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= Castle Lake ( California ) =
Castle Lake is a glacial lake ( cirque lake or tarn ) located in the Trinity Mountains , in Siskiyou County of northern California . It is west of Mount Shasta City and Mount Shasta peak .
The outlet of the lake drains into Castle Lake Creek , and then into Lake Siskiyou reservoir , part of the headwaters of the Sacramento River . Nearly all of the lake 's 47 acres ( 19 ha ) are within the Shasta @-@ Trinity National Forest . Trails lead from Castle Lake into the adjacent Castle Crags Wilderness area , and on to Castle Crags State Park , including trails to Little Castle Lake and Heart Lake . Fishing , camping , and hiking are also available at or near the lake .
= = Natural history = =
Castle Lake and the surrounding area contain a wide variety of animals and plants including trout , bears , deer , otters , frogs , and osprey . The area is also well @-@ known for early summer displays of flowers , including red Columbine ( Aquilegia truncata ) , fawn lily ( Erythronium sp . ) , and Shasta pentstemon ( Pentstemon laetus ) .
Castle Lake is home as well to the Castle Lake Limnological Research Station affiliated with the University of California at Davis ( UC Davis ) , which uses the site for study and to teach limnology courses ( in conjunction with the University of Nevada , Reno ) .
= = Recreation = =
The lake is usually reached by driving along an approximately 7 mi ( 11 km ) road from Lake Siskiyou . About 3 mi ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) from the lake , along this road , are Ney Springs and Faery Falls . Ney Springs is the site of the historic Ney Springs Resort , a late 19th @-@ century resort based on the mineral springs there ; this resort was one of a number of such popular resorts in Siskiyou County , including Upper Soda Springs , and Shasta Springs . A short hiking trail leads to nearby Faery Falls , where Ney Springs Creek falls nearly 60 ft ( 18 m ) down a granite cliff face , forming a clear pool at the bottom .
About one @-@ quarter mile ( 400 m ) north of Castle Lake is a campground . At the lake itself , fishing and picnicking , as well as viewing the local plant life , wildlife and scenery , are common activities . The lake waters can be cool , so swimming is generally limited to summer months . Kayaking , rowboating and rafting are available on the lake . In the winter , in addition to cross @-@ country skiing and snow @-@ shoeing along the trails in the area , the lake will ice over and ice fishing is a common activity .
From the parking area at the lake , a half @-@ mile ( 1 km ) trail winds along the northern and western shore of the lake , ending at the granite face of the headwall , which forms the southern shore . Along the way , hikers will pass the Castle Lake Limnological Research Station .
Following the eastern shore , the Little Castle Lake trail leaves the parking area , and then climbs the adjoining ridge ; about 1 mi ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) along this trail is Little Castle Lake , a small glacial tarn reached by passing through meadows of wild flowers in the early summer . Little Castle Lake is within the Castle Crags Wilderness Area . Heart Lake , another small tarn , located above the headwall of Castle Lake , may also be reached via an informal cut @-@ off from the Little Castle Lake trail .
At this point , the well @-@ known Pacific Crest National Scenic Trail is one @-@ half mile ( 1 km ) away , just over the Trinity Divide . The Pacific Crest National Scenic Trail stretches from Mexico to Canada , following the highest portion of the Sierra Nevada , Klamath Mountains , and Cascade Range and paralleling the Pacific Ocean by 100 to 150 miles ( 161 to 241 km ) .
The Little Castle Lake trail continues on to Mt . Bradley , a locally prominent mountain with views of Mount Shasta , overlooking Dunsmuir , California and the canyon of the Upper Sacramento River . Along the way , the trail joins with a network of connections leading into Castle Crags State Park .
= = Formation = =
The lake 's origins date to the Pleistocene Era ( more than 10 @,@ 000 years ago ) when a glacier carved a basin in the location of the current lake . During that era , much of North America was glaciated . Castle Lake is a typical glacier cirque lake ( or tarn ) , reaching depths of up to 110 ft ( 34 m ) near the southern , granitic part of the lakeshore ( the cirque face ) . There is a terminal moraine of boulders and gravel forming a natural dam opposite the cirque face along the northeastern shore of the lake , where there is an outlet , and the lake is 10 to 15 feet deep ( 3 to 5 m ) .
The cirque where Castle Lake is found is a classic Northern Hemisphere cirque . The cirque headwall ( the highest part of the mountain where the glacier began to form ) was in the south or southwest , and the part of the mountain that sloped downward to the northeast was away from the prevailing winds . The resulting shaded area was sheltered from direct sun , and from the evaporating effects of wind . These conditions encouraged snow which had fallen in the winter to remain throughout the summer and fall , creating a year @-@ round snow pack which grew deeper each year .
During initial glacial formation , snow changed into glacial ice as this year @-@ round snow pack increased and deepened . The process of nivation followed ( where a hollow in a slope was enlarged by freeze @-@ thaw weathering and glacial erosion ) . As the hollow enlarged and filled with snow and ice , rock debris ( or till ) contained within the glacial ice also began to abrade the bedrock surface – as the glacial ice moved down the slope , it had a " sandpaper effect " on the bedrock which it scraped .
Eventually the hollow took the shape of a large bowl in the side of the mountain , with the headwall being weathered by constant freezing and thawing , and eroded by plucking . The basin became deeper ( especially at the base of the headwall ) as it continued to be eroded by abrasion .
When the current warming period began , the glacier retreated and finally melted completely . It left behind a bowl shape , deepest at the base of the headwall where the glacial ice had been the deepest and most abrasive . The bowl shape extended to its northeast edge , where there was a terminal moraine of smaller rocks and debris which had been deposited by the glacier . When the bowl @-@ shaped crater filled with water , this terminal moraine acted as a natural dam , helping to contain the water in the newly formed cirque lake .
= = History = =
Castle Lake was within the range of the Okwanuchu tribe , one of a number of small Shastan @-@ speaking tribes of Native Americans who were closely related to the adjacent larger Shasta tribe . The Okwanuchu occupied territory near Mount Shasta , including the nearby present @-@ day cities of Mount Shasta and Dunsmuir , California , and the upper Sacramento River canyon ( among other areas ) . The Okwanuchu were speakers of the older Hokan @-@ speaking family of languages , with archaeological sites associated with their range dating back more than 5000 years . However , members of a tribe of the Penutian @-@ speaking family of languages , the Wintu , who arrived in central Northern California about 1200 years ago , were out @-@ competing their Hokan @-@ language family neighbors , and were expanding Wintu territory . It is unclear at the time of first contact with non @-@ Native Americans in the 1820s which tribe was living nearest to Castle Lake . Little or no information is available about Native American use or beliefs regarding Castle Lake ; for example , Castle Lake is not mentioned in a published collection of Wintu tales and legends .
The first non @-@ Native Americans to pass through the area of Castle Lake were hunters and trappers of the Hudson 's Bay Company , who began to come down the Siskiyou Trail from present @-@ day Washington into Mexican @-@ controlled California , in the late 1820s and early 1830s , in search of beaver and other pelt @-@ bearing animals . At about this same time , Ewing Young led the first group of Americans up the Siskiyou Trail , passing near Castle Lake . In 1841 , an overland party of the United States Exploring Expedition , the first cartographers and scientists came through the area . Following the annexation of California by the United States in 1848 as a result of the Mexican @-@ American War , Castle Lake came under the control of the U.S. Federal Government as public land .
In 1855 , an area near Castle Lake , now known as Battle Rock , was the site of a battle between Native Americans and California Gold Rush @-@ era settlers . The poet Joaquin Miller wrote a first @-@ hand account of this battle , The Battle of Castle Crags , in which Miller took part in the fight , and received an arrow wound through the cheek and jaw . This battle was reportedly the last battle between Native Americans and settlers in which the Native Americans fought exclusively with bow and arrow .
With the development , first , of the U.S. " Forest Reserve " system in the late 19th century , and then the organization of the U.S. National Forests in the early 20th century , Castle Lake came under the stewardship of the U.S. Forest Service . The association between U.C. Davis and Castle Lake began in 1957 , with the first extensive study done of the lake , followed by the construction of the " Castle Lake Limnological Research Station " . itself .
= = Animal life = =
Humans introduced fish into the lake in the 1930s for sport fishing , including rainbow trout ( Oncorhynchus mykiss ) , brook trout ( Salvelinus fontinalis ) , and golden shiner ( Notemigonus crysoliecas ) . Trout were last released into Castle Lake in 2008 by the California Department of Fish and Wildlife but recreational fish stocking has since ceased due to concern for other species ( i.e. , threatened or endangered ) . The brook char was also originally stocked but now has become self @-@ sustaining , and reproduces naturally in springs found on the eastern side of the lake . Golden shiner is a bait fish minnow that was likely placed in the lake by anglers who left their remaining bait behind in the lake . The fish feed on zooplankton and insects ; the fish are then eaten by predators around the lake , especially osprey ( Pandion haliaetus ) . Other birds in the area include bald eagle ( Haliaectus leucoephalus ) , golden eagle ( Aquila chrysaetos ) , peregrine falcon ( Falco peregrinus ) , wood duck ( Aix sponsa ) , belted kingfisher ( Megaceryle alcyon ) , Steller 's jay ( Cyanocitta stellere ) , and sooty grouse ( Dendragapus fuliginosus ) .
Reptiles and amphibians around the lake , including the rough @-@ skinned newt ( Taricha granulosa ) , the Cascades frog ( Rana cascadae ) and the garter snake ( Thamnophis sirtalis ) , feed as well on insects and young fish ( among other prey ) . Many mammals can be found around the lake and in the adjacent wilderness area , national forest , and parklands . These include black bear ( Ursus americanus ) , blacktail deer ( Odocoileus hemionus ) , river otter ( Lutra canadensis ) , black @-@ tailed jackrabbit ( Lepus californicus ) , and mountain lion ( also known as " cougars " or " puma " ) ( Puma concolor ) . Castle lake cougars have on occasion been known to crouch in the bushes and watch humans , their eyes shining in the moonlight . No attacks have been noted .
= = Plant life = =
Although the lake ( at elevation 5 @,@ 574 ft ( 1 @,@ 699 m ) ) and surrounding areas are well below local tree line ( for example , on nearby Mount Shasta , the tree line is at about 7 @,@ 900 ft ( 2 @,@ 400 m ) ) , because of the high concentration of granite and the often exposed steep , rocky slopes , the vegetation at the lake and in the area can vary widely , from dense mixed forest near and below the lake to the appearance of near @-@ alpine conditions above the lake .
