which owns and maintains the section of NY 31 within the city , closed the outer northbound lane of West Broad Street ( westbound NY 31 ) between Brown and Main Streets in June 2008 for this reason .
In February 2010 , work began on a $ 17 @.@ 5 million project to either demolish or rehabilitate the Broad Street bridge between Brown Street and Exchange Boulevard ( NY 383 ) . As part of the project , the section of the bridge between Brown and West Main Streets would be removed — allowing for the canal bed to be filled in and the road to be rebuilt — while the segment between West Main Street and Exchange Boulevard would be rehabilitated . The portion of Broad Street between Allen and Main Streets was closed to all traffic in February and was originally scheduled to open on October 30 . It finally reopened to traffic on December 3 .
Farther north , work on the segment between Brown and Allen Streets was performed on one side at a time , keeping one side of Broad Street open at all times . The northbound lanes of this segment were closed on April 7 , and one direction of the segment was closed until November . It fully reopened on December 3 along with the West Main Street – Allen Street segment . Rehabilitation of Broad Street from West Main Street to Exchange Boulevard was expected to be completed in mid @-@ to @-@ late 2011 . The entire project , which also calls for landscape improvements to the area surrounding West Broad Street , was tentatively scheduled to be finished in February 2012 .
= = Suffixed routes = =
NY 31 has had as many as eight suffixed routes using six different designations ; all but three have been eliminated or renumbered .
The NY 31A designation has been used for three distinct highways , two of which briefly co @-@ existed :
The first NY 31A was a connector between NY 31 in Jordan and NY 5 in the village of Elbridge . It was assigned in the mid @-@ 1920s and absorbed by NY 41 in the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York .
The second NY 31A was an alternate route of NY 31 between Niagara Falls and Cambria via Sanborn . It was assigned in the late 1920s and mostly supplanted by a realigned NY 31 c . 1935 .
The current NY 31A ( 22 @.@ 89 miles or 36 @.@ 84 kilometres ) is an alternate route of NY 31 between the villages of Medina and Brockport . The route bypasses Medina , Albion , and Holley to the south via Clarendon . It was assigned c . 1935 .
The NY 31B designation has been used for two distinct highways :
The first NY 31B was a short @-@ lived connector in Cicero that linked Lakeshore Road ( at the time NY 31 ) to US 11 by way of Mud Mill Road . It was assigned c . 1932 and removed c . 1933 .
The second NY 31B was a connector linking NY 31 in Weedsport to NY 5 in the town of Elbridge . The designation was assigned c . 1933 and removed in 1980 . It was replaced with CR 31B in Cayuga County and CR 99 in Onondaga County .
NY 31C was a connector between NY 31 in Jordan to NY 5 in Elbridge . It was assigned c . 1933 and partially replaced by NY 317 in 2003 .
NY 31D was a spur that extended from the Orleans County line to NY 31 south of Brockport in Monroe County . The route was assigned c . 1935 and became the easternmost portion of NY 31A c . 1963 .
NY 31E ( 5 @.@ 29 miles or 8 @.@ 51 kilometres ) is an alternate route of NY 31 between the villages of Middleport and Medina . It was assigned in 1949 .
NY 31F ( 13 @.@ 59 miles or 21 @.@ 87 kilometres ) is an alternate route of NY 31 that extends from NY 96 in Pittsford to NY 31 in Macedon . The route bypasses Pittsford and southern Perinton to serve East Rochester and Fairport . It was assigned in 1949 .
= = Major intersections = =
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= John P. Daley =
John P. Daley ( born December 5 , 1946 ) is the 11th Ward Democratic Committeeman in Chicago , Illinois , a member of the Cook County Board of Commissioners ( 11th District ) , and the Chair of the Cook County Board Audit and Finance Committee . He has previously served in both the Illinois State Senate and the Illinois House of Representatives , as well as being employed as a school teacher . He is the son of former Chicago Mayor Richard J. Daley and brother of former Mayor Richard M. Daley , as well as William M. Daley , former White House Chief of Staff under President Obama and United States Secretary of Commerce under President Bill Clinton . Unlike his brothers , he continues to live in the neighborhood the family was raised in .
Daley is also an insurance broker who earns several hundred thousand dollars a year in this second job . In 2005 , the City of Chicago endured a hired truck corruption scandal involving bribe money . The case involved a federal investigation and criminal charges to Daley associates .
= = Personal = =
Daley was born and raised in the Bridgeport neighborhood on Chicago 's South Side . He is the second youngest child of former six @-@ term Chicago Mayor Richard J. Daley and Eleanor " Sis " Daley . Daley is an alumnus of St. Ignatius College Preparatory School and Loyola University . He was about eight years old when his father was first elected mayor and grew up at 3536 South Lowe with Chicago Police Department patrol cars famously stationed out front at all times , however the Daley children walked to school unescorted .
When John 's wedding to Mary Lou Briatta was announced in the April 24 , 1975 edition of theChicago Tribune , the headline read : " Daley 's son to wed hood 's daughter " due to his fiancees ' father , Louis Briatta , linked to connections with organized crime .
Daley is currently the only son of the former mayor who still lives in Bridgeport
= = Political career = =
Daley serves as the Ward Democratic Committeeman for the same 11th Ward that his father and brother served before him in the same capacity . He assumed the position in 1980 from his brother who left the post to become Cook County 's State 's Attorney . Daley oversees the ward 's 50 precincts and their captains as well as assistants year round . Among the duties of the ward committeemen are to determine Democratic endorsed nominees for office in their region . For example , when a United States Congressman such as Bill Lipinski leaves an unexpired term of office , Daley and other Ward Committeemen from affected districts such as Edward M. Burke and Michael Madigan meet to endorse a new candidate such as Dan Lipinski .
John Vitek resigned from the Illinois House of Representatives on September 19 , 1985 due to health reasons , which made way for Daley 's appointment . In the Illinois House of Representatives , Daley served the 21st District .
In 1989 , when his brother Mayor @-@ elect Richard Daley named Tim Degnan to his cabinet , John was able to move from the Illinois House of Representatives into Degnan 's seat in the Illinois Senate that Degnan had assumed when Richard Daley went on to become Cook County states attorney nine years earlier . In 1991 , the Republican Party controlled the decennial redistricting and the Illinois State Senate districts were drawn to place John Daley into an unfavorable majority Black district . In 1991 , Charles Bernardini vacated a seat on the Cook County Board . On February 3 , 1992 , after a few months of political dealings , Daley was voted in as the new 10th Chicago member of the Board by the other nine . Pamela Munizzi was Daley 's successors in both moves from Illinois General Assembly posts .
When John Stroger , who was first elected to the Cook County Board of Commissioners in 1970 and who served three terms as President beginning in 1994 , suffered a stroke on March 14 , 2006 , Daley was mentioned as a likely fill @-@ in who could be trusted until Stroger 's son , Todd Stroger , could run to replace his father as President and William Beavers could run for his seat in the November 2006 elections . Time described Daley as the second most powerful person on the board at the time . In 2001 , U.S. News & World Report felt Daley might rise to the presidency of the board himself on more than an interim basis .
On the Cook County Board , he serves as chairman of the Audit and Finance committees . He is a member of the Health & Hospital , Information Technology & Automation , and Rules & Administration committees .
= = Insurance career = =
In 1973 when he was 26 , Daley first met with controversy involving his insurance career . At that time , the press made an issue of his father 's decision to shift some of the city 's insurance business to the Evanston , Illinois insurance firm with which John had business ties .
In 2003 , Daley confirmed that he earned US $ 400 @,@ 000 annually from insurance commissions . In 2005 , a hired truck scandal involved a client of Daley who plead guilty in the bribes @-@ for @-@ work scandal . Several of Daley 's 11th Ward organization political operatives were charged or accused of being involved in the situation . Daley , however , escaped direct involvement in the ordeal , which was investigated by United States Attorney Patrick Fitzgerald in a federal investigation .
Daley 's business causes him many conflicts of interests in the course of business as a Commissioner on the Cook County Board . He frequently recuses himself or abstains from voting on various matters of business because of his extensive insurance network . Several of his clients do millions of dollars of business with the city and some are active in the city 's hired truck program . In addition to his own clients , he is an officer in another insurance company that has no city government business .
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= MV Geysir =
MV Geysir is a U.S.-flagged general cargo / container ship owned by TransAtlantic Lines LLC . Originally named Amazonia , the 90 @-@ meter ship was built by American Atlantic Shipping in 1980 to serve a route from the United States to Brazil . In 1983 , the ship was seized by the United States Maritime Administration for nonpayment of government loans .
In 1984 , it was renamed Rainbow Hope and leased by a small startup company to serve a route between the United States and the American military base at Keflavik , Iceland . As Rainbow Hope the ship was central in an international disagreement between the United States and Iceland that would span years , be compared by The Chicago Tribune to the plot of the movie The Mouse That Roared , and involve political personalities including Antonin Scalia , Ruth Bader Ginsburg , Ken Starr , Elizabeth Dole , George Schultz , and Ronald Reagan .
After finally losing the Iceland route , the ship was renamed Juno , bought by Norwegian owners and worked in the Norwegian trade from 1996 to 1999 . In 1999 , it was bought by TransAtlantic Lines , renamed Geysir and put back on the U.S. – Iceland route , leading to further tensions between the United States and Iceland . After the 2006 closing of the United States Naval Station in Keflavik , the ship has gone on to carrying cargo to U.S. activities in the Azores .
= = Construction = =
Then named Amazonia , the ship 's keel was laid on 1 January 1977 at Equitable Shipyard in Madisonville , Louisiana . Its hull , constructed from ordinary strength steel , has an overall length of 90 @.@ 1 metres ( 296 ft ) , a beam of 13 @.@ 7 metres ( 45 ft ) , and a moulded depth of 6 @.@ 7 metres ( 22 ft ) . Its three general cargo holds have a total bale capacity of 2 @,@ 945 cubic metres ( 104 @,@ 000 cu ft ) or grain capacity of 3 @,@ 341 cubic metres ( 118 @,@ 000 cu ft ) . The ship has a gross tonnage of 2 @,@ 266 GT and a total carrying capacity of 2 @,@ 032 long tons deadweight ( DWT ) .
Amazonia was built with eight ballast tanks , having a total ballast capacity of 770 cubic metres ( 27 @,@ 000 cu ft ) . Other major features of the ship 's structure include its five diesel oil tanks , two lubricating oil tanks , two potable water tanks , a chain tank , and a waste water tank . The ship was built with two cranes , which have since been removed .
The ship features a MAN B & W Diesel A / S 8L28 / 32A main engine with eight 280 @-@ millimetre ( 11 in ) cylinders with a 320 @-@ millimetre ( 13 in ) stroke for maximum continuous power of 1 @,@ 961 @.@ 98 kilowatts ( 2 @,@ 631 @.@ 06 hp ) driving a bronze propeller . Electrical power is generated by two 400 kilowatts ( 540 hp ) auxiliary generators . Construction of the ship was completed in 1980 .
= = History = =
In the early 1980s , the company American Atlantic Shipping , a wholly owned subsidiary of American Maritime Industries , built three 2 @,@ 000 DWT multi @-@ purpose ships to carry cargo between the United States and Brazil : the Amazonia and her two sister @-@ ships , America and Antilla . In 1983 , the United States Maritime Administration took possession of the three ships after American Atlantic defaulted on Title XI payments .
= = = Rainbow Hope = = =
In May 1984 , entrepreneur Mark W. Yonge of Monmouth County , New Jersey founded Rainbow Navigation for the sole purpose of serving the route between the United States and United States military base at Keflavik , Iceland . Using money he earned from a ship @-@ chartering company , Younge chartered Amazonia from the Department of Transportation and renamed it Rainbow Hope . The company consisted of one ship , a crew of 22 , and seven full @-@ time employees . Icelandic companies had serviced the Iceland route since the late 1960s . Yonge submitted a bid quoting the same rates that the Icelandic companies were charging and invoked the Cargo Preference Act of 1904 . Rainbow won an $ 11 million contract to carry 70 % of the cargo on the route , and immediately began to work the route under contract to the Military Sealift Command .
According to an official of the U.S. State Department speaking on the condition of anonymity , " Almost right at the start , Iceland let their feelings be known about losing the business ... For the Icelanders , who are entirely dependent on seagoing trade , it was an issue of national sovereignty . " Minister Counselor for the Icelandic Embassy in Washington , Hordur Bjarnason informed the Reagan Administration that Iceland " could not accept that a foreign shipping company would have a monopoly on carrying the cargo to Iceland . "
Before Rainbow Hope ever left the pier , the Department of Transportation approached Rainbow trying to defuse the situation . The New York Times characterized the ensuing fight as Rainbow Navigation versus " the Navy , the National Security Council and the Departments of State , Defense , Justice and Transportation to the President himself . " During 1985 , Iceland raised the matter with the United States Department of State at least six times , including a meeting in Lisbon in June of that year between Secretary of State George Schultz and Foreign Minister of Iceland Geir Hallgrimsson . Schultz described the matter as a " major irritant in U.S. – Icelandic relations " and relations were strained to the point that Iceland threatened to start boarding U.S.-flagged ships and to close the Keflavik base .
Schultz 's State Department attempted to solve the problem in a number of ways . It tried and failed to have the 1904 Cargo Preference Act amended . It made an offer to pay Icelandic shipping firms monetary damages for loss of the route , which was refused . President Reagan asked United States Secretary of the Navy John F. Lehman , Jr. to determine if Rainbow 's claim under the Cargo Preference Act was valid , and on 8 August 1985 , Lehman declared Rainbow 's rates to be " excessive and unreasonable . " Within four days , Rainbow pressed suits in United States District Court against " the Department of the Navy and various other federal agencies " as well as " the Secretary of the Navy and various other government officials in their personal capacities . " The suits demanded declaratory and injunctive relief from the federal agencies and monetary damages from the named individuals . The International Organization of Masters , Mates & Pilots , representing Rainbow Hope 's crew , joined Rainbow in the suits .
On 15 October 1985 , the District Court issued its order , granting Rainbow 's requests for declaratory and injunctive relief , and ordered the government to withdraw a call for new bids . The government appealed the finding . On 27 January 1986 , the panel of the D.C. Circuit Court of appeals consisting of future Supreme Court Justice Antonin Scalia , future Starr Report special prosecutor Kenneth Starr and Senior Circuit Judge Carl E. McGowan upheld Rainbow 's victory . During the appeal , the government 's attorneys conceded that Lehman 's finding of Rainbow 's rates to be " excessive and unreasonable " was politically motivated , and the court found some arguments put forth by Shultz and Lehman " extraordinary " and having " no rational basis " . In particular , Scalia wrote that the " factual basis for ( Lehman 's ) assertion ( wa ) s utterly lacking . " During this time , Transportation Secretary Elizabeth Dole supported Rainbow , according to the Chicago Tribune , as a viable employer of United States mariners .
Eight months later , the government took a different approach to solve its problem with Rainbow , in the form of the 1986 Treaty Between the United States of America and the Republic of Iceland to Facilitate Their Defense Relationship . This treaty , negotiated by future Secretary of Veteran Affairs Ed Derwinski , updated the 1951 U.S. – Iceland treaty , adding an explicit exemption of the Cargo Preference Act , guaranteeing 35 % of the contract would go to Icelandic companies , and giving Icelandic companies an opportunity to compete for up to 65 % of the contract . " At the time , Derwinski said , " If we don 't solve this problem , then the U.S. will be in a cod war " . The United States Senate ratified the treaty one day before Reagan left for Reykjavik to attend a summit meeting with Mikhail Gorbachev . Reagan met with the President of Iceland , Vigdís Finnbogadóttir , before seeing Gorbachev , giving his guarantee that the majority of the contract would be returned to Icelandic shipping companies .
Though a tumultuous time , Rainbow Hope kept at least part of the Iceland route from 1987 through late 1990 . In the 1987 bidding , Rainbow was the only U.S. company to bid . Bids from Icelandic competitors were lower , giving them 65 % of the carriage rights , while Rainbow Hope secured the remaining 35 % . In the 1988 bidding , the Navy changed the bidding process in a way Rainbow found unfair , and Rainbow took a new case to the Washington D.C. District Court . By May 1988 , the court had issued a preliminary injunction halting the bidding process and ordering carriage be continued under the terms of the 1987 contracts . In November 1988 , the court granted a summary judgement for Rainbow , finding the new bidding system illegal . This judgement held for nearly two years , but was ultimately overturned on 24 August 1990 , when a panel of Judges Ruth Bader Ginsburg , Douglas H. Ginsburg and David B. Sentelle of the U.S. Court of Appeals , Washington D.C. Circuit , reversed the lower court 's decision .
= = = = Operational incidents = = = =
In addition to the almost non @-@ stop succession of challenges related to the contracts on the U.S. – Iceland run , Rainbow Hope was involved in a few notable operational incidents . The most notable of these involves a labor strike that prevented Rainbow Hope from discharging cargo , keeping the vessel at anchor for 22 days . The ship was scheduled to depart bound for Iceland on 24 September 1984 , but the U.S. Government and Rainbow were aware there was the possibility of a strike by Icelandic longshoremen scheduled to begin on 4 October . Rainbow Hope arrived at Njarðvík , Iceland on 8 October , while the strike was already underway . Rainbow repeatedly contacted the U.S. government for instructions , but none were given . The ship remained idle at anchor for 22 days unable to discharge its cargo . The strike ended on 30 October , and the cargo was delivered the next day . The government paid Rainbow $ 266 @,@ 370 @.@ 50 for the delivery , but Rainbow filed suit in the 3rd Circuit Court seeking remuneration for the extra 22 days of waiting . The court denied the claim , and appeals lasted until 24 June 1991 , when the appeals court upheld the earlier decision .
Other operational incidents of note include a 1988 fire during a return voyage from Iceland to the United States which forced the ship to stop in Newfoundland for repairs , and a crane breakdown on 15 November 1991 during cargo operations that required repairs be made in Praia da Vitória , Azores .
= = = Juno = = =
The ship 's certificate of inspection was deactivated by the United States Coast Guard on 9 May 1994 , rendering it unable to move . On 28 March 1996 , the vessel had been sold to " owners in Jamaica " and the Coast Guard prevented the ship from receiving oil and proceeding from its berth until a valid certificate of financial responsibility could be provided .
In late 1996 , the ship was purchased by the company Noro of Haugesund , Norway under a 6 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 Norwegian krone ( approximately $ 800 @,@ 000 in 1998 U.S. dollars ) mortgage by Sparebank 1 SR @-@ Bank . On 31 December 1996 , the new owner registered the ship under the Norwegian International Ship Register and wages for the journey to Norway were guaranteed by Sparebanken Rogaland . The ship was inspected in Hampton Roads , Virginia , on 22 April 1997 . On 30 June 1998 it was transferred to the Norwegian Ship Register . It was spotted by amateur enthusiasts in Haugesund on 26 October 1998 . On 12 January 1999 , the ship was renamed Juno . On 17 November 1999 , the ship was declared free of financial encumbrances and sold to the American company TransAtlantic Lines .
= = = Geysir = = =
In 1997 , Gudmundur Kjærnested decided to start a shipping company to serve the Iceland route . Then an Icelandic citizen , educated in the United States , and having worked at Van Ommeren shipping for seven years , he was familiar with the route and its history . Kjærnested 's college roommate at Babson College , Brandon C. Rose , came from an affluent family whose yearly business revenues were estimated at $ 200 million per year . Rose offered to back the company , and together they started the two companies TransAtlantic Lines LLC and TransAtlantic Lines Iceland in February 1998 . The two were originally even partners in both ventures . Shortly thereafter , they accepted an offer from shipping company American Automar to purchase 51 % of the company , along with a never @-@ exercised option to buy 51 % of another Icelandic company largely owned by Kjærnested , Atlantsskip .
The company made several preparations to bid for the Iceland contract . Rose secured a million @-@ dollar letter of credit from the State Bank of Long Island to back early operations . The company did not yet own any ships , but did secure four letters from U.S. shipping companies pledging to supply vessels sufficient to cover the charter requirements . One of the pledged vessels was the supply boat Native Dancer .
Eight bids for the 1998 U.S. – Iceland run were solicited by the Military Traffic Management Command on 30 January 1998 , and six bids were received . Observers speculate that the bids were from the Icelandic company Eimskip , Dutch shipping company Van Ommeren , Atlantsskip , TransAtlantic Lines , and TransAtlantic Lines Iceland . In September 1998 , the Military Traffic Management Command awarded 65 % of the Iceland contract to TransAtlantic Lines Iceland , the lowest overall bidder , and the remaining 35 % to the TransAtlantic Lines LLC , the lowest bidder among American shipping companies . The portion awarded to TransAtlantic Lines LLC had a cumulative total value of $ 5 @,@ 519 @,@ 295 and was set to expire by 31 October 2000 .
Within a month , TransAtlantic re @-@ flagged Juno to the United States and renamed it Geysir at the Port of Jacksonville . In response to the awards , the government of Iceland lodged a protest with the U.S. State Department , arguing that " TLI was not a true Icelandic shipping company " and " lacks the necessary experience , technical capability , financial responsibility , and material connection with Iceland " Shipping companies Van Ommeren Lines ( USA ) and Eimskip of Iceland , which had previously serviced the Iceland route , sued the United States protesting the award . The district court found for Van Ommeren and Eimskip , requiring the Army to restart the bidding process . TransAtlantic appealed the decision , and on 11 January 2000 the Court of Appeals reversed the lower court 's decision , finally securing the contract for TransAtlantic .
On 4 December 2000 , members of the Coast Guard Marine Safety Office observed an accidental discharge of approximately 250 US gallons ( 950 l ) of diesel fuel from one of Geysir 's tank vents into the Elizabeth River . In 2001 , the Coast Guard of Iceland detained the vessel leading the American Bureau of Shipping to temporarily revoke the ship 's safety construction certificate and safety equipment certificate .
On 8 September 2006 , with the Cold War well over , the United States ceremonially disestablished Naval Air Station Keflavik and its twenty @-@ three tenant commands , a process begun that March . The closure marked the end of the 65 @-@ year military presence , the last 45 years of which coordinated under the United States Navy with activities of the National Guard , Air Force , and Army .
On 3 February 2009 the United States Transportation Command awarded TransAtlantic a $ 15 @,@ 078 @,@ 334 contract to carry cargo between the United States and the terminal in Praia da Vitoria , Azores . This contract , serviced by the Geysir , is expected to be completed by 29 February 2012 , and was a 100 percent Small Business Set Aside acquisition with two bids received .
As of 2010 , the ship is owned and operated by TransAtlantic Lines LLC . The company currently owns and operates 5 vessels , including one tug @-@ and @-@ barge combination . Four of these vessels are chartered by the Military Sealift Command , and perform duties such as delivering cargo to U.S. military activities in Diego Garcia and Guantanamo Bay , Cuba . TransAtlantic Lines has no collective bargaining agreements with seagoing unions .
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= 1926 Lithuanian coup d 'état =
The 1926 Lithuanian coup d 'état ( Lithuanian : 1926 @-@ ųjų perversmas ) was a military coup d 'état in Lithuania that resulted in the replacement of the democratically elected government with a conservative authoritarian government led by Antanas Smetona . The coup took place on 17 December 1926 and was largely organized by the military ; Smetona 's role remains the subject of debate . The coup brought the Lithuanian Nationalist Union , the most conservative party at the time , to power . Before 1926 , it had been a fairly new and insignificant nationalistic party : in 1926 , its membership numbered about 2 @,@ 000 and it had won only three seats in the parliamentary elections . The Lithuanian Christian Democratic Party , the largest party in the Seimas at the time , collaborated with the military and provided constitutional legitimacy to the coup , but did not accept any major posts in the new government and withdrew in May 1927 . After the military handed power over to the civilian government , it ceased playing a direct role in political life . Smetona and his party , however , remained in power until 1940 , when Lithuania was occupied by the Soviet Union .
= = Background = =
Lithuania was incorporated into the Russian Empire in 1795 . It was occupied by Germany during World War I , and declared itself independent on 16 February 1918 . The next two years were marked by the turbulence of the Lithuanian Wars of Independence , delaying international recognition and the establishment of political institutions . The newly formed army fought the Bolsheviks , the Bermontians , and Poland . In October 1920 , Poland annexed Vilnius , the historic and modern @-@ day capital of Lithuania , and the surrounding area ; this controversial action was the source of ongoing tension between the two powers during the interwar period . Lithuania 's second @-@ largest city , Kaunas , was designated the interim capital of the state .
The Constituent Assembly of Lithuania , elected in April 1920 , adopted a constitution in August 1922 ; elections to the First Seimas took place in October 1922 . The most @-@ disputed constitutional issue was the role of the presidency . Eventually , the powers of government were heavily weighted in favor of the unicameral parliament ( Seimas ) . Members of the Seimas were elected by the people to three @-@ year terms . Each new Seimas directly elected the president , who was authorized to appoint a prime minister . The Prime Minister was then charged with confirming a cabinet of ministers . The presidential term was limited to no more than two three @-@ year terms in succession . The parliamentary system proved unstable : eleven cabinets were formed between November 1918 and December 1926 .
The principal political actors at the time of the coup had been active during the independence movement and the republic 's first few years . Antanas Smetona had served as Lithuania 's first president between April 1919 and June 1920 ; he then withdrew from formal political involvement , although he published political criticism , for which he served a brief prison term in 1923 . Augustinas Voldemaras represented Lithuania at the Treaty of Brest @-@ Litovsk in 1918 and later served as Prime Minister , Minister of Defense , and Minister of Foreign Affairs . He resigned from the government in 1920 , although he continued to write and publish political criticism , for which he also was sentenced to a short prison term . Kazys Grinius had chaired a post @-@ World War I repatriation commission , and went on to serve as head of the 6th Cabinet of Ministers and in the First and Second Seimas . Mykolas Sleževičius served as prime minister in 1918 and 1919 , oversaw the organization of the Lithuanian armed forces in 1920 , and was a member of the Second Seimas between 1922 and 1926 .
= = 1926 parliamentary election = =
Between 8 and 10 May 1926 , regular elections to the Third Seimas were held . For the first time since 1920 , the bloc led by the Lithuanian Christian Democratic Party , which strongly supported the Roman Catholic Church and its clergy , did not obtain a majority . The Lithuanian people were disillusioned with this party , as its members had been involved in several financial scandals : Juozas Purickas had been using his diplomatic privileges in Moscow to deal in cocaine and saccharin ; Eliziejus Draugelis and Petras Josiukas had purchased cheap low @-@ quality smoked pig fat from Germany instead of buying from Lithuanian farmers ; and the Minister of Finance , Vytautas Petrulis , had transferred a large sum of money from the state budget to his personal account . The party 's strategies for coping with an economic crisis were perceived as ineffective . An additional tension arose when Concordat of 1925 unilaterally recognized Vilnius as an ecclesiastical province of Poland , despite Lithuanian requests to govern Vilnius directly from Rome , which however , was not Vatican policy or tradition . The decision implied that the Pope had recognized Polish claims to Vilnius , and constituted a loss of prestige for the Christian Democrats . Diplomatic relations were severed and they did not improve when in April 1926 Pope Pius XI unilaterally established and reorganized Lithuanian ecclesiastical province without regard to Lithuanian proposals and demands .
The Peasant Popular Union and Social Democrats formed a left @-@ wing coalition in opposition to the Christian Democrats . But the coalition still did not constitute a majority , and it went on to add representatives of minorities in Lithuania – Germans from the Klaipėda Region , Poles , and Jews . On 7 June , Kazys Grinius was elected the 3rd President of Lithuania and Mykolas Sleževičius became the Prime Minister . Both were members of the Peasant Popular Union .
= = Causes = =
The reasons for the coup remain the subject of debate . The domestic situation was definitely troubled ; historians have pointed to specific European precedents in the 1920s that may have had an influence , including the 1922 Coup by Benito Mussolini in Italy and the May 1926 Coup by Józef Piłsudski in Poland . Other historians have cited more general trends in Europe that resulted , by the end of the 1930s , in more or less undemocratic governments in almost all European nations . Democratic immaturity was displayed by an unwillingness to compromise , and the frequent shifts of government created a chronic perception of crisis . Historians have also discussed an exaggerated fear of communism as a factor , along with the lack of a stable center that could reach out to parties on the left and right ; these parties accused each other of Bolshevism and fascism . According to historian Anatol Lieven , Smetona and Voldemaras saw themselves as the dispossessed true heroes of the independence movement , who despaired of returning to power by democratic means .
After the May elections , the Grinius / Sleževičius government lifted martial law , still in effect in Kaunas and other localities , restored democratic freedoms , and granted broad amnesty to political prisoners . For the first time , Lithuania had become truly democratic . However , the change did not meet with universal approval . Many of the released prisoners were communists who quickly used the new freedoms of speech to organize a protest , attended by approximately 400 people , in Kaunas on 13 June . The protest was dispersed . The new government 's opposition used this protest as the platform for a public attack on the government , alleging that it was allowing illegal organizations ( the Communist Party of Lithuania was still outlawed ) to freely continue their activities . Despite its local nature , the incident was presented as a major threat to Lithuania and its military ; the government was said to be incapable of dealing with this threat .
Further allegations of " Bolshevization " were made after Lithuania signed a non @-@ aggression treaty with the Soviet Union on 28 September 1926 . The treaty was conceived by the previous government , which had been dominated by the Christian Democrats . However , Christian Democrats voted against the treaty , while Antanas Smetona strongly supported it . It drew sharp criticism as Lithuania exchanged repeated recognition of its rights to the Vilnius Region for international isolation as the treaty demanded that Lithuania make no other alliances with other countries . At the time , the Soviet Union was not a member of the League of Nations ; France and the UK were looking for reliable partners in Eastern Europe and the Baltic states were contemplating a union on their own . On 21 November , a student demonstration against " Bolshevization " was forcibly dispersed by the police . About 600 Lithuanian students gathered near a communist @-@ led workers ' union . The police , fearing armed clashes between the two groups , intervened and attempted to stop the demonstration . Seven police officers were injured and thirteen students were arrested . In an attempt to legally overthrow the government , the Christian Democrats suggested a motion of no confidence in response to the incident , but it was rejected .
Another public outcry arose when the government , seeking the support of ethnic minorities , allowed the opening of over 80 Polish schools in Lithuania . At the time , the Polish government was closing Lithuanian schools in the fiercely contested Vilnius Region . The coalition government directly confronted the Christian Democrats when it proposed a 1927 budget that reduced salaries to the clergy and subsidies to Catholic schools . Further controversies were created when the government 's military reform program was revealed as a careless downsizing . Some 200 conservative military officers were fired . The military began planning the coup .
= = Preparations = =
There is considerable academic debate concerning Antanas Smetona 's involvement in planning the coup . In 1931 , Augustinas Voldemaras , who had since been ousted from the government and forced into exile , wrote that Smetona had been planning the coup since 1925 . Historian Zenonas Butkus asserted that an idea of a coup had been raised as early as 1923 . However , this time frame is disputed , since the military did not take action until the autumn of 1926 . Smetona 's personal secretary , Aleksandras Merkelis , held that Smetona knew about the coup , but neither inspired nor organized it . Before the coup , Smetona had been the editor of Lietuvis ( The Lithuanian ) , and a shift in its orientation that took place in late November has been cited as evidence that he was not informed about the coup until then . Before the issue of 25 November appeared , the newspaper was critical of the government and of the Christian Democrats . On that date , however , the newspaper published several articles about the 21 November student protest and an article headlined Bolshevism 's Threat to Lithuania . The latter article argued that the communists posed a genuine threat and that the current government was incapable of dealing with it . After that date , the newspaper ceased issuing criticisms of the Christian Democrats .
On 20 September 1926 , five military officers , led by Captain Antanas Mačiuika , organized a committee . Generals Vladas Nagevičius and Jonas Bulota were among its members . About a month later , another group , the so @-@ called Revolutionary General Headquarters ( Lithuanian : revoliucinis generalinis štabas ) , was formed . The two groups closely coordinated their efforts . By 12 December , the military had already planned detailed actions , investigated the areas where the action was to take place , and informed the leaders of the Lithuanian National Union and Christian Democratic parties . Rumors of the plan reached the Social Democrats , but they took no action . Just before the coup , disinformation about movements of the Polish army in the Vilnius Region was disseminated ; its purpose was to induce troops in Kaunas that would potentially have opposed the coup to move towards Vilnius .
= = The coup = =
Late in the evening of 16 December , the Soviet consul informed Sleževičius about a possible coup the following night , but Sleževičius did not pay much attention to this warning . The coup began on the night of 17 December 1926 . The 60th birthday of President Kazys Grinius was being celebrated in Kaunas , attended by numerous state officials . The 1927 budget , with its cuts to military and church spending , had not yet been passed . During the night , military forces occupied central military and government offices and arrested officials . Colonel Kazys Škirpa , who had initiated the military reform program , tried to rally troops against the coup , but was soon overpowered and arrested . The Seimas was dispersed and President Grinius was placed under house arrest . Colonel Povilas Plechavičius was released from prison ( he had been serving a 20 @-@ day sentence for a fist fight with another officer ) and declared dictator of Lithuania . Later that day , Colonel Plechavičius asked Smetona to become the new President and normalize the situation . The military strove to create the impression that the coup had been solely their initiative , that Smetona had not been involved at all , and that he had joined it only in response to an invitation to serve as the " savior of the nation " . Prime Minister Sleževičius resigned , and President Grinius appointed Augustinas Voldemaras as the new Prime Minister .
Smetona and Voldemaras , both representing the Lithuanian National Union , invited the Christian Democrats to join them in forming a new government that would restore some degree of constitutional legitimacy . The party agreed reluctantly ; they were worried about their prestige . Looking toward the near future , the Christian Democrats reasoned that they could easily win any upcoming Seimas elections , regaining power by constitutional means and avoiding direct association with the coup . In keeping with this strategy , they allowed members of the Lithuanian National Union to take over the most prominent posts .
Initially , President Grinius refused to resign , but he was eventually persuaded that Polish invasion was imminent and that Smetona had sworn to uphold the constitution . On 19 December , 42 delegates of the Seimas met ( without the Social Democrats or the Peasant Popular Union ) and elected Aleksandras Stulginskis as the new Speaker of the Seimas . Stulginskis was the formal head of state for a few hours before Smetona was elected as the President ( 38 deputies voted for , two against , and two abstained ) . The Seimas also passed a vote of confidence in the new cabinet formed by Voldemaras . Constitutional formalities were observed thereby . The Lithuanian National Union secured other major roles : Antanas Merkys assumed office as Minister of Defense and Ignas Musteikis as Minister of the Interior .
= = Aftermath = =
The official rationale given by the military was that their actions had prevented an imminent Bolshevik coup , allegedly scheduled for 20 December . Martial law was declared . About 350 communists were arrested and four leaders ( Karolis Požėla , Juozas Greifenbergeris , Kazys Giedrys and Rapolas Čarnas ) were executed on 29 December . This was a serious blow to the Communist Party of Lithuania and it was inactive for a time . No concrete evidence was ever found that the communists had planned any coups . Other political parties and organizations were not brutalized and , according to the military , no casualties were associated with the coup , apart from the four executions . However , other sources cite the case of Captain Vincas Jonuška , who was allegedly shot by the guards of the Presidential Palace , and died a day later in a hospital .
International recognition of the new government did not prove to be difficult . The Western powers were not pleased with the Third Seimas when it ratified the non @-@ aggression treaty with the Soviet Union in September . They were looking for a government that would change the priorities of Lithuanian foreign policy . It was therefore not surprising that the British Daily Telegraph , the French Le Matin , and the United States ' New York Times wrote that the coup was expected to curtail the move towards friendly relations with the Soviet Union and normalize relations with Poland ; the anti @-@ democratic and unconstitutional nature of the coup was not emphasized . The Western press reported the news calmly , or assessed it as a positive development in the Lithuanian struggle against Bolshevism . International diplomatic opinion held that a strong authoritarian leader would provide internal stability , and that even during the earlier years of the republic Lithuania had not been genuinely democratic , since many essential freedoms were curtailed under martial law .
The Christian Democrats , believing that the coup was merely a temporary measure , demanded that new elections to the Seimas be held , but Smetona stalled . He predicted that his party would not be popular and that he would not be re @-@ elected president . In the meantime , the Nationalists were discussing constitutional changes that would increase the powers of the executive branch while curbing the powers of the Seimas . In April a group of populists tried to organize a coup " to defend the constitution , " but the plans were discovered and the rebels were arrested . Among the detainees was a member of the Seimas , Juozas Pajaujis . On 12 April 1927 , the Seimas protested this arrest by delivering a motion of no confidence against the Voldemaras government . Smetona , using his constitutional right to do so , dissolved the Seimas . The constitution was violated , however , when no new elections were held within two months . In April , Christian Democratic newspapers , which had been calling for new elections , were censored . On 2 May 1927 , Christian Democrats withdrew from the government , thinking that the Nationalists acting alone would not be able to sustain it . As a result , the Lithuanian National Union took the upper hand in its dispute with a much larger and influential rival and assumed the absolute control of the state .
The 1926 coup was a major event in interwar Lithuania ; the dictatorship would go on for 14 years . In 1935 , the Smetona government outlawed the activities of all other political parties . The coup continues to be a difficult issue for Lithuanians , since the Soviet Union would go on to describe its subsequent occupation of Lithuania as a liberation from fascism . Encyclopædia Britannica , however , describes the regime as authoritarian and nationalistic rather than fascist . The coup 's apologists have described it as a corrective to an extreme form of parliamentarianism , justifiable in light of Lithuania 's political immaturity .
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= Mauna Kea =
Mauna Kea ( English pronunciation : / ˌmɔːnə ˈkeɪ.ə / or / ˌmaʊnə ˈkeɪ.ə / , Hawaiian : [ ˈmɐwnə ˈkɛjə ] ) , is a dormant volcano on the island of Hawaiʻi . Standing 4 @,@ 207 m ( 13 @,@ 802 ft ) above sea level , its peak is the highest point in the state of Hawaii . Much of the mountain is under water ; when measured from its oceanic base , Mauna Kea is over 10 @,@ 000 m ( 33 @,@ 000 ft ) tall , making it the world 's tallest mountain from base to summit , beating out even Mount Everest . Mauna Kea is about a million years old , and has thus passed the most active shield stage of life hundreds of thousands of years ago . In its current post @-@ shield state , its lava is more viscous , resulting in a steeper profile . Late volcanism has also given it a much rougher appearance than its neighboring volcanoes ; contributing factors include the construction of cinder cones , the decentralization of its rift zones , the glaciation on its peak , and the weathering effects of the prevailing trade winds . Mauna Kea last erupted 6 @,@ 000 to 4 @,@ 000 years ago and is now considered dormant .
In Hawaiian mythology , the peaks of the island of Hawaiʻi are sacred . An ancient law allowed only high @-@ ranking aliʻi to visit its peak . Ancient Hawaiians living on the slopes of Mauna Kea relied on its extensive forests for food , and quarried the dense volcano @-@ glacial basalts on its flanks for tool production . When Europeans arrived in the late 18th century , settlers introduced cattle , sheep and game animals , many of which became feral and began to damage the mountain 's ecology . Mauna Kea can be ecologically divided into three sections : an alpine climate at its summit , a Sophora chrysophylla – Myoporum sandwicense ( or māmane – naio ) forest on its flanks , and an Acacia koa – Metrosideros polymorpha ( or koa – ʻōhiʻa ) forest , now mostly cleared by the former sugar industry , at its base . In recent years , concern over the vulnerability of the native species has led to court cases that have forced the Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Resources to eradicate all feral species on the mountain .
With its high altitude , dry environment , and stable airflow , Mauna Kea 's summit is one of the best sites in the world for astronomical observation . Since the creation of an access road in 1964 , thirteen telescopes funded by eleven countries have been constructed at the summit . The Mauna Kea Observatories are used for scientific research across the electromagnetic spectrum from visible light to radio , and comprise the largest such facility in the world . Their construction on a " sacred landscape " continues to be a topic of debate .
= = Geology = =
Mauna Kea is one of five hotspot volcanoes that form the island of Hawaii , the largest and youngest island of the Hawaiian – Emperor seamount chain . Of these five volcanoes , Mauna Kea is the fourth oldest and fourth most active . It began as a preshield volcano driven by the Hawaii hotspot around one million years ago , and became exceptionally active during its shield stage until 500 @,@ 000 years ago . Mauna Kea entered its quieter post @-@ shield stage 250 @,@ 000 to 200 @,@ 000 years ago , and is currently dormant . Mauna Kea does not have a visible summit caldera , but contains a number of small cinder and pumice cones near its summit . A former summit caldera may have been filled and buried by later summit eruption deposits .
Mauna Kea is over 3 @,@ 200 km3 ( 770 cu mi ) in volume , so massive that it and its neighbor , Mauna Loa , depress the ocean crust beneath it by 6 km ( 4 mi ) . The volcano continues to slip and flatten under its own weight at a rate of less than 0 @.@ 2 mm ( 0 @.@ 01 in ) per year . Much of its mass lies east of its present summit . Mauna Kea stands 4 @,@ 205 m ( 13 @,@ 800 ft ) above sea level , just 35 m ( 110 ft ) higher than its neighbor Mauna Loa , and is the highest point in the state of Hawaii . Measured from its base on the ocean floor , it rises over 10 @,@ 000 m ( 33 @,@ 000 ft ) , significantly greater than the elevation of Mount Everest above sea level .
Like all Hawaiian volcanoes , Mauna Kea has been created as the Pacific tectonic plate has moved over the Hawaiian hotspot in the Earth 's underlying mantle . The Hawaii island volcanoes are the most recent evidence of this process that , over 70 million years , has created the 6 @,@ 000 km ( 3 @,@ 700 mi ) -long Hawaiian Ridge – Emperor seamount chain . The prevailing , though not completely settled , view is that the hotspot has been largely stationary within the planet 's mantle for much , if not all of the Cenozoic Era . However , while Hawaiian volcanism is well @-@ understood and extensively studied , there remains no definite explanation of the mechanism that causes the hotspot effect .
Lava flows from Mauna Kea overlapped in complex layers with those of its neighbors during its growth . Most prominently , Mauna Kea is built upon older flows from Kohala to the northwest , and intersects the base of Mauna Loa to the south . The original eruptive fissures ( rift zones ) in the flanks of Mauna Kea were buried by its post @-@ shield volcanism . Hilo Ridge , a prominent underwater rift zone structure east of Mauna Kea , was once believed to be a part of the volcano ; however , it is now understood to be a rift zone of Kohala that has been affected by younger Mauna Kea flows .
The shield @-@ stage lavas that built the enormous main mass of the mountain are tholeiitic basalts , like those of Mauna Loa , created through the mixing of primary magma and subducted oceanic crust . They are covered by the oldest exposed rock strata on Mauna Kea , the post @-@ shield alkali basalts of the Hāmākua Volcanics , which erupted between 250 @,@ 000 and 70 – 65 @,@ 000 years ago . The most recent volcanic flows are hawaiites and mugearites : they are the post @-@ shield Laupāhoehoe Volcanics , erupted between 65 @,@ 000 and 4 @,@ 000 years ago . These changes in lava composition accompanied the slow reduction of the supply of magma to the summit , which led to weaker eruptions that then gave way to isolated episodes associated with volcanic dormancy . The Laupāhoehoe lavas are more viscous and contain more volatiles than the earlier tholeiitic basalts ; their thicker flows significantly steepened Mauna Kea 's flanks . In addition , explosive eruptions have built cinder cones near the summit . These cones are the most recent eruptive centers of Mauna Kea . Its present summit is dominated by lava domes and cinder cones up to 1 @.@ 5 km ( 0 @.@ 9 mi ) in diameter and hundreds of meters tall .
Mauna Kea is the only Hawaiian volcano with distinct evidence of glaciation . Similar deposits probably existed on Mauna Loa , but have been covered by later lava flows . Despite Hawaii 's tropical location , during several past ice ages a drop of only a degree in temperature allowed snow to remain at the mountain 's summit through summer , triggering the formation of an ice cap . There are three episodes of glaciation that have been recorded from the last 180 @,@ 000 years : the Pōhakuloa ( 180 – 130 ka ) , Wāihu ( 80 – 60 ka ) and Mākanaka ( 40 – 13 ka ) series . These have extensively sculpted the summit , depositing moraines and a circular ring of till and gravel along the mountain 's upper flanks . Subglacial eruptions built cinder cones during the Mākanaka glaciation , most of which were heavily gouged by glacial action . The most recent cones were built between 9000 and 4500 years ago , atop the glacial deposits , although one study indicates that the last eruption may have been around 3600 years ago .
At their maximum extent , the glaciers extended from the summit down to between 3 @,@ 200 and 3 @,@ 800 m ( 10 @,@ 500 and 12 @,@ 500 ft ) of elevation . A small body of permafrost , less than 25 m ( 80 ft ) across , was found at the summit of Mauna Kea prior to 1974 , and may still be present . Small gullies etch the summit , formed by rain- and snow @-@ fed streams that flow only during winter melt and rain showers . On the windward side of the mountain , stream erosion driven by trade winds has accelerated erosion in a manner similar to that on older Kohala .
Mauna Kea is home to Lake Waiau , the highest lake in the Pacific Basin . At an altitude of 3 @,@ 969 m ( 13 @,@ 022 ft ) , it lies within the Puʻu Waiau cinder cone and is the only alpine lake in Hawaii . The lake is very small and shallow , with a surface area of 0 @.@ 73 ha ( 1 @.@ 80 acres ) and a depth of 3 m ( 10 ft ) . Radiocarbon dating of samples at the base of the lake indicates that it was clear of ice 12 @,@ 600 years ago . Hawaiian lava types are typically permeable , preventing the formation of lakes due to infiltration . Here , either sulfur @-@ bearing steam altered the volcanic ash to low @-@ permeability clays , or explosive interactions between rising magma and groundwater or surface water ( phreatic eruptions ) formed exceptionally fine ash that also would reduce the permeability of the lake bed .
Until 1993 , artesian water was not known to be present in the Island of Hawaii . Drilling by the University of Hawaii at that time encountered an artesian groundwater aquifer at 300 meters below sea level and 100 meters of hole depth within a compacted layer of soil and lava where the flows of both Mauna Loa and Mauna Kea meet ( Humuula saddle region ) . Isotopic composition shows the water present to have been derived from rain coming off Mauna Kea at an elevation higher than 2000 meters above mean sea level . Its presence is attributed to a freshwater head within Mauna Kea 's basal lens . Scientists believe there may be more water in Mauna Kea 's fresh water lens than current models may indicate . In 2012 two more bore holes were drilled on Mauna Kea and water discovered at much higher elevations than previously believed but shallower than expected . Donald Thomas , director of the University of Hawaii 's Center for the Study of Active Volcanoes believes one reason to continue study of the aquifers is due to use and ‘ occupancy ’ of the higher elevation areas , stating : " Nearly all of these activities depend on the availability of potable water that , in most cases , must be trucked to the Saddle from Waimea or Hilo — an inefficient and expensive process that consumes a substantial quantity of our scarce liquid fuels . ”
= = = Future activity = = =
The last eruption of Mauna Kea was about 4 @,@ 600 years ago ( about 2600 BCE ) ; because of this inactivity , Mauna Kea is assigned a United States Geological Survey hazard listing of 7 for its summit and 8 for its lower flanks , out of the lowest possible hazard rating of 9 ( which is given to the extinct volcano Kohala ) . Twenty percent of the volcano 's summit has seen lava flows in the past 10 @,@ 000 years , and its flanks have seen virtually no lava flows during that time .
Despite its dormancy , Mauna Kea is expected to erupt again , although there would be sufficient warning to evacuate . The telescopes on Mauna Kea 's summit would be the first to detect the minute amounts of deformation resulting from the volcano 's swelling , acting like expensive tiltmeters . Based on prior eruptions , such an event could occur anywhere on the volcano 's upper flanks and would likely produce extended lava flows , mostly of a 'a , of 15 – 25 km ( 9 – 16 mi ) in length . Long periods of activity could build a cinder cone at the source . Although not likely in the next few centuries , such an eruption would probably result in little loss of life but significant damage to infrastructure .
= = Human history = =
= = = Native history = = =
The first Ancient Hawaiians to arrive on Hawaii island lived along the shores , where food and water were plentiful . Settlement expanded inland to the Mauna Loa – Mauna Kea region in the 12th and early 13th centuries . Archaeological evidence suggests that these regions were used for hunting , collecting stone material , and possibly for spiritual reasons or for astronomical or navigational observations . The mountain 's plentiful forest provided plants and animals for food and raw materials for shelter . Flightless birds that had previously known no predators became a staple food source .
Early settlement of the Hawaiian islands led to major changes to local ecosystems and many extinctions , particularly amongst bird species . Ancient Hawaiians brought foreign plants and animals , and their arrival was associated with increased rates of erosion . The prevailing lowland forest ecosystem was transformed from forest to grassland ; some of this change was caused by the use of fire , but the prevailing cause of forest ecosystem collapse and avian extinction on Hawaii appears to have been the introduction of the Polynesian ( or Pacific ) rat .
The summits of the five volcanoes of Hawaii are revered as sacred mountains ; and Mauna Kea 's summit , the highest , is the most sacred . For this reason , a kapu ( ancient Hawaiian law ) restricted visitor rights to high @-@ ranking aliʻi . Hawaiians associated elements of their natural environment with particular deities . In Hawaiian mythology , the summit of Mauna Kea was seen as the " region of the gods " , a place where benevolent spirits reside . Poliʻahu , deity of snow , also resides there . In Hawaiian , Mauna Kea means " white mountain " , a reference to its summit , which can be frequently covered in snow .
Around AD 1100 , natives established adze quarries high up on Mauna Kea to extract the uniquely dense basalt ( generated by the quick cooling of lava flows meeting glacial ice during subglacial eruptions ) to make tools . Volcanic glass and gabbro were collected for blades and fishing gear , and māmane wood was preferred for the handles . At peak quarry activity after AD 1400 , there were separate facilities for rough and fine cutting ; shelters with food , water , and wood to sustain the workers ; and workshops creating the finished product .
Lake Waiau provided drinking water for the workers . Native chiefs would also dip the umbilical cords of newborn babies in its water , to give them the strength of the mountain . Use of the quarry declined between this period and contact with Americans and Europeans . As part of the ritual associated with quarrying , the workers erected shrines to their gods ; these and other quarry artifacts remain at the sites , most of which lie within what is now the Mauna Kea Ice Age Reserve .
This early era was followed by peace and cultural expansion between the 12th and late 18th century . Land was divided into regions designed for both the immediate needs of the populace and the long @-@ term welfare of the environment . These ahupuaʻa generally took the form of long strips of land oriented from the mountain summits to the coast . Mauna Kea 's summit was encompassed in the ahupuaʻa of Kaʻohe , with part of its eastern slope reaching into the nearby Humuʻula . Principal sources of nutrition for Hawaiians living on the slopes of the volcano came from the māmane – naio forest of its upper slopes , which provided them with vegetation and bird life . Bird species hunted included the ʻuaʻu ( Pterodroma sandwichensis ) , nēnē ( Branta sandvicensis ) , and palila ( Loxioides bailleui ) . The lower koa – ʻōhiʻa forest gave the natives wood for canoes and ornate bird feathers for decoration .
= = = Modern era = = =
There are three accounts of foreigners visiting Hawaii before the arrival of James Cook , in 1778 . However , the earliest Western depictions of the isle , including Mauna Kea , were created by explorers in the late 18th and early 19th centuries . Contact with Europe and America had major consequences for island residents . Native Hawaiians were devastated by introduced diseases ; port cities including Hilo , Kealakekua , and Kailua grew with the establishment of trade ; and the adze quarries on Mauna Kea were abandoned after the introduction of metal tools .
In 1793 , cattle were brought by George Vancouver as a tribute to King Kamehameha I. By the early 19th century , they had escaped confinement and roamed the island freely , greatly damaging its ecosystem . In 1809 John Palmer Parker arrived and befriended Kamehameha I , who put him in charge of cattle management on the island . With an additional land grant in 1845 , Parker established Parker Ranch on the northern slope of Mauna Kea , a large cattle ranch that is still in operation today . Settlers to the island burned and cut down much of the native forest for the construction of sugarcane plantations and houses .
The Saddle Road , named for its crossing of the saddle @-@ shaped plateau between Mauna Kea and Mauna Loa , was completed in 1943 , and eased travel to Mauna Kea considerably .
The Pohakuloa Training Area on the plateau is the largest military training ground in Hawaii . The 108 @,@ 863 @-@ acre ( 44 @,@ 055 ha ) base extends from the volcano 's lower flanks to 2 @,@ 070 m ( 6 @,@ 790 ft ) elevation , on state land leased to the US Army since 1956 . There are 15 threatened and endangered plants , 3 endangered birds , and 1 endangered bat species in the area .
Mauna Kea has been the site of extensive archaeological research since the 1980s . Approximately 27 percent of the Science Reserve had been surveyed by 2000 , identifying 76 shrines , 4 adze manufacturing workshops , 3 other markers , 1 positively identified burial site , and 4 possible burial sites . By 2009 , the total number of identified sites had risen to 223 , and archaeological research on the volcano 's upper flanks is ongoing . It has been suggested that the shrines , which are arranged around the volcano 's summit along what may be an ancient snow line , are markers for the transition to the sacred part of Mauna Kea . Despite many references to burial around Mauna Kea in Hawaiian oral history , few sites have been confirmed . The lack of shrines or other artifacts on the many cinder cones dotting the volcano may be because they were reserved for burial .
= = = Ascents = = =
In pre @-@ contact times , natives traveling up Mauna Kea were probably guided more by landscape than by existing trails , as no evidence of the latter has been found . It is possible that natural ridges and water sources were followed instead . Individuals likely took trips up Mauna Kea 's slopes to visit family @-@ maintained shrines near its summit , and traditions related to ascending the mountain exist to this day . However , very few natives actually reached the summit , because of the strict kapu placed on it .
In the early 19th century , the earliest notable recorded ascents of Mauna Kea included the following :
On August 26 , 1823 , Joseph F. Goodrich , an American missionary , made the first recorded ascent in a single day ; however , a small arrangement of stones he observed suggested he was not the first human on the summit . He recorded four ecosystems as he travelled from base to summit , and also visited Lake Waiau .
On June 17 , 1825 , an expedition from HMS Blonde , led by botanist James Macrae , reached the summit of Mauna Kea . Macrae was the first person to record the Mauna Kea silversword ( Argyroxiphium sandwicense ) , saying : " The last mile was destitute of vegetation except one plant of the Sygenisia tribe , in growth much like a Yucca , with sharp pointed silver coloured leaves and green upright spike of three or four feet producing pendulous branches with brown flowers , truly superb , and almost worth the journey of coming here to see it on purpose . "
In January 1834 , David Douglas climbed the mountain and described extensively the division of plant species by altitude . On a second climb in July , he was found dead in a pit intended to catch wild cattle . Although murder was suspected , it was probably an accidental fall . The site , Ka lua kauka 19 ° 53 ′ 17 ″ N 155 ° 20 ′ 17 ″ W , is marked by the Douglas fir trees named for him .
In 1881 , Queen Emma traveled to the peak to bathe in the waters of Lake Waiau during competition for the role of ruling chief of the Kingdom of Hawaii .
On August 6 , 1889 , E.D. Baldwin left Hilo and followed cattle trails to the summit .
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries trails were formed , often by the movement of game herds , that could be traveled on horseback . However , vehicular access to the summit was practically impossible until the construction of a road in 1964 , and it continues to be restricted . Today , multiple trails to the summit exist , in various states of use .
= = Ecology = =
= = = Background = = =
Hawaii 's geographical isolation strongly influences its ecology . Remote islands like Hawaii have a large number of species that are found nowhere else ( see Endemism in the Hawaiian Islands ) . The remoteness resulted in evolutionary lines distinct from those elsewhere and isolated these endemic species from external biotic influence , and also makes them especially vulnerable to extinction and the effects of invasive species . In addition the ecosystems of Hawaii are under threat from human development including the clearing of land for agriculture ; an estimated third of the island 's endemic species have already been wiped out . Because of its elevation , Mauna Kea has the greatest diversity of biotic ecosystems anywhere in the Hawaiian archipelago . Ecosystems on the mountain form concentric rings along its slopes due to changes in temperature and precipitation with elevation . These ecosystems can be roughly divided into three sections by elevation : alpine – subalpine , montane , and basal forest .
Contact with Americans and Europeans in the early 19th century brought more settlers to the island , and had a lasting negative ecological effect . On lower slopes , vast tracts of koa – ʻōhiʻa forest were converted to farmland . Higher up , feral animals that escaped from ranches found refuge in , and damaged extensively , Mauna Kea 's native māmane – naio forest . Non @-@ native plants are the other serious threat ; there are over 4 @,@ 600 introduced species on the island , whereas the number of native species is estimated at just 1 @,@ 000 .
= = = Alpine environment = = =
The summit of Mauna Kea lies above the tree line , and consists of mostly lava rock and alpine tundra . An area of heavy snowfall , it is inhospitable to vegetation , and is known as the Hawaiian tropical high shrublands . Growth is restricted here by extremely cold temperatures , a short growing season , low rainfall , and snow during winter months . A lack of soil also retards root growth , makes it difficult to absorb nutrients from the ground , and gives the area a very low water retention capacity .
Plant species found at this elevation include Styphelia tameiameiae , Taraxacum officinale , Tetramolopium humile , Agrostis sandwicensis , Anthoxanthum odoratum , Trisetum glomeratum , Poa annua , Sonchus oleraceus , and Coprosma ernodiodes . One notable species is Mauna Kea silversword ( Argyroxiphium sandwicense var. sandwicense ) , a highly endangered endemic plant species that thrives in Mauna Kea 's high elevation cinder deserts . At one stage reduced to a population of just 50 plants , Mauna Kea silversword was thought to be restricted to the alpine zone , but in fact has been driven there by pressure from livestock , and can grow at lower elevations as well .
The Mauna Kea Ice Age Reserve on the southern summit flank of Mauna Kea was established in 1981 . The reserve is a region of sparsely vegetated cinder deposits and lava rock , including areas of aeolian desert and Lake Waiau . This ecosystem is a likely haven for the threatened ʻuaʻu ( Pterodroma sandwichensis ) and also the center of a study on wēkiu bugs ( Nysius wekiuicola ) .
Wēkiu bugs feed on dead insect carcasses that drift up Mauna Kea on the wind and settle on snow banks . This is a highly unusual food source for a species in the genus Nysius , which consists of predominantly seed @-@ eating insects . They can survive at extreme elevations of up to 4 @,@ 200 m ( 13 @,@ 780 ft ) because of natural antifreeze in their blood . They also stay under heated surfaces most of the time . Their conservation status is unclear , but the species is no longer a candidate for the Endangered Species List ; studies on the welfare of the species began in 1980 . The closely related Nysius aa lives on Mauna Loa . Wolf spiders ( Lycosidae ) and forest tent caterpillar moths have also been observed in the same Mauna Kea ecosystem ; the former survive by hiding under heat @-@ absorbing rocks , and the latter through cold @-@ resistant chemicals in their bodies .
= = = Māmane – naio forest = = =
The highest forested zone on the volcano , at an elevation of 2 @,@ 000 – 3 @,@ 000 m ( 6 @,@ 600 – 9 @,@ 800 ft ) , is dominated by māmane ( Sophora chrysophylla ) and naio ( Myoporum sandwicense ) , both endemic tree species , and is thus known as māmane – naio forest . Māmane seeds and naio fruit are the chief foods of the birds in this zone , especially the palila ( Loxioides bailleui ) . The palila was formerly found on the slopes of Mauna Kea , Mauna Loa , and Hualālai , but is now confined to the slopes of Mauna Kea — only 10 % of its former range — and has been declared critically endangered .
The largest threat to the ecosystem is grazing by feral sheep ( Ovis aries ) , cattle ( Bos primigenius ) , and goats ( Capra hircus ) introduced to the island in the late 18th century . Feral animal competition with commercial grazing was severe enough that a program to eradicate them existed as far back as the late 1920s , and continued through to 1949 . One of the results of this grazing was the increased prevalence of herbaceous and woody plants , both endemic and introduced , that were resistant to browsing . The feral animals were almost eradicated , and numbered a few hundred in the 1950s . However , an influx of local hunters led to the feral species being valued as game animals , and in 1959 the Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Resources , the governing body in charge of conservation and land use management , changed its policy to a sustained @-@ control program designed to facilitate the sport .
Mouflon ( Ovis aries orientalis ) was introduced from 1962 – 1964 , and a plan to release axis deer ( Axis axis ) in 1964 was prevented only by protests from the ranching industry , who said that they would damage crops and spread disease . The hunting industry fought back , and the back @-@ and @-@ forth between the ranchers and hunters eventually gave way to a rise in public environmental concern . With the development of astronomical facilities on Mauna Kea commencing , conservationists demanded protection of Mauna Kea 's ecosystem . A plan was proposed to fence 25 % of the forests for protection , and manage the remaining 75 % for game hunting . Despite opposition from conservationists the plan was put into action . While the land was partitioned no money was allocated for the building of the fence . In the midst of this wrangling the Endangered Species Act was passed ; the National Audubon Society and Sierra Club Legal Defense Fund filed a lawsuit against the Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Resources , claiming that they were violating federal law , in the landmark case Palila v. Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Resources ( 1978 ) .
The court ruled in favor of conservationists and upheld the precedence of federal laws before state control of wildlife . Having violated the Endangered Species Act , Hawaii state was required to remove all feral animals from the mountainside . This decision was followed by a second court order in 1981 . A public hunting program removed many of the feral animals , at least temporarily . An active control program is in place , though it is not conducted with sufficient rigor to allow significant recovery of the māmane @-@ naio ecosystem . There are many other species and ecosystems on the island , and on Mauna Kea , that remain threatened by human development and invasive species .
The Mauna Kea Forest Reserve protects 52 @,@ 500 acres ( 212 km2 ) of māmane @-@ naio forest under the jurisdiction of the Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Resources . Ungulate hunting is allowed year @-@ round . A small part of the māmane – naio forest is encompassed by the Mauna Kea State Recreation Area .
= = = Lower environment = = =
A band of ranch land on Mauna Kea 's lower slopes was formerly Acacia koa – Metrosideros polymorpha ( koa @-@ ʻōhiʻa ) forest . Its destruction was driven by an influx of European and American settlers in the early 19th century , as extensive logging during the 1830s provided lumber for new homes . Vast swathes of the forest were burned and cleared for sugarcane plantations . Most of the houses on the island were built of koa , and those parts of the forest that survived became a source for firewood to power boilers on the sugarcane plantations and to heat homes . The once vast forest had almost disappeared by 1880 , and by 1900 logging interests had shifted to Kona and the island of Maui . With the collapse of the sugar industry in the 1990s , much of this land lies fallow but portions are used for cattle grazing , small @-@ scale farming and the cultivation of eucalyptus for wood pulp .
The Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge is a major koa forest reserve on Mauna Kea 's windward slope . It was established in 1985 , covering 32 @,@ 733 acres ( 13 @,@ 247 ha ) of ecosystem remnant . Eight endangered bird species , twelve endangered plants , and the endangered Hawaiian hoary bat ( Lasiurus cinereus semotus ) have been observed in the area , in addition to many other rare biota . The reserve has been the site of an extensive replanting campaign since 1989 . Parts of the reserve show the effect of agriculture on the native ecosystem , as much of the land in the upper part of the reserve is abandoned farmland .
Bird species native to the acacia koa – ʻōhiʻa forest include the Hawaiian crow ( Corvus hawaiiensis ) , the ʻakepa ( Loxops coccineus ) , Hawaii creeper ( Oreomystis mana ) , ʻakiapōlāʻau ( Hemignathus munroi ) , and Hawaiian hawk ( Buteo solitarius ) , all of which are endangered , threatened , or near threatened ; the Hawaiian crow in particular is extinct in the wild , but there are plans to reintroduce the species into the Hakalau reserve .
= = Summit observatories = =
Mauna Kea 's summit is one of the best sites in the world for astronomical observation due to favorable observing conditions . The arid conditions are important for submillimeter and infrared astronomy for this region of the electromagnetic spectrum . The summit is above the inversion layer , keeping most cloud cover below the summit and ensuring the air on the summit is dry , and free of atmospheric pollution . The summit atmosphere is exceptionally stable , lacking turbulence for some of the world 's best astronomical seeing . The very dark skies resulting from Mauna Kea 's distance from city lights are preserved by legislation that minimizes light pollution from the surrounding area ; the darkness level allows the observation of faint astronomical objects . These factors historically made Mauna Kea an excellent spot for stargazing .
In the early 1960s , the Hawaii Island Chamber of Commerce encouraged astronomical development of Mauna Kea , as economic stimulus ; this coincided with University of Arizona astronomer Gerard Kuiper 's search for sites to use newly improved detectors of infrared light . Site testing by Kuiper 's assistant Alika Herring in 1964 confirmed the summit 's outstanding suitability . An intense three @-@ way competition for NASA funds to construct a large telescope began between Kuiper , Harvard University , and the University of Hawaii ( UH ) , which only had experience in solar astronomy . This culminated in funds being awarded to the " upstart " UH proposal . UH rebuilt its small astronomy department into a new Institute for Astronomy , and in 1968 the Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Resources gave it a 65 @-@ year lease for all land within a 4 km ( 2 @.@ 5 mi ) radius of its telescope , essentially that above 11 @,@ 500 ft ( 3 @,@ 505 m ) . On its completion in 1970 , the UH 88 in ( 2 @.@ 2 m ) was the seventh largest optical / infrared telescope in the world .
By 1970 , two 24 in ( 0 @.@ 6 m ) telescopes had been constructed by the US Air Force and Lowell Observatory . In 1973 , Canada and France agreed to build the 3 @.@ 6 m CFHT on Mauna Kea . However , local organisations started to raise concerns about the environmental impact of the observatory . This led the Department of Land and Natural Resources to prepare an initial management plan , drafted in 1977 and supplemented in 1980 . In January 1982 , the UH Board of Regents approved a plan to support the continued development of scientific facilities at the site . In 1998 , 2 @,@ 033 acres ( 823 ha ) were transferred from the observatory lease to supplement the Mauna Kea Ice Age Reserve . The 1982 plan was replaced in 2000 by an extension designed to serve until 2020 : it instituted an Office of Mauna Kea Management , designated 525 acres ( 212 ha ) for astronomy , and shifted the remaining 10 @,@ 763 acres ( 4 @,@ 356 ha ) to " natural and cultural preservation " . This plan was further revised to address concern expressed in the Hawaiian community that a lack of respect was being shown toward the cultural values of the mountain .
Today the Mauna Kea Science Reserve has 13 observation facilities , each funded by as many as 11 countries . There are nine telescopes working in the visible and infrared spectrum , three in the submillimeter spectrum , and one in the radio spectrum , with mirrors or dishes ranging from 0 @.@ 9 to 25 m ( 3 to 82 ft ) . In comparison , the Hubble Space Telescope has a 2 @.@ 4 m ( 7 @.@ 9 ft ) mirror , similar in size to the UH88 , now the second smallest telescope on the mountain .
A " Save Mauna Kea " movement , believes development of the mountain to be sacrilegious . Native Hawaiian non @-@ profit groups such as Kahea , concerned with cultural heritage and the environment also oppose development for cultural and religious reasons . The multi @-@ telescope " outrigger " , proposed in 2006 was eventually canceled . A planned new telescope , the Thirty Meter Telescope ( TMT ) , has attracted controversy and protests . The TMT was approved in April 2013 . In October of 2014 , the groundbreaking ceremony for the telescope was interrupted by protesters causing the project to temporarily halt . In late March 2015 , demonstrators blocked access of the road to the summit again . On April 2 , 2015 , 300 protestors were gathered near the visitor 's center when 12 people were arrested with 11 more arrested at the summit . Among the concerns of the protest groups are the land appraisals and Native Hawaiians consultation . Construction was halted on April 7 , 2015 after protests expanded over the state . After several halts , the project has been voluntarily postponed . Governor Ige announced substantial changes to the management of Mauna Kea in the future but stated the project can move forward . A pending court case has been accepted by the Supreme Court of Hawaii over the project by a number of groups .
= = Climate = =
The summit of Mauna Kea has an alpine climate
= = Recreation = =
Mauna Kea 's coastline is dominated by the Hamakua Coast , an area of rugged terrain created by frequent slumps and landslides on the volcano 's flank . The area includes several recreation parks including Kalopa State Recreation Area , Wailuku River State Park and Akaka Falls State Park .
There are over 3 @,@ 000 registered hunters on Hawaii island , and hunting , for both recreation and sustenance , is a common activity on Mauna Kea . A public hunting program is used to control the numbers of introduced animals including pigs , sheep , goats , turkey , pheasants , and quail . The Mauna Kea State Recreation Area functions as a base camp for the sport . Birdwatching is also common at lower levels on the mountain . A popular site is Kīpuka Pu 'u Huluhulu , a kīpuka on Mauna Kea 's flank that formed when lava flows isolated the forest on a hill .
Mauna Kea 's great elevation and the steepness of its flanks provide a better view and a shorter hike than the adjacent Mauna Loa . The high elevation with its risk of altitude sickness , weather concerns , steep road grade , and overall inaccessibility make the volcano dangerous and summit trips difficult . Until the construction of roads in the mid @-@ 20th century , only the hardy visited Mauna Kea 's upper slopes ; hunters tracked game animals , and hikers traveled up the mountain . These travelers used stone cabins constructed by the Civilian Conservation Corps in the 1930s as base camps , and it is from these facilities that the modern mid @-@ level Onizuka Center for International Astronomy telescope support complex is derived . The first Mauna Kea summit road was built in 1964 , making the peak itself accessible to larger numbers of people .
Today , multiple hiking trails exist , including the Mauna Kea Trail , and by 2007 over 100 @,@ 000 tourists and 32 @,@ 000 vehicles were going each year to the Visitor Information Station ( VIS ) adjacent to the Onizuka Center for International Astronomy . The Mauna Kea Access Road is paved up to the Center at 2 @,@ 804 m ( 9 @,@ 199 ft ) . One study reported that around a third of visitors and two thirds of professional astronomers working on the mountain have experienced symptoms of acute altitude sickness ; visitors traveling up the volcano 's flanks are advised to stop for at least half an hour and preferably longer at the visitor center to acclimate to the higher elevation . It is strongly recommended to use a four @-@ wheel drive vehicle to drive all the way to the top . Brakes often overheat on the way down and there is no fuel available on Mauna Kea . A free Star Gazing Program is held at the VIS every night from 6 @-@ 10 pm . Between 5 @,@ 000 and 6 @,@ 000 people visit the summit of Mauna Kea each year , and to help ensure safety , and protect the integrity of the mountain , a ranger program was implemented in 2001 .
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= Typhoon Saomai ( 2000 ) =
Typhoon Saomai , known in the Philippines as Typhoon Osang , was a long @-@ tracked and intense tropical cyclone that brought flooding rainfall in Japan and the Korean peninsula in September 2000 . The torrential precipitation in Japan was considered some of the worst in the past century .
Saomai , the second strongest typhoon in the western Pacific in 2000 , developed from an area of disturbed weather in open sea on August 31 . The system was initially quick to intensify , reaching an initial peak intensity as a typhoon on September 4 . Wind shear caused a hiatus in Saomai 's strengthening phase , and as a result Saomai weakened back to a tropical storm as it tracked northwest for the next few days . On September 9 , the system regained typhoon intensity and began to rapidly intensify , reaching peak intensity on September 10 with maximum sustained winds of 175 km / h ( 110 mph ) . Over the ensuing two days Saomai would weaken slightly before making landfall on Okinawa Island . The typhoon later entered the East China Sea , where it recurved towards the northeast before making landfall on South Korea as a severe tropical storm , later transitioning into an extratropical cyclone on September 16 . Saomai 's remnants would move into Russia before dissipating three days later .
As a developing typhoon , the outer rainbands of Saomai affected the Northern Mariana Islands and Guam , causing moderate damage . Localized power outages were reported , and damage totaled to US $ 650 @,@ 000 . Even before Saomai made landfall on Okinawa , the typhoon caused rough seas off the coast of Japan that resulted in several shipping incidents . Concurrently , the approach of a front into the country interacted with the typhoon , resulting in unprecedented rainfalls in Japan . Due to the floods , approximately 400 @,@ 000 people were evacuated in three prefectures . In Nagoya , observed rainfall totals were the highest since records began in 1891 . Despite making landfall on Okinawa , damage was not as severe , though several landslides and strong winds were reported . Overall , damage in Japan and its outlying islands totaled JP ¥ 24 @.@ 8 billion ( US $ 223 million ) and eleven fatalities were reported . As Saomai tracked near China , its outer rainbands and strong waves prompted the evacuation of 20 @,@ 000 people and caused record high stream heights .
In South Korea , eight people were killed and damage figures equated to US $ 71 million . Widespread power outages took a toll on as many as 422 @,@ 000 homes and heavy rains flooded numerous fields of crops . Minor damage occurred in North Korea , though the damage wrought by Typhoon Prapiroon earlier in the month was exacerbated by Saomai 's impacts . In Russia , where the typhoon made landfall as an extratropical storm , nine people were killed due to car accidents spurred by rainfall caused by the Saomai . Overall , Saomai 's affects resulted in the death of 28 people and roughly US $ 295 million in damage .
= = Meteorological history = =
Typhoon Saomai emerged from an area of convection that developed well east of Guam in late @-@ August . Though the disturbance was associated with a low @-@ pressure area , the circulation center was too weak to support persistent shower activity . Despite the satellite presentation , the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) classified the system as a tropical depression at 1800 UTC on August 31 . Over the next few days , the system organized and curved towards the west from its initial northerly track . At 1200 UTC on September 2 , the JMA upgraded the small depression to tropical storm intensity . Within Saomai , convection deepened near the center , signifying continued intensification . A cold central dense overcast eventually developed , and at 1200 UTC the next day , Saomai became a severe tropical storm . Early on September 4 , the tropical cyclone intensified further into a typhoon . At the time , Saomai was still well northeast of Guam .