At and in the area below the lake , mixed forests of ponderosa pine ( Pinus ponderosa ) , red fir ( Abies Magnifica ) , white fir ( Abies Concolor ) , lodgepole pine ( Pinus Contorda ) , incense cedar ( Libocedrus decurrens ) and alder can be found . Alders play a particularly important role , as alders establish symbioses with the nitrogen @-@ fixing Actinobacteria ( Frankiella alni ) . This bacteria converts atmospheric nitrogen into soil @-@ soluble nitrates which can be utilised by the alder , and favorably enhances the soil fertility generally . Alders benefit other plants growing near them by taking nitrogen out of the air and depositing it in the soil in usable form ; fallen alder leaves make very rich compost . Picea breweriana exists in a few small locations on the igneous slopes behind the lake . Other deciduous trees at lower elevations in the area may include such species as bigleaf maple , vine maple , black oak and Pacific dogwood .
At higher elevations above the lake ( especially in rocky or exposed locations ) , the pine and fir tree forests are thinner , and the trees grow in a more stunted fashion ; instead , shrubs and bushes , such as green manzanita ( Arctostaphylos patula ) , dwarf mountain manzanita ( Arctostaphylos neuadensis ) , and tan oak ( Lithocarpus densiflorus ) find areas and niches to grow .
The best @-@ known plant life in the area , however , are the lakeside and nearby meadow displays of alpine and sub @-@ alpine flowers in the early summer . These can include wood rose ( Rosa gymnocarpa ) , Shasta lupine ( Lupinus albicaulis ) , red / crimson / scarlet columbine ( Aquilegia truncata ) , tiger lily ( Lilium pardalinum ) , fawn lily ( Erythronium sp . ) , pine @-@ drops ( Pterospora andromedae ) , douglas spiraea ( Spiraea douglasii ) , scarlet paintbrush ( Castilleja pinetorum ) , alpine paintbrush ( Castilleja arachnoidea ) , dwarf paintbrush ( Castilleja miniata ) , alpine saxifrage ( Saxifraga nidifica ) , Shasta pentstemon ( Pentstemon laetus ) , alpine buckwheat ( Eriogonum pyrolaefolium ) , and Tofield 's swamp lily ( Tofieldia occidentalis ) . Also , in cool , wet spots near the lake , carnivorous Pitcher Plants ( Darlingtonia californica ) appear .
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= You Know My Name =
" You Know My Name " , performed by Soundgarden singer Chris Cornell , is the theme song to the 2006 James Bond film , Casino Royale . Cornell wrote it jointly with David Arnold , the soundtrack 's composer . The film producers went after Cornell because they wanted a strong male singer . Cornell and Arnold tried to make the song a replacement theme for the character instead of the " James Bond theme " reflecting the agent 's inexperience in Casino Royale , as well as an introduction to Daniel Craig 's grittier and more emotional portrayal of Bond . The single sold 148 @,@ 000 copies in 2006 in the UK .
The track was leaked onto the Internet on September 20 , 2006 , and released as a single on November 13 , 2006 , charting in many countries . Reviews for " You Know My Name " were positive , and the song won the Satellite Award and the World Soundtrack Award , and was nominated for a Grammy Award . While not included in the Casino Royale soundtrack , " You Know My Name " appeared on Cornell 's second solo album , Carry On .
= = Composition and recording = =
Lia Vollack , Sony Pictures 's President of Music , called Chris Cornell inviting him to make a song for the new Bond movie , which would " reflect the dramatic new direction of James Bond " , with a " strong male singer " . Cornell thought it was a strange offer , considering that he is American , and imagined that he would perform a secondary song in the film instead of the main theme . Cornell declared he liked the Bond movies , particularly the ones with Sean Connery , but that he " wasn 't really a big fan of the last several movies " . But Daniel Craig 's casting as James Bond intrigued the musician , and he decided to accept the job . Cornell then went to Prague to visit the film 's shooting , and was much impressed with the film 's emotional content after he was shown a rough cut of Casino Royale . In Prague he also met the score composer , David Arnold , who suggested writing a song " that echoed the film score " .
The composers started their writing separately , Cornell in his apartment in Paris , and Arnold in his house in London . Cornell stated that he had some difficulties with composing : " It is difficult , I think , to write lyrics for a character , so really I just kind of wandered around for about a month not thinking about it too much , until I sort of formulated some idea of a way that I could approach it , where I 'm kind of relating to what 's in the character in the movie . And because this particular Bond is very edgy , but also has a lot of emotional depth , it 's a lot easier . " Later the two musicians met and showed each other 's ideas , and according to Arnold " it was almost like we wrote two parts of the same song . " Cornell wrote lyrics , to which Arnold added some lines and later music . Some of Arnold 's ideas included the song 's title , the heavy introduction , and " having the same genetic material as the Bond theme , but in a different order and in a different shape " .
After a demo of the song was approved by the film 's producers , both musicians recorded the full version in AIR Studios London . Cornell and Arnold recorded the guitar and bass parts themselves and hired a session musician for the drums . The recordings were finished by the time Casino Royale finished its principal photography on July 21 , 2006 , and Arnold played it at the wrap party . Afterwards he mixed in the orchestra parts .
Speaking to film music fan site Maintitles , Arnold said he wanted " You Know My Name " to act as a substitute for the James Bond theme , to represent Bond 's immaturity . The song 's main notes are played throughout the film , and the classic theme only plays during the end credits to signal the end of his character arc . Arnold felt the song should tie closer to the score , and have the " DNA of the James Bond music " . The musical arrangement tried to create " the right blend of rock aggression and sophisticated instrumentation " , with Cornell describing it as " more uptempo and a little more aggressive than any other Bond theme has been , maybe since Paul McCartney [ ' s ' Live and Let Die ' ] " .
Cornell stated that the biggest two influences on " You Know My Name " were Tom Jones , who performed the theme for Thunderball , and Paul McCartney , who composed and performed the theme for Live and Let Die . " I decided that I was going to sing it like Tom Jones , in that crooning style . I wanted people to hear my voice , " Cornell said . " And ' Live and Let Die ' is a fantastic song . Paul McCartney wouldn 't have written it if not for that movie . I [ also ] wanted to write a song in its own universe . I knew I 'd never have it again — a big orchestra — so I wanted to have fun with it . " Cornell did not put the film 's title in the lyrics , because he " couldn 't imagine it fitting into a song lyric that would come out of my mouth " . And he jokingly stated " Casino Royale didn 't make a good rock title , but I would write a song named Octopussy just for fun " .
Before producers Michael G. Wilson and Barbara Broccoli announced on July 26 , 2006 , that Cornell was performing the theme for Casino Royale , various names were reported in the media , some reports going so far as to have the performers apparently claim they were working on the song . This list includes Tina Turner , who previously sang " GoldenEye " for the 1995 Bond film of the same name , and Tony Christie .
The lyrics try to illustrate Bond 's psyche in Casino Royale , described by Cornell as a conflicted and tough spy with more emotional depth , not the " superconfident , seemingly invincible , winking kinda ladies ' man superspy " of the previous incarnations . Cornell tried to focus on the existential dilemmas and possible sacrifices of secret agents - " There 's an isolation in that ; the stakes are very high . I 've done a lot of living in my 42 years , and it wasn 't hard for me to relate to that . " The song also served as an introduction to the character , even though he was featured in many other movies before - hence the title " You Know My Name " - dealing with Bond 's action such as his first assassination , " introducing himself to what may be the rest of his life and how he will live it and what it will mean . "
= = Release = =
Three versions of the song were produced :
Main Version : Track 1 on " You Know My Name " singles
Pop Mix : used in the video and released on the Carry On album and on German singles as Track 2
Film Versions : more orchestral versions used in the film 's opening and closing credits .
The song was leaked on the internet on September 20 , 2006 . The first version of the song , the grittier one which was leaked and not used in the movie , was made available for download on iTunes Store on November 13 , 2006 . This version debuted on the UK Single Download Chart at number 20 on November 22 , 2006 . It was released as a stand @-@ alone single on December 14 , 2006 . The single features a new acoustic version of the Soundgarden song " Black Hole Sun " as a B @-@ side . The German , Dutch and Australian versions of the single offer a second version of " You Know My Name " ( called the Pop Mix ) as a B @-@ side . This version is the one used for the song 's music video , and is available on Chris Cornell 's solo album , Carry On .
The song is the first Bond theme not to be included on its film 's soundtrack album . Cornell declared that it happened because he wanted the song to be " his " , and since he wrote " You Know My Name " in midst of recording the solo album Carry On , he felt that the song belonged to the album . In 2008 , the song was included in the compilation The Best of Bond ... James Bond .
The song 's music video was directed by Michael Haussman , who tried to compare " the lives of a professional spy and a rock star " . The video premiered on MTV 's Making the Video on October 31 , 2006 .
= = = Reception = = =
" You Know My Name " was released in the winter of 2006 and became the most successful song from Chris Cornell on the rock charts and arguably Cornell 's most recognizable and popular song . The song peaked at number 79 on the Billboard Hot 100 and number 64 on the Billboard Pop 100 chart . In Europe , " You Know My Name " charted in several markets and peaked at number 7 in the UK Singles Chart . Chris Cornell won both the Satellite Award and the World Soundtrack Award for " You Know My Name " in 2007 , and garnered a Grammy Award nomination for Best Song Written For Motion Picture , Television Or Other Visual Media the following year . The song also received a first @-@ round nomination in the Best Original Song category for the 2006 Academy Awards , but did not qualify for the final list of nominees .
The song received enthusiastic reviews , with critics praising the song 's ability to fit well with the context of the film . Film reviewer James Berardinelli considered " You Know My Name " to " sound eerily like something by John Barry " ; DVD Verdict 's review praised the song , describing it as " working remarkably well in the film 's context , lyrically and sonically " , and Cinefantastique called it " the best Bond theme song in years , [ that ] captures the full @-@ blooded glory of classics like ' Goldfinger ' " . Entertainment Weekly listed " You Know My Name " on a list of Academy Award snubs for Best Song , describing it as " a musically suave , lyrically ominous rock tune that is perfect for Casino Royale 's dark reboot of the spy franchise " . Among music critics , Billboard described it as " the best Bond theme since ' A View to a Kill ' " , praising the minimal production ; on its review of Carry On , the magazine considered " You Know My Name " to be the best track of the album , describing it as " some of Cornell 's most uncomplicated and accessible music to date " ; the BBC 's unnamed reviewer considered that Cornell 's voice " weighs down " the song ;
= = = Covers = = =
Finnish rock band Poets of the Fall covered the song in 2008 for the compilation CD Livenä Vieraissa .
A cappella group the Amalgamates from Tufts University perform an all vocal version of the song on their album Prime .