Upon reaching typhoon strength , Saomai attained an initial peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 120 km / h ( 65 mph ) . Shortly after , despite the fact that a primitive eye had begun to develop , wind shear increased , shearing the storm 's convection away . As a result , the JMA downgraded Saomai below typhoon strength on September 5 , and at roughly the same time a subtropical ridge to the storm 's southeast steered Saomai southward . This break in the storm 's westerly course was short lived , and early on September 6 , Saomai assumed its previous heading . Over time the shearing conditions gradually abated , and rainbanding about the cyclone was showing signs of organization and strengthening . On September 8 , Saomai finally re @-@ developed a central dense overcast , prompting the JMA to upgrade the tropical storm back to typhoon intensity at 0000 UTC the following day . Back in favorable conditions , the typhoon entered a phase of rapid intensification beginning six hours later . During this period a well @-@ defined eye developed , and the storm 's eyewall significantly intensified . At 1200 UTC on September 10 , Saomai reached its peak intensity with sustained winds estimated at 175 km / h ( 110 mph ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 925 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 32 inHg ) . The intense typhoon held this intensity for approximately nine hours before it began to weaken .
Following peak intensity , Saomai 's eye became cloud @-@ filled , and the storm began to develop concentric eyewalls . Shortly after 1000 UTC on September 12 , the typhoon made landfall on central Okinawa , Japan with sustained winds of 140 km / h ( 85 mph ) and a pressure of 945 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 91 inHg ) . Saomai quickly passed over the island , and concurrently its weakening phase came to a halt . After tracking into the East China Sea , the typhoon began to track towards the northeast in response to a mid @-@ latitude trough . At its westernmost point along its track , Saomai was located approximately 345 km ( 215 mi ) east of Wenzhou , China . Atmospheric conditions became increasingly more hostile as Saomai tracked northeast , and the typhoon became elongated and ragged in appearance . At 1200 UTC on September 15 , Saomai was downgraded to severe tropical storm intensity as the cyclone began to undergo extratropical transition . At around 2030 UTC that day , Saomai made its final landfall as a tropical system west of Pusan , South Korea ; after emerging into the Yellow Sea the storm was declared extratropical at 0600 UTC the next day . These remnants later tracked inland near Vladivostok , Russia before dissipating on September 19 .
= = Preparations , impact , and aftermath = =
= = = Northern Mariana Islands and Guam = = =
Early in Saomai 's developmental history , the rainbands associated with the storm dropped heavy rain across the Northern Mariana Islands . Schools across the archipelago nation were closed , and ferry service between Saipan and Tinian was cancelled . Reports of flooding were widespread , including in Saipan . In Tianan , some banana trees were damaged by the storm 's affects . Damage from the islands amounted to US $ 650 @,@ 000 , with $ 600 @,@ 000 to infrastructure .
The presence of the nearby tropical cyclone caused the delaying of two flights and the cancellation of another at Antonio B. Won Pat International Airport . On Guam , the United States Navy ordered the release of ships from the local harbor . There , peaked at 251 mm ( 9 @.@ 90 in ) over a 24 @-@ hour period at Piti . At the National Weather Service office in Tiyan , a gauge observed 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 95 in ) of rain . Gusty winds were also associated with Saomai 's outer rainbands , with gusts peaking at a measured 105 km / h ( 66 mph ) on September 4 . The winds caused power outage in localized areas and downed two telephone poles . Severe flooding occurred in Merizo after a storm drain became clogged with debris , inundating six houses .
= = = Japan = = =
On September 10 , rough seas caused by Saomai capsized a fishing boat off of Shizuoka Prefecture , causing one person to go missing . Another occupant of the boat was rescued three hours after the sinking by police helicopter . The waves also caused a dozen containers from the South Korean Heunga Nagoya to fall into the sea 5 @.@ 5 km ( 3 @.@ 4 mi ) off the coast of Susami and Wakayama Prefecture . Off of Oita Prefecture , the waves were the impetus for red tides , resulting in significant marine loss . The approach of the typhoon towards Okinawa coincided with the approach of a weather front over mainland Japan , resulting in prolonged rainfall over the mainland . The rains caused extensive flooding , prompting the Cabinet of Japan to make reassurances in the repair of the ensuing damage . Rail service along the Tōkaidō Shinkansen between Tokyo and Osaka was suspended for more than 18 hours at one point , the longest delay to be enforced in the rail 's service history . As a result , 50 @,@ 000 passengers were forced to wait out the storm in the line 's stopped trains . Toyota closed 24 of its manufacturing plants , resulting in the incompletion of 10 @,@ 000 vehicles . Similarly , Mitsubishi stopped production at two of its facilities in Nagoya . Japan Airlines , All Nippon Airways , and Japan Air System cancelled a combined 114 fights , which adversely affected about 21 @,@ 000 people .
Across the country , rainfall peaked at 1 @,@ 000 mm ( 39 @.@ 37 in ) in Miyagawa , Mie ; the same station also recorded 522 mm ( 20 @.@ 55 in ) of rain in a single 24 @-@ hour period . As a result of the flooding in Mie , 2 @,@ 819 homes were inundated and 25 landslides occurred . Several buildings succumbed to the water and thus collapsed . Extensive power outage occurred in Kagoshima Prefecture , affecting approximately 4 @,@ 500 households . In addition , the heavy rains caused damage to agriculture , including sugar cane crops . Damage in the prefecture totaled JP ¥ 356 million ( US $ 3 million ) . Similar effects were felt across Kyushu . Several flights into Nagasaki Prefecture were cancelled ; the rains there also caused agricultural damage totaling JP ¥ 99 million ( US $ 900 @,@ 000 ) . Flooding also occurred on Shikoku , where rainfall totals peaked at 976 mm ( 38 @.@ 43 in ) in Funato , Kōchi . Severe damage occurred elsewhere in Kōchi , where combined forestry and agricultural damage figures reached JP ¥ 2 @.@ 1 billion ( US $ 19 million ) . In Tokushima Prefecture , several landslides occurred , disrupting transportation routes .
Record rainfall was observed in Aichi Prefecture , with 511 mm ( 21 @.@ 69 in ) of rain in Tokai and 532 mm ( 20 @.@ 94 in ) of rain in Nagoya in a span of a single day ; both observations were the highest since records began in 1891 . Due to the threat of landslides in Nagoya , the municipal government ordered the evacuation of 140 @,@ 000 families . In the ward of Nakagawa @-@ ku , two rivers overflowed their banks and over @-@ topped the surrounding embankment . Two tornadoes occurred in the prefecture , with one striking Mihama and another striking Minamichita ; the former tornado injured 22 people , of which two were hospitalized . Another 41 @,@ 000 families encompassing 400 @,@ 000 people were evacuated across Aichi , Gifu , and Mie prefectures as a precautionary measure .
Damage in Okinawa , the site of Saomai 's first landfall , was considerable but not unprecedented . On September 10 , the provincial government established a disaster warning headquarters on Daito Island to more efficiently deal with the typhoon 's effects . Rainfall peaked on Mount Yonaha , where a station recorded 537 mm ( 21 @.@ 14 in ) of rain . During the storm , 31 roads sustained damage and 26 landslides occurred . Damage in Okinawa Prefecture reached JP ¥ 636 million ( US $ 6 million ) . Overall , Saomai caused the destruction of 609 homes and the inundation of 70 @,@ 017 others in Japan . Damage costs in the country totaled JP ¥ 24 @.@ 8 billion ( US $ 223 million ) . Eleven people were killed and 103 others suffered injury . At the height of the storm , over 17 @,@ 000 people had been displaced in emergency shelters .
= = = Korean peninsula = = =
As Saomai approached South Korea , the typhoon forced the cancellation of flights beginning on September 12 . Four airports had their air service suspended . Other suspensions of transportation included the refuge of 362 fishing boats in ports and the closure of 10 national parks and 43 mountain paths . As a result , about 16 @,@ 600 campers and hikers were evacuated to safer areas . As a result of the inclement weather , the operation of 149 passenger ships were cancelled . On September 13 , the Korea Meteorological Administration ( KMA ) issued a typhoon warning for waters south of South Korea and Jeju Province . The administration anticipated heavy rainfall , though not as much as what had taken place in Japan . Offshore , an Indonesian freighter with 39 crewmen became stranded by the typhoon in waters south of Pusan . The crew were rescued by maritime police , but 270 tons of oil spilled into the ocean from a broken oil container .
In South Korea , the northern and southern Gyeongsang provinces were the most heavily impacted . At least 6 @,@ 000 ha ( 15 @,@ 000 ac ) of paddy fields were flooded . Heavy rains caused the Nakdong River to breach a section of embankment , prompting the evacuation of 100 families . Flood warnings were issued by the KMA on sections of the river for the first time in 2000 . In South Gyeongsang , an electricity pylon collapsed , cutting power supply to about 700 houses . Strong winds uprooted trees and destroyed homes and fishing boats in Pusan . Countrywide , losses were initially estimated at KR ₩ 20 billion ( US $ 18 million ) , though these figures later rose to US $ 71 million . As a result of Saomai , eight people were killed , and 411 others were displaced . More than 600 buildings were either inundated or destroyed entirely . At the height of the storm , roughly 422 @,@ 000 households were without power , primarily in northern and southern Gyeongsang provinces .
Relatively minor damage occurred in North Korea , previously impacted by Typhoon Prapiroon earlier in September . Rainfall peaked at 147 mm ( 5 @.@ 79 in ) in Kaesong . Saomai somewhat exacerbated the unprecedented damage caused by Prapiroon , and damaged maize crops which were set to be harvested in the coming weeks .
= = = Elsewhere = = =
At its closest approach to China , Saomai generated high waves that coincided with high tide , resulting in extensive damage . In preparation for the storm , schools in Ningbo were forced to close , and ferry service was discontinued . Over 20 @,@ 000 people were evacuated by the Chinese government onto higher land . The most severely affected Chinese province was Zhejiang . A station in Dinghai District observed 102 mm ( 4 @.@ 02 in ) of rain in 18 hours , equivalent to more than half of that station 's monthly average . In Zhoushan , 20 @,@ 000 hectares of farmland were inundated and 2 @,@ 500 homes collapsed . Off the island , ten fishing boats collided , and another oil tanker capsized . Areas in Gaoting were submerged under as much as 1 m ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) of water . Off the coast , 225 boats and 130 piers were damaged . In Shanghai , 20 streets were flooded and hundreds of homes were flooded with water . At nearby Hongquiao Airport , an Airbus A340 bound for Paris slipped off the runway . Though no people were injured , the airport was closed for eight hours . The typhoon also caused the Huangpu River to rise to its third highest level in recorded history .
Despite being a much weaker storm upon impacting Russia , Saomai 's rains flooded coal retrieval sites , cutting down on electric power supplies in Primorsky Krai . Due to the shortages , electric power was transferred there from other surrounding areas . Furthermore , a 50 percent decrease in electricity output was documented at the local power station in Luchegorsk . To the south , an overflowing of the Kazachka River prompted the evacuation of over 60 people . Overall , 55 automobile accidents occurred in eastern Russia , leading to nine fatalities and 76 people injured .
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= Action of 3 February 1812 =
The Action of 3 February 1812 was an unusual minor naval engagement off the western coast of Haiti between a British frigate and a frigate manned by a loose collation of Haitian rebels . The battle was fought against the background of the Napoleonic Wars and the collapse of government in Haiti in the aftermath of the Haitian Revolution eight years earlier . After the French had been expelled from Haiti in 1804 , the newly independent nation was first ruled by Jean @-@ Jacques Dessalines , who was murdered in 1806 and replaced by two of his advisors , Henri Christophe and Alexandre Pétion . These rulers divided the country between them and in the confused political situation that followed a number of minor fiefdoms appeared , including one led by Jérôme Maximilien Borgella in the south of the island called the Sud Department . The small Haitian Navy defected to Borgella , who crewed the vessels with a collection of sailors from various countries , led by a notorious privateer named Gaspard .
Stationed off Haiti was the British frigate HMS Southampton under Captain Sir James Lucas Yeo , tasked with observing the political situation but with orders not to interfere in the intermittent conflict between Christophe and Pétion . Yeo 's orders did not include Borgella 's ships and Yeo reasoned that the Haitian flagship , the large frigate Heureuse Réunion ( recently renamed from Améthyste and often reported under its former name ) , presented a serious threat to international trade in the region .
Sailing to intercept the Haitian ship , Yeo discovered her in the Gulf of Léogane and ordered Gaspard to surrender . The Haitian refused , and the frigates exchanged shots at 06 : 30 . The superior seamanship and discipline on Southampton prevented Gaspard from boarding the British ship with his greater numbers and within half an hour Heureuse Réunion was dismasted and battered . At 07 : 45 the Haitian ship surrendered , Yeo depositing the crew ashore and bringing Heureuse Réunion to Port Royal , Jamaica . At Jamaica , his actions were approved by his superiors and Heureuse Réunion , renamed Améthyste , was returned to Henri Christophe .
= = Background = =
During the Napoleonic Wars , the Caribbean Sea was initially an important theatre of naval conflict , as ships operating from the various French , British , Spanish and Dutch colonies preyed on enemy trade . During 1809 and 1810 however , the Royal Navy launched a series of co @-@ ordinated amphibious operations that eliminated the French and Dutch colonies and brought the conflict in the Caribbean to an end . With the threat of attacks on British trade in the region significantly reduced , the Royal Navy correspondingly reduced their presence in the Caribbean and the remaining British ships were distributed to observe trouble spots in the region , which in 1812 included the independent nation of Haiti .
Haiti had won its independence from France in 1804 , the first Caribbean nation to do so . The Haitians had fought a lengthy and bloody war against the French known as the Haitian Revolution , in which armies of former slaves led by Toussaint Louverture and then Jean @-@ Jacques Dessalines succeeded in driving the French into their fortified ports and then systematically eliminating their enclaves . With the start of the Napoleonic Wars in 1803 , French reinforcements for the garrison on Haiti were delayed and intercepted by the British Royal Navy , who blockaded the island and took the surrenders of the last garrisons in 1804 , removing them and their dependents to prevent a massacre . Dessalines rapidly established himself as monarch of Haiti , but his reign was cut short in 1806 when his closest advisors , Henri Christophe and Alexandre Pétion organised his assassination . Assuming control of Haiti , Christophe laid claim to the northern part of the country and Pétion the south , the two sides waging a constant low @-@ level civil war during the next decade . Many minor rulers sprang up during this period , especially in the south , where Pétion gave parcels of land for his followers to establish their own private fiefdoms . One such warlord was Jérôme Maximilien Borgella , who took over command of a small state in the region of Léogane following the death of its ruler , André Rigaud .
In early 1809 , the French sent a number of reinforcement convoys to their blockaded colonies in the hope of strengthening the garrisons before the British invasions began . Many ships , including four frigates , were lost in these missions and few reached their destinations successfully . Among these failed attempts was Troude 's expedition to the Caribbean , which arrived in April 1809 at the Îles des Saintes . Finding that Guadeloupe was the only surviving colony , Amable Troude intended to anchor at Basse @-@ Terre and unload his supplies , but was blockaded in the Îles des Saintes by a British squadron under Vice @-@ Admiral Sir Alexander Cochrane . Attempting to break out on 14 April , Troude led his main squadron northwest towards Puerto Rico while two en flûte frigates slipped out northeast to Basse @-@ Terre , arriving safely . Troude 's squadron was defeated on 17 April , but the frigates Félicité and Furieuse remained at Basse @-@ Terre until 14 June , when they attempted to break out and return to France , laden with trade goods . The British blockade squadron were soon in pursuit and on 18 June the frigate HMS Latona captured Félicité without a fight . Furieuse was captured a month later in the North Atlantic . Félicité was 24 years old and was therefore considered too antiquated for commissioning in the Royal Navy ; instead she was sold to Henri Christophe to form the nucleus of the new Haitian Navy under the name Améthyste .
= = Battle = =
At some point in January 1812 the Haitian Navy defected , for reasons unknown , from Christophe to Borgella . Borgella placed a noted French privateer named Gaspard in command of the squadron , which included the frigate Améthyste ( renamed Heureuse Réunion ) , a corvette and a brig . Gaspard then armed Heureuse Réunion with 44 cannon , took on board a motley crew of over 600 men , a mixture of Haitian , French , American and other nationalities , and began cruising in the Gulf of Gonâve . The British observer off Haiti at this time was Captain Sir James Lucas Yeo in the frigate HMS Southampton , under strict orders to respect the flags of Christophe and Pétion , but not those of the minor warlords that had emerged along the coast . On 2 January word reached him at Port au Prince of Gaspard 's movements and he immediately sailed to intercept him , concerned that if Gaspard was allowed to take his powerful squadron out of Haitian waters he might begin attacks on merchant ships regardless of nationality .
At 06 : 00 on 3 February , Yeo discovered Gaspard 's ships at anchor to the south of the island of Guanaboa and demanded that Gaspard come aboard Southampton with his commissioning papers , to establish under whose authority Gaspard commanded the warship . The Haitian captain refused , but sent aboard his first lieutenant with a note purported to be from Borgella , signed " Borgellat , general in chief of the south of Hayti " . As Borgella had no authority to commission warships , Yeo ordered the lieutenant to tell Gaspard that his ships must submit to Southampton and be taken to Port Royal , Jamaica , where their ownership could be established by the naval authorities . He would have five minutes to consider the proposal . A British officer accompanied the Haitian lieutenant back to Heureuse Réunion for Gaspard 's answer , and was informed within three minutes that Gaspard had no intention of submitting to the British ship . He was also told that should Yeo be intent on fighting the Haitian ship then he should indicate it with a bow gun fired ahead of Heureuse Réunion . Returning to Southampton at 06 : 30 , the lieutenant relayed the message and the bow gun was fired , followed a few seconds later by a full broadside from Southampton .
Heureuse Réunion responded to the cannonade in kind . During the engagement , Gaspard repeatedly attempted to board Southampton , where his vastly superior numbers could overwhelm the British crew . Yeo was aware of his enemy 's intentions , and repeatedly manoeuvered out of the way , his more disciplined and agile vessel easily able to remain out of contact with the overloaded Haitian ship . Within half an hour the highly efficient gunners on Southampton had knocked down the main and mizen masts on Heureuse Réunion , leaving her unable to manoeuvre and vulnerable to repeated pounding at close range . Despite the severe damage the Haitian ship suffered , her crew continued to fire cannon at irregular intervals for 45 minutes , each shot prompting a broadside from the British ship . The two smaller Haitian vessels did not support the frigate , fleeing towards Maraguana near Petit Goâve to shelter under the batteries there . By 07 : 45 , after over an hour of heavy fire , Yeo hailed Heureuse Réunion to discover whether or not she had surrendered . Somebody aboard replied that they had , although Gaspard had been seriously wounded and was no longer in command , so the identity of the person who gave the surrender is not known .
= = Aftermath = =
As Southampton stopped firing , the remaining masts of the Haitian ship fell overboard . Casualties on Heureuse Réunion were immense : of the 600 – 700 crew , 105 were dead and 120 wounded , the latter including Gaspard , who subsequently died of his injuries . Yeo 's loss was one man killed and ten wounded , from a crew of 212 . Seeking to rid himself of so many prisoners , Yeo landed most of them at Maraguana before sailing to Port au Prince , where the rest were landed and temporary jury masts were fitted to Heureuse Réunion for the journey to Jamaica . The British retained 20 prisoners for trial at Port Royal . Heureuse Réunion was repaired at Jamaica and subsequently restored to Christophe under the name Améthyste , returning to Haitian service . Yeo 's action in attacking the Haitian ship , although not officially sanctioned by his commanding officer beforehand , was commended .
The Caribbean rose in importance again later in 1812 , with the outbreak of the War of 1812 between Britain and the United States . American privateers threatened British trade routes and Royal Navy ships were sent out to defeat them , including Southampton , which was wrecked in the Bahamas during an anti @-@ privateer patrol in November 1812 . There were no further significant actions in the region during the Napoleonic Wars , the presence of Royal Navy patrols deterred any large scale French or American operations in the Caribbean .
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= Jessie Bonstelle =
Laura Justine " Jessie " Bonstelle ( c . 1870 – October 14 , 1932 ) was an American theater director , actress , and drama company manager . Encouraged by her mother , she sang and performed in the theater from a young age ; she went on to become a famous leading lady and made several performances on Broadway . Later she became a director , managing many stock companies , directing Broadway productions and training many young performers who went on to be famous actors . In 1925 she founded her own theater in Detroit . Reorganized in 1928 as the Detroit Civic Theatre , it was one of America 's first civic theaters , and her methods influenced community theater projects elsewhere . She has been described as " one of the pioneering women stage directors in the early twentieth century " .
= = Early life = =
Bonstelle was born to Helen and Joseph Bonesteel on her father 's farm near the town of Greece , New York , the youngest of their eight children . Her exact date of birth is unknown , and she kept it a secret , but it was sometime in November 1869 – 1871 . Originally named Bonesteel , later in life she changed it to Bonstelle after , according to legend , seeing it misspelled like that on a theater marquee .
Bonstelle 's mother , who herself had wanted to be an actress , home @-@ schooled her in reading , writing , singing , dancing , and even in reciting Shakespeare . Jessie 's first public performance was singing temperance songs in church at the age of two years . Helen gave her daughter a passion for acting by often taking her to theaters in nearby Rochester . Around the age of ten Jessie auditioned for critic Thomas Keane , and with his encouragement she left on tour with a production of Bertha , the Beautiful Sewing Machine Girl , a melodrama . After returning home from California she briefly studied at Nazareth Academy , a convent school in Rochester . In 1886 she returned to the stage , working for local opera house owner Edward D. Stair and touring in his productions .
= = Career = =
After the death of her parents in 1890 , Bonstelle went to New York City , and in 1891 she joined the company of Fanny Janauschek , with whom she toured for a season . In 1892 she worked as an understudy and chorus member in Augustin Daly 's company , but the season left her exhausted . However , in 1893 she married the actor Alexander Hamilton Stuart , who was twenty years older than her and Janauschek 's leading man . Happily married , together they worked in Philadelphia 's Forepaugh Stock Company for two years , before moving to Rochester , where Bonstelle played various roles and became an established leading lady . She was the leading lady of Philadelphia 's Standard Stock Company during the 1898 – 99 season . Stuart died in 1911 ; Bonstelle would never remarry .
Bonstelle performed in three productions on Broadway , including Elizabeth Jordan 's The Lady from Oklahoma , which Bonstelle herself produced in 1913 . Her acting received mixed or poor reception from New York Times critics , and according to some she " lacked creative depth " .
In 1899 , while playing with the Biancke Sisters , Bonstelle produced Heimat by Hermann Sudermann . This was its first performance in the United States , and only the second in English . Later she received a letter from Sudermann in which he thanked her for performing his work . Her career as a manager and director began around 1900 when Jacob J. Shubert offered her the management of a stock company in Rochester . This company , the Lyceum stock company , based at Rochester 's Lyceum Theater , included some prominent actors and future stars , such as Orrin Johnson , Margaret Wycherly and Charles Hutchison .
She spent the next five years managing , directing and acting there , but also appeared from time to time in Philadelphia and toured at least once in Canada . Moreover , she occasionally directed for the Shuberts in New York , and was associated with Frederick Freeman Proctor 's 125th Street Theater in Harlem . Bonstelle said that her dedication was partly inspired by the death of Janauschek in 1904 , realizing that what she did for the theater was lasting . From 1906 she managed stock companies at the Star Theater in Buffalo , and from 1910 also at Detroit 's Garrick Theater , moving weekly between the two cities . She usually put on plays which had recently been successful on Broadway , but not those which she saw as immoral . The most popular production she directed was an adaptation of Louisa May Alcott 's Little Women by Marian de Forest . Bonstelle researched the play herself , traveling to Boston to view personal papers provided by Alcott 's family and talking to her friends . The production toured nationally in 1911 , with four companies performing in different places at the same time , and had a " successful and lengthy run " on Broadway in 1912 . It was also performed in London after World War I. From 1912 to 1917 she was a director at the Northampton Municipal Theater in Massachusetts .
Bonstelle sold her stake in the Garrick Theater in 1924 . She and her company founded the Bonstelle Playhouse in Detroit , which opened on January 1 , 1925 . Backed by a syndicate led by a patron of hers , she bought a former synagogue on Woodward Avenue , Temple Beth El , for $ 500 @,@ 000 and commissioned C. Howard Crane to renovate it . At first she carried on producing mostly Broadway @-@ style plays . However , the company did perform classics , including modern @-@ dress productions of Romeo and Juliet in 1926 and Hamlet in 1927 , among the first to put on such performances . In February 1928 Bonstelle began a campaign to gain community support for the theater . A fund of over $ 200 @,@ 000 was raised by donations from the public and Bonstelle made an agreement with local authorities to make the playhouse the city 's unofficial premier theater . Later that year the group became known as the Detroit Civic Theater . In her plan for the theater she emphasized the importance of providing the public with the best drama , including both classics and modern works , and improving young people 's knowledge of dramatic literature . Funded by public subscription , it had ticket prices as low as $ 1 @.@ 50 . Performances included works by Shakespeare , Henrik Ibsen and Richard Brinsley Sheridan . The theater also played a religious role . Bonstelle used it in an effort to improve understanding and co @-@ operation between the church and the theater , holding multi @-@ denominational religious services there during Lent , and she stated that her plays , while avoiding being preachy , were intended to have a positive moral influence on the audience . Local clergy publicly praised her work with the theater .
In June 1932 Bonstelle went to Hollywood ; possible reasons include a desire to direct films , to found an acting school , or to explore the possibility of a new stock company . She returned to Detroit after falling ill and learning she had cancer . There she began a campaign to keep open the Civic Theatre , which was adversely affected by the Great Depression , but became seriously ill . Aided by her secretary , she continued to campaign for and run the theater until her death on October 14 , 1932 , when she suffered a heart attack at the home of relatives in Detroit . On October 16 her body lay in state at the theater and the New York Times reported that twenty @-@ five thousand people went to see her bier . A memorial service was held there which thousands attended and at which mayor Frank Murphy spoke . She was buried in Rochester next to her husband .
= = Character = =
Bonstelle was a perfectionist who was passionate about her work . She ran grueling rehearsals and kept control over the direction , even on productions she was not directing . However , she was willing to help actors if they were struggling , and was respected for her passion and drive .
= = Reception and legacy = =
Bonstelle had a wide reputation ; according to Brooks Atkinson her " industry in the theater [ was ] famous throughout Eastern America " . However , Broadway critics did not rate her directing highly . In Detroit , though , drama critics praised her greatly , and few of her 165 plays were poorly reviewed ; however most of these critics were in fact either friends of Bonstelle or employees of Stair .
Bonstelle 's Playhouse was one of America 's first civic theaters and , uniquely in the 1920s , a profitable one . Though it closed in 1933 , a year after her death , due to the rise of the movie industry and the Depression , Wayne State University bought the premises in 1956 for the use of its theater department , and in 1963 renamed it the Bonstelle Theatre in her memory . Bonstelle 's approach gained nationwide attention and she was interviewed by authorities from other cities which wanted information about her plan . Her theater influenced the future Federal Theater Project .
She was well known for spotting talent in young actors and was skilled at developing that talent . She trained many actors and actresses who later became well known , including Katharine Cornell and William Powell .
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= The Kids in the Hall : Death Comes to Town =
The Kids in the Hall : Death Comes to Town ( or simply Death Comes to Town ) is an eight @-@ episode Canadian mini @-@ series that aired on CBC Television on Tuesdays between January 12 and March 16 , 2010 . The show takes place in a fictional Ontario town called Shuckton where their mayor has been murdered . As the Shuckton residents cope with the loss , a new lawyer moves in to prosecute a suspect – though another resident , unsatisfied with the evidence , tries to find the real killer . At the same time , a character who is a personification of death waits at a motel room for the latest Shuckton residents to die .
The series was proposed by Bruce McCulloch during a 2008 The Kids in the Hall comedy tour and developed by the ensemble into a dark @-@ comedy murder mystery , a departure from their typical sketch comedy format . Inspiration for the series came in part from the British comedy series The League of Gentlemen . While the members of The Kids in the Hall play all of the major adult characters , a number of other comedic actors appear in supporting roles , including Dan Redican , Colin Mochrie , Wayne Robson , Susan Kent and Mike Beaver . The series was filmed in North Bay , Mattawa and Sturgeon Falls , Ontario in the summer of 2009 .
= = Premise = =
The mayor of Shuckton , Ontario ( population 27 @,@ 063 ) is murdered several hours after announcing that the town 's bid for the 2028 Summer Olympics was rejected . A small @-@ time criminal , Crim , is found with blood on him and is put on trial for the murder . However , an obese man named Ricky suspects the real murderer is still at large and , with the help of his friend Marnie , he investigates the crime . Meanwhile , the mayor 's widow takes over mayoral duties , women on a local news team compete for attention , the coroner steals the mayor 's body , Crim 's lawyer does everything he can to keep his cat alive , and Death waits in a motel room to collect the souls of dead Shuckton citizens .
= = Characters = =
All major characters in the miniseries were played by the five members of The Kids in the Hall , except for the mayor 's son , who was played by young actor Landon Reynolds @-@ Trudel . Several of the original The Kids in the Hall characters appear in cameo roles , including Mark McKinney 's Chicken Lady as a candidate juror and Paul Bellini clad only in his towel at an ATM ; in addition , McCulloch and McKinney 's police officers are tweaked variations of their OPP officer characters of the original series .
Other actors who appeared in supporting roles include Dan Redican , Colin Mochrie , Wayne Robson , Jesse Camacho and Mike Beaver .
Larry Bowman ( Bruce McCulloch ) , a former US draft dodger , mayor and former hockey coach of Shuckton . Although shown abusing the powers of his office , he is beloved by the townspeople .
Marilyn Bowman ( Dave Foley ) is Larry 's unhappy alcoholic wife . As requested in the mayor 's will , Marilyn becomes mayor and seeks economic development opportunities for the town .
Rampop ( Landon Reynolds @-@ Trudel ) is Larry and Marilyn 's adopted son . He responds to questions with screeches and chirps , he flails his arms when he runs , and he sees all humans as large animated butterflies . His mother calls him " special " but Rampop is the only member of his family who knows which remote control turns on the TV and is the only one who can see Death in his true form and communicate with him .
Marnie ( Kevin McDonald ) is a middle @-@ aged delivery driver for the local pizzeria who is prone to frequent spells of forgetfulness she refers to as " the Fuzzies . "
Ricky Jarvis ( McCulloch ) is an obese man who has not left his house since he lost a hockey tournament ; as the captain of the town 's hockey team , he lost all his stamina in sex with a rival team 's cheerleader the night before the final game .
Crimson " Crim " Hollingsworth ( Scott Thompson ) is a small @-@ time criminal who self @-@ identifies as one @-@ sixteenth Ojibwe . He is the prime suspect of Larry 's murder .
Corrinda Gablechuck ( Mark McKinney ) is the field reporter for the local TV news . After becoming pregnant with Shaye 's child , she becomes conflicted on whether to stay pregnant or have an abortion .
Heather Weather ( Thompson ) is the weather reporter for the local TV news . She battles Corrinda for the spotlight . She is suspected of the murder when Marilyn learns Heather may have had an affair with Larry .
Levon Blanchard ( Foley ) is the news producer , visibly frustrated by Corrinda and Heather 's rivalry .
Shaye ( McDonald ) is the news team 's boom microphone operator . He sleeps with Corrinda only after being rejected by other women at the local bar .
Dusty Diamond ( Thompson ) is the town coroner who secretly harboured feelings for Mayor Bowman .
" Big City " ( McCulloch ) is a lawyer who is prosecuting Crim for the murder of Larry Bowman . He uses showmanship to dazzle judge and jury .
Sam Murray ( McDonald ) is the inexperienced local public defense attorney . Not understanding quality of life , he incurs expensive veterinarian bills keeping his sick 32 @-@ year @-@ old cat , Buttonhole , alive .
Death ( McKinney ) is a grim reaper assigned to collects souls from Shuckton . He has personal vendetta against Ricky – who was supposed to be aborted before he was born , but who survived the procedure because Death was late to collect his soul . When off duty , he hangs out at the tavern , drinking owl 's blood and flirting with voluptuous red @-@ headed women .
Dr. " Doc " Porterhouse ( Foley ) is the kindly town abortionist . He is a talented doctor but uses odd tools and methods .
The Judge ( McKinney ) presides over Crim 's murder trial . He is shown to be frustrated by the disappearance of his gavel and the gavel 's replacements .
The Police Officers ( McCulloch and McKinney ) are investigating Mayor Bowman 's murder .
= = Episodes = =
= = Production and style = =
During a reunion tour in summer 2008 , The Kids in the Hall comedy troupe decided they would like to work together again . Since their 1996 movie Brain Candy , during which they had a falling out over creative differences , they had only worked together on live comedy tours and had not appeared on television together since the end of their show in 1995 . Bruce McCulloch pitched a television story idea which the rest of the group liked . They spent a couple days together brainstorming and developing characters . The storyline resolved into a murder mystery miniseries – partly inspired by the British comedy series The League of Gentlemen . McCulloch described it as Corner Gas meets Twin Peaks . The format diverged from their typical sketch comedy style by following a continuous narrative – though side @-@ stories explore characters further . Along with producer Susan Cavin in fall 2008 , they pitched the concept to CBC executive Fred Fuchs who greenlit the project .
The troupe hired several of the people they had worked with on Brain Candy , including Craig Northey and director Kelly Makin . They shot the series in North Bay , along with locations in Mattawa and Sturgeon Falls , Ontario , which allowed them to access federal and provincial funding incentives for economic development in Northern Ontario . For example , the courtroom scenes were filmed in North Bay 's Trinity United Church and the graveyard site was filmed on Mattawa 's Explorer 's Point . McKinney has claimed in interviews that the red vest worn by Death was found in a storehouse of old CBC props and costumes , and was previously worn by Bob Homme in The Friendly Giant . While drafting the script , cast member Scott Thompson was diagnosed with stage one non @-@ Hodgkin lymphoma . He began chemotherapy sessions shortly before the August – September 2009 shooting dates and started four weeks of radiation treatment once shooting wrapped .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
The series was aired on CBC Television as eight 30 @-@ minute shows . It was broadcast between January 12 and March 16 , 2010 , on Tuesdays at 9 pm following news @-@ comedy shows Rick Mercer Report and This Hour Has 22 Minutes . Death Comes to Town was one of three new prime @-@ time shows that CBC launched in the second week of January ; the others were a detective comedy @-@ drama Republic of Doyle and a family @-@ oriented situation comedy 18 to Life . The debut of Death Comes to Town was watched by approximately 1 @.@ 054 million viewers ( 60 % in the 25 @-@ 54 age demographic ) , higher than both Republic of Doyle and 18 to Life . The American cable network Independent Film Channel purchased the US broadcast rights and began broadcasting it on August 20 , 2010 .
In the Winnipeg Free Press , Brad Oswald reviewed the show cautiously , writing it that is " decidedly different , distinctly weird and definitely @-@ an @-@ acquired @-@ taste kind of great " and that some characters and scenes " are edgy and uncompromising and sure to shock and offend nearly as many viewers as they amuse . " In the Toronto Star Raju Mudhar wrote that the " humour is classic Kids , with plenty of visual gags mixed with off @-@ colour , politically incorrect jokes " and that " the troupe 's eye for satire remains sharp as ever " . John Doyle in the The Globe and Mail wrote a negative review concluding it was " a dismal coda to the comedy troupe 's outstanding career " . Doyle identified himself as a fan of the original The Kids in the Hall series but found that this show had " excruciatingly awful attempts at humour " and " no comic rhythm " . Doyle called it " appallingly slow @-@ witted TV " , " mediocre and maddeningly pointless " . In the Times @-@ Colonist , Alex Strachan provided a qualified positive review writing that it was " juvenile , sophomoric and deliberately unsophisticated " but " a joy to watch " . Strachan concludes that " Death Comes to Town is easy to dismiss as being lightweight , which it is , and scattershot , which it is . There 's a genuine joie de vivre at work , though . Death Comes to Town is silly comedy for smart people . "
= = Home media = =
The complete mini @-@ series was released on Region 1 DVD by Alliance Home Entertainment on August 3 , 2010 .
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= Gilbert Perreault =
Gilbert Perreault ( born November 13 , 1950 ) is a Canadian retired professional ice hockey centre who played for 17 seasons with the National Hockey League 's Buffalo Sabres . He was inducted to the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1990 . Known for his ability to stickhandle in close quarters , he is regarded as one of the most skillful play @-@ making centres of all time . He was the first draft pick of the Sabres in their inaugural season in the NHL . He is well known as the centre man for the prolific trio of Sabres forwards known as The French Connection .
Perreault was a standout junior hockey player who went on to become a nine @-@ time NHL ALL @-@ Star , two @-@ time official NHL All @-@ Star Team ( second team centre ) selection , a Calder Trophy winner , a Lady Byng Trophy winner and a Hockey Hall of Famer . He played his entire 17 year career with the Buffalo Sabres and continues to be the all @-@ time franchise leader in career regular season games played , goals , assists , points , game @-@ winning goals , and shots on goal , serving as the team 's captain from 1981 until his initial retirement in November 1986 . He led the team to 11 consecutive playoff appearances ending with the 1984 – 85 season .
Over the course of his 17 season career he accumulated 512 goals and 814 assists in 1191 games . Among his career highlights was the game @-@ winning goal in overtime of the 1978 National Hockey League All @-@ Star Game played at the Buffalo Memorial Auditorium . Perreault once totaled seven points in a single game which remains a Sabres record . He also recorded the first power play goal and the first hat trick in the team 's history . He is the only Buffalo Sabre to wear number 11 , with the number being retired in his honor .
= = Early life = =
Perreault began playing organized hockey at about age six . He preferred street hockey to playing on the ice and did not skate until he was eight . At age nine , he made his first appearance at Peewee hockey tournament in Quebec City . He left home at the age of 16 to join his first junior hockey team . His first year ( 1966 – 67 ) of junior hockey was spent with Thetford Mines in the Quebec Junior A League . His teammates included Rick Kehoe and Marc Tardif . The team won the league championships .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Amateur career = = =
After the Quebec Junior A League shut down , Perreault joined the Montreal Junior Canadiens of the Ontario Hockey Association ( OHA ) for the 1967 – 68 season , the first of three years with the Junior Canadiens . His 49 points in 47 games helped the Junior Canadiens to a second place finish . During his second year on the team , one that included future NHL talents Réjean Houle and André Dupont as well as future professional teammates Jocelyn Guevremont and Richard Martin , Perreault blossomed . His 97 points were second on the team to Houle 's 108 points , and they earned him OHA First All @-@ Star Team honours . As Perreault blossomed , the team excelled . In his second season , the team finished first in the OHA and won the 1969 Memorial Cup Canadian Junior championship . It was the first Memorial Cup win for Montreal since 1950 .
After Houle moved on to become the NHL 's first overall pick , Perreault assumed the leadership role and compiled a 51 goal , 71 assist season , which led the team in both categories and place second in the league to Marcel Dionne 's 132 points . The Canadiens defeated the Weyburn Red Wings to become the third junior team to successfully defend their championship and the Memorial Cup . Perreault was named the Ontario Hockey Association most valuable player .
The record of the 1969 and 1970 Montreal Junior Canadiens in the playoffs was so outstanding it caused a change in Memorial Cup eligibility rules . Previously , all Junior clubs in Canada were eligible for the cup , but the Junior Canadiens beat a club from Prince Edward Island so badly in the playoffs that ' Junior A ' was re @-@ organized into ' Major Junior ' and ' Junior A ' . Since then , only Major Junior clubs are eligible for the Cup .
= = = Professional career = = =
In 1970 , two new franchises were awarded in the NHL — the Buffalo Sabres and the Vancouver Canucks . It was a foregone conclusion Perreault would be the first selection in the 1970 Entry Draft . The two new teams took part in a roulette wheel spin to determine who would get the first pick . Ultimately , the Canucks were allocated numbers 1 @-@ 10 on the wheel , while the Sabres had 11 @-@ 20 . When league president Clarence Campbell spun the wheel , he initially thought the pointer landed on 1 and started to congratulate the Vancouver delegation . However , Sabres coach / general manager Punch Imlach asked Campbell to check again . As it turned out , the pointer was on 11 . Imlach had chosen 11 for the roulette wheel spin because it was his favourite number . This was the first year the Montreal Canadiens did not have a priority right to draft Québécois junior players . Consequently , Perreault was available and taken first overall by the Sabres .
Coincidentally , Perreault had worn # 11 throughout his junior career , and kept it in Buffalo in honour of the roulette wheel choice . As expected , he became an immediate star . He scored a goal in the franchise 's very first game , which was a 2 @-@ 1 victory on October 10 , 1970 , against the Pittsburgh Penguins . During his first season , he led the Sabres in scoring ( with 38 goals and added 34 assists ) — a feat he would never fail to accomplish in any season in which he did not miss significant time to injury before his penultimate year — and won the Calder Trophy as rookie of the year .
Perreault developed a reputation as a superb stickhandler , and scored a goal on his first shift in a professional scrimmage . Bobby Orr once said of Perreault : " His head and shoulders go one way , his legs go the other way , and the puck is doing something else . When I first saw it I couldn 't believe it . " His popularity and respect surpassed O. J. Simpson in a poll of Buffalonians about the best Buffalo athlete . Phil Esposito once said if anyone was to break his 76 goal , 152 point season records " It will be Gilbert Perreault . "
Before the 1971 – 72 NHL season the Sabres drafted Perreault 's Junior Canadiens teammate , Rick Martin , with their first pick . The two gelled as a tandem with each scoring 74 points . Late in the season the Sabres traded Eddie Shack for Rene Robert . The trio formed one of the decade 's most memorable and exciting lines , known as " The French Connection " with Robert on right wing and Martin on left wing . They ended the following 1972 – 73 season sweeping the top three scoring positions for the team and leading the franchise to its first playoff appearance with Perreault winning the Lady Byng Trophy as the most gentlemanly player . In 1973 – 74 , Perreault endured a broken leg that limited him to 55 games .
The 1974 – 75 NHL season was memorable for the Sabres ' Stanley Cup Finals appearance . The Sabres finished first in the newly reformatted league 's Adams Division , and the French Connection members each finished in the top ten in league scoring . The Sabres defeated original six teams Chicago Black Hawks and Montreal Canadiens on their way to a Finals appearance against the Philadelphia Flyers . The Sabres lost the series four games to two . 1975 was the closest Perreault would come to winning the Stanley Cup .
= = = International career = = =
Perreault was named to the Canadian national team ( " Team Canada " ) that participated in the 1972 Summit Series against the Soviet Union . He managed to contribute two points in two games but left the team after game five .
In 1976 , Canada hosted the first Canada Cup series . Perreault played with future Hockey Hall of Fame members such as Bobby Orr , Darryl Sittler , Bobby Hull , Guy Lafleur and Marcel Dionne . Perreault often played on a line with fellow Québécois Lafleur and Dionne . Canada won the series after beating Czechoslovakia in a best two out of three . He later played in the 1981 Canada Cup on a line with Wayne Gretzky and Lafleur . He was playing some of the best hockey of his career , leading all scorers with nine points in four games , when he was forced out of the tournament with a broken ankle . Canada lost the final to the USSR 8 – 1 . Perreault was named to the All Tournament Team , despite playing in only four of Canada 's seven games .
= = Retirement = =
Perreault retired at the end of the 1985 @-@ 86 season . Thereafter , pension changes came into effect significantly boosting the pensions of retired players who played at least 20 games in the 1986 @-@ 87 season . He duly came out of retirement and still played effectively , scoring 9 goals in the first 14 games . He retired for good on November 24 , 1986 after his 20th game .
He finished his career with scoring totals of 512 goals and 814 assists for 1326 points in 1191 games . At the time of his retirement , Perreault was the sixth leading scorer in NHL history . Along with the other two members of the French Connection , Perreault was inducted into the Buffalo Sabres Hall of Fame in 1989 . He was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1990 , and the Sabres retired his number 11 in the same year , having been the only player to ever wear number 11 for the Buffalo Sabres ; his # 11 was the first number retired by the Sabres . When his French Connection linemates ' numbers were retired , Perreault 's # 11 was lowered and raised back between Martin 's # 7 and Robert 's # 14 , as the Buffalo Sabres retired the French Connection line as a group , marking the first three players to have their numbers retired by the Sabres .
Since his retirement from hockey , Perreault has remained active in the game , coaching Junior teams in the Quebec Major Junior Hockey League . In addition , he also plays on occasion with the Buffalo Sabres Alumni Hockey Team for charity events .
= = Personal life = =
Perreault is married to Carmen , has two sons , Marc @-@ André ( born 1978 ) and Sean ( born 1986 ) , and still resides in his hometown of Victoriaville , Quebec . After retiring from playing , Perreault coached junior ice hockey , and invested in real estate . In his spare time , Perreault enjoys golfing , listening to music , and going to the movies .
= = Career achievements = =
Holds franchise record for most games ( 1191 ) , goals ( 512 ) , assists ( 814 ) and points ( 1326 ) with the Buffalo Sabres .
Won the Calder Memorial Trophy in 1971 .
Won the Lady Byng Memorial Trophy in 1973 .
Named an NHL Second Team All @-@ Star in 1976 and 1977 .
Chosen to play in eight NHL All @-@ Star Games in 1970 – 71 , 1971 – 72 , 1973 – 74 , 1974 – 75 , 1976 – 77 , 1977 – 78 , 1979 – 80 , and 1983 – 84 , as well as the 1979 Challenge Cup , which pitted NHL players against a team representing the Soviet Union , in place of an all @-@ star game in 1979 .
In 1998 , he was ranked number 47 on The Hockey News ' list of the 100 Greatest Hockey Players .
= = Career statistics = =
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= Billy Pierce =
Walter William Pierce ( April 2 , 1927 – July 31 , 2015 ) was an American starting pitcher in Major League Baseball between 1945 and 1964 who played most of his career for the Chicago White Sox . He was the team 's star pitcher in the decade from 1952 to 1961 , when they posted the third best record in the major leagues , and received the Sporting News Pitcher of the Year Award for the American League ( AL ) in 1956 and 1957 after being runner @-@ up in both 1953 and 1955 . A seven @-@ time All @-@ Star , he led the American League ( AL ) in complete games three times despite his slight build , and in wins , earned run average ( ERA ) and strikeouts once each . He pitched four one @-@ hitters and seven two @-@ hitters in his career , and on June 27 , 1958 came within one batter of becoming the first left @-@ hander in 78 years to throw a perfect game .
He was one of the principal figures in Chicago 's fierce rivalry with the New York Yankees ; particularly notable were his matchups with Whitey Ford , with the two left @-@ handers opposing one another as starters 14 times from 1955 to 1960 . Pierce 's record suffered from pitching so much against New York – who he faced more often than any other team – when the Yankees dynasty was at its peak ; but although his career record against New York was only 25 – 37 , that was still slightly better than the 27 – 41 mark compiled by National League ( NL ) championship teams over 11 World Series against the Yankees during the same period .
After joining the San Francisco Giants in 1962 , Pierce played a pivotal role in helping them win the NL pennant , going 12 – 0 in home games and getting a three @-@ hit shutout and a save in a three @-@ game playoff against the Los Angeles Dodgers to clinch the title . His 1 @,@ 999 career strikeouts were the fifth most by a left @-@ hander when he retired , and his AL total of 1 @,@ 842 ranked ninth in league history . He also ranked tenth among left @-@ handers in career wins ( 211 ) , sixth in games started ( 432 ) and games pitched ( 585 ) , eighth in shutouts ( 38 ) and ninth in innings pitched ( 3 @,@ 306 ⅔ ) . He holds the White Sox franchise record for career strikeouts ( 1 @,@ 796 ) , and his club marks of 186 wins , 2 @,@ 931 innings and 390 starts are team records for a left @-@ hander . The White Sox retired his number 19 in 1987 , and unveiled a statue in his honor at U.S. Cellular Field in 2007 ; he was selected to the White Sox All @-@ Century Team in 2000 .
= = Early baseball career = =
= = = Youth baseball = = =
The son of pharmacist Walter Pierce and his wife Julia , Billy Pierce grew up in Highland Park , Michigan , and showed his first interest in baseball at age ten . He recalled : " I refused to have my tonsils removed . My folks offered me a major league baseball and a good glove if I 'd have the operation . I took the payola . It really was a thrill to throw around that ' league ' ball . " After starting out as a first baseman , he switched to pitching to emulate his hero , Detroit Tigers star Tommy Bridges , who like Pierce had a slight build . He attended Highland Park Community High School where his teammates included future major league pitcher Ted Gray , and pitched six shutouts as a junior in 1944 , earning the nickname " Mr. Zero " . He was the starting and winning pitcher in an East @-@ West All @-@ American Boys ' Game sponsored by Esquire magazine , held on August 7 , 1944 at the Polo Grounds in New York , with Connie Mack managing Pierce 's East All @-@ Stars ; one reporter wrote , " His fast ball was amazing when one considers that he only weighs 140 pounds . In civilian attire he seemed very slender . " The West team included catcher and future Hall of Fame center fielder Richie Ashburn , who was hitless in two at bats against Pierce . The game was held as a benefit for World War II community memorials , and two days prior to the event the participating players were guests of Babe Ruth on his weekly radio program . Pierce was voted the game 's outstanding player , winning a four @-@ year scholarship to the college of his choice . Detroit Free Press sports editor Dale Stafford , who chaperoned him to New York , later told a fellow writer , " I never saw such a clean @-@ living youngster . On our trip to New York for the East @-@ West game , Billy kept a diary . One morning I found it open to this entry : ' Here it is ten o 'clock and Mr. Stafford still hasn 't gone to bed . ' " Pierce downplayed the experience of pitching in a major league stadium , stating , " I was not nervous at the Polo Grounds , as I 've pitched several games in Briggs Stadium back home . I 've worked out there with the Tigers , and they , the Red Sox and the Phillies have been interested in me . But my folks and I decided that I 'd make up my mind about playing pro ball after I graduated from high school . " After considering studying medicine at the University of Michigan , he signed with his hometown Tigers for a bonus of $ 15 @,@ 000 .
= = Major League Baseball = =
= = = Detroit Tigers ( 1945 , 1948 ) = = =
He made the Tigers team in spring training 1945 before finishing high school and without having played in the minor leagues , but sat on the bench before making his major league debut in June 1945 , just a few weeks after his 18th birthday . He made three relief appearances that month and two more in September after a two @-@ month stint with the Buffalo Bisons of the International League under manager Bucky Harris , and was on the Detroit roster for the team 's victory in the 1945 World Series although he did not appear in any games . He had a remarkably unassuming presence ; Paul Richards , then a catcher for the Tigers , later recalled occasionally going to his neighborhood drugstore . One day , Pierce went up to him at practice and asked why Richards never talked to him at the store , with Richards replying that he didn 't know what Pierce was talking about ; Pierce answered that the drugstore was his family 's , and Richards slowly realized that Pierce had been the clerk behind the counter each time he went in .
Pierce was sent back to Buffalo for the 1946 season , now with Gabby Hartnett as his manager ( Harris having moved to the team 's front office ) , but missed most of the year with a back injury which was attributed to overwork . After the 1947 season in Buffalo , where Richards was now his manager , he returned to Detroit in 1948 , spending most of the season in the bullpen but making five starts and posting a 3 – 0 record ; he had yet added very little weight since his high school days , being still at 148 pounds . He made his first start , and earned his first major league victory , on August 8 against the Washington Senators , pitching 7 ⅔ innings and striking out six in a 6 – 5 victory in which he also drove in a run with a triple and scored . However , Pierce also issued 51 walks in 55 ⅓ innings that year , and concerns about his pitching control led the Tigers to trade him to the White Sox on November 10 for catcher Aaron Robinson and $ 10 @,@ 000 , in what most baseball historians consider to be one of the most one @-@ sided trades in baseball history . Talks had initially centered on Chicago acquiring Pierce 's high school teammate Ted Gray , although sources differ as to whether it was White Sox general manager Frank Lane or his Detroit counterpart Billy Evans who switched the focus to Pierce ; the Tigers tried to call off the deal one day after it was completed upon fully realizing what they had given up , even offering $ 50 @,@ 000 to get Pierce back , but Lane had no intention of giving up the steal he had accomplished in his first trade as general manager .
= = = Chicago White Sox ( 1949 – 1961 ) = = =
In his first seasons with White Sox , Pierce 's control problems continued ; his 137 walks in 1950 tied him for the fourth most ever by an AL left @-@ hander . But those seasons also included indications of his developing excellence , as well as the struggles he would face in gaining run support . On May 29 , 1949 , in just his sixth start with Chicago ( and the 11th of his career ) , the 22 @-@ year @-@ old Pierce was matched against 42 @-@ year @-@ old Negro league legend Satchel Paige in a road game against the defending World Series champion Cleveland Indians . The pitchers ' duel went into the 11th inning , when Pierce walked leadoff hitter Ken Keltner , followed by two bunt singles . After Pierce was replaced by a reliever and the next batter lined to shortstop Luke Appling , Lou Boudreau singled to give Cleveland a 2 – 1 win ; Pierce had himself scored Chicago 's only run after singling in the eighth inning . And on June 15 , 1950 against the World Series champion Yankees , Pierce got his first career shutout – a 5 – 0 one @-@ hitter , interrupted by rain delays in the second , fourth and fifth innings totaling over an hour and a half , with the only hit being Billy Johnson 's single in the fifth inning .
= = Early 1950s = =
= = = Development of style = = =
Over 13 seasons with the White Sox , Pierce was the ace of the pitching staff , leading the team in wins nine times and in strikeouts eight times . He was Chicago 's Opening Day starter seven times ( 1951 – 52 , 1954 , 1956 – 59 ) , and started the home opener in 1953 and 1961 . He had an outstanding fastball and an excellent curveball , and in 1951 added the slider ( for which he used his motion for the curve rather than the fastball ) as a third strong pitch , as well as a changeup . He worked quickly with an over @-@ the @-@ top motion , dropping his back shoulder in a style similar to that later used by Sandy Koufax . In 1957 , Paul Richards noted of Pierce 's early style : " He had a tendency to windmill in his delivery , which makes the ball spin too much and takes the life out of it . He flashed his curve @-@ the Yankees always knew when he was throwing a curve . But mainly Bill didn 't want to throw anything but fast balls in the old days . He laughed at the change @-@ of @-@ pace and the slider , so most of the strong right @-@ hand hitters were laying back for him , waiting for a fast ball down the middle . " After Pierce finally tried the slider against the Yankees , to great effect , Richards noted , " Then , for a while there , he began throwing nothing but sliders . He finally learned about that , too . Even today Pierce will pitch a whole ball game and almost never throw anything but fast balls . But only on certain days . " Yankees star Joe DiMaggio was among those praising Pierce 's ability , reportedly remarking , " That little so @-@ and @-@ so is a marvel . So little – and all that speed . And I mean speed ! He got me out of there on a fastball in the ninth that I 'd have needed a telescope to see . " Richards became Chicago 's manager in 1951 , and worked with Pierce to develop his two new pitches and slow down his pace , as well as significantly improve his control ; Pierce later recalled , " I learned to control my fastball better [ ... ] Developing the slider helped me tremendously because it gave me a third out pitch . I threw it almost as hard as my fastball , but I could throw it for strikes better than the fast ball or good curve ... Richards made me work on it , and it took me about two years before it was consistent . " After issuing 249 walks in 391 innings in 1949 – 1950 , Pierce gave up only 73 walks in 240 innings in 1951 , and averaged more than 3 walks per 9 innings in three seasons afterward . His 1951 ERA of 3 @.@ 03 was fourth best in the league , and he ranked sixth in 1952 with a mark of 2 @.@ 57 . On September 21 , 1952 he broke Doc White 's 1907 club record of 141 strikeouts by a left @-@ hander , ending the season with 144 .
On April 16 , 1953 against the St. Louis Browns ( the second game of the season , and Chicago 's home opener ) Pierce pitched his second one @-@ hitter , a 1 – 0 victory in which he allowed only a seventh @-@ inning double by Bobby Young ; the White Sox gained only two singles in the contest , and scored on a walk , sacrifice hit , error and sacrifice fly . Pierce was chosen to start the All @-@ Star Game for the AL – the first White Sox pitcher ever to do so – and allowed only one hit through three innings ( a single by Stan Musial ) . Boston Red Sox star Ted Williams recalled of the game : " It was a hot day at Crosley Field and I remember being so concerned for little Billy Pierce of the White Sox . Billy probably threw harder than anybody for a guy his size , he had a real big delivery , nice to look at , and he had overcome a lot . I understand he had had epilepsy , and I was really pulling for him . He was a nervous little guy , and here he was starting his first All @-@ Star game in a bandbox park that 's tough to pitch in , and against Robin Roberts to boot . Pierce held them in the palm of his hand that day . He threw the ball right by everybody . "
During the early 1950s , Richards preferred to arrange his rotation so that Pierce started only every fifth or sixth day , holding him back against weaker teams but using him more often for big games against the powerful Yankees and Indians . Catcher Sherm Lollar later observed that although it was essentially a compliment to Pierce 's ability , he might have picked up more victories and won 20 games sooner in his career had he faced each opponent more equally . With a 1 – 0 two @-@ hitter at Washington on August 3 , in which the White Sox won on an unearned run in the ninth inning with a hit batter , error and sacrifice fly , Pierce began a streak of 39 ⅔ consecutive scoreless innings – the longest such streak in the AL between 1926 , when Ted Lyons had a 41 @-@ inning streak for the White Sox , and 1968 ; it remains the fifth longest ever by a left @-@ hander , and the longest by an AL southpaw since 1905 . The streak ended when he allowed two unearned runs against the Browns in the sixth inning on August 19 ; two additional earned runs in the tenth inning ended his streak , dating to July 29 , of 49 ⅔ innings without an earned run , and gave him a 4 – 3 loss . He led the league in strikeouts ( 186 ) and was second in ERA ( 2 @.@ 72 ) , and on September 27 started for the White Sox in the final game in Browns history , winning 2 – 1 in 11 innings at St. Louis . His seven shutouts that season were the second most by an AL left @-@ hander since 1916 , matched only by Hal Newhouser 's 1945 total of eight .
= = = = Progress interrupted = = = =
Pierce 's 1954 season was interrupted when he reported pain in his left arm in a May 25 win over Cleveland ; after several days of difficulty in determining the problem , he had oral surgery to remove an infected wisdom tooth and adjacent molar on June 3 . He did not pitch again until June 20 , but a lack of arm strength caused him to be ineffective in that start before slowly coming back with two relief appearances and another poor start , finally picking up wins with consecutive 3 – 0 shutouts on July 5 and 11 , the latter being his fourth career two @-@ hitter . It was later reported that the tooth problem had possibly existed as early as spring training , when Pierce initially suffered arm problems . But although he recorded only nine wins that season , he was one of just four pitchers to defeat the Indians three times as they racked up a league @-@ record 111 victories , after also having been one of four pitchers to defeat the champion Yankees four times in 1953 .
Playing the Yankees on June 25 , 1953 , he was part of a rare defensive shift ; leading 4 – 2 in the ninth inning , he was moved to first base , with Harry Dorish entering in relief . Pinch hitter Don Bollweg barely beat out a bunt single to first base , but Pierce than recorded a putout on Gil McDougald 's grounder to third base . He then retook the mound , and after issuing a walk , gained the final two outs to finish the victory ; the White Sox set an AL record by using five first basemen in the game . Pierce was also an excellent baserunner , and was used as a pinch runner 30 times between 1949 and 1957 – even scoring as a substitute for three @-@ time stolen base champion Minnie Miñoso in a 5 – 4 victory over the Yankees on June 22 , 1956 .
= = Late 1950s = =
= = = Peak years = = =
In 1955 Pierce again started the All @-@ Star Game , going into the All @-@ Star break with a record of just 5 – 6 in spite of his 2 @.@ 11 ERA ; in his last two starts before the break , he suffered back @-@ to @-@ back 1 – 0 losses to Early Wynn and Bob Lemon of the Indians . In the All @-@ Star Game he allowed only one baserunner through three innings ( a leadoff single by Red Schoendienst , who was thrown out on a steal attempt ) ; he staked the AL to a 4 – 0 lead , but the National League came back for a 6 – 5 win in 10 innings after scoring five runs off Whitey Ford in the seventh and eighth innings . Pierce ended the season with the league lead in ERA ( although his record was just 15 – 10 ) , with his mark of 1 @.@ 97 being the lowest by a major league pitcher between Hal Newhouser in 1946 ( 1 @.@ 94 ) and Sandy Koufax in 1963 ( 1 @.@ 88 ) ; he led the major leagues by nearly two thirds of a run , with Ford having the next best mark at 2 @.@ 63 . Total Baseball has rated Pierce as the best pitcher in the major leagues in 1955 , after having placed him among the AL 's top five pitchers each year from 1951 to 1953 .
In 1956 he started his third All @-@ Star Game , but was charged with the loss despite allowing only one run in three innings . Buoyed by the arrival of rookie shortstop Luis Aparicio , who sparked the team in leading the league in stolen bases , the White Sox enjoyed a two @-@ month offensive surge from June 4 to August 3 in which they averaged eight runs in Pierce 's 13 starts ; he won 11 of the games , losing only those immediately before and after the All @-@ Star break , the latter being a 2 – 1 loss to Ford and the Yankees . He became the first White Sox pitcher since 1941 to win 20 games , was second in the AL with a career @-@ high 192 strikeouts ( a team record for left @-@ handers until Gary Peters had 205 in 1964 ) , and was named AL Pitcher of the Year by The Sporting News , outpolling Ford ( who had edged him in a close 1955 vote ) by a margin of 117 to 52 ; he also finished fifth in voting for the AL Most Valuable Player Award . In 1957 Pierce became the first White Sox pitcher since Red Faber ( 1920 – 1922 ) to earn 20 victories in consecutive seasons ; he tied Jim Bunning for the league lead , and bested him in voting for AL Pitcher of the Year . He had six consecutive complete game victories from May 16 to June 8 in which his total ERA was 0 @.@ 64 , with two 1 – 0 victories in ten innings including his sixth career two @-@ hitter on June 4 against the Red Sox ; the White Sox scored just nine total runs over the last five games in that stretch . Despite the presence of such popular players as Miñoso , Aparicio and second baseman Nellie Fox , Pierce was chosen as the player most popular with White Sox fans in a 1957 spring training poll of sportswriters . A separate poll of managers , coaches , writers and broadcasters named him Chicago 's best fielding pitcher , best pitcher at holding runners to first base , and best pitcher for crucial games , as well as the team 's most nervous player on the field .
= = = = End of peak = = = =
In 1958 he was second in the league in both wins ( 17 ) and ERA ( 2 @.@ 68 ) ; his seventh two @-@ hitter , a 1 – 0 win on June 21 against the Baltimore Orioles in which the White Sox scored only an unearned run in the first inning , was followed by the greatest game of his career . On June 27 against the Senators , he retired the first 26 batters before pinch hitter Ed Fitz Gerald lined Pierce 's first pitch down the first base line for an opposite @-@ field double that landed about a foot from the foul line . Pierce then struck out Albie Pearson on three pitches to end the game ; only twice did he go to a three @-@ ball count . The lone hit marred what would have been a remarkable accomplishment ; not only had no left @-@ hander pitched a perfect game since Lee Richmond in 1880 , but only one AL left @-@ hander ( Mel Parnell in 1956 ) pitched even a no @-@ hitter between 1931 and 1962 . Although disappointed by the near miss , Pierce praised his teammates for their defensive work , saying , " Give Luis plenty of credit . And Sherm really mixed ' em up beautifully . The big thing is that we won . " At a Capitol lunch with several White Sox players during the following year 's pennant race , Vice President Richard Nixon told Pierce that he had watched the game on television , saying , " I 'm a Washington fan , but that was one night I was rooting for the White Sox . " In a 1982 interview , Pierce said , " The book on Fitz Gerald was that he was a fastball hitter on the first ball and liked it inside where he could pull it . So we threw him a curve away and he hit into right for a solid hit . I didn 't feel that badly about it , really . It didn 't mean that much at the moment . But now ... well , now I wish I had got it . It would have been nice . " His streak of 33 consecutive scoreless innings was ended with an unearned run in the seventh inning on July 1 .
Pierce tied for the league lead in complete games each year from 1956 to 1958 , and was again selected for the All @-@ Star team each year from 1957 to 1959 and again in 1961 , although he only appeared in the 1957 game in which he retired his first five batters before allowing three runs . On June 11 , 1959 he pitched his fourth and final one @-@ hitter , a 3 – 1 victory at Washington in which he allowed only a third @-@ inning double by Ron Samford , who scored after three two @-@ out walks , the last to Harmon Killebrew ; the White Sox won on a two @-@ run double in the ninth inning by Jim Landis off Senators starter Camilo Pascual . Pierce had the longest outing of his career on August 6 in a road game against the Orioles , pitching 16 innings in a contest that ended in a 1 – 1 tie after 18 frames ; it proved to be the last time in his career that he pitched into extra innings . After losing his next two starts , pulling a back muscle and straining the ligaments in his right hip against the Kansas City Athletics in the third inning on August 15 , he was out of action until a 2 – 1 win over Kansas City on September 7 .
Manager Al López ' decision not to start Pierce in the 1959 World Series against the Los Angeles Dodgers was highly controversial . After Cy Young Award winner Early Wynn started for Chicago in Game 1 , Lopez chose to start Bob Shaw ( 18 – 6 in the regular season ) and Dick Donovan ( 9 – 10 ) in the next two contests , which the White Sox lost by scores of 4 – 3 and 3 – 1 . Pierce was held back until Game 4 , and relieved in each of the final three games of the Series , allowing only two hits and no runs in four innings of work . In Game 4 he entered in the fourth inning with Chicago trailing 4 – 0 , and pitched a hitless three innings before being pulled for a pinch hitter in the seventh inning , when the Sox tied the game ; the Dodgers went on to win 5 – 4 . In Game 5 he entered in the eighth inning to protect a 1 – 0 lead , but only issued an intentional walk before Lopez again changed pitchers ; the White Sox held on for the 1 – 0 win . Lopez even chose to start Wynn in Game 6 on two days ' rest , but he was ineffective , and Chicago was behind 8 – 3 by the time Pierce was brought in to start the eighth inning ; the Dodgers later added a run in the ninth inning to complete the 9 – 3 win and capture the Series championship . Being used out of the bullpen was a deep letdown for Pierce , who said in a 1982 interview , " Other guys , Early Wynn and Bob Shaw , had better years than I did that year . And against the left @-@ handed @-@ heavy lineup the Dodgers threw at us , Al wanted his right @-@ handers like Dick Donovan . There was no question I was disappointed , but I understood . " However , there have been suggestions that Lopez ' decision had other , undisclosed motivations ; noting his surprise that Lopez chose to use Pierce out of the bullpen , outfielder Al Smith recalled , " We all knew why Al López didn 't pitch him , but we never told anyone and I won 't say now . I will say that I thought he should have pitched . He 'd been pitching all year , hadn 't he ? "
= = Offensive support = =
Although they never finished below third place from 1952 through 1960 , the " Go @-@ Go White Sox " were a team which thrived on speed , defense and pitching rather than hitting , and Pierce struggled for offensive support throughout his time with the club . Both Richards and Lopez – who became Chicago 's manager in 1957 – placed a low emphasis on offense , with Lopez expressing his philosophy that " all a team really needed was pitching and defense , because if you didn 't allow the other team to score , eventually they would give you a run , and you 'd win the game . " Nellie Fox , who was also Pierce 's roommate , turned to him on one occasion when the White Sox picked up a run following a scoring drought and said , " Here 's your run . Now go out there and hold it . " Although AL teams averaged 4 @.@ 46 runs per game from 1949 through 1961 , and the White Sox averaged 4 @.@ 53 runs in games started by their other pitchers , they averaged only 4 @.@ 20 runs in Pierce 's starts – a figure which drops to 4 @.@ 07 if the two @-@ month scoring outburst in 1956 is discounted ; in over two thirds of his losses with Chicago ( 105 of 152 ) , and fully one third of his starts ( 130 of 390 ) , they scored two or fewer runs . They averaged 3 @.@ 7 runs in his 1953 starts , and 3 @.@ 6 runs in his 1955 starts ; even in 1959 , when the pennant @-@ winning White Sox averaged 4 @.@ 29 runs per game , they averaged only 3 @.@ 36 runs in Pierce 's starts . By 1955 it was regularly noted that Chicago 's offensive struggles were placing undue pressure on the pitching staff , wearing them out with " one tense game after another , never having a comfortable margin that might permit a little breather now and then " ; Pierce was described as " the unluckiest pitcher in the majors " that year due to the lack of scoring . But in contrast , when he had a reasonable level of offensive backing he was far more successful , posting a record of 30 – 11 when Chicago scored four runs and 99 – 10 when they scored five or more ; from September 1951 through May 1958 , he was 71 – 6 when they scored at least four runs and 55 – 1 when they scored at least five .
= = Yankees rivalry = =
Pierce played a major role in keeping the White Sox competitive with the powerhouse Yankees through most of the 1950s , and after a rough period from June 1951 to July 1952 in which he dropped 10 of 11 decisions to New York ( despite a respectable 3 @.@ 69 ERA in those games ) , he held his own against the Yankees , posting a record of 21 – 21 from August 1952 through the 1960 season . Ironically , the turnaround in his fortunes against the Yankees followed one of Chicago 's most crushing defeats to their rivals ; on July 29 , 1952 he left with a 7 – 3 lead and one out in the eighth inning , only to see the Yankees come back against the White Sox bullpen to win 10 – 7 on Mickey Mantle 's grand slam in the ninth . Years later , Pierce still recalled the game as being one of his most frustrating outings . He faced Whitey Ford 15 times in his career ( more than against any other pitcher ) , including a 1 – 0 loss on May 17 , 1955 , a 3 – 2 loss in 10 innings on June 5 later that year , a 2 – 1 loss on July 15 , 1956 , a 3 – 2 loss in 11 innings on September 18 of that year ( in which the Yankees clinched the pennant on Mantle 's 50th home run in the final frame ) , a 3 – 1 win on May 21 , 1957 , and a 4 – 3 win in 11 innings on April 30 , 1959 .
By the 1957 season , Shirley Povich of The Washington Post expressed a clear preference for Pierce over Ford , writing that anyone doubting Pierce 's place as the league 's top left @-@ hander was " risking committal as an incurable psycho who can neither read the figures nor respond to reason . " Pierce 's 4 – 3 win over the Yankees on July 28 , 1959 put the White Sox in first place , where they stayed for the remainder of the season to take their first pennant in 40 years ; it was his 160th victory with Chicago , breaking Doc White 's team record for wins by a left @-@ hander ( he broke White 's club records for career games and innings by a left @-@ hander the same year ) . In late 1958 , sportswriter Edgar Munzel wrote , " The primary difference between Pierce and Ford , in their long @-@ standing duel for southpaw supremacy in the American League , is that Pierce is pitching for a woefully weak hitting team , while Ford is backed by the league 's most powerful offensive machine ... An even greater boon to Whitey is the fact that he doesn 't have to face the Yankees . " Of Pierce , who he described as the top White Sox pitcher for the past decade , he added , " Normally , he 's lucky if he 's supported with as many as two runs when he faces the Yankees . "
Yankee outfielder Bob Cerv recalled of the rivalry , " I always remember the games when Pierce and Ford would lock up . Those were great ballgames – 2 – 1 , 3 – 2 . Usually , if they 'd get beat , Mantle would hit a home run . " New York outfielder Hank Bauer noted , " The guy who gave me the most problem – I know he gave ' em to me , and I think he gave ' em to most of us – was Billy Pierce . " Tommy Byrne , who pitched for the Yankees for most of his career from 1943 to 1957 but played for Chicago for the first half of the 1953 season , said , " Pierce was sneaky fast , a good breaking ball . He was tough . For several years there he was right up there on a par with Ford . " Sportswriter Bill Madden recalled in 1982 , " Always it was Pierce against Whitey Ford and always , to me , that seemed like an unfair matchup . They were your classic ' stylish ' left @-@ handers , equal in guile and guts , but Ford had those howitzers of Mickey Mantle , Yogi Berra , Bill Skowron and Hank Bauer behind him , while Pierce came armed with popguns . Nellie Fox , Luis Aparicio and Minnie Miñoso supported him with hustle and chink singles and I always marveled at the fact that Pierce could duel Ford on even terms despite those odds . " Ironically , the Yankees tried to acquire Pierce in the early 1950s when Ford was in the military , but White Sox general manager Frank Lane proposed that New York give up Bauer , first baseman Joe Collins and second baseman Jerry Coleman in exchange for Pierce and outfielder Al Zarilla , and ended talks when Yankees GM George Weiss suggested the Yankees send minor leaguers instead .
= = Later career = =
In his last two seasons with Chicago , Pierce posted records of just 14 – 7 and 10 – 9 , but a shaky bullpen contributed to his middling record ; although he left the game with a lead in the sixth inning or later 15 times in those seasons , White Sox relievers failed to protect that lead seven times . Indeed , Pierce was seen to be the team 's only consistently effective starter in 1960 , picking up eight complete @-@ game victories by mid @-@ August . On June 20 , 1961 , Pierce broke Ed Walsh 's White Sox record of 1 @,@ 732 career strikeouts .
= = = San Francisco Giants ( 1962 – 64 ) = = =
On November 30 , 1961 he was traded to the San Francisco Giants along with Don Larsen in exchange for four players ( three of them pitchers ) who had spent most or all of 1961 in the minor leagues . Giants manager Alvin Dark declared his intent to use Pierce as the ace of a young pitching staff that included developing talents such as Juan Marichal , Gaylord Perry and Mike McCormick . Unlike the White Sox , the Giants featured a powerful offense which included Willie Mays , Willie McCovey and Orlando Cepeda , and Pierce took advantage of the improved run support with his new team , winning his first eight starts before suffering a 4 – 3 loss on June 7 . His first start on April 13 was a deeply rewarding one , after a rough spring training in which he recorded a 16 @.@ 45 ERA . Facing the Cincinnati Reds , he retired the first 13 batters and allowed only two hits in 7 ⅓ innings . The crowd of 23 @,@ 755 gave him a roaring ovation , and he later said , " The cheers really got to me inside . Fans nowhere could have been more wonderful . I felt it way down deep . "
The Giants were credited with pulling off the best deal of the year , with Larsen and Pierce – " the little southpaw chatterbox " – leading the team to the best record in the major leagues through early June . In a road game against the Reds on June 14 , he allowed a leadoff double to Vada Pinson , but was then accidentally spiked in the left ankle while covering first base on a groundout by Don Blasingame , an injury which required 14 stitches . Pulled from the game after just ⅓ of an inning , he took the loss when Pinson later scored and the Giants were shut out 8 – 0 . The injury likely cost him what would have been his eighth All @-@ Star selection , and he did not return to the field until he lasted only three innings in a loss on July 15 ; he then made three relief appearances before picking up a win on August 2 . But over the course of the year he proved to be a pitcher who thrived in blustery Candlestick Park , winning all 11 of his home starts as the Giants tied the Dodgers for the NL pennant with a record of 101 – 61 , forcing a three @-@ game playoff . Against the Dodgers on August 11 he earned his 200th career victory , with McCovey 's three @-@ run home run off eventual Cy Young winner Don Drysdale giving the Giants a 5 – 4 win and ending Drysdale 's 11 @-@ game win streak .