= = Track listing = =
1
" You Know My Name " 4 : 02
" Black Hole Sun " ( Acoustic ) 4 : 38
2
" You Know My Name " 4 : 02
" You Know My Name " ( Pop Mix )
" You Know My Name " ( Video )
= = Charts = =
= = = Weekly charts = = =
= = = Year @-@ end charts = = =
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= PewDiePie =
Felix Arvid Ulf Kjellberg ( / ˈʃɛlbərɡ / SHEL @-@ bərg , Swedish : [ ˈfeːlɪks ˈɕɛlˈbærj ] ; born on 24 October 1989 ) , better known by his online alias PewDiePie ( / ˈpjuːdipaɪ / PEW @-@ dee @-@ py ) , is a Swedish web @-@ based comedian and video producer , best known for his Let 's Play commentaries and vlogs on YouTube .
Born in Gothenburg , Sweden , PewDiePie originally pursued a degree in industrial economics and technology management at Chalmers University of Technology . In 2010 , during his time at the university , he registered his PewDiePie YouTube account . The following year he dropped out of Chalmers to focus on his YouTube channel , much to the chagrin of his parents . Having been refused support from them , PewDiePie began working at a hot dog stand to fund his videos . PewDiePie soon gathered a rapidly increasing online following , and in 2012 , his channel surpassed one million subscribers .
Since 15 August 2013 , PewDiePie 's channel has been the most subscribed user on YouTube , being surpassed briefly in November and December 2013 by YouTube 's Spotlight channel . Holding the position since 22 December 2013 , the channel has reached over 46 million subscribers , as of July 2016 . On 19 July 2014 , the channel surpassed singer Rihanna 's Vevo account on YouTube to become the most viewed channel of all time , and as of June 2016 , the channel has received over 12 billion video views . In 2016 , Time magazine named him one of " The World 's 100 Most Influential People . "
PewDiePie refers to his fanbase as the " Bro Army " , and individual fans as " bros " . Through his Bro Army fanbase , PewDiePie has raised money for charities . Due to his popularity , PewDiePie 's coverage of indie games has created an Oprah effect , boosting sales for titles he plays . PewDiePie lives in Brighton with his girlfriend , Italian YouTube personality Marzia Bisognin .
= = Early life = =
PewDiePie was born and raised in Gothenburg , Sweden . He was born to Lotta Kristine Johanna ( born 7 May 1958 ) and Ulf Christian Kjellberg ( born 8 January 1957 ) , and grew up with his sister , Fanny , as well . His mother Johanna , a former KappAhl CIO , was named the 2010 CIO of the Year in Sweden . His father , Ulf , is also a Chief Executive of a company .
During his early schooling life , he was interested in art , and has noted that he would draw popular video game characters such as Mario and Sonic the Hedgehog . During high school , he would skip classes to play video games at an Internet cafe with friends ; on this topic , PewDiePie has commented , " Sweden has a great culture around gaming . " In 2008 , he graduated from Göteborgs Högre Samskola . He then went on to pursue a degree in industrial economics and technology management at Chalmers University of Technology , but left the university in 2011 to focus on his YouTube career . On this decision , PewDiePie has stated , " Thinking about it now , it was utterly absurd . To get into Chalmers for industrial economics you need straight A 's , but somehow I was happier selling hot dogs and making my own gaming @-@ videos . "
= = YouTube career = =
= = = Channel format = = =
The main focus of PewDiePie 's videos is his commentary and reactions to various games as he plays through them . Due to this , his videos fall under the Let 's Play umbrella . Unlike conventional walkthroughs , his Let 's Play videos are devoted to " sharing gaming moments on YouTube with my bros . " Variety details that " PewDiePie acts like he ’ s spending time with a friend . He begins each video introducing himself in a high @-@ pitched , goofy voice , drawing out the vowels of his YouTube moniker , then delves into the videos . "
In his early years as a YouTube personality , PewDiePie was known for playing horror and action video games , most notably Amnesia : The Dark Descent and its related mods . PewDiePie also began posting weekly vlogs starting from 2 September 2011 . These vlogs are uploaded under the title of Fridays with PewDiePie . He typically performs a " Brofist " at the end of each of his videos . As his channel grew , he began to branch out in terms of his video content , uploading live @-@ action and animated comedy shorts . In 2014 , he began to more actively play games that interested him , regardless if they were of the horror genre or not . In addition , he is also known to support video games from indie developers .
= = = = Nature of content = = = =
The nature of PewDiePie 's video content has been described by various outlets as goofy , energetic , obnoxious and filled with profanity . However , many of the same outlets concede that PewDiePie 's content is genuine and unfiltered . Sarah Begley of Time said his clips contained " charismatic narration . " Chris Reed of The Wall St. Cheat Sheet said it contained " off @-@ the @-@ cuff running commentary that 's characterised by goofy jokes , profanity , and loud outbursts . " Another reporter noted PewDiePie 's " chosen mode of sharing his critique happens to be ribald entertainment , an unmediated stream of blurted jokes , startled yelps , goofy voices , politically incorrect comments , and pretty much nonstop profanity . " Reed adds that these aspects of PewDiePie 's videos are what critics find most abrasive , but what fans love the most .
PewDiePie resorts occasionally to gameplay , causing silent or emotional commentary ; his playthrough of The Last of Us , it was noted , left the usually vocal gamer speechless at the ending .
= = = History = = =
= = = = Early years ( 2010 – 2012 ) = = = =
PewDiePie originally registered a YouTube account under the name " Pewdie " ; he explains that " pew " represents the sound of lasers and " die " means death . After forgetting the password to this account , he then registered the " PewDiePie " YouTube channel on 29 April 2010 . After dropping out of Chalmers , his parents refused to support him , and as a result PewDiePie funded his early videos by working at a hot dog stand . On having to work at the stand , PewDiePie stated , " the fact that I could make videos was so much more important to me than [ that ] I had to spend a few hours a day doing a job that wasn ’ t that prestigious . " Five years later , PewDiePie recalled , " I knew people were big at other types of videos , but there was no one big in gaming , and I didn ’ t know you could make money out of it . It was never like a career that I could just quit college to pursue. it was just something I loved to do . And here we are five years later and it ’ s exploded . " By December 2011 , PewDiePie 's channel had around 60 @,@ 000 subscribers . Around the time his channel earned 700 @,@ 000 subscribers , PewDiePie spoke at Nonick Conference 2012 . On 11 July 2012 the channel reached 1 million subscribers , and it reached 2 million subscribers in September 2012 . In October 2012 , OpenSlate ranked the PewDiePie channel as the # 1 YouTube channel . That December , PewDiePie signed with Maker Studios .
Early in his YouTube career , Kjellberg used rape jokes in his videos . Criticism of these jokes stirred controversy , and in October 2012 , Kjellberg posted a Tumblr message , stating " I just wanted to make clear that I 'm no longer making rape jokes , as I mentioned before I 'm not looking to hurt anyone and I apologise if it ever did . " The Globe and Mail stated " unlike many young gamers , he listened when fans and critics alike pointed out their harmful nature , and resolved to stop making rape jokes . "
= = = = Becoming the most subscribed user ( 2013 ) = = = =
On 18 February 2013 , the PewDiePie channel reached 5 million subscribers , and in April , PewDiePie earned coverage on The New York Times after surpassing 6 million subscribers . In May , at the inaugural Starcount Social Stars Awards in Singapore PewDiePie won the award for Swedish Social Star . Competing against Jenna Marbles , Smosh and Toby Turner , PewDiePie also won the award for Most Popular Social Show . In July 2013 , he overtook Jenna Marbles to become the second most subscribed YouTube user , and reached 10 million subscribers .
PewDiePie 's subscriber count surpassed that of the leading channel , Smosh , on 15 August 2013 . On becoming the most subscribed YouTube user , PewDiePie commented , " When I started my YouTube channel in 2010 , I never imagined that one day it would be the most subscribed channel in the world and that I would be a part of such a great community . " After becoming the most subscribed user , Ben Donovan of Maker Studios stated that PewDiePie " is a great example of how a YouTube content creator can amass a worldwide following due to passion and creativity , and his large subscriber base showcases the loyalty and strong connection he has to his ' bros . ' " On 1 November , PewDiePie became the first channel to reach 15 million subscribers , although the following day , the channel was surpassed by YouTube 's Spotlight account at the top of the site 's subscriber rankings . In the same month , PewDiePie proclaimed his dislike of YouTube 's new comment system . In December , PewDiePie overtook the YouTube Spotlight channel to once again become the most subscribed user on YouTube .
Throughout 2012 and 2013 , PewDiePie 's channel was one of the fastest growing on YouTube , in terms of subscribers gained . In 2013 , the PewDiePie channel went from 3 @.@ 5 million to just under 19 million subscribers , and by the end of 2013 it was gaining a new subscriber every 1 @.@ 037 seconds . Billboard reported that the PewDiePie channel gained more subscribers than any other channel in 2013 . Additionally , in the second half of 2013 , the PewDiePie channel earned just under 1 @.@ 3 billion video views .
= = = = Continued growth ( 2014 – present ) = = = =
In March 2014 , PewDiePie updated his video production , announcing he would be scaling down the frequency of uploads . In August 2014 , Maker Studios released an official PewDiePie app for the iPhone , allowing audiences to view his videos , create custom favourite video feeds and share videos with others . Later in the month , PewDiePie uploaded a video , announcing he would permanently disable comments on his YouTube videos . On his decision , PewDiePie stated " I go to the comments and it 's mainly spam , it 's people self advertising , it 's people trying to provoke ... just all this stuff that to me , it doesn 't mean anything . I don 't care about it , I don 't want to see it . " After disabling comments , PewDiePie continued interacting with his audience through Twitter and Reddit . In mid @-@ September , PewDiePie uploaded a follow @-@ up video , sticking by his decision , and announcing the launch of broarmy.net , an online forum , in which he will actively connect with his viewers , designed to replace the YouTube comment section .
In September 2014 , PewDiePie began streaming videos of his co @-@ hosted series , BroKen , onto MLG.tv. Kjellberg co @-@ hosts the series with Kenneth Morrison , better known as CinnamonToastKen , also an online game commentator . On 13 October , PewDiePie decided to allow comments on his videos once more , albeit only after approval . However , PewDiePie has tweeted , " I have them set as approved so I can redirect people to comment on my website instead . " In a later video , PewDiePie claimed that disabling comments helped him become happier . In 2014 alone , PewDiePie 's account amassed nearly 14 million new subscribers and over 4 @.@ 1 billion video views ; both figures were higher than any other user .
During July 2015 , PewDiePie 's videos were documented to receive over 300 million views per month . On 6 September 2015 , PewDiePie 's YouTube account became the first to eclipse 10 billion video views .
In September 2015 , PewDiePie hinted that he would have a role in series , and that he was on location in Los Angeles for the show 's shooting . Although not many details were revealed at the time , in October , it was announced that the series would be titled Scare PewDiePie . The series is set to be released in 2016 through YouTube 's paid subscription service , YouTube Red .
In a 2016 video , he examined older videos of his own , and while noting the stylistic changes he had undergone , he expressed specific regret for his casual use of words like gay or retarded in a derogatory sense .
= = Public image and influence = =
Responses to PewDiePie 's content are mixed . Forbes called him " a controversial figure in both the gaming and the general internet communities with the usual , dismissive reaction to his work being ' he yells while playing video games ' and somehow manages to draw millions of subscribers which yields millions of dollars . " Forbes also states that PewDiePie " wouldn ’ t be where he is without being very good at what he does " . PewDiePie often refers to his fans as the " Bro Army " and addresses his audience as " bros " .
In September 2014 , Rob Walker of Yahoo ! called PewDiePie 's popularity " insane , " writing , that it " strikes me as considerably more curious — I mean , you know who Rihanna is , but would you recognise this kid if he were standing in line behind you at the bank ? " Walker , among other reporters and some casual gamers , have questioned the reasons for his popularity , while other reporters have criticised his rise in notability . Walker noted PewDiePie 's interaction with his audience , writing , " While he can be raucous and crude , it always comes across as genuine . He constantly addresses his audience as a bunch of peer @-@ like friends , as opposed to distant , genuflecting fans . He 's certainly more than willing to make fun of himself in the process . " In 2015 The Verge wrote , " Love it or hate it , his success — like so many other YouTube personalities — isn 't just in playing games but actually connecting and talking directly to an audience . No agent , press release , or any other intermediary . He just hit record . "
Relating to his responsibility as a celebrity , PewDiePie has stated " many people see me as a friend they can chill with for 15 minutes a day , " and adding , " The loneliness in front of the computer screens brings us together . But I never set out to be a role model ; I just want to invite them to come over to my place . " Correlating with this note , his audience has been reported to provide positive remarks about him ; some of his viewers created and contributed to a thread expressing that he has made them happier and feel better about themselves . Conversely , during an informal Twitter poll conducted by one Kotaku reporter , respondents described him as " annoying " and an " obnoxious waste of time . " PewDiePie has also been received negatively by the media on some occasions , often being reported as an " inexplicable phenomenon . " Andrew Wallenstein of Variety heavily criticised PewDiePie , following his channel becoming the most subscribed channel on YouTube , describing his videos as " aggressive stupidity " and " psycho babble . " Rolling Stone has documented the existence of several Reddit threads dedicated to sharing disparaging views of PewDiePie .
According to a 2014 survey commissioned by Variety , PewDiePie along with a few other YouTube personalities have been reported to be more influential and popular than mainstream celebrities , such as Jennifer Lawrence , among U.S. teenagers aged 13 through 18 . His channel also appeals strongly to younger viewers , a group Google refers to as Generation C for their habits of " creation , curation , connection and community " . Paul Tassi of Forbes wrote , " PewDiePie combines charisma , energy and all @-@ around randomness to create a goofball character with videos that make little sense to outsiders , but are catnip to his younger fanbase . " Chris Reed of The Wall St. Cheat Sheet commented on the divisive opinions on PewDiePie : " The great divide in opinion on PewDiePie seems to be largely generational . Older people are less likely to subscribe to YouTube channels , or to pay much credence to YouTube personalities in general . Many younger viewers , on the other hand , see him as endlessly entertaining and relatable . "
PewDiePie has himself claimed that he dislikes being called " famous " , and has been reported to live a " shy and retiring life . " In a Rolling Stone article , PewDiePie admitted to being shocked by his fame ; PewDiePie recalled a gaming event near his hometown , stating " I remember there were five security guards yelling at a crowd to back up — it was out of control . It was shocking to find myself in that situation , where I was that celebrity person . " At the 2013 Social Star Awards , PewDiePie greeted his fans personally despite security warning him against doing so . PewDiePie also mentioned this event to Rolling Stone , stating , " I didn 't even understand they were screaming for me at first . "
His rise to fame has been used as " a great example of how the emerging society gives extensive opportunities to individuals with great ideas , courage , and , of course , a significant portion of luck as opposed to the old society . " Studies of the gaming community on YouTube have shown that 95 % of gamers engage in watching online videos related to gaming and has been noted as an important reason for PewDiePie 's popularity . In 2015 , PewDiePie was included on Time 's list of the 30 most influential people on the Internet , cementing his influence as an internet personality . Later in 2015 , PewDiePie was featured on the cover of Variety 's " Famechangers " issue , with the magazine ranking him as the " # 1 Famechanger " , or " those whose influence stands head and shoulders above the rest . "
= = = Influence on video games = = =
PewDiePie 's commentaries have had a positive effect on sales of indie games . For instance the developers of McPixel stated , " The largest force driving attention to McPixel at that time were ' Let 's Play ' videos . Mostly by Jesse Cox and PewDiePie . " PewDiePie has also been confirmed to positively influence the sales of Slender : The Eight Pages and Goat Simulator . Although games being featured on PewDiePie 's channel have reportedly contributed to their commercial success , he has stated , " I just want to play the games , not influence sales . "
PewDiePie , along with characters from Amnesia : The Dark Descent , which PewDiePie renamed and made characters within his own commentaries were referenced to by a McPixel level designed in his honour . Additionally , in the video game Surgeon Simulator 2013 , the Alien Surgery stage features an organ called " Pewdsball " in honour of PewDiePie . PewDiePie agreed to allow the developers of Surgeon Simulator 2013 to use his likeness in GOTY IDST , a showering simulation video game . PewDiePie was also included as a NPC in the indie game , Party Hard .
= = = Income = = =
In June 2014 , The Wall Street Journal reported that PewDiePie earned $ 4 million in 2013 ; PewDiePie confirmed on Reddit that the figures were roughly around what he actually earned . In July 2014 , the Swedish newspaper Expressen reported that PewDiePie 's production company , PewDie Productions AB , reported earnings of 63 @.@ 7 million kr ( $ 7 @.@ 5 million ) in 2014 . The Guardian commented that the reason the media was so captivated by PewDiePie 's earnings is that the topic " offers a rare insight into the money being made at the top end of YouTube stardom , " adding " it ’ s very rare for any YouTube creator to talk about their earnings publicly , not least because YouTube itself does not encourage it " . Although outlets agreed that PewDiePie 's income was sizable , and even " remarkable " , PewDiePie appeared at the top of Forbes ' October 2015 list of the richest YouTube stars with a reported $ 12 million earned in 2015 . Relating to the earnings , Forbes commented that " $ 7 million may well seem like an astronomical figure to a 25 year @-@ old who just wants to make friends and play videogames , but it ’ s a wildly insubstantial figure for the size of his audience and influence . "
On the topic of his earnings , PewDiePie stated that he is " extremely tired of talking about how much I make . In the very few interviews I 've made , it doesn 't matter how long we 've talked to each other , the headline is still just about my paycheck . " After extensive media coverage of his earnings , Kjellberg posted a video , expressing his frustration at the extensive media coverage over his income . In the video he claimed , " We did raise a million dollars for charity , and very few articles picked up on that , but here it is everywhere how much money I make , " adding , " It seems like the whole world cares more about how much money I make than I do myself . " Relating to his source of his income , PewDiePie stated : " I think that 's what 's cool about YouTube : That anyone could technically do it , right ? Surely if I didn 't exist , there would be someone to fill my place . "
= = = Marketing campaigns = = =
Beginning in April 2014 and spanning into August , Kjellberg , along with his girlfriend Marzia Bisognin , began a marketing campaign for the Legendary Pictures film As Above , So Below . Kjellberg 's videos for the marketing campaign included a miniseries featuring him participating in the " Catacombs Challenge " . The challenge involved Kjellberg searching for three keys in the catacombs to open a container holding " the Philosopher 's stone . " Kjellberg and Bisognin 's videos were able to earn nearly 20 million views . Maker Studios , which Kjellberg and Bisognin are represented by , brokered the ad deal between the two and Legendary Pictures . In January 2015 , Mountain Dew partnered with PewDiePie to launch a fan fiction contest , in which winning fan fictions will be animated into video formats and then uploaded onto his channel . In the same month , a quote from him was used by Techland on Dying Light posters . The quote , which read , " I love this game . It 's sooo awesome ! " , spread controversy as it came from a seemingly advertorial video , featuring him playing Dying Light . In response to the issue , PewDiePie tweeted , " I love this game . It 's soooo awesome ! - IGN . " When another Twitter user mentioned the issue , tagging PewDiePie in their tweet , he responded , " I dont even remember saying this . "
Despite these partnerships , PewDiePie maintains that he conducts very few promotions and works with few brands . Additionally , PewDiePie posted on Reddit , " I make more than I need from YouTube , " adding , " with that freedom , but also to respect my fans for making that possible , I don 't end up doing many endorsements . " On this topic , PewDiePie has claimed that it is disappointing when a large chunk of people misinterpret a component of his character ; he states , " if I mention on Twitter that I find this or that Kickstarter project cool , people immediately start to ask what economical interests I might have in it . Things like that can bring me down . But it 's not personal ; some people just prefer to believe the worst about others at any given time . "
= = = Relationship with YouTube networks and programs = = =
PewDiePie 's channel is under Polaris , a gaming network , part of Maker Studios , a multi @-@ channel network that drives the growth of the channels under it . Despite being signed under a network , PewDiePie refuses to hire an editor to help him with his video output , stating " I want YouTube to be YouTube . "
PewDiePie has expressed disdain with Machinima , a rival YouTube network that he had been signed with prior to Maker Studios . Feeling frustrated with how Machinima treated him , PewDiePie hired a lawyer to free him from his contract with the network .
In October 2014 , PewDiePie began hinting at the possibility that he might not renew his contract with Maker Studios upon its expiration in December 2014 . Reports that covered this information also added that PewDiePie expressed his frustrations with the studio 's parent company , Disney ; PewDiePie was quoted saying , " The fact that Disney bought Maker Studios doesn 't really change anything for me . If I ask for help , they reply , but that 's all the contact we have . We 'll see what happens . " Rather than re @-@ sign with Maker , PewDiePie has mulled the option of launching his own network , although he has declined to provide in @-@ depth details on the subject . However , in light of news outlets reporting his disinterest with Maker , PewDiePie tweeted , " I feel like I was misquoted in the WSJ and I 'm really happy with the work that Maker has been doing for me . " PewDiePie ultimately continued creating videos under Maker ; his relationship with the network has seen Maker establish an official PewDiePie website , app and online store to sell Bro Army merchandise , while PewDiePie promotes Maker 's media interests and gives the network a share of his YouTube ad revenue .