Pierce started the first game of the playoff against the Dodgers on October 1 , opposing Sandy Koufax , and pushed his Candlestick record to 12 – 0 with a three @-@ hit 8 – 0 victory in which only two Dodgers reached second base ; he described it as " the most satisfying game I ever pitched . " Former NL umpire Babe Pinelli , watching from the press box , remarked , " Look at him fire that fast one ! He 's been in so many clutch games that they 're nothing to him ! " After the Dodgers tied the series in Game 2 , he came back in Game 3 on October 3 to pitch the ninth inning with a 6 – 4 lead , and retired all three batters he faced to clinch the Giants ' first pennant in San Francisco , being mobbed by his teammates upon the final out . Against the Yankees in the World Series , he started Game 3 , and went into the bottom of the seventh inning with no score ; but he allowed three runs in the seventh inning ( one of them unearned after two outfield errors ) , and took the 3 – 2 loss . He came back with another brilliant outing in Game 6 at Candlestick Park against Whitey Ford , not allowing a baserunner until the fifth inning and finishing with a three @-@ hit 5 – 2 victory to tie the Series at three games each ; he only allowed three runners to reach second base , and only went to a three @-@ ball count four times . Although his two Series appearances both came after his peak years were behind him , Pierce posted a career Series ERA of 1 @.@ 89 in 19 innings .
= = = = Last seasons = = = =
Given his brilliance in home games in 1962 , it was no surprise that Pierce was chosen to start the Giants ' home opener in 1963 , and he responded with the last shutout of his career – a 7 – 0 win over the Houston Colt .45s. He achieved his Candlestick success despite often discarding one of his primary pitches , the low curve , saying , " How many left @-@ handers come into this park and win with that pitch on a windy afternoon ? " He instead altered the location of his pitches , throwing outside to left @-@ handers to get them to hit to left field , taking advantage of the wind which kept the ball in the air longer ; two @-@ time AL batting champion Pete Runnels observed that Pierce pitched to him completely differently upon changing leagues . His home win streak ended in his next start on April 20 , a 4 – 0 loss to the Chicago Cubs ; he gradually moved to the bullpen over the course of the 1963 season , and was used almost exclusively in relief in 1964 . On September 10 , 1964 against the Dodgers , in what was later called " Billy the Kid 's last fight , " he made his first start in over a year and the last of his career , pitching 7 ⅔ innings and gaining a 5 – 1 win . He made one more appearance in relief on October 3 , falling one strikeout short of 2 @,@ 000 , and announced his retirement the next day as the season came to an end . In an 18 @-@ season career , Pierce posted a 211 – 169 record with a 3 @.@ 27 ERA in 3 @,@ 306 ⅔ innings ; only twice ( 1948 and 1963 ) did he post an ERA of 4 @.@ 00 or higher , and never in a season of at least 100 innings . He completed 193 of his 432 starts , including 38 shutouts , and also had 32 saves among his 585 total games pitched . His 186 career victories with the White Sox rank fourth on the club 's all @-@ time list , behind Hall of Famers Ted Lyons , Red Faber and Ed Walsh . His White Sox record of 456 career games by a left @-@ hander was broken by Wilbur Wood in 1974 .
Listed at 5 ft 10 in ( 1 @.@ 78 m ) and 160 pounds ( 73 kg ) , Pierce was also among the more diminutive pitchers to enjoy great success , and is likely the smallest pitcher since the 1920s to win 200 games . Sherm Lollar , his catcher for ten years in Chicago , noted that his lack of size didn 't diminish his velocity , noting , " He isn 't too big , but he has wonderful coordination . And he sure is pretty to watch , the way he pumps and rocks and throws . Sometimes , when I 'm not catching a game , I 'll just go off to one side and watch him pitch . " And Paul Richards noted , " Pierce is a perfectionist who has achieved maximum potential out of the equipment nature gave him . " Pierce 's size also belied his durability , as he was one of the few pitchers under 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) in height to lead the league in complete games since the 1920s , with Ned Garver , Frank Lary , Camilo Pascual and Fernando Valenzuela – all of whom were an inch taller and outweighed Pierce by at least 20 pounds – being the only other pitchers under six feet tall to lead the league more than once since the early 1930s . He remains the last pitcher to lead the AL in complete games three years in a row .
= = MLB stats , awards , and achievements = =
= = = Stats = = =
= = = Awards = = =
All @-@ Star : 1953 , 1955 , 1956 , 1957 , 1958 , 1959 , 1961
= = = Achievements = = =
American League leader in ERA ( 1955 )
American League leader in wins ( 1957 )
American League leader in complete games ( 1956 – 1958 )
American League leader in strikeouts ( 1953 )
American League leader in strikeouts per 9 innings pitched ( 1953 – 1954 )
American League leader in fielding average as pitcher ( 1956 )
American League pennant team ( 1945 , 1959 )
World Series champion team ( 1945 )
20 @-@ game wins ( 2 )
One @-@ hitter ( 4 )
Two @-@ hitter ( 7 )
Chicago White Sox All @-@ Century Team ( 2000 )
= = Retirement = =
Through the 1950s , Pierce generally spent the offseason helping his father run the family 's Detroit pharmacy . He did not pursue a coaching career , even though a 1963 spring training poll of sportswriters had named him the top managerial prospect on the Giants . After leaving baseball , he was a White Sox television color analyst in 1970 , briefly a partner in Oldsmobile and Cadillac dealerships , a stockbroker , then worked as a sales and public relations representative for the Continental Envelope company from 1974 until retiring in 1997 . He also worked as a White Sox scout , discovering 1983 Rookie of the Year Ron Kittle . The White Sox retired his number 19 in 1987 ; he is one of only eight players so honored . He was named to the Sox Team of the Century in 2000 , and was inducted into the Michigan Sports Hall of Fame in 2003 . On October 4 , 2005 , Pierce threw out the first pitch before Game 1 of the AL Division Series against the Red Sox ( a 14 – 2 win ) , as the White Sox began the postseason which culminated in the 2005 World Series title – their first championship in 88 years . In 2006 he was inducted into the Chicagoland Sports Hall of Fame . On July 23 , 2007 , the White Sox unveiled a statue in Pierce 's honor in the center field concourse of U.S. Cellular Field , joining likenesses of Charles Comiskey , Minnie Miñoso , Carlton Fisk , Luis Aparicio and Nellie Fox . Sculptors had borrowed photographs and measured his face , leading him to comment , " I don 't know why ; it isn 't the same measurement it was in the ' 50s . " Adding that he hoped statues of Hall of Fame shortstop Luke Appling and pitcher Ted Lyons – both stars of the 1930s and 1940s – might be added in the future , he nonetheless admitted his excitement over the honor , saying , " I think of it more , in times to come , when my grandkids go out to the park , they 'll see it . It 's going to be there for years . " The book " Then Ozzie Said to Harold ... " : The Best Chicago White Sox Stories Ever Told , coauthored by Pierce , was published in March 2008 .
Pierce married Gloria McCreadie , who he had dated since high school , on October 22 , 1949 , and they have three children , William Reed ( born July 6 , 1953 ) , Patricia " Patti " Crowley ( born October 4 , 1955 ) and Robert Walter ( born July 16 , 1958 ) . Pierce told one interviewer of his wife , " She 's not only a loyal fan , but a smart one , and there was the day I had to go to Marty Marion – he was the White Sox manager then – and tell him that he 'd better change our bunt sign because Gloria had stolen it , so very likely the opposition would be stealing it too . " Although he had by then been traded to the Giants , following the 1962 season they relocated from Birmingham , Michigan to the southwest Chicago suburb of Evergreen Park . ( For several years while he was with the White Sox , they had also maintained a summer residence in the south side 's landmark Flamingo @-@ on @-@ the @-@ Lake Apartments , where teammate Jim Rivera and his family also lived . ) He remained a member of the White Sox community relations department into his late 80s , making frequent public appearances in the Chicago area . In addition , beginning in 1993 he headed the not @-@ for @-@ profit Chicago Baseball Cancer Charities , a cause he began supporting after Nellie Fox 's death in 1975 at age 47 . On June 29 , 2013 , the White Sox gave out souvenir statuettes of Pierce to fans at that day 's game against the Cleveland Indians , and he threw out the ceremonial first pitch . Pierce died in Palos Heights , Illinois on July 31 , 2015 at the age of 88 from gallbladder cancer . Pierce was a 33rd Degree Mason of Evergreen Park Lodge ; his funeral was held at Evergreen Park Presbyterian Church , and he was entombed in Chapel Hill Gardens South Cemetery in Alsip .
= = Hall of Fame candidacy and statistical evaluations = =
Pierce , so far , has been overlooked for election to the National Baseball Hall of Fame . However , in October 2014 he was selected for the first time by the Baseball Writers ' Association of America 's ( BBWAA ) overview committee to be one of ten candidates on the Golden Era Committee ballot for possible induction in 2015 . He and the other candidates , including former White Sox teammate Minnie Miñoso , all fell short of selection . The committee meets and votes on ten candidates selected from the 1947 to 1972 era every three years . Pierce received less than 4 votes of the required 12 votes from the committee at the MLB winter meeting on December 8 , with no one elected to the Hall by the committee . Ron Santo received 15 votes at the committee 's previous election , prior to his 2012 enshrinement .
Pierce 's considerable credentials are comparable to many of the pitchers enshrined in Cooperstown . When he first became eligible in 1970 , the BBWAA had elected only eight new members in 13 years , with Pierce being stuck in the voting behind such pitchers as Early Wynn , Bob Lemon , and Hal Newhouser ( each of whom was eventually elected ) . In the next few years , other pitching stars such as Sandy Koufax , Robin Roberts , Warren Spahn , and Whitey Ford became eligible and likely drew votes away from Pierce . Pierce was dropped from the ballot after 1974 . In discussing various criticisms of BBWAA voting over the years , Baseball Digest editor John Kuenster wrote in 2008 , " The dissenters wonder , for example , how the writers can elect pitchers Whitey Ford ( 236 – 106 ) , Jim Bunning ( 224 – 184 ) and Don Drysdale ( 209 – 166 ) to the hall of fame , while barely giving any recognition to Billy Pierce ( 211 – 169 ) " .
In the five years he was on the BBWAA ballot ( 1970 – 1974 ) , Pierce never drew more than two percent of the votes cast . His record , compiled mostly with undistinguished White Sox teams , deserved much more respect from the voters . In one @-@ on @-@ one competition , he actually beat Ford more times than Ford beat him , even though Ford was backed up by stronger teams . " ( Bunning was actually elected by the Veterans Committee in 1996 , although he did far better in BBWAA balloting than Pierce , coming within four votes of election in 1988 ) . Pierce is the only one of the top ten left @-@ handers in career strikeouts at the time of his retirement , that has not been elected to the Hall of Fame :
Pierce 's average of 5 @.@ 62 strikeouts per 9 innings pitched during the 1950s was the highest by any pitcher with at least 1 @,@ 000 innings in the decade , with his average of 7 @.@ 96 hits per nine innings ranking third ( behind Ford and Wynn ) and his 3 @.@ 06 ERA also ranking third ( behind Ford and Spahn ) . His final strikeout total ranked 15th among all pitchers when he retired ; of the 24 pitchers who had at least 1 @,@ 750 strikeouts at that time , Bobo Newsom and Tony Mullane are the only others who have not been elected to the Hall .
When comparing Pierce with the 15 left @-@ handers in the Hall ( the above nine as well as Herb Pennock , Eppa Rixey , Lefty Gomez , Steve Carlton , Tom Glavine and Randy Johnson ) , he consistently stands in the middle of the group , ranking eleventh in wins , ninth in strikeouts , games pitched and starts , seventh in shutouts , and tenth in innings .
Pierce 's seven All @-@ Star team selections tie him for the most among eligible pitchers not in the Hall of Fame , along with Lee Smith and Dave Stieb ; Vida Blue and Jack Morris are the only other eligible pitchers to have started three All @-@ Star Games . Over his three All @-@ Star starts ( each lasting three innings ) , Pierce allowed only one run and four hits in nine innings ; his career All @-@ Star record included a 3 @.@ 38 ERA with 12 strikeouts in 10 ⅔ innings . Pierce and Blue are also the only eligible pitchers who have won 200 games and been named Pitcher of the Year by The Sporting News more than once .
Pierce had a record of 24 – 24 in 54 career regular @-@ season starts against Hall of Famers : 7 – 7 vs. Whitey Ford , 4 – 7 vs. Early Wynn , 7 – 3 vs. Bob Lemon , 2 – 3 vs. Bob Feller , 1 – 1 vs. Hal Newhouser , 0 – 2 vs. Jim Bunning , 1 – 0 vs. Don Drysdale , Sandy Koufax and Hoyt Wilhelm , and 0 – 1 vs. Satchel Paige . ( Pierce had no decision in his lone start against Warren Spahn ; he also earned no decision in two All @-@ Star starts against Robin Roberts . )
Pierce struck out ten or more batters eleven times in his career , and achieved his career high of 12 strikeouts four times ; but due to characteristically low run support , he won only one of those four games , a 5 – 0 three @-@ hit shutout of Kansas City on September 25 , 1955 in which he recorded his 1,000th career strikeout . He also recorded 12 strikeouts in a 4 – 2 , 12 @-@ inning loss to the Philadelphia Athletics on July 24 , 1953 , in a 10 @-@ inning scoreless tie against the Tigers on May 9 , 1954 , and in a 3 – 1 loss at Baltimore on May 23 , 1961 in which he pitched only six innings . In 22 career starts in which he pitched into extra innings , Pierce had a record of 8 – 11 despite a 1 @.@ 85 ERA . In his 41 complete @-@ game losses ( 10 of which were against the Yankees ) , he compiled a 2 @.@ 67 ERA with 231 strikeouts in 368 innings , a rate slightly higher than his career average .
He was also a highly effective pitcher when used in a relief role , recording 32 career saves ( possibly 34 ) compared to only 9 blown saves , a success rate of nearly 80 % . In his 14 career wins in relief ( none of which resulted from a blown save ) , he averaged 3 ⅓ innings pitched and a 0 @.@ 77 ERA .
Using MVP voting results , historical surveys and sabermetric analysis , historian Bill Deane projected in 1989 that Pierce would have won the American League Cy Young Award in 1953 and 1956 if it had been given at the time ; the award was not created until 1956 ( when the National League 's Don Newcombe won the award by unanimous vote ) , and awards were not given for both leagues until 1967 . In 1988 , baseball historian and statistician Bill James chose Pierce as having had the tenth greatest career value among left @-@ handers , ahead of six Hall of Famers .
On the other hand , baseball @-@ reference.com shows that Pierce 's career wins above replacement stand at just 53 @.@ 2 , well below the 73 @.@ 9 of a typical Hall of Fame starting pitcher .
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= Osteochondritis dissecans =
Osteochondritis dissecans ( OCD or OD ) is a joint disorder in which cracks form in the articular cartilage and the underlying subchondral bone . OCD usually causes pain and swelling of the affected joint which catches and locks during movement . Physical examination typically reveals an effusion , tenderness , and a crackling sound with joint movement .
OCD is caused by blood deprivation in the subchondral bone . This loss of blood flow causes the subchondral bone to die in a process called avascular necrosis . The bone is then reabsorbed by the body , leaving the articular cartilage it supported prone to damage . The result is fragmentation ( dissection ) of both cartilage and bone , and the free movement of these bone and cartilage fragments within the joint space , causing pain and further damage . OCD can be difficult to diagnose because these symptoms are found with other diseases . However , the disease can be confirmed by X @-@ rays , computed tomography ( CT ) or magnetic resonance imaging ( MRI ) scans .
Non @-@ surgical treatment is rarely an option as the ability for articular cartilage to heal is limited . As a result , even moderate cases require some form of surgery . When possible , non @-@ operative forms of management such as protected reduced or non @-@ weight bearing and immobilization are used . Surgical treatment includes arthroscopic drilling of intact lesions , securing of cartilage flap lesions with pins or screws , drilling and replacement of cartilage plugs , stem cell transplantation , and joint replacement . After surgery rehabilitation is usually a two @-@ stage process of immobilization and physical therapy . Most rehabilitation programs combine efforts to protection the joint with muscle strengthening and range of motion . During the immobilization period , isometric exercises , such as straight leg raises , are commonly used to restore muscle loss without disturbing the cartilage of the affected joint . Once the immobilization period has ended , physical therapy involves continuous passive motion ( CPM ) and / or low impact activities , such as walking or swimming .
OCD occurs in 15 to 30 people per 100 @,@ 000 in the general population each year . Although rare , it is an important cause of joint pain in physically active adolescents . Because their bones are still growing , adolescents are more likely than adults to recover from OCD ; recovery in adolescents can be attributed to the bone 's ability to repair damaged or dead bone tissue and cartilage in a process called bone remodeling . While OCD may affect any joint , the knee tends to be the most commonly affected , and constitutes 75 % of all cases . Franz König coined the term osteochondritis dissecans in 1887 , describing it as an inflammation of the bone – cartilage interface . Many other conditions were once confused with OCD when attempting to describe how the disease affected the joint , including osteochondral fracture , osteonecrosis , accessory ossification center , osteochondrosis , and hereditary epiphyseal dysplasia . Some authors have used the terms osteochondrosis dissecans and osteochondral fragments as synonyms for OCD .
= = Signs and symptoms = =
In osteochondritis dissecans , fragments of cartilage or bone become loose within a joint , leading to pain and inflammation . These fragments are sometimes referred to as joint mice . OCD is a type of osteochondrosis in which a lesion has formed within the cartilage layer itself , giving rise to secondary inflammation . OCD most commonly affects the knee , although it can affect other joints such as the ankle or the elbow .
People with OCD report activity @-@ related pain that develops gradually . Individual complaints usually consist of mechanical symptoms including pain , swelling , catching , locking , popping noises , and buckling / giving way ; the primary presenting symptom may be a restriction in the range of movement . Symptoms typically present within the initial weeks of stage I ; however , the onset of stage II occurs within months and offers little time for diagnosis . The disease progresses rapidly beyond stage II , as OCD lesions quickly move from stable cysts or fissures to unstable fragments . Non @-@ specific symptoms , caused by similar injuries such as sprains and strains , can delay a definitive diagnosis .
Physical examination typically reveals fluid in the joint , tenderness , and crepitus . The tenderness may initially spread , but often reverts to a well @-@ defined focal point as the lesion progresses . Just as OCD shares symptoms with common maladies , acute osteochondral fracture has a similar presentation with tenderness in the affected joint , but is usually associated with a fatty hemarthrosis . Although there is no significant pathologic gait or characteristic alignment abnormality associated with OCD , the patient may walk with the involved leg externally rotated in an attempt to avoid tibial spine impingement on the lateral aspect of the medial condyle of the femur .
= = Causes = =
Despite much research , the causes remain unclear but include repetitive physical trauma , ischemia ( restriction of blood flow ) , hereditary and endocrine factors , avascular necrosis ( loss of blood flow ) , rapid growth , deficiencies and imbalances in the ratio of calcium to phosphorus , and problems of bone formation . Although the name " osteochondritis " implies inflammation , the lack of inflammatory cells in histological examination suggests a non @-@ inflammatory cause . It is thought that repetitive microtrauma , which leads to microfractures and sometimes an interruption of blood supply to the subchondral bone , may cause subsequent localized loss of blood supply or alteration of growth .
Trauma , rather than avascular necrosis , is thought to cause osteochondritis dissecans in juveniles . In adults , trauma is thought to be the main or perhaps the sole cause , and may be endogenous , exogenous or both . The incidence of repetitive strain injury in young athletes is on the rise and accounts for a significant number of visits to primary care ; this reinforces the theory that OCD may be associated with increased participation in sports and subsequent trauma . High @-@ impact sports such as Gymnastics , soccer , basketball , lacrosse , football , tennis , squash , baseball and weight lifting may put participants at a higher risk of OCD in stressed joints ( knees , ankles and elbows ) .
Recent case reports suggest that some people may be genetically predisposed to OCD . Studies in horses have implicated specific genetic defects .
= = Pathophysiology = =
Osteochondritis dissecans differs from " wear and tear " degenerative arthritis , which is primarily an articular surface problem . Instead , OCD is a problem of the bone underlying the cartilage , which may secondarily affect the articular cartilage . Left untreated , OCD can lead to the development of degenerative arthritis secondary to joint incongruity and abnormal wear patterns .
OCD occurs when a loose piece of bone or cartilage partially ( or fully ) separates from the end of the bone , often because of a loss of blood supply ( osteonecrosis ) and decalcification of the trabecular bone matrix . The loose piece may stay in place or slide around , making the joint stiff and unstable . OCD in humans most commonly affects the knees , ankles , and elbow but can affect any joint .
In skeletally immature individuals , the blood supply to the epiphyseal bone is good , supporting both osteogenesis and chondrogenesis . With disruption of the epiphyseal plate vessels , varying degrees and depth of necrosis occur , resulting in a cessation of growth to both osteocytes and chondrocytes . In turn , this pattern leads to disordered ossification of cartilage , resulting in subchondral avascular necrosis and consequently OCD .
Four minor stages of OCD have been identified after trauma . These include revascularization and formation of granulation ( scar ) tissue , absorption of necrotic fragments , intertrabecular osteoid deposition , and remodeling of new bone . With delay in the revascularization stage , an OCD lesion develops . A lesion can lead to articular @-@ surface irregularities , which in turn may cause progressive arthritic deterioration .
= = Diagnosis = =
To diagnose osteochondritis dissecans , an X @-@ ray , CT scan or MRI scan can be performed to show necrosis of subchondral bone , formation of loose fragments , or both . Occasionally a nuclear medicine bone scan is used to assess the degree of loosening within the joint .
= = = Physical examination = = =
Physical examination often begins with examination of the patient 's gait . In OCD of the knee , people may walk with the involved leg externally rotated in an attempt to avoid tibial spine impingement on the lateral aspect of the medial condyle of the femur .
Next , the examining physician may check for weakness of the quadriceps . This examination may reveal fluid in the joint , tenderness , and crepitus . The Wilson test is also useful in locating OCD lesions of the femoral condyle . The test is performed by slowly extending the knee from 90 degrees , maintaining internal rotation . Pain at 30 degrees of flexion and relief with tibial external rotation is indicative of OCD .
Physical examination of a patient with ankle OCD often returns symptoms of joint effusion , crepitus , and diffuse or localized tenderness . Examination often reveals symptoms of generalized joint pain , swelling , and times with limited range of motion . Some with loose body lesions may report catching , locking , or both . The possibility of microtrauma emphasizes a need for evaluation of biomechanical forces at the knee in a physical examination . As a result , the alignment and rotation of all major joints in the affected extremity is common , as are extrinsic and intrinsic abnormalities concerning the affected joint , including laxity .
= = = Diagnostic imaging = = =
X @-@ rays show lucency of the ossification front in juveniles . In older people , the lesion typically appears as an area of osteosclerotic bone with a radiolucent line between the osteochondral defect and the epiphysis . The visibility of the lesion depends on its location and on the amount of knee flexion used . Harding described the lateral X @-@ ray as a method to identify the site of an OCD lesion .
Magnetic resonance imaging ( MRI ) is useful for staging OCD lesions , evaluating the integrity of the joint surface , and distinguishing normal variants of bone formation from OCD by showing bone and cartilage edema in the area of the irregularity . MRI provides information regarding features of the articular cartilage and bone under the cartilage , including edema , fractures , fluid interfaces , articular surface integrity , and fragment displacement . A low T1 and high T2 signal at the fragment interface is seen in active lesions . This indicates an unstable lesion or recent microfractures . While MRI and arthroscopy have a close correlation , X @-@ ray films tend to be less inductive of similar MRI results .
Computed tomography ( CT ) scans and Technetium @-@ 99m bone scans are also sometimes used to monitor the progress of treatment . Unlike plain radiographs ( X @-@ rays ) , CT scans and MRI scans can show the exact location and extent of the lesion . Technetium bone scans can detect regional blood flow and the amount of osseous uptake . Both of these seem to be closely correlated to the potential for healing in the fragment .
= = = Classification = = =
OCD is classified by the progression of the disease in stages . There are two main staging classifications used ; one is determined by MRI diagnostic imaging while the other is determined arthroscopically . However , both stagings represent the pathological conditions associated with OCD 's natural progression .
While the arthroscopic classification of bone and cartilage lesions is considered standard , the Anderson MRI staging is the main form of staging used in this article . Stages I and II are stable lesions . Stages III and IV describe unstable lesions in which a lesion of the cartilage has allowed synovial fluid between the fragment and bone .
= = Treatment = =
Treatment options include modified activity with or without weight bearing ; immobilization ; cryotherapy ; anti @-@ inflammatory medication ; drilling of subchondral bone ; microfracture ; removal or reattachment of loose bodies ; mosaicplasty and osteoarticular transfer system ( OATS ) procedures . The primary goals of treatment are :
Enhance the healing potential of subchondral bone ;
Fix unstable fragments while maintaining joint congruity ; and
Replace damaged bone and cartilage with implanted tissues or cells that can grow cartilage .
The articular cartilage 's capacity for repair is limited : partial @-@ thickness defects in the articular cartilage do not heal spontaneously , and injuries of the articular cartilage which fail to penetrate subchondral bone tend to lead to deterioration of the articular surface . As a result , surgery is often required in even moderate cases where the osteochondral fragment has not detached from the bone ( Anderson Stage II , III ) .
= = = Non @-@ surgical treatment = = =
Candidates for non @-@ operative treatment are limited to skeletally immature teenagers with a relatively small , intact lesion and the absence of loose bodies . Non @-@ operative management may include activity modification , protected weight bearing ( partial or non @-@ weight bearing ) , and immobilization . The goal of non @-@ operative intervention is to promote healing in the subchondral bone and prevent potential chondral collapse , subsequent fracture , and crater formation .
Once candidates for treatment have been screened , treatment proceeds according to the lesion 's location . For example , those with OCD of the knee are immobilized for four to six weeks in extension to remove shear stress from the involved area ; however , they are permitted to walk with weight bearing as tolerated . X @-@ rays are usually taken three months after the start of non @-@ operative therapy ; if they reveal that the lesion has healed , a gradual return to activities is instituted . Those demonstrating healing by increased radiodensity in the subchondral region , or those whose lesions are unchanged , are candidates to repeat the above described three @-@ month protocol until healing is noted .
= = = Surgical treatment = = =
The choice of surgical versus non @-@ surgical treatments for osteochondritis dissecans is controversial . Consequently , the type and extent of surgery necessary varies based on patient age , severity of the lesion , and personal bias of the treating surgeon — entailing an exhaustive list of suggested treatments . A variety of surgical options exist for the treatment of persistently symptomatic , intact , partially detached , and completely detached OCD lesions . Post @-@ surgery reparative cartilage is inferior to healthy hyaline cartilage in glycosaminoglycan concentration , histological , and immunohistochemical appearance . As a result , surgery is often avoided if non @-@ operative treatment is viable .
= = = = Intact lesions = = = =
If non @-@ surgical measures are unsuccessful , drilling may be considered to stimulate healing of the subchondral bone . Arthroscopic drilling may be performed by using an antegrade ( from the front ) approach from the joint space through the articular cartilage , or by using a retrograde ( from behind ) approach through the bone outside of the joint to avoid penetration of the articular cartilage . This has proven successful with positive results at one @-@ year follow @-@ up with antegrade drilling in nine out of eleven teenagers with the juvenile form of OCD , and in 18 of 20 skeletally immature people ( follow @-@ up of five years ) who had failed prior conservative programs .
= = = = Hinged lesions = = = =
Pins and screws can be used to secure flap ( sometimes referred to as hinged ) lesions . Bone pegs , metallic pins and screws , and other bioresorbable screws may be used to secure these types of lesions .
= = = = Full thickness lesions = = = =
The three methods most commonly used in treating full thickness lesions are arthroscopic drilling , abrasion , and microfracturing .
In 1946 , Magnusson established the use of stem cells from bone marrow with the first surgical debridement of an OCD lesion . These cells typically differentiate into fibrocartilage and rarely form hyaline cartilage . While small lesions can be resurfaced using this form of surgery , the repair tissue tends to have less strength than normal hyaline cartilage and must be protected for 6 to 12 months . Results for large lesions tend to diminish over time ; this can be attributed to the decreased resilience and poor wear characteristics of the fibrocartilage .
In attempts to address the weaker structure of the reparative fibrocartilage , new techniques have been designed to fill the defect with tissue that more closely simulates normal hyaline articular cartilage . One such technique is autologous chondrocyte implantation ( ACI ) , which is useful for large , isolated femoral defects in younger people . In this surgery , chondrocytes are arthroscopically extracted from the intercondylar notch of the articular surface . The chondrocytes are grown and injected into the defect under a periosteal patch . ACI surgery has reported good to excellent results for reduced swelling , pain and locking in clinical follow @-@ up examinations . However , some physicians have preferred to use undifferentiated pluripotential cells , such as periosteal cells and bone marrow stem cells , as opposed to chondrocytes . These too have demonstrated the ability to regenerate both the cartilage and the underlying subchondral bone .
Similar to OATS , arthroscopic articular cartilage paste grafting is a surgical procedure offering cost @-@ effective , long @-@ lasting results for stage IV lesions . A bone and cartilage paste derived from crushed plugs of the non @-@ weight @-@ bearing intercondylar notch can achieve pain relief , repair damaged tissue , and restore function .
= = = = Unstable lesions = = = =
Some methods of fixation for unstable lesions include countersunk compression screws and Herbert screws or pins made of stainless steel or materials that can be absorbed by the body . If loose bodies are found , they are removed . Although each case is unique and treatment is chosen on an individual basis , ACI is generally performed on large defects in skeletally mature people .
= = = = Rehabilitation = = = =
Continuous passive motion ( CPM ) has been used to improve healing of the articular surface during the postoperative period for people with full @-@ thickness lesions . It has been shown to promote articular cartilage healing for small ( < 3 mm in diameter ) lesions in rabbits . Similarly , Rodrigo and Steadman reported that CPM for six hours per day for eight weeks produced an improved clinical outcome in humans .
A rehabilitation program often involves protection of the compromised articular surface and underlying subchondral bone combined with maintenance of strength and range of motion . Post @-@ operative analgesics , namely a mix of opioids and NSAIDs , are usually required to control pain , inflammation and swelling . Straight leg raising and other isometric exercises are encouraged during the post @-@ operative or immobilization period . A six to eight @-@ week home or formal physical therapy program is usually instituted once the immobilization period has ended , incorporating range of motion , stretching , progressive strengthening , and functional or sport @-@ specific training . During this time , patients are advised to avoid running and jumping , but are permitted to perform low impact activities , such as walking or swimming . If patients return to activity before the cartilage has become firm , they will typically complain of pain during maneuvers such as squatting or jumping .
= = Prognosis = =
The prognosis after different treatments varies and is based on several factors which include the age of the patient , the affected joint , the stage of the lesion and , most importantly , the state of the growth plate . It follows that the two main forms of osteochondritis dissecans are defined by skeletal maturity . The juvenile form of the disease occurs in open growth plates , usually affecting children between the ages of 5 and 15 years . The adult form commonly occurs between ages 16 to 50 , although it is unclear whether these adults developed the disease after skeletal maturity or were undiagnosed as children .
The prognosis is good for stable lesions ( stage I and II ) in juveniles with open growth plates ; treated conservatively — typically without surgery — 50 % of cases will heal . Recovery in juveniles can be attributed to the bone 's ability to repair damaged or dead bone tissue and cartilage in a process called bone remodeling . Open growth plates are characterized by increased numbers of undifferentiated chondrocytes ( stem cells ) which are precursors to both bone and cartilaginous tissue . As a result , open growth plates allow for more of the stem cells necessary for repair in the affected joint . Unstable , large , full @-@ thickness lesions ( stage III and IV ) or lesions of any stage found in the skeletally mature are more likely to fail non @-@ operative treatment . These lesions offer a worse prognosis and surgery is required in most cases .
= = Epidemiology = =
OCD is a relatively rare disorder , with an estimated incidence of 15 to 30 cases per 100 @,@ 000 persons per year . Widuchowski W et al. found OCD to be the cause of articular cartilage defects in 2 % of cases in a study of 25 @,@ 124 knee arthroscopies . Although rare , OCD is noted as an important cause of joint pain in active adolescents . The juvenile form of the disease occurs in children with open growth plates , usually between the ages 5 and 15 years and occurs more commonly in males than females , with a ratio between 2 : 1 and 3 : 1 . However , OCD has become more common among adolescent females as they become more active in sports . The adult form , which occurs in those who have reached skeletal maturity , is most commonly found in people 16 to 50 years old .
While OCD may affect any joint , the knee — specifically the medial femoral condyle in 75 – 85 % of knee cases — tends to be the most commonly affected , and constitutes 75 % of all cases . The elbow ( specifically the capitulum of the humerus ) is the second most affected joint with 6 % of cases ; the talar dome of the ankle represents 4 % of cases . Less frequent locations include the patella , vertebrae , the femoral head , and the glenoid of the scapula .
= = History = =
The condition was initially described by Alexander Monro ( primus ) in 1738 . In 1870 , James Paget described the disease process for the first time , but it was not until 1887 that Franz König published a paper on the cause of loose bodies in the joint . In his paper , König concluded that :
Trauma had to be very severe to break off parts of the joint surface .
Less severe trauma might contuse the bone to cause an area of necrosis which might then separate .
In some cases , the absence of notable trauma made it likely that there existed some spontaneous cause of separation .
König named the disease " osteochondritis dissecans " , describing it as a subchondral inflammatory process of the knee , resulting in a loose fragment of cartilage from the femoral condyle . In 1922 , Kappis described this process in the ankle joint . On review of all literature describing transchondral fractures of the talus , Berndt and Harty developed a classification system for staging of osteochondral lesions of the talus ( OLTs ) . The term osteochondritis dissecans has persisted , and has since been broadened to describe a similar process occurring in many other joints , including the knee , hip , elbow , and metatarsophalangeal joints .
= = Notable cases = =
Michael Russell , American tennis player
Kristina Vaculik , Canadian artistic gymnast
Jonathan Vilma , American football linebacker
= = Veterinary aspects = =
OCD also is found in animals , and is of particular concern in horses , as there may be a hereditary component in some horse breeds . Feeding for forced growth and selective breeding for increased size are also factors . OCD has also been studied in other animals — mainly dogs , especially the German Shepherd — where it is a common primary cause of elbow dysplasia in medium @-@ large breeds .
In animals , OCD is considered a developmental and metabolic disorder related to cartilage growth and endochondral ossification . Osteochondritis itself signifies the disturbance of the usual growth process of cartilage , and OCD is the term used when this affects joint cartilage causing a fragment to become loose .
The Merck Veterinary Manual states that developmental orthopedic diseases ( DOD ) in companion animals are related to nutrition and include either excess calcium and energy ( carbohydrate ) in dogs or taurine deficiency in cats that is related to blindness .
According to the Columbia Animal Hospital the frequency of affected animals is dogs , humans , pigs , horses , cattle , chickens , and turkeys , and in dogs the most commonly affected breeds include the German Shepherd , Golden and Labrador Retriever , Rottweiler , Great Dane , Bernese Mountain Dog , and Saint Bernard . Although any joint may be affected , those commonly affected by OCD in the dog are : shoulder ( often bilaterally ) , elbow , knee and tarsus .
The problem develops in puppyhood although often subclinically , and there may be pain or stiffness , discomfort on extension , or other compensating characteristics . Diagnosis generally depends on X @-@ rays , arthroscopy , or MRI scans . While cases of OCD of the stifle go undetected and heal spontaneously , others are exhibited in acute lameness . Surgery is recommended once the animal has been deemed lame .
Osteochondritis dissecans is difficult to diagnose clinically as the animal may only exhibit an unusual gait . Consequently , OCD may be masked by , or misdiagnosed as , other skeletal and joint conditions such as hip dysplasia .
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= Princess Beatrice of the United Kingdom =
Princess Beatrice of the United Kingdom , GCVO , GBE , GCStJ , VA , CI ( Beatrice Mary Victoria Feodore ; later Princess Henry of Battenberg ; ( 14 April 1857 – 26 October 1944 ) was the fifth daughter and youngest child of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert . King Felipe VI of Spain , is her great @-@ great @-@ grandson . Beatrice was the last of Queen Victoria 's children to die , 66 years after the first , her sister Alice .
Beatrice 's childhood coincided with Queen Victoria 's grief following the death of her husband Albert , Prince Consort on 14 December 1861 . As her elder sisters married and left their mother , Queen Victoria came to rely on the company of her youngest daughter , whom she called " Baby " for most of her childhood . Beatrice was brought up to stay with her mother always and she soon resigned herself to her fate . Queen Victoria was so set against her youngest daughter marrying that she refused to discuss the possibility . Nevertheless , many suitors were put forward , including Louis Napoléon , Prince Imperial , the son of the exiled Emperor Napoleon III of France , and Louis IV , Grand Duke of Hesse , the widower of Beatrice 's older sister Alice . She was attracted to the Prince Imperial and there was talk of a possible marriage , but he was killed in the Anglo @-@ Zulu War in 1879 .
Beatrice fell in love with Prince Henry of Battenberg , the son of Prince Alexander of Hesse and by Rhine and Julia von Hauke and brother @-@ in @-@ law of her niece Princess Victoria of Hesse and by Rhine . After a year of persuasion , Queen Victoria agreed to the marriage , which took place at Whippingham on the Isle of Wight on 23 July 1885 . Queen Victoria consented on condition that Beatrice and Henry make their home with her and that Beatrice continue her duties as the Queen 's unofficial secretary . The Prince and Princess had four children , but 10 years into their marriage , on 20 January 1896 , Prince Henry died of malaria while fighting in the Anglo @-@ Asante War . Beatrice remained at her mother 's side until Queen Victoria died on 22 January 1901 . Beatrice devoted the next 30 years to editing Queen Victoria 's journals as her designated literary executor and continued to make public appearances . She died at 87 , outliving all her siblings , two of her children , and several nieces and nephews including George V and Wilhelm II .
= = Early life = =
Beatrice was born at Buckingham Palace . She was the fifth daughter and youngest of the nine children of the reigning British monarch , Queen Victoria , and her husband , Prince Albert of Saxe @-@ Coburg and Gotha ( later The Prince Consort ) . The birth caused controversy when it was announced that Queen Victoria would seek relief from the pains of delivery through the use of chloroform administered by Dr John Snow . Chloroform was considered dangerous to mother and child and was frowned upon by the Church of England and the medical authorities . Queen Victoria was undeterred and used " that blessed chloroform " for her last pregnancy . A fortnight later , Queen Victoria reported in her journal , " I was amply rewarded and forgot all I had gone through when I heard dearest Albert say ' It 's a fine child , and a girl ! ' " Albert and Queen Victoria chose the names Beatrice Mary Victoria Feodore : Mary after Princess Mary , Duchess of Gloucester , the last surviving child of King George III of the United Kingdom ; Victoria after the Queen ; and Feodore after Feodora , Princess of Hohenlohe @-@ Langenburg , the Queen 's older half @-@ sister . She was christened in the private chapel at Buckingham Palace on 16 June 1857 . Her godparents were the Duchess of Kent ( maternal grandmother ) ; the Princess Royal ( eldest sister ) ; and the Prince Frederick of Prussia ( her future brother @-@ in @-@ law ) .
From birth , Beatrice became a favoured child . The elder favourite daughter of Prince Albert , the Princess Royal , was about to take up residence in Germany with her new husband , Frederick ( " Fritz " ) of Prussia . At the same time , the newly arrived Beatrice showed promise . Albert wrote to Augusta , Fritz 's mother , that " Baby practises her scales like a good prima donna before a performance and has a good voice ! " Although Queen Victoria was known to dislike most babies , she liked Beatrice , whom she considered attractive . This provided Beatrice with an advantage over her elder siblings . Queen Victoria once remarked that Beatrice was " a pretty , plump and flourishing child ... with fine large blue eyes , [ a ] pretty little mouth and very fine skin " . Her long , golden hair was the focus of paintings commissioned by Queen Victoria , who enjoyed giving Beatrice her bath , in marked contrast to her bathing preferences for her other children . Beatrice showed intelligence , which further endeared her to the Prince Consort , who was amused by her childhood precociousness .
He wrote to Baron Stockmar that Beatrice was " the most amusing baby we have had . " Despite sharing the rigorous education programme designed by Prince Albert and his close adviser , Baron Stockmar , Beatrice had a more relaxed infancy than her siblings because of her relationship with her parents . By four years of age , the youngest , and the acknowledged last Royal child , Beatrice was not forced to share her parents ' attention the way her siblings had , and her amusing ways provided comfort to her faltering father .
= = Queen Victoria 's devoted companion = =
In March 1861 , Queen Victoria 's mother Victoria , Duchess of Kent , died at Frogmore . The Queen broke down in grief and guilt over their estrangement at the beginning of her reign . Beatrice tried to console her mother by reminding her that the Duchess of Kent was " in heaven , but Beatrice hopes she will return " . This comfort was significant because Queen Victoria had isolated herself from her children except the eldest unmarried , Princess Alice , and Beatrice . Queen Victoria again relied on Beatrice and Alice after the death of Albert , of typhoid fever , on 14 December .
The depth of the Queen 's grief over the death of her husband surprised her family , courtiers , politicians and general populace . As when her mother died , she shut herself off from her family — most particularly , the Prince of Wales , ( whom she blamed for her husband 's death ) , with the exception of Alice and Beatrice . Queen Victoria often took Beatrice from her cot , hurried to her bed and " lay there sleepless , clasping to her child , wrapped in the nightclothes of a man who would wear them no more . " After 1871 , when the last of Beatrice 's elder sisters married , Queen Victoria came to rely upon her youngest daughter , who had declared from an early age : " I don 't like weddings at all . I shall never be married . I shall stay with my mother . " As her mother 's secretary , she performed duties such as writing on the Queen 's behalf and helping with political correspondence . These mundane duties mirrored those that had been performed in succession by her sisters , Alice , Helena and Louise . However , to these the Queen soon added more personal tasks . During a serious illness in 1871 , the Queen dictated her journal entries to Beatrice , and in 1876 she allowed Beatrice to sort the music she and the Prince Consort had played , unused since his death fifteen years earlier .
The devotion that Beatrice showed to her mother was acknowledged in the Queen 's letters and journals , but her constant need for Beatrice grew stronger . The Queen suffered another bereavement in 1883 , when her highland servant , John Brown , died at Balmoral . Once again , the Queen plunged into public mourning and relied on Beatrice for support . Unlike her siblings , Beatrice had not shown dislike for Brown , and the two had often been seen in each other 's company ; indeed , they had worked together to carry out the Queen 's wishes .
= = Marriage = =
= = = Possible suitors = = =
Although the Queen was set against Beatrice marrying anyone in the expectation that she would always stay at home with her , a number of possible suitors were put forward before Beatrice 's marriage to Prince Henry of Battenberg . One of these was Napoleon Eugene , the French Prince Imperial , son and heir of the exiled Emperor Napoleon III of France and his wife , the Empress Eugénie . After Prussia defeated France in the Franco @-@ Prussian War , Napoleon was deposed and moved his family to England in 1870 . After the Emperor 's death in 1873 , Queen Victoria and Empress Eugénie formed a close attachment , and the newspapers reported the imminent engagement of Beatrice to the Prince Imperial . These rumours ended with the death of the Prince Imperial in the Anglo @-@ Zulu War on 1 June 1879 . Queen Victoria 's journal records their grief : " Dear Beatrice , crying very much as I did too , gave me the telegram ... It was dawning and little sleep did I get ... Beatrice is so distressed ; everyone quite stunned . "
After the death of the Prince Imperial , Beatrice 's brother , Albert Edward , the Prince of Wales , suggested that she marry their sister Alice 's widower , Louis IV , the Grand Duke of Hesse , who had lost his wife to diphtheria in 1878 . Albert Edward argued that Beatrice could act as replacement mother for Louis 's young children and spend most of her time in England looking after her mother . He further suggested the Queen could oversee the upbringing of her Hessian grandchildren with greater ease . However , at the time , it was forbidden by law for Beatrice to marry her sister 's widower . This was countered by the Prince of Wales , who vehemently supported passage by the Houses of Parliament of the Deceased Wife 's Sister Bill , which would have removed the obstacle . Despite popular support for this measure and although it passed in the House of Commons , it was rejected by the House of Lords because of opposition from the Lords Spiritual . Although the Queen was disappointed that the bill had failed , she was happy to keep her daughter at her side .
Other candidates , including two of Prince Henry 's brothers , Prince Alexander ( " Sandro " ) and Prince Louis of Battenberg , were put forward to be Beatrice 's husband , but they did not succeed . Although Alexander never formally pursued Beatrice , merely claiming that he " might even at one time have become engaged to the friend of my childhood , Beatrice of England " , Louis was more interested . Queen Victoria invited him to dinner but sat between him and Beatrice , who had been told by the Queen to ignore Louis to discourage his suit . Louis , not realising for several years the reasons for this silence , married Beatrice 's niece , Princess Victoria of Hesse and by Rhine . Although her marriage hopes had been dealt another blow , while attending Louis 's wedding at Darmstadt , Beatrice fell in love with Prince Henry , who returned her affections .
= = = Engagement and wedding = = =
When Beatrice , after returning from Darmstadt , told her mother she planned to marry , the Queen reacted with frightening silence . Although they remained side by side , the Queen did not talk to her for seven months , instead communicating by note . Queen Victoria 's behaviour , unexpected even by her family , seemed prompted by the threatened loss of her daughter . The Queen regarded Beatrice as her " Baby " – her innocent child – and viewed the physical sex that would come with marriage as an end to innocence .
Subtle persuasions by the Princess of Wales and the Crown Princess of Prussia , who reminded her mother of the happiness that Beatrice had brought the Prince Consort , induced the Queen to resume talking to Beatrice . Queen Victoria consented to the marriage on condition that Henry give up his German commitments and live permanently with Beatrice and the Queen .
Beatrice and Henry were married at Saint Mildred 's Church at Whippingham , near Osborne , on 23 July 1885 . Beatrice , who wore her mother 's wedding veil of Honiton lace , was escorted by the Queen and Beatrice 's eldest brother , the Prince of Wales . Princess Beatrice was attended by ten royal bridesmaids from among her nieces : Princess Alix and Princess Irene of Hesse and by Rhine ; Princess Alexandra , Princess Marie , and Princess Victoria Melita of Edinburgh ; Princess Louise , Princess Maud , and Princess Victoria of Wales ; Princess Marie Louise and Princess Helena Victoria of Schleswig @-@ Holstein . The bridegroom 's supporters were his brothers , Prince Alexander of Bulgaria and Prince Francis Joseph of Battenberg .
The ceremony – which was not attended by her eldest sister and brother @-@ in @-@ law , the Crown Prince and Princess of Prussia , who were detained in Germany ; William Ewart Gladstone ; or Beatrice 's cousin , Princess Mary Adelaide , Duchess of Teck , who was in mourning for her father @-@ in @-@ law – ended with the couple 's departure for their honeymoon at Quarr Abbey House , a few miles from Osborne . The Queen , taking leave of them , " bore up bravely till the departure and then fairly gave way " , as she later admitted to the Crown Princess .
= = Queen Victoria 's last years = =
After a short honeymoon , Beatrice and her husband fulfilled their promise and returned to the Queen 's side . The Queen made it clear that she could not cope on her own and that the couple could not travel without her . Although the Queen relaxed this restriction shortly after the marriage , Beatrice and Henry travelled only to make short visits with his family . Beatrice 's love for Henry , like that of the Queen 's for the Prince Consort , seemed to increase the longer they were married . When Henry travelled without Beatrice , she appeared happier when he returned .
The addition of Prince Henry to the family gave new reasons for Beatrice and the Queen to look forward , and the court was brighter than it had been since the Prince Consort 's death . Even so , Henry , supported by Beatrice , was determined to take part in military campaigns , and this annoyed the Queen , who opposed his participation in life @-@ threatening warfare . Conflicts also arose when Henry attended the Ajaccio carnival and kept " low company " , and Beatrice sent a Royal Navy officer to remove him from temptation . On one occasion , Henry slipped away to Corsica with his brother Louis ; the Queen sent a warship to bring him back . Henry was feeling oppressed by the Queen 's constant need for his and his wife 's company .
Despite being married , Beatrice fulfilled her promise to the Queen by continuing as her full @-@ time confidante and secretary . Queen Victoria warmed to Henry , as she often did with other handsome , strong men . However , the Queen criticised Beatrice 's conduct during her first pregnancy . When Beatrice stopped coming to the Queen 's dinners a week before giving birth , preferring to eat alone in her room , the Queen wrote angrily to her physician , Dr James Reid , that , " I [ urged the Princess to continue ] coming to dinner , and not simply moping in her own room , which is very bad for her . In my case I regularly came to dinner , except when I was really unwell ( even when suffering a great deal ) up to the very last day . " Beatrice , aided by chloroform , gave birth the following week to her first son , Alexander . Despite suffering a miscarriage in the early months of her marriage , Beatrice gave birth to four children : Alexander , called " Drino " , was born in 1886 ; Ena in 1887 ; Leopold in 1889 and Maurice in 1891 . Following this , she took a polite and encouraging interest in social issues , such as conditions in the coal mines . However , this interest did not extend to changing the conditions of poverty , as it had done with her brother , the Prince of Wales .
Although court entertainments were few after the Prince Consort 's death , Beatrice and the Queen enjoyed tableau vivant photography , which was often performed at the royal residences . Henry , increasingly bored by the lack of activity at court , longed for employment , and in response , the Queen made him Governor of the Isle of Wight in 1889 . However , he yearned for military adventure and pleaded with his mother @-@ in @-@ law to let him join the Ashanti expedition fighting in the Anglo @-@ Asante war . Despite misgivings , the Queen consented , and Henry and Beatrice parted on 6 December 1895 ; they would not meet again . Henry contracted malaria and was sent home . On 22 January 1896 , Beatrice , who was waiting for her husband at Madeira , received a telegram informing her of Henry 's death two days earlier .
Devastated , she left court for a month of mourning before returning to her post at her mother 's side . The Queen 's journal reports that Queen Victoria " [ w ] ent over to Beatrice 's room and sat a while with her . She is so piteous in her misery . " Despite her grief , Beatrice remained her mother 's faithful companion , and as Queen Victoria aged , she relied more heavily on Beatrice for dealing with correspondence . However , realising that Beatrice needed a place of her own , she gave her the Kensington Palace apartments once occupied by the Queen and her mother . The Queen appointed Beatrice to the governorship of the Isle of Wight , vacated by Prince Henry 's death . In response to Beatrice 's interest in photography , the Queen had a darkroom installed at Osborne House . The changes in the family , including Beatrice 's preoccupation with her mother , may have affected her children , who rebelled at school . Beatrice wrote that Ena was " troublesome and rebellious " , and that Alexander was telling " unwarrantable untruths " .
= = Later life = =
Beatrice 's life was overturned by the death of Queen Victoria on 22 January 1901 . She wrote to the Principal of the University of Glasgow in March , " ... you may imagine what the grief is . I , who had hardly ever been separated from my dear mother , can hardly realise what life will be like without her , who was the centre of everything . " Beatrice 's public appearances continued , but her position at court was diminished . She , unlike her sister Louise , was not close to her brother , now King Edward VII , and was not included in the King 's inner circle . Although their relationship did not break down completely , it was occasionally strained , for example when she accidentally ( but noisily ) dropped her service book from the royal gallery onto a table of gold plate during his coronation .
After inheriting Osborne , the King had his mother 's personal photographs and belongings removed and some of them destroyed , especially material relating to John Brown , whom he detested . Queen Victoria had intended the house to be a private , secluded residence for her descendants , away from the pomp and ceremony of mainland life . However , the new King had no need for the house and consulted his lawyers about disposing of it , transforming the main wing into a convalescent home , opening the state apartments to the public , and constructing a Naval College on the grounds . His plans met with strong disapproval from Beatrice and Louise . Queen Victoria had bequeathed them houses on the estate , and the privacy promised to them by their mother was threatened . When Edward discussed the fate of the house with them , Beatrice argued against allowing the house to leave the family , citing its importance to their parents .
However , the King did not want the house himself , and he offered it to his heir @-@ apparent , Beatrice 's nephew George , who declined , objecting to the high cost of maintenance . Edward subsequently extended the grounds of Beatrice 's home , Osborne Cottage , to compensate her for the impending loss of her privacy . Shortly afterwards , the King declared to Arthur Balfour , the Prime Minister , that the main house would go to the nation as a gift . An exception was made for the private apartments , which were closed to all but the royal family members , who made it a shrine to their mother 's memory .
= = = Queen Victoria 's journals = = =
Upon Queen Victoria 's death , Beatrice began the momentous task of transcribing and editing her mother 's journals , which had been kept since 1831 . The hundreds of volumes contained the Queen 's personal views of the day @-@ to @-@ day business of her life and included personal and family matters as well as matters of state .
Queen Victoria had given Beatrice the task of editing the journals for publication , which meant removing private material as well as passages that , if published , might be hurtful to living people . Beatrice deleted so much material that the edited journals are only a third as long as the originals . The destruction of such large passages of Queen Victoria 's diaries distressed Beatrice 's nephew , King George V , and his wife Queen Mary , who were powerless to intervene . Beatrice copied a draft from the original and then copied her draft into a set of blue notebooks . Both the originals and her first drafts were destroyed as she progressed . The task took thirty years and was finished in 1931 . The surviving 111 notebooks are kept in the Royal Archives at Windsor Castle .
= = = Retirement from public life = = =
Beatrice continued to appear in public after her mother 's death . The public engagements she carried out were often related to her mother , Queen Victoria , as the public had always associated Beatrice with the deceased monarch .
The beauty of Beatrice 's daughter , Ena , was known throughout Europe , and , despite her low rank , she was a desirable bride . Her chosen suitor was King Alfonso XIII of Spain . However , the marriage caused controversy in Britain , since it required Ena to convert to Catholicism . This step was opposed by Beatrice 's brother , King Edward VII , and Spanish ultra @-@ conservatives were against the King 's marriage to a Protestant of low birth , as her father , Prince Henry , was the son of a morganatic marriage . Thus , they considered Ena to be only partly royal and thus unfit to be Queen of Spain . Nonetheless , the couple wed on 31 May 1906 . The marriage began inauspiciously when an anarchist attempted to bomb them on their wedding day . Apparently close at first , the couple grew apart . Ena became unpopular in Spain and grew more so when it was discovered that her son , the heir to the throne , suffered from haemophilia , a disease for which Alfonso held Beatrice responsible for having brought the disease to the Spanish royal house and turned bitterly against Ena .
During her time as Queen of Spain , Ena returned many times to visit her mother in Britain , but always without Alfonso and usually without her children . Meanwhile , Beatrice lived at Osborne Cottage in East Cowes until she sold it in 1913 , when Carisbrooke Castle , home of the Governor of the Isle of Wight , became vacant . She moved into the Castle while keeping an apartment at Kensington Palace in London . She had been much involved in collecting material for the Carisbrooke Castle museum , which she opened in 1898 .
Her presence at court further decreased as she aged . Devastated by the death of her favourite son , Maurice , during the First World War in 1914 , she began to retire from public life . In response to war with Germany , George V changed the family surname from Saxe @-@ Coburg and Gotha to Windsor to downplay their German origins . Subsequently , Beatrice and her family renounced their German names ; Beatrice 's style reverted from HRH Princess Henry of Battenberg to her birth style , HRH The Princess Beatrice . Her surname was anglicised to Mountbatten . Her sons gave up their courtesy style , Prince of Battenberg . Alexander , the eldest , became Sir Alexander Mountbatten and was later given the title Marquess of Carisbrooke in the Peerage of the United Kingdom . Her younger son , Leopold , became Lord Leopold Mountbatten and was given the rank of a younger son of a marquess . He was a haemophiliac , having inherited the " royal disease " from his mother , and died during a knee operation in 1922 one month short of his 33rd birthday .
Following the war , Beatrice was one of several members of the royal family who became patrons of The Ypres League , a society founded for veterans of the Ypres Salient and bereaved relatives of those killed in fighting in the Salient . She was herself a bereaved mother , as her son , Prince Maurice of Battenberg , had been killed in action during the First Battle of Ypres . Rare public appearances after his death included commemorations , including laying wreaths at the Cenotaph in 1930 and 1935 to mark the 10th and 15th anniversaries of the founding of the League .
= = = Last years = = =
Even in her seventies , Beatrice continued to correspond with her friends and relatives and to make rare public appearances , such as when , pushed in a wheelchair , she viewed the wreaths laid after the death of George V in 1936 . She published her last work of translation in 1941 . Entitled " In Napoleonic Days " , it was the personal diary of Queen Victoria 's maternal grandmother , Augusta , Duchess of Saxe @-@ Coburg @-@ Saalfeld . She corresponded with the publisher , John Murray , who greatly approved of the work . She made her last home at Brantridge Park in West Sussex , which was owned by Queen Mary 's brother , Alexander Cambridge , the first Earl of Athlone , and his wife , Princess Alice , who was Beatrice 's niece ; the Athlones were at the time in Canada where the Earl was Governor @-@ General . There , Beatrice died peacefully in her sleep on 26 October 1944 , aged eighty @-@ seven ( the day before the 30th anniversary of her son , Prince Maurice 's death ) . After her funeral service in St George 's Chapel , Windsor Castle , her coffin was placed in the royal vault on 3 November . On 28 August 1945 , her body was transferred and placed inside a joint tomb , alongside her husband , in St. Mildred 's Church , Whippingham . Beatrice 's final wish , to be buried with her husband on the island most familiar to her , was fulfilled in a private service at Whippingham attended only by her son , the Marquess of Carisbrooke , and his wife .
= = Legacy = =
Beatrice was the shyest of all of Queen Victoria 's children . However , because she accompanied Queen Victoria almost wherever she went , she became among the best known . Despite her shyness , she was an able actress and dancer as well as a keen artist and photographer . She was devoted to her children and was concerned when they misbehaved at school . To those who enjoyed her friendship , she was loyal and had a sense of humour , and as a public figure she was driven by a strong sense of duty . She was Patron of the Isle of Wight Branch of the Royal National Lifeboat Institution from 1920 until her death . Music , a passion that was shared by her mother and the Prince Consort , was something in which Beatrice excelled , and she played the piano to professional standards . Like her mother , she was a devout Christian , fascinated by theology until her death . With her calm temperament and personal warmth , the princess won wide approval .
The demands made on Beatrice during her mother 's reign were high . Despite suffering from rheumatism , Beatrice was forced to endure her mother 's love of cold weather . Beatrice 's piano playing suffered as her rheumatism got gradually worse , eliminating an enjoyment in which she excelled ; however , this did not change her willingness to cater to her mother 's needs . Her effort did not go unnoticed by the British public .
In 1886 , when she agreed to open the Show of the Royal Horticultural Society of Southampton , the organisers sent her a proclamation of thanks , expressing their " admiration of the affectionate manner in which you have comforted and assisted your widowed mother our Gracious Sovereign the Queen " . As a wedding present , Sir Moses Montefiore , a banker and philanthropist , presented Beatrice and Henry with a silver tea service inscribed : " Many daughters have acted virtuously , but thou excellest them all . " The Times newspaper , shortly before Beatrice 's marriage , wrote : " The devotion of your Royal Highness to our beloved Sovereign has won our warmest admiration and our deepest gratitude . May those blessings which it has hitherto been your constant aim to confer on others now be returned in full measure to yourself . " The sentence was , as far as it dared , criticising the Queen 's hold over her daughter .
Some of the buildings with which Beatrice would have been familiar , continue to be regularly used by the royal family : Buckingham Palace , Windsor Castle , Balmoral Castle , and Kensington Palace . She died at Brantridge Park , the home of her niece , Princess Alice , and her husband , the Earl of Athlone , at the time serving as Governor General of Canada . Osborne House , her mother 's favourite home , is accessible to the public . Her Osborne residences , Osborne and Albert Cottages , remain in private ownership after their sale in 1912 . At her death , Beatrice was the only surviving child of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert . The future Elizabeth II , Beatrice 's great @-@ grandniece , was eighteen years of age at that time .
Through her daughter , Victoria Eugenie , she is an ancestress of Felipe VI , the current King of Spain and the Spanish Royal Family .
= = Titles , styles , honours and arms = =
= = = Titles and styles = = =
14 April 1857 – 23 July 1885 : Her Royal Highness The Princess Beatrice
23 July 1885 – 14 July 1917 : Her Royal Highness Princess Henry of Battenberg
17 July 1917 – 26 October 1944 : Her Royal Highness The Princess Beatrice
= = = Honours = = =
9 January 1874 : Royal Order of Victoria and Albert ( 1st class )
1 January 1878 : Order of the Crown of India
30 November 1881 : Grand Duchy of Hesse Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Golden Lion
24 May 1885 : Royal Red Cross
10 February 1904 : Royal Family Order of King Edward VII ( 2nd class )
3 June 1911 : Royal Family Order of King George V ( 2nd class )
1 January 1919 : Dame Grand Cross of the Order of the British Empire
12 June 1926 : Dame Grand Cross of the Order of St John
11 May 1937 : Dame Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order
886th Dame of the Spanish Royal Order of Queen Maria Luisa .
Order of St. Catherine ( Russian )
= = = Arms = = =
In 1858 , Beatrice and the three younger of her sisters were granted use of the royal arms , with an inescutcheon of the shield of Saxony and differenced by a label of three points argent . On Beatrice 's arms , the outer points bore roses gules , and the centre a heart gules . In 1917 , the inescutcheon was dropped by royal warrant from George V.
= = Issue = =
= = Ancestry = =
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= Ine of Wessex =
Ine was King of Wessex from 688 to 726 . He was unable to retain the territorial gains of his predecessor , Cædwalla , who had brought much of southern England under his control and expanded West Saxon territory substantially . By the end of Ine 's reign , the kingdoms of Kent , Sussex , and Essex were no longer under West Saxon domination ; however , Ine maintained control of what is now Hampshire , and consolidated and extended Wessex 's territory in the western peninsula .
Ine is noted for his code of laws ( leges Inae or " laws of Ine " ) , which he issued in about 694 . These laws were the first issued by an Anglo @-@ Saxon king outside Kent . They shed much light on the history of Anglo @-@ Saxon society , and reveal Ine 's Christian convictions . Trade increased significantly during Ine 's reign , with the town of Hamwic ( now Southampton ) becoming prominent . It was probably during Ine 's reign that the West Saxons began to mint coins , though none have been found that bear his name .
Ine abdicated in 726 to go to Rome , leaving , in the words of the contemporary chronicler Bede , the kingdom to " younger men " . He was succeeded by Æthelheard .
= = Genealogy and accession = =
Early sources agree that Ine was the son of Cenred , and that Cenred was the son of Ceolwald ; further back there is less agreement . Ine 's siblings included a brother , Ingild , and two sisters , Cuthburh and Cwenburg . Cuthburh was married to King Aldfrith of Northumbria , and Ine himself was married to Æthelburg . Bede tells that Ine was " of the blood royal " , by which he means the royal line of the Gewisse , the early West Saxon tribal name .
The genealogy of Ine and of the kings of Wessex is known from two sources : the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle and the West Saxon Genealogical Regnal List . The Chronicle was created in the late 9th century , probably at the court of Alfred the Great , and some of its annals incorporated short genealogies of kings of Wessex . These are often at variance with the more extensive information in the Regnal List . The inconsistencies appear to result from the efforts of later chroniclers to demonstrate that each king on the list was descended from Cerdic , the founder , according to the Chronicle , of the West Saxon line in England .
Ine 's predecessor on the throne of Wessex was Cædwalla , but there is some uncertainty about the transition from Cædwalla to Ine . Cædwalla abdicated in 688 and departed for Rome to be baptized . According to the West Saxon Genealogical Regnal List , Ine reigned for 37 years , abdicating in 726 . These dates imply that he did not gain the throne until 689 , which could indicate an unsettled period between Cædwalla 's abdication and Ine 's accession . Ine may have ruled alongside his father , Cenred , for a period : there is weak evidence for joint kingships , and stronger evidence of subkings reigning under a dominant ruler in Wessex , not long before this time . Ine acknowledges his father 's help in his code of laws , and there is also a surviving land @-@ grant that indicates Cenred was still reigning in Wessex after Ine 's accession .
= = Reign = =
The extent of West Saxon territory at the start of Ine 's reign is fairly well known . The upper Thames valley on both sides of the river had long been the territory of the Gewisse , though Cædwalla had lost territory north of the river to the kingdom of Mercia before Ine 's accession . To the west , Ceawlin of Wessex is known to have reached the Bristol Channel one hundred years before . The West Saxons had since expanded further down the southwestern peninsula , pushing back the boundary with the British kingdom of Dumnonia , which was probably roughly equivalent to modern Devon and Cornwall . On the West Saxons ' eastern border was the kingdom of the East Saxons , which included London and what is now Surrey . To the southeast were the South Saxons , on the coast east of the Isle of Wight . Beyond Sussex lay the kingdom of Kent . Ine 's predecessor , Cædwalla , had made himself overlord of most of these southern kingdoms , though he had not been able to prevent Mercian inroads along the upper Thames .
Ine retained control of the Isle of Wight , and made further advances in Dumnonia , but the territorial gains Cædwalla had made in Sussex , Surrey and Kent were all lost by the end of Ine 's reign .
= = = Kent , Essex , Sussex , and Surrey = = =
Ine made peace with Kent in 694 , when its king Wihtred gave Ine a substantial sum in compensation for the death of Cædwalla 's brother Mul , who had been killed during a Kentish rebellion in 687 . The value of the amount offered to Ine by Wihtred is uncertain ; most manuscripts of the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle record " thirty thousand " , and some specify thirty thousand pounds . If the pounds are equal to sceattas , then this amount is the equal of a king 's weregild — that is , the legal valuation of a man 's life , according to his rank .
Ine kept the South Saxons , who had been conquered by Cædwalla in 686 , in subjugation for a period . King Nothhelm of Sussex is referred to in a charter of 692 as a kinsman of Ine ( perhaps by marriage ) . Sussex was still under West Saxon domination in 710 , when Nothhelm is recorded as having campaigned with Ine in the west against Dumnonia .
Control of Surrey , which may never have been an independent kingdom , passed between Kent , Mercia , Essex , and Wessex in the years before Ine 's reign . Essex also included London , and the diocese of London included Surrey ; this appears to have been a source of friction between Ine and the East Saxon and Mercian kings , until the province was transferred to the diocese of Winchester in 705 . Evidence for Ine 's early control of Surrey comes from the introduction to his laws , in which he refers to Eorcenwald , bishop of London , as " my bishop " . Ine 's subsequent relations with the East Saxons are illuminated by a letter written in 704 or 705 by Bishop Wealdhere of London to Brihtwold , the Archbishop of Canterbury . The letter refers to " disputes and discords " that had arisen " between the king of the West Saxons and the rulers of our country " . The rulers that Wealdhere refers to are Sigeheard and Swæfred of the East Saxons , and the cause of the discord was the East Saxons ' sheltering of exiles from the West Saxons . Ine had agreed to peace on the condition that the exiles were expelled . A council at Brentford was planned to resolve the disputes . By this point Surrey had clearly passed out of West Saxon control .
Bede records that Ine held Sussex in subjection for " several years " , but in 722 an exile named Ealdbert fled to Surrey and Sussex , and Ine invaded Sussex as a result . Three years later Ine invaded again , this time killing Ealdberht . Sussex had evidently broken away from West Saxon domination some time before this . It has been suggested that Ealdberht was a son of Ine , or a son of Ine 's brother Ingild .
= = = Dumnonia and Mercia = = =
In 710 , Ine and Nothhelm fought against Geraint of Dumnonia , according to the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle ; John of Worcester states that Geraint was killed in this battle . Ine 's advance brought him control of what is now Devon , the new border with Dumnonia being the river Tamar . The Annales Cambriae , a 10th @-@ century chronicle , records that in 722 the British defeated their enemies at the Battle of Hehil . The " enemies " must be Ine or his people , but the location is unidentified ; historians have suggested locations in both Cornwall and Devon .
Ine fought a battle at Woden 's Barrow in 715 , either against the Mercians under Ceolred or together with them against an unnamed opponent ; the result is not recorded . Woden 's Barrow is a tumulus , now called Adam 's Grave , at Alton Prior , Wiltshire . Ine may not have recovered any of the lands north of the Thames that had belonged to the West Saxons under previous kings , but it is known that he controlled the southern bank : a charter dated 687 shows him giving land to the church at Streatley on the Thames and at nearby Basildon .
= = = Other conflicts = = =
In 721 , the Chronicle records that Ine slew one Cynewulf , of whom nothing else is known , though his name suggests a connection to the Wessex royal line . A quarrel apparently arose in the royal family soon afterwards : in 722 , according to the Chronicle , Ine 's queen Æthelburg destroyed Taunton , which her husband had built earlier in his reign .
= = Internal affairs = =
The first mention of the office of ealdorman in Wessex , and the first references to the shires they led , occur during Ine 's reign . It may have been Ine who divided Wessex into something approximating the modern counties of Hampshire , Wiltshire , Somerset , Devon , and Dorset , though earlier administrative boundaries might also have influenced these borders . It has also been suggested that these counties began as divisions of the kingdom among members of the royal family .
By about 710 , in the middle of Ine 's reign , the trading settlement of Hamwic had become established on the west bank of the river Itchen ; the site is now part of the modern city of Southampton . The goods traded at this port included glass vessels , and finds of animal bones suggest an active trade in hides . Further evidence of trade comes from finds of imported goods such as quernstones , whetstones , and pottery ; and finds of sceattas from the town include Frisian coins . Specialist trades carried on in the town included cloth @-@ making , smithying , and metalworking . It is not known whether Ine took an interest in Hamwic , but some of the goods he favoured , including luxuries , were imported there , and the merchants would probably have needed royal protection . The total population of Hamwic has been estimated at 5 @,@ 000 , and this high population itself implies Ine 's involvement , since no @-@ one but the king would have been able to arrange to feed and house such a large group of people .
The growth of trade after about 700 was paralleled by an expansion of the area of circulation of the sceat , the common coin of the day , to include the upper Thames valley . It is thought that the first West Saxon coinage was minted during Ine 's reign , though no coins bearing his name have been found — sceattas typically gave no hint of the reigning king .
= = Laws = =
The earliest Anglo @-@ Saxon law code to survive , which may date from 602 or 603 , is that of Æthelberht of Kent , whose reign ended in 616 . In the 670s or 680s , a code was issued in the names of Hlothhere and Eadric of Kent . The next kings to issue laws were Wihtred of Kent and Ine .
The dates of Wihtred 's and Ine 's laws are somewhat uncertain , but there is reason to believe that Wihtred 's laws were issued on 6 September 695 , while Ine 's laws were written in 694 or shortly before . Ine had recently agreed peaceful terms with Wihtred over compensation for the death of Mul , and there are indications that the two rulers collaborated to some degree in producing their laws . In addition to the coincidence of timing , there is one clause that appears in almost identical form in both codes . Another sign of collaboration is that Wihtred 's laws use gesith , a West Saxon term for noble , in place of the Kentish term eorlcund . It is possible that Ine and Wihtred issued the law codes as an act of prestige , to re @-@ establish authority after periods of disruption in both kingdoms .
Ine 's laws survive only because Alfred the Great appended them to his own code of laws . The oldest surviving manuscript , and only complete copy , is Corpus Christi College , Cambridge MS 173 , which contains both Alfred 's and Ine 's law codes and the oldest extant text of the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle . Two more partial texts survive . One was originally a complete copy of Ine 's laws , part of British Library MS Cotton Otho B xi , but that manuscript was largely destroyed in 1731 by a fire at Ashburnham House in which only Chapters 66 to 76 @.@ 2 of Ine 's laws escaped destruction . A fragment of Ine 's laws can also be found in British Museum MS Burney 277 .
It is possible that we do not have Ine 's laws in their original 7th @-@ century form . Alfred mentions in the prologue to his laws that he rejected earlier laws which he disliked . He did not specify what laws he omitted , but if they were the ones no longer relevant in his own time , it cannot be assumed that the surviving version of Ine 's laws is complete .
The prologue to Ine 's laws lists his advisors . Three people are named : bishops Eorcenwald and Hædde , and Ine 's father , King Cenred . Ine was a Christian king , whose intent to encourage Christianity is clear from the laws . The oath of a communicant , for example , is declared to carry more weight than that of a non @-@ Christian ; and baptism and religious observance are also addressed . Significant attention is also paid to civil issues — more than in the contemporary Kentish laws .
One of the laws states that common land might be enclosed by several ceorls ( the contemporary name for Saxon freemen ) . Any ceorl who fails to fence his share , however , and allows his cattle to stray into someone else 's field is to be held liable for any damage caused . This does not mean that the land was held in common : each ceorl had his own strip of land that supported him . It is notable that a king 's law is required to settle a relatively minor issue ; the laws do not mention the role of local lords in obtaining compliance from the ceorls . It is clear from this and other laws that tenants held the land in tenure from a lord ; the king 's close involvement indicates that the relationship between lord and tenant was under the king 's control .
The laws that deal with straying cattle provide the earliest documentary evidence for an open @-@ field farming system . They show that open @-@ field agriculture was practiced in Wessex in Ine 's time , and it is probable that this was also the prevalent agricultural method throughout the English midlands , and as far north and east as Lindsey and Deira . Not all of Wessex used this system , however : it was not used in Devon , for example . The law which mentions a " yard " of land is the first documented mention of that unit . A yard was a unit of land equal to a quarter of a hide ; a hide was variable from place to place but could be as much as 120 acres ( 49 ha ) . The yard in this sense later became the standard holding of the medieval villein , and was known as the virgate . One historian has commented that " the beginnings of a manorial economy are clearly visible in Ine 's laws . "
The fine for neglecting fyrd , the obligation to do military service for the king , is set at 120 shillings for a nobleman , and 30 shillings for a ceorl , incidentally revealing that ceorls were required to serve in the army . Scholars have disagreed on the military value of the ceorl , but it is not surprising that all free men would fight , since defeat might have meant slavery .