In early 2015 , Nintendo launched its Creator Program , in order to share revenue with YouTube video creators who feature gameplay of their products in videos . PewDiePie joined various gamers in criticising the programme . PewDiePie called the program a , " slap in the face to the YouTube channels that does focus on Nintendo game exclusively , adding , " The people who have helped and showed passion for Nintendo 's community are the ones left in the dirt the most . " Despite criticisms from PewDiePie and other gamers alike , Nintendo experienced more requests from YouTube creators than expected , causing an extension on the 72 @-@ hour wait time for video approval through the program . Additionally , PewDiePie , stated , " I 'll still play Nintendo games that I want to play on my channel as usual . I 'm lucky to be in a situation where losing ad revenue on a few videos won 't matter . However , many people on YouTube are not in that situation . " Ultimately , the focal point of criticism is toward the approval of a video which Nintendo has to administer , and may be motivated by biased intentions .
= = = = Revelmode = = = =
In January 2016 , PewDiePie announced a partnership with Maker Studios to produce Revelmode , a sub @-@ network of Maker , that would showcase PewDiePie and his friends on YouTube in original series . The head of Maker Studios , Courtney Holt , stated " We 're thrilled to be doubling down with Felix , " after the deal . Along with PewDiePie , other YouTubers initially signed to the network included CutiePieMarzia , CinnamonToastKen , Dodger , Emma Blackery , Jacksepticeye , Jelly , Kwebbelkop , and Markiplier .
= = = Charities = = =
PewDiePie 's popularity has allowed him to stir support for fundraising drives . In February 2012 , PewDiePie ran for King of the Web , an online contest . He lost the overall title , however still became the " Gaming King of the Web " for the 1 – 15 February 2012 voting period . During the following voting period , PewDiePie won and donated his cash winnings to the World Wildlife Fund . He has raised money for the St. Jude Children 's Research Hospital .
PewDiePie also began a " Water Campaign " charity , where his fans could donate money to Charity : Water , in celebration of reaching ten million subscribers . PewDiePie also contributed one dollar to the charity for every 500 views the video announcing the campaign accumulates , up to a maximum of $ 10 @,@ 000 . PewDiePie had the stated goal of raising US $ 250 @,@ 000 , at the end of the drive , the amount raised was $ 446 @,@ 462 . In June 2014 , PewDiePie , announced that a fourth charity drive for " Save the Children " raised over $ 630 @,@ 000 , surpassing a $ 250 @,@ 000 goal . In an interview with the Swedish magazine Icon , he has expressed desire to continue these drives as time goes on , and also credited John and Hank Green as two individuals who gave him the idea of making unique videos for charity . These videos are purchased by game manufacturers and advertisers , for prices ranging up to $ 50 @,@ 000 .
= = = Appearances in other media = = =
Aside from his own YouTube channel , PewDiePie has made appearances in the videos of other YouTube creators and series . In April 2013 , he made a cameo in an episode of Epic Rap Battles of History , portraying Mikhail Baryshnikov . In July 2013 , PewDiePie starred alongside Anthony Padilla and Ian Hecox of Smosh , as well as Jenna Marbles , as guest judges on the second season of Internet Icon . PewDiePie also appeared in the 2013 and 2014 editions of YouTube 's annual year @-@ end Rewind series .
In June 2014 Sveriges Radio let Kjellberg host an episode of the radio show Sommar i P1 . The episode was recorded in both Swedish and English ; the Swedish version was broadcast 9 August 2014 in Sveriges Radio P1 , and the English version was published online , on a dedicated server with extra capacity to avoid crashing the Sveriges Radio server . The link to the Swedish version of the broadcast was shared over 3 @,@ 500 times , and the link to the English version was shared about 49 @,@ 000 times .
In December 2014 , PewDiePie guest starred in two episodes of the 18th season of South Park , one of his favourite series . The two episodes served as a two @-@ part season finale . The first part , titled " # REHASH " aired on 3 December , while the second part , titled " # HappyHolograms " , aired on 10 December . In the episodes , he parodied himself and other Let 's Play commentators , who added commentary over Call of Duty gameplay in an overly expressive way . In " # REHASH " , the character Kyle wonders why his brother and his brother 's friends favour watching others comment on events over experiencing events themselves .
In July 2015 , PewDiePie was announced as a voice actor in the Vimeo fantasy series , Oscar 's Hotel for Fantastical Creatures .
In October 2015 , PewDiePie appeared as a guest on The Late Show with Stephen Colbert ; PewDiePie 's charm and Colbert 's interviewing skills were well received by online media outlets .
= = Other ventures = =
On 24 September 2015 , PewDiePie released his long @-@ awaited video game PewDiePie : Legend of the Brofist on iOS and Android . The game is developed by Canadian game developer Outerminds in collaboration with Kjellberg himself .
Penguin Group released PewDiePie 's This Book Loves You , a parody of self @-@ help books , on 20 October 2015 . The book includes a collection of aphorisms , jokes , and wisdom , paired with visuals .
= = Personal life = =
Kjellberg is originally from Sweden but moved to Italy to live with his girlfriend , Marzia Bisognin ( CutiePieMarzia ) ; she is also a YouTube personality . The two were introduced to each other through a friend of Bisognin 's in 2011 , and after establishing an online friendship , Kjellberg flew to Italy to meet her .
The two shuffled between Sweden and Italy , before settling in Brighton , England . Kjellberg moved to the UK in July 2013 for better Internet connectivity . Kjellberg admits that he enjoys living in Brighton , as he is able to live in general anonymity , adding that one of the reasons he has not moved to Los Angeles is , " Anytime I 'm there , people are constantly patting you on the back , telling you how great you are . It fucks with your brain . I started YouTube because I was bored , not to become famous . " In June 2016 , Kjellberg announced he had been evicted after a neighbour confronted him for being too loud .
Kjellberg has stated on his YouTube channel that he is an agnostic atheist .
= = Filmography = =
= = Awards = =
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= K @-@ 30 ( Kansas highway ) =
K @-@ 30 is a 1 @.@ 95 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 3 @.@ 14 km ) state highway running from Interstate 70 ( I @-@ 70 ) north to the southern city limit of Maple Hill . A previous designation existed in the late 1920s which was removed by 1932 . It existed in Jefferson County . The current route was established in the early 1950s .
= = Route description = =
The route begins at an interchange with I @-@ 70 , which also carries US 40 , at that freeway 's exit 341 . The road continues southward as Windy Hill Road toward Eskridge . From I @-@ 70 , K @-@ 30 crosses the Mill Creek before intersecting Waterman Crossing Road . The road then crosses a railroad owned by Union Pacific before abruptly turning to the east . K @-@ 30 warps slightly northeast , running parallel to the railway line . Following an intersection with Sunset Lane , the highway picks up the name of Elm Street as it runs along the southern city limit of Maple Hill . The roadway ends near an intersection with Main Street .
The route is maintained by the Kansas Department of Transportation ( KDOT ) . In 2010 , KDOT calculated that the route 's annual average daily traffic was 1420 vehicles , including 85 trucks . No segment of the highway is part of the National Highway System .
= = History = =
A previous designation for K @-@ 30 was brought into the Kansas state highway system by 1927 . The route connected US 40 in Tonganoxie to US 73W in Oskaloosa . At that time , it was only a graded road . This designation was removed by 1932 . The current designation of K @-@ 30 was established in 1950 , from K @-@ 10 to Maple Hill , when it was only a gravel road . In 1953 , the route was paved . In 1960 , I @-@ 70 was completed through the region , replacing K @-@ 10 . Since then , the route has not been realigned .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Maple Hill Township , Wabaunsee County .
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= Pennard Castle =
Pennard Castle is a ruined castle , near the village of Pennard in the Gower Peninsula , in south Wales . The castle was built in the early 12th century as a timber ringwork following the Norman invasion of Wales . The walls were rebuilt in stone by the Braose family at the turn of the 13th and 14th centuries , including a stone gatehouse . Soon afterwards , however , encroaching sand dunes caused the site to be abandoned and it fell into ruin . Restoration work was carried out during the course of the 20th century and the remains of the castle are now protected under UK law as a Grade II * listed building .
= = History = =
= = = 13th @-@ 14th centuries = = =
The Normans began to make incursions into South Wales from the late @-@ 1060s onwards , pushing westwards from their bases in recently occupied England . Their advance was marked by the construction of castles and the creation of regional lordships . Pennard Castle was built at the start of the 12th century after Henry de Beaumont , the Earl of Warwick , conquered the Gower Peninsula and made Pennard one of his demesne manors .
The castle was constructed on a limestone spur , overlooking the mouth of the Pennard Pill stream and Three Cliffs Bay , and was protected to the north and west by surrounding cliffs . The fortification initially took the form of an oval @-@ shaped ringwork , 34 by 28 metres ( 112 by 92 ft ) , with an defensive ditch and ramparts around the outside , and a timber hall in the centre . A local church , St Mary 's , was built just to the east and a settlement grew up around the site ; a rabbit warren was established in the nearby sand dunes . In the early 13th century , a simple stone hall , approximately 18 @.@ 6 by 7 @.@ 6 metres ( 61 by 25 ft ) , was built on the site of the older timber building , using red @-@ purple sandstone with white limestone detailing .
Around the turn of the 13th and 14th centuries , while the castle was controlled by William and his son , also called William , the timber defences were replaced . A thin stone curtain wall , approximately 8 metres ( 26 ft ) tall with battlements , replaced the palisades , with the mural defences including a square tower on a rocky spur on the west side , and a circular tower on the north @-@ west corner . A gatehouse was built as the new entrance , with two half @-@ circular towers that possibly imitated those of regional castles such as Caerphilly ; it was weakly defended by a portcullis and a handful of arrow loops . The new walls were built from a mixture of red sandstone rubble , probably quarried locally , and limestone dug from the castle site itself . The Braoses may have rebuilt Pennard as a replacement for their castle at nearby Penmaen which was abandoned at around the same time due to encroaching sand dunes .
= = = 16th @-@ 21st centuries = = =
Pennard Castle also began to suffer from sand dune encroachment and the castle and its settlement were gradually abandoned . A survey in 1650 described the fortification as being " desolate and ruinous " and surrounded by sand . By 1741 , the castle 's south wall had mostly collapsed but the remainder of the castle was apparently still generally intact , although it had suffered further losses by 1795 . It was a popular subject for engravings , sketches and paintings from the 18th century onwards , with the view of the ruins from the east proving particularly popular . By 1879 , large cracks had appeared in the southern tower of the gatehouse , which led to its partial collapse .
By 1922 , concerns had grown about the condition of the castle and discussions took place between the Penard Golf Club , who owned the site , the Royal Institution and the Cambrian Archaeological Association . A joint committee was formed to raise the funds for repairs to the stonework but the costs appear to have been excessive and instead the gatehouse was patched with concrete between 1923 and 1924 . Much of the remaining southern wall collapsed at the beginning of 1960 and an archaeological survey was conducted between 1960 and 1961 . Urgent masonry repairs were then carried out in 1963 , paid for by a combination of the Ministry of Public Buildings and Works , the Gower Society , the golf club and a public appeal launched by local newspapers .
In the 21st century , the ruins of the gatehouse still survive , reaching up to the battlements on its east side , partially because it was built with very strong mortar . Parts of the curtain wall survive , mainly on the north and east sides , now around 1 @.@ 1 metres ( 3 ft 7 in ) thick and averaging 5 metres ( 16 ft ) tall , along with the remains of the square mural tower . The ruins are protected under UK law as a grade II * listed building and a scheduled ancient monument .
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= Iron Rattler =
Iron Rattler is a steel roller coaster located at Six Flags Fiesta Texas in San Antonio , Texas . The ride opened in 2013 , replacing The Rattler , a wooden roller coaster , by putting a new steel track on top of The Rattler 's wooden support structure . The distance between the lowest and highest points of the first drop was increased from 124 to 171 feet ( 38 to 52 m ) and the drop was made steeper by changing the angle to 81 degrees . The resulting modifications increased the speed of the trains from 65 to 70 miles per hour ( 105 to 113 km / h ) . It is the first hybrid wood and steel roller coaster to feature an inversion , in which riders are turned upside @-@ down and then back upright . The inversion is a barrel roll , which is when the train goes through a combination of a loop and a roll .
The Iron Rattler was designed by Alan Schilke and built by Rocky Mountain Construction . The wooden Rattler had been constructed by Roller Coaster Corporation of America . When it opened in 1992 , it was the tallest and fastest wooden coaster in the world , with a height of 179 feet ( 55 m ) , a first drop of 166 feet ( 51 m ) and a top speed of 73 mph ( 117 km / h ) .
= = History = =
Six Flags Fiesta Texas announced in August 2012 , that they would be revamping their wooden coaster , The Rattler , into a steel track coaster , to be called Iron Rattler . The renovation would be performed by Rocky Mountain Construction and would feature the I @-@ Box steel track on some of the original wooden coaster supports , Rattler @-@ themed trains supplied by Gerstlauer , and a barrel roll . The new ride would open for the 2013 season .
The Rattler had been constructed by Roller Coaster Corporation of America . When the coaster debuted on March 14 , 1992 , it was the tallest and fastest wooden coaster in the world , with a height of 179 feet ( 55 m ) , a first drop of 166 feet ( 51 m ) and a top speed of 73 mph ( 117 km / h ) , outdoing its then rival , Mean Streak at Ohio 's Cedar Point . Designer John Pierce stated that the original plans kept changing as park co @-@ developers Gaylord Entertainment Company insisted on having the tallest wooden coaster in the world . It held this title until 1994 , when its first drop was shortened from 166 to 124 feet ( 51 to 38 m ) , resulting in a reduction of its top speed from 73 to 65 miles per hour ( 117 to 105 km / h ) .
In late 2009 , Six Flags Over Texas closed their Texas Giant wooden roller coaster for a $ 10 million renovation which took more than a year to complete . Idaho @-@ firm Rocky Mountain Construction replaced the wooden track with a new steel I @-@ Box track , retaining a wooden support structure . The refurbishment was ultimately a success with " resoundingly positive reviews from riders " . The park 's parent company , Six Flags , immediately began looking for other rides in its chain which would benefit from a similar overhaul .
At the IAAPA 2011 Trade Show , Alan Schilke of Rocky Mountain Construction revealed their company had two projects that they would be working on for 2013 openings – one of which was an I @-@ Box conversion of a wooden roller coaster . It was later revealed by the Spokane Journal of Business that The Rattler would be completely refurbished in 2013 with new track and trains in a manner similar to that used by the company on the New Texas Giant at Six Flags Over Texas in 2011 . Although Six Flags had not publicly confirmed their plans , the park announced that The Rattler would close on August 5 , 2012 . At the end of the operating day on August 5 , 2012 , park personnel and select enthusiasts took the final ride , after which , The Rattler , as a wood coaster , ceased operation .
The National Roller Coaster Museum and Archives announced on April 16 , 2013 , they would be auctioning off the first ride of Iron Rattler on the evening of May 17 , 2013 , and proceeds going towards the museum . Also a soft @-@ opening was held to the media on May 15 , 2013 . The grand opening of the Iron Rattler was May 25 , 2013 .
After the deadly incident on the New Texas Giant on July 19 , 2013 , and because the two rides share several similarities , Six Flags Fiesta Texas had ceased running Iron Rattler pending investigation findings from its sister park . In under a month , Iron Rattler reopened on August 14 with seat belts as another added restraint to the two trains .
= = Characteristics = =
Iron Rattler is located in the Western @-@ themed Crackaxle Canyon area of Fiesta Texas , sitting next to the Road Runner Express and The Gully Washer . It is Rocky Mountain Construction 's second installation of I @-@ Box track , and the first to feature a barrel roll inversion . Iron Rattler operates with two Rattler @-@ themed trains manufactured by Gerstlauer . Each train is made up of six cars which seat riders in two rows of two . Riders are restrained through the use of a lap bar and a seat belt .
The table below compares the original Rattler , with the updated Iron Rattler ride . The original ride by the Roller Coaster Corporation of America was approximately 1 @,@ 800 feet ( 550 m ) longer due to a 900 ° helix atop the quarry walls . The refurbished ride by Rocky Mountain Construction features a steeper and longer first drop , thus achieving a faster speed .
= = Ride experience = =
The ride begins by exiting out of the station and turning around under Road Runner Express . It ascends a 179 @-@ foot @-@ tall ( 55 m ) chain lift hill , before dropping 171 feet ( 52 m ) at an angle of 81 ° . The track then ascends to the top of the quarry wall where it enters a 110 ° over @-@ banked turn . A 95 ° over @-@ banked turn leads to the left , back off the quarry wall . The ride then rises into the zero @-@ g roll which sits atop the quarry wall . A camelback hill is followed by two more over @-@ banked turns measuring 98 ° and 93 ° , respectively . The ride then drops back off the quarry wall and enters a tunnel near its base . The tunnel features fog and lighting effects . After exiting the tunnel , the train enters brake run and returns to the station .
= = Reception = =
Iron Rattler has generally been well received . Keith Miller of Funworld Magazine described the ride as " wonderfully smooth " highlighting the slow cresting of the lift hill as an " enjoyable element " . He concludes by stating " there 's not one restful moment on this ride " . Arthur Levine of About.com gave the ride 4 @.@ 5 out of 5 stars . Levine applauded Six Flags for replacing a bad wooden roller coaster with " a wonderful , remarkably smooth , thoroughly fun and enjoyable ride " . He also gives kudos to Rocky Mountain Construction who manufactured the I @-@ Box track and redesigned the ride . Brenda Solis of KLQB described the ride as " the most intense , craziest roller coaster ever " . She also compared the renovated ride to the original ride , stating " the old Rattler wasn 't as scary or intense or fast as the new one " .
Before Iron Rattler 's debut year , Rattler was only ranked once in the Amusement Today 's Golden Ticket Awards for the 2011 Top 50 Wooden Coasters ranked at 47 in the world , since the creation of the award in 1998 . After the renovation in 2013 , Iron Rattler was ranked highly by the voters . The ride was ranked the second @-@ best new ride of 2013 with 19 % of the vote . It also ranked at position 11 for the world 's best steel roller coasters its debut year .
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= Steve Morrison ( American football ) =
Steven Craig Morrison ( born December 28 , 1971 ) is a retired professional American football linebacker who played for the Indianapolis Colts of the National Football League ( NFL ) from 1995 to 1998 . He is currently the linebackers coach at Syracuse University . He previously served as the linebackers coach for the Eastern Michigan Eagles football team and on the coaching staff at Western Michigan . Prior to these professional experiences , he had excelled in college football as an All @-@ Big Ten Conference inside linebacker from 1990 to 1994 for the Michigan Wolverines , whom he served as captain . In high school , he had been a Detroit Free Press first @-@ team All @-@ State ( Michigan ) and second @-@ team All @-@ Midwest selection in football and an All @-@ American in lacrosse .
After retiring from professional football as a player , he gained his first two years of coaching experience as the defensive coordinator for Michigan High School Athletic Association football champion Brother Rice High School ( his high school alma mater ) . He then served as an assistant coach at the University of Michigan for three years . He then assumed a role as an assistant at Western Michigan University . At Western Michigan , he has served as the linebacker coach after spending a year as the defensive line coach . The 2009 Western Michigan Broncos season marked Morrison 's fifth season on the team 's staff , his fourth as linebacker coach and his second as defensive coordinator . Morrison was fired at the conclusion of the season .
= = Early years = =
Barbara Morrison , Steve 's mother , says Steve was read his last rites on the day of his birth because he had the same lung disease that Patrick Kennedy , the son of United States President John Kennedy , died from . He was then put in an incubator where his mother could not touch him for 12 months . Morrison wanted to be a linebacker because of the tenacity of the position . His favorite book was a book about Jack Lambert and Jack Ham and he grew up a Pittsburgh Steelers fan . He played soccer when he was a youth .
= = = High school = = =
Morrison competed for Brother Rice High School of the Detroit , Michigan Catholic High School League . As a junior who played both fullback and linebacker , he was sidelined for the remainder of the season with a knee injury in his third game , but the team went 7 – 2 for the season despite his injury . As a senior , Morrison was part of a 1989 team that lost in the Class A semifinals 6 – 0 to Martin Luther King High School at Atwood Stadium . The team had been ranked as the number three high school team in the Metro Detroit Area by the Detroit Free Press in its pre @-@ season poll . Morrison had been hailed as a blue chip athlete entering his senior season in the same pre @-@ season summary . The team was 11 – 0 and the number one ranked area high school team prior to the loss . Once , Morrison executed an 82 @-@ yard punt during a high school game . During his senior season , his coach , Al Fracassa , was the Detroit Free Press Coach of the Year and Morrison was a First @-@ Team All @-@ Metro Detroit selection at linebacker . However , fellow fullback / linebacker two @-@ way Detroit area player Jerome Bettis was the first team fullback . Both players earned first @-@ team Detroit Free Press All @-@ State honors . However , a poll of 14 experts selected Bettis first @-@ team all @-@ Midwest ( Big Ten States of Illinois , Indiana , Iowa , Michigan , Minnesota , Ohio and Wisconsin because Penn State had not yet joined the conference ) , but only selected Morrison second @-@ team all Midwest . In high school , Morrison was an All @-@ American in lacrosse , along with Brother Rice and Michigan football teammate Gannon Dudlar . He was a Catholic High School League Hall of Fame athlete and was inducted in the 1995 Hall of Fame class that included Shawn Respert , among others .