Another law specified that anyone accused of murder required at least one high @-@ ranking person among his " oath @-@ helpers " . An oath @-@ helper would swear an oath on behalf of an accused man , to clear him from the suspicion of the crime . Ine 's requirement implies that he did not trust an oath sworn only by peasants . It may represent a significant change from an earlier time when a man 's kin were expected to support him with oaths .
The laws made separate provision for Ine 's English and British subjects and were neither oppressive to the British nor completely even @-@ handed . The evidence they provide for the incomplete integration of the two populations is supported by research into placename history , the history of religious houses , and local archaeology , which indicates that the western part of Wessex was thinly settled by the Germanic newcomers at the time the laws were issued . It is notable that , although issued by the Saxon king of a Saxon kingdom , the term used in the laws to define Ine 's Germanic subjects is Englisc . This reflects the existence , even at this early date , of a common English identity encompassing all the Germanic peoples of Britain .
= = Christianity = =
Ine was a Christian king , who ruled as a patron and protector of the church . The introduction to his laws names his advisors , among whom are Eorcenwald , Bishop of London and Hædde , Bishop of Winchester ; Ine says that the laws were also made with the advice and instruction of " all my ealdormen , and chief councillors of my people , and also a great assembly of the servants of God " . The laws themselves demonstrate Ine 's Christian convictions , specifying fines for failing to baptize infants or to tithe . Ine supported the church by patronising religious houses , especially in the new diocese of Sherborne , which had been divided from the diocese of Winchester in 705 . Ine had opposed this division , ignoring threats of excommunication from Canterbury , but he agreed to it when Bishop Haedde died .
The first West Saxon nunneries were founded in Ine 's reign by Ine 's kinswoman , Bugga , the daughter of King Centwine , and by Ine 's sister Cuthburh , who founded the abbey of Wimborne at some point after she separated from her husband , King Aldfrith of Northumbria . At the bishop Aldhelm 's suggestion in 705 , Ine built the church which later became Wells Cathedral , and the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle also records that Ine built a minster at Glastonbury . This must refer to additional building or re @-@ building since there was already a British monastery at Glastonbury .
Ine has been credited with supporting the establishment of an organized church in Wessex , though it is not clear that this was his initiative . He is also connected with the oldest known West Saxon synods , presiding at one himself and apparently addressing the assembled clerics .
There is a tradition that Ine was a saint , and was the dedicatee of St Ina 's Church in Llanina near New Quay , Wales . However , a more likely dedicatee for this church is the fifth @-@ century Welsh Saint Ina .
= = Abdication and succession = =
In 726 , Ine abdicated , with no obvious heir and , according to Bede , left his kingdom to " younger men " in order to travel , with his wife Æthelburg , to Rome where they both died ; his predecessor , Cædwalla , had also abdicated to go to Rome and was baptized there by the pope . A pilgrimage to Rome was thought to aid one 's chance of a welcome in heaven , and according to Bede , many people went to Rome at this time for this reason : " ... both noble and simple , layfolk and clergy , men and women alike . " Either Ine or Offa of Mercia is traditionally supposed to have founded the Schola Saxonum there , in what is today the Roman rione , or district , of Borgo . The Schola Saxonum took its name from the militias of Saxons who served in Rome , but it eventually developed into a hostelry for English visitors to the city . Ine 's successor was King Æthelheard ; it is not known whether Æthelheard was related to Ine , though some later sources state that Æthelheard was Ine 's brother @-@ in @-@ law . Æthelheard 's succession to the throne was disputed by an ætheling , Oswald , and it may be that Mercian support for Æthelheard in the unsettled aftermath of Ine 's abdication both helped establish Æthelheard as king and also brought him into the sphere of influence of Æthelbald , the king of Mercia . Ine 's brother Ingild , who died in 718 , is given as ancestor of king Egbert of Wessex and the subsequent kings of England .
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= Dorival Caymmi =
Dorival Caymmi ( April 30 , 1914 – August 16 , 2008 ) was a Brazilian singer , songwriter , actor , and painter active for more than 70 years beginning in 1933 . He contributed to the birth of Brazil 's bossa nova movement , and several of his samba pieces , such as " Samba da Minha Terra " , " Doralice " and " Saudade da Bahia " , have become staples of Música popular brasileira . Equally notable are his ballads celebrating the fishermen and women of Bahia , including " Promessa de Pescador " , " O Que É Que a Baiana Tem ? " , and " Milagre " . Caymmi composed about 100 songs in his lifetime , and many of his works are now considered to be Brazilian classics . Both Brazilian and non @-@ Brazilian musicians have covered his songs .
Ben Ratliff of The New York Times wrote that Caymmi was " perhaps second only to Antônio Carlos Jobim in ' establishing a songbook of [ the 20th ] century ’ s Brazilian identity . ' " Throughout his career , his music about the people and culture of Bahia influenced Brazil 's image in the eyes of both Brazilians and foreigners . Caymmi was married to Brazilian singer Stella Maris for 68 years , and the couple 's children , Dori Caymmi , Danilo Caymmi , and Nana Caymmi , are also prominent musicians . Each debuted professionally by accompanying their father onstage and in recordings .
= = Early life = =
Caymmi was born in Salvador , Bahia , to Durval Henrique Caymmi , the great @-@ grandson of an Italian immigrant , and Aurelina Soares Caymmi , a native Bahian . He had two younger sisters , Dinahir and Dinah , and a younger brother , Deraldo . His father , a civil servant , often played the piano , guitar , and mandolin at home , and his mother , a housewife , sang regularly . He participated in his church 's choir for much of his childhood . At age 13 , he left school to work as a journalist at Bahian newspaper O Imparcial . When O Imparcial went out of business two years later , he took up work as a street vendor .
Although he never formally studied music , Caymmi taught himself to play guitar in the late 1920s and began to compose , sing , and play his own songs on Bahian radio programs around 1930 . He first achieved widespread recognition in 1933 , when at age 16 , he composed the song " O Que É Que A Baiana Tem ? " ( " What Is It About Bahian Women ? " ) for singer Carmen Miranda . In 1936 , at age 22 , he won a songwriting contest at Salvador 's annual Carnaval celebration . His prize was a pink satin lampshade . Despite his early musical success , he moved to Rio de Janeiro in 1938 with intentions to pursue a law degree and to return to working as a journalist . While employed there by the newspaper Diários Associados , he spent his spare time composing and singing songs on the radio show Dragão da Rua Larga . His popularity began to grow with the show 's audience .
= = Career = =
= = = Overview = = =
Many of Caymmi 's lyrics pay homage to the lifestyle , beaches , fishermen , and women of his native Bahia . He drew much of his inspiration from music indigenous to northeastern Brazil , especially Afro @-@ Brazilian music and samba . He recorded for more than five decades and released about 20 albums , sometimes singing and playing guitar as a soloist and at other times accompanied by bands and orchestras . Although active for the better part of the 20th century , Caymmi wrote only about 100 songs . Despite having a relatively small body of work , Caymmi held a reputation for composing songs of exceptional quality . He occasionally collaborated with Jobim , who called him a " universal genius " and Brazil 's greatest composer . Many contemporary Brazilian artists , including Caetano Veloso , Gilberto Gil and Beth Carvalho cite Caymmi as a significant influence on their music .
= = = Chronology = = =
" O Que É Que a Baiana Tem ? " gained even more fame in Brazil when Miranda performed it in the 1939 film Banana @-@ da @-@ Terra , and it was this song that garnered her international attention and helped launch her career . After this success , Caymmi began to focus more on making music , and he wrote songs that appeared in other Brazilian films . In late 1939 , he signed with Odeon Records and recorded his first three singles , " Rainha do Mar / Promessa de Pescador " ( " Queen of the Sea / Promise of the Fisherman " ) , " Roda Pião " ( " Top Wheel " ) , and " O Que É Que a Baiana Tem ? / A Preta do Acarajé " ( " What Is It About Bahian Women ? / The Dark Woman from Acarajé " ) . He came to more attention in the early 1940s when he performed as a regular on the Brazilian radio network Rádio Nacional . He recorded " Samba da Minha Terra " ( " Samba of My Homeland " ) in 1940 and " A Jangada Voltou Só " ( " The Raft Returned Alone " ) in the following year . In 1944 , he performed his own " Acontece Que Eu Sou Baiano " ( " It Just So Happens That I 'm Bahian " ) in the movie Abacaxi Azul ( Blue Pineapple ) . In the late 1940s , he was a member of the samba @-@ canção movement largely founded by his sometime creative rival , composer Ary Barroso . Other prominent Brazilian musicians of the day covered several of his songs , including Dick Farney , who famously recorded Caymmi 's " Marina " ( 1944 ) in 1947 . In 1957 Caymmi wrote " Suíte do Pescador " , which appeared in the film The Sandpit Generals .
In the 1950s and 1960s , Jobim , João Gilberto , and others who contributed to the birth of the bossa nova style collaborated with Caymmi and often referenced his work when composing their own pieces . During this era , Gilberto covered several of Caymmi 's songs , including " Rosa Morena " ( " Dark @-@ skinned Rose " ) and " Saudade da Bahia " ( " Longing for Bahia " ) . Jobim was particularly enamored of Caymmi 's music , and the two grew to be close friends . American lyricist Ray Gilbert translated Caymmi 's " Das Rosas " into English in 1965 , and it was released in the United States as " And Roses and Roses " . The song was recorded by Brazilian vocalist Astrud Gilberto and by American singers Andy Williams and Perry Como . Williams 's version became a hit , and as a result , Caymmi was invited to spend four months in Los Angeles , where he performed , filmed a television show , and recorded an LP record .
= = = = Collaboration with Jorge Amado = = = =
Caymmi was a lifelong friend of Bahian author Jorge Amado , and in 1945 , he set one of Amado 's politically driven poems to music to aid the senatorial campaign of Luís Carlos Prestes . In the late 1970s , Caymmi again took inspiration from Amado when he composed " Modinha para a Gabriela " ( " A Little Song for Gabriela " ) , a musical adaptation of Amado 's novel Gabriela , Cravo e Canela ( Gabriela , Cloves and Cinnamon ) . Perhaps the best @-@ known product of Caymmi and Amado 's collaboration is the song " É Doce Morrer no Mar " ( " It 's Sweet to Die in the Sea " ) , which the two wrote over dinner one night at Amado 's home . Other songs they co @-@ wrote include " Beijos pela Noite " ( " Kisses Through the Night " ) , " Modinha para Teresa Batista " ( " A Little Song for Teresa Batista " ) , " Retirantes " ( " Migrants " ) , and " Essa Nega Fulô " ( " This Feisty Dark Lady " ) .
= = Awards and honors = =
To thank Caymmi for bringing international attention to Brazilian music and culture , in 1968 , the governor of Bahia presented Caymmi with a house in Salvador , and so he returned to live in his hometown for a short period of time . In 1972 , Caymmi was awarded the Order of Merit of the State of Bahia , an order given to Bahian residents for excellent service to the state . In Caymmi 's case , the service was bringing pride and honor to Bahian people through the widespread dissemination of his music about life there . On Caymmi 's 70th birthday , in 1984 , French Minister of Culture Jack Lang presented him with the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres , a French order that recognizes significant contributors to the fields of art and literature , in Paris . The following year , a new street named Avenida Dorival Caymmi ( Dorival Caymmi Avenue ) opened in Salvador . In 1986 , Rio de Janeiro 's famed Mangueira samba school based its Carnaval performance on Caymmi 's life and work , and the school won the annual parade @-@ style samba competition . In 2015 , his tribute album Centenário Caymmy was nominated for the 16th Latin Grammy Awards in the Best MPB Album category .
= = Personal life = =
Although Caymmi earned his fame through music , he was also known to a lesser degree for his paintings . From 1943 to 1945 , he regularly attended a drawing and painting class at the Escola de Belas Artes , a fine arts school in Rio de Janeiro . Even after discontinuing his formal study , he painted for the rest of his life . He practiced Candomblé , an Afro @-@ Brazilian religion characterized by belief in spirit @-@ gods and ritualistic practices involving mediumship . Candomblé was his father 's religion , and Caymmi gradually involved himself more with it as an adult , when his friends invited him to accompany them to religious ceremonies and parties . Caymmi was also a naturist , and when he was in Bahia , he liked to bathe nude in the Lagoa do Abaeté ( Abaeté Lagoon ) with a group of friends . He stated to the newspaper Valor Econômico : " We rolled around in palm leaves and slipped through the mountains of sand . Some people didn 't like this , but most understood that we weren 't naked for unclean reasons . "
= = = Marriage = = =
While working at Rádio Nacional in 1939 , he met Brazilian vocalist Adelaide Tostes , who is better known by her stage name Stella Maris , and the two married in 1940 . Tostes responded to a 1994 press query about Caymmi 's habit of frequenting bars with a short story : " One night I went to look for him in a bar ... He was surrounded by women . I went in and slammed a table . A glass broke . The bouncer came , and I punched Caymmi 's face . Then I left cussing . I thought he was involved with drugs , but it wasn 't the case . He was with the tramps . " Despite such incidents , however , they remained together for 68 years , until his death in 2008 . The couple had three children , Nana , Danilo , and Dori , all of whom followed their father into musical careers .
= = = Politics = = =
Although Caymmi rarely incorporated political messages into his music , he often spoke bitterly about the government 's corruption . Jorge Amado , his close friend , was sent into exile for several years after he publicly criticized the country 's rulers during the period of military dictatorship . In 1994 , Caymmi said , " I have concluded that to act as a citizen in Brazil today is to live a joke . It 's the same as playing the lotto , dreaming about nonsense , trying to get rich when you are 80 . "
= = Death = =
Dorival Caymmi died at age 94 of kidney cancer and multiple organ failure on August 16 , 2008 , at his home in Copacabana , Rio de Janeiro . His granddaughter , Stella , who wrote a biography about him in 2001 , said , " He did not know that he had cancer , and he did not want to know . He did not ask much about this . He was first hospitalized in 1999 . My grandfather went through with treatment , but he did not want to know anything about the illness . He acted with serenity every day , and because of that , we respected this wish . "
= = Reception and legacy = =
Brazilian singer and composer Carlos Lyra praised Caymmi 's style for its " suave and romantic colloquialism . " In a 1994 anthology of Caymmi 's work , Antônio Carlos Jobim wrote in the introduction , “ Dorival is a universal genius . He picked up the guitar and orchestrated the world . ” In 2001 , New York Times journalist Ben Ratliff wrote that Caymmi was " perhaps second only to Antônio Carlos Jobim in ' establishing a songbook of this century ’ s Brazilian identity . ' " On the day of Caymmi 's death in 2008 , Brazilian composer and musician Tom Zé said , " It 's difficult to comprehend just how valuable a CD of Caymmi 's beach songs from the 1940s is . " Also around the time of Caymmi 's death , President of Brazil Luis Inácio Lula da Silva called him " one of the founders of Brazilian popular music . " Several of Caymmi 's contemporaries , including Gal Costa and Olivia Hime , have recorded tributes to him .
= = Discography = =
= = = Albums = = =
Prior to 1988 , all of Caymmi 's albums were released as LP records . His last four albums were released as CDs .
= = = Singles = = =
All of Caymmi 's singles were released as 78 rpm gramophone records .
= = = Tributes = = =
Note
A. ^ Reissued under new label .
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= Defenders of Ardania =
Defenders of Ardania is a hybrid tower defense and real @-@ time strategy video game for the Windows PC , iOS , Xbox Live Arcade , and PlayStation Network . It was developed by Most Wanted Entertainment and published by Deep Silver and Paradox Interactive . The game was released December 6 , 2011 for the iOS and on March 14 , 2012 on all other platforms . Defenders of Ardania has an ESRB rating of Teen , a PEGI rating of 12 , and a USK rating of 12 . The game 's iOS release was well received by some critics and poorly received by others . A subsequent release on the PC , Xbox 360 , and PlayStation 3 was significantly less well received .
= = Gameplay = =
Defenders of Ardania is a tower defense game that also has offensive real @-@ time strategy elements . As with all tower defense games , the player must defend their home base by building several types of static tower units that fire at weak offensive units spawned by the opponent . In Defenders of Ardania , however , players must also spawn soldiers themselves . Like the opponent 's soldiers , the player 's soldiers move along a fixed path towards their opponent 's base and cannot be directly maneuvered by the player . The game is won if units spawned by the player get past the opponent 's towers and destroy the opponent 's base before the opponent 's units get past the player 's towers and destroy the player 's base .
The game features a campaign mode with eighteen levels , pitting the player , controlling human , elven , and dwarven land and air units against a computer opponent controlling undead units . There is also a multiplayer mode that supports up to four players , either in free for all or two versus two format . In the multiplayer , players can choose from one of three factions to play as ; the single player campaign 's human faction , an animal @-@ filled faction , or the undead faction .
= = Reception = =
Defenders of Ardania received a mix of positive and negative reviews for the iOS but mixed to poor reviews on the PC , Xbox 360 , and PlayStation 3 .
For the iOS , 148Apps gave the game four and a half out of five stars , praising the game 's visuals and level of detail , and expressing dissatisfaction only with the game 's tutorial . Eric Ford of TouchArcade , another iOS reviewer , gave Defenders of Ardania four out of five stars , praising the visuals as " beautiful " and " gorgeous " and saying that the game " is an excellent addition to the tower defense genre and is a must @-@ try for any fan " . Ford did , however , criticize the tutorial , expressing a desire for a tutorial mission rather than instructional screens . Mat Jones of The Average Gamer gave the game a highly negative review , saying that the game was not challenging and that concepts , such as the ability during one level to attack multiple bases and change which one player 's units went towards , were never explained . Jones concluded his review by saying that " Defenders of Ardania isn ’ t a quality product and you probably shouldn ’ t spend money on it . "
Reviews were universally less than positive on other systems . While critics praised the idea of the game , they found fault in the execution . Several critics disliked that the troops spawned by the player simply walk past the troops spawned by the opponent without the two groups fighting . The game 's flow also attracted significant criticism , with Peter Eykemans of IGN saying " Even on double speed , the pace is painful . This makes a simple two @-@ person battle turn into a lengthy saga of repeating the same actions over and over again . " and Ray Carsillo of Electronic Gaming Monthly complaining of " long drawn out matches on even the easiest difficulty settings as you try to force your way past a virtual stalemate " . While the visuals did receive praise , critics felt that they also got in the way of allowing the player to tell what was going on in the game . Opinions about the narrator were mixed . Henry Winchester of PC Gamer praised the voiceover , calling it " a pleasingly booze @-@ obsessed voiceover , delivered by what sounds like a Dalek doing an impression of Sean Connery " . Carsillo of Electronic Gaming Monthly was less kind , stating that " your narrator and chief advisor sounds like an awful Sean Connery impersonator and he may be the best of the voice actors you come across " . GamesRadar strikes a more neutral tone , stating that " Pre and post @-@ battle dialog is fully voiced by what are only technically ' actors , ' but it definitely beats silent text , and does add a bit of flavor to the world . " Multiplayer also received mixed reviews . Eykemans of IGN suggested that multiplayer exacerbates the length and flow issues already present in the single player game , while Matt Hughes of GamesRadar calls multiplayer the game 's " biggest asset " , stating that " Playing against real humans definitely ramps up the intensity and reduces the cheap exploitation found in the campaign . " .
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= Action of 29 November 1811 =
The Action of 29 November 1811 was a minor naval engagement fought between two frigate squadrons in the Adriatic Sea during the Adriatic campaign of the Napoleonic Wars . The action was one of a series of operations conducted by the British Royal Navy and the French Navy to contest dominance over the Adriatic between 1807 and 1814 . During this period the Adriatic was surrounded by French territory or French client states and as a result British interference was highly disruptive to the movement of French troops and supplies .
The action came over eight months after the British had achieved a decisive victory over the French at the Battle of Lissa and was the first squadron action since that engagement . The action of November 1811 was the result of the British interception of a French military convoy traveling from Corfu to Trieste with a consignment of cannon , and resulted in a British victory , only one French ship escaping capture by the British force . It has been suggested that this action was a factor in Napoleon 's decision to change the direction of his planned eastwards expansion in 1812 from the Balkans to Russia .
= = Background = =
Since the War of the Third Coalition , the French had maintained client kingdoms in Italy and Naples that controlled the western shores of the Adriatic . Over the next four years , strategically important islands and territories had been seized in the treaties of Tilsit and Schönbrunn , giving Napoleon direct command of the eastern shore . With these treaties , France had seized not only several important fortress islands , most notably Corfu , but also many important shipyards and harbours . Maintaining control of the Adriatic was however even harder than seizing it had been , the threat of attack by Austrian , Russian or Ottoman armies and the mountainous terrain of the Balkans forcing the development of garrisons that could be effectively resupplied only by sea .
The Royal Navy , preeminent in the Mediterranean since the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805 , sought to disrupt French convoys across the Adriatic . Following the Russian withdrawal in 1807 , the Royal Navy dispatched a small frigate squadron to operate in the sea . The squadron was commanded by Captain William Hoste , who seized the Illyrian island of Lissa ( present @-@ day Vis ) to use as a base , waging a campaign against the French and their allies that forced the French Navy to deploy significantly larger forces to combat him . This escalating series of raid and counter raid continued until March 1811 , when the French commander in the Adriatic , Bernard Dubourdieu attacked Lissa with force twice that available to Hoste . In the ensuing battle Hoste not only routed his opponents , but captured two ships , sank another and killed Dubourdieu .
In the aftermath of the Battle of Lissa , the badly wounded Hoste returned to Britain in HMS Amphion leaving Captain James Brisbane in command in the Adriatic . Conflict in the theatre was widely dispersed , and so Brisbane delegated command to various commanders of small squadrons and independent cruisers . These dispersed forces continued to have success against French convoys ; on 27 November 1811 , the independently sailing HMS Eagle foiled an attempt to send supplies to Corfu and captured the unarmed frigate Corceyre . The following day at 07 : 00 , a message was received at Port St. George on Lissa warning that another French convoy had been sighted close to the island .
= = Chase = =
The British commander on Lissa in November 1811 was Captain Murray Maxwell of HMS Alceste with two other frigates and a sloop . Maxwell responded to the signal by readying his squadron to seek out and destroy the convoy , but the attempted invasion of Lissa the previous March had bred caution in the British defenders and Maxwell was therefore compelled to disembark 30 sailors and most of his marines at Port St. George and leave behind the 20 @-@ gun HMS Acorn to protect the harbour . This not only weakened the squadron but also delayed it , Maxwell 's force not departing Port St. George until 19 : 00 . It was assumed among the British squadron that the convoy comprised Danaé , Flore and Corona , the survivors of the Battle of Lissa now sailing from Trieste to Corfu to supply the island .
Shortly after passing the southern headland of Lissa , the British squadron encountered a neutral merchant ship that had been carrying Lieutenant John McDougal , formerly of HMS Unite , to Malta . McDougal had seen the French ships in passing and identified them as a convoy heading north from Corfu rather than south to it , and had ordered the merchant ship to return him to Lissa to bring warning . The French convoy was under the command of Commodore François @-@ Gilles Montfort and consisted of three ships , the two large frigates Pomone and Pauline and the smaller Persanne . The convoy had departed Corfu on 16 November carrying a cargo of cannon to Trieste .
= = = Squadrons = = =
Key
A † symbol indicates that the officer was killed during the action or subsequently died of wounds received .
The ships are ordered in the sequence in which they formed up for battle .
= = Battle = =
Casting south close to the island of Augusta ( Lastovo ) , Captain Gordon in Active sighted the French force at 09 : 20 on 29 November , sailing to the north @-@ west . Initially the French ships held their course , but on determining that the approaching squadron was British , Montfort spread all sail to escape pursuit . By 11 : 00 it was evident that Persanne could not maintain the pace of the two larger frigates and so turned north @-@ east in hopes of escaping independently . Active initially gave chase to the smaller ship , but Maxwell recalled her and sent Unite after Persanne , keeping Active and Alceste in pursuit of the larger French ships . At 11 : 50 it became clear that Alceste would soon catch the heavily laden French ships , and Maxwell sent the telegraph signal to Gordon ; " Remember the battle of Lissa " , the action of eight months before at which Hoste had raised the signal " Remember Nelson " .
The first shots were fired at 12 : 30 by Persanne close to the island of Pelagosa ( Palagruža ) , but the main action did not begin for another hour , when Alceste and Pomone exchanged shots from their stern and bow guns . By 13 : 40 , Alceste was firing her broadside into Pomone and simultaneously pressing on all sail in an effort to reach Pauline , but this ambition was thwarted when a shot from Pomone brought down Alceste 's main topmast , slowing her suddenly and allowing Pauline to pull a little ahead . At 14 : 00 , Active had arrived in action and was also firing into Pomone , forcing Montfort to bring Pauline round to protect her outgunned colleague . By 14 : 20 the conflicts between Active and Pomone and Alceste and Pauline had separated into different duels , Pomone particularly suffering severely but Active also taking heavy damage , a 32 @-@ pounder carronade shot severing Captain Gordon 's leg at the height of the engagement .
At 15 : 05 another British ship appeared on the horizon , the sloop HMS Kingfisher , which persuaded Montfort that he could no longer protect the battered Pomone against superior numbers . Pauline set all sail to the west , away from her opponents who were either too battered or too distant to pursue . Alceste and Active now concentrated their full broadsides on Pomone , which soon lost both masts and was forced to surrender to prevent total destruction . Pauline escaped , later reaching Ancona safely but having suffered severe damage in the engagement .
= = = Unite vs. Persanne = = =
The secondary engagement of the battle was contested initially within sight of the other combatants , Persanne firing the first shots at the pursuing Unite at 12 : 30 . The smaller size of these vessels made them faster and more maneuverable than their larger counterparts , and as a result it was not until 16 : 00 that Unite caught the smaller ship . During the pursuit , the ships had exchanged long @-@ range shots from their stern and bow guns which caused six casualties aboard Unite but none on Persanne . From external appearances , Persanne seemed to be a frigate of similar size to the fifth rate Unite , but in fact the French ship was only lightly armed , carrying 26 small guns to her opponents 36 . As a result , when it became clear that his ship could not outrun Unite , Captain Satie surrendered after firing a token broadside rather than be destroyed by the more powerful ship .
= = Aftermath = =
Casualties suffered in the action were relatively heavy on both sides . The British ships , with their reduced crews , suffered 61 men killed or wounded while the French lost over 50 on Pomone alone . There were no casualties on Persanne , and Pauline 's losses are unknown , although believed to be heavy given her battered condition . The French also lost the cargo aboard Persanne and Pomone , which amounted to 201 bronze and iron cannon , 220 iron wheels for gun carriages and numerous other military stores .
Promotions were granted to the junior officers of Alceste and Active and both crews received praise and prize money for their service in the operation . Similar rewards were not made to the crew of Unite , probably because Persanne was so much smaller and less @-@ well armed than her opponent . The total prize money was £ 3 @,@ 500 , not as much as first anticipated because neither of the captured ships were of sufficient quality to warrant purchase into the Royal Navy . Pomone had been hastily built in 1803 as the personal warship of Jérôme Bonaparte and as a result was of weak construction while Persanne had been designed as an armed storeship rather than a full @-@ scale warship . Ultimately Pomone was transferred to Britain , briefly renamed HMS Ambuscade and broken up for materials while Persanne was sold to the Bey of Tunis . Nearly four decades later the battle was among the actions recognised by a clasp attached to the Naval General Service Medal , awarded upon application to all British participants still living in 1847 .
In France , the action had more significant consequences . The loss of two ships and over 200 cannon was a serious blow to the French army marshalling in the Balkans . Napoleon himself took an interest in the engagement and it has been suggested by British historian James Henderson that this action convinced Napoleon of his inability to control the Adriatic Sea , which was vital to launching operations in the Balkans . This action may have been a factor in his decision to abandon plans to invade the Ottoman Empire , and instead to turn his attention on Russia . In the French Navy , the flight of Pauline was deemed cowardly and Captain Montfort was court @-@ martialled and relieved of command . In 1817 , when Murray Maxwell visited St Helena on his return from the East Indies where HMS Alceste had been wrecked , Napoleon greeted him with the words " Your government must not blame you for the loss of Alceste , for you have taken one of my frigates " .
The effects on the Adriatic itself were slight , the action only confirming the already overwhelming British dominance in the region . The French Navy would continue to seek reinforcements for their squadrons , concentrating on the construction of several new ships in Italian seaports that would not be ready until 1812 . As a result , this was the last significant action of the year in the Adriatic .
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= Colonel Homer =
" Colonel Homer " is the twentieth episode of The Simpsons ' third season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on March 26 , 1992 . In the episode , Homer embarrasses his wife Marge at a movie theater , leading to a big argument between the two . Homer , angry at Marge , visits a redneck bar in the middle of the night where he meets a waitress named Lurleen Lumpkin , a talented singer . Homer becomes Lurleen 's manager and tries to make her famous , but he does not appear aware that Lurleen has fallen in love with him . With Marge already upset and thinking Homer is cheating on her , he must decide on the importance of his marriage after Lurleen makes romantic advances toward him .
The episode was written by The Simpsons creator Matt Groening , and directed by Mark Kirkland . It is the only episode of the series for which Groening received an individual writing credit . American singer and actress Beverly D 'Angelo guest starred in the episode as Lurleen . Although the character makes several cameo appearances after this episode , Lurleen makes her second full @-@ time appearance sixteen years later in " Papa Don 't Leech " . The episode features cultural references to songs such as " There 's a Kind of Hush ( All Over the World ) " by Herman 's Hermits and " Funkytown " by Lipps Inc , and the films Deliverance , Honey , I Shrunk the Kids , and Look Who 's Talking .
Since airing , " Colonel Homer " has received mostly positive reviews from television critics . It attained a Nielsen rating of 14 @.@ 8 , and was the highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network for the week it aired . The episode was selected for inclusion in a video collection of selected episodes , titled The Last Temptation of Homer , that was released on November 9 , 1998 . An action figure set based on " Colonel Homer " was released in March 2002 , and two of Lurleen 's songs from the episode appeared on the Simpsons compilation album Songs in the Key of Springfield .
= = Plot = =
The Simpsons go to the local movie theater to see a film . Bart and Lisa see Space Mutants VI , while Homer , Marge , and Maggie see The Stockholm Affair . As the film starts , Homer acts loud and obnoxious , embarrassing Marge . When he gives away the film 's ending , Marge berates him and the audience heckles Homer , embarrassing them both . During the car ride home , Marge tries to apologize , but Homer will not accept it , by dropping Marge and the children off at home and goes off on a long drive into the night , finally stopping at a redneck bar called Beer ' N ' Brawl , where he grabs a beer while listening to an attractive waitress named Lurleen Lumpkin performing on stage . She sings a song that follows Homer 's current state with every detail , and once she finishes , Homer introduces himself to her .
Several days later , still humming Lurleen 's song , Homer drives to her mobile home to ask for a copy . Lurleen tells him she has not recorded the song , so Homer insists that she come to a recording company to record a CD . Homer grants the recording company clerk permission to play the song on the radio , and Lurleen 's songs are an instant hit all over Springfield . At home , Marge asks Homer about Lurleen ; he claims that she is just a waitress who is turning into a music superstar . Marge does not approve that he is seeing her , as she fears that something more will come of the relationship . Homer becomes Lurleen 's manager , and to fit with the role , she buys him an expensive white cowboy suit which he wears at home . Marge is annoyed , and asks if he is having an affair . He denies it , and says whether Marge likes it or not , he is going to help Lurleen become a country music star . The whole family gathers at the recording studio with Lurleen to record more of her songs . Her new single , a suggestive love metaphor called " Bagged Me a Homer " , leads Marge to lose her temper .
Homer gets Lurleen a gig on a country western television series called Ya @-@ Hoo ! Just before her performance , Homer and Lurleen spend the night in her mobile home , and she shows him one of her new songs . In the song she asks Homer to " bunk " with her , but Homer knows that would violate his marital vows and leaves . During her performance , Homer is approached by a business agent who asks to buy Lurleen 's contract , but Homer refuses . In Lurleen 's dressing room , Homer becomes locked in an embrace with her , then describes how his love life is flashing before his eyes . Homer tells Lurleen that he only wanted to share her voice with the world and leaves before he does anything to lose his family . He again runs into the agent and this time sells Lurleen 's contract for US $ 50 . At home , Marge is watching the Ya @-@ Hoo ! show when Homer returns . When Homer gets into bed , Marge hears what Homer did through Lurleen 's bluesy song on the television which Lurleen concludes by saying she knows how lucky Marge is .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing and directing = = =
The episode was written by series creator Matt Groening , the lone episode ( discounting the Tracey Ullman shorts ) in which he received an individual writing credit , though he has co @-@ written for the episodes " Some Enchanted Evening " , " The Telltale Head " , and " 22 Short Films About Springfield " . " Colonel Homer " was partly based on the 1980 film Coal Miner 's Daughter , which tells the story of country music singer Loretta Lynn . Groening said he had always wanted to write an episode in which Homer is offered a chance at being rich and famous , other than being with his family , but then chooses his family over glamour at the end . He pitched the idea to the writers of the show , who suggested the parody of Coal Miner 's Daughter and also that Homer should become a manager for a country singer . Show runner Mike Reiss was originally skeptical about the episode , as he did not think Homer could get a new job when he already had a full @-@ time job at the Springfield Nuclear Power Plant . Reiss eventually gave in , but in future episodes the writers tried to develop the explanation that he got fired from the plant and then rehired at the end . Groening said that during the episode production , he received comments from the production team that Homer was acting like a " jerk " in it , but his explanation was that Homer 's behavior was due to his desire to make Lurleen a star and he was oblivious to her attempts to seduce him until the end . Mike Reiss stated that " Whenever we want to write stories about characters getting divorced or actually having an affair , rather than with Homer and Marge , which we could never do , we use secondary characters for that . "
The episode 's director , Mark Kirkland , said he enjoyed directing the episode because the characters ' emotions throughout it are " very human and real " . He believed many viewers watching the episode would recognize the emotions from experiences in their own lives , and would feel sympathy for the characters . The idea of Homer annoying the people at the movie theater was based on an experience Groening had with a friend of his when he was younger . They were sitting by themselves in a movie theater and two " annoying " women sat down right in front of them . Groening 's friend told the women to move and they did . One of the women then turned to Groening and his friend and said , " Now are you satisfied ? " , to which Groening 's friend replied : " I won 't be satisfied until I see you burn in hell . "
= = = Voice acting and music = = =
American singer and actress Beverly D 'Angelo guest starred in the episode as Lurleen Lumpkin . The actress first met Groening at a party at Frank Zappa 's house , and was called in to audition for Lurleen based on her performance as Patsy Cline in Coal Miner 's Daughter . She got the role after completing a singing test . D 'Angelo wrote two songs for the episode : " Your Wife Don 't Understand You " ( which Lurleen sings at the Beer ' N ' Brawl where Homer hears her for the first time ) and " I Bagged a Homer " . D 'Angelo wrote both songs in an hour and presented them to Groening at the episode 's table read . Unlike most other guest stars on The Simpsons who record their lines and then leave to accommodate their schedule , D 'Angelo stayed with the production team all day and pitched several jokes for the episode . Entertainment Weekly named D 'Angelo 's performance as Lurleen one of the sixteen best guest appearances on The Simpsons . Tom Nawrocki of Rolling Stone rated the songs D 'Angelo wrote as two of the best songs in the history of the show .
= = = Animation = = =
The episode marks the debut appearance of Lurleen on The Simpsons . She was created by one of the show 's character designers , John Rice . Kirkland thought the first design Rice drew of Lurleen was too " bland " and " plain " , so they decided to model her after D 'Angelo and add " every kind of pretty girl cliché " into the design . Rice and Kirkland then sent the character to Groening , who sent back a note saying " wow " . Reiss 's show runner partner Al Jean said that " one of the most difficult things when translating real people to a Simpsons look is for women to look beautiful " , as the Simpson overbite and facial construction make it particularly difficult to design women 's looks . Lurleen 's last name , Lumpkin , came from the country bumpkin character Tony Lumpkin in the 1773 comedy play She Stoops to Conquer by Oliver Goldsmith .
Bart 's voice actor , Nancy Cartwright , wrote in her autobiography My Life as a 10 @-@ Year @-@ Old Boy that the episode 's script gives the audience a " visual and aural feast " . She said the background designers " must have gone on another field trip for this one " because they captured the look of a typical musical recording studio . The recording studio in the episode , where Lurleen records her new songs with the Simpson family , features two rooms , one for the artist and one for the engineer , with a pane of glass between them . Cartwright said the designers added their own " special touch " by putting a few cracks on the walls , designing a slightly dilapidated ceiling , and by making it look as if the soundproofing on the walls is falling off . The property designers went on a field trip to Sun Studio to receive inspiration for the props in the recording studio , such as the " in session " red light , the mixing board , the musical instruments , and the volume @-@ unit meters that indicates how loud the artist is singing . For the interior design of the recording studio , the color designers mixed colors such as orange , mauve , gray , and brown to make them complement each other . The colors in the engineer 's booth were darker to make Homer 's white suit stand out from the background . The appearance of the engineer at the recording studio was based on John Boylan , an American music producer who produced the highly successful album The Simpsons Sing the Blues . Lurleen 's mobile home was designed to be " very confined " and " tiny " so that the compositions of Homer and Lurleen would be tighter , thus giving the scene an intimate , romantic feeling .
= = Cultural references = =
The episode 's title and Homer 's attire are references to Colonel Tom Parker , singer Elvis Presley 's manager . Films playing at the Springfield Googolplex movie theater at the beginning of the episode include Honey , I Hit a School Bus ( a parody of Honey , I Shrunk the Kids ) , Look Who 's Oinking ( a parody of Look Who 's Talking ) , and a film called Ernest vs. The Pope which stars the fictional character Ernest P. Worrell . During his long drive to the Beer ' N ' Brawl , Homer passes a boy playing a banjo on a porch , a reference to the " Dueling Banjos " sequence in the film Deliverance . The same boy appears later at the recording studio waiting in line with his banjo to record a CD . William Irwin writes in his book Philosophy and the Interpretation of Pop Culture that this " burst of banjo " must convey a message even if the viewers do not " get " the reference to Deliverance : " Thanks to prevailing connotations of banjo music , viewers who do not recognize the banjo tune as the theme from Deliverance will not laugh , but the mere sound of banjo tells the audience that Homer has entered a backward , redneck area . "
The Beer ' N ' Brawl redneck bar is based on the bar in the film Urban Cowboy . The Beer ' N ' Brawl sells Laramie High Tar cigarettes , a reference to the American cigarette brand Laramie . After arriving home from the Beer ' N ' Brawl , Lurleen 's song is stuck in Homer 's head , and he even sings it to his bowling ball for good luck . Homer 's co @-@ worker Lenny decides to give it a shot and sings " There 's a Kind of Hush ( All Over the World ) " to his bowling ball . Homer says that the last song before Lurleen 's " Your Wife Don 't Understand You " that he could not get out of his mind was the Lipps Inc song " Funkytown " . The syndicated country comedy show that Lurleen appears on , Ya @-@ Hoo ! , is based on the country television series Hee Haw , which ran in syndication from 1971 to 1993 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings and critical reviews = = =
In its original broadcast , " Colonel Homer " finished 22nd in the ratings for the week of March 23 – 29 , 1992 , with a Nielsen rating of 14 @.@ 8 , equivalent to approximately 16 @.@ 63 million viewing households . It was the highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week . Since airing , the episode has received mostly positive reviews from television critics . Nate Meyers of Digitally Obsessed gave the episode a 5 / 5 rating and called it " another great " episode that chronicles the love between Homer and Marge , showing the " ups and downs " of their marriage . He said Lurleen 's songs are " filled with clever observations " , but it is Homer 's befuddlement that makes it a " classic " episode . Meyers added , however , that country music fans might " take offense at Matt Groening 's script , which hams up every stereotype imaginable " . DVD Movie Guide 's Colin Jacobson said that after the " great " previous episode " Dog of Death " , " one might expect some drop @-@ off with ' Colonel Homer ' , but virtually none occurs . It offers another classic episode that benefits from a memorable guest voice performance from D ’ Angelo . Homer ’ s moment in the sun creates a fun plot and the program nicely lampoons the country music business . " The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , said the episode is a " good example of The Simpsons fixing itself on a target ( in this case , country and western music ) and extracting every possible gag . Lurleen 's songs are all marvelous . "
Hock Guan Teh of DVD Town said he enjoyed the episode , and although it does not contain the " usual amount " of The Simpsons humor , the " rich character development itself makes this episode worth multiple viewings . However , anyone allergic to country music should give this one a pass ! " Bill Gibron of DVD Verdict thought the episode featured " one of the best " parodies the Simpsons writers have ever conceived , the parody of the country television series Hee @-@ Haw called Ya @-@ Hoo ! : " While one must give multiple kudos to Beverly D 'Angelo for writing and performing her own witty hillbilly ditties , it 's the twisted cornpone [ television series Ya @-@ Hoo ! ] , with such stars as Big Shirtless Ron and Cappy Mae , that really propels this installment into comic heaven . Homer 's sheepish response to Lurlene 's advances shows just what a decent , family loving man he is . " A reviewer for the Fort Worth Star @-@ Telegram called the episode " heartwarming " , and commented that The Simpsons " once again shows that at the heart of this crazy family there is an abiding love . " Genevieve Koski of The A.V. Club said " it 's a pretty impossible question for a die @-@ hard fan , but if I were forced at gunpoint to name my favorite episode ever , ' Colonel Homer ' would probably be the first to leap to mind , if only for the pure joy that is ' Bagged Me a Homer ' . "
= = = Lurleen 's legacy = = =
Lurleen has made several cameo appearances on the show after this episode . She appears for her second time in the season four episode " Marge vs. the Monorail " , voiced by Doris Grau , as she is briefly interviewed by Kent Brockman during the monorail 's maiden voyage party . When he asks her what she has been doing lately , she responds that since Homer left her , her personal and professional life have gone downhill . She looks dirty and scuffed up , and talks with a harsh , croaky , gravelly voice , rather than the soft , Southern voice she had when she was first introduced . Lurleen also has a cameo in the season four episode " Krusty Gets Kancelled " as the center square on The Springfield Squares , and appears in " Team Homer " as a member of the bowling team " The Home Wreckers " . In the season seven episode " Bart on the Road " , Lurleen 's name can be seen briefly on a banner saying " playing tonight " in Branson , Missouri . She made her second full @-@ time appearance in the season nineteen episode " Papa Don 't Leech " , in which the Simpsons family takes Lurleen into their home after she becomes a fugitive from the Springfield authorities for not paying her taxes .
Compared to " Colonel Homer " , Lurleen 's comeback episode " Papa Don 't Leech " received rather negative reviews from television critics . Richard Keller of TV Squad expressed dislike for the episode , stating that he hopes the show will reconsider the next time they decide to give a " solo opportunity " to a one @-@ off character " many people don 't remember " . Robert Canning of IGN said , " there were too few laugh @-@ out @-@ loud moments in this lackluster episode . Overall , it was nice to see Lurleen again , but she 'd probably get more laughs in future cameos than in carrying an entire episode . "
= = Merchandise = =
" Colonel Homer " originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on March 26 , 1992 . The episode was selected for release in a video collection of selected episodes , titled The Last Temptation Of Homer , that was released on November 9 , 1998 . Other episodes included in the set were " One Fish , Two Fish , Blowfish , Blue Fish " , " Homer Alone " , and " Simpson and Delilah " . The episode was later included on The Simpsons season three DVD set that was released on August 26 , 2003 . Matt Groening , Mark Kirkland , cast member Dan Castellaneta , and show runners Al Jean and Mike Reiss participated in the DVD 's audio commentary of the episode . " Colonel Homer " was again included in the 2005 DVD release of the Last Temptation Of Homer set . An action figure set based on the episode was released exclusively to Toys " R " Us stores in March 2002 . The set , featuring Homer in his white suit and Lurleen with her guitar , is part of the World of Springfield series of The Simpsons action figures created by Playmate Toys . Lurleen 's songs " Your Wife Don 't Understand You " and " Bagged Me a Homer " appeared on the Simpsons compilation album Songs in the Key of Springfield , that was released on March 18 , 1997 .
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= Gobioolithus =
Gobioolithus is an oogenus of fossil bird egg native to Mongolia . They are small , smooth @-@ shelled , and elongated eggs that were first discovered in the 1960s and early 70s during a series of fossil @-@ hunting expeditions in the Gobi desert . Two oospecies have been described : Gobioolithus minor and G. major . The eggs were probably laid in colonial nesting sites on the banks of rivers and lakes .
G. minor is unusual because it frequently is found with embryonic skeletons of the enantiornithine bird Gobipipus . Interestingly , these embryos have very well @-@ developed wings , which suggest they would be able to fly very soon after hatching , unlike most modern birds .
= = Distribution = =
Gobioolithus is found in the Gobi desert in Mongolia . More specifically , the fossils are found in the Barun Goyot and the Djadokhta Formations of the Nemegt Basin , which is dated to the Upper Cretaceous .
= = History = =
Numerous fossils , including Gobioolithus specimens , were discovered and collected by the Polish @-@ Mongolian fossil @-@ hunting expeditions in the Gobi desert from 1963 to 1971 and by the Soviet @-@ Mongolian expeditions between 1969 and 1996 . These fossils were brought to the Institute of Paleobiology of the Polish Academy of Sciences in Warsaw and to the Paleontological Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences in Moscow . Eggs now classified as Gobioolithus were first analyzed in 1981 by the Polish paleontologist Andrzej Elżanowski , who described several well @-@ developed bird embryos within some of the fossil eggs housed in Warsaw . He identified them as most similar to Gobipteryx minuta , so scientists began referring to them as " Gobipteryx eggs . "
In 1991 , the Russian paleontologist Konstantin Mikhailov introduced the modern parataxonomic system used to classify fossil eggs . While he did not give the " Gobipteryx " eggs a formal name under this classification scheme , he did assign them to the prismatic morphotype in the ornithoid basic type . He believed that they were eggs of volant paleognaths , but probably not Gobipteryx ( which was then considered to be a paleognath ) . In the same year , the Polish paleontologist Karol Sabath reviewed the entire collection of fossil eggs discovered on the Polish expeditions , including the not @-@ yet @-@ named Gobioolithus eggs . Following Elżanowski , he referred them to Gobipteryx , though only tentatively because at the time ongoing studies of similar eggs found on the Soviet expeditions cast doubt on this classification .
In 1994 , Mikhailov , working with Sabath and Kurzanov , divided the Mongolian " Gobipteryx " eggs into two informal groups : G1 , containing the smaller eggs ( including the ones with embryos described by Elżanowski ) , and G2 for the larger eggs . Two years later , Mikhailov went on to classify these eggs parataxonomically as a new oofamily , Gobioolithidae , containing the single oogenus Gobioolithus , with two oospecies : G. minor and G. major , corresponding to G1 and G2 , respectively . In 2013 , Kurochkin , Chatterjee , and Mikhailov described a new genus and species of bird , Gobipipus reshetovi , based on the embryos within Gobioolithus eggs . They classified Gobipipus as an enantiornithine . In 2015 , some of the larger egg specimens previously assigned to G. major were moved into their own new oogenus and oospecies , Styloolithus sabathi .
= = Description = =
Gobioolithus eggs are small and smooth @-@ shelled . They are asymmetrically shaped , similar to many modern bird eggs , with one end pointier than the other . The two oospecies are distinguished mainly by their size : G. major ranges from 50 to 53 @.@ 5 mm long and 25 to 32 mm across , with an eggshell thickness of 0 @.@ 2 @-@ 0 @.@ 4 mm , whereas G. minor is only 30 @-@ 46 mm by 20 @-@ 24 mm and 0 @.@ 1 @-@ 0 @.@ 2 mm thick .
The microstructure of Gobioolithus ' eggshell has not been thoroughly studied , and heavy recrystallization of most specimens makes it difficult to examine the eggshell structure or pore system . The eggshell consists of two ( or possibly three ) structural layers . The inner layer , called the mammillary layer , is about half the thickness of the outer , or continuous , layer . On the outside , many specimens have a recrystallized outer layer . This could simply due to diagenesis or it could be a true external zone , which is a third layer present in most bird eggs but is rare in non @-@ avian dinosaurs . However , a few specimens are unaffected by recrystallization . These do not have a third layer , but this does not rule out the possibility that the eggshell originally had a three layers since the external layer can easily separate from the rest of the eggshell . These specimens also reveal an angusticanaliculate pore system , which means that the pores have a low density , and are long , narrow , and straight .
Styloolithus , another fossil enantiornithine egg from the Gobi , differs from Gobioolithus in that it is larger and has a thicker eggshell with a proportionately smaller mammillary layer . Laevisoolithids , which are also eggs of enantiornithines , are also larger than Gobioolithus , but they have a much thicker mammillary layer .
= = = Embryos = = =
Many Gobioolithus minor specimens contain embryonic remains of the enantiornithine genus Gobipipus . The embryos have well @-@ ossified skeletons , implying that they were at a late stage in development when they died . Their wings and shoulders are especially well @-@ developed . Only the modern megapodes and the little tern exhibit a comparable degree of embryonic ossification in the arm and shoulder bones . It is likely that Gobipipus hatchlings , like megapodes and little terns , would be able to fly very soon after hatching .
No embryos are known from G. major eggs , but they are usually assumed to have been laid by a similar type of bird .
= = = Nests = = =
Gobioolithus eggs were probably laid in open nests on the banks of ephemeral rivers or lakes , which could frequently flood the nesting areas and bury the eggs . The distribution of the eggs suggests that they had a long @-@ term colonial nesting site at the Khermeen Tsav locality in the Barun Goyot Formation . At the Bayn @-@ Dzak locality , the eggs are typically arranged in clutches , whereas elsewhere they are scattered randomly , each oriented nearly vertically in the substrate . The solitary eggs may have been laid and buried individually , similar to the nesting habits of modern megapodes . It is also possible that they were originally laid in clutches , but flooding separated them and deposited them vertically as the water level dropped . Water damage would also explain why Gobioolithus shells are frequently heavily recrystallized .
= = Classification = =
According to the parataxonomic system used to classify fossil eggs , Gobioolithus is classified in the oofamily Gobioolithidae , which , in turn , is classified in the prismatic morphotype ( also called the neognath morphotype ) of the ornithoid basic type . A cladistic analysis performed by Varricchio and Barta ( 2015 ) ( pictured below ) found Gobioolithus to be a sister taxon to Styloolithus . However , they considered Styloolithus different enough from Gobioolithus to warrant its excluslion from Gobioolithidae .
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= Anna ( Disney ) =
Princess Anna of Arendelle is a fictional character who appears in Walt Disney Animation Studios ' 53rd animated film Frozen . She is voiced by Kristen Bell as an adult . At the beginning of the film , Livvy Stubenrauch and Katie Lopez provided her speaking and singing voice as a young child , respectively . Agatha Lee Monn portrayed her as a nine @-@ year @-@ old ( singing ) .
Created by co @-@ directors Jennifer Lee and Chris Buck , Anna is loosely based on Gerda , a character of the Danish fairytale The Snow Queen by Hans Christian Andersen . In the Disney film adaptation , Anna is depicted as the princess of Arendelle , a fictional Scandinavian kingdom and the younger sister of Princess Elsa ( Idina Menzel ) , who is the heiress to the throne and possesses the elemental ability to create and control ice and snow . When Elsa exiles herself from the kingdom after inadvertently sending Arendelle into an eternal winter on the evening of her coronation , fearless and faithful Anna is determined to set out on a dangerous adventure to bring her sister back and save both her kingdom and her family .
The original fairytale in general and the character of the Snow Queen in particular posed long @-@ term problems to adapt into a feature @-@ length production . Several film executives , including Walt Disney , made their attempts towards the story and numerous adaptations were shelved as the filmmakers could not work out the characters . Finally , directors Buck and Lee solved the issue by portraying Anna and Elsa as sisters , establishing a dynamic relationship between the characters .
Anna has received widespread acclaim from film critics , who praised the determination and enthusiasm in her personality . Bell was also extolled by various reviewers for her performance in the film .
= = Development = =
= = = Origins and conception = = =
Attempts to produce an adaption of The Snow Queen in the Disney studio dated back to 1943 , when Walt Disney considered collaborating with Samuel Goldwyn to produce a biography film of Hans Christian Andersen . However , the story and particularly the Snow Queen character proved to be too problematic to Disney and his animators . Namely one of the troubles they encountered was that the original story lacked necessary interaction between the main protagonist , Gerda ( who later served as an inspiration for Anna ) , and the Snow Queen . Most obviously , Andersen 's version did not feature any confrontation between them : when brave little Gerda enters the Snow Queen 's ice castle and sheds her tears on Kay , the Snow Queen is nowhere to be seen . There just was not enough character conflict to form a full @-@ length feature . Later on , Glen Keane , Paul and Gaëtan Brizzi , Harvey Fierstein , Dick Zondag and Dave Goetz were among other Disney executives to make efforts towards translating this potential material to the big screen , but none of them made their way . Around 2008 , Chris Buck pitched Disney his version of The Snow Queen . At the time , the project was planned to be traditionally animated under the name of Anna and the Snow Queen . However , by early 2010 , the project encountered the same problem and was stuck again . Jennifer Lee , Frozen 's co @-@ director , later recalled , " The issue with the original for us in a lot of ways is it 's a very symbolic story . It 's very hard to translate symbolism into concrete things . Film is concrete , so you translate it . "
After the success of Tangled ( 2010 ) , on December 22 , 2011 , Disney announced a release date , November 27 , 2013 , for the film , together with a new title , Frozen , and Peter Del Vecho and John Lasseter took up as the project 's producers . Now , when the film was revived again , one of the main challenges that Buck and his team had to face with was the character . The storyboards were presented to John Lasseter , who would tell the assembled production team " You haven 't dug deep enough . " Lasseter commended that Chris Buck 's latest version was fun and very light @-@ hearted , but the characters were not multifaceted , and thus did not resonate for the producer .
The original character of Gerda , known as Anna , was one of the three major characters in the script at this time , along with the Snow Queen , Elsa and Kristoff , loosely based on Kay . The characters were not considered to be well @-@ rounded or relatable , but an interpersonal , family dynamic was created once Anna and Elsa were established as sisters , an idea suggested by someone on the writing team that no one remembered who . This changed the story dramatically , shifting from the conflict between the good and the evil to the conflict between love and fear . Buck stated that their script still retained basic parts of the story and the character of Gerda , citing the similarities between the original story and his version , " [ Gerda ] won 't give up on finding her friend Kai . The only thing she really has in her , she 's not a superhero or anything , but she has love . And it 's love that conquers fear in the end . "
= = = Voice = = =
On March 5 , 2012 , Kristen Bell was cast to voice the adult Anna . Livvy Stubenrauch was chosen to portray Anna as a young child , while Katie Lopez , daughter of the husband @-@ and @-@ wife songwriting team of the film , Kristen Anderson @-@ Lopez and Robert Lopez , provided the singing voice for young Anna in " Do You Want to Build a Snowman ? " musical sequence . Additionally , Agatha Lee Monn , daughter of the film 's director Jennifer Lee , portrayed teenage Anna in this song . Lee explained about these casting decisions , " We really wanted to use the first two verses of this song to show you Anna 's personality . And we wanted the singing to be done by real @-@ sounding kids , not necessarily Broadway kids . " Kristen Bell and Idina Menzel ( who voiced Elsa in the film ) had both auditioned for Rapunzel in Tangled and had already known each other , but they did not get the part .
Talking about her feelings when she got the part , Bell expressed , " Since I was 4 years old , I dreamed of being in a Disney animated film , " she said . " It was the first goal I ever set for myself . It seemed like it would be a very unrealistic one . " She described Disney movies as " the ones [ she ] watched over and over again when [ she ] was a kid , " and continued , " I knew every line from The Little Mermaid . I love Aladdin . When asked about her favorite Disney character , Bell said , " Ariel from The Little Mermaid . Because I think it was a shift that Disney had , where a female lead — the " princess , " I guess — didn 't just want to find her mate . She was singing " I want to be where the people are . I want to see the world . I want to venture outside my comfort zone . " " Bell described her initial reaction when she first found that she was cast as " I was in glee " . Lee admitted Bell 's casting selection was influenced after the filmmakers listened a couple of vocal tracks from The Little Mermaid , including " Part of Your World " that the actress recorded when she was young , stating that without these recordings , it would 've been very difficult to the find the right one to play Anna .
The two directors , Buck and Lee , were also impressed by how Kristen and Idina related . " During one of our early read @-@ throughs , Kristen and Idina sang a ballad to each other which had so much emotion that everyone in the room was in tears , " Buck said . " It not only showed how great their voices were together , but showed the power the music would have in the story . " However , Bell wasn 't all confidence when recording with Menzel , described the experiences working with her co @-@ star as " nerve @-@ racking " . The duo had rehearsed at Idina 's house a song called " Wind Beneath My Wings " , in which Bell greatly commended Idina 's powerful voice . Regarding the songs that she performed in the film , Kristen said , " We 're singing the lovely songs of Kristen and Bobby Lopez , who wrote ' Book of Mormon . ' So it 's really , really funny music . It 's really good music . They 're amazing to work for . "
Director Jennifer Lee strongly believed that there couldn 't be any other Anna but Kristen Bell , saying , " It was definitely a wonderful surprise hearing her voice [ during auditions ] , not knowing that she had been classically trained . Also , she had such a warm , sweet voice . She was everything that we could 've hoped for Anna . " Co @-@ director Chris Buck shared Lee 's ideas , commenting , " Kristen Bell for Anna was the very first person that we saw . We did a lot of casting to find Anna , but she just hit it out of the park . From the beginning we loved her , and she just kind of became Anna and Anna became her . I don 't know which one is which . " Idina Menzel was also surprised by her co @-@ star 's singing ability , stating that , " I didn 't know how great a singer she was . I quickly found out and need to constantly tell her because she doesn 't tell anybody else ! She 's always playing it down . " Songwriter Kristen Anderson @-@ Lopez later commended Bell 's quick comprehension of her ideas , saying that she would collaborate with the actress for " the rest of [ her ] life " if she could . Anna 's animator Becky Bresee commented that Bell 's voice " lends itself well , so you are taking bits and pieces . "
During production , Bell and Menzel had to do a lot of recordings and re @-@ recordings , and were required to be together in the same room when on the key emotional scenes between Anna and Elsa . " We even got Kristen and Idina together for a song . That really helped elevate the song because they have a duet in the movie and it definitely helped drive that , " said producer Peter Del Vecho . Chris Buck later commented that getting the actresses in together as much as they could helped add the real , amazing chemistry between them and made them really interact . Bell 's recording sessions were completed while she was pregnant , and later she had to re @-@ record some of the lines after giving birth , as her voice had deepened . After watching the completed film , Bell described her performance as " cool and weird and surreal and jarring " , saying that she was really proud that Anna " came out like she did that [ the directors ] let [ Bell ] do her like this . "
= = = Design and characterization = = =
Anna in particular and the whole film in general had undergone a number of changes in the story , most notably making the heroine the younger sister of the Snow Queen . Describing the character 's development process , director Jennifer Lee admitted , " Even with Anna there was a tug of war for a long time . There are elements of it that we didn 't land on with Anna until late into production , so we changed some of the animation to support it . " Bell generally described her character as " She doesn 't have good postures , she 's not very elegant , but she 's a good person and she 's utterly determined . " Lee added , " She doesn 't have any superpowers , but Anna is one of these ordinary people doing an extraordinary thing . " Contrary to her sister Elsa who represents fear , Anna represents love , she is filled with optimism with an extraordinary heart . Director Chris Buck later stated , " [ Anna 's ] secret weapon is love , " while head of story Paul Briggs commented that she is " a character who is willing to stand beside you and stand up for what 's right . Her sister was born with a condition that 's shaped a world where Anna doesn 't belong . " In the images of Frozen 's main characters released by Disney in July 2013 , Anna and her role in the film was described as follows :
Anna is more daring than graceful and , at times , can act before she thinks . But she ’ s also the most optimistic and caring person you ’ ll ever meet . She longs to reconnect with her sister , Elsa , as they were close during their childhood . When Elsa accidentally unleashes a magical secret that locks the kingdom of Arendelle in an eternal winter , Anna embarks on a dangerous adventure to make things right . Armed with only her fearlessness , a never @-@ give @-@ up attitude and her faith in others , Anna is determined to save both her kingdom and her family .
In order to have one person fully understand and develop their own character , as well as later be able to impart that to the crew , the film 's directors and producers decided to have character leads and supervising animators on specific characters . First @-@ time character lead Becky Bresee serves as the supervising animator for Anna . She described her job as " making the character more believable " . To achieve this , she had to act out part of a sequence in the movie between Anna and Kristoff for a number of times , each of them emphasizing the character 's gestures differently . " Anna 's a little bit nervous and uncomfortable , and I had to find a way to put that into the animation , " explained Bresee .
Bell said that at first Anna was written plainer and more general . " In the first draft of the script she was written more , in my opinion , prissy . She was kind of specific and very girly , " which Bell didn 't find appealing . She admitted that she had always wanted to be part of Disney animated feature , but she " wanted to be a very specific type of princess " , who " was way more awkward than the normal princesses " , not someone with too good postures or too well @-@ spoken . As she was offered the role of Anna , she came up with a lot of suggestions for the directors . They were responsive and allowed the actress to mould the character the way she wanted , since they wanted the film to be truthful . Bell significantly made specific changes to Anna , including the infusion and incorporation of the actress ' own personality to the character , embodying a relatable heroine , which received full support from the directors . She called the scene where Anna first meets Hans is a " typical Disney moment " , as they come too close physically and find out that they both fall in love with each other . Bell wanted Anna 's words to reflect what she herself would say in real life , which included some " nonsensical rambling " . " I think I said , " This is awkward . You 're not awkward . Me , I 'm awkward . You 're gorgeous . Wait — what ? " Words just spill out of her mouth too quickly and she has to backtrack . " Bell continued . Or the whole scene where she wakes up in the beginning with saliva all over the face , Bell " wanted her to also have hair in her mouth " , which took inspiration from her own real life . " Sometimes I wake up like that . Then you have hair in your mouth , and you start coughing . The animators totally got what I was trying to do . It 's cool , and way more fun when stuff is realistic like that , instead of the perfection of waking up with mascara on . " Anna 's snorting and tripping over also drew inspirations from Bell 's real life . Bell 's recording sessions were also videotaped to assist in animating the character , and animators took into considerations even subtle things like the actress ' biting her lip a lot . According to director Jennifer Lee , Anna is a bit flawed .
When asked about Anna 's biggest charm , Bell said that " her charm is caught somewhere between her sincerity and optimism . Anna is genuine , sincere and compounded with optimism , and eternally optimistic people are the most charismatic people , much more attractive than those with a bad mood . " She also expressed why the character seemed to loveable to her , " To have Anna in a situation where she starts the movie without any friends , because her lifestyle hasn ’ t allowed her to have a full kingdom . She runs around , because she wants friends . " Bell called the film 's story is " another turning point " for Disney animation because the love depicted in this story is the love between siblings , a non @-@ romantic love . Anna wants the world and she wants to explore , but she also wants to nurture the relationships around her , particularly the family relationship . " It 's very non @-@ traditional for a Disney movie , " she added .
Regarding Bell 's influence on Anna , director Chris Buck said her personality was just so fun and energetic . " We had an Anna character but Kristen really came in and pushed it and made it even funnier and even sweeter I think , and more believable as a three @-@ dimensional character , " he said . He also admitted that he " fell in love with [ Bell ] ' s voice and [ Bell ] ' s spirit " . Director Jennifer Lee said that she loved Bell because the actress shared a similarity with her , that girls could be funny . " So she was a fantastic collaborator , " Lee added . Songwriting duo Kristen @-@ Anderson Lopez and Robert Lopez later commented that they had written a lot of first songs for Kristen , for Anna but , " The more we were working with Kristen Bell , the more , the more she influenced . " They quickly understand who Anna was because Anna 's Kristen Bell .
Anna 's costumes in the film were informed by the research of Norwegian clothing styles . Based on these findings , art director Brittney Lee and her team later found out what materials should be used for the costumes . Co @-@ director Jennifer Lee created a cheerful wardrobe featuring " playful " floral patterns and saturated colors in order to accurately reflect Anna 's personality . The animators also took into account the climate that Anna is living in , costuming her in heavy wools and velvets , reflecting traditional winter clothing of the Scandinavian area . The animators added structures to the costumes in a way , such as pleated dresses , that allows movements , giving the character a free range of " twirl [ ing ] all she wants " throughout the film . In order to deepen the cultural context of the film , rosemaling , a traditional form of Norwegian decorative folk art , was added to almost every character 's costumes . Anna and her sister , Elsa , also enjoyed a large number of types of costumes and the layers of costuming that have never been done before . As these characters are running around in the snow , they have to have petticoats , undergarments , capes , " and they have all these layers and layers of things that are all meticulously designed , " Brittney explained .
= = = = Character model = = = =
Anna has distinguishable facial features of a typical Disney heroine , including big eyes , thin lips and a small nose . Her physical appearance has drawn much comparison between her and Rapunzel from Tangled , however there are considerable differences between them . Anna 's eyes are slightly more upturned , her cheeks are a bit fuller , her face and chin are generally rounder , and her eyebrows and eyelashes are thicker than Rapunzel 's . She also has more freckles than Rapunzel and even has them on her shoulders . Anna 's eyebrows wrinkle when they move , and she has prevalent neck muscles that appear when she speaks . Anna 's travel outfit generally consists of magenta , black , dark and light blue , with flowery designs on the bottom of her dress .
= = Appearances = =
= = = Frozen = = =
Anna is the younger child in the royal family of Arendelle , whose older sister , Elsa is born with the power to create and control ice and snow . As children , they enjoy the life of princesses using Elsa 's abilities to create a winter wonderland for their enjoyment . After they create a snowman named Olaf in the throne room , Elsa accidentally strikes Anna unconscious with her magic . The king and queen hurriedly take Anna to the mountain trolls for help . The troll king , Pabbie , erases Anna 's memory of her sister 's magic , nulling Elsa 's power , only leaving memory of the fun the sisters shared . Pabbie warns Elsa to control her powers — a strike to Anna 's heart would have been fatal . In an effort to protect Anna , the king and queen lock the castle gates and generally restrict Elsa to her new separate bedroom . Confused by the sudden loss of contact by Elsa , Anna makes repeated failed attempts to draw her out of her room . Elsa cares too much for her sister , traumatized by the near @-@ death experience and she resists reconnecting with Anna . Eventually , the younger sister ceases trying to rekindle their bond . The sisters become even more isolated from each other after their parents , the King and Queen of Arendelle , die in a shipwreck . Devastated by the news , Anna tries to reunite with her sister , looking for love and comfort in the tragedy . Elsa remains in her room , not attending her parents ' funeral .
Three years later , when Elsa becomes a young adult , she is set to be crowned queen . The people of Arendelle are joyously preparing for her coronation day . Anna is flushed with excitement as the castle gates are opened for the first time since the sisters ' childhood . The young princess expresses how cheerful she is when she leaves her lonely life and meets people , as well as her hopes to find romance and a love interest . While exploring the town , Anna bumps into a horse owned by Prince Hans of the Southern Isles . Despite the awkward meeting at first , the pair quickly get acquainted and develop a mutual attraction for each other . Though Elsa fears of her secret being revealed to the public , her coronation goes on without incident . At the reception party , Anna is offered a waltz from Hans and the two have a date around the kingdom . They later find out that they have much in common , and Anna agrees to Hans ' marriage proposal . Anna asks for Elsa 's blessing to marry Hans , but she refuses and criticizes her for engaging with someone she has just met . This raises an argument between the two with Anna losing her temper , culminating in Elsa getting angry and accidentally exposing her abilities . Upon the guests ' ( including Anna ) horrified reactions , Elsa flees the castle in panic and goes into hiding in the icy mountains . During her retreat , she inadvertently unleashes an eternal winter throughout Arendelle . Far from there , Elsa decides to let go her powers and build an enormous ice palace . Anna , believing it 's her fault , determines to find her sister and bring her back , leaving Hans in charge of Arendelle .
At a trading post on her journey , Anna meets a mountain man named Kristoff , an ice harvester who agrees to lead her to the North Mountain , where he knows that a magical phenomenon has occurred and helps her escape a pack of wolves , resulting in his sled being destroyed after falling down into a large hole and catching on fire . The duo and Kristoff 's reindeer Sven , encounter the sister 's snowman , Olaf , who was unknowingly brought to life by Elsa and later leads them to her palace . The sisters reunite , but Elsa is reluctant to help Anna by ending the eternal winter . Upset , she loses control of her powers , striking Anna in her heart . Desperate to get her sister to leave , Elsa creates a giant snow creature , and it throws Anna and her friends away from the palace . Upon noticing Anna 's hair is turning white , Kristoff takes her back to his adoptive family of trolls . Pabbie tells Anna that her heart has been frozen by her sister 's magic and only an act of true love can save her from freezing completely . Kristoff , believing that a romantic kiss from Hans will heal her , takes Anna back to the kingdom .
Meanwhile , Hans has led a group of soldiers to the ice palace . Elsa 's defenses are not enough and she is taken back to Arendelle 's dungeon unconscious . At the castle , Anna 's request for a kiss is denied by Hans , who reveals their engagement was merely a ploy to seize the throne of Arendelle . He locks Anna in her room without a fire , leaving her to die . Hans falsely claims that Anna is already dead and that they spoke their marriage vows before she died , making him the ruler of Arendelle . Olaf aids Anna while revealing to her Kristoff 's love for her . Elsa also escapes into the fjord , her fears triggering a massive blizzard , but breaks down in shock when Hans tells her that she killed Anna and the blizzard stops . While the end of the storm allows Anna to reunite with Kristoff , she sees Hans ready to kill Elsa , and with her final breath , she stops him from killing her sister and inadvertently knocks him unconscious just as she freezes solid — a result of the earlier accident .
As Elsa grieves for her sister , Anna begins to thaw , since her choice to sacrifice herself to save her elder sister rather than herself constitutes " an act of true love " . Realizing love is the key to controlling her powers , Elsa is able to thaw the kingdom and use her magic safely in public . Anna confronts Hans and punches him in the face , making him fall off the ship into the water . She then buys Kristoff a previously @-@ promised new sled and they share a kiss , starting their new relationship . Anna and Elsa 's sisterly bond is rekindled , with Elsa promising never to shut the castle gates again , much to Anna 's joy .
= = = Once Upon a Time = = =
Anna appears in the fourth season of Once Upon a Time , with actress Elizabeth Lail portraying the character . Following the events of the film Frozen , Anna is preparing to wed Kristoff when Elsa finds a diary from their mother stating their real reason for their parents ' fatal trip . Determined to seek answers , Anna postpones her wedding and travels to the Enchanted Forest ( known as Misthaven in Arendelle ) . Anna meets David , a friend of Kristoff 's , and trains him in swordsmanship so he can defend his farm from the evil warlord Bo Peep . Following Bo Peep 's defeat , David gives Anna his horse and David 's mother gives Anna the name of Rumplestiltskin , a powerful wizard who she believes can give her the answers she is looking for . Anna visits Rumplestiltskin ( Robert Carlyle ) who tells her that the King and Queen of Arendelle came to him , and he will tell her what they said if she administers a potion to an old man . Anna is afraid the potion is poison and pours it into the old man 's fire . She returns to Rumplestiltskin 's lair and lies , saying she has given the man the potion , and quickly learns it was an antidote , not a poison . In not giving him the drink , Anna has broken her deal with Rumplestiltskin and subjected the man to turn into a mouse . The deal , when broken , meant that Anna had to be Rumplestiltskin 's slave — but , alas , Anna gets control of the dagger that controls him , and orders him to never harm her or her sister , and to send her back home with Rumplestiltskin 's weapon , a magic @-@ stealing hat . Back in Arendelle , Anna admits to Kristoff that Rumplestiltskin told her that her parents were afraid of Elsa . She does not tell this to Elsa , but is shocked to see that Elsa is learning to control her power — due to a new woman by the name of Ingrid ( Elizabeth Mitchell ) , who claims she is their mother 's sister and also has magic snow powers like her sister Elsa . Anna never knew their mother had a sister , so she is immediately skeptical . She goes to meet Grand Pabbie and the rock trolls to find out if this is the truth . While purchasing supplies at Oaken 's shop , Anna runs into Belle ( Emilie de Ravin ) and they become friends . Together , they journey to the rock trolls , where Anna learns that her mother had two sisters named Ingrid and Helga , but Grand Pabbie changed everyone 's memory in all of Arendelle . On the return journey back to the castle , Anna and Belle run into Ingrid . Ingrid sees that Anna has Rumplestiltskin 's magic @-@ stealing hat and believes she will betray her , so she grabs hold of Anna and imprisons her . Ingrid tells Anna that she has nothing in common with either her or Elsa as she has no magic as they , and now Ingrid must replace her . Eventually , Anna reunites with her sister , helps Ingrid see the errors of her ways , and marries Kristoff .
With the introduction of Frozen characters , the season 4 of Once Upon a Time saw a 31 @-@ percent increase in ratings from the autumn of 2013 ( 9 @.@ 3 million viewers ) , marking its best ratings in almost two years .
= = = Frozen Fever = = =
A year after the events of the movie , Elsa throws a birthday for Anna . However Anna discovers , through Elsa 's continuous sneezing that Elsa has caught a cold . Despite trying to make the party perfect for her sister , Elsa 's sneezes create tiny snowmen which try to take the cake for themselves , and she nearly falls off the clocktower due to her condition . Afterwards Anna takes Elsa to rest and feeds her soup , while Kristoff , Sven , and Olaf help transport the snowmen to Elsa 's ice palace in the mountains .
= = = Frozen holiday special = = =
Anna will appear in a Frozen holiday special along with Elsa , Kristoff , Sven , and Olaf , scheduled to air on ABC in 2017 .