= = = College = = =
After attending Brother Rice High School in Bloomfield Hills , Michigan , his college decision eventually came down to a choice between Michigan and Michigan State University . He was part of a highly touted Michigan recruiting class that was ranked fourth in the nation and that included five of the top twelve players in the state and seven of the top twelve regional players . He spent five years at the University of Michigan where he anchored the defense as an inside linebacker . In 1990 , he was the first true freshman to start on defense since 1987 . In his 1991 debut for Michigan against the Boston College Eagles , he opposed former Brother Rice teammate Pete Mitchell , who was appearing in his first game . On Mitchell 's first career catch , Morrison was warned for making a late hit against Mitchell . A total of seven Brother Rice alumni played in the game . He became a rare five @-@ year varsity letter winner while wearing # 36 for the Michigan Wolverines football program from 1990 to 1994 , He was mentored by 1991 Butkus Award winner Erick Anderson . He helped the 1990 three @-@ peat Big Ten Conference Champions defend their title for a total of five consecutive conference championships ending in 1992 . The 1991 and 1992 teams went to the Rose Bowl . During the 1992 season , he replaced Anderson , who had led Michigan in tackles four consecutive seasons , as the defensive signal caller . He was named the Big Ten Defensive Player of the Week after making 15 tackles against Purdue Boilermakers on October 31 , 1992 .
He became team captain in 1994 for coach Gary Moeller . On a team that had two All @-@ Americans ( Ty Law and Remy Hamilton ) , he was one of six All @-@ Big Ten players ( Law , Hamilton , Tyrone Wheatley , Amani Toomer and Jason Horn ) and a Butkus Award semifinalist . Morrison earned his bachelor 's degree in sports management and communications in 1994 from Michigan .
At the time of his graduation , he ranked third in career tackles in school history , behind Anderson and Ron Simpkins . He has since been passed by Jarrett Irons and Sam Sword , and he stands fifth with 220 tackles . In terms of tackles and assists combined , Morrison once totaled 23 in a November 14 , 1992 game against the Illinois Fighting Illini football team , which stands as a Michigan Football record for a game at Michigan Stadium . Morrison suffered compartmental syndrome in his calf , which necessitated surgical repair to stop internal bleeding , during his 1990 freshman season , for which he earned a medical redshirt season by the NCAA . As a sophomore ( redshirt freshman ) , he sat out four games with a broken leg . In 1993 , he missed the first seven games with a broken foot .
= = Professional career = =
= = = NFL = = =
He was not drafted in the 1995 NFL draft , but signed with the Indianapolis Colts as a free agent after the draft . He played with the Colts from 1995 to 1998 . He accumulated 2 quarterback sacks , 2 interceptions , and 4 fumble recoveries . Although the Colts best records during his tenure was 9 – 7 in both 1995 and 1996 , the team made the playoffs twice and Morrison had a chance to play in an American Football Conference Championship game . During the 1995 – 1996 NFL playoffs , the Colts won two playoff games on the road under Ted Marchibroda to reach the championship game against the Pittsburgh Steelers . Despite the playoff success , they changed coaches , as Lindy Infante took them back to the 1996 – 1997 NFL playoffs with a 9 – 7 record , only to fall in the wild card game to the Steelers again . Morrison started 31 games over the course of his career , including 29 regular season games . In 1997 and 1998 , the team had losing seasons , although Morrison started more games as his career progressed . Morrison was signed by the Detroit Lions for the 1999 NFL season , but he was waived before the season started .
= = = Early coaching experience = = =
He served as the defensive coordinator for his high school alma mater , Brother Rice Warriors , in 2000 and 2001 . In 2000 , they won the Michigan High School Athletic Association Division 2 football championship . He was a member of the coaching staff , when his high school coach Fracassa became the winningest coach in Michigan High School football history . From 2002 to 2004 he served in various capacities on the defensive coaching staff for the Michigan Wolverines . In 2002 , he served as the video assistant . In 2003 , he became a graduate assistant / outside linebackers coach .
= = = Western Michigan ( 2005 – 2009 ) = = =
In 2005 , he took the Western Michigan defensive line coaching position on new head coach Bill Cubit 's staff . That same year , Scott Shafer assumed the defensive coordinator position at Western Michigan , and Morrison served under him . Then , in 2006 , Morrison assumed the linebacker coach position . The defense immediately produced results : # 1 in the country in interceptions , # 1 in sacks per game , and a Mid @-@ American Conference record rushing yards per game defense . In addition to the team numbers he fostered Ameer Ismail , the nation 's leader in quarterback sacks and tackles for a loss .
On March 12 , 2008 , after defensive coordinator Bill Miller left to be the Louisville Cardinals football linebacker coach , Western Michigan promoted Morrison to defensive coordinator , and he relinquished his recruiting coordinator role to tight ends coach Jake Moreland . He continued to serve as the linebackers coach in 2008 . He converted the defensive scheme from a two @-@ gap scheme to a one @-@ gap scheme upon taking over as defensive coordinator . His coaching style is considered a compromise between styles of the previous coordinators : the highly enthusiastic Shafer style and the laid back Miller style . The 2008 Western Michigan Broncos football team compiled a 9 – 3 ( 6 – 2 conference ) record earning them a trip to the 2008 Texas Bowl to face the Rice Owls . His defense ranked toward the middle of the MAC . Rice blew out Western Michigan by taking a 38 – 0 lead before allowing two late fourth quarter touchdowns for a 38 – 14 final score . On the eve of the Bowl game , the Broncos signed head coach Cubit to a five @-@ year extension and there was no indication he intended to make any changes in his staff . Morrison 's 2008 defense produced first @-@ team All @-@ MAC selection Louis Delmas , who appeared in the January 24 , 2009 Senior Bowl and was the first safety chosen in the 2009 NFL Draft . After a disappointing 2009 Western Michigan season in which WMU ranked 102 out of 120 Division I teams , Morrison was fired and replaced by former Hofstra coach Dave Cohen .
= = = Eastern Michigan ( 2010 – 2011 ) = = =
Morrison served as the linebackers coach for Eastern Michigan University under head coach Ron English and defensive coordinator Phil Snow . The 2010 Eagles posted a 2 – 10 record .
= = = Syracuse ( 2012 – 2013 ) = = =
In January 2012 , Steve Morrison joined the Syracuse Orangemen football team staff as the linebackers coach , reuniting with his former Western Michigan defensive coordinator , Scott Schafer , the defensive coordinator for the Syracuse Orangemen . He also joined former Michigan teammate Tyrone Wheatley on the coaching staff . In January 2013 , Morrison left the team for " personal reasons " .
= = Family = =
Morrison 's family claims to be related to Abraham Lincoln . In college , Morrison 's family hosted various teammates such as Todd Collins at Christmas time . This is part of a Michigan football tradition that when the team is playing late season Bowl games , the players from outside the Midwest spend Christmas Eve and Christmas Day morning with local families . Morrison is married to the former Mary Campana . The couple had their third child on May 23 , 2007 . They now have three sons : Alexander ( 8 @-@ 29 @-@ 01 ) , Marco ( 11 @-@ 18 @-@ 04 ) and Roman ( 5 @-@ 23 @-@ 07 ) .
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= Tropical Storm Kiko ( 2007 ) =
Tropical Storm Kiko was a strong tropical storm that capsized a boat off the western coast of Mexico , killing at least 15 people . The 15th and final tropical cyclone of the 2007 Pacific hurricane season , Kiko developed out of a tropical wave that formed off the coast of Africa on September 26 and traversed the Atlantic . The wave crossed over Central America and entered the Pacific Ocean on October 8 , where it spawned Tropical Depression 15 @-@ E on October 15 . The depression drifted to the south over the next day before briefly being declared Tropical Storm Kiko . It subsequently weakened into a tropical depression , but later reattained tropical storm intensity . By October 18 , Kiko was forecast to make landfall along the western Mexican coastline as a moderate tropical storm . However , the cyclone turned to the west and reached its peak intensity of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) on October 20 . The tropical storm slowly weakened to a remnant low @-@ pressure area by October 24 and completely dissipated on October 27 without making landfall .
= = Meteorological history = =
A tropical wave exited the western coast of Africa on September 26 , quickly spawning an area of low pressure . Upon the formation of the low , the wave split into two pieces and a second area of low pressure developed along the southern portion of the wave as it traveled west . The northern low quickly developed , spawning Tropical Depression Fourteen on September 28 . The southern low attached to the wave failed to develop and moved away from the intensifying tropical depression . It continued through the Atlantic , entering the Pacific Ocean , after crossing Central America , on October 8 . A broad area of low pressure accompanied by showers and thunderstorms developed along the wave around 275 miles ( 440 kilometres ) south of Acapulco , Mexico . However , the low remained disorganized because of strong upper @-@ level winds . On October 13 , the low became better organized due to a relaxation in the shear . The low developed enough convection late on October 14 to be declared Tropical Depression Fifteen @-@ E while located about 435 mi ( 705 km ) southwest of Colima , Mexico .
The depression was embedded within a broad , low @-@ level cyclone with weak steering currents that caused Fifteen @-@ E to drift southward for the next 30 hours . On October 16 , strong easterly wind shear exposed the center of the depression from shower and thunderstorm activity . However , a curving convective band developed around the system , and satellites detected winds of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) . This prompted the National Hurricane Center to upgrade the depression to Tropical Storm Kiko as it drifted about 430 mi ( 695 km ) southwest of Manzanillo , Mexico . The intensification was short @-@ lived , and Kiko was downgraded to a tropical depression six hours later when the center separated from diminishing convection . On October 17 , the storm was upgraded to a tropical storm when the low became associated with deep convection . The center remained poorly defined , and winds of tropical storm @-@ force blew only in Kiko 's southwest quadrant . Over the next few days , Kiko moved slowly towards the east @-@ northeast as a minimal tropical storm and was forecast to either brush land or to make landfall along the Mexican coast on October 19 or October 20 . However , early on October 19 , Kiko turned to the northwest when a high @-@ pressure ridge developed over Mexico . Forecasters predicted that the storm would become a strong Category 1 hurricane as it turned away from Mexico and headed to sea .