= = = Miscellaneous = = =
= = = = Merchandise = = = =
On November 6 , 2013 , Disney Consumer Products began releasing a line of merchandise featuring Anna in Disney Store and other retailers . Various versions of Anna dolls include the fashion doll set , the mini @-@ doll set , plush doll , Anna @-@ as @-@ a @-@ toddler doll , and a special version called Musical Magic Elsa and Anna Dolls , which lights up and plays their signature songs that appear in the film when users hold their hands or they hold each other 's hands . Anna 's merchandise also covers a wide range of other products , such as rolling luggage , boots , clothes , nightgowns , bowls , plates , coffee mugs , and home décors . In addition , the film was adapted as simplified storybooks for children , with diverse versions featuring sound effects , original character voices , and mini projectors that project movie images on the wall . One of those books , called A Sister More Like Me , includes illustrations by Brittney Lee , the film 's visual development artist . Both Anna and Elsa appear as playable characters in Disney Infinity through the use of their corresponding figurines .
= = = = Theme parks = = = =
In November 2013 , prior to the release of Frozen , Anna and Elsa began daily meet @-@ and @-@ greet sessions at Walt Disney Parks and Resorts in Florida and California , US . In Walt Disney World , the sisters had their debut on October 22 , 2013 , in a temporary attraction at Disney 's Hollywood Studios while their main attractions in Epcot were being built , then officially made appearances in the Norway Pavilion of Epcot on November 2 , 2013 , alongside a gallery of Norwegian culture which the film 's setting and design drew inspirations from . A cottage called the " Royal Reception " was set up in the Fantasyland section of Disneyland , featuring the pair and an audio @-@ animatronic Olaf speaking on the cottage roof . In February 2014 , these meet @-@ and @-@ greet sessions were extended indefinitely , with wait time to meet the princesses frequently exceeding two hours , which is longer than any previous Disney characters . As of March 2014 , it was reported that this wait time had reached four or five hours . Additionally , Elsa , Anna , and Olaf were given a Frozen @-@ themed float for Disneyland Paris ' Disney Magic on Parade . On March 9 , 2014 , the three made appearances again on their own Frozen parade float in Festival of Fantasy Parade at Magic Kingdom theme park , Walt Disney World , with Anna showing up in her coronation dress for the first time in a Disney park . On April 20 , 2014 , Anna and Elsa moved from Epcot to the Princess Fairytale Hall at Magic Kingdom , with wait time to see the characters amounted to three hours , comparing to Cinderella and Rapunzel 's 15 minutes .
Anna made a few appearances in Disney California Adventure 's Winter Dreams , a 30 @-@ minute , winter @-@ themed new show of the nighttime spectacle World of Color with Olaf , the show 's host , and Elsa . Disneyland Paris 's nighttime spectacular Disney Dreams ! featured Anna as the French co @-@ narrator of the show , alongside the English @-@ speaking Olaf . Scenes from the original film , featuring Anna and other characters like Olaf and Kristoff , appear on the castle while Elsa is singing " Let It Go " , during the Frozen segment in the Magic Kingdom nighttime projection show , Celebrate the Magic . Coinciding with the film 's release , Anna began making meet @-@ and @-@ greet sessions aboard the Disney Cruise Line 's Disney Dream cruise ship .
On May 16 , 2014 , it was announced that Disneyland would debut a Frozen pre @-@ parade featuring Anna , Elsa , and Olaf . It premiered June 13 , 2014 , and precedes performances of Mickey 's Soundsational Parade . From July 5 to September 1 , 2014 , as part of ' Frozen ' Summer Fun show at Disney 's Hollywood Studios , Anna and Elsa will appear in a horse @-@ drawn sleigh making their way down Hollywood Boulevard , alongside Kristoff and skaters , skiers and ice cutters in the Anna and Elsa 's Royal Welcome section . The sisters will also make appearances in For the First Time in Forever : A Frozen Sing @-@ Along Celebration , where they are joined by royal historians to retell the history of Arendelle ; and " Frozen " Fireworks Spectacular alongside Kristoff and Olaf , a fireworks display set to the music of Frozen . Other characters from the film will also appear in their respective offerings : Olaf in Olaf on Summer Vacation , the Oaken 's family in Wandering Oaken 's Trading Post & Frozen Funland , and " Coolest Summer Ever " Dance Party featuring a DJ and live band . In response to strong demand , Disney Parks subsequently announced on August 7 that Frozen Summer Fun would be extended to September 28 .
On August 19 , 2014 , it was initially announced that Elsa & Anna 's Boutique ( replacing Studio Disney 365 ) would open mid @-@ September in Downtown Disney at the Disneyland Resort . The opening date was later changed to October 6 , 2014 , and the store name was changed to " Anna & Elsa 's Boutique " . The location includes products inspired by Anna , Elsa , and Olaf .
While there hadn 't been any official announcements from Disney regarding a coronation for Anna and Elsa , it had been announced in late August 2014 that a special character meal would be held by a group of travel agents in the morning of September 24 , 2014 . While not officially organized by Disney , the event , called My Royal Coronation , would feature the official Anna and Elsa characters owned by Disney with assistance from the company . On September 12 , 2014 , Walt Disney World announced that a Frozen attraction was scheduled to open in early 2016 at Epcot 's World Showcase in the Norway pavilion , replacing the park 's Maelstrom ride . The attraction features the kingdom of Arendelle with music and scenes from the film , as well as meet @-@ and @-@ greets with Anna and Elsa . Anna , Elsa , Kristoff , and Olaf will make appearances in Mickey ’ s Once Upon a Christmastime Parade , offered during Mickey ’ s Very Merry Christmas Party at Magic Kingdom in November and December 2014 ( from November 7 to December 31 ) .
On November 13 , 2014 , prior to " A Sparkling Christmas " Evert , Anna and Elsa began meet @-@ and @-@ greet sessions at Hong Kong Disneyland .
Beginning December 20 , 2014 , the Anna and Elsa meet and greet at Disneyland Resort was moved from Disneyland park to a new location in the Disney Animation Building called " Anna and Elsa ’ s Royal Welcome " in Disney California Adventure . In addition , the Storybook Land Canal Boats at Disneyland were updated to include the village of Arendelle from the film , including Anna and Elsa 's castle . Officially starting January 7 , 2015 , Anna began making appearances alongside Elsa and Kristoff at Disney California Adventure in " For the First Time in Forever — A Frozen Sing @-@ Along Celebration " in Hollywood Land as part of the park 's " Frozen Fun " event . Also starting January 7 , Anna and Elsa are making appearances in a Frozen play at the Royal Theatre in Disneyland park .
Beginning May 22 , 2015 , Disneyland debuted a new nighttime parade called " Paint the Night " , which includes a Frozen float featuring Anna , Elsa , and Olaf , as part of the park 's 60th anniversary celebration .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reviews = = =
Collider.com writer Matt Goldberg referred to Anna as a character who " can go from cute to melancholy to odd to defiant and never miss a beat " . Emma Koonse of Christian Post described her and Elsa as the " most lovable and charismatic characters yet " , while Tony Hicks of San Jose Mercury News wrote that both Anna and Elsa were depicted as devoted from the start , and " [ Anna 's ] confusion and Elsa 's anguish as she shuts herself away from the world — and her sister — is palatable . " Deepanjana Pal from First Post commented that Anna " is very much a child who needs to grow up and she does in the course of the film . " The Wall Street Journal suggested that the character become more endearing for being " exactly the free spirit she seems to be " . Noah Lee of The Coast News was impressed by the heroine duo Anna and Elsa , and said , " I never lost interest in the drastic measures Anna took or the tribulations Elsa faced . " Travis Bean , a reviewer of Community Newspaper Group put emphasis on the lessons that kids could perceive from the film , saying , " Children can also root for Anna to race through the forest and break through Elsa 's icy walls and prove that love conquers all fears . " Linda Barnard , Toronto Star film critic , described the sisters as " engaging female characters " , particularly praised Anna for her funny and iron @-@ willed characteristics . Sabina Ibarra from Geek Exchange commended that the directors had crafted two very real girls " who come into their own and also come together in this amazing tale . "
Kristen Bell was lauded for her performance as Anna in the film . Michelle Im , writing for the Eye of the Tiger referred to the character as " bubbly and spirited " , and commented , " Not only was [ Bell ] able to nail those vibratos and belting notes in her songs , it was actually her singing them . " The Coast News review of the film wrote that Bell " earns top marks " for instilling a spirited sensibility in the clumsy but well @-@ meaning Anna . Cinenerd , a film critic for Blogcritics , commended the actress ' singing ability , stating that she and Menzel " sing their hearts out , with two showstoppers in Let it Go and For the First Time in Forever " . Colin Covert of Colorado Springs ' The Gazette considered Bell 's performance as a " flawless delivery " . Matt Goldberg extolled the relationship between Anna and her elder sister Elsa , writing , " There 's so much to love about Frozen , but at the top of the list is the emphasis on [ Anna ] and Elsa 's relationship . Anna still has an infatuation with the charming Hans and romantic chemistry with the flustered Kristoff , but her greatest love is for her sister . [ Elsa ] is mostly scared and guilt @-@ ridden . She 's an incredibly sympathetic character , and it 's a fresh spin on depicting estrangement between siblings . Anna has so much life and enthusiasm , and we want to see her share it with Elsa . " Magdalena Lachowicz of The Heights referred to this sisterly bond as " what truly makes the film and the moral that comes with it " , commenting , " the plot is set up to lead the viewer into thinking that it needs to be true love 's kiss — something which Anna then goes to seek . This journey sends her on a difficult adventure in which she learns about both sacrifice and love . " Debbie Lynn Elias of Culver City Observer commented , " Female driven with confidence and positivity , Elsa and Anna are like two sides of a coin , both strong , albeit one through power and confidence and the other through clumsy sticktuitiveness and love , " while Stephen Holden from The New York Times appreciated that instead of a romantic attachment , it was a sisterly love and devotion that drove the story , which departed greatly from traditional Disney formula . Noah Lee described Anna and Elsa 's relationship as " genuine " , saying , " watching those themes of family and love versus isolation and fear touched my heart in more ways than one . "
However , the character was not without criticisms . Michelle Im from the Eye of the Tiger referred to Anna 's falling immediately in love with a prince as the only personal development in her character , and found it " disappointing " in comparison with Elsa 's emotionally evolving personality . Anna Smith of The Guardian disliked that both Anna and Elsa were drawn with slender figures and large eyes as is typical of Disney princesses .
= = = Accolades = = =
Both Anna and Elsa were nominated for Best Animated Female by the Alliance of Women Film Journalists , with only Anna winning the award . Frozen also won Women Film Critics Circle award in the same category .
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= Louie B. Nunn =
Louie Broady Nunn ( March 8 , 1924 – January 29 , 2004 ) was the 52nd governor of Kentucky . His election in 1967 made him the first Republican to hold that office since the end of Simeon Willis ' term in 1947 , and the last to hold the position until the election of Ernie Fletcher in 2003 .
After rendering noncombat service in World War II and graduating from law school , Nunn entered local politics , becoming the first Republican county judge in the history of Barren County , Kentucky . He worked on the campaigns of Republican candidates for national office , including John Sherman Cooper , Thruston Morton , and Dwight D. Eisenhower . He was the Republican nominee for governor in 1963 , but ultimately lost a close election to Democrat Ned Breathitt . An executive order signed by Governor Bert T. Combs that desegregated Kentucky 's public services became a major issue in the campaign . Nunn vowed to repeal the order if elected , while Breathitt promised to continue it .
In 1967 , Nunn again ran for governor . After defeating Marlow Cook in the Republican gubernatorial primary , he eked out a victory over Democrat Henry Ward . The state offices were split between Democrats and Republicans , and Nunn was saddled with a Democratic lieutenant governor , Wendell H. Ford . Despite a Democratic majority in the General Assembly , Nunn was able to enact most of his priorities , including tax increases that funded improvements to the state park system and the construction of a statewide network of mental health centers . He oversaw the transition of Northern Kentucky University from a community college to a senior institution and brought the University of Louisville into the state university system . The later years of his administration were marred by race riots in Louisville and a violent protest against the Vietnam War at the University of Kentucky . Following his term as governor , he unsuccessfully challenged Walter " Dee " Huddleston in the 1972 senatorial election and John Y. Brown , Jr. in the 1979 gubernatorial contest . In his later years , he supported the political ambitions of his son , Steve , and advocated for the legalization of industrial hemp in Kentucky . He died of a heart attack on January 29 , 2004 .
= = Early life = =
Louie Broady Nunn was born in Park , Kentucky – a small community on the border of Barren and Metcalfe counties – on March 8 , 1924 . His given name , Louie , honored a deceased friend of his father 's ; his middle name , Broady , was a surname in his mother 's family . Louie was the youngest of the four sons born to Waller Harrison and Mary ( Roberts ) Nunn ; their youngest child , Virginia , was their only daughter . The Nunns were farmers and operated a general store , though Waller suffered from a congenital heart condition and severe arthritis and was limited to light chores . The eldest brother , Lee Roy , became an influential campaigner and fundraiser for the Republican Party .
Nunn obtained the first eight years of his education in a one @-@ room , one @-@ teacher schoolhouse in Park . During his teenage years , he gave himself a hernia while lifting a heavy piece of farm equipment . This , combined with his father 's health history , may have contributed to back pain issues that plagued him for most of his life . In 1938 , he matriculated to Hiseville High School . He earned a Bachelor of Arts degree at Bowling Green Business University .
After the bombing of Pearl Harbor on December 7 , 1941 , Nunn departed for Cincinnati , Ohio , to take flying lessons in hopes of becoming a B @-@ 17 pilot . By the time he finished his flight training , however , the Army had discontinued its air cadet program . On June 2 , 1943 , he enlisted in the Army and received his recruit training at Fort Wolters near Fort Worth , Texas . He was transferred numerous times . First , he was stationed at Sheppard Air Force Base near Wichita Falls , Texas . Next , he was assigned to the 97th Infantry Division , then received additional training at Fort Leonard Wood in Missouri . Finally , he transferred to the Army Medical Corps , but his back injury flared up , and he received a medical discharge on September 13 , 1945 . He held the rank of corporal at the time of his discharge .
Following his military duty , Nunn pursued a pre @-@ law degree at the University of Cincinnati . Three years later , he matriculated to the University of Louisville School of Law where he was a classmate of future congressman Marlow Cook . Nunn earned his Bachelor of Laws degree in 1950 . He opened his legal practice in Glasgow , Kentucky , in September 1950 .
On October 12 , 1950 , Nunn married Beula Cornelius Aspley , a divorcee from Bond , Kentucky . The couple had two children – Jennie Lou , born in 1951 , and Steve , born in 1952 . Aspley also had three children from her first marriage . Nunn left the Methodist denomination in which he had been raised after marrying Aspley , joining her as a member of the Christian Church .
= = Political career = =
On June 17 , 1953 , Nunn declared as a Republican candidate for county judge and was ultimately the only Republican to declare . In the Democratic primary , one of the challengers charged that the incumbent had used his office for personal gain . In the wake of the investigation , a group of disgruntled Democrats formed an organization to elect Nunn , who defeated his Democratic challenger by a vote of 5 @,@ 171 to 4 @,@ 378 , becoming the first Republican elected county judge in the history of the heavily Democratic county .
In 1956 , Nunn served as statewide campaign manager for Dwight D. Eisenhower 's presidential bid , as well as the senatorial campaigns of John Sherman Cooper and Thruston Morton . The Kentucky Junior Chamber of Commerce named him " Young Man of the Year " in 1956 . He was not a candidate for re @-@ election as county judge in 1957 , but was appointed as city attorney for the city of Glasgow in 1958 . He considered running for governor in 1959 , but became convinced it would be a bad year for Republicans and did not make the race . He managed successful re @-@ election campaigns for Senator Cooper in 1960 and Senator Morton in 1962 . He also managed the state campaign of presidential candidate Richard Nixon in 1960 . Although John F. Kennedy won the election , Nixon carried Kentucky 54 % to 46 % .
Nunn was the Republican nominee for governor of Kentucky in 1963 . During the campaign , he attacked an executive order issued by sitting Democratic governor Bert T. Combs that desegregated public accommodations in the state . Calling the order " a dictatorial edict of questionable constitutionality " , Nunn charged that it had been dictated by U.S. Attorney General Robert Kennedy . In a television appearance , Nunn displayed a copy of the order and declared " My first act will be to abolish this . " The New Republic accused him of conducting " the first outright segregationist campaign in Kentucky " . He lost the election to Democrat Ned Breathitt by a margin of just over 13 @,@ 000 votes .
= = = Governor of Kentucky = = =
In 1967 , Nunn faced his old classmate , Jefferson County judge Marlow Cook , in Kentucky 's first Republican gubernatorial primary in many years . Nunn attacked Cook as a " liberal , former New Yorker " , and some of his supporters made reference to Cook 's " Jewish backers " . The injection of antisemitism into the campaign drew criticism from Senator John Sherman Cooper , who threw his support to Cook . Nunn also attacked Cook for his Catholic faith , a tactic that proved particularly effective with the state 's Protestant voters . In a close vote , Nunn defeated Cook to secure the nomination .
Nunn then faced Democrat Henry Ward in the general election . During the campaign , Nunn charged that Democrats wanted to raise taxes to pay for administrative inefficiencies . He also played up divisions within the Democratic party , and was endorsed by two @-@ time former Democratic Governor A. B. " Happy " Chandler . Nunn allied himself closely with the national Republican campaign against Lyndon B. Johnson , bringing several prominent Republicans to the state to speak for him . He won the election by a vote of 454 @,@ 123 to 425 @,@ 674 , despite the fact that half of the other state offices went to Democrats , including the lieutenant governorship , won by Wendell H. Ford .
The General Assembly was controlled by Democrats , but Nunn was able to pass most of his agenda . Despite a campaign promise not to raise taxes , when the outgoing Breathitt administration projected a shortfall of $ 24 million in the state budget , Nunn convinced the General Assembly to pass an increase in the motor vehicle license fee from $ 5 @.@ 00 to $ 12 @.@ 50 and raise the state sales tax from three percent to five percent . Nunn 's budget focused on increased funding for education , mental health , and economic development . In the 1970 legislative session , the General Assembly enacted Nunn 's proposals to eliminate taxes on prescription drugs and the use fee charged on vehicles transferred within families , but rejected his plans to reduce the income tax for low @-@ income families and increase tax credits for the blind and the elderly .
Nunn oversaw the entry of the University of Louisville into the state 's public university system . Fulfilling a campaign promise , he helped transform Northern Kentucky Community College into Northern Kentucky State College ( which later became Northern Kentucky University ) , a four @-@ year institution and member of the state university system . Historian Lowell H. Harrison argued that these actions diluted state support to existing higher education institutions . Nunn also supported the newly created Kentucky Educational Television .
Nunn doubled the accommodations in the state park system . Barren River Lake State Resort Park was completed during his tenure , and three other parks were planned and funded during his administration . He also greatly improved the state mental health system . Under his leadership , a statewide network of 22 mental health centers was completed , and all four state psychiatric hospitals were accredited for the first time . Nunn called the revamping of the state mental health system his proudest accomplishment as governor . There was not total agreement between Nunn and the legislature , however . The governor vetoed one @-@ quarter of the bills passed in the 1968 legislative session and 14 percent of those passed in the 1970 session . An open housing bill became law without Nunn 's signature , and he also refused to sign the 1970 state budget as a form of protest . ( Unsigned bills become law after ten days under the Kentucky Constitution , in contrast to the pocket veto provision in the federal constitution . )
A supporter of President Nixon 's law @-@ and @-@ order philosophies , Nunn called out the National Guard to break up violent protests in the state . In May 1968 , he sent the Guard to Louisville to break up race @-@ related protests that followed peaceful civil rights marches . This action was criticized by civil rights leaders across the state . In May 1970 , Nunn again dispatched the Guard to quell protests against the Vietnam War at the University of Kentucky , and imposed a curfew that interfered with final examinations . The latter protest culminated in the burning of one of the university 's ROTC buildings .
From 1968 to 1969 , Nunn served on the Executive Committee of the National Governors ' Conference and , in 1971 , chaired the Republican Governors Association . The Louisville Courier @-@ Journal said of Nunn 's administration " On the whole , his management of the state 's finances has been sound . ... [ H ] e took a general fund facing a deficit , restored it to solvency , and kept it healthy . No scandals have marred the Nunn record . He chose able men to direct his revenue and finance departments , and their efficiency saved the state millions of dollars . " Historian Thomas D. Clark called Nunn the strongest of Kentucky 's eight Republican governors .
= = Later career = =
Following his term as governor , Nunn opened a law practice in Lexington . He campaigned for a seat in the U.S. Senate in 1972 , losing to Democrat Walter " Dee " Huddleston . His loss came despite a landslide victory for Richard Nixon in the state and was generally blamed on his support for an increased sales tax during his gubernatorial administration . He continued working on behalf of Republican candidates , and backed Ronald Reagan 's primary challenge to incumbent Gerald Ford in 1975 . His last run for office came in 1979 when he was again the Republican nominee for governor against Democrat John Y. Brown , Jr . He decried the excessive spending , expanding government , and increased state employment that had occurred under Democratic administrations . He also attacked Brown for his playboy image ( he was married to former Miss America Phyllis George ) and his refusal to release his tax returns , as well as his inexperience in government . Despite these attacks , Nunn lost by a vote of 558 @,@ 008 to 381 @,@ 278 and returned to his legal practice .
In the 1980s , Nunn served on the boards of regents of Morehead State University and Kentucky State University . He served as a lecturer at Western Kentucky University , and received the Distinguished Alumni Award from the University of Louisville in 1999 . During the late 1980s , he criticized Senator Mitch McConnell , one of the emerging leaders of the state 's Republican party , for not doing more to support other Republicans in their bids for office ; McConnell maintained that he had to focus on his own reelection campaign in 1990 . In 1988 , Nunn unsuccessfully challenged Congressman Jim Bunning in his bid to retain his position as Kentucky 's Republican national committeeman .
In 1994 , Nunn 's wife Beula filed for divorce from a hospital bed where she lay dying of cancer . She claimed she was trying to preserve some of her estate for her children . A Metcalfe County judge granted the divorce , but Nunn challenged the ruling , and it was later set aside . Some property issues were still pending at the time of Beula 's death in 1995 . During the divorce proceedings , Nunn 's son Steve sided with his mother , causing a rift between him and his father . A 1994 letter from the elder Nunn alleged that Steve Nunn physically and verbally abused Louie Nunn and other members of his family . The letter was discovered in 2009 when Steve Nunn was charged with the murder of his former fiancée , Amanda Ross .
In 1999 , Nunn again considered a bid for governor , precluding a potential bid by his son , Steve . He cited personal and health issues for not making the race . In 2000 , he backed the presidential campaign of Senator John McCain . Nunn was reconciled to his son Steve , and when Steve ran for governor in 2003 , Louie supported him . After Steve Nunn ran third in a four @-@ way primary , the elder Nunn supported the Republican nominee , Ernie Fletcher , hosting a fundraiser for him .
Nunn also became an advocate of legalizing industrial hemp in Kentucky , writing , " Frankly , I was opposed to the legalization of hemp for years because I had been of the opinion hemp was marijuana . I was short @-@ sighted in my thinking , and I was wrong . " In 2000 , Nunn secured an acquittal for actor Woody Harrelson , who came to Lee County , Kentucky , and planted hemp seeds in open defiance of Kentucky 's law forbidding the cultivation of hemp . Later , he traveled to South Dakota where , at the base of Mount Rushmore , he publicly presented an Oglala Lakota leader with bales of hemp after the tribe 's crop was confiscated by officers from the federal Drug Enforcement Administration .
Louie B. Nunn died of a heart attack at his home in Versailles , Kentucky , on January 29 , 2004 , hours after hosting a luncheon with labor leaders seeking help in dealing with the newly elected Fletcher administration . He was buried at the Cosby Methodist Church cemetery in Hart County , Kentucky . The Cumberland Parkway was renamed the Louie B. Nunn Cumberland Parkway in 2000 , and the main lodge at the Barren River Lake State Resort Park is also named in Nunn 's honor .
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= Pennsylvania Turnpike =
The Pennsylvania Turnpike is a toll highway operated by the Pennsylvania Turnpike Commission in the U.S. state of Pennsylvania . A controlled @-@ access highway , it runs for 360 miles ( 580 km ) across the state . The turnpike begins at the Ohio state line in Lawrence County , where the road continues west into Ohio as the Ohio Turnpike . It ends at the New Jersey border at the Delaware River – Turnpike Toll Bridge over the Delaware River in Bucks County , where it continues east as the Pearl Harbor Memorial Extension of the New Jersey Turnpike .
The highway runs east – west through the state , connecting the Pittsburgh , Harrisburg , and Philadelphia areas . It crosses the Appalachian Mountains in central Pennsylvania through four tunnels . The turnpike is part of the Interstate Highway System ; it is designated as part of Interstate 76 ( I @-@ 76 ) between the Ohio border and Valley Forge , I @-@ 70 and I @-@ 76 between New Stanton and Breezewood , and I @-@ 276 between Valley Forge and the New Jersey border . The road uses a ticket system of tolling between the Warrendale and Neshaminy Falls toll plazas . An additional eastbound toll plaza is located at Gateway , near the Ohio border , while a cashless westbound toll plaza using toll @-@ by @-@ plate is located at the Delaware River Bridge . E @-@ ZPass , a form of electronic toll collection , is accepted at all toll plazas .
During the 1930s the Pennsylvania Turnpike was designed to improve automobile transportation across the mountains of Pennsylvania , using seven tunnels built for the abandoned South Pennsylvania Railroad in the 1880s . The road opened on October 1 , 1940 between Irwin and Carlisle as the first long @-@ distance limited @-@ access highway in the United States , leading to the construction of other limited @-@ access toll roads and the Interstate Highway System .
Following World War II , the turnpike was extended east to Valley Forge in 1950 and west to the Ohio border in 1951 . In 1954 , the road was extended further east to the Delaware River . The mainline turnpike was finished in 1956 with the completion of the Delaware River Bridge . During the 1960s an additional tube was bored at four of the two @-@ lane tunnels , while the other three tunnels were bypassed ; these improvements made the entire length of the highway four lanes wide . Improvements continue to be made to the road : rebuilding the original section to modern standards , widening portions of the turnpike to six lanes , and adding interchanges .
= = Route description = =
The turnpike runs east @-@ west across Pennsylvania , from the Ohio state line in Lawrence County to the New Jersey state line in Bucks County . It passes through the Pittsburgh , Harrisburg , and Philadelphia areas , along with farmland and woodland . The highway crosses the Appalachian Mountains , in the central part of the state , through four tunnels . The Pennsylvania Turnpike Commission , created in 1937 to construct , finance , operate , and maintain the road , controls the highway . Five members comprise the commission , including the secretary of the Pennsylvania Department of Transportation and four other members appointed by the governor of Pennsylvania . In 2014 , the roadway had an annual average daily traffic count ranging from a high of 117 @,@ 000 vehicles between Norristown and I @-@ 476 to a low of 12 @,@ 000 vehicles between the Ohio border and Pennsylvania Route 18 ( PA 18 ) . As part of the Interstate Highway System , the turnpike is part of the National Highway System . The Pennsylvania Turnpike is designated a Blue Star Memorial Highway honoring those who have served in the United States Armed Forces ; the Garden Club Federation of Pennsylvania has placed Blue Star Memorial Highway markers at service plazas along the turnpike .
In addition to the east @-@ west Pennsylvania Turnpike , the Pennsylvania Turnpike Commission also operates the Northeast Extension of the Pennsylvania Turnpike ( I @-@ 476 ) , the Beaver Valley Expressway ( I @-@ 376 ) , the Mon @-@ Fayette Expressway ( PA 43 ) , the Amos K. Hutchinson Bypass ( PA 66 ) , and the Southern Beltway ( PA 576 ) .
= = = Western extension = = =
The Pennsylvania Turnpike begins at the Ohio state line in Lawrence County ( beyond which it continues west as the Ohio Turnpike ) . From the state line , the turnpike heads southeast as a four @-@ lane freeway designated as I @-@ 76 through the rural area south of New Castle . A short distance from the Ohio border , the eastbound lanes come to the Gateway toll plaza . The highway then crosses into Beaver County , where it reaches its first interchange with I @-@ 376 ( the Beaver Valley Expressway ) in Big Beaver .
After this interchange , the turnpike reaches the exit for PA 18 in Homewood before crossing the Beaver River on the Beaver River Bridge . The road then enters Butler County , where it comes to Cranberry Township . Here , an interchange accesses U.S. Route 19 ( US 19 ) and I @-@ 79 . The turnpike continues through a mix of rural land and suburban residential development north of Pittsburgh into Allegheny County .
The road then approaches the Warrendale toll plaza ( where toll ticketing begins ) , and continues southeast to an interchange with PA 8 in Hampton Township . The turnpike then comes to the Allegheny Valley exit in Harmar Township , which provides access to PA 28 via Freeport Road . East of this interchange , the road heads south and crosses the Allegheny River on the six @-@ lane Allegheny River Turnpike Bridge .
After the Allegheny River crossing the turnpike returns to four lanes , passing through the Oakmont Country Club . The highway heads southeast to Monroeville , an eastern suburb of Pittsburgh ; an interchange with I @-@ 376 / US 22 ( Penn – Lincoln Parkway ) provides access to Pittsburgh . East of Monroeville , the turnpike continues through eastern Allegheny County before crossing into Westmoreland County . Here , it heads south to the exit for US 30 in Irwin .
= = = Irwin to Carlisle = = =
After the Irwin interchange , the Pennsylvania Turnpike widens to six lanes and heads into the rural area west of Greensburg . Curving southeast , it reaches New Stanton ; an interchange provides access to I @-@ 70 , US 119 and the southern terminus of PA 66 ( the Amos K. Hutchinson Bypass ) . The road narrows back to four lanes at this interchange , and I @-@ 70 forms a concurrency with I @-@ 76 on the turnpike . After New Stanton , the road winds southeast to the exit for PA 31 / PA 711 in Donegal . Continuing east past Donegal , the turnpike crosses Laurel Hill into Somerset County .
In this county , the road continues southeast to Somerset and an interchange with PA 601 accessing US 219 and Johnstown . East of Somerset the highway reaches Allegheny Mountain , going under it in the Allegheny Mountain Tunnel . Exiting the tunnel , the turnpike winds down the mountain at a three @-@ percent grade ( the steepest grade on the turnpike ) into a Bedford County valley . At Bedford , an exit for US 220 Business ( US 220 Bus . ) provides access to US 220 and the southern terminus of I @-@ 99 ; this exit also serves Altoona to the north .
East of Bedford the turnpike passes through the Bedford Narrows , a gap in Evitts Mountain . The turnpike , US 30 and the Raystown Branch of the Juniata River all pass through the 650 @-@ foot @-@ wide ( 200 m ) narrows . The road winds through a valley south of the river , before traversing Clear Ridge Cut near Everett . Further east , at Breezewood , I @-@ 70 leaves the turnpike .
After Breezewood I @-@ 76 continues along the turnpike , heading northeast across Rays Hill into Fulton County . The turnpike continues east across Sideling Hill , before reaching an interchange with US 522 in Fort Littleton . After this interchange the highway parallels US 522 before curving east into Huntingdon County . The turnpike goes under Tuscarora Mountain through the Tuscarora Mountain Tunnel , entering Franklin County . It then curves northeast into a valley to the exit for PA 75 in Willow Hill .
Again heading east , the road passes under Kittatinny Mountain through the Kittatinny Mountain Tunnel . Shortly after exiting the tunnel , the highway enters the Blue Mountain Tunnel under Blue Mountain . Leaving that tunnel , the turnpike heads northeast along the base of Blue Mountain to an exit for PA 997 . East of this interchange the road enters Cumberland County , heading east through the Cumberland Valley on a stretch known as " the straightaway " . Further east , the turnpike reaches Carlisle and an interchange with US 11 providing access to I @-@ 81 .
= = = Philadelphia extension = = =
Approaching Harrisburg , the Pennsylvania Turnpike heads east through a mixture of rural land and suburban development . In Upper Allen Township , the highway reaches the US 15 interchange accessing Gettysburg to the south . The road continues east into York County , where it reaches the interchange with I @-@ 83 serving Harrisburg , its western suburbs and York to the south . East of I @-@ 83 it widens to six lanes , crossing the Susquehanna River into Dauphin County on the Susquehanna River Bridge and bypassing Harrisburg to the south .
In Lower Swatara Township the turnpike reaches an interchange with the southern end of I @-@ 283 , serving Harrisburg and its eastern suburbs . Here , the road narrows back to four lanes through suburban development near Middletown before continuing into rural areas . The turnpike crosses a corner of Lebanon County before entering Lancaster County .
In Lancaster County the highway passes through Pennsylvania Dutch Country to an interchange with PA 72 accessing Lebanon to the north and Lancaster to the south . Further east , the turnpike reaches an interchange with US 222 and PA 272 near Denver which serves the cities of Reading and Lancaster . The route continues into Berks County and an interchange with I @-@ 176 ( a freeway to Reading ) and PA 10 in Morgantown .
The turnpike then enters Chester County , running southeast to an exit for PA 100 north of Downingtown and the western suburbs of Philadelphia . Continuing east , it reaches an E @-@ ZPass @-@ only interchange with PA 29 near Malvern . The highway crosses Montgomery County to the Valley Forge interchange in King of Prussia , where I @-@ 76 splits from the turnpike and heads southeast ( as the Schuylkill Expressway ) toward Philadelphia .
= = = Delaware River extension = = =
After the Valley Forge interchange the turnpike is designated as I @-@ 276 and becomes a six @-@ lane road serving as a suburban commuter highway , crossing the Schuylkill River on the Schuylkill River Bridge near Norristown . In Plymouth Meeting , an interchange with Germantown Pike provides access to Norristown before the roadway reaches the Mid @-@ County Interchange . This interchange connects to I @-@ 476 , which heads south as the Blue Route and north as the Northeast Extension of the turnpike ; connecting the mainline turnpike to the Lehigh Valley and the Pocono Mountains .
After the Mid @-@ County Interchange , the main turnpike heads east through the northern suburbs of Philadelphia to Fort Washington and an interchange with PA 309 . One mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) later , the road has a westbound exit and entrance for Virginia Drive accessible only by E @-@ ZPass tagholders . In Willow Grove the highway reaches the PA 611 exit , crossing more suburban areas into Bucks County . In Bensalem , an interchange with US 1 provides access to Philadelphia .
The highway narrows back to four lanes before another E @-@ ZPass @-@ only exit for PA 132 , with an eastbound exit and entrance . A short distance later , the turnpike arrives at the east end of the ticket system at the Neshaminy Falls toll plaza . The road passes through more suburbs , crossing under I @-@ 95 where an interchange is currently under construction . Further east the turnpike reaches the final interchange , providing access to US 13 in Bristol , before coming to the westbound all @-@ electronic Delaware River Bridge toll plaza , where tolls can be paid with E @-@ ZPass or toll @-@ by @-@ plate at highway speeds . After this , the highway crosses the Delaware River into New Jersey on the Delaware River – Turnpike Toll Bridge . At this point , the I @-@ 276 designation and the Pennsylvania Turnpike end ; the road continues east as the Pearl Harbor Memorial Extension of the New Jersey Turnpike , which connects to the New Jersey Turnpike ( the Pearl Harbor Memorial Extension is an unsigned portion of I @-@ 95 ) . However , exit signs on the New Jersey Turnpike indicate I @-@ 276 / Pennsylvania Turnpike .
= = = Major bridges and tunnels = = =
The Pennsylvania Turnpike incorporates several major bridges and tunnels along its route . Four tunnels cross central Pennsylvania 's Appalachian Mountains . The 6 @,@ 070 @-@ foot ( 1 @,@ 850 m ) Allegheny Mountain Tunnel passes under Allegheny Mountain in Somerset County . The Tuscarora Mountain Tunnel runs beneath Tuscarora Mountain ( at the border of Huntingdon and Franklin Counties ) , and is 5 @,@ 236 feet ( 1 @,@ 596 m ) long . The Kittatinny Mountain and Blue Mountain Tunnels are adjacent to each other in Franklin County and are 4 @,@ 727 feet ( 1 @,@ 441 m ) and 4 @,@ 339 feet ( 1 @,@ 323 m ) long , respectively .
Five bridges carry the turnpike over major rivers in the state . The 1 @,@ 545 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 471 m ) Beaver River Bridge crosses the Beaver River in Beaver County . The highway crosses the Allegheny River in Allegheny County on the 2 @,@ 350 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 720 m ) Allegheny River Turnpike Bridge , and crosses the Susquehanna River between York and Dauphin Counties on the 5 @,@ 910 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 1 @,@ 800 m ) Susquehanna River Bridge . In Montgomery County , the turnpike crosses the Schuylkill River on the 1 @,@ 224 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 373 m ) Schuylkill River Bridge . At the New Jersey border in Bucks County , the highway is connected to the Pearl Harbor Memorial Extension of the New Jersey Turnpike by the 6 @,@ 571 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 2 @,@ 003 m ) Delaware River – Turnpike Toll Bridge over the Delaware River .
= = = Speed limits = = =
The turnpike had no enforced speed limit when it opened except for the tunnels , which had a 35 @-@ mile @-@ per @-@ hour ( 55 km / h ) speed limit . Some drivers traveled as fast as 90 mph ( 145 km / h ) on the road . In 1941 , speed limits of 70 mph ( 115 km / h ) for cars and 50 – 65 mph ( 80 – 105 km / h ) for trucks were enacted . During World War II , the turnpike adopted the national speed limit of 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) ; after the war , the limit returned to 70 mph ( 115 km / h ) .
In 1953 , the speed limit on the portion of the highway between the Ohio border and Breezewood was lowered to 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) to reduce the number of accidents , but returned to 70 mph ( 115 km / h ) when the measure proved ineffective . The limit on the turnpike was reduced to 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) in 1956 for cars , buses and motorcycles , with other vehicles limited to 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) . A minimum speed of 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) was established in 1959 ; it was raised to 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) in 1965 .
With the passage of the 1974 National Maximum Speed Law , the speed limit on the turnpike was reduced to 55 mph ( 90 km / h ) . It was again raised to 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) in 1995 , except for urban areas with a population greater than 50 @,@ 000 ; the latter retained the 55 mph ( 90 km / h ) speed limit . In 2005 , the turnpike commission approved raising the speed limit to 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) for the entire length of the turnpike ( except the tunnels , mainline toll plazas and the winding portion near the Allegheny Mountain Tunnel , which retained the 55 mph ( 90 km / h ) limit ) . In 2014 , the speed limit on a portion of the turnpike was restored at 70 mph ( 115 km / h ) . On July 22 , 2014 , the speed limit increased to 70 mph ( 115 km / h ) between the Blue Mountain and Morgantown interchanges . On March 15 , 2016 , the Pennsylvania Turnpike Commission approved raising the speed limit on the remainder of the turnpike to 70 mph ( 115 km / h ) , excluding sections that are posted with a 55 mph ( 90 km / h ) speed limit . On May 3 , 2016 , the speed limit increased to 70 mph ( 115 km / h ) on the 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) sections of the toll road . The speed limit remains 55 mph ( 90 km / h ) at construction zones , the tunnels , mainline toll plazas , the winding portion near the Allegheny Mountain Tunnel , and the section between Bensalem and the Delaware River Bridge .
= = Tolls = =
The Pennsylvania Turnpike uses the ticket system of tolling between the Warrendale and Neshaminy Falls toll plazas , as well as on the Northeast Extension to Wyoming Valley . When entering the turnpike , motorists receive a ticket listing the toll for each exit ; the ticket is surrendered when exiting , and the applicable toll is paid . If the ticket is lost , motorists are charged the maximum toll for that exit . An eastbound mainline toll plaza is located at Gateway near the Ohio border , charging a flat toll using cash or E @-@ ZPass , and an all @-@ electronic westbound mainline toll plaza is located at the Delaware River Bridge near the New Jersey border , charging a flat toll using toll @-@ by @-@ plate ( which uses license plate recognition to take a photo of the vehicle 's license plate and mail a bill to the vehicle owner ) or E @-@ ZPass at highway speeds . There is no toll between Gateway and Warrendale and between Neshaminy Falls and the Delaware River Bridge . E @-@ ZPass is accepted at all toll plazas . The PA 29 interchange and the westbound Virginia Drive and eastbound Street Road interchanges only accept E @-@ ZPass .
As of 2016 it costs a passenger vehicle $ 42 @.@ 30 to travel the length of the mainline turnpike between Warrendale and Neshaminy Falls using cash , and $ 30 @.@ 32 using E @-@ ZPass ; the eastbound Gateway toll plaza costs $ 6 @.@ 60 cash and $ 4 @.@ 61 with E @-@ ZPass for passenger vehicles while the westbound Delaware River Bridge toll plaza costs $ 6 @.@ 75 using toll @-@ by @-@ plate and $ 5 @.@ 00 using E @-@ ZPass . The average toll rate for the turnpike is $ 0 @.@ 13 per mile ( $ 0 @.@ 081 / km ) using cash and $ 0 @.@ 09 per mile ( $ 0 @.@ 056 / km ) using E @-@ ZPass . Since 2009 , the turnpike has raised tolls once a year , starting on January 1 , to provide funding for increasing annual payments to PennDOT , as mandated by Act 44 . As part of Act 89 signed in 2013 , the annual payments to PennDOT will end after 2022 ( 35 years earlier than the original proposal under Act 44 ) , but it is not known if the annual toll increases will continue after 2022 . With the annual rise in tolls , traffic has been shifting from the turnpike to local roads .
The turnpike commission announced plans to consider eliminating manned toll booths in favor of all @-@ electronic tolls . With this system , tolls will be paid with E @-@ ZPass or credit cards . Drivers unable to pay by either method will be billed by mail ( using license plate recognition ) , and a surcharge will be imposed . In addition to E @-@ ZPass , the turnpike commission offered other automated options to pay for tolls such as using a prepaid account that utilizes license plate recognition . McCormick Taylor and Wilbur Smith Associates have been hired to conduct a feasibility study on converting the road to all @-@ electronic tolls . On March 6 , 2012 , the turnpike commission announced that it was implementing an all @-@ electronic tolling plan . The turnpike commission will save $ 65 million annually on labor costs by eliminating toll collectors . Plans call for a 76 @-@ percent surcharge on motorists without E @-@ ZPass who are billed by mail ; this surcharge could raise the toll for a motorist without E @-@ ZPass to well over $ 50 to travel the entire turnpike . On January 3 , 2016 , all @-@ electronic tolling was introduced in the westbound direction at the Delaware River Bridge mainline toll plaza , while the eastern terminus of the ticket system was moved from the Delaware River Bridge to Neshaminy Falls .
= = Services = =
= = = Emergency assistance and information = = =
The turnpike has a callbox every mile for its entire length . Callboxes were first installed between New Stanton and New Baltimore in December 1988 , and in 1989 callboxes were extended along the length of the highway . Motorists may also dial * 11 on mobile phones . First @-@ responder service is available to all turnpike users via the State Farm Safety Patrol program . The free program checks for disabled motorists , debris and accidents along the road and provides assistance 24 hours daily year @-@ round . Each patrol vehicle covers a 20 @-@ to @-@ 25 @-@ mile ( 32 to 40 km ) stretch of the turnpike . Towing service is available from authorized service stations near the highway , and Pennsylvania State Police Troop T patrols the turnpike . The troop 's headquarters is in Highspire ; its turnpike substations are grouped into three sections : the western section has substations in Gibsonia , Somerset , and New Stanton ; the central section 's substations are in Bowmansville , Everett and Newville , and the eastern section 's substation is in King of Prussia .
The Pennsylvania Turnpike Commission broadcasts road , traffic , and weather conditions over highway advisory radio transmitters at each exit on 1640 kHz AM , with a range of approximately two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) . Motorists can also receive alerts and information via the internet , mobile phone , a hotline and message boards at service plazas through the Turnpike Roadway Information Program ( TRIP ) .
= = = Service plazas = = =
The Pennsylvania Turnpike has 15 service plazas on the main highway throughout the state , as well as 2 on the northeastern extension . Each plaza has a gift shop , food franchises ( such as Burger King , Subway , Sbarro , Roy Rogers , Famous Famiglia Pizzeria , Auntie Anne 's , Hershey 's Ice Cream , Popeye 's , and Starbucks ) , a Sunoco gas station and an A @-@ Plus convenience store . Other amenities include ATMs , pay phones , picnic areas , restrooms , tourist information and Wi @-@ Fi . The King of Prussia plaza has a welcome center , and the New Stanton and Sideling Hill plazas feature seasonal farmers ' markets . A few plazas offer E85 while New Stanton offers compressed natural gas ; all of them offer conventional gasoline and diesel fuel . The Sunoco and A @-@ Plus locations as well as the Subway at North Midway are operated by Energy Transfer Partners ( who bought Pennsylvania @-@ based Sunoco in 2012 ) while the remaining restaurants and general upkeep of the service plazas are operated by HMSHost .
Throughout the Turnpike 's history , various plazas have been added or eliminated . Two of the original plazas ( at Laurel Hill and New Baltimore ) were closed in the 1950s while the bypassing of what is now the Abandoned Turnpike led to the closure of the Cove Valley Plaza and opening of the Sideling Hill plaza , which serves both westbound and eastbound traffic . In 1980 , the plazas at Denver , Pleasant Valley and Mechanicsburg were sold to outside bidders and in 1983 the Path Valley plaza closed due to declining business , as it was only 15 miles ( 24 km ) east of the dual @-@ access Sideling Hill plaza . Throughout the decade , the former Howard Johnson restaurants were converted to a variety of fast food outlets and sit @-@ down restaurants at some locations . In 1990 the Brandywine ( now Peter J. Camiel ) plaza was demolished and reconstructed , and in 2002 the Butler plaza closed to make room for the Warrendale Toll Plaza .
Starting in 2006 , the Turnpike Commission and HMSHost worked to rebuild the service plazas starting with Oakmont , which closed in 2006 and reopened in 2007 . This was followed by the reconstruction of the North Somerset and Sideling Hill plazas from 2007 @-@ 2008 , New Stanton from 2008 @-@ 2009 , King of Prussia from 2009 @-@ 2010 , Lawn and Bowmansville from 2010 @-@ 2011 , South Somerset , Blue Mountain and Plainfield from 2011 @-@ 2012 , South Midway and Highspire from 2012 @-@ 2013 , Peter J. Camiel from 2013 @-@ 2014 , and Valley Forge and North Midway from 2014 @-@ 2015 . During this process , four plazas were eliminated altogether : the Hempfield and South Neshaminy plazas were demolished in 2007 for additional lanes and a new slip ramp , respectively , the Zelienople plaza closed in 2008 due to a lack of business since is located on the free stretch of the turnpike from Ohio to Warrendale , and the North Neshaminy plaza shut down in 2010 for an upcoming construction project .
= = History = =
The Pennsylvania Turnpike was planned in the 1930s to improve transportation across the Appalachian Mountains of central Pennsylvania . It used seven tunnels bored for the abandoned South Pennsylvania Railroad project during the 1880s . The highway opened on October 1 , 1940 between Irwin and Carlisle as the first long @-@ distance controlled @-@ access highway in the United States . Following its completion , other toll roads and the Interstate Highway System were built . The highway was extended east to Valley Forge in 1950 , and west to the Ohio border in 1951 . It was completed at the New Jersey border ( the Delaware River ) in 1954 ; the Delaware River Bridge opened two years later . During the 1960s , the entire highway was expanded to four lanes by adding a second tube at four of the tunnels and bypassing the other three . Other improvements have been made , including the addition of interchanges , the widening of portions of the highway to six lanes and the reconstruction of the original section . An interchange is planned at I @-@ 95 to meet a need on that route .
= = = Planning = = =
Before the turnpike , there were other forms of transportation across the Appalachians . Native Americans traveled across the mountains along wilderness trails ; later , European settlers followed wagon roads to cross the state . The Philadelphia and Lancaster Turnpike opened between Lancaster and Philadelphia in 1794 , the first successful turnpike in the United States . The road was paved with logs , an improvement on the dirt Native American trails . In 1834 , the Main Line of Public Works opened as a system of canals , railroads and cable railways across Pennsylvania to compete with the Erie Canal in New York .
The Pennsylvania Railroad was completed between Pittsburgh and Philadelphia in 1854 . During the 1880s , the South Pennsylvania Railroad was proposed to compete with the Pennsylvania . It received the backing of William Henry Vanderbilt , head of the New York Central Railroad ( the Pennsylvania 's chief rival ) . Andrew Carnegie also provided financial support , since he was unhappy with rates charged by the Pennsylvania Railroad . Construction began on the rival line in 1883 , but stopped when the railroads reached an agreement in 1885 . After construction halted , the only vestiges of the South Pennsylvania were nine tunnels , some roadbed and piers for a bridge over the Susquehanna River in Harrisburg .
During the early 20th century , the automobile gradually became the primary form of transportation . Motorists crossing the Pennsylvania mountains during the 1930s were limited to hilly , winding roads such as the Lincoln Highway ( US 30 ) or the William Penn Highway ( US 22 ) , which had grades exceeding nine percent . Due to their sharp curves and steep grades , the roads were dangerous and caused many fatal accidents from skids .
As a result of the challenge of crossing the Pennsylvania mountains by automobile , William Sutherland of the Pennsylvania Motor Truck Association and Victor Lecoq of the Pennsylvania State Planning Commission proposed a toll highway in 1934 . This highway would be a four @-@ lane limited @-@ access road modeled after the German autobahns and Connecticut 's Merritt Parkway . The turnpike could also serve as a defense road , using the abandoned tunnels of the South Pennsylvania Railroad project .
In 1935 Sutherland and Lecoq introduced their turnpike idea to state legislator Cliff Patterson , who proposed a feasibility study on April 23 , 1935 . The proposal passed , and the Works Progress Administration ( WPA ) explored the possibility of building the road . Its study estimated a cost of between $ 60 and $ 70 million ( between $ 1 @.@ 04 billion and $ 1 @.@ 21 billion in 2016 dollars ) to build the turnpike . Patterson introduced Bill 211 to the legislature , calling for the establishment of the Pennsylvania Turnpike Commission . The bill was signed into law by Governor George Howard Earle III on May 21 , 1937 and on June 4 , the first commissioners were appointed . The highway was planned to run from US 30 in Irwin ( east of Pittsburgh ) east to US 11 in Middlesex ( west of Harrisburg ) , a length of about 162 miles ( 261 km ) . It would pass through nine tunnels along the way .
The road would have four lanes , with a median and no grade steeper than three percent . Access to the highway would be controlled by entrance and exit ramps . There would be no at @-@ grade intersections , driveways , traffic lights , crosswalks or at @-@ grade railroad crossings . Curves would be wide , and road signage large . The right @-@ of @-@ way for the turnpike would be 200 feet ( 61 m ) ; the road would be 24 feet ( 7 @.@ 3 m ) wide , with 10 @-@ foot ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) shoulders and a 10 @-@ foot ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) median . Through the tunnels the road would have two lanes , a 14 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) clearance and a 23 @-@ foot @-@ wide ( 7 @.@ 0 m ) roadway . The turnpike 's design would be uniform for its entire length .
In February 1938 , the commission began investigating proposals for $ 55 million in bonds to be issued for construction of the turnpike . A month later , Van Ingen and Company purchased $ 60 million ( about $ 1 @.@ 01 billion in 2016 dollars ) in bonds they would offer to the public . President Franklin D. Roosevelt approved a $ 24 million ( about $ 403 million in 2016 dollars ) grant from the WPA in April 1938 for construction of the road ; the commonwealth also contributed $ 29 million towards the project . The WPA grant received final approval , but plans were still made to sell bonds ; the first issue was planned for about $ 20 million ( about $ 336 million in 2016 dollars ) . The reduced bond issue was due to the grant from the WPA .
In June , the Reconstruction Finance Corporation ( RFC ) announced they would lend the commission sufficient funds to build the road . The RFC loan totaled $ 32 million ( about $ 538 million in 2016 dollars ) , with a $ 26 million ( about $ 437 million in 2016 dollars ) grant from the Public Works Administration ( PWA ) , providing $ 58 million for the turnpike 's construction ; highway tolls would repay the RFC . In October 1938 the turnpike commission agreed with the RFC and PWA that the RFC would purchase $ 35 million in bonds , in addition to the PWA grant . That month , a banking syndicate purchased the entire bond amount from the RFC . The previous month , a proposed railroad from Pittsburgh to Harrisburg ( on the former South Pennsylvania Railroad right @-@ of @-@ way designated for the turnpike ) was turned down .
= = = Design = = =
In building the turnpike , boring the former railroad tunnels was completed . Since the Allegheny Mountain Tunnel bore was in poor condition , a new bore was drilled 85 feet ( 26 m ) to the south . The commission considered bypassing the Rays Hill and Sideling Hill Tunnels , but the cost of a bypass was considered too high . Crews used steam shovels to widen the tunnels ' portals , and temporary railroad tracks transported construction equipment in and out . Concrete was used in lining the tunnel portals . The tunnels include ventilation ducts , drainage structures , sidewalks , lighting , telephone and signal systems . Lighting was installed along the roadway approaching the tunnel portals .
A total of 4 @.@ 5 miles ( 7 @.@ 2 km ) of tunnel was bored through the seven mountains . The tunnels were Laurel Hill Tunnel , Allegheny Mountain Tunnel , Rays Hill Tunnel , Sideling Hill Tunnel , Tuscarora Mountain Tunnel , Kittatinny Mountain Tunnel and Blue Mountain Tunnel , and the road became known as the " tunnel highway " .
Many bridge designs were used for roads over the highway , including the concrete arch bridge , the through plate girder bridge and the concrete T @-@ beam bridge . Bridges used to carry the turnpike over other roads and streams included a concrete arch viaduct in New Stanton . At 600 feet ( 180 m ) , the New Stanton viaduct was the longest bridge along the original section of the turnpike . Other turnpike bridges included plate girder bridges like the bridge over Dunnings Creek in the Bedford Narrows . Smaller concrete T @-@ beam bridges were also built ; a total of 307 bridges were constructed along the original section of the turnpike .
Eleven interchanges were built along the turnpike , most of which were trumpet interchanges where all ramps merge at the toll booths ; only the New Stanton , Carlisle and Middlesex interchanges did not follow this design . Lighting was installed approaching interchanges , along with acceleration and deceleration lanes . The road also featured guardrails , consisting of steel panels attached to I @-@ beams . Large exit signs were used , and road signs had cat 's @-@ eye reflectors to increase visibility at night ; billboards were prohibited . In September 1940 , the Pennsylvania Public Utility Commission ruled that trucks and buses would be allowed to use the highway .
Since the first section of the highway was built through a rural part of the state , food or gasoline was not easily available to motorists . Because of this , the commission decided to provide service plazas at 30 @-@ mile ( 48 km ) intervals . The plazas would be constructed of native fieldstone , resembling Colonial @-@ era architecture . In 1940 , Standard Oil of Pennsylvania was awarded a contract for ten Esso service stations along the turnpike . Eight of the service plazas would consist of service stations and a restaurant , while the plazas at the halfway point ( in Bedford ) would be larger . The South Midway service plaza ( the largest ) contained a dining room , lunch counter , lounge and lodging for truckers ; a tunnel connected it to the smaller North Midway plaza . The remaining service plazas were smaller , with a lunch counter . Food service at the plazas was provided by Howard Johnson 's . After World War II , the food facilities were enlarged ; service stations sold gasoline , repaired cars and provided towing service .
= = = Construction of first section = = =
Before the first @-@ section groundbreaking , in 1937 the turnpike commission sent workers to assess the former railroad tunnels . In September of that year , a contract was awarded to drain water from the tunnels . After this , workers cleared rock slides and vegetation from the tunnel portals before evaluating the nine tunnels ' condition . It was decided that six of the nine former South Pennsylvania Railroad tunnels could be used for the roadway . The Allegheny Mountain Tunnel was in too poor a condition for use , and the Quemahoning and Negro Mountain tunnels would be bypassed with rock cuts through the mountains ; The Quemahoning Tunnel had been completed and used by the Pittsburgh , Westmoreland and Somerset Railroad .
The Pennsylvania Turnpike groundbreaking was held on October 27 , 1938 , near Carlisle ; Commission Chairman Walter A. Jones thrust the first shovel into the earth . Turnpike construction was on a tight schedule , since completion of the road was originally planned by May 1 , 1940 . After the groundbreaking , contracts for finishing the former South Pennsylvania Railroad tunnels , grading the turnpike 's right @-@ of @-@ way , constructing bridges and paving were awarded . By July 1939 , the entire length of the turnpike was under contract .
The first work to begin on the road was grading its right @-@ of @-@ way , which involved a great deal of earthwork because of the mountainous terrain . Building the highway required the acquisition of homes , farms , and a coal mine through eminent domain . A tunnel was originally planned across Clear Ridge near Everett , but the turnpike commission decided to build a cut into the ridge . Building the cut involved bulldozers excavating the mountain and explosives blasting the rock . Concrete culverts were built to carry streams and roads under the highway in the valley floor . The Clear Ridge cut was 153 feet ( 47 m ) deep ( the deepest highway cut at the time ) , and was known as " Little Panama " after the Panama Canal . West of Clear Ridge , cuts and fills were built for the turnpike to pass along the southern edge of Earlston .
Considerable work was also involved in building the roadway up the three @-@ percent grade at the east end of Allegheny Mountain , the steepest grade the turnpike traversed . The base of Evitts Mountain was blasted to carry the turnpike across Bedford Narrows along with US 30 , the Raystown Branch of the Juniata River and a Pennsylvania Railroad branch line . In New Baltimore , the turnpike commission had to purchase land from St. John 's Church ( which contained a cemetery ) ; as part of the agreement , stairways were built on either side of the turnpike to provide access to the church .
Paving began on August 31 , 1939 . The roadway would have a concrete surface , and concrete was poured directly onto the earth with no gravel roadbed . Concrete batch plants were set up along the road to aid in paving . Interchange ramps were paved with asphalt . The paving operations led to a delay in the projected opening of the highway ; by October 1939 the completion date was pushed back from May 1 to June 29 , 1940 , since paving could not be done during the winter . The commission rushed the paving , attempting to increase the distance paved from 1 to 5 miles ( 1 @.@ 6 to 8 @.@ 0 km ) a day .
Completion was postponed to July 4 , before being again postponed to late summer 1940 when rain delayed paving operations . Paving would conclude by the end of the summer , and on September 30 the turnpike commission announced that the road would open on October 1 , 1940 . Since the turnpike was opened on short notice , no ribbon @-@ cutting ceremony was held .
On August 26 , 1940 , a preview of the highway was organized by commission chairman Jones . It began the previous night with a banquet at The Hotel Hershey and proceeded west along the turnpike , stopping at the Clear Ridge cut before lunch at the Midway service plaza . The preview ended with dinner and entertainment at the Duquesne Club in Pittsburgh . That month , a military motorcade traveled portions of the turnpike .
The roadway took 770 @,@ 000 short tons ( 700 kt ) of sand , 1 @,@ 200 @,@ 000 short tons ( 1 @,@ 100 kt ) of stone , 50 @,@ 000 short tons ( 45 kt ) of steel and more than 300 @,@ 000 short tons ( 270 kt ) of cement to complete . It was built at a cost of $ 370 @,@ 000 per mile ( $ 230 @,@ 000 / km ) . A total of 18 @,@ 000 men worked on the turnpike ; 19 died during its construction .
When the highway was under construction in 1939 , its proposed toll was $ 1 @.@ 50 ( about $ 26 @.@ 00 in 2016 dollars ) for a one @-@ way car trip ; a round trip would cost $ 2 @.@ 00 ( about $ 34 @.@ 00 today ) . Trucks would pay $ 10 @.@ 00 ( about $ 170 @.@ 00 today ) one way . Varying tolls would be charged for motorists who did not travel the length of the turnpike . Upon its opening in 1940 , automobile tolls were set at $ 1 @.@ 50 ( about $ 25 @.@ 00 today ) one way and $ 2 @.@ 25 ( about $ 38 @.@ 00 today ) round trip . The tolls were to be used to pay off bonds to build the road , and were to be removed when the bonds were paid . Tolls continue to be charged to finance improvements to the turnpike system . The toll rate was about 1 cent per mile ( 0 @.@ 62 ¢ / km ) — 17 ¢ / mi ( 11 ¢ / km ) today — when the turnpike opened . The ticket system was used to pay for tolls . This toll rate remained the same for the turnpike 's first 25 years ; other toll roads ( such as the New York State Thruway and the Ohio , Connecticut and Massachusetts Turnpikes ) had a higher rate .
= = = Opening of first section = = =
The Pennsylvania Turnpike opened at midnight on October 1 , 1940 , between Irwin and Carlisle ; the day before the opening , motorists lined up at the Irwin and Carlisle interchanges . Homer D. Romberger , a feed and tallow driver from Carlisle , became the first motorist to enter the turnpike at Carlisle , and Carl A. Boe of McKeesport became the first motorist to enter at Irwin . Boe was flagged down by Frank Lorey and Dick Gangle , the first hitchhikers along the turnpike . On October 6 ( the first Sunday after the turnpike 's opening ) traffic was heavy , with congestion at toll plazas , tunnels and service plazas .
During its first 15 days of operation , the road saw over 150 @,@ 000 vehicles . By the end of its first year the road earned $ 3 million in revenue from 5 million motorists , exceeding the $ 2 @.@ 67 million needed for operation and bond payments . With the onset of World War II , revenue declined due to tire and gas rationing ; after the war , traffic again increased .
When it opened , the turnpike became the first long @-@ distance limited @-@ access road in the United States . It provided a direct link between the Mid @-@ Atlantic and Midwestern states , and cut travel time between Pittsburgh and Harrisburg from nearly six to about two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half hours . The road was given the nicknames " dream highway " and " the World 's Greatest Highway " by the turnpike commission , and was also known as " the Granddaddy of the Pikes . " Postcards and other souvenirs promoted the original stretch 's seven tunnels through the Appalachians .
The highway was considered a yardstick by which limited @-@ access highway construction would be measured . Commission chairman Jones called for more limited @-@ access roads to be built across the country for defense purposes , and the turnpike was a model for a proposed national network of highways planned during World War II . The Pennsylvania Turnpike led to the construction of other toll roads , such as the New Jersey Turnpike and ( eventually ) the Interstate Highway System . It has been designated a National Civil Engineering Landmark by the American Society of Civil Engineers .
The concrete highway pavement began to fail several years after the road opened , due to excessive transverse @-@ joint spacing and the lack of gravel between earth and concrete . As a result , in 1954 an eight @-@ year project began to repave the turnpike with a 3 @-@ inch ( 7 @.@ 6 cm ) layer of asphalt between Irwin and Carlisle .
= = = Extensions = = =
Before the first section of the Pennsylvania Turnpike opened , the commission considered extending it east to Philadelphia , primarily for defense purposes . In 1939 , the state legislature passed a bill allowing for an extension of the road to Philadelphia , which was signed into law by Governor Arthur H. James in 1940 as Act 11 . The extension was projected to cost between $ 50 and $ 60 million in 1941 . Funding for the Philadelphia extension was in place in 1948 . In July 1948 , the turnpike commission offered $ 134 million in bonds to pay for the extension , which was projected to cost $ 87 million . The Philadelphia extension was to run from Carlisle east to US 202 in King of Prussia . From there , the extension would connect to a state @-@ maintained freeway that would continue to Center City Philadelphia . Groundbreaking for the Philadelphia extension took place on September 28 , 1948 in York County . Governor James H. Duff and commission chairman Thomas J. Evans attended the ceremony .
The extension would look similar to the original section of the turnpike , but would use air @-@ entrained concrete poured onto stone . Transverse joints on the pavement were spaced at 46 @-@ foot ( 14 m ) intervals rather than the 77 @-@ foot ( 23 m ) ones on the original portion . Because it traversed through less mountainous terrain , the extension did not require as much earthwork as the original section . It required the construction of large bridges , including those that cross the Susquehanna River and the Swatara Creek . To save money , the Susquehanna River Bridge was constructed with a 4 @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) -raised concrete median and no shoulders . This extension of the turnpike would use the same style of overpasses as the original section ; the steel deck bridge was also introduced . With the construction of the Philadelphia extension , the Carlisle interchange was closed and the Middlesex interchange with US 11 was realigned to allow for the new extension ; it was renamed to the Carlisle interchange .
The extension 's completion was delayed by weather and a cement workers ' strike ; it was to have been finished by October 1 , 1950 — the tenth anniversary of the opening of the first section . On October 23 , 1950 , the Philadelphia extension was previewed in a ceremony led by Governor Duff . The extension opened to traffic on November 20 , 1950 ; the governor and chairman Evans cut the ribbon at the Valley Forge mainline toll plaza to the west of King of Prussia .
In 1941 , Governor James suggested building a western extension to Ohio . That June , Act 54 was signed into law to build the extension . In 1949 , the turnpike commission began enquiring into funding for this road , which would run from Irwin to the Ohio border near Youngstown , bypassing Pittsburgh to the north . That September , $ 77 million in bonds were sold to finance construction of the western extension . Groundbreaking for the extension took place on October 24 , 1949 . It was scheduled to take place at the Brush Creek viaduct in Irwin with Governor Duff in attendance .
Like the Philadelphia extension , the western extension required the building of long bridges , including those that cross the Beaver River and the Allegheny River . The overpasses along the road consisted of steel girder bridges and through plate girder bridges . Unlike the other segments , the concrete arch bridge was not used for overpasses , although it was used to carry the turnpike over other roads . On August 7 , 1950 , the roadway opened between the Irwin and Pittsburgh interchanges . Ohio Governor Frank Lausche led a dedication ceremony on November 26 , 1951 . The extension opened to the Gateway toll plaza near the Ohio border on December 26 , 1951 . At the time , the highway ended in a cornfield . Traffic followed a temporary ramp onto local rural roads until the connecting Ohio Turnpike could be built . On December 1 , 1954 , the Ohio Turnpike opened .
In 1951 , plans to extend the turnpike east to New Jersey at the Delaware River to connect with the New Jersey Turnpike were made . The construction of the Delaware River extension was approved by Governor John S. Fine in May of that year . A route for the extension , which would bypass Philadelphia to the north , was announced in 1952 . It would cross the Delaware River on a bridge north of Bristol near Edgely , where it would connect to a branch of the New Jersey Turnpike . That September , the turnpike commission announced $ 65 million in bonds would be issued to finance the project . Work on the Delaware River extension began on November 20 , 1952 ; Governor Fine dug the first shovel into the earth at the groundbreaking ceremony . As a result of building the extension , the Valley Forge mainline toll plaza was located farther east at the junction with the Schuylkill Expressway . The Delaware River extension included a bridge over the Schuylkill River that was built to the same standards as the Susquehanna River Bridge . The construction of the bridge required an amendment to the Pennsylvania Constitution , which barred the state from forming compacts with other states . On August 23 , 1954 , the Delaware River Extension opened between King of Prussia and US 611 in Willow Grove . The remainder of the road to the Delaware River opened on November 17 , 1954 .
In April 1954 , $ 233 million in bonds were issued to finance the building of the Delaware River Bridge and the Northeastern Extension . Groundbreaking for the Delaware River Bridge connecting the Pennsylvania Turnpike to the New Jersey Turnpike took place on June 26 , 1954 in Florence , New Jersey . The steel arch bridge , which opened to traffic on May 23 , 1956 , was funded jointly by the Pennsylvania Turnpike Commission and the New Jersey Turnpike Authority . Pennsylvania Governor George M. Leader and New Jersey Governor Robert B. Meyner were present at the opening ceremony . A mainline toll barrier was built to the west of the bridge , marking the eastern end of the ticket system . This bridge was originally six lanes wide . It contained no median , but one was later installed and the bridge was reduced to four lanes .
With the construction of the extensions and connecting turnpikes , the highway was envisioned to be a part of a system of toll roads stretching from Maine to Chicago . When the Delaware River Bridge was completed in 1956 , a motorist could drive from New York City to Indiana on limited @-@ access toll roads . By 1957 , it was possible to drive from New York City to Chicago without encountering a traffic signal .
On the turnpike extensions , the service plazas were less frequent , larger , and further from the road . Gulf Oil operated service stations on the extensions , and Howard Johnson 's provided food service in sit @-@ down restaurants .
= = = Route numbers = = =
In August 1957 , the Bureau of Public Roads added the roadway to the Interstate Highway System upon the recommendations of various state highway departments to include toll roads in the system . I @-@ 80 was planned to run along the turnpike from the Ohio border to Harrisburg while I @-@ 80S would continue eastward toward Philadelphia . I @-@ 70 was also planned to follow the turnpike between Pittsburgh and Breezewood . At a meeting of the Route Numbering Subcommittee on the U.S. Numbered System on June 26 , 1958 , it was decided to move the I @-@ 80 designation to an alignment further north while the highway between the Ohio border and the Philadelphia area would become I @-@ 80S . I @-@ 70 was still designated on the turnpike between Pittsburgh and Breezewood . Between King of Prussia and Bristol , the turnpike was designated I @-@ 280 .
In April 1963 , the state of Pennsylvania proposed renumbering I @-@ 80S to I @-@ 76 and I @-@ 280 to I @-@ 276 because the spurs of I @-@ 80S did not connect to I @-@ 80 in northern Pennsylvania . The renumbering was approved by the Federal Highway Administration on February 26 , 1964 . With this renumbering , the tollway would carry I @-@ 80S between the Ohio border and Pittsburgh , I @-@ 76 between Pittsburgh and King of Prussia , I @-@ 70 between New Stanton and Breezewood , and I @-@ 276 between King of Prussia and Bristol . In 1971 , the state of Ohio wanted to eliminate I @-@ 80S , replacing it with a realigned I @-@ 76 . The state of Pennsylvania disagreed with the change and recommended that I @-@ 80S become I @-@ 376 instead . The Pennsylvania government later changed its mind and supported Ohio 's plan to renumber I @-@ 80S as I @-@ 76 . In December of that year , the change was approved by the American Association of State Highway Officials . As a result , I @-@ 76 would follow the highway between the Ohio border and King of Prussia .
With the creation of the Interstate Highway System , restaurants and gas stations were prohibited along Interstate Highways . When it joined the system the turnpike was grandfathered , allowing it to continue operating its service plazas .
= = = Tunnel modernization and realignment = = =
As traffic levels increased , bottlenecks at the two @-@ lane tunnels on the Pennsylvania Turnpike became a major problem . By the late 1950s , traffic jams formed at the tunnels , especially during the summer . In 1959 , four Senators urged state officials to work with the turnpike commission to study ways to reduce the traffic jams . That year , the commission began studies aimed at resolving the traffic jams at the Laurel Hill and Allegheny Mountain tunnels ; studies for the other tunnels followed . At the conclusion of the studies , the turnpike commission planned to make the entire turnpike four lanes by either adding a second tube at the tunnels or bypassing them . The new and upgraded tunnel tubes would feature white tiles , fluorescent lighting , and upgraded ventilation .
The turnpike commission announced plans to build a second bore at the Allegheny Mountain Tunnel and a four @-@ lane bypass of the Laurel Hill Tunnel in 1960 . A bypass was planned for the Laurel Hill Tunnel because traffic would be more quickly and less expensively relieved than it would by boring another tunnel . In 1962 , the turnpike commission approved these two projects . That August , $ 21 million in bonds were sold to finance the two projects . The Laurel Hill Tunnel was bypassed using a deep cut to the north ; it would feature a wide median , truck climbing lanes , and a 145 @-@ foot ( 44 m ) -deep cut into the mountain . Groundbreaking for the new alignment took place on September 6 , 1962 . This bypass opened to traffic on October 30 , 1964 at a cost of $ 7 @.@ 5 million . Work on boring the second tube at Allegheny Mountain Tunnel also began on September 6 , 1962 . The former South Pennsylvania Railroad tunnel was considered , but was again rejected because of its poor condition . On March 15 , 1965 , the new tube opened to traffic , after which the original tube was closed to allow updates to be made . It reopened on August 25 , 1966 . The construction of the second tube at Allegheny Mountain cost $ 12 million .
In 1965 , the turnpike commission announced plans to build second tubes at the Tuscarora , Kittatinny , and Blue Mountain tunnels while a 13 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 21 @.@ 7 km ) bypass of the Rays Hill and Sideling Hill tunnels would be built . A bypass of these two tunnels was considered in the 1930s , but at the time was determined to be too expensive . An early 1960s study concluded that a bypass would be the best option to handle traffic at Rays Hill and Sideling Hill . The turnpike commission sold $ 77 @.@ 5 million in bonds in January 1966 to finance this project . Construction of the bypass of the Rays Hill and Sideling Hill tunnels involved building a cut across both hills . The new alignment began at the Breezewood interchange , where a portion of the original turnpike was used to access US 30 . In building the cut across Rays Hill , a portion of US 30 had to be realigned . The cut over Sideling Hill passes over the Sideling Hill Tunnel . The new alignment ends a short distance east of the Cove Valley service plaza on the original segment . This bypass of the two tunnels would have a 36 @-@ foot ( 11 m ) -wide median with a steel barrier in the middle . The turnpike bypass of Rays Hill and Sideling Hill tunnels opened to traffic on November 26 , 1968 . When the highway was realigned to bypass the Rays Hill and Sideling Hill tunnels , the Cove Valley service plaza on the original section was closed and replaced with the Sideling Hill service plaza ( the only service plaza on the main turnpike serving travelers in both directions ) .
Meanwhile , studies concluded that a parallel tunnel was the most economical option at the Tuscarora , Kittatinny , and Blue Mountain tunnels . Work on the new tube at the Tuscarora Mountain Tunnel began on April 11 , 1966 while construction began at the Kittatinny and Blue Mountain tunnels a week later . The parallel tubes at these three tunnels would open on November 26 , 1968 ; the same day as the bypass of the Rays Hill and Sideling Hill tunnels . The original tubes were subsequently remodeled . Both the new and remodeled tunnels would have fluorescent lighting , white tile walls , and 13 ft ( 4 @.@ 0 m ) -wide lanes . The portals of the new tunnels were designed to resemble those of the original tunnels . Reconstruction of the original Tuscarora Mountain Tunnel was completed in October 1970 , while work on refurbishing the original Kittatinny and Blue Mountain tunnels was finished on March 18 , 1971 . With the completion of these projects , the entire length of the highway was four lanes wide . With the completion of these projects , the stretch of roadway passing through the Rays Hill and Sideling Hill tunnels became known as the Abandoned Pennsylvania Turnpike . The turnpike commission continued to maintain the tunnels for a few years , but eventually abandoned them . The abandoned stretch deteriorated ; signs and guardrails were removed , pavement started crumbling , trees grew in the median , and vandals and nature began taking over the tunnels . The turnpike commission still performed some maintenance on the abandoned stretch and used it for testing pavement marking equipment . In 2001 , the turnpike commission turned over a significant portion of the abandoned section to the Southern Alleghenies Conservancy ; bicycles and hikers could use the former roadway . The abandoned stretch of the turnpike is the longest stretch of abandoned freeway in the United States .
= = = Late 20th century = = =
The roadway 's median , while initially thought to be wide enough , was considered too narrow by 1960 . The turnpike commission installed median barriers at curves and high @-@ accident areas starting in the 1950s . In 1960 , it began to install 100 miles ( 160 km ) of median barrier along the turnpike . Work was completed in December 1965 at a cost of $ 5 million . In October 1963 , work began on replacing the New Stanton interchange , which required left turns across traffic on the ramps and was frequently congested . The new , grade @-@ separated interchange opened on November 12 , 1964 and provided access to I @-@ 70 at the western end of the turnpike stretch of I @-@ 70 / I @-@ 76 . A new interchange serving I @-@ 283 and PA 283 opened at Harrisburg East in 1969 . Due to the realignment of US 222 to a four @-@ lane freeway , a new Reading interchange was proposed . This was opened on April 10 , 1974 .
In 1968 , the turnpike commission proposed converting the section of the road between Morgantown and the Delaware River Bridge from a ticket to a barrier system . The project was canceled in 1971 , due to a decline in revenue caused by the completion of I @-@ 80 . In 1969 the turnpike commission announced a 75 @-@ percent toll hike , the first such increase for cars . This rise in tolls , which took place September 1 of that year , brought the toll rate to 2 cents per mile ( 1 @.@ 2 ¢ / km ) or 13 ¢ / mi ( 8 @.@ 1 ¢ / km ) today .
In 1969 , the turnpike commission said that because of increasing traffic , it was necessary to widen the turnpike . It proposed doubling the number of lanes from four to eight ; the portion in the Philadelphia area was to be ten lanes wide . Cars and trucks would be carried on separate roadways under this plan . The roadway would also have an 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) speed limit and holographic road signs . This widening would have kept much of the routing intact , but significant realignments were proposed between the Allegheny Mountain and Blue Mountain tunnels . Because of the $ 1 @.@ 1 billion cost and the 1973 oil crisis that resulted in the imposition of a 55 miles per hour ( 89 km / h ) speed limit , this plan was not implemented . By the 1970s , the Pennsylvania Turnpike started to see a decline in the volume of traffic because of the opening of I @-@ 80 — which provided a shorter route across the north of the state , and the 1973 oil crisis — which led to a decline in long @-@ distance travel . In the late 1970s , the turnpike commission proposed truck climbing lanes east of the Allegheny Mountain Tunnel near New Baltimore and near the Laurel Hill Bypass . These were completed on December 2 , 1981 .
In 1978 , as the Howard Johnson 's exclusive contract to provide food service was ending , the turnpike commission considered bids for competitors to provide food service . That year ARA Services was awarded a contract for food service at two plazas , ending the Howard Johnson 's monopoly . The highway became the first toll road in the country to offer more than one fast @-@ food chain at its service plazas . At this time , gas stations along the turnpike were operated by Gulf Oil , Exxon , and ARCO . Hardee 's also opened restaurants at the service plazas in 1980 to compete with Howard Johnson 's . With this , the turnpike became the first road in the world to offer fast food at its service plazas . Additionally , a toll increase of 22 percent was announced in 1978 , effective August 1 of that year ; this raised the rate to 2 @.@ 2 cents per mile ( 1 @.@ 4 ¢ / km ) , or 8 ¢ / mi ( 5 @.@ 0 ¢ / km ) today .
The portion of the turnpike in the Philadelphia area had become a congested commuter road by the 1980s . In 1983 , funding was approved to widen the turnpike to six lanes between the Valley Forge and Philadelphia interchanges . This planned project was put on hold because of disagreements between Governor Dick Thornburgh and the turnpike commission members , and differences between the commissioners . The Pennsylvania Legislature approved the project in 1985 ; the road would be widened between the Norristown and Philadelphia interchanges . Construction on the widening began on March 10 , 1986 , and was completed on November 23 , 1987 with a ribbon @-@ cutting at the Philadelphia interchange . The widening project cost $ 120 million . An interchange to serve the New Cumberland Defense Depot near Harrisburg was planned in the 1980s . In 1992 , the turnpike commission decided not to build it because it would instead build a connector road to the depot between PA 114 and Old York Road that would parallel the turnpike .
Burger King and McDonald 's opened on the Pennsylvania Turnpike in 1983 . This marked a transition from sit @-@ down to fast @-@ food dining on the turnpike by popular demand . The Marriott Corporation purchased the remaining Howard Johnson 's restaurants in 1987 , incorporating it into its Host Marriott division and replacing them with restaurants such as Roy Rogers and Bob 's Big Boy .
In 1986 , a toll hike of 30 percent was planned and the new rates went into effect on January 2 , 1987 . With this increase , the toll rate was 3 @.@ 1 cents per mile ( 1 @.@ 9 ¢ / km ) , or 6 ¢ / mi ( 3 @.@ 7 ¢ / km ) today . Motorists originally stopped at booths to receive toll tickets from turnpike staff , but in 1987 ticket machines replaced human workers .
Plans to build an interchange connecting to the north end of I @-@ 476 ( the Blue Route ) were made ; the turnpike commission approved a contract to build the interchange in March 1989 . That June , a losing bidder decided to challenge the turnpike commission , saying it violated female and minority contracting rules regarding the percentage of these employees that were used for the project . Under this rule , bidders were supposed to have at least 12 percent of contracts to minority @-@ owned companies and at least 4 percent to female @-@ owned companies . The losing bidder had 12 @.@ 4 percent of the contracts to minority companies and 4 @.@ 2 percent to female @-@ owned companies while the winning bidder had 6 @.@ 1 percent and 3 @.@ 7 percent respectively . The turnpike commission decided to rebid the contract , but was sued by the original contractor . This dispute delayed the construction of the interchange . The contract was rebid in November 1989 after the Pennsylvania Supreme Court permitted it . The interchange between I @-@ 476 and the turnpike mainline was completed in November 1992 ; the ramps to the Northeast Extension opened a month later . An official ribbon @-@ cutting took place on December 15 , 1992 .
In September 1990 , the Morgantown interchange was relocated to provide a direct connection to I @-@ 176 ; the overhead interchange lights at the new exit were a nuisance to nearby residents . An interchange was also proposed in 1990 with PA 743 between Elizabethtown and Hershey , but a study in 1993 determined that it would not improve traffic flow on area roads . The turnpike commission celebrated the highway 's 50th anniversary in 1990 . $ 300 @,@ 000 was spent to promote the turnpike through various means including a videotape , souvenirs , and a private party attended by politicians and companies that work with the turnpike .
Gulf Oil LP ( the Cumberland Farms @-@ owned successor to the original Gulf Oil after Standard Oil of California — now Chevron — bought Gulf in 1984 ) replaced the Exxon stations on the turnpike in 1990 ; Sunoco took over operation of the gas stations from Gulf in 1993 , outbidding Shell Oil . In 1995 , a farmers market was introduced to the Sideling Hill service plaza .
An electronic toll collection system was proposed in 1990 where a motorist would create an account and use an electronic device which would be read from an electronic tollbooth ; the motorist would be billed later . The multi @-@ state electronic tolling system , E @-@ ZPass , was planned to go into effect by 1998 ; however , implementation of the system was postponed until 2000 .
= = = 21st century = = =
Another 30 @-@ percent toll increase went into effect on June 1 , 1991 to fund expansion projects , bringing the rate to 4 cents per mile ( 2 @.@ 5 ¢ / km ) or 7 ¢ / mi ( 4 @.@ 3 ¢ / km ) today .
In 1996 , plans were made to reconstruct the Irwin to Carlisle section of the turnpike along with the western part to the Ohio border . A rebuilding project was proposed for the original section of the roadway in 1998 . The first portion planned for construction was a 5 @-@ mile ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) stretch east of the Donegal interchange ; a contract was awarded in June 1998 . This project involved the replacement of overpasses , widening of the median , and the complete repaving of the road . The rebuilding is due for completion in 2014 , with a projected cost of $ 5 million per mile ( $ 3 @,@ 100 @,@ 000 / km ) . During the reconstruction , the turnpike commission used a humorous advertising campaign called " Peace , Love and the Pennsylvania Turnpike " . It ran for 90 days in 2001 , and used tie @-@ dyed billboards that resembled those from the 1970s and carried phrases such as " Rome wasn 't built in a day " and " Spread the love . Let someone merge . "
Plans were made in 1993 to build a direct interchange between the turnpike and I @-@ 79 in Cranberry Township , Butler County . A contract was awarded to build this interchange in November 1995 . In 1997 , transportation officials agreed upon a design for the interchange . The project also included the movement the western end of the ticket system to a new toll plaza in Warrendale . The interchange project was delayed by a dispute with Marshall and Pine townships in Allegheny County , who wanted to prevent construction of the toll plaza as they thought it would cause noise , air and light pollution . Marshall Township eventually agreed to allow the toll plaza be built . Groundbreaking for the new interchange took place on February 22 , 2002 . The westbound Butler service plaza was closed because the Warrendale toll plaza was to be located at its site . On June 1 , 2003 , the plaza opened and the Gateway toll plaza became a flat @-@ rate toll plaza , while all the exit toll plazas west of Warrendale closed . The direct interchange between the turnpike and I @-@ 79 , connecting to US 19 , opened on November 12 , 2003 . The project cost $ 44 million .
Construction began in 1998 to improve the bridge over the Schuylkill River in Montgomery County . The work involved building a new bridge adjacent to the existing bridge ; the new bridge was wide enough to accommodate a future widening to six lanes . This project was completed in 2000 .
In 2000 , the turnpike commission announced plans to build a new bridge , a segmental concrete bridge wider than the original , over the Susquehanna River . In 2004 , work began on building the new , six @-@ lane bridge which cost $ 150 million . On May 16 , 2007 , a ribbon @-@ cutting took place to mark the completion of the westbound direction of the bridge , which opened to traffic the following day . The eastbound direction of the bridge opened a month later .
Plans were made to build a new pair of bridges over the Allegheny River in 2005 . Work began in May 2007 , and a dedication ceremony was held on October 23 , 2009 . The bridges , which cost $ 194 million , opened to traffic the following day , and the old bridge was demolished on July 13 , 2010 .
In October 2000 , the turnpike commission announced the road would be switching from sequential exit numbering to distance @-@ based exit numbering . At first , both exit numbers would exist , but the old numbers would be phased out . Work began on posting the new exit numbers in 2001 .
On June 1 , 2003 , the Warrendale toll plaza became the west end of the ticket system ; the Gateway toll plaza became a flat @-@ rate plaza and toll booths at the New Castle , Beaver Valley , and Cranberry interchanges were closed . Express E @-@ ZPass lanes opened at the Warrendale toll plaza in June 2004 , which allowed motorists to travel through the toll plaza at highway speeds .
A study began in 1999 to widen the road to six lanes between Valley Forge and Norristown . In October 2004 , work began on widening this stretch of road , which was completed in November 2008 at a cost of $ 330 million .
Plans were made to widen the highway to six lanes between Irwin and New Stanton in 2005 . Work on the project began in January 2006 ; it added a third lane in each direction , replaced several bridges , and realigned a portion of the turnpike , and was completed in November 2011 . As part of the project , in January 2007 the Hempfield service plaza was permanently closed .
HMSHost ( the successor to Marriott 's former Host Marriott division ) received a 2006 contract to reconstruct the turnpike service plazas . Improvements to the plazas , to cost $ 150 million , will include a food court layout and improved restrooms . Sunoco continues operating gas stations at the renovated service plazas . Most of the plazas were completely rebuilt , although the exterior structure of South Midway 's building was retained when it reopened in May 2013 due to its historical significance of being the flagship service plaza on the original section . Four service plazas were slated to be closed as part of the deal with HMSHost . Three plazas ( Hempfield , South Neshaminy , and North Neshaminy ) closed due to construction projects to the turnpike itself , while the Zelienople service plaza ( which was originally slated to stay open ) closed due to its under @-@ use .
In November 2006 , Governor Ed Rendell and former Pennsylvania House Speaker John Perzel raised the idea of leasing the turnpike longterm to a private group to raise money to improve other infrastructure in the state . Such a lease was speculated to raise up to $ 30 billion for the state . In October 2007 , 34 companies submitted 14 proposals to lease the turnpike . On May 19 , 2008 , a record $ 12 @.@ 8 billion proposal by the Spanish firm Abertis Infraestructuras , SA and Citi Infrastructure Investors of New York City to lease the turnpike was submitted . The consortium withdrew the offer on September 30 , 2008 as they reasoned the proposal would be approved in the state legislature .
In 2007 , as part of a project to widen a section of the turnpike in Somerset and Bedford counties to six lanes that will last from 2016 to 2020 , the turnpike commission announced that it would remove the steps leading to St. John 's Church in New Baltimore because they are a safety hazard .
In 1996 , a study on improving the Allegheny Mountain Tunnel by either building another tube or by constructing a bypass was carried out . Based on the study , the turnpike commission planned to replace the deteriorating tunnel with a cut through the mountain . The plans were put on hold in 2001 because it would cost $ 93 @.@ 7 million . It resurrected the project in 2009 . The nearby Mountain Field and Stream Club prefers that the tunnels are improved or a new tube is built rather than building the bypass . These improvements are needed because the Allegheny Mountain Tunnel is narrow and deteriorating , with disintegrating ceiling slabs and outdated lighting and ventilation .
On December 2 , 2000 , E @-@ ZPass debuted on the turnpike between Harrisburg West and the Delaware River Bridge . By December 15 , 2001 , E @-@ ZPass could be used on the entire length of the Pennsylvania Turnpike . Commercial vehicles were allowed to use the system beginning on December 14 , 2002 .
On August 1 , 2004 tolls increased by 42 percent to a rate of 5 @.@ 9 cents per mile ( 3 @.@ 7 ¢ / km ) , or 7 ¢ / mi ( 4 @.@ 3 ¢ / km ) today , to provide money for road construction . On November 24 , 2004 ( the day before Thanksgiving ) , 2 @,@ 000 Teamsters Union employees went on the first strike in the turnpike 's history after contract negotiations failed . Since this is usually one of the busiest travel days in the United States , to avoid traffic jams tolls were waived for the rest of the day . Beginning on November 25 , turnpike management personnel collected flat @-@ rate cash passenger tolls of $ 2 and commercial tolls of $ 15 on the ticketed system , while E @-@ ZPass customers were charged the lesser amount of the toll or the flat rate . The strike ended after seven days , when both sides reached an agreement on November 30 ; normal toll collection resumed December 1 .
In 2004 , proposals to widen the highway to six lanes between Downingtown and Valley Forge were made . In 2007 , the western terminus of the widening project was scaled back from Downingtown to the proposed PA 29 slip ramp . Plans for the widening were presented to the public in 2009 . Later that year , the widening was put on hold because of engineering problems . The widening plans resumed in 2010 . Work was due to begin in 2013 , with completion in 2015 . In October 2012 , the project was postponed a year because of delays in the approval of permits .
In 2005 , the turnpike commission announced plans to convert the Gateway toll plaza to eastbound @-@ only in 2006 to reduce congestion and facilitate construction of Express E @-@ ZPass lanes . The Express E @-@ ZPass lanes at Gateway opened in July 2007 .
= = = Act 44 toll increases = = =
The turnpike commission raised tolls by 25 percent on January 4 , 2009 to provide funds to the Pennsylvania Department of Transportation for road and mass @-@ transit projects , as mandated by Act 44 . This toll hike brought the rate to travel the turnpike to 7 @.@ 4 cents per mile ( 4 @.@ 6 ¢ / km ) , or 8 ¢ / mi ( 5 @.@ 0 ¢ / km ) today . At this point , an annual toll increase was planned .
A three @-@ percent toll increase went into effect January 3 , 2010 , bringing the rate to 7 @.@ 7 cents per mile ( 4 @.@ 8 ¢ / km ) or 8 ¢ / mi ( 5 @.@ 0 ¢ / km ) today . The cash toll increased 10 percent on January 2 , 2011 , and E @-@ ZPass tolls increased three percent . The new toll rate was 8 @.@ 5 cents per mile ( 5 @.@ 3 ¢ / km ) or 9 ¢ / mi ( 5 @.@ 6 ¢ / km ) today using cash , and 7 @.@ 9 cents per mile ( 4 @.@ 9 ¢ / km ) or 8 ¢ / mi ( 5 @.@ 0 ¢ / km ) today using E @-@ ZPass . As part of this toll hike the turnpike commission initially planned to omit the toll amount from new tickets , and Pennsylvania Auditor Jack Wagner wondered if the commission was trying to hide the increase . The commission later decided to include the tolls on new tickets .
Cash tolls increased 10 percent on January 1 , 2012 , while E @-@ ZPass tolls were unchanged from the previous year . With this increase , the cash toll rate increased to 9 @.@ 3 cents per mile ( 5 @.@ 8 ¢ / km ) or 10 ¢ / mi ( 6 @.@ 2 ¢ / km ) today . Another 10 @-@ percent cash @-@ toll hike occurred January 6 , 2013 , and E @-@ ZPass tolls rose two percent . This increase brought the average cash toll rate for the turnpike to 10 @.@ 2 cents per mile ( 6 @.@ 3 ¢ / km ) or 10 ¢ / mi ( 6 @.@ 2 ¢ / km ) today , and the average E @-@ ZPass toll rate for the turnpike to 8 @.@ 1 cents per mile ( 5 @.@ 0 ¢ / km ) or 8 ¢ / mi ( 5 @.@ 0 ¢ / km ) today . On January 5 , 2014 , cash tolls increased 12 percent while E @-@ ZPass tolls went up two percent . This toll increase brought the cash rate to 11 @.@ 5 cents per mile ( 7 @.@ 1 ¢ / km ) , and the average E @-@ ZPass toll rate for the turnpike to 8 @.@ 3 cents per mile ( 5 @.@ 2 ¢ / km ) . Cash and E @-@ ZPass tolls both increased five percent on January 4 , 2015 . This toll hike brought average toll rate for the turnpike to $ 0 @.@ 13 per mile ( $ 0 @.@ 081 / km ) using cash and $ 0 @.@ 09 per mile ( $ 0 @.@ 056 / km ) using E @-@ ZPass . Tolls for both cash and E @-@ ZPass customers increased six percent on January 3 , 2016 .
= = = Slip ramps = = =
In 1996 , the turnpike commission considered adding " slip ramps " in the Philadelphia area , on which electronic toll collection technology would be used . Construction began on a westbound E @-@ ZPass @-@ only slip ramp at Virginia Drive ( exit 340 ) in Fort Washington in early 2000 ; it opened on December 2 , 2000 , having cost $ 5 @.@ 1 million . Work on the eastbound slip ramp at PA 132 ( exit 352 ) in Bensalem Township began in 2009 ; the ramp opened on November 22 , 2010 . This slip ramp , which cost $ 7 @.@ 4 million , has access to and from the eastbound direction of the tollway and was built to provide improved access to Parx Casino .
Other slip ramps were planned in the Philadelphia area at PA 29 near the Great Valley Corporate Center and at PA 252 in Valley Forge in the 1990s . Residents opposed the PA 29 ( exit 320 ) ramp , fearing it would spoil the rural area . In 1999 , the turnpike commission canceled plans to build a slip ramp at PA 252 and instead focused on building one at PA 29 . The turnpike commission approved funding for the PA 29 ramp in 2002 . The project was put on hold in 2009 because of engineering and design problems in widening the adjacent portion of the turnpike . It was announced that the turnpike commission would approve construction of the slip ramp at PA 29 in August 2010 , and construction began in March 2011 . The interchange , which has access to and from both directions of the tollway , opened on December 11 , 2012 ; Governor Tom Corbett cut the ribbon .
A slip ramp was also planned in 2000 to connect to Lafayette Street in Norristown as part of a revitalization plan for the community . The project would involve extending Lafayette Street to the new ramp . This proposed slip ramp is projected to cost $ 160 million . Montgomery County officials have proposed a surcharge for the new exit in to help pay for the project . Work on engineering and environmental approval for the interchange occurred in 2008 , and acquisition of land began in 2011 . On January 7 , 2015 , the turnpike commission committed $ 45 million to building this interchange . Construction on the interchange at Lafayette Street may begin as soon as 2018 .
In 2013 , Montgomery County officials announced they were considering adding more slip ramps along the turnpike to ease traffic congestion . Possible locations include PA 63 near Willow Grove , Upper Merion Township , and around Norristown and Plymouth Meeting . In addition , the county wants to add eastbound ramps at the existing Virginia Drive interchange .
= = = Interstate 95 interchange project = = =
Plans to build a direct interchange between the Pennsylvania Turnpike and I @-@ 95 in Bristol Township to allow a connection between the portions of I @-@ 95 in Pennsylvania and along the New Jersey Turnpike were first proposed in 1978 . The two roads did not have an interchange because earlier laws — since repealed — allowed only federal funds to be used to build connections to toll roads . In 1982 , the federal government mandated that the interchange be built in Pennsylvania . A gap exists in I @-@ 95 because of an unbuilt segment of the road in central New Jersey . Under the plan , I @-@ 95 would be rerouted to follow the tollway between the new interchange and the New Jersey border . In addition , the interchange will serve as the northern terminus of an extended I @-@ 295 . The area 's residents , who thought the interchange would lead to a decline in their quality of life , opposed this plan . An environmental impact statement was released in 2003 . The interchange received environmental approval in 2004 , the preliminary design was completed in 2008 , and the final design followed .
The project will involve building a high @-@ speed interchange between the two roadways . The turnpike commission will also widen the existing four @-@ lane road to six lanes east of the Bensalem interchange , build a new facility east of the Street Road interchange at Neshaminy Falls to mark the eastern end of the ticket system that will consist of high @-@ speed E @-@ ZPass lanes along with ticket and cash booths , and convert the present Delaware River Bridge toll barrier to a westbound all @-@ electronic facility . A second parallel bridge will also be built over the Delaware River . Work on the project began in late 2010 ; the replacement of two bridges over the tollway was completed in 2011 . Groundbreaking for the interchange with I @-@ 95 took place on July 30 , 2013 , with Governor Corbett in attendance . Construction of the first stage of the interchange began in fall 2014 . The flyover ramps between northbound I @-@ 95 and the eastbound turnpike , and between the westbound turnpike and southbound I @-@ 95 are due to be completed by 2018 . Work on the new mainline toll plaza and widening of the turnpike between I @-@ 95 and the Delaware River also began in 2013 , with completion in 2016 . In 2020 , construction is expected to begin on completion of the movements between the tollway and I @-@ 95 , along with the widening of the turnpike between the Bensalem interchange and I @-@ 95 . Work on building a second , parallel span of the Delaware River Bridge is planned to begin in 2025 . The first stage of the project , which includes the new toll plaza , widening , and the flyover ramps between I @-@ 95 and the turnpike , is to cost $ 420 million . The flyover ramps are expected to cost $ 142 @.@ 9 million , with $ 100 million coming from federal funds and the remainder from the turnpike commission . The Pennsylvania Turnpike Commission is borrowing money from foreign investors in order to provide funding for the project . The remaining stages of the project are unfunded , with a projected total cost of $ 1 @.@ 1 billion for the entire project .
= = = Allegheny Mountain Tunnel replacement = = =
Long term plans call for major maintenance to be performed on the Allegheny Mountain Tunnel ; however , this presents a major problem for traffic . On October 22 , 2013 , WJAC @-@ TV reported that the PTC had decided to replace the tunnel with either a new tunnel or a bypass . The reason for the replacement was that officials determined that the tunnel had reached old age and was becoming run @-@ down . By 2013 , the tunnel was 73 years old . Approximately 11 million vehicles drive through the tunnel every year . A local hunting group called Mountain Field and Stream Club owns 1 @,@ 000 acres ( 400 ha ) of land around the tunnel , and the group had opposed plans to replace the tunnel in 2001 . When the tunnel was built , it was considered an " engineering marvel . "
On December 24 , 2014 , the PTC announced it was going forward with plans to replace the Allegheny Mountain Tunnel . Six options are being considered , three of which would include building bypasses via rock blasting ( like what was done with the Laurel Hill Tunnel ) while the other three would include boring two new tunnels , presumably three lanes each to accommodate the PTC 's long @-@ term plans to widen the entire mainline turnpike to six lanes except at the existing tunnels . If the PTC goes through with building new tunnels , the existing Allegheny Mountain Tunnels would be shut down . Although the projected costs for building a bypass would be less than half of the projected costs to bore new tunnels ( as well as $ 3 million in annual maintenance on each tunnel ) , the aforementioned hunting group opposes the bypass options . Funding has not been identified for the project , which would open to traffic in a best @-@ case scenario in the early 2020s .
= = Exit list = =
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= HMS Tiptoe ( P332 ) =
HMS Tiptoe ( pennant number P332 ) was a British submarine of the third group of the T class . She was built by Vickers Armstrong , Barrow , and launched on 25 February 1944 . She was one of two submarines named by Winston Churchill , and so far has been the only ship of the Royal Navy to be named Tiptoe . In 1955 she was involved in a collision with a coastal steamer whilst in Tromsø harbour . She was involved in escape trials off Malta in 1962 , and the commanding officer was reprimanded in 1964 following an incident in the Firth of Clyde where she was run aground , and again in 1965 when she collided with HMS Yarmouth . Although originally named for the ability to sneak up on someone undetected , she maintained several links with ballet , including the Royal Ballet and ballet dancer Moira Shearer . She was scrapped in Portsmouth in 1975 , while her anchor is on display in Blyth , Northumberland .
= = Design and description = =
HMS Tiptoe was one of the group three of T @-@ class submarines . She was named by Winston Churchill , with the intention to imply that it could approach the enemy silently as if on tiptoe , although the Royal Navy naming committee was against the name , stating that " it was derogatory to one of His Majesty 's ships " , but the Prime Minister had his way . The only other Royal Navy vessel to be named by Churchill was HMS Varangian .
She was part of the second batch of the third group to be ordered , in 1941 . She was one of a number of boats which had an all @-@ welded hull which increased diving depth to 350 feet ( 110 m ) , an increase of 50 feet ( 15 m ) . The torpedo armament was the same as the earlier group two , although by the time group three was coming into service it was realised that external torpedo tubes had major problems and affected the streamlining of the boats ; the external tubes were abandoned in the following Amphion @-@ class submarines . Because of expected use in tropical climates , boats of group three were equipped with freon blowers in order to deal with the increased temperatures .
She was built by Vickers Armstrong and was laid down at their shipyard at Barrow on 10 November 1942 whilst still known as P332 . Following her launch on 25 February 1944 , she departed the builders yard on 10 June 1944 , arriving at Holy Loch on the following day , where she was commissioned on 12 June .
= = Service = =
= = = Second World War = = =
After completing training on 10 September , she returned to Barrow in order to correct some defects . Between 5 October and 12 January 1945 , she was equipped with new radar equipment and other equipment to prepare her for deployment in the Far East . She arrived in Trincomalee , Sri Lanka on 1 March 1945 prior to her first war patrol . En route from Britain , she had stopped at Gibraltar , Malta , Port Said and Ismailia in Egypt and Aden , Yemen .
Her first patrol centred around the west coast of Burma and the Andaman Islands before heading onto Fremantle , Australia , and was uneventful . She departed Australia for her second patrol on 6 May with orders to patrol the Flores Sea . On 15 May , she sank a Japanese coaster of around 100 tons with gunfire near Dompo Bay , Sumbawa . The following day she sank another Japanese coaster with gunfire , this time around 200 tons , in Sepeh harbour . On 1 June , she approached and sank the Japanese merchant cargo ship Tobi Maru near Matasiri , one of the Laut Kecil Islands . Tiptoe was damaged during the attack as the cargo ship was about to rendezvous with an escort . The escort launched thirteen depth charges , putting all of Tiptoe 's torpedo tubes out of action and flooded her sonar equipment . She returned to Fremantle on 17 June , and remained there undergoing repairs until 16 July when she left on her third patrol in the Sunda Strait along with her sister HMS Trump .
On 31 July she attacked two small Japanese vessels , but broke off the attack when an aircraft was sighted . On 2 August , Tiptoe and Trump together destroyed two small vessels totalling 600 tons with gunfire . On 3 August , she carried out a torpedo attack against the Japanese army cargo vessel Tencho Maru whilst it was in a convoy defended by a patrol boat . The final action of Tiptoe 's last war patrol was on 9 August , when together with Trump , they destroyed an 800 ton coastal tanker in the northern part of the Sunda Strait . She returned to Fremantle on 21 August 1945 .
= = = Post war = = =
During the royal inspection of the home fleet in 1947 by George VI , Tiptoe demonstrated diving and surfacing , along with the firing of her deck gun . In November of the same year , she was part of a group of seven submarines with destroyer HMS Opportune to take part in anti – submarine training over the course of two weeks .
Tiptoe was one of several all @-@ welded T @-@ class submarines rebuilt for greater underwater performance . Extra batteries were installed below the control room and additional electric motors were accommodated by cutting through the pressure hull and adding in a new 20 ft ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) hull section inserted aft of the control room . The diesel engines were modified and supercharged with output increased by 300 BHP . The gun armaments and external torpedo tubes were removed , and the bow reshaped .
The submarine was used in filming the 1950 film , Morning Departure , a naval film directed by Roy Ward Baker . During the course of filming , the submarine depot ship HMS Maidstone was used as a mother ship for Tiptoe . In 1952 a further cinematic link was made when ballet dancer Moira Shearer presented a pair of size 3 @.@ 5 satin ballet shoes to Tiptoe that she had worn in the 1948 film The Red Shoes . These are now at the Royal Navy Submarine Museum . Whilst in Tromsø harbour on 18 July 1955 Tiptoe was damaged when a coastal steamer collided with her . The steamer , a 2 @,@ 162 tonne vessel called Nordlys , was entering the harbour when she collided with the British destroyer HMS Chevron . The steamer bounced off the destroyer and collided with Tiptoe , snapping her moorings as she was pushed halfway under a wooden quay .
She took part in escape trials in 1962 , which were a series of trials conducted off Malta into escape from a submarine at extreme depths . Tests were conducted with men escaping from Tiptoe at depth of up to 71 metres ( 233 ft ) with ascent rates of up to 2 m / s . The trials included the use of buoyant ascent suits which involved a suit pulled over the sailor 's head which fed them air as they ascended to the surface . For their work in the escape trials , Chief Petty Officer Christopher Crossman was awarded a commendation , and Lieutenant – Commander L. Hamlyn was awarded an OBE .
Following a refit in Portsmouth , Tiptoe went to the Firth of Clyde for working up , arriving on 10 January 1964 , when she was ordered not to enter Gareloch due to dense fog . The boat was duly turned around and ran aground on a muddy bank . As the fog cleared it was realised the boat had run aground only 40 yards ( 37 m ) opposite that of the house of the Royal Navy 's Captain in Charge for the Clyde area , Captain G. D. Pound . Divers were sent out to assess damage , and after finding none , Tiptoe was refloated on the evening tide and pulled off the shore by two tugboats . The commanding officer at the time was Lieutenant – Commander David Brazier , who was in his first command . He was later ordered to be severely reprimanded for negligence at a court @-@ martial where he pleaded guilty to the charge . His defence statement read , " The ship was not worked up and it was a very green company . Unfortunately he ran into fog . He took all the precautions he considered necessary . Although he had all the theoretical knowledge , he was short of that tangible instinct of which we are all aware . "
Tiptoe was also damaged in a collision with HMS Yarmouth on 13 July 1965 . Tiptoe was at periscope depth 10 miles ( 16 km ) SE of Portland Bill . Following the collision , the commanding officer , Lieutenant – Commander Charles Henry Pope was ordered to be severely reprimanded after being found guilty of four out of five counts of negligence .
When she left for her final commission on 24 February 1967 , six ballet dancers from the Royal Ballet attended the departure ceremony . At the time she was already the oldest submarine in service with the Royal Navy . She attended Portsmouth Navy Days later in 1967 .
By the time she was decommissioned in 1969 , Tiptoe was the last active T @-@ class submarine in the Royal Navy . As she arrived at Spithead for decommissioning on 29 August 1969 , a 13 @-@ year @-@ old ballet dancer named Judy Wright danced on her upper deck . She was sold in 1971 and scrapped at Portsmouth in 1975 . Her anchor was saved , and was mounted on stone in 1979 in Blyth , Northumberland . The town was used as a training base for submarines during both World Wars .
= = Commanding officers = =
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= Audie Murphy =
Audie Leon Murphy ( 20 June 1925 – 28 May 1971 ) was one of the most decorated American combat soldiers of World War II , receiving every military combat award for valor available from the U.S. Army , as well as French and Belgian awards for heroism . Murphy received the Medal of Honor for valor demonstrated at the age of 19 for single @-@ handedly holding off an entire company of German soldiers for an hour at the Colmar Pocket in France in January 1945 , then leading a successful counterattack while wounded and out of ammunition .
Murphy was born into a large sharecropper family in Hunt County , Texas . His father abandoned them , and his mother died when he was a teenager . Murphy left school in fifth grade to pick cotton and find other work to help support his family ; his skill with a hunting rifle was a necessity for putting food on the table . Murphy 's older sister helped him to falsify documentation about his birth date to meet the minimum @-@ age requirement for enlisting in the military , and after being turned down by the Navy and the Marine Corps he enlisted in the Army . He first saw action in the Allied invasion of Sicily and the Battle of Anzio , and in 1944 was part of the liberation of Rome and invasion of southern France . Murphy fought at Montélimar , and led his men on a successful assault at the L 'Omet quarry near Cleurie in northeastern France in October .
After the war , Murphy enjoyed a 21 @-@ year acting career . He played himself in the 1955 autobiographical To Hell and Back based on his 1949 memoirs of the same name , but most of his films were westerns . He made guest appearances on celebrity television shows and starred in the series Whispering Smith . Murphy was a fairly accomplished songwriter , and bred quarter horses in California and Arizona , becoming a regular participant in horse racing .
Suffering from what would today be termed posttraumatic stress disorder ( PTSD ) , he slept with a loaded handgun under his pillow and looked for solace in addictive sleeping pills . In the last few years of his life he was plagued by money problems , but refused offers to appear in alcohol and cigarette commercials because he did not want to set a bad example . Murphy died in a plane crash in Virginia in 1971 shortly before his 46th birthday , and was interred with full military honors at Arlington National Cemetery .
= = Early life = =
Audie Leon Murphy was born the seventh of twelve children to Emmett Berry Murphy and his wife Josie Bell Killian in Kingston , Texas . The Murphys were sharecroppers of Irish descent .
As a child , Murphy was a loner with mood swings and an explosive temper . He grew up in Texas , around Farmersville , Greenville , and Celeste , where he attended elementary school . His father drifted in and out of the family 's life and eventually deserted them . Murphy dropped out of school in fifth grade and got a job picking cotton for a dollar a day to help support his family ; he also became skilled with a rifle , hunting small game to help feed them . After his mother died of endocarditis and pneumonia in 1941 , he worked at a radio repair shop and at a combination general store , garage and gas station in Greenville . Hunt County authorities placed his three youngest siblings in Boles Children 's Home , a Christian orphanage in Quinlan . After the war , he bought a house in Farmersville for his oldest sister Corinne and her husband Poland Burns . His other siblings briefly shared the home .
The loss of his mother stayed with Murphy throughout his life . He later stated :
She died when I was sixteen . She had the most beautiful hair I 've ever seen . It reached almost to the floor . She rarely talked ; and always seemed to be searching for something . What it was I don 't know . We didn 't discuss our feelings . But when she passed away , she took something of me with her . It seems I 've been searching for it ever since .
= = World War II service = =
Murphy had always wanted to be a soldier , and after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941 , he tried to enlist , but the Army , Navy and Marine Corps all turned him down for being underweight and underage . After his sister provided an affidavit falsifying his birth date by a year , he was accepted by the U.S. Army on 30 June 1942 . After basic training at Camp Wolters , he was sent to Fort Meade for advanced infantry training . During basic training he earned the Marksman Badge with Rifle Component Bar and Expert Badge with Bayonet Component Bar .
= = = Mediterranean Theater = = =
Murphy was shipped to Casablanca in French Morocco on 20 February 1943 . He was assigned to Company B , 1st Battalion , 15th Infantry Regiment , 3rd Infantry Division , which trained under the command of Major General Lucian Truscott . He participated as a platoon messenger with his division at Arzew in Algeria in rigorous training for the Allied assault landings in Sicily , and was promoted to private first class on 7 May and corporal on 15 July .
When the 3rd Infantry landed at Licata , Sicily , on 10 July , Murphy was a division runner . On a scouting patrol , he killed two fleeing Italian officers near Canicattì . Sidelined with illness for a week when Company B arrived in Palermo on 20 July , he rejoined them when they were assigned to a hillside location protecting a machine @-@ gun emplacement , while the rest of the 3rd Infantry Division fought at San Fratello en route to the Allied capture of the transit port of Messina .
Murphy participated in the September 1943 mainland Salerno landing at Battipaglia . While on a scouting party along the Volturno River , he and two other soldiers were ambushed by German machine @-@ gun fire , which killed one of the Americans . Murphy and the other survivor responded by killing five German soldiers with hand grenades and machine @-@ gun fire . While taking part in the October Allied assault on the Volturno Line , near Mignano Monte Lungo Hill 193 , he and his company repelled an attack by seven German soldiers , killing three and taking four prisoner . Murphy was promoted to sergeant on 13 December .
In January 1944 , Murphy was promoted to staff sergeant . He was hospitalized in Naples with malaria on 21 January , and was unable to participate in the initial landing at the Anzio beachhead . He returned on 29 January and participated in the First Battle of Cisterna , and was made a platoon sergeant in Company B following the battle . He returned with the 3rd Division to Anzio , where they remained for months . Taking shelter from the weather in an abandoned farmhouse on 2 March , Murphy and his platoon killed the crew of a passing German tank . He then crawled out alone close enough to destroy the tank with rifle grenades , for which he received the Bronze Star with " V " Device . Murphy continued to make scouting patrols to take German prisoners before being hospitalized for a week on 13 March with a second bout of malaria . Sixty @-@ one infantry officers and enlisted men of Company B , 15th Infantry , including Murphy , were awarded the Combat Infantryman Badge on 8 May . Murphy was also awarded a Bronze Oak Leaf Cluster for his Bronze Star . American forces liberated Rome on 4 June , and Murphy remained bivouacked in Rome with his platoon throughout July .
= = = European Theater = = =
Murphy received the Distinguished Service Cross for action taken on 15 August 1944 , during the first wave of the Allied invasion of southern France . After landing on Yellow Beach near Ramatuelle , Murphy 's platoon was attacked by German soldiers while making their way through a vineyard . He retrieved a machine gun that had been detached from the squad and returned fire at the German soldiers , killing two and wounding one . Two Germans exited a house about 100 yards ( 91 m ) away and appeared to surrender ; when Murphy 's best friend responded , they shot and killed him . Murphy advanced alone on the house under direct fire . He killed six , wounded two and took eleven prisoner .
Murphy was with the 1st Battalion , 15th Infantry Regiment during the 27 – 28 August offensive at Montélimar that secured the area from the Germans . Along with the other soldiers who took part in the action , he received the Presidential Unit Citation .
Murphy 's first Purple Heart was for a heel wound received in a mortar shell blast on 15 September 1944 in northeastern France . His first Silver Star came after he killed four and wounded three at a German machine gun position on 2 October at L 'Omet quarry in the Cleurie river valley . Three days later , Murphy crawled alone towards the Germans at L 'Omet , carrying an SCR @-@ 536 radio and directing his men for an hour while the Germans fired directly at him . When his men finally took the hill , 15 Germans had been killed and 35 wounded . Murphy 's actions earned him a Bronze Oak Leaf Cluster for his Silver Star . He was awarded a battlefield commission to second lieutenant on 14 October , which elevated him to platoon leader . While en route to Brouvelieures on 26 October , the 3rd Platoon of Company B was attacked by a German sniper group . Murphy captured two before being shot in the hip by a sniper ; he returned fire and shot the sniper between the eyes . At the 3rd General Hospital at Aix @-@ en @-@ Provence , the removal of gangrene from the wound caused partial loss of his hip muscle and kept him out of combat until January . Murphy received his first Bronze Oak Leaf Cluster for his Purple Heart for this injury .
The Colmar Pocket , 850 square miles ( 2 @,@ 200 km2 ) in the Vosges Mountains , had been held by German troops since November 1944 . On 14 January 1945 , Murphy rejoined his platoon , which had been moved to the Colmar area in December . He moved with the 3rd Division on 24 January to the town of Holtzwihr , where they faced a strong German counterattack . He was wounded in both legs , for which he received a second Bronze Oak Leaf Cluster for his Purple Heart . As the company awaited reinforcements on 26 January , he was made commander of Company B.
The Germans scored a direct hit on an M10 tank destroyer , setting it alight , forcing the crew to abandon it . Murphy ordered his men to retreat to positions in the woods , remaining alone at his post , shooting his M1 carbine and directing artillery fire via his field radio while the Germans aimed fire directly at his position . Murphy mounted the abandoned , burning tank destroyer and began firing its .50 caliber machine gun at the advancing Germans , killing a squad crawling through a ditch towards him . For an hour , Murphy stood on the flaming tank destroyer returning German fire from foot soldiers and advancing tanks , killing or wounding 50 Germans . He sustained a leg wound during his stand , and stopped only after he ran out of ammunition . Murphy rejoined his men , disregarding his own wound , and led them back to repel the Germans . He insisted on remaining with his men while his wounds were treated . For his actions that day , he was awarded the Medal of Honor . The 3rd Infantry Division was awarded the Presidential Unit Citation for its actions at the Colmar Pocket , giving Murphy a Bronze Oak Leaf Cluster for the emblem .
On 16 February , Murphy was promoted to first lieutenant and was awarded the Legion of Merit for his service from 22 January 1944 to 18 February 1945 . He was moved from the front lines to Regimental Headquarters and made a liaison officer .
= = = Decorations = = =
The United States additionally honored Murphy 's war contributions with the American Campaign Medal , the European – African – Middle Eastern Campaign Medal with arrowhead device and campaign stars , the World War II Victory Medal , and the Army of Occupation Medal with Germany Clasp . France recognized his service with the French Legion of Honor – Grade of Chevalier , the French Croix de guerre with Silver Star , the French Croix de guerre with Palm , the French Liberation Medal and the French Fourragère in Colors of the Croix de guerre , which was authorized for all members of the 3rd Infantry Division who fought in France during World War II . Belgium awarded Murphy the Belgian Croix de guerre with 1940 Palm .
Brigadier General Ralph B. Lovett and Lieutenant Colonel Hallet D. Edson recommended Murphy for the Medal of Honor . Near Salzburg , Austria on 2 June 1945 , Lieutenant General A.M. Patch presented Murphy with the Medal of Honor and Legion of Merit for his actions at Holtzwihr . When asked after the war why he had seized the machine gun and taken on an entire company of German infantry , he replied , " They were killing my friends . " Murphy received every U.S. military combat award for valor available from the U.S. Army for his World War II service .
= = = Postwar military service = = =
Inquiries were made through official channels about the prospect of Murphy attending West Point upon his return to the United States , but he never enrolled . Author Don Graham wrote that Murphy suggested the idea and then dropped it , possibly when he realized the extent of academic preparation needed to pass the entrance exam . Murphy was one of several military personnel who received orders on 8 June 1945 to report to Fort Sam Houston in San Antonio , Texas , for temporary duty and reassignment . Upon arrival on 13 June , he was one of four assigned to Fort Sam Houston Army Ground & Services Redistribution Station and sent home for 30 days of recuperation , with permission to travel anywhere within the United States during that period . While on leave , Murphy was feted with parades , banquets , and speeches . He received a belated Good Conduct Medal on 21 August . He was discharged with the rank of first lieutenant at a 50 percent disability classification on 21 September and transferred to the Officers ' Reserve Corps .
= = = Post @-@ traumatic stress = = =
Murphy had been plagued since his military service with insomnia and bouts of depression , and slept with a loaded pistol under his pillow . A post @-@ service medical examination on 17 June 1947 revealed symptoms of headaches , vomiting , and nightmares about war . His medical records indicated that he took sleeping pills to help prevent nightmares . During the mid @-@ 1960s , he recognized his dependence on Placidyl , and locked himself alone in a hotel room for a week to break the addiction successfully . Post @-@ traumatic stress levels exacerbated his innate moodiness , and surfaced in episodes that friends and professional colleagues found alarming . His first wife , Wanda Hendrix , stated that he once held her at gunpoint . She witnessed her husband being guilt @-@ ridden and tearful over newsreel footage of German war orphans . Murphy briefly found a creative stress outlet in writing poetry after his Army discharge . His poem " The Crosses Grow on Anzio " appeared in his book To Hell and Back , but was attributed to the fictitious character Kerrigan .
In an effort to draw attention to the problems of returning Korean War and Vietnam War veterans , Murphy spoke out candidly about his own problems with posttraumatic stress disorder . It was known during Murphy 's lifetime as " battle fatigue " and " shell shock " , terminology that dated back to World War I. He called on the government to give increased consideration and study to the emotional impact of combat experiences , and to extend health care benefits to war veterans . As a result of legislation introduced by U.S. Congressman Olin Teague five months after Murphy 's death in 1971 , the Audie L. Murphy Memorial VA Hospital in San Antonio , now a part of the South Texas Veterans Health Care System , was dedicated in 1973 .
= = Texas Army National Guard = =
At the end of World War II , the 36th Infantry Division reverted to state control as part of the Texas Army National Guard , and Murphy 's friends Major General H. Miller Ainsworth and Brigadier General Carl L. Phinney were the 36th 's commander and deputy commander respectively . After the 25 June 1950 commencement of the Korean War , Murphy began a second military career and was commissioned as a captain in the 36th Infantry Division of the Texas Army National Guard . During his service he drilled new recruits in the summer training camps , and granted the Guard permission to use his name and image in recruiting materials . Although he wanted to join the fighting and juggled training activities with his film career , the 36th Infantry Division was never sent to Korea . At his request , he transferred to inactive status on 1 October 1951 because of his film commitments with MGM Studios , and returned to active status in 1955 . Murphy was promoted to the rank of major by the Texas Army National Guard in 1956 and returned to inactive status in 1957 . In 1969 , his official separation from the Guard transferred him to the United States Army Reserve . He remained with the USAR until his transfer to the Retired Reserve in 1969 .
= = Film career = =
Throughout an acting career spanning from 1948 to 1969 , Murphy made more than 40 feature films and one television series . When actor and producer James Cagney saw 16 July 1945 issue of Life magazine depicting Murphy as the " most decorated soldier " , he brought him to Hollywood . Cagney and his brother William signed him as a contract player for their production company and gave him training in acting , voice and dance . They never cast Murphy in a movie and a personal disagreement ended the association in 1947 . Murphy later worked with acting coach Estelle Harman , and honed his diction by reciting dialogue from William Shakespeare and William Saroyan .
Murphy moved into Terry Hunt 's Athletic Club in Hollywood where he lived until 1948 . Hollywood writer David " Spec " McClure befriended Murphy , collaborating with him on Murphy 's 1949 book To Hell and Back . McClure used his connections to get Murphy a $ 500 bit part in Texas , Brooklyn and Heaven . The agent of Wanda Hendrix , whom he had been dating since 1946 , got him a bit part in the 1948 Alan Ladd film Beyond Glory directed by John Farrow . His 1949 film Bad Boy gave him his first leading role . The film 's financial backers refused to bankroll the project unless Murphy was given the lead ; thus , Allied Artists put aside their reservations about using an inexperienced actor and gave him the starring role .
Universal Studios signed Murphy to a seven @-@ year studio contract at $ 2 @,@ 500 a week . His first film for them was as Billy the Kid in The Kid from Texas in 1950 . He wrapped up that year making Sierra starring Wanda Hendrix , who by that time had become his wife , and Kansas Raiders as outlaw Jesse James . Universal lent him to MGM in 1951 at a salary of $ 25 @,@ 000 to play the lead of The Youth in The Red Badge of Courage , directed by John Huston . Murphy and Huston worked together again in the 1960 film The Unforgiven .
The only film Murphy made in 1952 was The Duel at Silver Creek with director Don Siegel . Murphy worked with Siegel one more time in 1958 for The Gun Runners . In 1953 , he starred in Frederick de Cordova 's Column South , and played Jim Harvey in Nathan Juran 's Tumbleweed , an adaptation of the Kenneth Perkins novel Three Were Renegades . Director Nathan Juran also directed Gunsmoke and Drums Across the River . George Marshall directed Murphy in the 1954 Destry , a remake of Destry Rides Again , based on a character created by author Max Brand .
Although Murphy was initially reluctant to appear as himself in To Hell and Back , the 1955 adaptation of his book directed by Jesse Hibbs , he eventually agreed ; it became the biggest hit in the history of Universal Studios at the time . To help publicize the release of the film , he made guest appearances on television shows such as What 's My Line ? , Toast of the Town , and Colgate Comedy Hour . The Hibbs @-@ Murphy team proved so successful in To Hell and Back that the two worked together on five subsequent films . The partnership resulted in the 1956 western Walk the Proud Land , and the non @-@ westerns Joe Butterfly and World in My Corner . They worked together for the last time in the 1958 western Ride a Crooked Trail .
Joseph L. Mankiewicz hired Murphy to play the titular role in the 1958 film The Quiet American . Murphy formed a partnership with Harry Joe Brown to make three films , starting with The Guns of Fort Petticoat ( 1957 ) . The partnership fell into disagreement over the remaining two projects , and Brown filed suit against Murphy . Murphy featured in three westerns in 1959 : he starred opposite Sandra Dee in The Wild and the Innocent , collaborated as an uncredited co @-@ producer with Walter Mirisch on the black and white Cast a Long Shadow , and performed as a hired killer in No Name on the Bullet , a film that was well received by critics . Thelma Ritter was his costar in the 1960 Startime television episode " The Man " .
During the early 1960s , Murphy donated his time and otherwise lent his name and image for three episodes of The Big Picture television series produced by the United States Army . He received the 1960 Outstanding Civilian Service Medal for his cooperation in the episode Broken Bridge , which featured his visits to military installations in Germany , Italy , Turkey and the U.S. state of New Mexico to showcase the military 's latest weaponry .
Writer Clair Huffaker wrote the 1961 screenplays for Murphy 's films Seven Ways from Sundown and Posse from Hell . Willard W. Willingham and his wife Mary Willingham befriended Murphy in his early days in Hollywood and worked with him on a number of projects .
Willard was a producer on Murphy 's 1961 television series Whispering Smith. and co @-@ wrote the screenplay for Battle at Bloody Beach that year . He collaborated on Bullet for a Badman in 1964 and Arizona Raiders in 1965 . The Willinghams as a team wrote the screenplay for Gunpoint as well the script for Murphy 's last starring lead in the western 40 Guns to Apache Pass in 1967 . Murphy made Trunk to Cairo in Israel in 1966 .
He first met director Budd Boetticher when Murphy requested to be his boxing partner at Terry Hunt 's Athletic Club . He subsequently appeared in the 1951 title role of Boetticher 's first western The Cimarron Kid . Boetticher wrote the script in 1969 for Murphy 's last film A Time for Dying . Two other projects that Murphy and Boetticher planned to collaborate on – A Horse for Mr Barnum and When There 's Sumpthin ' to Do – never came to fruition .
= = Personal life = =
Murphy married actress Wanda Hendrix on 8 January 1949 , and their divorce became final on 19 April 1951 . Four days later he married former airline stewardess Pamela Archer . He had two sons with Archer : Terry Michael Murphy , born on 14 March 1952 , and James Shannon " Skipper " Murphy , born in 1954 .
Murphy bred quarter horses at the Audie Murphy Ranch in what is now Menifee , California , and the Murphy Ranch in Pima County , Arizona . His horses raced at the Del Mar Racetrack and he invested large sums of money in the hobby . Murphy had a gambling habit that left his finances in a poor state . In 1968 , he stated that he lost $ 260 @,@ 000 in an Algerian oil deal and was dealing with the Internal Revenue Service over unpaid taxes . In spite of his financial difficulties , Murphy refused to appear in commercials for alcohol and cigarettes , mindful of the influence he would have on the youth market .
= = Death and commemorations = =
On 28 May 1971 , Murphy was killed when the private plane in which he was a passenger crashed into Brush Mountain , near Catawba , Virginia , 20 miles ( 32 km ) west of Roanoke in conditions of rain , clouds , fog and zero visibility . The pilot and four other passengers were also killed . The aircraft was a twin @-@ engine Aero Commander 680 flown by a pilot who had a private @-@ pilot license and a reported 8 @,@ 000 hours of flying time , but who held no instrument rating . The aircraft was recovered on 31 May . After her husband died , Pamela Murphy moved into a small apartment and got a clerk position at the Veterans Administration Hospital in Los Angeles , where she remained employed for 35 years . In 1975 , a court awarded Murphy 's widow and two children $ 2 @.@ 5 million in damages because of the accident .
On 7 June 1971 , Murphy was buried with full military honors at Arlington National Cemetery . In attendance were Ambassador to the U.N. George H.W. Bush , Army Chief of Staff William Westmoreland , and many of the 3rd Infantry Division . Murphy 's grave site is in Section 46 , headstone number 46 @-@ 366 @-@ 11 , located across Memorial Drive from the Amphitheater . A special flagstone walkway was later constructed to accommodate the large number of people who visit to pay their respects . It is the cemetery 's second most @-@ visited grave site , after that of President John F. Kennedy .
The headstones of Medal of Honor recipients buried at Arlington National Cemetery are normally decorated in gold leaf . Murphy previously requested that his stone remain plain and inconspicuous , like that of an ordinary soldier . The headstone contains the birth year 1924 , based upon purportedly falsified materials among his military records . In 1974 , a large granite marker was erected just off the Appalachian Trail at 37 @.@ 364554 ° N 80 @.@ 225748 ° W / 37 @.@ 364554 ; -80.225748 ( Audie Murphy monument ) at 3 @,@ 100 ′ elevation , near the crash site .
Civilian honors were bestowed on Murphy during his lifetime and posthumously , including a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame . In 2013 , Murphy was honored by his home state with the Texas Legislative Medal of Honor .
Swedish power metal band Sabaton wrote a song on their 2014 studio album , Heroes , also named " To Hell and Back " , commemorating and recognizing Audie Murphy as one of the most decorated American veterans of World War II .
= = Song writing = =
David " Spec " McClure , his collaborator on the book To Hell and Back , discovered Murphy 's talent for poetry during their work on the memoir when he found discarded verses in Murphy 's Hollywood apartment . One of those poems , " The Crosses Grow on Anzio " , appears in To Hell and Back attributed to a soldier named Kerrigan . Only two others survived , " Alone and Far Removed " and " Freedom Flies in Your Heart Like an Eagle " . The latter was part of a speech Murphy had written at a 1968 dedication of the Alabama War Memorial in Montgomery , and later set to music by Scott Turner under the title " Dusty Old Helmet " .
Murphy was a fan of country music , in particular Bob Wills and Chet Atkins , but was not a singer or musician himself . Through his friend Guy Mitchell , Murphy was introduced to songwriter Scott Turner in 1961 . The two of them collaborated on numerous songs between 1962 and 1970 , the most successful of which was " Shutters and Boards " and " When the Wind Blows in Chicago " .
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= Worle railway station =
Worle railway station , on the Bristol to Exeter Line , serves the Worle , West Wick and St Georges suburbs of Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare in North Somerset , England . It is 16 miles ( 26 km ) west of Bristol Temple Meads railway station , and 134 miles ( 216 km ) from London Paddington . Its three @-@ letter station code is WOR . It was opened in 1990 by British Rail . The station , which has two platforms , is managed by Great Western Railway , the seventh company to be responsible for the station , and the third franchise since privatisation in 1997 . They provide all train services at the station , mainly hourly services between Bristol Parkway and Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare , and between Cardiff Central and Taunton . The station 's car park was significantly expanded in 2013 , with a bus interchange built at the same time .
The line through Worle is not electrified , but there is significant local support for it to be electrified as part of the 21st @-@ century modernisation of the Great Western Main Line , partly motivated by worries that unless the line is electrified , Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare will lose direct services to London .
= = Description = =
Worle railway station is located in the east of Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare , Somerset , serving the suburbs of Worle , West Wick and St Georges . The surrounding area is primarily residential , but with several commercial developments , including the Worle Parkway office development next to the station . The station is located just off the B3440 Bristol Road , near the M5 motorway junction 21 and the A370 . There is a car park on the north , east and south sides of the station . The station is on the Bristol to Exeter Line , 16 miles 11 chains ( 26 @.@ 0 km ) from Bristol Temple Meads and 134 miles 42 chains ( 216 @.@ 5 km ) from London Paddington ( via Chippenham ) . It is the fifth station along the line from Bristol Temple Meads . The station is oriented along an axis at 57 degrees to the meridian .
There are two platforms , on either side of the two tracks through the station . The southern platform , platform 1 , serves westbound trains ( towards Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare and Taunton ) ; the northern platform , platform 2 , serves eastbound trains ( towards Bristol ) . Both platforms are 100 metres ( 110 yd ) long . The line through the station has a speed limit of 100 miles per hour ( 160 km / h ) , and is not electrified . Access between the platforms is via an open footbridge with long , sloped ramps for step @-@ free access . Ticket machines are available , and a small ticket office operates during the weekday morning peak , but the station is otherwise unstaffed . Help points are provided , allowing travellers to ask questions of a call centre . There are metal and glass waiting shelters on both platforms – two on the eastbound platform and one on the westbound .
49 chains ( 0 @.@ 99 km ) west of the station is Worle Junction , where the single @-@ track loop line to Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare diverges from the main line towards Taunton . The next station west along the loop is Weston Milton , the next station west on the main line is Highbridge & Burnham . The next station east of Worle is Yatton .
= = Services = =
The station is managed by Great Western Railway , who operate all rail services from the station . The basic service consists of two trains in each direction per hour : one is the Bristol Parkway to Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare service , calling at all stations ; the second is the faster Cardiff Central to Taunton service , non @-@ stop between Bristol Temple Meads and Nailsea & Backwell , Worle and Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare . Some westbound services are extended to Exeter St Davids or Plymouth . There is one service to Avonmouth on weekday evenings . Each Sunday there are two services to and from the Severn Beach Line . During summer months these terminate at Severn Beach ; the rest of the year only one does , the other terminating at Avonmouth . The typical journey time to Bristol Temple Meads is 25 minutes , to Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare is 8 minutes .
Services between London Paddington and Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare call at Worle in the early morning and evening , running non @-@ stop between Bristol Temple Meads and Nailsea and Backwell . From Monday to Friday there are four morning services and one evening service to London , with seven services from London , all in the evening . One service from London is extended to Taunton , and another to Penzance . Saturday sees two services to London , all in the morning , and three services from London , all in the evening – one is extended to Exeter St David 's , another to Plymouth . There are five services to and six from London on Sundays , spread throughout the day , with one service extended to Taunton and another to Exeter . All trains call at Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare westbound , and at Yatton and Nailsea and Backwell eastbound , but not all stop at Weston Milton . The typical journey time to London is 2 hours 15 minutes .
Local services from Worle are operated by Class 150 , 153 and 158 diesel multiple @-@ unit trains . Until 2012 , Class 143 Pacer units were a regular sight , but these have been moved south to work in Devon and Cornwall following a cascade of Class 150 / 1 units from London Midland and London Overground . Services to and from London are formed of High Speed Train sets , which are longer than the station , so passengers in the front carriages have to move to a different carriage to get out . Passengers are prevented from getting out onto the tracks by a selective door @-@ opening system .
CrossCountry services pass through the station throughout the day , operating services between Cornwall and Scotland , but do not stop . Occasional Great Western Railway intercity services between London and Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare or Taunton and Exeter also pass through non @-@ stop .
= = History = =
The line through Worle saw its first use on 14 June 1841 , when the first section of the Bristol and Exeter Railway 's ( B & ER ) main line between Bristol and Bridgwater was opened . The line , engineered by Isambard Kingdom Brunel , was built as 7 ft ( 2 @,@ 134 mm ) broad @-@ gauge but was reconstructed as a mixed @-@ gauge line to accommodate local 4 ft 8 1 ⁄ 2 in ( 1 @,@ 435 mm ) -gauge traffic by 1 June 1875 . Services were operated by the Great Western Railway ( GWR ) on behalf of the B & ER until 1 May 1849 . The B & ER then took over its own workings until the company was amalgamated into the GWR on 1 January 1876 . Broad @-@ gauge trains ceased operation on 20 May 1892 . When the railways were nationalised by the Transport Act 1947 , the line became part of the Western Region of British Railways .
The modern Worle railway station is the fourth station to serve Worle . The first station , 47 chains ( 0 @.@ 95 km ) east of the modern station , was opened in 1841 as Banwell and was known as Worle from 1869 to 1884 , then as Puxton and Worle from 1922 until closure in 1964 . From 1884 to 1922 , there was a station called Worle on the loop line to Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare , 60 chains ( 1 @.@ 2 km ) west of the modern station . There was also a station on the nearby Weston , Clevedon and Portishead Light Railway , which was known as Worle from 1897 to 1913 , then as Worle ( Moor Lane ) until 1917 , and as Worle Town until closure in 1940 .
The station at Worle was developed as a joint initiative between British Rail and Avon County Council . It cost £ 700 @,@ 000 and was built using lightweight construction materials due to being sited on marshy ground . The station was opened on 24 September 1990 by Councillor Betty Perry , the chair of Avon Council . The first train was a westbound Regional Railways service , operated by Class 150 Sprinter DMU 150270 . All services were local ones – no scheduled intercity services would call at Worle until 2007 .
Upon the privatisation of British Rail in 1997 , services were franchised to Wales & West , which was in turn succeeded in 2001 by Wessex Trains , an arm of National Express . The Wessex franchise was amalgamated with the Great Western franchise into the Greater Western franchise from 2006 , and responsibility passed to First Great Western , a subsidiary company of FirstGroup , which was later rebranded Great Western Railway . Great Western Railway services to and from London Paddington started calling at Worle in 2007 . Due to the trains being longer than the platforms , a selective door opening system was used to prevent passengers opening doors which were not adjacent to the platform .
In 2012 , plans to enhance the station 's facilities were approved by the Department for Transport . The works , part of a large transport scheme called the Weston Package , included expanded the car park by 320 spaces , better facilities for cyclists and motorcyclists , and a bus interchange . A bus link to the nearby Queensway retail park was also included in the scheme . The expansion took over unused land to the east and south of the station , and required the removal of slow worms and grass snakes to a nature reserve in Cheddar . The work , which started in April 2013 , was completed later the same year with the new car park opening on 3 September 2013 .
Worle has had a large number of incidents of railway vandalism and antisocial behaviour , and the stretch of line through Worle is considered one of the most vandalised in the United Kingdom – obstructions have been left on the line and stones have being thrown at railway staff . There have been several incidents of train guards being attacked by passengers who refused to pay their fares , including one incident where the guard was dragged from the train and knocked to the ground . Vandals have also damaged the station 's ticket machines , attacked passengers and slashed the tyres of cars parked at the station .
= = Future = =
First Great Western declined a contractual option to continue the Greater Western passenger franchise ( of which services at Worle are a part ) beyond 2013 , citing a desire for a longer @-@ term contract due to the impending upgrade to the Great Western Main Line . The franchise was put out to tender , but the process was halted and later scrapped due to the fallout from the collapse of the InterCity West Coast franchise competition . A two @-@ year franchise extension until September 2015 was agreed in October 2013 , and subsequently extended until March 2019 .
With the impending upgrade , the main line from London to Bristol is due to be electrified . However , the electrification will not extend beyond Bristol to Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare , so Worle will continue to be served by diesel trains . This could entail the removal of direct London services , as electric trains would not be able to operate beyond Bristol . Services could however continue using bi @-@ mode trains . The group Friends of Suburban Bristol Railways supports the electrification continuing to Weston , as does MP for Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare John Penrose . Local services will still be diesel @-@ operated , with " Sprinter " units expected to be replaced by Class 165 and 166 " Turbo " units .
Worle is on the Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare / Yate corridor , one of the main axes of the Greater Bristol Metro , a rail transport plan which aims to enhance capacity in the Bristol area . The plan calls for longer and newer trains to prevent overcrowding .
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= Secret Mountain Fort Awesome =
Secret Mountain Fort Awesome is an American animated television series created by Peter Browngardt that debuted in 2011 on Cartoon Network . The show revolves around a fraternity of five monsters who unleash wild stunts upon the public from their eponymous mountain fort . The show is loosely based on the antagonists that appeared in Browngardt 's animated short , Uncle Grandpa , and employs Mike Conte of the heavy metal band Early Man as composer .
The show premiered as a sneak peek on Cartoon Network on August 1 , 2011 , and had a formal premiere September 26 , 2011 . The show has been well received , and designers Robertryan Cory and Chris Tsirgiotis both won awards for " Outstanding Individual in Animation " at the 64th Primetime Emmy Awards ceremony . The Uncle Grandpa short that Browngardt had produced was eventually adapted as a full series of the same name , which he felt was a more lighthearted adaptation for children .
= = Plot = =
A fivesome of monsters known as the Disgustoids are banished from society due to their unruly behavior and ghastly appearances . From their sentient and eponymous mountain fort , they unleash crazy stunts on the public . Their leader , a purple , tusked creature named Festro ( voiced by Peter Browngardt ) , is a macho party animal willing to do anything to help out his group , even when his help is less than desired . Dingle ( also voiced by Browngardt ) , scrawny and blue , acts as their faithful pet , intelligible only to the group . Slog ( Steve Little ) , a black @-@ furred monster , is likewise blindly loyal , but lacks critical judgement skills — the more hazardous something is , the more likely he will be to follow it . Gweelok ( Paul Rugg ) , an acned green ball , has a demanding attitude and an obsession with technology . The Fart ( Pat Duke ) — a monster made of buttocks who flatulates when touched — is the most sensitive and levelheaded of the group .
= = Production = =
At their 2011 upfront , Cartoon Network announced Secret Mountain Fort Awesome , along with various other series . Billed as a comedy , the show was created by Browngardt and based on his animated short Uncle Grandpa , which garnered praise , a cult following and an Emmy Award nomination . Both were produced at Cartoon Network Studios . Before landing his own show , Browngardt had worked at Augenblick Studios and MTV , as well as on individual programs , such as Futurama , The Marvelous Misadventures of Flapjack and Chowder . Browngardt 's work on the lattermost series began when its creator C.H. Greenblatt looked through one of his pitch bibles that he left at the studio .
The show borrows elements and its design style from his Uncle Grandpa short , which was pitched to the network as a pilot . According to Browngardt , they were unsure about having a series centered on the title character , and felt the monster characters from the pilot had more potential . Character designer Robertryan Cory and David P. Smith ( a director and storyboard artist on Dexter 's Laboratory and The Powerpuff Girls ) were brought on board to help shape the project 's development .
In an interview with Cartoon Brew , Browngardt called the process of pitching his pilot an " amazing learning experience " because it allowed him to propose an idea to the network and see " how it can manipulate and change while you 're working on it " . On the show , animation veteran Chris Reccardi served as creative director , whilst Sue Mondt ( who had previously art directed Cartoon Network 's Camp Lazlo ) handled art direction and Robert Alvarez and Larry Leichliter directed the animation . Browngardt depicted the production schedule as " really tight " , which called for them to manage their time and to pick their battles with the network .
In the United States , the show is rated TV @-@ PG . Referring to his encounters with the network regarding content , Browngardt learned to let go and find the " right balance " , as well as to ask himself , " Is my grandma going to notice this ? " For the music , Mike Conte of the heavy metal band Early Man was employed as composer . The score , which incorporates heavy metal elements and " lots of riffage " , was originally added to the animatics as a rough draft . Browngardt found that it harmonized with the imagery and what he envisioned for the design . Conte noted Browngardt 's inspirations from Garbage Pail Kids and Don Martin of Mad magazine , but called the result " definitely its own thing " .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
Secret Mountain premiered on August 1 , 2011 on Cartoon Network as part of a sneak preview ; this broadcast was seen by 1 @.@ 8 million viewers . It premiered formally on September 26 as part of their Monday night programming block , where it was seen by 1 @.@ 3 million viewers , marking a slight decrease from the previous broadcast . The show was moved to Thursdays upon its second season premiere on December 30 , 2011 . Following the premiere of the eighth episode of the season on February 17 , 2012 , the show was pulled from broadcast . The network published the remaining eight episodes through iTunes a month later , from March 8 to March 29 , thus concluding the show .
Many critics were complimentary in regards to the series ' art style . In his website Lineboil , Aaron Simpson compared it to Garbage Pail Kids and the works of Don Martin , two elements of his childhood . Amid Amidi of Cartoon Brew called Robertryan Cory 's character designs " impressive " and " distinctively styled " , though he felt the art style 's complexity made the animation quality suffer as a result . Abby Koenig of Houston Press compared its " ridiculous " nature to the film Little Monsters , and proposed that Howie Mandel ( featured in the latter work ) guest voice a monster on the show . Shannon O 'Leary of Publishers Weekly wrote that the show , along with others on the network such as Adventure Time and Superjail ! , bore resemblance to the aesthetics of established independent comics artists . Meanwhile , Jason Krell of io9 considered it a failure despite its influences from Adventure Time , which made way for many successful original series on the network .
The episode " Nightmare Sauce " received multiple accolades , including at the 2012 Annecy International Animated Film Festival for " Best TV Production " ( of which Browngardt was the recipient ) , and at the 64th Primetime Emmy Awards , where Cory and Chris Tsirgiotis were awarded " Outstanding Individual in Animation " . Cory also won at the 39th Annie Awards for " Character Design in a Television Production " , while Tsirgiotis , Sue Mondt , Daniel Elson and Mark Bodnar were collectively awarded " Production Design in a Television Production " . At the 40th Annie Awards , Thaddeus Paul Couldron was nominated for " Character Design in an Animated Television or Other Broadcast Venue Production " for his work on the episode " Secret Mountain Uncle Grandpa " .
= = Spin @-@ off = =
After Secret Mountain Fort Awesome got axed , the original Uncle Grandpa short that Browngardt produced was adapted as a full series of the same name , developed as part of Cartoon Network 's shorts development initiative . The series revolves around the title character , who is simultaneously the grandfather and uncle of everyone in the world . Browngardt explained that while the new series would retain some aspects of Secret Mountain , it would be a more lighthearted adaption for children . He ultimately expressed that he wanted " more variety in the music and be able to go [ sic ] sort of a happier place , though it does go dark and heavy at times " .
= = Work cited = =
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= Phallus impudicus =
Phallus impudicus , known colloquially as the common stinkhorn , is a widespread fungus recognizable for its foul odor and its phallic shape when mature , the latter feature giving rise to several names in 17th @-@ century England . It is a common mushroom in Europe and western North America , where it occurs in habitats rich in wood debris such as forests and mulched gardens . It appears from summer to late autumn . The fruiting structure is tall and white with a slimy , dark olive colored conical head . Known as the gleba , this material contains the spores , and is transported by insects which are attracted by the odor — described as resembling carrion . Despite its foul smell , it is not poisonous and immature mushrooms are consumed in parts of France and Germany .
= = Taxonomy = =
Botanist John Gerard called it the " pricke mushroom " or " fungus virilis penis effigie " in his General Historie of Plants of 1597 , and John Parkinson referred to it as " Hollanders workingtoole " or " phallus hollandicus " in his Theatrum botanicum of 1640 . Linnaeus described it in his 1753 Species Plantarum , and it still bears its original binomial name . Its specific epithet , impudicus , is derived from the Latin for " shameless " or " immodest " .
= = Description = =
Sometimes called the witch 's egg , the immature stinkhorn is whitish or pinkish , egg @-@ shaped , and typically 4 to 6 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 to 2 @.@ 4 in ) by 3 to 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 to 2 @.@ 0 in ) .
On the outside is a thick whitish volva , also known as the peridium , covering the olive @-@ colored gelatinous gleba . It is the latter that contains the spores and later stinks and attracts the flies ; within this layer is a green layer which will become the ' head ' of the expanded fruit body ; and inside this is a white structure called the receptaculum ( the stalk when expanded ) , that is hard , but has an airy structure like a sponge . The eggs become fully grown stinkhorns very rapidly , over a day or two . The mature stinkhorn is 10 to 30 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 to 11 @.@ 8 in ) tall and 4 to 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 to 2 @.@ 0 in ) in diameter , topped with a conical cap 2 to 4 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 to 1 @.@ 6 in ) high that is covered with the greenish @-@ brown slimy gleba . In older fungi the slime is eventually removed , exposing a bare yellowish pitted and ridged ( reticulate ) surface . This has a passing resemblance to the common morel ( Morchella esculenta ) , with which it is sometimes mistaken . The rate of growth of Phallus impudicus has been measured at 10 – 15 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 – 5 @.@ 9 in ) per hour . The growing fruit body is able to exert up to 1 @.@ 33 kPa of pressure — a force sufficient to push up through asphalt . The spores have an elliptical to oblong shape , with dimensions of 3 – 5 to 1 @.@ 5 – 2 @.@ 5 µm .
In North America , Phallus impudicus can be distinguished from the very similar P. hadriani by the latter 's purplish @-@ tinted volva .
= = Spore dispersal = =
The dispersal of spores is different from most " typical " mushrooms that spread their spores through the air . Stinkhorns instead produce a sticky spore mass on their tip which has a sharp , sickly @-@ sweet odor of carrion to attract flies and other insects . Odorous chemicals in the gleba include methanethiol , hydrogen sulfide , linalool , trans @-@ ocimene , phenylacetaldehyde , dimethyl sulfide , and dimethyl trisulfide . The latter compound has been found to be emitted from fungating cancerous wounds . The mature fruiting bodies can be smelled from a considerable distance in the woods , and at close quarters most people find the cloying stink extremely repulsive . The flies land in the gleba and in doing so collect the spore mass on their legs and carry it to other locations . An Austrian study demonstrated that blow @-@ flies ( species Calliphora vicina , Lucilia caesar , Lucilia ampullacea and Dryomyza anilis ) also feed on the slime , and soon after leaving the fruit body , they deposit liquid feces that contain a dense suspension of spores . The study also showed that beetles ( Oecoptoma thoracica and Meligethes viridescena ) are attracted to the fungus , but seem to have less of a role in spore dispersal as they tend to feed on the hyphal tissue of the fruiting body .
There is also a possible ecological association between the P. impudicus and badger ( Meles meles ) setts . Fruiting bodies are commonly clustered in a zone 24 to 39 metres ( 79 to 128 ft ) from the entrances ; the setts typically harbor a regularly @-@ available supply of badger cadavers – the mortality rate of cubs is high , and death is more likely to occur within the sett . The fruiting of large numbers of stinkhorns attracts a high population of blowflies ( Calliphora and Lucilla breed on carrion ) ; this ensures the rapid elimination of badger carcasses , removing a potential source of disease to the badger colony . The laxative effect of the gleba reduces the distance from the fruiting body to where the spores are deposited , ensuring the continued production of high densities of stinkhorns .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The common stinkhorn can be found throughout much of Europe and North America , and it has also been collected in Asia ( including China , Taiwan , and India ) , Costa Rica , Iceland , Tanzania , and southeast Australia . In North America , it is most common west of the Mississippi River ; Ravenel 's stinkhorn ( Phallus ravenelii ) is more common to the east . The fungus is associated with rotting wood , and as such it is most commonly encountered in deciduous woods where it fruits from summer to late autumn , though it may also be found in conifer woods or even grassy areas such as parks and gardens . It may also form mycorrhizal associations with certain trees .
= = Uses = =
= = = Edibility = = =
At the egg stage , pieces of the inner layer ( the receptaculum ) can be cut out with a knife and eaten raw . They are crisp and crunchy with an attractive radishy taste . The fungus is enjoyed and eaten in France and parts of Germany , where it may be sold fresh or pickled and used in sausages . Similar species are consumed in China .
= = = Medicinal properties = = =
Venous thrombosis , the formation of a blood clot in a vein , is a common cause of death in breast cancer patients ; patients with recurrent disease are typically maintained on anticoagulants for their lifetimes . A research study has suggested that extracts from P. impudicus can reduce the risk of this condition by reducing the incidence of platelet aggregation , and may have potential as a supportive preventative nutrition . It was used in medieval times as a cure for gout and as a love potion .
= = = Folk uses = = =
In Northern Montenegro , peasants rub Phallus impudicus on the necks of bulls before bull fighting contests in an attempt to make them stronger . They are also fed to young bulls as they are thought to be a potent aphrodisiac .
= = In culture = =
Writing about life in Victorian Cambridge , Gwen Raverat ( granddaughter of Charles Darwin ) describes the ' sport ' of Stinkhorn hunting :
In our native woods there grows a kind of toadstool , called in the vernacular The Stinkhorn , though in Latin it bears a grosser name . The name is justified , for the fungus can be hunted by the scent alone ; and this was Aunt Etty 's great invention . Armed with a basket and a pointed stick , and wearing special hunting cloak and gloves , she would sniff her way round the wood , pausing here and there , her nostrils twitching , when she caught a whiff of her prey ; then at last , with a deadly pounce , she would fall upon her victim , and poke his putrid carcass into her basket . At the end of the day 's sport , the catch was brought back and burnt in the deepest secrecy on the drawing @-@ room fire , with the door locked ; because of the morals of the maids .
In Thomas Mann 's novel The Magic Mountain ( Der Zauberberg ) , the psychologist Dr. Krokowski gives a lecture on the phallus impudicus :
And Dr. Krokowski had spoken about one fungus , famous since classical antiquity for its form and the powers ascribed to it -- a morel , its Latin name ending in the adjective impudicus , its form reminiscent of love , and its odor , of death . For the stench given off by the impudicus was strikingly like that of a decaying corpse , the odor coming from greenish , viscous slime that carried its spores and dripped from the bell @-@ shaped cap . And even today , among the uneducated , this morel was thought to be an aphrodisiac .
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= Maryland Route 23 =
Maryland Route 23 ( MD 23 ) is a state highway in the U.S. state of Maryland . The state highway runs 20 @.@ 58 miles ( 33 @.@ 12 km ) from U.S. Route 1 ( US 1 ) in Hickory north and west to the Pennsylvania state line near Norrisville , where the highway continues as Pennsylvania Route 24 ( PA 24 ) . MD 23 is an L @-@ shaped highway in northwestern Harford County that consists of two major sections . Between US 1 and MD 165 in Jarrettsville , MD 23 is marked east – west along a two @-@ lane controlled access road named East – West Highway . From MD 165 to the state line , the state highway is marked north – south along Norrisville Road , a rural two @-@ lane highway that passes through the villages of Madonna and Shawsville . The two sections of MD 23 are connected by a short concurrency with MD 165 .
MD 23 from Hickory to Jarrettsville was one of the original state highways marked for improvement by the Maryland State Roads Commission in 1909 and one of the original state @-@ numbered highways in 1927 . The state road was constructed from Hickory to Jarrettsville and from Norrisville to the state line in the early to mid @-@ 1910s . The gaps between Jarrettsville and Shawsville and from Shawsville to Norrisville were filled in the early 1920s . East – West Highway was constructed in the early 1960s to replace the parallel Jarrettsville Road . MD 23 's eastern terminus was moved to US 1 's new bypass of Hickory in 2000 .
= = Route description = =
MD 23 begins at an intersection with US 1 ( Hickory Bypass ) in Hickory . The state highway heads west as two @-@ lane East – West Highway . MD 23 passes through a commercial area where the highway intersects US 1 Business ( Conowingo Road ) and Water Tower Way before the road passes through a narrow forested corridor . The state highway intersects Commerce Road at a roundabout ; Commerce Road heads north into an industrial park surrounding Forest Hill Airport . After crossing over Bynum Run and the Ma and Pa Trail , a rail trail along the abandoned right @-@ of @-@ way of the Maryland and Pennsylvania Railroad , MD 23 intersects MD 24 ( Rocks Road / Rock Spring Road ) just south of Forest Hill . MD 23 continues west through a mix of farmland and forest , passing south of the hamlet of Fairview and crossing over Phillips Mill Road and Morse Road before East – West Highway reaches its western terminus at MD 165 ( Baldwin Mill Road ) south of Jarrettsville .
MD 23 turns north and joins MD 165 in a concurrency to the center of Jarrettsville . MD 165 continues north as Federal Hill Road and MD 23 turns west onto Norrisville Road ; the east leg of the intersection is Jarrettsville Road . MD 23 heads west through farmland and intersects MD 146 ( Jarrettsville Pike ) and Madonna Road in the village of Madonna . The state highway gradually curves to the north through Shawsville , where MD 23 intersects two highways that head west into Baltimore County , MD 138 ( Troyer Road ) and MD 439 ( Old York Road ) . The state highway makes a sharp , curvaceous descent to a crossing of Deer Creek , next to which is the historic Ivory Mills complex . MD 23 ascends out of the forested creek valley into Norrisville and meets the north end of MD 136 ( Harkins Road ) . The state highway continues north to just south of the Pennsylvania state line . MD 23 turns west and closely parallels the state line for about 2 @,@ 000 feet ( 610 m ) before the highway veers northwest to cross the border . The highway continues north as PA 24 ( Barrens Road ) toward Stewartstown .
MD 23 is a part of the National Highway System as a principal arterial from US 1 in Hickory west to High Point Road west of Forest Hill .
= = History = =
The first section of MD 23 to be paved was the part of the Old York Turnpike from MD 138 to MD 439 , which was improved as a 12 @-@ foot @-@ wide ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) macadam state @-@ aid road by 1910 . The portion of MD 23 from Hickory to Jarrettsville was designated one of the original state roads by the Maryland State Roads Commission in 1909 . The state road was constructed with a 14 @-@ foot @-@ wide ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) macadam surface from Hickory to Grafton Shop Road in 1910 , from Morse Road to Jarrettsville in 1914 , and between Grafton Shop Road and Morse Road in 1915 . Another section of 12 @-@ foot @-@ wide ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) macadam road was constructed under state aid from south of Norrisville to the Pennsylvania state line by 1915 . The highway from Jarrettsville to MD 138 was under construction as a concrete road by 1919 and completed in 1921 . The final portion of MD 23 , also paved in concrete , was completed from MD 439 to south of Norrisville in 1923 . MD 23 was one of the original state @-@ numbered highways designated by the roads commission in 1927 . The state highway was widened to a width of 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) from Hickory to Jarrettsville by 1930 .
Jarrettsville Road was replaced by East – West Highway , which was under construction by 1961 and completed in 1963 . The MD 23 designation was moved to the new highway and Jarrettsville Road was immediately transferred to county maintenance . At its eastern end , East – West Highway was constructed to tie into the Bel Air Bypass that was completed in 1965 and was proposed to continue to east of Hickory . Close to its eastern end , MD 23 curved south to an intersection with Granary Road . MD 23 turned east onto Granary Road for its eastern terminus at US 1 ( now US 1 Business ) . East – West Highway continued south as MD 23A ; at Bynum Road , MD 23A became a one @-@ lane ramp that joined the Bel Air Bypass . In 2000 , the Hickory Bypass was completed ; US 1 was moved to the new bypass and US 1 Business was extended along US 1 's old route through Hickory . As part of the same project , MD 23 was extended east to an new terminus at the Hickory Bypass . East – West Highway 's curve to the south was replaced with a perpendicular intersection with MD 23A , which was renamed Water Tower Way , extended north to new MD 23 , and gained a ramp from northbound US 1 at its southern end . The portion of Granary Road that formed MD 23 's terminus was designated MD 23B . Both MD 23A and MD 23B were transferred to Harford County maintenance in 2002 . MD 23 's roundabout at Commerce Road in Forest Hill was constructed in 2008 .
= = Junction list = =
MD 23 is signed east – west east of MD 165 and north – south west of MD 165 . The entire route is in Harford County .
= = Auxiliary routes = =
MD 23 previously had two auxiliary routes .
MD 23A was the designation for the portion of East – West Highway between Granary Road and the ramp to southbound US 1 ( Bel Air Bypass ) . The 0 @.@ 38 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 61 km ) state highway was constructed in 1963 as a connection between MD 23 and southbound US 1 . In 2000 , MD 23A was extended north to the new MD 23 and a ramp from northbound US 1 to MD 23A was added . The highway had a new length of 0 @.@ 53 miles ( 0 @.@ 85 km ) and was renamed Water Tower Way . MD 23A was removed from the state highway system in 2002 .
MD 23B was the designation for the 0 @.@ 16 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 26 km ) section of Granary Road between US 1 Business and MD 23A ( Water Tower Way ) that was part of MD 23 from the construction of East – West Highway in 1963 until 2000 . MD 23B was assigned in 2000 and removed from the state system in 2002 .
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= Alfred North Whitehead =
Alfred North Whitehead OM FRS ( 15 February 1861 – 30 December 1947 ) was an English mathematician and philosopher . He is best known as the defining figure of the philosophical school known as process philosophy , which today has found application to a wide variety of disciplines , including ecology , theology , education , physics , biology , economics , and psychology , among other areas .
In his early career Whitehead wrote primarily on mathematics , logic , and physics . His most notable work in these fields is the three @-@ volume Principia Mathematica ( 1910 – 13 ) , which he wrote with former student Bertrand Russell . Principia Mathematica is considered one of the twentieth century 's most important works in mathematical logic , and placed 23rd in a list of the top 100 English @-@ language nonfiction books of the twentieth century by Modern Library .
Beginning in the late 1910s and early 1920s , Whitehead gradually turned his attention from mathematics to philosophy of science , and finally to metaphysics . He developed a comprehensive metaphysical system which radically departed from most of western philosophy . Whitehead argued that reality consists of processes rather than material objects , and that processes are best defined by their relations with other processes , thus rejecting the theory that reality is fundamentally constructed by bits of matter that exist independently of one another . Today Whitehead 's philosophical works – particularly Process and Reality – are regarded as the foundational texts of process philosophy .
Whitehead 's process philosophy argues that " there is urgency in coming to see the world as a web of interrelated processes of which we are integral parts , so that all of our choices and actions have consequences for the world around us . " For this reason , one of the most promising applications of Whitehead 's thought in recent years has been in the area of ecological civilization and environmental ethics pioneered by John B. Cobb , Jr .
= = Life = =
Alfred North Whitehead was born in Ramsgate , Kent , England , in 1861 . His father , Alfred Whitehead , was a minister and schoolmaster of Chatham House Academy , a successful school for boys established by Thomas Whitehead , Alfred North 's grandfather . Whitehead himself recalled both of them as being very successful schoolmasters , but that his grandfather was the more extraordinary man . Whitehead 's mother was Maria Sarah Whitehead , formerly Maria Sarah Buckmaster . Whitehead was apparently not particularly close with his mother , as he never mentioned her in any of his writings , and there is evidence that Whitehead 's wife , Evelyn , had a low opinion of her .
Whitehead was educated at Sherborne School , Dorset , then considered one of the best public schools in the country . His childhood was described as over @-@ protected , but when at school he excelled in sports and mathematics and was head prefect of his class .
In 1880 , Whitehead began attending Trinity College , Cambridge , and studied mathematics . His academic advisor was Edward John Routh . He earned his BA from Trinity in 1884 , and graduated as fourth wrangler . Elected a fellow of Trinity in 1884 , Whitehead would teach and write on mathematics and physics at the college until 1910 , spending the 1890s writing his Treatise on Universal Algebra ( 1898 ) , and the 1900s collaborating with his former pupil , Bertrand Russell , on the first edition of Principia Mathematica . He was a Cambridge Apostle .
In 1890 , Whitehead married Evelyn Wade , an Irish woman raised in France ; they had a daughter , Jessie Whitehead , and two sons , Thomas North Whitehead and Eric Whitehead . Eric Whitehead died in action while serving in the Royal Flying Corps during World War I at the age of 19 .
In 1910 , Whitehead resigned his Senior Lectureship in Mathematics at Trinity and moved to London without first lining up another job . After being unemployed for a year , Whitehead accepted a position as Lecturer in Applied Mathematics and Mechanics at University College London , but was passed over a year later for the Goldsmid Chair of Applied Mathematics and Mechanics , a position for which he had hoped to be seriously considered .
In 1914 Whitehead accepted a position as Professor of Applied Mathematics at the newly chartered Imperial College London , where his old friend Andrew Forsyth had recently been appointed Chief Professor of Mathematics .
In 1918 Whitehead 's academic responsibilities began to seriously expand as he accepted a number of high administrative positions within the University of London system , of which Imperial College London was a member at the time . He was elected Dean of the Faculty of Science at the University of London in late 1918 ( a post he held for four years ) , a member of the University of London 's Senate in 1919 , and chairman of the Senate 's Academic ( leadership ) Council in 1920 , a post which he held until he departed for America in 1924 . Whitehead was able to exert his newfound influence to successfully lobby for a new history of science department , help establish a Bachelor of Science degree ( previously only Bachelor of Arts degrees had been offered ) , and make the school more accessible to less wealthy students .
Toward the end of his time in England , Whitehead turned his attention to philosophy . Though he had no advanced training in philosophy , his philosophical work soon became highly regarded . After publishing The Concept of Nature in 1920 , he served as president of the Aristotelian Society from 1922 to 1923 . In 1924 , Henry Osborn Taylor invited the 63 @-@ year @-@ old Whitehead to join the faculty at Harvard University as a professor of philosophy .
During his time at Harvard , Whitehead produced his most important philosophical contributions . In 1925 , he wrote Science and the Modern World , which was immediately hailed as an alternative to the Cartesian dualism that plagued popular science . A few years later , he published his seminal work Process and Reality , which has been compared ( both in importance and difficulty ) to Kant 's Critique of Pure Reason .
The Whiteheads spent the rest of their lives in the United States . Alfred North retired from Harvard in 1937 and remained in Cambridge , Massachusetts until his death on 30 December 1947 .
The two volume biography of Whitehead by Victor Lowe is the most definitive presentation of the life of Whitehead . However , many details of Whitehead 's life remain obscure because he left no Nachlass ; his family carried out his instructions that all of his papers be destroyed after his death . Additionally , Whitehead was known for his " almost fanatical belief in the right to privacy " , and for writing very few personal letters of the kind that would help to gain insight on his life . This led to Lowe himself remarking on the first page of Whitehead 's biography , " No professional biographer in his right mind would touch him . "
Currently , there is also no critical edition of Whitehead 's writings , though the Whitehead Research Project of the Center for Process Studies is currently working on one such edition .
= = Mathematics and logic = =
In addition to numerous articles on mathematics , Whitehead wrote three major books on the subject : A Treatise on Universal Algebra ( 1898 ) , Principia Mathematica ( co @-@ written with Bertrand Russell and published in three volumes between 1910 and 1913 ) , and An Introduction to Mathematics ( 1911 ) . The former two books were aimed exclusively at professional mathematicians , while the latter book was intended for a larger audience , covering the history of mathematics and its philosophical foundations . Principia Mathematica in particular is regarded as one of the most important works in mathematical logic of the 20th century .
In addition to his legacy as a co @-@ writer of Principia Mathematica , Whitehead 's theory of " extensive abstraction " is considered foundational for the branch of ontology and computer science known as " mereotopology " , a theory describing spatial relations among wholes , parts , parts of parts , and the boundaries between parts .
= = = A Treatise on Universal Algebra = = =
In A Treatise on Universal Algebra ( 1898 ) the term " universal algebra " had essentially the same meaning that it has today : the study of algebraic structures themselves , rather than examples ( " models " ) of algebraic structures . Whitehead credits William Rowan Hamilton and Augustus De Morgan as originators of the subject matter , and James Joseph Sylvester with coining the term itself .
At the time structures such as Lie algebras and hyperbolic quaternions drew attention to the need to expand algebraic structures beyond the associatively multiplicative class . In a review Alexander Macfarlane wrote : " The main idea of the work is not unification of the several methods , nor generalization of ordinary algebra so as to include them , but rather the comparative study of their several structures . " In a separate review , G. B. Mathews wrote , " It possesses a unity of design which is really remarkable , considering the variety of its themes . "
A Treatise on Universal Algebra sought to examine Hermann Grassmann 's theory of extension ( " Ausdehnungslehre " ) , Boole 's algebra of logic , and Hamilton 's quaternions ( this last number system was to be taken up in Volume II , which was never finished due to Whitehead 's work on Principia Mathematica ) . Whitehead wrote in the preface :
" Such algebras have an intrinsic value for separate detailed study ; also they are worthy of comparative study , for the sake of the light thereby thrown on the general theory of symbolic reasoning , and on algebraic symbolism in particular ... The idea of a generalized conception of space has been made prominent , in the belief that the properties and operations involved in it can be made to form a uniform method of interpretation of the various algebras . "
Whitehead , however , had no results of a general nature . His hope of " form [ ing ] a uniform method of interpretation of the various algebras " presumably would have been developed in Volume II , had Whitehead completed it . Further work on the subject was minimal until the early 1930s , when Garrett Birkhoff and Øystein Ore began publishing on universal algebras .
= = = Principia Mathematica = = =
Principia Mathematica ( 1910 – 1913 ) is Whitehead 's most famous mathematical work . Co @-@ written with former student Bertrand Russell , Principia Mathematica is considered one of the twentieth century 's most important works in mathematics , and placed 23rd in a list of the top 100 English @-@ language nonfiction books of the twentieth century by Modern Library .
Principia Mathematica 's purpose was to describe a set of axioms and inference rules in symbolic logic from which all mathematical truths could in principle be proven . Whitehead and Russell were working on such a foundational level of mathematics and logic that it took them until page 86 of Volume II to prove that 1 + 1 = 2 , a proof humorously accompanied by the comment , " The above proposition is occasionally useful . "
Whitehead and Russell had thought originally that Principia Mathematica would take a year to complete ; it ended up taking them ten years . To add insult to injury , when it came time for publication , the three @-@ volume work was so long ( more than 2 @,@ 000 pages ) and its audience so narrow ( professional mathematicians ) that it was initially published at a loss of 600 pounds , 300 of which was paid by Cambridge University Press , 200 by the Royal Society of London , and 50 apiece by Whitehead and Russell themselves . Despite the initial loss , today there is likely no major academic library in the world which does not hold a copy of Principia Mathematica .
The ultimate substantive legacy of Principia Mathematica is mixed . It is generally accepted that Kurt Gödel 's incompleteness theorem of 1931 definitively demonstrated that for any set of axioms and inference rules proposed to encapsulate mathematics , there would in fact be some truths of mathematics which could not be deduced from them , and hence that Principia Mathematica could never achieve its aims . However , Gödel could not have come to this conclusion without Whitehead and Russell 's book . In this way , Principia Mathematica 's legacy might be described as its key role in disproving the possibility of achieving its own stated goals . But beyond this somewhat ironic legacy , the book popularized modern mathematical logic and drew important connections between logic , epistemology , and metaphysics .
= = = An Introduction to Mathematics = = =
Unlike Whitehead 's previous two books on mathematics , An Introduction to Mathematics ( 1911 ) was not aimed exclusively at professional mathematicians , but was intended for a larger audience . The book covered the nature of mathematics , its unity and internal structure , and its applicability to nature . Whitehead wrote in the opening chapter :
" The object of the following Chapters is not to teach mathematics , but to enable students from the very beginning of their course to know what the science is about , and why it is necessarily the foundation of exact thought as applied to natural phenomena . "
The book can be seen as an attempt to understand the growth in unity and interconnection of mathematics as a whole , as well as an examination of the mutual influence of mathematics and philosophy , language , and physics . Although the book is little @-@ read , in some ways it prefigures certain points of Whitehead 's later work in philosophy and metaphysics .
= = Views on education = =
Whitehead showed a deep concern for educational reform at all levels . In addition to his numerous individually written works on the subject , Whitehead was appointed by Britain 's Prime Minister David Lloyd George as part of a 20 @-@ person committee to investigate the educational systems and practices of the UK in 1921 and recommend reform .
Whitehead 's most complete work on education is the 1929 book The Aims of Education and Other Essays , which collected numerous essays and addresses by Whitehead on the subject published between 1912 and 1927 . The essay from which Aims of Education derived its name was delivered as an address in 1916 when Whitehead was president of the London Branch of the Mathematical Association . In it , he cautioned against the teaching of what he called " inert ideas " – ideas that are disconnected scraps of information , with no application to real life or culture . He opined that " education with inert ideas is not only useless : it is , above all things , harmful . "
Rather than teach small parts of a large number of subjects , Whitehead advocated teaching a relatively few important concepts that the student could organically link to many different areas of knowledge , discovering their application in actual life . For Whitehead , education should be the exact opposite of the multidisciplinary , value @-@ free school model – it should be transdisciplinary , and laden with values and general principles that provide students with a bedrock of wisdom and help them to make connections between areas of knowledge that are usually regarded as separate .
In order to make this sort of teaching a reality , however , Whitehead pointed to the need to minimize the importance of ( or radically alter ) standard examinations for school entrance . Whitehead writes :
" Every school is bound on pain of extinction to train its boys for a small set of definite examinations . No headmaster has a free hand to develop his general education or his specialist studies in accordance with the opportunities of his school , which are created by its staff , its environment , its class of boys , and its endowments . I suggest that no system of external tests which aims primarily at examining individual scholars can result in anything but educational waste . "
Whitehead argued that curriculum should be developed specifically for its own students by its own staff , or else risk total stagnation , interrupted only by occasional movements from one group of inert ideas to another .
Above all else in his educational writings , Whitehead emphasized the importance of imagination and the free play of ideas . In his essay " Universities and Their Function " , Whitehead writes provocatively on imagination :
" Imagination is not to be divorced from the facts : it is a way of illuminating the facts . It works by eliciting the general principles which apply to the facts , as they exist , and then by an intellectual survey of alternative possibilities which are consistent with those principles . It enables men to construct an intellectual vision of a new world . "
Whitehead 's philosophy of education might adequately be summarized in his statement that " knowledge does not keep any better than fish . " In other words , bits of disconnected knowledge are meaningless ; all knowledge must find some imaginative application to the students ' own lives , or else it becomes so much useless trivia , and the students themselves become good at parroting facts but not thinking for themselves .
= = Philosophy and metaphysics = =
Whitehead did not begin his career as a philosopher . In fact , he never had any formal training in philosophy beyond his undergraduate education . Early in his life he showed great interest in and respect for philosophy and metaphysics , but it is evident that he considered himself a rank amateur . In one letter to his friend and former student Bertrand Russell , after discussing whether science aimed to be explanatory or merely descriptive , he wrote : " This further question lands us in the ocean of metaphysic , onto which my profound ignorance of that science forbids me to enter . " Ironically , in later life Whitehead would become one of the 20th century 's foremost metaphysicians .
However , interest in metaphysics – the philosophical investigation of the nature of the universe and existence – had become unfashionable by the time Whitehead began writing in earnest about it in the 1920s . The ever @-@ more impressive accomplishments of empirical science had led to a general consensus in academia that the development of comprehensive metaphysical systems was a waste of time because they were not subject to empirical testing .
Whitehead was unimpressed by this objection . In the notes of one his students for a 1927 class , Whitehead was quoted as saying : " Every scientific man in order to preserve his reputation has to say he dislikes metaphysics . What he means is he dislikes having his metaphysics criticized . " In Whitehead 's view , scientists and philosophers make metaphysical assumptions about how the universe works all the time , but such assumptions are not easily seen precisely because they remain unexamined and unquestioned . While Whitehead acknowledged that " philosophers can never hope finally to formulate these metaphysical first principles , " he argued that people need to continually re @-@ imagine their basic assumptions about how the universe works if philosophy and science are to make any real progress , even if that progress remains permanently asymptotic . For this reason Whitehead regarded metaphysical investigations as essential to both good science and good philosophy .
Perhaps foremost among what Whitehead considered faulty metaphysical assumptions was the Cartesian idea that reality is fundamentally constructed of bits of matter that exist totally independently of one another , which he rejected in favor of an event @-@ based or " process " ontology in which events are primary and are fundamentally interrelated and dependent on one another . He also argued that the most basic elements of reality can all be regarded as experiential , indeed that everything is constituted by its experience . He used the term " experience " very broadly , so that even inanimate processes such as electron collisions are said to manifest some degree of experience . In this , he went against Descartes ' separation of two different kinds of real existence , either exclusively material or else exclusively mental . Whitehead referred to his metaphysical system as " philosophy of organism " , but it would become known more widely as " process philosophy . "
Whitehead 's philosophy was highly original , and soon garnered interest in philosophical circles . After publishing The Concept of Nature in 1920 , he served as president of the Aristotelian Society from 1922 to 1923 , and Henri Bergson was quoted as saying that Whitehead was " the best philosopher writing in English . " So impressive and different was Whitehead 's philosophy that in 1924 he was invited to join the faculty at Harvard University as a professor of philosophy at 63 years of age .
This is not to say that Whitehead 's thought was widely accepted or even well @-@ understood . His philosophical work is generally considered to be among the most difficult to understand in all of the western canon . Even professional philosophers struggled to follow Whitehead 's writings . One famous story illustrating the level of difficulty of Whitehead 's philosophy centers around the delivery of Whitehead 's Gifford lectures in 1927 – 28 – following Arthur Eddington 's lectures of the year previous – which Whitehead would later publish as Process and Reality :
Eddington was a marvellous popular lecturer who had enthralled an audience of 600 for his entire course . The same audience turned up to Whitehead 's first lecture but it was completely unintelligible , not merely to the world at large but to the elect . My father remarked to me afterwards that if he had not known Whitehead well he would have suspected that it was an imposter making it up as he went along ... The audience at subsequent lectures was only about half a dozen in all .
Indeed , it may not be inappropriate to speculate that some fair portion of the respect generally shown to Whitehead by his philosophical peers at the time arose from their sheer bafflement . Distinguished University of Chicago Divinity School theologian Shailer Mathews once remarked of Whitehead 's 1926 book Religion in the Making : " It is infuriating , and I must say embarrassing as well , to read page after page of relatively familiar words without understanding a single sentence . "
However , Mathews ' frustration with Whitehead 's books did not negatively affect his interest . In fact , there were numerous philosophers and theologians at Chicago 's Divinity School that perceived the importance of what Whitehead was doing without fully grasping all of the details and implications . In 1927 they invited one of America 's only Whitehead experts – Henry Nelson Wieman – to Chicago to give a lecture explaining Whitehead 's thought . Wieman 's lecture was so brilliant that he was promptly hired to the faculty and taught there for twenty years , and for at least thirty years afterward Chicago 's Divinity School was closely associated with Whitehead 's thought .
Shortly after Whitehead 's book Process and Reality appeared in 1929 , Wieman famously wrote in his 1930 review :
" Not many people will read Whitehead 's recent book in this generation ; not many will read it in any generation . But its influence will radiate through concentric circles of popularization until the common man will think and work in the light of it , not knowing whence the light came . After a few decades of discussion and analysis one will be able to understand it more readily than can now be done . "
Wieman 's words proved prophetic . Though Process and Reality has been called " arguably the most impressive single metaphysical text of the twentieth century , " it has been little @-@ read and little @-@ understood , partly because it demands – as Isabelle Stengers puts it – " that its readers accept the adventure of the questions that will separate them from every consensus . " Whitehead questioned western philosophy 's most dearly held assumptions about how the universe works , but in doing so he managed to anticipate a number of 21st century scientific and philosophical problems and provide novel solutions .
= = = Whitehead 's conception of reality = = =
Whitehead was convinced that the scientific notion of matter was misleading as a way of describing the ultimate nature of things . In his 1925 book Science and the Modern World , he wrote that
" There persists ... [ a ] fixed scientific cosmology which presupposes the ultimate fact of an irreducible brute matter , or material , spread through space in a flux of configurations . In itself such a material is senseless , valueless , purposeless . It just does what it does do , following a fixed routine imposed by external relations which do not spring from the nature of its being . It is this assumption that I call ' scientific materialism . ' Also it is an assumption which I shall challenge as being entirely unsuited to the scientific situation at which we have now arrived . "
In Whitehead 's view , there are a number of problems with this notion of " irreducible brute matter . " First , it obscures and minimizes the importance of change . By thinking of any material thing ( like a rock , or a person ) as being fundamentally the same thing throughout time , with any changes to it being secondary to its " nature " , scientific materialism hides the fact that nothing ever stays the same . For Whitehead , change is fundamental and inescapable ; he emphasizes that " all things flow . "
In Whitehead 's view , then , concepts such as " quality " , " matter " , and " form " are problematic . These " classical " concepts fail to adequately account for change , and overlook the active and experiential nature of the most basic elements of the world . They are useful abstractions , but are not the world 's basic building blocks . What is ordinarily conceived of as a single person , for instance , is philosophically described as a continuum of overlapping events . After all , people change all the time , if only because they have aged by another second and had some further experience . These occasions of experience are logically distinct , but are progressively connected in what Whitehead calls a " society " of events . By assuming that enduring objects are the most real and fundamental things in the universe , materialists have mistaken the abstract for the concrete ( what Whitehead calls the " fallacy of misplaced concreteness " ) .
To put it another way , a thing or person is often seen as having a " defining essence " or a " core identity " that is unchanging , and describes what the thing or person really is . In this way of thinking , things and people are seen as fundamentally the same through time , with any changes being qualitative and secondary to their core identity ( e.g. " Mark 's hair has turned gray as he has gotten older , but he is still the same person " ) . But in Whitehead 's cosmology , the only fundamentally existent things are discrete " occasions of experience " that overlap one another in time and space , and jointly make up the enduring person or thing . On the other hand , what ordinary thinking often regards as " the essence of a thing " or " the identity / core of a person " is an abstract generalization of what is regarded as that person or thing 's most important or salient features across time . Identities do not define people , people define identities . Everything changes from moment to moment , and to think of anything as having an " enduring essence " misses the fact that " all things flow " , though it is often a useful way of speaking .
Whitehead pointed to the limitations of language as one of the main culprits in maintaining a materialistic way of thinking , and acknowledged that it may be difficult to ever wholly move past such ideas in everyday speech . After all , each moment of each person 's life can hardly be given a different proper name , and it is easy and convenient to think of people and objects as remaining fundamentally the same things , rather than constantly keeping in mind that each thing is a different thing from what it was a moment ago . Yet the limitations of everyday living and everyday speech should not prevent people from realizing that " material substances " or " essences " are a convenient generalized description of a continuum of particular , concrete processes . No one questions that a ten @-@ year @-@ old person is quite different by the time he or she turns thirty years old , and in many ways is not the same person at all ; Whitehead points out that it is not philosophically or ontologically sound to think that a person is the same from one second to the next .
A second problem with materialism is that it obscures the importance of relations . It sees every object as distinct and discrete from all other objects . Each object is simply an inert clump of matter that is only externally related to other things . The idea of matter as primary makes people think of objects as being fundamentally separate in time and space , and not necessarily related to anything . But in Whitehead 's view , relations take a primary role , perhaps even more important than the relata themselves . A student taking notes in one of Whitehead 's fall 1924 classes wrote that :
" Reality applies to connections , and only relatively to the things connected . ( A ) is real for ( B ) , and ( B ) is real for ( A ) , but [ they are ] not absolutely real independent of each other . "
In fact , Whitehead describes any entity as in some sense nothing more and nothing less than the sum of its relations to other entities – its synthesis of and reaction to the world around it . A real thing is just that which forces the rest of the universe to in some way conform to it ; that is to say , if theoretically a thing made strictly no difference to any other entity ( i.e. it was not related to any other entity ) , it could not be said to really exist . Relations are not secondary to what a thing is , they are what the thing is .
It must be emphasized , however , that an entity is not merely a sum of its relations , but also a valuation of them and reaction to them . For Whitehead , creativity is the absolute principle of existence , and every entity ( whether it is a human being , a tree , or an electron ) has some degree of novelty in how it responds to other entities , and is not fully determined by causal or mechanistic laws . Of course , most entities do not have consciousness . As a human being 's actions cannot always be predicted , the same can be said of where a tree 's roots will grow , or how an electron will move , or whether it will rain tomorrow . Moreover , inability to predict an electron 's movement ( for instance ) is not due to faulty understanding or inadequate technology ; rather , the fundamental creativity / freedom of all entities means that there will always remain phenomena that are unpredictable .
The other side of creativity / freedom as the absolute principle is that every entity is constrained by the social structure of existence ( i.e. , its relations ) – each actual entity must conform to the settled conditions of the world around it . Freedom always exists within limits . But an entity 's uniqueness and individuality arise from its own self @-@ determination as to just how it will take account of the world within the limits that have been set for it .
In summary , Whitehead rejects the idea of separate and unchanging bits of matter as the most basic building blocks of reality , in favor of the idea of reality as interrelated events in process . He conceives of reality as composed of processes of dynamic " becoming " rather than static " being " , emphasizing that all physical things change and evolve , and that changeless " essences " such as matter are mere abstractions from the interrelated events that are the final real things that make up the world .
= = = Theory of perception = = =
Since Whitehead 's metaphysics described a universe in which all entities experience , he needed a new way of describing perception that was not limited to living , self @-@ conscious beings . The term he coined was " prehension " , which comes from the Latin prehensio , meaning " to seize . " The term is meant to indicate a kind of perception that can be conscious or unconscious , applying to people as well as electrons . It is also intended to make clear Whitehead 's rejection of the theory of representative perception , in which the mind only has private ideas about other entities . For Whitehead , the term " prehension " indicates that the perceiver actually incorporates aspects of the perceived thing into itself . In this way , entities are constituted by their perceptions and relations , rather than being independent of them . Further , Whitehead regards perception as occurring in two modes , causal efficacy ( or " physical prehension " ) and presentational immediacy ( or " conceptual prehension " ) .
Whitehead describes causal efficacy as " the experience dominating the primitive living organisms , which have a sense for the fate from which they have emerged , and the fate towards which they go . " It is , in other words , the sense of causal relations between entities , a feeling of being influenced and affected by the surrounding environment , unmediated by the senses . Presentational immediacy , on the other hand , is what is usually referred to as " pure sense perception " , unmediated by any causal or symbolic interpretation , even unconscious interpretation . In other words , it is pure appearance , which may or may not be delusive ( e.g. mistaking an image in a mirror for " the real thing " ) .
In higher organisms ( like people ) , these two modes of perception combine into what Whitehead terms " symbolic reference " , which links appearance with causation in a process that is so automatic that both people and animals have difficulty refraining from it . By way of illustration , Whitehead uses the example of a person 's encounter with a chair . An ordinary person looks up , sees a colored shape , and immediately infers that it is a chair . However , an artist , Whitehead supposes , " might not have jumped to the notion of a chair " , but instead " might have stopped at the mere contemplation of a beautiful color and a beautiful shape . " This is not the normal human reaction ; most people place objects in categories by habit and instinct , without even thinking about it . Moreover , animals do the same thing . Using the same example , Whitehead points out that a dog " would have acted immediately on the hypothesis of a chair and would have jumped onto it by way of using it as such . " In this way symbolic reference is a fusion of pure sense perceptions on the one hand and causal relations on the other , and that it is in fact the causal relationships that dominate the more basic mentality ( as the dog illustrates ) , while it is the sense perceptions which indicate a higher grade mentality ( as the artist illustrates ) .
= = = Evolution and value = = =
Whitehead believed that when asking questions about the basic facts of existence , questions about value and purpose can never be fully escaped . This is borne out in his thoughts on abiogenesis , or the hypothetical natural process by which life arises from simple organic compounds .
Whitehead makes the startling observation that " life is comparatively deficient in survival value . " If humans can only exist for about a hundred years , and rocks for eight hundred million , then one is forced to ask why complex organisms ever evolved in the first place ; as Whitehead humorously notes , " they certainly did not appear because they were better at that game than the rocks around them . " He then observes that the mark of higher forms of life is that they are actively engaged in modifying their environment , an activity which he theorizes is directed toward the three @-@ fold goal of living , living well , and living better . In other words , Whitehead sees life as directed toward the purpose of increasing its own satisfaction . Without such a goal , he sees the rise of life as totally unintelligible .
For Whitehead , there is no such thing as wholly inert matter . Instead , all things have some measure of freedom or creativity , however small , which allows them to be at least partly self @-@ directed . Process philosopher David Ray Griffin coined the term " panexperientialism " ( the idea that all entities experience ) to describe Whitehead 's view , and to distinguish it from panpsychism ( the idea that all matter has consciousness ) .
= = = God = = =
Whitehead 's idea of God differs from traditional monotheistic notions . Perhaps his most famous and pointed criticism of the Christian conception of God is that " the Church gave unto God the attributes which belonged exclusively to Caesar . " Here Whitehead is criticizing Christianity for defining God as primarily a divine king who imposes his will on the world , and whose most important attribute is power . As opposed to the most widely accepted forms of Christianity , Whitehead emphasized an idea of God that he called " the brief Galilean vision of humility " :
" It does not emphasize the ruling Caesar , or the ruthless moralist , or the unmoved mover . It dwells upon the tender elements in the world , which slowly and in quietness operates by love ; and it finds purpose in the present immediacy of a kingdom not of this world . Love neither rules , nor is it unmoved ; also it is a little oblivious as to morals . It does not look to the future ; for it finds its own reward in the immediate present . "
It should be emphasized , however , that for Whitehead God is not necessarily tied to religion . Rather than springing primarily from religious faith , Whitehead saw God as necessary for his metaphysical system . His system required that an order exist among possibilities , an order that allowed for novelty in the world and provided an aim to all entities . Whitehead posited that these ordered potentials exist in what he called the primordial nature of God . However , Whitehead was also interested in religious experience . This led him to reflect more intensively on what he saw as the second nature of God , the consequent nature . Whitehead 's conception of God as a " dipolar " entity has called for fresh theological thinking .
The primordial nature he described as " the unlimited conceptual realization of the absolute wealth of potentiality , " i.e. , the unlimited possibility of the universe . This primordial nature is eternal and unchanging , providing entities in the universe with possibilities for realization . Whitehead also calls this primordial aspect " the lure for feeling , the eternal urge of desire , " pulling the entities in the universe toward as @-@ yet unrealized possibilities .
God 's consequent nature , on the other hand , is anything but unchanging – it is God 's reception of the world 's activity . As Whitehead puts it , " [ God ] saves the world as it passes into the immediacy of his own life . It is the judgment of a tenderness which loses nothing that can be saved . " In other words , God saves and cherishes all experiences forever , and those experiences go on to change the way God interacts with the world . In this way , God is really changed by what happens in the world and the wider universe , lending the actions of finite creatures an eternal significance .
Whitehead thus sees God and the world as fulfilling one another . He sees entities in the world as fluent and changing things that yearn for a permanence which only God can provide by taking them into God 's self , thereafter changing God and affecting the rest of the universe throughout time . On the other hand , he sees God as permanent but as deficient in actuality and change : alone , God is merely eternally unrealized possibilities , and requires the world to actualize them . God gives creatures permanence , while the creatures give God actuality and change . Here it is worthwhile to quote Whitehead at length :
" In this way God is completed by the individual , fluent satisfactions of finite fact , and the temporal occasions are completed by their everlasting union with their transformed selves , purged into conformation with the eternal order which is the final absolute ' wisdom . ' The final summary can only be expressed in terms of a group of antitheses , whose apparent self @-@ contradictions depend on neglect of the diverse categories of existence . In each antithesis there is a shift of meaning which converts the opposition into a contrast .
" It is as true to say that God is permanent and the World fluent , as that the World is permanent and God is fluent .
" It is as true to say that God is one and the World many , as that the World is one and God many .
" It is as true to say that , in comparison with the World , God is actual eminently , as that , in comparison with God , the World is actual eminently .
" It is as true to say that the World is immanent in God , as that God is immanent in the World .
" It is as true to say that God transcends the World , as that the World transcends God .
" It is as true to say that God creates the World , as that the World creates God ...
" What is done in the world is transformed into a reality in heaven , and the reality in heaven passes back into the world ... In this sense , God is the great companion – the fellow @-@ sufferer who understands . "
The above is some of Whitehead 's most evocative writing about God , and was powerful enough to inspire the movement known as process theology , a vibrant theological school of thought that continues to thrive today .
= = = Religion = = =
For Whitehead the core of religion was individual . While he acknowledged that individuals cannot ever be fully separated from their society , he argued that life is an internal fact for its own sake before it is an external fact relating to others . His most famous remark on religion is that " religion is what the individual does with his own solitariness ... and if you are never solitary , you are never religious . " Whitehead saw religion as a system of general truths that transformed a person 's character . He took special care to note that while religion is often a good influence , it is not necessarily good – an idea which he called a " dangerous delusion " ( e.g. , a religion might encourage the violent extermination of a rival religion 's adherents ) .
However , while Whitehead saw religion as beginning in solitariness , he also saw religion as necessarily expanding beyond the individual . In keeping with his process metaphysics in which relations are primary , he wrote that religion necessitates the realization of " the value of the objective world which is a community derivative from the interrelations of its component individuals . " In other words , the universe is a community which makes itself whole through the relatedness of each individual entity to all the others – meaning and value do not exist for the individual alone , but only in the context of the universal community . Whitehead writes further that each entity " can find no such value till it has merged its individual claim with that of the objective universe . Religion is world @-@ loyalty . The spirit at once surrenders itself to this universal claim and appropriates it for itself . " In this way the individual and universal / social aspects of religion are mutually dependent .
Whitehead also described religion more technically as " an ultimate craving to infuse into the insistent particularity of emotion that non @-@ temporal generality which primarily belongs to conceptual thought alone . " In other words , religion takes deeply felt emotions and contextualizes them within a system of general truths about the world , helping people to identify their wider meaning and significance . For Whitehead , religion served as a kind of bridge between philosophy and the emotions and purposes of a particular society . It is the task of religion to make philosophy applicable to the everyday lives of ordinary people .
= = Influence and legacy = =
Isabelle Stengers wrote that " Whiteheadians are recruited among both philosophers and theologians , and the palette has been enriched by practitioners from the most diverse horizons , from ecology to feminism , practices that unite political struggle and spirituality with the sciences of education . " Indeed , in recent decades attention to Whitehead 's work has become more widespread , with interest extending to intellectuals in Europe and China , and coming from such diverse fields as ecology , physics , biology , education , economics , and psychology . One of the first theologians to attempt to interact with Whitehead 's thought was the future Archbishop of Canterbury , William Temple . In Temple 's Gifford Lectures of 1932 @-@ 1934 ( subsequently published as " Nature , Man and God " ) , Whitehead is one of a number of philosophers of the emergent evolution approach Temple interacts with . However , it was not until the 1970s and 1980s that Whitehead 's thought drew much attention outside of a small group of philosophers and theologians , primarily Americans , and even today he is not considered especially influential outside of relatively specialized circles .
Early followers of Whitehead were found primarily at the University of Chicago 's Divinity School , where Henry Nelson Wieman initiated an interest in Whitehead 's work that would last for about thirty years . Professors such as Wieman , Charles Hartshorne , Bernard Loomer , Bernard Meland , and Daniel Day Williams made Whitehead 's philosophy arguably the most important intellectual thread running through the Divinity School . They taught generations of Whitehead scholars , the most notable of which is John B. Cobb , Jr .
Although interest in Whitehead has since faded at Chicago 's Divinity School , Cobb effectively grabbed the torch and planted it firmly in Claremont , California , where he began teaching at Claremont School of Theology in 1958 and founded the Center for Process Studies with David Ray Griffin in 1973 . Largely due to Cobb 's influence , today Claremont remains strongly identified with Whitehead 's process thought .
But while Claremont remains the most concentrated hub of Whiteheadian activity , the place where Whitehead 's thought currently seems to be growing the most quickly is in China . In order to address the challenges of modernization and industrialization , China has begun to blend traditions of Taoism , Buddhism , and Confucianism with Whitehead 's " constructive post @-@ modern " philosophy in order to create an " ecological civilization . " To date , the Chinese government has encouraged the building of twenty @-@ three university @-@ based centers for the study of Whitehead 's philosophy , and books by process philosophers John Cobb and David Ray Griffin are becoming required reading for Chinese graduate students . Cobb has attributed China 's interest in process philosophy partly to Whitehead 's stress on the mutual interdependence of humanity and nature , as well as his emphasis on an educational system that includes the teaching of values rather than simply bare facts .
Overall , however , Whitehead 's influence is very difficult to characterize . In English @-@ speaking countries , his primary works are little @-@ studied outside of Claremont and a select number of liberal graduate @-@ level theology and philosophy programs . Outside of these circles his influence is relatively small and diffuse , and has tended to come chiefly through the work of his students and admirers rather than Whitehead himself . For instance , Whitehead was a teacher and long @-@ time friend and collaborator of Bertrand Russell , and he also taught and supervised the dissertation of Willard Van Orman Quine , both of whom are important figures in analytic philosophy – the dominant strain of philosophy in English @-@ speaking countries in the 20th century . Whitehead has also had high @-@ profile admirers in the continental tradition , such as French post @-@ structuralist philosopher Gilles Deleuze , who once dryly remarked of Whitehead that " he stands provisionally as the last great Anglo @-@ American philosopher before Wittgenstein 's disciples spread their misty confusion , sufficiency , and terror . " French sociologist and anthropologist Bruno Latour even went so far as to call Whitehead " the greatest philosopher of the 20th century . "
Deleuze 's and Latour 's opinions , however , are minority ones , as Whitehead has not been recognized as particularly influential within the most dominant philosophical schools . It is impossible to say exactly why Whitehead 's influence has not been more widespread , but it may be partly due to his metaphysical ideas seeming somewhat counter @-@ intuitive ( such as his assertion that matter is an abstraction ) , or his inclusion of theistic elements in his philosophy , or the perception of metaphysics itself as passé , or simply the sheer difficulty and density of his prose .
= = = Process philosophy and theology = = =
Historically Whitehead 's work has been most influential in the field of American progressive theology . The most important early proponent of Whitehead 's thought in a theological context was Charles Hartshorne , who spent a semester at Harvard as Whitehead 's teaching assistant in 1925 , and is widely credited with developing Whitehead 's process philosophy into a full @-@ blown process theology . Other notable process theologians include John B. Cobb , Jr . , David Ray Griffin , Marjorie Hewitt Suchocki , C. Robert Mesle , Roland Faber , and Catherine Keller .
Process theology typically stresses God 's relational nature . Rather than seeing God as impassive or emotionless , process theologians view God as " the fellow sufferer who understands " , and as the being who is supremely affected by temporal events . Hartshorne points out that people would not praise a human ruler who was unaffected by either the joys or sorrows of his followers – so why would this be a praise @-@ worthy quality in God ? Instead , as the being who is most affected by the world , God is the being who can most appropriately respond to the world . However , process theology has been formulated in a wide variety of ways . C. Robert Mesle , for instance , advocates a " process naturalism " , i.e. a process theology without God .
In fact , process theology is difficult to define because process theologians are so diverse and transdisciplinary in their views and interests . John B. Cobb , Jr. is a process theologian who has also written books on biology and economics . Roland Faber and Catherine Keller integrate Whitehead with poststructuralist , postcolonialist , and feminist theory . Charles Birch was both a theologian and a geneticist . Franklin I. Gamwell writes on theology and political theory . In Syntheism - Creating God in The Internet Age , futurologists Alexander Bard and Jan Söderqvist repeatedly credit Whitehead for the process theology they see rising out of the participatory culture expected to dominate the digital era .
Process philosophy is even more difficult to pin down than process theology . In practice , the two fields cannot be neatly separated . The 32 @-@ volume State University of New York series in constructive postmodern thought edited by process philosopher and theologian David Ray Griffin displays the range of areas in which different process philosophers work , including physics , ecology , medicine , public policy , nonviolence , politics , and psychology .
One philosophical school which has historically had a close relationship with process philosophy is American pragmatism . Whitehead himself thought highly of William James and John Dewey , and acknowledged his indebtedness to them in the preface to Process and Reality . Charles Hartshorne ( along with Paul Weiss ) edited the collected papers of Charles Sanders Peirce , one of the founders of pragmatism . Noted neopragmatist Richard Rorty was in turn a student of Hartshorne . Today , Nicholas Rescher is one example of a philosopher who advocates both process philosophy and pragmatism .
In addition , while they might not properly be called process philosophers , Whitehead has been influential in the philosophy of Gilles Deleuze , Milič Čapek , Isabelle Stengers , Bruno Latour , Susanne Langer , and Maurice Merleau @-@ Ponty .
= = = Science = = =
In recent years , Whiteheadian thought has become a stimulating influence in scientific research . Timothy E. Eastman and Hank Keeton 's Physics and Whitehead ( 2004 ) and Michael Epperson 's Quantum Mechanics and the Philosophy of Alfred North Whitehead ( 2004 ) aim to offer Whiteheadian approaches to physics , while Brian G. Henning , Adam Scarfe , and Dorion Sagan 's Beyond Mechanism ( 2013 ) and Rupert Sheldrake 's Science Set Free ( 2012 ) are recent examples of Whiteheadian approaches to biology .
In physics , Whitehead 's thought has had some influence . He articulated a view that might perhaps be regarded as dual to Einstein 's general relativity , see Whitehead 's theory of gravitation . It has been severely criticized . Yutaka Tanaka , who suggests that the gravitational constant disagrees with experimental findings , proposes that Einstein 's work does not actually refute Whitehead 's formulation . Whitehead 's view has now been rendered obsolete , with the discovery of gravitational waves . They are phenonena observed locally that largely violate the kind of local flatness of space that Whitehead assumes . Consequently , Whitehead 's cosmology must be regarded as a local approximation , and his assumption of a uniform spatio @-@ temporal geometry , Minkowskian in particular , as an often @-@ locally @-@ adequate approximation . An exact replacement of Whitehead 's cosmology would need to admit a Riemannian geometry . Also , although Whitehead himself gave only secondary consideration to quantum theory , his metaphysics of processes has proved attractive to some physicists in that field . Henry Stapp and David Bohm are among those whose work has been influenced by Whitehead .
Other scientists for whom Whitehead 's work has been influential include physical chemist Ilya Prigogine , biologist Conrad Hal Waddington , and geneticists Charles Birch and Sewall Wright .
= = = Ecology , economy , and sustainability = = =
One of the most promising applications of Whitehead 's thought in recent years has been in the area of ecological civilization , sustainability , and environmental ethics .
" Because Whitehead 's holistic metaphysics of value lends itself so readily to an ecological point of view , many see his work as a promising alternative to the traditional mechanistic worldview , providing a detailed metaphysical picture of a world constituted by a web of interdependent relations . "
This work has been pioneered by John B. Cobb , Jr . , whose book Is It Too Late ? A Theology of Ecology ( 1971 ) was the first single @-@ authored book in environmental ethics . Cobb also co @-@ authored a book with leading ecological economist and steady @-@ state theorist Herman Daly entitled For the Common Good : Redirecting the Economy toward Community , the Environment , and a Sustainable Future ( 1989 ) , which applied Whitehead 's thought to economics , and received the Grawemeyer Award for Ideas Improving World Order . Cobb followed this with a second book , Sustaining the Common Good : A Christian Perspective on the Global Economy ( 1994 ) , which aimed to challenge " economists ' zealous faith in the great god of growth . "
= = = Education = = =
Whitehead is widely known for his influence in education theory . His philosophy inspired the formation of the Association for Process Philosophy of Education ( APPE ) , which published eleven volumes of a journal titled Process Papers on process philosophy and education from 1996 to 2008 . Whitehead 's theories on education also led to the formation of new modes of learning and new models of teaching .
One such model is the ANISA model developed by Daniel C. Jordan , which sought to address a lack of understanding of the nature of people in current education systems . As Jordan and Raymond P. Shepard put it : " Because it has not defined the nature of man , education is in the untenable position of having to devote its energies to the development of curricula without any coherent ideas about the nature of the creature for whom they are intended . "
Another model is the FEELS model developed by Xie Bangxiu and deployed successfully in China . " FEELS " stands for five things in curriculum and education : Flexible @-@ goals , Engaged @-@ learner , Embodied @-@ knowledge , Learning @-@ through @-@ interactions , and Supportive @-@ teacher . It is used for understanding and evaluating educational curriculum under the assumption that the purpose of education is to " help a person become whole . " This work is in part the product of cooperation between Chinese government organizations and the Institute for the Postmodern Development of China .
Whitehead 's philosophy of education has also found institutional support in Canada , where the University of Saskatchewan created a Process Philosophy Research Unit and sponsored several conferences on process philosophy and education . Dr. Howard Woodhouse at the University of Saskatchewan remains a strong proponent of Whiteheadian education .
Two recent books which further develop Whitehead 's philosophy of education include : Modes of Learning : Whitehead 's Metaphysics and the Stages of Education ( 2012 ) by George Allan ; and The Adventure of Education : Process Philosophers on Learning , Teaching , and Research ( 2009 ) by Adam Scarfe .
= = = Business administration = = =
Whitehead has had some influence on philosophy of business administration and organizational theory . This has led in part to a focus on identifying and investigating the effect of temporal events ( as opposed to static things ) within organizations through an “ organization studies ” discourse that accommodates a variety of ' weak ' and ' strong ' process perspectives from a number of philosophers . One of the leading figures having an explicitly Whiteheadian and panexperientialist stance towards management is Mark Dibben , who works in what he calls " applied process thought " to articulate a philosophy of management and business administration as part of a wider examination of the social sciences through the lens of process metaphysics . For Dibben , this allows " a comprehensive exploration of life as perpetually active experiencing , as opposed to occasional – and thoroughly passive – happening . " Dibben has published two books on applied process thought , Applied Process Thought I : Initial Explorations in Theory and Research ( 2008 ) , and Applied Process Thought II : Following a Trail Ablaze ( 2009 ) , as well as other papers in this vein in the fields of philosophy of management and business ethics .
Margaret Stout and Carrie M. Staton have also written recently on the mutual influence of Whitehead and Mary Parker Follett , a pioneer in the fields of organizational theory and organizational behavior . Stout and Staton see both Whitehead and Follett as sharing an ontology that " understands becoming as a relational process ; difference as being related , yet unique ; and the purpose of becoming as harmonizing difference . " This connection is further analyzed by Stout and Jeannine M. Love in Integrative Process : Follettian Thinking from Ontology to Administration
= = Primary works = =
Books written by Whitehead , listed by date of publication .
A Treatise on Universal Algebra . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press , 1898 . ISBN 1 @-@ 4297 @-@ 0032 @-@ 7 . Available online at http : / / projecteuclid.org / euclid.chmm / 1263316509 .
The Axioms of Descriptive Geometry . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press , 1907 . Available online at http : / / quod.lib.umich.edu / u / umhistmath / ABN2643.0001.001.
with Bertrand Russell . Principia Mathematica , Volume I. Cambridge : Cambridge University Press , 1910 . Available online at http : / / www.hti.umich.edu / cgi / b / bib / bibperm ? q1 = AAT3201.0001.001. Vol . 1 to * 56 is available as a CUP paperback .
An Introduction to Mathematics . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press , 1911 . Available online at http : / / quod.lib.umich.edu / u / umhistmath / AAW5995.0001.001. Vol . 56 of the Great Books of the Western World series .
with Bertrand Russell . Principia Mathematica , Volume II . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press , 1912 . Available online at http : / / www.hti.umich.edu / cgi / b / bib / bibperm ? q1 = AAT3201.0002.001.
with Bertrand Russell . Principia Mathematica , Volume III . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press , 1913 . Available online at http : / / www.hti.umich.edu / cgi / b / bib / bibperm ? q1 = AAT3201.0003.001.
The Organization of Thought Educational and Scientific . London : Williams & Norgate , 1917 . Available online at https : / / archive.org / details / organisationofth00whit .
An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Natural Knowledge . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press , 1919 . Available online at https : / / archive.org / details / enquiryconcernpr00whitrich .
The Concept of Nature . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press , 1920 . Based on the November 1919 Tarner Lectures delivered at Trinity College . Available online at https : / / archive.org / details / cu31924012068593 .
The Principle of Relativity with Applications to Physical Science . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press , 1922 . Available online at https : / / archive.org / details / theprincipleofre00whituoft .
Science and the Modern World . New York : Macmillan Company , 1925 . Vol . 55 of the Great Books of the Western World series .
Religion in the Making . New York : Macmillan Company , 1926 . Based on the 1926 Lowell Lectures .
Symbolism , Its Meaning and Effect . New York : Macmillan Co . , 1927 . Based on the 1927 Barbour @-@ Page Lectures delivered at the University of Virginia .
Process and Reality : An Essay in Cosmology . New York : Macmillan Company , 1929 . Based on the 1927 – 28 Gifford Lectures delivered at the University of Edinburgh . The 1978 Free Press " corrected edition " edited by David Ray Griffin and Donald W. Sherburne corrects many errors in both the British and American editions , and also provides a comprehensive index .
The Aims of Education and Other Essays . New York : Macmillan Company , 1929 .
The Function of Reason . Princeton : Princeton University Press , 1929 . Based on the March 1929 Louis Clark Vanuxem Foundation Lectures delivered at Princeton University .
Adventures of Ideas . New York : Macmillan Company , 1933 . Also published by Cambridge : Cambridge University Press , 1933 .
Nature and Life . Chicago : University of Chicago Press , 1934 .
Modes of Thought . New York : MacMillan Company , 1938 .
" Mathematics and the Good . " In The Philosophy of Alfred North Whitehead , edited by Paul Arthur Schilpp , 666 – 681 . Evanston and Chicago : Northwestern University Press , 1941 .
" Immortality . " In The Philosophy of Alfred North Whitehead , edited by Paul Arthur Schilpp , 682 – 700 . Evanston and Chicago : Northwestern University Press , 1941 .
Essays in Science and Philosophy . London : Philosophical Library , 1947 .
with Allison Heartz Johnson , ed . The Wit and Wisdom of Whitehead . Boston : Beacon Press , 1947 .
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= Kyle Kendrick =
Kyle Rodney Kendrick ( born August 26 , 1984 ) is an American professional baseball pitcher in the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim organization . He has played in Major League Baseball ( MLB ) for the Philadelphia Phillies and Colorado Rockies . He was born in Houston , Texas , but attended high school in Mount Vernon , Washington . While growing up , he was greatly influenced by his father , from whom he developed his composure when pitching . Upon graduation , he turned down a scholarship to play college football , instead signing a contract to begin his professional baseball career in the Phillies ' organization . After a slow ascent through the lower levels of the Phillies ' minor league system , he made his MLB debut in 2007 , and was a member of the starting rotation of the 2008 World Series Champion team .
Subsequently , he was demoted to the minor leagues to develop secondary pitches . From 2010 until 2012 , his role on the big @-@ league squad frequently fluctuated , but overall , was an underrated member of the pitching staff , according to several writers . Nevertheless , he drew the ire of Phillies fans , who were tired of his inconsistency during the course of his career . After a successful 2012 campaign , however , he firmly implanted himself in the Phillies ' starting rotation before the 2013 season . Again in 2013 , though , he was inconsistent , and entering 2014 , some suggested he should be traded to another team .
His pitching style is characterized by his poise on the mound that allows him to " go with the flow " of the game . He predominantly throws a sinker , and mixes in some secondary pitches in which he lacks confidence . He is married , has two children , and lives in Snohomish County , Washington during the offseason .
= = Early life = =
Born in Houston , Texas , Kendrick was a three @-@ sport standout in football , basketball , and baseball at Mount Vernon High School in Mount Vernon , Washington . Throughout his adolescent athletic career , it was Kendrick 's father Maury from whom Kendrick drew guidance and direction , particularly on how to conduct oneself during a game . Maury advised Kendrick to show as little emotion as possible when pitching , and is the one from whom Kendrick draws his composure while pitching . Kendrick and his father discuss pitching before and after every one of Kendrick 's starts , which Maury watches from Seattle , Washington , and in 2013 , Maury was part of the Phillies ' Fathers Day celebration , a celebration of his guidance of Kendrick .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Philadelphia Phillies = = =
= = = = Minor leagues : 2003 – 2006 = = = =
The Phillies drafted Kendrick in the seventh round of the 2003 Major League Baseball Draft , which made Kendrick reject a football scholarship offer to Washington State University . He began his career in the lower levels of the minor league system , and struggled mightily . A feature article in Phillies magazine noted ,
His first three seasons , in the Gulf Coast League , and various Class A stops , weren 't encouraging . He was a combined 10 – 28 with a 5 @.@ 27 ERA ( earned run average ) . He allowed 356 hits in 286 @.@ 2 innings . There were some steps forward , some steps back
Early in his career , many within the organization questioned his work ethic and maturity , which they thought may have contributed to his underachievement . In 2006 , however , the Phillies " patience was ... rewarded " ; pitching for the Lakewood BlueClaws for the third consecutive season , he earned Phillies Minor League Pitcher of the Month accolades for May , thus warranting a promotion to the Clearwater Threshers . In 20 starts with Clearwater , he posted a 3 @.@ 53 ERA , among the best in the Florida State League . This performance as well as the fact that he spent significant time working out and focusing on mechanical improvement allayed the previous fears of poor work ethic . Ultimately , 2007 would be his last in the low levels of the Phillies ' minor leagues , as he began the season with the Double @-@ A ( AA ) Reading Phillies , and finished it with the big league club .
= = = = Breaking through : 2007 – 2009 = = = =
Despite several options at Triple @-@ A ( AAA ) , when Freddy García got hurt , Pat Gillick promoted Kendrick to the major leagues , which drew skepticism , as Kendrick was just 22 years old , and had not pitched particularly well for Reading . However , according to Steve Noworyta , Phillies assistant director of player development , Kendrick 's " mound presence and his maturity " , as well as the fact that " nothing really seemed to bother him " contributed to his promotion . His MLB debut came on June 13 against the Chicago White Sox at Citizens Bank Park . He pitched six innings and gave up three runs , receiving a no @-@ decision in an 8 – 4 Phillies ' victory . He pitched the second game of the 2007 National League Division Series against the Colorado Rockies , which the Phillies lost , en route to being swept in the series . He finished the season with a 10 – 4 win – loss record and a 3 @.@ 87 ERA in 121 MLB innings pitched . He came in fifth place , ultimately losing to Ryan Braun , in 2007 National League Rookie of the Year Award voting .
Before the 2008 season , Kendrick was a victim of an " elaborate practical joke " executed by Brett Myers that had Kendrick convinced he had been traded away to Japan . During the season , Kendrick 's performance slipped ; he posted a 5 @.@ 49 ERA in 30 starts . Despite his relative ineffectiveness , the Phillies won the 2008 World Series , and though he was left off the postseason roster , Kendrick received a World Series ring and co @-@ authored a diary from the series . Phillies pitching coach Rich Dubee attributed the decline to hitters discerning that Kendrick threw predominantly a sinker , and almost always in the strike zone , thus fostering predictability for hitters . As such , he spent the majority of the 2009 season in the minor leagues , working on developing his change up , which proved to be an arduous process . Ultimately , after learning a new grip from Justin Lehr , he had a eureka moment during a bullpen session in 2009 ; he developed the pitch , and made it back to the major leagues " for good " near the conclusion of the season .
= = = = An undefined role : 2010 – 2012 = = = =
The Phillies acquired Roy Halladay prior to the 2010 season , and during spring training , Kendrick sought the mentorship of Halladay , whom he aspired to emulate during his high school career . Halladay willingly obliged , and teammates endearingly referred to Kendrick as " Little Roy " due to the amount of time he spent working with Halladay . Despite initially losing a competition for the fifth spot in the Phillies starting rotation during spring training to Jamie Moyer , an injury to Joe Blanton thrust Kendrick into the fifth spot in the Phillies rotation , the fourth consecutive year during which he had held that role for at least a short time . After a decent first half of the 2010 season ( at the end of June , he had a 4 – 4 record with a 3 @.@ 23 ERA ) . Kendrick was briefly demoted to the Lehigh Valley IronPigs ( AAA ) , but did not make any starts there , as Moyer 's season ended due to injury , causing Kendrick 's recall . Overall , he earned 11 wins , which tied a career high , and started 31 games , which set a new career high , while , in total , posting an 11 – 10 record with a 4 @.@ 73 ERA in 1802 ⁄ 3 innings pitched . Pat Gallen , editor in chief of Phillies Nation , opined that Kendrick 's performance indicated he would never exceed being an average , " run @-@ of @-@ the @-@ mill starting pitcher " , who would never exceed that role . At the conclusion of the season , Kendrick and the Phillies avoided salary arbitration by agreeing to a one @-@ year , US $ 2 @,@ 450 @,@ 000 contract .
Kendrick 's inconsistency continued in 2011 , when he " flip @-@ flopped between the rotation and the bullpen all season " , performing as a spot starter and long reliever . His starts came during injuries to Blanton and Roy Oswalt , the latter of whom was a member of the " phour aces " that comprised the front @-@ end of the Phillies ' starting rotation ( Oswalt , Cliff Lee , Roy Halladay , and Cole Hamels ) . When making those spot starts , he was able to " keep the team in the game " . During the season , he improved against left @-@ handed hitters , performed strongly against divisional opponents , and posted a career @-@ best 3 @.@ 22 ERA . Overall , he totaled 34 appearances , 15 of which were starts , and recorded an 8 – 6 record in 1142 ⁄ 3 innings pitched . Again eligible for arbitration , this year , he signed a one @-@ year , US $ 3 @,@ 585 @,@ 000 pact with Philadelphia .
Once again , Kendrick was not a member of the opening day starting rotation , as Blanton and Vance Worley rounded out the final two spots after Hamels , Halladay , and Lee . However , once again , he joined the rotation due to injury , this season to Worley . He was a member of the rotation from the end of April to the beginning of July , in a relief role until the beginning of August , and then in the rotation for the remainder of the season . Ultimately , Kendrick started 25 games of a career @-@ high 37 appearances . He was especially strong after the all @-@ star game , posting a 3 @.@ 15 ERA and nine wins , the latter of which was tied for first in the National League . He also continued his success against NL East teams , posting a 3 @.@ 25 ERA against them . Though he had much success , he remained inconsistent , playing " the role Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde personified " – in 17 of his starts , he allowed two or fewer earned runs , and posted a combined 1 @.@ 73 ERA in those starts , while in the eight starts during which he surrendered more than two earned runs , he posted a 10 @.@ 40 ERA .
= = = = Middle @-@ of @-@ the @-@ rotation starter : 2013 – 14 = = = =
Thanks to his strong finish in 2012 , Kendrick entered spring training assured of a spot in the Phillies ' Opening Day starting rotation for the first time in five years and spent his first full season exclusively a member of the major league starting rotation . His 2013 season took the opposite trajectory of his 2012 campaign ; he held a 4 – 1 record with a 2 @.@ 47 ERA in his first eight starts , while he posted a 6 – 12 record with a 5 @.@ 65 ERA in his final 22 starts . Some suggested that because Kendrick is a contact pitcher ( i.e. , he focuses on getting outs via batters hitting the ball rather than striking out ) , his career @-@ worst batting average on balls in play indicated horrendous defense was the primary reason for his downturn , not necessarily poor pitching . However , both were likely contributing factors . On September 18 , he was scratched from his scheduled start due to right rotator cuff tendinitis , which may have contributed to his poor pitching down the stretch . It was the first time in Kendrick 's career he missed a start due to injury . He had initially planned on making his next start , but the Phillies announced on September 20 that Kendrick had been shut down for the remainder of the season after receiving a second opinion on the injury . The team placed him on the disabled list for his first career stint and Zach Miner took his spot in the rotation . Overall , he posted 10 – 13 with a 4 @.@ 70 ERA in 182 innings pitched .
At the conclusion of the 2013 season , there was suggestion that the Phillies should re @-@ sign Kendrick insofar as he would serve as a useful player to trade around the trade deadline for a prospect or two , as durable , mediocre starters are always in demand around that time . Contradictorily , one scout suggested that because he throws strikes with great frequency and has a propensity to induce groundballs , he would be a strong value option for the Phillies . Ultimately , the Phillies agreed with the latter , and signed him to a one @-@ year , US $ 7 @,@ 675 @,@ 000 contract in the final year before he is eligible to be a free agent . Kendrick preposterously struggled all season in the first inning , entering his final home start of the season with a 9 @.@ 31 ERA in the first inning . Overall , he pitched a career @-@ high 199 innings , but posted a 4 @.@ 61 ERA , second @-@ worst among qualifying NL starting pitchers . The prevailing consensus was that despite a sentimental attachment to Philadelphia , generally being liked by Phillies ' fans , and solid contributions to the back of the Phillies ' rotation since arriving in the major leagues , he was unlikely to return to Philadelphia for 2015 , but would be a " smart pickup " by a contending team .
= = = Colorado Rockies = = =
Kendrick signed a one @-@ year deal with the Colorado Rockies on February 4 , 2015 . He was later named the Rockies ' opening @-@ day starter for the 2015 season .
= = = Atlanta Braves = = =
On December 31 , 2015 , Kendrick signed a minor league contract with the Atlanta Braves . In addition , Kendrick received a non @-@ roster invite to spring training . He was released on March 12 , 2016 .
= = Pitching style = =
When Kendrick was first promoted to the major leagues , he relied almost exclusively on a sinker , but as he became more predictable , he had to adjust by adding pitches , including the changeup , cutter , and curveball that now comprise his repertoire . He throws from a slightly deceptive , deliberate windup , and his sinker ranges anywhere from 87 miles per hour ( 140 km / h ) to 93 miles per hour ( 150 km / h ) . He lacks requisite confidence in his secondary pitches , however , which contributes to batters being able to consistently make solid contact against him .
Although they have improved throughout his career , Kendrick has had poor peripheral statistics , including WAR , FIP and BABIP . Because he manages to stay competitive on the mound and do his job , most assert that the poor peripheral statistics do not matter for him . When pitching , he maintains constant equanimity and seeks to avoid showing emotion , a trait he learned from his father and has embodied since playing Little League Baseball . He credits his composure as the reason he is able to consistently " go with the flow " , and avoid being flustered , even in adverse situations .
= = Personal life = =
In 2009 , Kendrick became engaged to Survivor contestant Stephenie LaGrossa . They were married at the Silverado Resort in Napa , California , on November 13 , 2010 . Kendrick and LaGrossa had their first child , a daughter named Sophia Marguerite on September 3 , 2011 , and their second child , a son named Kyle Jr . , on July 30 , 2013 . In March 2011 , his home was burglarized ; among the stolen items was his World Series ring . Subsequently , the ring was found in a swampy area of Bothell , Washington , by Snohomish County Sheriff 's deputies . His pitching intro music is " Radioactive " by Imagine Dragons . Among his hobbies are golf and fantasy football .
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= Press Gang =
Press Gang is a British children 's television comedy @-@ drama consisting of 43 episodes across five series that were broadcast from 1989 to 1993 . It was produced by Richmond Film & Television for Central , and screened on the ITV network in its regular weekday afternoon children 's strand , Children 's ITV , typically in a 4 : 45 pm slot ( days varied over the course of the run ) .
Aimed at older children and teenagers , the programme was based on the activities of a children 's newspaper , the Junior Gazette , produced by pupils from the local comprehensive school . In later series it was depicted as a commercial venture . The show interspersed comedic elements with the dramatic . As well as addressing interpersonal relationships ( particularly in the Lynda @-@ Spike story arc ) , the show tackled issues such as solvent abuse , child abuse and firearms control .
Written by ex @-@ teacher Steven Moffat , more than half the episodes were directed by Bob Spiers , a noted British comedy director who had previously worked on classics such as Fawlty Towers . Critical reception was very positive , particularly for the quality of the writing , and the series has attracted a cult following with a wide age range .
= = Storyline = =
Famous journalist Matt Kerr ( Clive Wood ) arrives from Fleet Street to edit the local newspaper . He sets up a junior version of the paper , The Junior Gazette , to be produced by pupils from the local comprehensive school before and after school hours .
Some of the team are " star pupils " , but others have reputations for delinquency . One such pupil , Spike Thompson ( Dexter Fletcher ) , is forced to work on the paper rather than being expelled from school . He is immediately attracted to editor Lynda Day ( Julia Sawalha ) , but they bicker , throwing one @-@ liners at each other . Their relationship develops and they have an on @-@ off relationship . They regularly discuss their feelings , especially in the concluding episodes of each series . In the final episode of the third series , " Holding On " , Spike unwittingly expresses his strong feelings to Lynda while being taped . Jealous of his American girlfriend , Zoe , Lynda puts the cassette on Zoe 's personal stereo , ruining their relationship . The on @-@ screen chemistry between the two leads was reflected off @-@ screen as they became an item for several years .
Although the Lynda and Spike story arc runs throughout the series , most episodes feature self @-@ contained stories and sub @-@ plots . Amongst lighter stories , such as one about Colin accidentally attending a funeral dressed as a pink rabbit , the show tackled many serious issues . Jeff Evans , writing in the Guinness Television Encyclopedia , writes that the series adopts a " far more adult approach " than " previous efforts in the same vein " such as A Bunch of Fives . Some critics also compared it with Hill Street Blues , Lou Grant " and other thoughtful US dramas , thanks to its realism and its level @-@ headed treatment of touchy subjects . " The first series approached solvent abuse in " How To Make A Killing " , and the NSPCC assisted in the production of the " Something Terrible " episodes about child abuse . The team were held hostage by a gun enthusiast in series three 's " The Last Word " , while the final episode approaches drug abuse . The issue @-@ led episodes served to develop the main characters , so that " Something Terrible " is more " about Colin 's redemption [ from selfish capitalist ] , rather than Cindy 's abuse . "
According to the British Film Institute , " Press Gang managed to be perhaps the funniest children 's series ever made and at the same time the most painfully raw and emotionally honest . The tone could change effortlessly and sensitively from farce to tragedy in the space of an episode . " Although the series is sometimes referred to as a comedy , Moffat insists that it is a drama with jokes in it . The writer recalls " a long running argument with Geoff Hogg ( film editor on Press Gang ) about whether Press Gang was comedy . He insisted that it was and I said it wasn 't – it was just funny . " Some innuendo leads Moffat to claim that it " had the dirtiest jokes in history ; we got away with tons of stuff ... We nearly got away with a joke about anal sex , but they spotted it at the last minute . " In one episode Lynda says she 's going to " butter him up " , and , when asked while on a date in a restaurant if he was staying at the hotel , Colin replies " I shouldn 't think so : it 's only the first date . "
Jeff Evans also comments that the series was filmed cinematically , dabbling in " dream sequences , flashbacks , fantasies and , on one occasion , a Moonlighting @-@ esque parody of the film It 's a Wonderful Life . " The show had a strong awareness of continuity , with some stories , incidents and minor characters referred to throughout the series . Actors who played short @-@ term characters in the first two series were invited back to reprise their roles in future episodes . David Jefford ( Alex Crockett ) was resurrected from 1989 's " Monday – Tuesday " to appear in the final episode " There Are Crocodiles " , while the same actress ( Aisling Flitton ) who played a wrong number in " Love and the Junior Gazette " was invited to reprise her character for the third series episode " Chance is a Fine Thing . " " Attention to detail " such as this is , according to Paul Cornell , " one of the numerous ways that the series respects the intelligence of its viewers . "
After the team leaves school , the paper gains financial independence and runs commercially . Assistant editor Kenny ( Lee Ross ) leaves at the end of series three to be replaced by Julie ( Lucy Benjamin ) , who was the head of the graphics team in series one .
= = Production = =
= = = Inception = = =
Bill Moffat , a headmaster from Glasgow , had an idea for a children 's television programme called The Norbridge Files . He showed it to a producer who visited his school , Thorn Primary School in Johnstone , Renfrewshire , when it was used as the location for an episode of Harry Secombe 's Highway . Producer Sandra C. Hastie liked the idea and showed it to her future husband Bill Ward , co @-@ owner of her company Richmond Films and Television . When she requested a script , Moffat suggested that his 25 @-@ year @-@ old son Steven , an English teacher , should write it . Hastie said that it was " the best ever first script " that she had read .
All 43 episodes were written by Steven Moffat . During production of series two , he was having an unhappy personal life after the break @-@ up of his first marriage . His wife 's new lover was represented in the episode " The Big Finish ? " by the character Brian Magboy ( Simon Schatzberger ) , a name inspired by Brian : Maggie 's boy . Moffat brought in the character so that all sorts of unfortunate things would happen to him , such as having a typewriter dropped on his foot . This period in Moffat 's life would also be reflected in his sitcom Joking Apart .
Central Independent Television had confidence in the project , so rather than the show being shot at their studios in Nottingham as planned , they granted Richmond a £ 2 million budget . This enabled it to be shot on 16 mm film , rather than the regular , less expensive videotape , and on location , making it very expensive compared with most children 's television . These high production costs almost led to its cancellation at the end of the second series , by which time Central executive Lewis Rudd was unable to commission programmes by himself .
= = = Directors = = =
More than half of the episodes were directed by Bob Spiers , a noted British comedy director who had previously worked on Fawlty Towers amongst many other programmes . He would work again with Moffat on his sitcom Joking Apart and Murder Most Horrid , and with Sawalha on Absolutely Fabulous . According to Moffat , Spiers was the " principal director " taking an interest in the other episodes and setting the visual style of the show . Spiers particularly used tracking shots , sometimes requiring more dialogue to be written to accommodate the length of the shot . The other directors would come in and " do a Spiers " . All of the directors were encouraged to attend the others ' shoots so that the visual style would be consistent .
The first two episodes were directed by Colin Nutley . However , he was unhappy with the final edit and requested that his name be removed from the credits . Lorne Magory directed many episodes , notably the two @-@ part stories " How To Make A Killing " and " The Last Word . " One of the founders of Richmond Films and Television , Bill Ward , directed three episodes , and Bren Simson directed some of series two . The show 's cinematographer James Devis took the directorial reigns for " Windfall " , the penultimate episode .
= = = Location = = =
Whilst the show was set in the fictional town of Norbridge , it was mostly filmed in Uxbridge , a suburb of London . Many of the scenes were shot at Haydon School in Pinner . The first series was filmed entirely on location , but after the demolition of the building used as the original newspaper office , interior shots were filmed in Pinewood Studios for the second series , and the exterior of the building was not seen beyond that series . Subsequent series were filmed at Lee International Studios at Shepperton ( series three and four ) and Twickenham Studios ( series five ) .
= = = Music and title sequences = = =
The theme music was composed by Peter Davis ( who after the second series composed the rest of the series alone as principal composer ) , John Mealing and John G. Perry . The opening titles show the main characters striking a pose , with the name of the respective actor in a typewriter style typeface . Steven Moffat and Julia Sawalha were not very impressed with the opening titles when discussing them for a DVD commentary in 2004 . They were re @-@ recorded for series three , in the same style , to address the actors ' ages and alterations to the set .
Many of the closing titles in the first two series were accompanied by dialogue from two characters . Episodes that ended on a particularly sombre tone , such as " Monday @-@ Tuesday " and " Yesterday 's News " , used only appropriately sombre music to accompany the end credits . After an emphatic climax , " At Last a Dragon " used an enhanced version of the main theme with more extravagant use of electric guitar . Moffat felt that the voiceovers worked well in the first series , but that they were not as good in the second . Hastie recalls that Moffat was " extremely angry " that Drop the Dead Donkey had adopted the style . They were dropped after the second series . The cast , according to Moffat , were " grumpy with having to turn up to a recording studio to record them . "
= = Characters = =
= = = Main characters = = =
Lynda Day ( Julia Sawalha ) is the editor of the Junior Gazette . She is strong and opinionated , and is feared by many of her team . Moffat has said that the character was partly based on the show 's " ball @-@ breaking " producer , Sandra C. Hastie . Although she appears very tough , she occasionally exposes her feelings . She quits the paper at the end of " Monday @-@ Tuesday " , and in " Day Dreams " laments " Why do I get everything in my whole stupid life wrong ? " Intimidated by socialising , she hiccups at the idea . She is so nervous at a cocktail party , in " At Last a Dragon " , that she attempts to leave on several occasions . The mixture of Lynda 's sensitive side and her self @-@ sufficient attitude is illustrated in the series ' final episode " There Are Crocodiles . " Reprimanding the ghost of Gary ( Mark Sayers ) , who died after taking a drug overdose , she says :
Look , I 'm sorry you 're dead OK ? I do care . But to be perfectly honest with you , I don 't care a lot . You had a choice , you took the drugs , you died . Are you seriously claiming no one warned you it was dangerous ? ... I mean , have you had a look at the world lately ? ... There 's plenty of stuff going on that kills you and you don 't get warned at all . So sticking your head in a crocodile you were told about is not calculated to get my sympathy .
James " Spike " Thomson ( Dexter Fletcher ) is an American delinquent , forced to work on the paper rather than being excluded from school . He is immediately attracted to Lynda , and he establishes himself as an important member of the reporting team having been responsible for getting their first lead story . He usually has a range of one @-@ liners , though is often criticised , particularly by Lynda , for excessive joking . However , Spike often consciously uses humour to lighten the tone , such as in " Monday @-@ Tuesday " when he tries to cheer up Lynda after she feels responsible for David 's suicide .
The character was originally written as English , until producer Hastie felt that an American character would enhance the chance of overseas sales . This meant that English @-@ born Fletcher had to act in an American accent for all five years . Moffat says that he isn 't " sure [ that ] lumbering Dexter with that accent was a smart move . " The American accent had some fans surprised to learn that Fletcher is actually English .
Kenny Phillips ( Lee Ross ) is one of Lynda 's ( few ) long @-@ term friends and is her assistant editor in the first three series . Kenny is much calmer than Lynda , though is still dominated by her . Despite this , he is one of the few people able to stand up to Lynda , in his own quiet way . Although he identifies himself as " sweet " , he is unlucky in love : Jenny ( Sadie Frost ) , the girlfriend he meets in " How to Make a Killing " , dumps him because he is too understanding . His secret passion for writing music is revealed at the end of series two , which was influenced by Ross ' interests . Colin organizes and markets a concert for him , and the second series ends with Kenny performing " You Don 't Feel For Me " ( written by Ross himself ) . Lee Ross was only able to commit to the first six episodes of the 12 @-@ episode series three and four filming block because he was expecting a film role . Thus , by series four , Kenny has left for Australia .
Colin Mathews ( Paul Reynolds ) is the Thatcherite in charge of the paper 's finances and advertising . He often wears loud shirts , and his various schemes have included marketing defective half @-@ ping @-@ pong balls ( as ' pings ' ) , exam revision kits and soda that leaves facial stains . Rosie Marcel and Claire Hearnden appear throughout the second series as Sophie and Laura , Colin 's mischievous young helpers .
Julie Craig ( Lucy Benjamin ) is the head of the graphics team in series one . Moffat was impressed with Benjamin 's performance , and expanded her character for the second series . However she had committed herself to roles in the LWT sitcom Close to Home and Jupiter Moon , so the character was replaced by Sam . The character returns in the opening episode of series four as researcher on the Saturday morning show Crazy Stuff . She arranges for Lynda and Spike to be reunited on live television , but the subsequent complaints about the violence ( face slapping ) results in Julie 's firing . After giving Lynda some home truths , Julie replaces Kenny as the assistant editor for the final two series . She is a flirt , and , according to Lynda , was the " official pin @-@ up at the last prison riot . "
Sarah Jackson ( Kelda Holmes ) is the paper 's lead writer . Although she is intelligent she gets stressed , such as during her interview for editorship of the Junior Gazette . Her final episode , " Friendly Fire " , shows the development of her friendship with Lynda , and how the latter saw her as a challenge when she first arrived to Norbridge High . Together they had established the underground school magazine : Damn Magazine . Her first attempt to leave the newspaper to attend a writing course at the local college is thwarted by Lynda , but she eventually leaves in series five to attend university ( mirroring the reason for Holmes ' departure ) .
Frazer " Frazz " Davis ( Mmoloki Chrystie ) is one of Spike 's co @-@ delinquents forced into working on the paper , his initial main task writing the horoscopes . Frazz is initially portrayed as " intellectually challenged " , such as not understanding the synonymous relationship between " the astrology column " and the horoscopes . Later episodes , however , show him to be devious , such as in " The Last Word : Part 2 " when he stuns the gunman using a large array of flashguns .
= = = Other recurring characters = = =
Sam Black ( Gabrielle Anwar ) replaced Julie as the head of the graphics team in the second series . Sam is very fashion conscious and a flirt , and is surprised when an actor rejects her advances in favour of Sarah . Anwar had auditioned for the role of Lynda . ( Many actors who unsuccessfully auditioned for main characters were invited back later for guest roles . ) Moffat had expanded the role of Julie after the first series , but Lucy Benjamin was unavailable for series two . Sam , therefore , was basically the character of Julie under a different name , especially in her earlier episodes .
Charlie Creed @-@ Miles , who played Danny McColl , the paper 's photographer , became disenchanted with his minor role and left after the first series .
Toni " Tiddler " Tildesley ( Joanna Dukes ) is the junior member of the team , responsible for the junior section , Junior Junior Gazette .
Billy Homer ( Andy Crowe ) was also a recurring character . A tetraplegic , he is very competent with computer networks , sometimes hacking into the school 's database . His storylines are some of the first representations of the Internet in British television . Moffat felt that he was unable to sustain the character , and he appears only sporadically after the first series .
The main adults are deputy headmaster Bill Sullivan ( Nick Stringer ) , maverick editor Matt Kerr ( Clive Wood ) and experienced Gazette reporter Chrissie Stewart ( Angela Bruce ) .
= = Reaction = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
Critical reaction was good , the show being particularly praised for the high quality and sophistication of the writing . The first episode was highly rated by The Daily Telegraph , The Guardian and the Times Educational Supplement . In his emphatic review , Paul Cornell writes that :
Press Gang has proved to be a series that can transport you back to how you felt as a teenager , sharper that the world but with as much angst as acute wit ... Never again can a show get away with talking down to children or writing sloppily for them . Press Gang , possibly the best show in the world .
Time Out said that " this is quality entertainment : the kids are sharp , the scripts are clever and the jokes are good . " The BBC 's William Gallagher called it " pretty flawless " , with The Guardian retrospectively commending the series . Others , such as Popmatters , have also commented upon how " the show is renowned ... for doing something kid television at the time didn 't do ( and , arguably , still doesn 't ) : it refused to treat its audience like children . " Comedian Richard Herring recalls watching the show as a recent graduate , commenting that it " was subtle , sophisticated and much too good for kids . " According to Moffat , " Press Gang had gone over very , very well in the industry and I was being touted and romanced all the time . " Press Gang 's complicated plots and structure would become a hallmark of Moffat 's work , such as Joking Apart and Coupling .
The series received a Royal Television Society award and a BAFTA in 1991 for " Best Children 's Programme ( Entertainment / Drama ) " . It was also nominated for two Writers ' Guild of Great Britain awards , one Prix Jeunesse and the 1992 BAFTA for " Best Children 's Programme ( Fiction ) " . Julia Sawalha won the Royal Television Society Television Award for " Best Actor – Female " in 1993 .
= = = Repeat showings = = =
The show gained an even wider adult audience in an early evening slot when repeated on Sundays on Channel 4 in 1991 . This crossover is reflected in the BBC 's review for one of the DVDs when they say that " Press Gang is one of the best series ever made for kids . Or adults . "
Nickelodeon showed nearly all of the episodes in a weekday slot in 1997 . The final three episodes of the third series , however , were not repeated on the children 's channel because of their content : " The Last Word " double episode with the gun siege , and " Holding On " with the repetition of the phrase " divorce the bitch " . On the first transmission of the latter on 11 June 1991 , continuity announcer Tommy Boyd warned viewers that it contained stronger than usual language . In 2007 , itv.com made the first series , with the exception of " Page One " , available to be viewed on its website free of charge .
2 episodes were broadcast on the CITV Channel on 5 & 6 January 2013 , as part of a weekend of archive programmes to celebrate CITV 's 30th anniversary .
= = = Fan following = = =
Press Gang has attracted a cult following . A fanzine , Breakfast at Czars , was produced in the 1990s . Edited by Stephen O 'Brien , it contained a range of interviews with the cast and crew ( notably with producer Hastie ) , theatre reviews and fanfiction . The first edition was included as a PDF file on the series two DVD , while the next three were on the series five disc . An e @-@ mail discussion list has been operational since February 1997 . Scholar Miles Booy observes that as Steven Moffat was himself a fan of Doctor Who , he was able to ingrate the elements that TV fans appreciated , such as :
series finales with big cliff @-@ hangers , rigorous continuity and a slew of running jokes and references which paid those who watched and rewatched the text to pull out its minutia . At the end of the second series , it is remarked that the news team have been following the Spike / Lynda romance ' since page one ' , and only the fans remembered – or discovered on reviewing – that " Page One " was the title of the first episode .
Booy points out that Chris Carter and Joss Whedon would be acclaimed for these elements in the 1990s ( in the shows The X @-@ Files and Buffy the Vampire Slayer ) , but " Moffat got there first , and ... in a children 's TV slot . His was the first show to arrive with a Britain 's fan 's sensibility to formal possibilities . "
Two conventions were held in the mid @-@ 1990s in Liverpool . The events , in aid of the NSPCC , were each titled " Both Sides of the Paper " and were attended by Steven Moffat , Sandra Hastie , Dexter Fletcher , Paul Reynolds , Kelda Holmes and Nick Stringer . There were screenings of extended rough cuts of " A Quarter to Midnight " and " There Are Crocodiles " , along with auctions of wardrobe and props . When Virgin Publishing prevented Paul Cornell from writing an episode guide , the Press Gang Programme Guide , edited by Jim Sangster , was published by Leomac Publishing in 1995 . Sangster , O 'Brien and Adrian Petford collaborated with Network DVD on the extra features for the DVD releases .
Big Finish Productions , which produces audio plays based on sci @-@ fi properties , particularly Doctor Who , was named after the title of the final episode of the second series . Moffat himself is an ardent Doctor Who fan , and became the programme 's lead writer and executive producer in 2009 .
Moffat has integrated many references to secondary characters and locations in Press Gang in his later work . His 1997 sitcom Chalk refers to a neighbouring school as Norbridge High , run by Mr Sullivan , and to the characters Dr Clipstone ( " UneXpected " ) , Malcolm Bullivant ( " Something Terrible " ) and David Jefford ( " Monday @-@ Tuesday " / " There are Crocodiles " ) , a pupil who Mr Slatt ( David Bamber ) reprimands for masturbating . The name " Talwinning " appears as the name of streets in " A Quarter to Midnight " and Joking Apart , and as the surname of the protagonist in " Dying Live " , an episode of Murder Most Horrid written by Moffat , as well as the name of a librarian in his Doctor Who prose short story , " Continuity Errors " , which was published in the 1996 Virgin Books anthology Decalog 3 : Consequences . The name " Inspector Hibbert " , from " The Last Word " , is given to the character played by Nick Stringer in " Elvis , Jesus and Jack " , Moffat 's final Murder Most Horrid contribution . Most recently , in the first episode of Moffat 's Jekyll , Mr Hyde ( James Nesbitt ) whistled the same tune as Lynda in " Going Back to Jasper Street " .
= = = Proposed television movie = = =
A television film called " Deadline " was planned . It was set a few years after the series and aimed at a more adult audience . At one stage in 1992 , series 4 was intended to be the last , and the movie was proposed as a follow @-@ up . However , making of the film fell through when a fifth series was commissioned instead . The idea of the follow @-@ up film was reconsidered several times during the 1990s , but every time fell through for various reasons .
In June 2007 , The Stage reported that Moffat and Sawalha are interested in reviving Press Gang . He said : " I would revive that like a shot . I would love to do a reunion episode — a grown @-@ up version . I know Julia Sawalha is interested — every time I see her she asks me when we are going to do it . Maybe it will happen — I would like it to . " The Guardian advocated the show 's revival , arguing that " a revamped Press Gang with Moffat at the helm could turn the show from a cult into a national institution - a petri dish for young acting and writing talent to thrive . It 's part of our TV heritage and definitely worthy of resuscitation . "
At the Edinburgh International Television Festival in August 2008 , Moffat told how he got drunk after the wrap party for Jekyll and pitched the idea of a Press Gang reunion special to the Head of Drama at the BBC , John Yorke . Despite Yorke 's approval , the writer said that he was too busy with his work on Doctor Who to pursue the idea .
= = Merchandise = =
Several products have been released , specifically four novelisations , a video and the complete collection on DVD .
Four novelisations were written by Bill Moffat and published by Hippo Books / Scholastic in 1989 and 1990 based on the first two series . First Edition was based on the first three episodes , with Public Exposure covering " Interface " and " How to Make a Killing . " The third book , Checkmate , covered " Breakfast at Czar 's " , " Picking Up the Pieces " and " Going Back to Jasper Street " , and reveals that Julie left the graphics department to go to art college . The fourth and final book , The Date , is a novelisation of " Money , Love and Birdseed " , " Love and the Junior Gazette " and " At Last a Dragon . " Each book featured an eight @-@ page photographic insert .
VCI Home Video , with Central Video , released one volume on VHS in 1990 featuring the first four episodes : " Page One " , " Photo Finish " , " One Easy Lesson " and " Deadline . " The complete series of Press Gang is available on DVD ( Region 2 , UK ) from Network DVD and in Australia ( Region 4 ) from Force Entertainment . Four episodes of the second series DVD features an audio commentary by Julia Sawalha and Steven Moffat , in which the actress claims to remember very little about the show . Shooting scripts and extracts from Jim Sangster 's programme guide ( published by Leomac Publishing ) are included in PDF format from series two onwards . The second series DVD set also contains the only existing copy , in offline edit form , of an unaired documentary filmed during production of series two .
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= Valley View ( Romney , West Virginia ) =
Valley View is a mid @-@ 19th @-@ century Greek Revival residence and farm overlooking the South Branch Potomac River north of Romney , West Virginia . Valley View is on Depot Valley Road . The South Branch Valley Railroad adjacent to the farm is currently utilized by the Potomac Eagle Scenic Railroad .
The Valley View property was part of the South Branch Survey of the Northern Neck Proprietary , a large tract that belonged to Thomas Fairfax , 6th Lord Fairfax of Cameron . It was settled by the Collins family in 1749 , and acquired by the Parsons family before 1772 . The Valley View house was built by James Parsons Jr. in 1855 . After the Civil War , Parsons ' widow sold the farm to Charles Harmison . His wife Elizabeth Smith Harmison , inspired by her childhood Virginia home ( Western View ) and the scenic river views , named the farm Valley View . Following a series of owners , the property was purchased by the Mayhew family in 1979 . Valley View 's current proprietors , Robert and Kim Mayhew , have restored the historic residence and grounds .
The house at Valley View is a two @-@ story brick Greek Revival @-@ style structure with a rectangular architectural plan . The front entrance is covered by a small portico , topped with a pediment supported by wooden Doric columns . The rear of the house , with a two @-@ story ( double ) wood porch stretching across it , faces the South Branch Potomac River valley and Mill Creek Mountain . Each of the original eight large rooms of the 1855 structure contains a fireplace framed by a wooden trabeated mantelpiece with classical elements . The original windows , wooden trim , and materials in the main section of the house are intact . In 2012 , Valley View was listed on the National Register of Historic Places for its locally significant architecture .
= = History = =
= = = Royal land grant and Collins family ownership = = =
Valley View is located on land that was originally part of the Northern Neck Proprietary , a land grant first awarded in 1649 by Charles II of England to seven of his supporters and again in 1688 by official patent . One of the seven , Thomas Colepeper , 2nd Baron Colepeper , acquired the right to the entire grant in 1681 . This was confirmed by King James II , and Colepeper 's grandson Thomas Fairfax , 6th Lord Fairfax of Cameron , inherited it in 1719 . Lord Fairfax selected a portion of the proprietary for his manor . This tract , known as the South Branch Survey of the Northern Neck Proprietary , extended from the north end of the Trough to the junction of the North and South Branches of the Potomac River . In 1748 , Fairfax commissioned James Genn to survey the South Branch Potomac River lowlands for sale and lease , with lots ranging in size from 300 to 400 acres ( 120 to 160 ha ) .
In 1749 , the tract on which Valley View stands was purchased from Lord Fairfax by John Collins . The 425 @-@ acre ( 172 ha ) lot was Lot Number 20 on the South Branch Survey . Collins also owned a large tract of land spanning present @-@ day Hampshire and Hardy counties . His son Thomas Collins is thought to have inherited his father 's landholdings as an " heir at law " , since there is no record of a will by John Collins dispensing of his properties . By 1772 , Thomas Collins acquired Lot Number 20 , where he lived with his wife Elizabeth . In 1816 , Collins was serving as a magistrate when the town of Romney held a Virginia state election for the Electoral College . One representative from each of Virginia 's then @-@ 25 counties traveled to Romney to cast his vote . Collins and county commissioner William Donaldson certified the convention 's election results .
In 1817 , Thomas Collins sold Lot Number 20 to James Gregg Parsons . It is unknown whether the Collinses moved from the tract or continued living on it after the sale . Thomas Collins died in 1822 , and Elizabeth Collins in 1823 .
= = = Parsons family ownership = = =
The Parsons family was among the first English settlers in the Thirteen Colonies in 1635 ; around 1740 , they settled in Hampshire County . By 1778 , Isaac Parsons ( 1752 – 1796 ) , a member of the Virginia House of Delegates , owned 161 acres ( 65 ha ) of Lot Number 16 and all of Lot Number 17 in the Proprietary . James Gregg Parsons , his eldest son , was born in Hampshire County in 1773 . In 1795 he married Mary Catherine Casey ( 1773 – 1846 ) , whose family owned the adjoining Lot Number 21 . After their marriage they lived in the main house at Wappocomo ( built by Mary Catherine 's father ) , inheriting the house at his death in 1833 .
Parsons died on January 25 , 1847 , leaving most of his land to his three sons : James ( Big Jim ) Parsons Jr . ( 1798 – 1858 ) , David C. Parsons ( 1803 – 1860 ) , and Isaac Parsons ( 1814 – 1862 ) . James , his eldest son , inherited Lot Number 20 ; his second son David inherited Lot Number 13 south of Romney ( on which Hickory Grove was later located ) ; and his youngest son Isaac inherited Lot Number 21 ( which included Wappocomo ) . His sons also inherited the nearby " Jake Sugar Rum Tract , the McGuire Tract , and five town lots in Romney " . According to historian William K. Rice , by 1846 Parsons ' sons and their families were all living on the tracts they would subsequently inherit . Rice determined that James Parsons Jr. moved to the Collins Tract around 1826 , and was living there when his father died .
James Parsons Jr . , known as " Big Jim " because of his size , was a farmer and cattleman who was born in Hampshire County . In her 1913 Parsons ' Family History and Record , Parsons ' relative ( and family genealogist ) Virginia Parsons MacCabe wrote about him : " He was square and honorable in business , and had a large circle of friends ; he had the urbanity and the gentility of manner which characterizes the true gentleman " . Parsons married Elizabeth Miller on January 8 , 1829 . The couple had eleven children , several of whom attended college .
In 1855 , Parsons began building the present @-@ day Valley View house , 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) north of Romney on the Collins Tract . Although he wrote many letters to his sister Mary Gregg Parsons Stump about farming , cattle , family , health and community events , no letters are known to remain from the time of the house 's construction . The Parsons family owned several slaves who are thought to have assisted with construction .
After living in his new house for three years , Big Jim died of tuberculosis on October 14 , 1858 . His widow , Elizabeth , lived in the house until after the Civil War . In 1867 or 1869 , she sold the house , the Collins Tract and the remainder of Lot Number 20 to Charles Harmison ( 1823 – 1896 ) for $ 8 @,@ 500 , moving with her remaining children to Missouri ( where she died in 1883 ) . The cost of building the house financially strained the Parsons family ; historian Catherine Snider Long suggests that Elizabeth Miller Parsons sold the house as a result of additional , war @-@ related financial stress from which the family could not recover .
= = = Harmison family ownership = = =
Charles Harmison was born in Franklin County , Illinois , to Nathaniel and Lydia Harmison , and married Elizabeth " Bettie " Ann Smith ( 1827 – 1903 ) on May 4 , 1854 , in Taylor County , West Virginia . Bettie , the daughter of C. C. and Martha W. Smith , was raised at Western View ( their Fauquier County , Virginia , home ) . By 1867 , Harmison and his family were living in Harrison County .
Charles Harmison 's older brother had moved to Romney , where he established and operated a hotel ( the Virginia House ) . In 1867 , the brother learned that the Parsons farm was for sale , and he advised Charles to buy it . Charles ' wife , who wanted to live nearer to Virginia , also urged her husband to buy the property . Charles did , and he , his wife , their ( then ) seven children and a young African American boy named Snoden moved from Harrison to Hampshire County in three days . They traveled on the Northwestern Turnpike in an ambulance Charles had bought after the war . Influenced by her childhood home and by its view of the South Branch Potomac River valley , Elizabeth Harmison named their new house and farm Valley View .
Harmison prospered in Hampshire County , acquiring additional land and enlarging his Valley View estate . He later gave this acquired land to his children to establish their own homes when they married . In 1884 , the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad completed its South Branch , connecting the main line at Green Spring to Romney ; this branch bisected the Valley View property . Charles Harmison lived at Valley View until his death on October 31 , 1896 .
Charles and Elizabeth 's son , George Edward Harmison ( 1863 – 1916 ) , inherited Valley View around 1903 and brought his wife , Carrie Belle Fox ( 1870 – 1953 ) , there after their marriage on October 4 , 1905 . George demolished the old log kitchen at Valley View , replacing it with a contemporary kitchen building .
The Hampshire Southern Railroad was completed from the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad 's Romney Depot spur to the South Branch Potomac River by 1909 . In October of that year , the first train on the line passed over Harmison 's bottomlands and crossed the river on an unfinished wooden trestle . By 1910 , the 18 @-@ mile ( 29 km ) line from the Romney spur terminus at Valley View to McNeill was in operation . Later that year , freight and passenger service between Romney and Moorefield began , providing a direct rail link between Moorefield and the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad main line at Green Spring . The Hampshire Southern Railroad Company operated this line until 1911 , when it was purchased by the Moorefield and Virginia Railroad Company . Moorefield and Virginia transferred the rail line to the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad Company in 1913 , when it became part of the B & O 's South Branch .
In 1911 , George Harmison subdivided the Valley View fields on the Yellow Banks overlooking the South Branch Potomac River . The new development , known as the Valley View Addition to Romney , was south of the Valley View house and west of Romney Depot . Twenty @-@ one lots were sold at public auction on September 27 , 1911 , and several more were sold privately .
Harmison died in 1916 , and Carrie continued to live at Valley View until her death on February 8 , 1953 . Harmison 's nephew , Paul Cresap Harmison ( 1893 – 1972 , a grandson of Charles Harmison 's brother Jonathan Harmison ) , and his wife Nancy Parker Harmison ( 1896 – 1981 ) had moved to Valley View to live with her . After Carrie 's death , Paul and Nancy Parker Harmison inherited the house and farm . Valley View remained in the Harmison family until 1963 , when it was sold to Philip Newell and his wife Martha .
= = = Mind Garage = = =
The psychedelic rock band Mind Garage lived at Valley View during the summer of 1968 . During its stay , the band wrote many songs that were later included in their first , self @-@ titled RCA Records album and Mind Garage Early Years . Several songs were conceived on the porch overlooking the valley , then developed and practiced in the barn downhill from the house 's backyard . Among the songs written at Valley View was " Circus Farm " , inspired by the view of the South Branch Potomac River valley from the house 's rear second @-@ floor porch .
= = = Mayhew family ownership = = =
During its changes in ownership , the original Lot Number 20 of the South Branch Survey was repeatedly partitioned and sold . By 1976 , the original property was divided into five farms and additional parcels , including the Valley View Addition . The tract on which the Valley View residence is located currently measures 6 @.@ 63 acres ( 2 @.@ 68 ha ) .
Valley View was purchased by Robert Mayhew 's father and a business associate in 1979 . Mayhew subsequently purchased it from his father , and he and his wife Kim have restored the residence and grounds .
After surveys of historic properties in the county , in 2008 the Hampshire County Historic Landmarks Commission and the Hampshire County Commission began an initiative to place structures and districts on the National Register of Historic Places . The county received funding from the State Historic Preservation Office of the West Virginia Division of Culture and History to survey and document its architecture and history . As a result of this initiative , Valley View was one of the first eight historic properties to be considered for placement on the register . The other seven were Capon Chapel , Fort Kuykendall , Hickory Grove , Hook Tavern , North River Mills Historic District , Old Pine Church and Springfield Brick House . The house at Valley View was listed on the NRHP on December 12 , 2012 .
= = Architecture = =
The house at Valley View is significant for its Greek Revival architecture . According to architectural historian Courtney Fint Zimmerman , " Valley View is a characteristic example of the Greek Revival style for more practical residential applications in outlying areas " . The Valley View house has several Greek Revival design characteristics , including a symmetrical architectural plan and elevations and " substantial , formal " mass . Zimmerman ( who prepared Valley View 's registration form for the NRHP ) said , " Valley View 's applied details in the Greek Revival style , including the front entrance entablature and portico , are more limited , yet the variations that can be seen on Valley View and other estates in the South Branch Valley illustrate the flexibility inherent in the style " .
Valley View 's house consists of the original 1855 brick section and a board @-@ and @-@ batten 1961 – 1962 kitchen addition . The grounds contain a smokehouse , a water well , the foundations of an ice house , and a summer kitchen .
The bricks from which the house was built were fired in the immediate vicinity ( along the banks of the South Branch Potomac River ) , and the brick walls were reinforced with hand @-@ wrought structural iron angles . The nails used in its construction were fabricated by a local blacksmith , and the wooden sills and joists were sawn by hand . As of 2012 , all the original windows , trim and building materials in the main section of the house were still present .
= = = Exterior = = =
Valley View 's house is a two @-@ story brick structure with a rectangular architectural plan and exterior dimensions measuring about 49 by 32 feet ( 14 @.@ 9 by 9 @.@ 8 m ) . The house 's exterior brick walls are 9 inches ( 23 cm ) thick and laid in an American bond . The house is topped with a steep metal gabled roof with standing seam profiles . Two sets of double inside chimneys extend above the steep roofline on the northwestern and southeastern ends .
The front façade of the house faces a hill to the southwest . It is five bays wide , with the front entrance at the first floor 's center bay . Wide double @-@ hung sash windows are uniformly placed on the house 's front façade , with four nine @-@ over @-@ six double @-@ hung wooden sashes on the first story and five six @-@ over @-@ six double @-@ hung wooden sashes on the second . Each window is surrounded by green @-@ painted wooden shutters and white @-@ painted wooden lintels and sills .
The front entrance is covered by a small Greek Revival portico measuring about 12 by 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 by 3 @.@ 7 m ) , topped with a pediment supported by wooden Doric columns and engaged columns at the wall . The front porch is flanked by modest wooden handrails and balusters on its left and right sides . The front entrance is post and lintel construction , with a six @-@ pane transom and two three @-@ pane sidelight windows around the doorway . Zimmerman suggests that " Big Jim " Parsons embellished his home 's front entrance to assert his " wealth and status " and provide " an honored welcome to visitors " .
The rear façade of the house faces northeast , across the South Branch Potomac River valley toward Mill Creek Mountain . A two @-@ story ( double ) wooden porch about 9 feet ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) deep extends across the rear of the house , topped by a shed roof extending from the main gabled roof at a shallower pitch . The first @-@ story porch supports are brown wooden turned posts with no handrail or balusters , and the porch 's second story has white painted square wood posts and vertical railings . Like the front façade , the rear façade is five bays wide ; access to the double porch is through a door in the central bay on both levels . The other four bays have nine @-@ over @-@ six double @-@ hung wooden sash windows on the first story and six @-@ over @-@ six double @-@ hung wooden sash windows on the second story . The northwestern and southeastern sides of the house have one small square window at attic level , between each pair of inside chimneys .
= = = Interior = = =
The interior of the Valley View house has a two @-@ room @-@ deep , central @-@ hallway floor plan . Its wide central hallway contains a staircase from the first floor to the attic , with a wooden handrail supported with square balusters and a modest wooden turned newel post . The ceilings are 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) high . Although the house 's foundation is low , the height of the interior walls and the full @-@ sized attic make it appear tall from the outside .
The original house has eight large rooms , each with a fireplace framed by a wooden geometric trabeated mantelpiece with classical elements . The four large rooms on the first floor open from either side of the center hallway . They contain simple wide wood trim , including skirting boards and door frame moldings with " subtly demarcated corners " . The house 's living and dining rooms have wide , wooden dado rails . Most of the wooden decorative trim is painted white , and the walls are plaster . The lone exception is the room serving as an office and den , which has dark stained wooden trim and interior brick structural walls ( exposed by the removal of its plaster during the 1960s ) . All rooms have the original wide plank wooden floors . The second floor has four bedrooms , with closets on either side of a fireplace and simple wood skirting boards and door frames . Parsons family members painted signatures and graffiti in the attic around 1856 , which remain visible on the stairwell wall .
= = = Kitchen addition = = =
A one @-@ story kitchen addition , built in 1961 – 1962 and measuring about 21 by 14 feet ( 6 @.@ 4 by 4 @.@ 3 m ) , extends from the northwest side of the original 1855 house . The addition has a gabled standing seam metal roof , and its exterior is covered in white @-@ painted board @-@ and @-@ batten siding . It has a vinyl bay window on the southwest side , a one @-@ over @-@ one double @-@ hung vinyl window on the northeast side and a door ( adjoining the wall of the 1855 house ) on the southeast side . An enclosed board @-@ and @-@ batten porch , measuring about 14 by 10 feet ( 4 @.@ 3 by 3 @.@ 0 m ) , and a shed roof extend from the front ( southwest ) of the kitchen addition . The original basement under the 1855 house is accessible through this porch extension . A ghost building outline on the northwest side of the 1855 house indicates an earlier structure where the present kitchen addition stands .
= = = Ancillary structures = = =
There are several ancillary structures near the house at Valley View , including a smokehouse and a water well , and the foundations of an ice house and a summer kitchen . Although the smokehouse , the summer kitchen and the ice house are believed to have been built by the Collinses before Big Jim Parsons built Valley View , the dates of construction are uncertain .
The smokehouse , measuring about 15 by 20 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 by 6 @.@ 1 m ) , is adjacent to the kitchen addition . It is set into a hillside , allowing at @-@ grade entry to its two levels . Built of square @-@ cut logs with white chinking atop a rubble masonry foundation , the smokehouse is topped with a standing seam metal gabled roof .
South of the smokehouse is the brick foundation of an ice house measuring about 15 by 20 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 by 6 @.@ 1 m ) and topped by modern wooden pergola and patio structures . The 15 @-@ by @-@ 20 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 6 by 6 @.@ 1 m ) brick foundation of Valley View 's summer kitchen is north of the smokehouse and topped by a contemporary wooden pavilion with a gabled roof .
In the rear yard of the house is a water well , enclosed by a brick building about 7 by 7 feet ( 2 @.@ 1 by 2 @.@ 1 m ) in area and 3 @.@ 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 1 m ) in height . In the center of the well cap is a metal hand pump . Although the well cap 's bricks are similar to those used in the construction of the main house , the well may date from an earlier residence on the site .
= = Geography = =
The Valley View house is about 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) northwest of downtown Romney , atop a promontory ( known locally as the Yellow Banks ) where Depot Valley joins the South Branch Potomac River valley . Depot Valley runs 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) from West Sioux Lane to Valley View , and an unnamed tributary of Big Run flows north along its bottom . Depot Valley Road parallels the stream .
Depot Valley is named for Romney Depot , located at the end of a former spur of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad 's South Branch line near the intersection of present @-@ day West Sioux Lane and Depot Valley Road . The unincorporated area around the depot was once known as Valley . A post office operated there from 1928 until 1937 , when its mail was routed through Romney ; it is assumed that Valley View farm used it , since it was 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) south of the house .
The Valley View farm property adjoins the Wappocomo farm on the northeast , the corporate limits of Romney on the east and south and the Yellow Banks on the west . In addition to Valley View 's 6 @.@ 63 acres ( 2 @.@ 68 ha ) tract , the Mayhew family owns agricultural land rich in alluvial soils along the South Branch Potomac River west of the house . The South Branch Valley Railroad bisects this farmland , crossing the South Branch Potomac River via a wooden trestle .
The Mayhews also own Valley View Island , an island in the South Branch Potomac River north of the mouth of Sulphur Spring Run and about 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) southwest of Valley View . The island is ringed by forests , with agricultural fields in its center . When Lots Number 17 and 19 of the South Branch Survey were surveyed in 1749 and resurveyed in 1788 , the island belonged to Lot Number 19 . At that time , the river flowed east of the island , along the base of the Yellow Banks ; its course later changed to run around the west side of the island .
Mill Creek Mountain , a narrow anticlinal mountain ridge , rises westward from the South Branch Potomac River across from Valley View . The western foothills of South Branch Mountain rise to the east . Both mountains are covered with Appalachian @-@ Blue Ridge forests of hardwoods and pine .
= = = Explanatory notes = = =
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= Interstellar Overdrive =
" Interstellar Overdrive " is an instrumental psychedelic rock song written and performed by Pink Floyd . The song was written in 1966 , and is listed on their debut album , The Piper at the Gates of Dawn , released in 1967 , clocking in at almost ten minutes in length .
The song originated when guitarist Syd Barrett heard the band 's manager Peter Jenner humming a song , which Barrett tried to interpret by playing it on his guitar . Musically sharing the same theme with " Astronomy Domine " , the piece was recorded in several takes between March and April 1967 . An earlier , longer recording of the song can be heard on the soundtrack to the film Tonite Lets All Make Love in London , which was recorded at Sound Technique Studios in early 1967 , and was released in the same year . Other versions of the track appear on various bootleg recordings . The piece has been covered by acts such as T. Rex , Pearl Jam , Hawkwind , the Melvins , and Simon House .
= = Composition and music = =
" Interstellar Overdrive " was one of the first very psychedelic instrumental improvisations recorded by a rock band . It was seen as Pink Floyd 's first foray into space rock ( along with " Astronomy Domine " ) , although band members would later disparage this term . " Interstellar Overdrive " originated when early Pink Floyd manager Peter Jenner was trying to hum a song he could not remember the name of ( most commonly identified as Love 's cover of " My Little Red Book " ) . Guitarist and vocalist Syd Barrett followed Jenner 's humming with his guitar and used it as the basis for the principal melody of " Interstellar Overdrive " . Bassist Roger Waters once told Barrett that the song 's riff reminded him of the theme tune from Steptoe and Son ( by Ron Grainer ) . Around the time the song was written , Barrett was also inspired by AMM and its guitarist Keith Rowe , who had a pattern of moving pieces of metal along his guitar 's fretboard . The free @-@ form section ( and also , " Pow R. Toc H. " ) was inspired by Frank Zappa 's free @-@ form freak @-@ outs and The Byrds ' " Eight Miles High " .
" Interstellar Overdrive " shares an emphasis on chromaticism with " Astronomy Domine " . The main theme descends chromatically from B to G , before resolving to E , all chords major . The opening hook of the piece is a distorted , descending guitar riff , played by Barrett , its composer , with Waters on bass and Richard Wright on organ . Nick Mason 's drums then kick in , and after the riff repeats itself a bit , the track turns into improvisation , including modal improvisations , flourishes on the Farfisa organ , and quiet interludes . The song gradually becomes almost structureless and in free @-@ form tempo , punctuated only by strange guitar noises . Eventually , however , the entire band restates the main theme , which is repeated with decreasing tempo and more deliberate intensity . Waters once called the song " an abstract piece " . A bass riff in the song later evolved into another Pink Floyd song , " Let There Be More Light " , which was written by Waters .
= = Recording = =
The stereo version of the song has an organ moving from speaker to speaker ; the effect is lost on the mono version of the song , where it simply gains an extra organ and guitar sound . Five takes of the song were originally recorded on 27 February 1967 , with a sixth later recorded on 16 March 1967 , in an attempt to create a shorter version , with overdubs in June of that year , the Piper version also appears on the official compilation albums Relics and A Nice Pair . Despite Smith trying to bring the rest of the album 's tracks from a jam @-@ long length to something more manageable , Smith relented for " Interstellar Overdrive " , as Jenner recalled : " It was definitely the deal that — hey , here you can do ' Interstellar Overdrive ' , you can do what you like , you can do your weird shit . So ' Interstellar Overdrive ' was the weird shit . . . and again , hats off to Norman for letting them do that . " A delay effect was created by producer Norman Smith by superimposing a second version of the song over a previous version . Smith played the drum roll on the song .
= = Alternative versions and live performances = =
The studio recording on The Piper at the Gates of Dawn is the one that most listeners are familiar with , yet several other versions survive from both the recording studio and the stage . It was first recorded as a demo on 31 October 1966 , recorded live @-@ in @-@ studio at Thompson Private Recording Company . This version was used as the audio sound to the film San Francisco , which was made by a friend of Barrett 's , Anthony Stern . While film @-@ maker Peter Whitehead and his secondhand Stern were having a discussion , the topic about Pink Floyd was brought about by Stern , to which Whitehead told him , " Yeah , terrible music " . Stern said that " they 're successful now " , and suggest the pair go watch Pink Floyd , at their gig at the Royal College of Art . Whitehead recalled that they " went to UFO and I liked them . Not connected to pop music , a long improvisatory quality , ideal for what I wanted . " Whitehead convinced Pink Floyd to record " Interstellar Overdrive " for a film he was working on . Before turning up at the recording studio , the band held a rehearsal , and the next day , 11 January 1967 , went to Sound Techniques studios . The studio , which was originally a dairy factory , was run by engineers Geoff Frost and John Wood .
For the session , which was booked for two hours , Wood and Joe Boyd operated the mixing desk , while Whitehead and Stern were filming . This recording of the song lasted nearly 16 @-@ minutes in length , recorded onto a 4 @-@ track recorder in one take , as the band didn 't want to have to play through the song again . The band then played another original instrumental , titled " Nick 's Boogie " . While 5 seconds of the band playing was included in Whitehead 's Tonite Lets All Make Love in London film , edits of the recording was included on the film 's respective soundtrack . The soundtrack ( released in 1968 ) includes an edited version of the song and two reprises of it . The full version is available on the album London ' 66 – ' 67 . While attempting to get the band a record deal , Joe Boyd returned ( and produced ) with the group to Sound Techniques studios . There , the band recorded a demo tape which was to be given to various record labels , one of the songs that features on the tape was " Interstellar Overdrive " . An early , unoverdubbed , shortened mix of the album 's " Interstellar Overdrive " was used for a French EP released in July 1967 . The 40th anniversary edition of The Piper at the Gates of Dawn contains two different , five @-@ minute @-@ long versions of the song , one of them being take 6 from 16 March .
Despite its encapsulation of their concert repertoire under the leadership of guitarist and composer Barrett , the long , improvisational , freeform structure of the piece is not particularly representative of the group 's recorded output . As drummer Mason states in his book Inside Out : A Personal History of Pink Floyd , live versions of the song featured many sections that did not appear on the album , and would often last more than 20 minutes . During the band 's days playing in residence at London underground clubs such as the UFO ( Underground Freak Out ) , the song usually opened their show . It occupied other positions , including the encore , until it was retired from the band 's setlist in 1970 . The song had first appeared in live performances in the autumn of 1966 . During one performance of the song , at a gig organized by Hoppy Hopkins , Pink Floyd managed to blow out the power of a venue . Hopkins called it " Very cold , very dirty but very nice . " After recording session for Piper were over , Pink Floyd played a 30 @-@ minute version of " Interstellar Overdrive " . Pink Floyd were filmed performing the song for Granada Television 's Scene Special documentary , in January 1967 at the UFO Club . A late @-@ Barrett era rendition was recorded live in Rotterdam in November 1967 , at the Hippy @-@ Happy Fair . The song was later replaced by " Set the Controls for the Heart of the Sun " as the main part of the band 's set lists , after Barrett left the band . A version of " Interstellar Overdrive " was cut from the Ummagumma live album .
= = Covers and legacy = =
" Interstellar Overdrive " has been covered by many artists , including Teenage Fanclub and Kylesa .
Tyrannosaurus Rex percussionist Steve Peregrin Took played a few bars of the lead riff of the song at a concert at the Lyceum , just before the band played " Do You Remember ? " . The incident can be heard on Midnight Court at the Lyceum .
The Mars Volta incorporated a cover of the song into their live shows as a tribute to Syd Barrett .
The cover version by The Melvins appears on their album Electroretard .
Pearl Jam have played snippets , which have appeared on their live albums , 8 @-@ 18 @-@ 00 - Indianapolis , Indiana , 10 @-@ 27 @-@ 00 - Fresno , California , and 11 @-@ 15 @-@ 13 - Dallas , Texas .
moe. covered the song in its entirety on their live album Dr. Stan 's Prescription , Volume 1 .
Hawkwind covered the song and the recording appears on their box set , Hawkwind Family Box .
Camper Van Beethoven covered the song on their studio album Camper Van Beethoven .
A disco version by Rosebud on their tribute album to Pink Floyd , Discoballs : A Tribute to Pink Floyd .
Spiral Realms covered it on a tribute album , Saucerful of Pink : A Tribute to Pink Floyd and on their studio album Solar Wind .
Death Grips sampled the main riff on their track " I Want it I need it ( Death Heated ) " , from their Exmilitary mixtape .
The album version was ranked number 36 on " Rolling Stone " magazine 's list of the 100 greatest guitar songs of all time . While the song did feature on their compilation Relics , it was under consideration for — but ultimately left off – their career @-@ spanning " best of " retrospective , Echoes : The Best of Pink Floyd .
= = Personnel = =
Syd Barrett – guitar
Roger Waters – bass guitar
Rick Wright – organ
Nick Mason – drums
with :
Norman Smith – drum roll
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= Sd.Kfz. 8 =
The Sonderkraftfahrzeug 8 ( " special motorized vehicle 8 " ) was a German half @-@ track that saw widespread use in World War II . Its main roles were as a prime mover for heavy towed guns such as the 21 cm Mörser 18 , the 15 cm Kanone 18 and the 10 @.@ 5 cm FlaK 38 . Approximately 4 @,@ 000 were produced between 1938 and 1945 . It was used in every campaign fought by the Germans in World War II , notably the Invasion of Poland , the Battle of France , the Balkans Campaign , the Eastern Front , the North African Campaign , the Battle of Normandy and the Italian Campaign .
= = Description = =
The Sd.Kfz. 8 had a ladder frame chassis . Power was provided by a Maybach 12 @-@ cylinder , water @-@ cooled , 8 @.@ 52 litre ( 520 cu in ) HL 85 TUKRM gasoline engine of 185 horsepower ( 188 PS ) . It had a semi @-@ automatic ZF transmission with four forward and one reverse gears . The driver selected the desired gear and initiated the shift by depressing the clutch . It had two fuel tanks , one of 40 litres ( 11 US gal ) and the other of 210 litres ( 55 US gal ) capacity .
Both tracks and wheels were used for steering . The steering system was set up so that shallow turns used only the wheels , but brakes would be applied to the tracks the farther the steering wheel was turned . The drive sprocket had rollers rather than the more common teeth . The rear suspension consisted of six double roadwheels , overlapping and interleaved in the usual Schachtellaufwerk system used for German half @-@ track vehicles , mounted on swing arms sprung by torsion bars . An idler wheel , mounted at the rear of the vehicle , was used to control track tension . The front wheels had leaf springs and shock absorbers .
The upper body had a crew compartment with three bench seats , one for the driver and his assistant , and two others for the crew . The rear cargo area contained storage compartments , one on each side and two in the rear . The windshield could fold forward and was also removable . A convertible canvas top was mounted above the rear storage compartments . It fastened to the windshield when erected .
The Sd.Kfz. 8 was initially designed to have a towing capacity of 12 tonnes ( 12 long tons ; 13 short tons ) , but the wartime DB 10 could tow 14 tonnes ( 14 long tons ; 15 short tons ) .
= = Design and development = =
Preliminary design of all the German half @-@ tracks of the early part of the war was done by Dipl.Ing. Ernst Kniepkamp of the " Military Automotive Department " ( Wa Prüf 6 ) before the Nazis took power in 1933 . His designs were then turned over to commercial firms for development and testing . Daimler @-@ Benz had been working on its own half @-@ track design during 1931 — 32 , the ZD.5. It weighed 9 @.@ 3 tonnes ( 9 @.@ 2 long tons ; 10 @.@ 3 short tons ) , used a twelve @-@ cylinder , 150 horsepower ( 150 PS ) Maybach DSO 8 gasoline engine and its upper body had three bench seats behind the driver . Its suspension was based on the World War I @-@ era Marienwagen II and bore absolutely no relation to the interleaved roadwheels and torsion bars used by the various models of the Sd.Kfz. 8 .
Daimler @-@ Benz combined the best of both designs in the DB s7 prototype which appeared in 1934 . It used the same engine as the ZD.5 , but otherwise bore little resemblance to the older model other than an upper body that had two bench seats for the crew behind the driver 's seat . This upper body remained the same over the life of the Sd.Kfz. 8 . It weighed 14 @.@ 4 tonnes ( 14 @.@ 2 long tons ; 15 @.@ 9 short tons ) and could pull loads of 12 tonnes ( 12 long tons ; 13 short tons ) . An improved version was introduced in 1936 as the DB s8 . The heavier ( 15 tonnes ( 15 long tons ; 17 short tons ) ) DB 9 model appeared in 1938 . It used the Maybach HL 85 TUKRM engine , could carry an 800 kilograms ( 1 @,@ 800 lb ) payload and could tow a 14 tonnes ( 14 long tons ; 15 short tons ) load . Daimler @-@ Benz tried unsuccessfully to use their diesel OM 48 / 1 engine , but it was repeatedly rejected by the Army Weapons Office . The DB 10 was a refined version of the DB 9 and was introduced in October 1939 and was produced for the duration of the war .
= = = Variants = = =
Ten 8 @.@ 8 cm Flak 18 anti @-@ aircraft guns were mounted on pedestals on DB s8 and DB 9 chassis in 1939 as the 8 @.@ 8 cm Flak 18 ( Sfl . ) auf Zugkraftwagen 12t ( Sd.Kfz. 8 ) for anti @-@ tank duties . A gun shield was provided for the 88 , but the gun crew had no other protection . The driver 's cab was replaced by a lower , armored cupola and the engine compartment was lightly ( 14 @.@ 5 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 57 in ) ) armored . The vehicle weighed 20 tonnes ( 20 long tons ; 22 short tons ) , was 7 @.@ 35 metres ( 24 @.@ 1 ft ) long , 2 @.@ 8 metres ( 9 @.@ 2 ft ) tall and 2 @.@ 65 metres ( 8 @.@ 7 ft ) wide . The gun could fire directly ahead without any problem , but traverse was limited to 151 ° to each side by the gun shield . Elevation was between -3 ° and + 15 ° . All ten were assigned to the first company of the anti @-@ tank battalion Panzerjäger @-@ Abteilung 8 which participated in the Invasion of Poland in 1939 , the Battle of France in 1940 and Operation Barbarossa in 1941 . The company was redesignated as Panzerjäger @-@ Kompanie ( " Anti @-@ Tank Company " ) 601 in January 1942 and then as the third company of Anti @-@ Tank Battalion 559 the following April . It reported that the last three vehicles had been lost by March 1943 .
= = Production and use = =
Daimler @-@ Benz and Krupp were the main builders of the Sd.Kfz. 8 during the war , but Krauss @-@ Maffei produced 315 in 1940 — 41 and Škoda joined in the last years of the war . 1615 were on hand on 20 December 1942 . 507 were built in 1943 and 602 in 1944 . Approximately 4000 were built in total . The Sd.Kfz. 8 was used by Czechoslovakia after the war , but it is not known if production continued at Škoda or when they were finally discarded .
Unlike most of the other German half @-@ tracks , the Sd.Kfz. 8 was almost always used as a tractor for heavy artillery pieces and was not modified for other roles .
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= 1940 Pacific typhoon season =
The 1940 Pacific typhoon season marked an interruption in meteorological records in both the Philippines and Hong Kong due to the start of World War II . There were 43 reported tropical cyclone , including 27 that attained typhoon status . The first storm was observed in February , and the first typhoon formed two months later , killing three people along Mindanao . Several storms formed in June and July , including reports of a typhoon in the newspapers that killed 52 in South Korea , and another typhoon reported in newspapers that killed one person on Samar after dropping heavy rainfall . The strongest typhoon of the season originated in July and attained a minimum pressure of 927 mbar ( 27 @.@ 4 inHg ) , as reported by a ship northeast of the Philippines .
On August 18 , a typhoon moved near or over northeastern Luzon , killing nine people . In early September , a typhoon passed through the Bonin Islands south of Japan and later moved near Kyushu ; heavy rainfall caused a reservoir to collapse in Ōita Prefecture , killing 50 people . On September 18 , a typhoon caused a tram collision in Tokyo due to poor visibility , killing 20 . Another typhoon struck southern Taiwan on September 29 , causing 50 fatalities . On October 19 , Wake Island recorded typhoon @-@ force winds for the first time since observations began five years prior . A strong typhoon passed near Guam on November 3 with winds of 200 km / h ( 125 mph ) , damaging most of the buildings on the island and killing five . Three storms affected the Philippines in December , the second of which was the most notable ; it killed 63 people and left 75 @,@ 000 homeless on Catanduanes . The third of the Philippine storms dissipated on December 24 , ending activity for the season . There was another December typhoon that killed two people on a ship to the northeast of Guam .
= = Storms = =
Data for most of the storms were provided through the World Wide Consolidated Tropical Cyclone data file known as TD @-@ 9636 . The document utilized several sources to indicate where storms were located , and as a result there were duplications . During the season , the Philippine Weather Bureau issued monthly bulletins , which later provided info for tropical cyclone tracks . The agency used weather stations that were established by Spain and the United States after each country ruled over the archipelago . The weather data ceased in August 1940 , which were later rebuilt in 1945 . Also in 1940 , meteorology records were disrupted in Hong Kong , which were later restored in 1947 , due to World War II .
= = = February and April = = =
On February 1 , a tropical cyclone formed over western Mindanao in the Philippines . It moved northwestward across Palawan island and was last noted later on February 1 . Historical weather maps show only a circulation near 9 N 121 E. This was a weak system , likely a depression but may have been a weak Tropical Storm .
Two months later , a tropical depression developed on April 9 to the east of Yap in the western Caroline Islands . It moved west @-@ northwestward , passing south of the island without gaining much intensity . The depression later bypassed Palau to the north , dissipating on April 13 about 400 km ( 250 mi ) west @-@ northwest of the island .
On April 23 , a tropical cyclone was observed east of Palau , moving to the west @-@ southwest . It curved south of the island before turning to the west @-@ northwest . While the storm was approaching Mindanao , a ship reported a minimum pressure of 985 mbar ( 29 @.@ 09 inHg ) and force 12 on the Beaufort scale , indicating that the system was a typhoon . Early on April 26 , the typhoon made landfall just south of Port Lamon on eastern Mindanao , where a pressure of 980 mbar ( 29 inHg ) was reported . Along the coast , the storm produced strong winds and heavy rainfall , and killed three people after capsizing a boat . The storm later crossed over Negros island and near Cebu , where winds of 70 km / h ( 43 mph ) were reported . The storm later entered the South China Sea , dissipating near Palawan on April 28 .
= = = June and July = = =
A preexisting low pressure area organized into a tropical cyclone on June 9 near Chuuk State . It moved to the northwest as a tropical depression , influencing the trade winds on Yap . On June 13 , the storm executed a small loop to the southwest , later turning back to the northwest . It eventually intensified into a typhoon , producing a pressure of 999 mbar ( 29 @.@ 5 inHg ) in the Ryukyu Islands while passing to the east . The system was no a longer a tropical cyclone by June 16 , either due to dissipation or becoming an extratropical cyclone that continued to the northeast toward Alaska .
Toward the end of June , a tropical depression moved across the Philippines through the Visayas , first observed on June 26 . After moving westward into the South China Sea , the depression turned to the northeast , reaching the Luzon Strait . Later , the depression recurved back to the west , dissipating over China on July 3 .
On June 29 , a tropical cyclone developed southeast of Palau . It moved to the northwest , remaining east of Palau and the Philippines . Later classified as a typhoon , the system turned to the west and struck Taiwan , then known as Formosa , on July 7 . It moved across the island , crossed the Taiwan Strait , and dissipated over China on July 9 .
Another tropical depression formed on July 4 near Chuuk . It moved generally to the west @-@ northwest , although it curved southwestward on July 6 . The next day , the system passed about 480 km ( 300 mi ) south of Guam , by which time it attained typhoon status . It resumed its movement to the northwest , remaining east of the Philippines . On July 11 , a nearby ship reported a pressure of 959 mbar ( 28 @.@ 3 inHg ) and winds of Force 12 on the Beaufort scale . Two days later , the typhoon passed about 95 km ( 60 mi ) west of Naha , Okinawa into the East China Sea , after turning more to the north . On July 14 , the typhoon turned to the northeast into the Sea of Japan , moving between Japan and South Korea . It later crossed Hokkaido , dissipating on July 17 in the Sea of Okhotsk .
On July 8 , the Australian Associated Press reported that there was a typhoon about 195 km ( 120 mi ) east of Samar . The storm dropped heavy rainfall over a period of a week , the most since 1919 in one area , which caused river flooding and one death . On July 12 , local newspapers also reported a typhoon striking Seoul , South Korea , killing 52 people and leaving thousands homeless . However , neither of the two storms were mentioned in the Monthly Weather Review summary for the month .
A short @-@ lived tropical cyclone appeared on July 11 in the South China Sea , but dissipated the next day . Another short @-@ lived system developed on July 13 near Yap , dissipating on the next day . A few days later on July 18 , a tropical cyclone formed west of Guam ; the system moved westward and was no longer observed by July 23 .
On July 12 , a tropical depression formed to the east @-@ southeast of Guam . It moved westward , passing through the Marianas Islands on July 14 . Around July 18 , the storm turned toward the north , passing east of Taiwan . Three days later , the storm approached the Japanese island of Ishigaki 100 km ( 60 mi ) to the west , where a pressure of 985 @.@ 3 mbar ( 29 @.@ 10 inHg ) confirmed the system attained typhoon status . On July 23 , the typhoon turned to the northeast and moved across the Korean Peninsula . The storm turned to the east , later moving across northern Honshu on July 24 , and dissipating two days later .
Another tropical depression formed east of Guam on July 21 . It tracked westward , passing near the island on July 23 , and later shifted more to the west @-@ northwest . On July 26 , a ship reported a low pressure of 927 mbar ( 27 @.@ 4 inHg ) , indicating that the system was a typhoon . The system later passed between the Philippines and Taiwan as it entered the South China Sea , but no land areas reported strong winds , suggesting the typhoon was either very small or had weakened from its peak . On July 29 , the typhoon made landfall between Hong Kong and Shantou in southeastern China , quickly dissipating .
On July 24 , a tropical depression appeared east of Guam , and soon after passed near the island while tracking northwestward . The system eventually passed between Okinawa and Taiwan , reaching a position 100 km ( 60 mi ) southwest of Naha , Okinawa on July 30 ; a station on the island reported a pressure of 990 mbar ( 29 inHg ) , suggesting the storm attained typhoon status . By the next day , the storm was no longer being tracked in the East China Sea , although the Monthly Weather Review summary indicated that the typhoon continued to the northwest , attaining a pressure of 973 mbar ( 28 @.@ 7 inHg ) . The storm reached a position northeast of Shanghai and dissipated on August 4 after crossing the Shandong Peninsula .
= = = August = = =
Activity in August began when a tropical depression formed on August 1 to the west of Guam . It exhibited a pababolic track , moving west @-@ northwestward before turning to the south , ultimately dissipating on August 4 ; it never intensified beyond tropical depression status . Another short @-@ lived tropical depression formed on August 1 near Guam , dissipating on August 3 after having moved to the north and west .
On August 11 , a tropical cyclone appeared east of Luzon . Over the next few days , it moved across the Philippines , passing near the island of Mindoro on August 13 . The system moved across the South China Sea , intensifying into a typhoon as it approached Vietnam . Although it paralleled the coast , the system dissipated over the Gulf of Tonkin on August 17 .
A tropical depression formed on August 13 to the southwest of Guam . It gradually strengthened while tracking west @-@ northwestward , becoming a typhoon on August 16 . Two days later , the storm passed near or over northeastern Luzon and moved into the South China Sea . After approaching Hong Kong , the typhoon turned to the west @-@ southwest , paralleling the southern China coast . Although the track for the storm ended on August 22 , the Monthly Weather Review summary indicated that the typhoon crossed Hainan . The storm then moved across the Gulf of Tonkin and dissipated on August 25 over Vietnam . In Luzon , stations reported a minimum pressure of 975 mbar ( 28 @.@ 8 inHg ) in Palanan , Isabela . The storm produced widespread flooding in Luzon , which damaged crops and cut communications , and killed nine people . In Ilocos Norte , the typhoon caused a shipwreck , although the passengers and crew were rescued . Later , the typhoon brought gusts of 134 km / h ( 83 mph ) to Hong Kong .
A short @-@ lived tropical depression formed east of Guam on August 14 , dissipating a day later . The next tropical system developed about 565 km ( 350 mi ) north of Yap on August 19 . It moved generally to the northwest , interrupted a brief turn to the northeast before resuming its trajectory . It quickly intensified into a typhoon , and Naha , Okinawa reported a pressure of 987 mbar ( 29 @.@ 1 inHg ) on August 23 . After passing near the island , the typhoon turned sharply to the northeast . It moved along the southern coast of Japan before coming ashore west of Tokyo on August 26 . Soon after , the storm reached open waters and later passed over eastern Hokkaido , dissipating on August 28 .
On August 21 , a tropical depression formed near Yap . After moving erratically to the south and northwest , the system dissipated on August 25 to the east of the Philippines . There was another short @-@ lived depression on August 28 to the east of Guam , dissipating a day later .
Another tropical depression formed on August 24 to the east @-@ southeast of Guam . After passing south of the island , the system maintained a steady west @-@ northwest trajectory and quickly intensified into a typhoon . On August 29 , the storm passed east of the Batanes islands that are between Taiwan and Luzon ; a station there recorded a pressure of 987 mbar ( 29 @.@ 1 inHg ) . A day later , the typhoon made landfall in northern Taiwan , and after crossing the island , moved ashore in southeastern China near Fuzhou with a pressure of 979 mbar ( 28 @.@ 9 inHg ) . The storm remained distinct over land , turning to the northeast and passing west of Shanghai . On September 3 , the system dissipated off the south coast of South Korea .
The last storm to form in August developed on August 30 to the northwest of Guam . It briefly moved to the north @-@ northeast before maintaining a steady northwest track . The system attained typhoon status , later dissipating on September 4 near Okinawa .
= = = September = = =
On September 2 , a tropical depression developed to the east of Guam . The system moved northwestward , remaining east and north of the Marianas Islands . Around September 6 , the system passed through the Bonin Islands to the south of Japan , where a station recorded a pressure of 964 mbar ( 28 @.@ 5 inHg ) ; this indicated that the storm attained typhoon status . The storm turned to the west , influenced by a high pressure area over Japan . It is possible the storm executed a loop , or it traversed to the north , before resuming a westerly track on September 9 . The typhoon later passed over southern Kyushu , later turning abruptly to the northeast and east . On September 12 , the system dissipated over central Honshu . While moving through the Bonin Islands , the typhoon destroyed schools , government offices , and power plants . Several people were killed , and 500 were left homeless . Later , the storm disrupted shipping in and around Kyushu , damaging the port at Nagasaki . In Ōita Prefecture , rains from the typhoon caused a reservoir on Kyushu to collapse , killing 50 people .
Also on September 2 , a tropical depression formed between Guam and Luzon . It moved to the northwest , then turned to the northeast , intensifying into a typhoon ; this was based on a pressure reading of 993 mbar ( 29 @.@ 3 inHg ) from a nearby ship . On September 6 , the system dissipated .
A short @-@ lived tropical depression formed on September 3 in the South China Sea , dissipating the next day while moving eastward . There was another short @-@ lived tropical depression that developed on September 4 near the Marianas Islands , but dissipated within one day . Another tropical depression formed on September 4 to the west of the Marianas Islands , which moved to the south and later northeast , dissipating on September 6 . On September 10 , a tropical depression formed northeast of Luzon , lasting only two days while moving in a circular track .
On September 9 , a tropical depression formed near Chuuk . Two days later , the system passed south of Guam while maintaining a general west trajectory , although it later turned to the north @-@ northwest . By September 13 , the system attained typhoon status . Three days later , the storm 's track shifted to the north @-@ northeast , bringing it near Hachijō @-@ jima on September 18 which recorded a pressure of 983 mbar ( 29 @.@ 0 inHg ) . That day , it approached southeastern Honshu but remained offshore . After accelerating to the northeast , the system was no longer observed on September 20 to the southeast of the Kamchatka Peninsula . While passing east of Japan , the typhoon caused a tram collision due to poor visibility , killing 20 people .
On September 22 , a well @-@ developed typhoon was first observed east @-@ southeast of Guam . The storm moved to the west and later west @-@ northwest , bypassing the island to the south . On September 29 , the system entered the Balintang Channel between Taiwan and Luzon , where a station recorded a pressure of 965 mbar ( 28 @.@ 5 inHg ) at Basco , Batanes . That day , the typhoon passed over or very near southern Taiwan as it continued to the northwest . On September 30 , it made landfall about 160 km ( 100 mi ) northeast of Xiamen , weakening over land . The storm turned to the north and northeast , reaching the East China Sea and dissipating on October 2 . In Taiwan , the typhoon killed 50 people and wrecked 5 @,@ 000 houses .
The final September storm originated east of Guam on September 29 . It moved westward , intensifying into a typhoon and passing north of Guam . After varying its track toward the north or south , the typhoon dissipated on October 5 .
= = = October through December = = =
On October 8 , a tropical depression formed west of Luzon . Its track shifted from the northwest to the southwest and later back to the northwest . On October 12 , the system passed through the Paracel Islands , where a pressure of 996 mbar ( 29 @.@ 4 inHg ) was recorded . The storm attained typhoon status , moving ashore in Vietnam on October 15 . The tropical cyclone database listed a separate tropical cyclone that lasted from October 11 to 15 in the South China Sea that also struck Vietnam .
A typhoon was observed on October 13 to the northeast of Guam , with nearby ships reporting a pressure of 985 mbar ( 29 @.@ 1 inHg ) . After moving to the northwest , the system turned to the northeast and was no longer observed after October 17 .
On October 19 , a typhoon passed near Wake Island , where a pressure of 968 mbar ( 28 @.@ 6 inHg ) was recorded . Winds reached 220 km / h ( 140 mph ) , which was the first instance of typhoon @-@ force winds on the island since observations began in 1935 . The winds were strong enough to cut radio communications and damage the Pan American World Airways base . The only people on the island were two dozen Pan American workers , who survived by staying in a storm shelter that previously never experienced gale @-@ force winds . After striking the island , the typhoon turned to the northeast , crossing the International Date Line on October 21 .
A tropical depression formed on October 29 near Pohnpei . It moved to the northeast initially , but on October 31 began tracking to the west . On November 3 , the system passed just south of Guam as a typhoon , where a pressure of 956 mbar ( 28 @.@ 2 inHg ) was recorded . Winds reached over 200 km / h ( 125 mph ) , and there was a slight decrease during the passage of the eyewall . The typhoon turned to the northwest , passing near the Bonin Islands . On November 8 , the typhoon accelerated to the northeast , crossing the International Date Line on November 10 . When the storm struck Guam , it damaged nearly every building on the island . Most of the damage occurred after the center of the storm passed and the onslaught of easterly winds began . The storm also damaged the Pan American tourist hotel and a hangar . Downed trees killed two or three people , and five people in total died on the island , the others likely due to drowning . After the storm , Naval Governor George McMillin sought aid from the American Red Cross to assist residents in rebuilding . It was considered among the worst typhoons on record in Guam .
On November 22 , a tropical depression developed near Chuuk and moved westward . It crossed over Palau on November 24 , and later turned more to the northwest . The system paralleled the east coast of Mindanao , briefly moving ashore on November 26 . It turned to the northeast , dissipating on November 29 .
The first in a series of storms to form in December was first observed on December 2 to the east of Samar . The storm moved to the west across the island and through the central Philippines , with a station in Samar reporting a minimum pressure of 979 mbar ( 28 @.@ 9 inHg ) . This indicated the system attained typhoon status . While moving westward , it moved through Panay and later across Palawan before entering the South China Sea . On Panay island , Capiz recorded typhoon @-@ force winds , and throughout the Visayas , the storm damaged roads and bridges , but caused no deaths . The system dissipated on December 6 .
On December 3 , a tropical depression formed about 485 km ( 300 mi ) east of Yap . Tracking westward , it intensified into a typhoon on December 5 while approaching the Philippines . The system turned to the northwest , moving over eastern Samar and crossing Catanduanes island with a recorded pressure of 992 mbar ( 29 @.@ 3 inHg ) . Subsequently , there is contradictory information on the path ; the storm either continued to the northwest , dissipating over northeastern Luzon on December 8 , or it turned to the southwest . Capalonga in eastern Luzon reported a pressure of 989 mbar ( 29 @.@ 2 inHg ) on December 8 , and later , a station on Marinduque island reported a pressure of 987 mbar ( 29 @.@ 1 inHg ) . The Monthly Weather Report tracked the storm over the Philippines into the South China Sea , reporting its dissipation on December 13 to the east of Vietnam . Across its path through the Philippines , the typhoon brought heavy rains and strong winds , which downed trees and power lines . On Catanduanes , the storm left about 75 @,@ 000 people homeless , and killed 60 . At Labo , Camarines Norte , ten people died when a tree fell onto a house . Another three people drowned between Polillo Island and Camarines Norte .
A tropical cyclone was observed on December 8 southeast of Guam . It moved northwestward and passed about 160 km ( 100 mi ) north of the island on December 10 , where a pressure of 999 mbar ( 29 @.@ 5 inHg ) was recorded . The typhoon turned to the west and later to the southwest . Around December 14 , the system stalled to the east of the Philippines , later drifting to the east . On December 19 , the system weakened , although it remained a distinct entity as it recurved back to the south and west . On December 24 , the storm dissipated after striking Mindanao .
The final storm of the season was observed on December 18 to the northeast of Guam . It affected a nearby ship on December 20 , causing the deaths of two members of the crew in the subsequent day . The typhoon tracked to the northeast , crossing the International Date Line on December 21 .
= = Contemporary seasons = =
1925 @-@ 1949 Pacific hurricane seasons
1940 Atlantic hurricane season
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