As the ridge pushed the storm away from the coast , weaker wind shear and warm sea @-@ surface temperatures allowed Kiko to gradually intensify . The storm reached its peak intensity of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) 991 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 28 inHg ) late on October 20 while located around 175 mi ( 280 km ) west @-@ southwest of Manzanillo , Mexico . As it moved away from the coast , an eye began to form . Shortly thereafter , shear increased and began to separate the low from the deep convection . By the afternoon of October 21 , the storm was poorly organized and the center was partially exposed . At this time , the weakening system had winds sustained at 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) . Early on October 22 , a brief burst in showers and thunderstorms allowed the storm to maintain its intensity . That evening , Kiko was downgraded to a tropical depression as strong wind shear removed convection from the storm 's center and exposed the low . As the depression moved over a dryer and more hostile area , two inhibiting factors for development of tropical cyclones , it slowly weakened . It lost almost all convection and degenerated to a remnant low @-@ pressure area on October 23 , and the National Hurricane Center issued its final advisory that night . The remnant low moved west before dissipating on October 27 over open waters .
= = Preparations and impact = =
On October 18 , a tropical storm warning was issued along the Mexican coastline from Zihuatanejo , Guerrero to Manzanillo , Colima , and a tropical storm watch extended northward to La Fortuna , Mexico , as Kiko was forecast to make landfall in that region on October 21 . Above @-@ normal tides and dangerous waves were expected along the coast . Rainfall totals of 4 inches ( 100 millimetres ) to 7 in ( 180 mm ) were possible over southwestern Mexico with isolated totals reaching 10 in ( 250 mm ) . As a precaution , port captains shut down shipping and advised residents to avoid low @-@ lying areas that might flood . Civil Defense advised these residents to move to temporary shelters and tourists were told to stay indoors . Emergency procedures were on standby in case conditions became more threatening .
As the storm neared land , a ridge over Mexico prevented Kiko from coming ashore , resulting in far less damage than forecast . As Kiko traveled parallel to the coast , heavy rain affected the region for two days . In Kiko 's rough seas off the coast of Mexico , a ship capsized with twenty @-@ five passengers and crew . Continued effects from Kiko hampered rescue efforts , forcing officials to call off the rescue attempt . Authorities searched the beaches of San Francisco Ixhuatán and San Francisco del Mar for any signs of the ship . Only two people survived ; fifteen bodies were recovered , and nine passengers were never found .
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= Cædwalla of Wessex =
Cædwalla / ˈkædˌwɔːlə / ( c . 659 – 20 April 689 ) was the King of Wessex from approximately 685 until he abdicated in 688 . His name is derived from the British Cadwallon . He was exiled from Wessex as a youth and during his exile gathered forces and attacked the South Saxons , killing their king , Æthelwealh , in what is now Sussex . Cædwalla was unable to hold the South Saxon territory , however , and was driven out by Æthelwealh 's ealdormen . In either 685 or 686 he became King of Wessex . He may have been involved in suppressing rival dynasties at this time , as an early source records that Wessex was ruled by underkings until Cædwalla .
After his accession Cædwalla returned to Sussex and won the territory again , and also conquered the Isle of Wight , engaging in genocide and extinguishing the ruling dynasty there and forcing the population of the island at sword point to renounce their pagan beliefs for Christianity . He gained control of Surrey and the kingdom of Kent , and in 686 he installed his brother , Mul , as king of Kent . Mul was burned in a Kentish revolt a year later , and Cædwalla returned , possibly ruling Kent directly for a period .
Cædwalla was wounded during the conquest of the Isle of Wight , and perhaps for this reason he abdicated in 688 to travel to Rome for baptism . He reached Rome in April 689 , and was baptised by Pope Sergius I on the Saturday before Easter , dying ten days later on 20 April 689 . He was succeeded by Ine .
= = West Saxon territory in the 680s = =
In the late 7th century , the West Saxons occupied an area in the west of southern England , though the exact boundaries are difficult to define . To their west was the native British kingdom of Dumnonia , in what is now Devon and Cornwall . To the north were the Mercians , whose king , Wulfhere , had dominated southern England during his reign . In 674 he was succeeded by his brother , Æthelred , who was less militarily active than Wulfhere had been along the frontier with Wessex , though the West Saxons did not recover the territorial gains Wulfhere had made . To the southeast was the kingdom of the South Saxons , in what is now Sussex ; and to the east were the East Saxons , who controlled London .
Not all the locations named in the Chronicle can be identified , but it is apparent that the West Saxons were fighting in north Somerset , south Gloucestershire , and north Wiltshire , against both British and Mercian opposition . To the west and south , evidence of the extent of West Saxon influence is provided by the fact that Cenwalh , who reigned from 642 to 673 , is remembered as the first Saxon patron of Sherborne Abbey , in Dorset ; similarly , Centwine ( 676 – 685 ) is the first Saxon patron of Glastonbury , in Somerset . Evidently these monasteries were in West Saxon territory by then . Exeter , to the west , in Devon , was under West Saxon control by 680 , since Boniface was educated there at about that time .
= = Ancestry = =
Bede states that Cædwalla was a " daring young man of the royal house of the Gewissæ " , and gives his age at his death in 689 as about thirty , making the year of his birth about 659 . " Gewisse " , a tribal name , is used by Bede as an equivalent to " West Saxon " : the West Saxon genealogies trace back to one " Gewis " , an invented eponymous ancestor . According to the Chronicle , Cædwalla was the son of Coenberht , and was descended via Ceawlin from Cerdic , who was the first of the Gewisse to land in England . However , it appears that the many difficulties and contradictions in the regnal list are caused partly by the efforts of later scribes to demonstrate that each king on the list was descended from Cerdic ; thus Cædwalla 's genealogy must be treated with caution . His name is an Anglicised form of the British name " Cadwallon " , which may indicate British ( Brythonic ) ancestry .
= = First campaign in Sussex = =
The first mention of Cædwalla is in the Life of St Wilfrid , in which he is described as an exiled nobleman in the forests of Chiltern and Andred . It was not uncommon for a 7th @-@ century king to have spent time in exile before gaining the throne ; Oswald of Northumbria is another prominent example . According to the Chronicle , it was in 685 that Cædwalla " began to contend for the kingdom " . Despite his exile , he was able to put together enough military force to defeat and kill Æthelwealh , the king of Sussex . He was , however , soon expelled by Berthun and Andhun , Æthelwealh 's ealdormen , " who administered the country from then on " , possibly as kings .
The Isle of Wight and the Meon valley in what is now eastern Hampshire had been placed under Æthelwealh 's control by Wulfhere ; the Chronicle dates this to 661 , but according to Bede it occurred " not long before " Wilfrid 's mission to the South Saxons in the 680s , which implies a rather later date . Wulfhere 's attack on Ashdown , also dated by the Chronicle to 661 , may likewise have actually happened later . If these events happened in the early 680s or not long before , Cædwalla 's aggression against Æthelwealh would be explained as a response to Mercian pressure .
Another indication of the political and military situation may be the division in the 660s of the West Saxon see at Dorchester ; a new see was established at Winchester , very near to the South Saxon border . Bede 's explanation for the division is that Cenwalh grew tired of the Frankish speech of the bishop at Dorchester , but it is more likely that it was a response to the Mercian advance , which forced West Saxon expansion , such as Cædwalla 's military activities , west , south , and east , rather than north . Cædwalla 's military successes may be the reason that at about this time the term " West Saxon " starts to be used in contemporary sources , instead of " Gewisse " . It is from this time that the West Saxons began to rule over other Anglo @-@ Saxon peoples .
= = Accession and reign = =
In 685 or 686 , Cædwalla became king of the West Saxons after Centwine , his predecessor , retired to a monastery . Bede gives Cædwalla a reign of two years , ending in 688 , but if his reign was less than three years then he may have come to the throne in 685 . The West Saxon Genealogical Regnal List gives his reign a length of three years , with one variant reading of two years .
According to Bede , before Cædwalla 's reign , Wessex was ruled by underkings , who were conquered and removed when Cædwalla became king . This has been taken to mean that Cædwalla himself ended the reign of the underkings , though Bede does not directly say this . Bede gives the death of Cenwalh as the start of the ten @-@ year period in which the West Saxons were ruled by these underkings ; Cenwalh is now thought to have died in about 673 , so this is slightly inconsistent with Cædwalla 's dates . It may be that Centwine , Cædwalla 's predecessor as king of the West Saxons , began as a co @-@ ruler but established himself as sole king by the time Cædwalla became king . It may also be that the underkings were another dynastic faction of the West Saxon royal line , vying for power with Centwine and Cædwalla ; the description of them as " underkings " may be due to a partisan description of the situation by Bishop Daniel of Winchester , who was Bede 's primary informant on West Saxon events . It is also possible that not all the underkings were deposed . There is a King Bealdred , who reigned in the area of Somerset and West Wiltshire , who is mentioned in two land @-@ grants , one dated 681 and the other 688 , though both documents have been treated as spurious by some historians . Further confusing the situation is another land @-@ grant , thought to be genuine , showing Ine 's father , Cenred , still reigning in Wessex after Ine 's accession .
Once on the throne , Cædwalla attacked the South Saxons again , this time killing Berthun , and " the province was reduced to a worse state of subjection " . He also conquered the Isle of Wight , which was still an independent pagan kingdom , and set himself to kill every native on the island , resettling it with his own people . Arwald , the king of the Isle of Wight , left his two young brothers as heirs . They fled the island , but were found at Stoneham , in Hampshire , and killed on Cædwalla 's orders , though he was persuaded by a priest to let them be baptised before they were executed . Bede also mentions that Cædwalla was wounded ; he was recovering from his wounds when the priest found him to ask permission to baptise the princes .
In a charter of 688 , Cædwalla grants land at Farnham for a minster , so it is evident that Cædwalla controlled Surrey . He also invaded Kent , in 686 , and may have founded a monastery at Hoo , northeast of Rochester , between the Medway and the Thames . He installed his brother , Mul , as king of Kent , in place of its king Eadric . In a subsequent Kentish revolt , Mul was " burned " along with twelve others , according to the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle . Cædwalla responded with a renewed campaign against Kent , laying waste to its land and leaving it in a state of chaos . He may have ruled Kent directly after this second invasion .
= = Christianity = =
Cædwalla was unbaptised when he came to the throne of Wessex , and remained so throughout his reign , but though he is often referred to as a pagan this is not necessarily the most apt description ; it may be that he was already Christian in his beliefs but delayed his baptism to a time of his choice . He was clearly respectful of the church , with charter evidence showing multiple grants to churches and for religious buildings . When Cædwalla first attacked the South Saxons , Wilfrid was at the court of King Æthelwealh , and on Æthelwealh 's death Wilfrid attached himself to Cædwalla ; the Life of Wilfrid records that Cædwalla sought Wilfrid out as a spiritual father . Bede states that Cædwalla vowed to give a quarter of the Isle of Wight to the church if he conquered the island , and that Wilfrid was the beneficiary when the vow was fulfilled ; Bede also says that Cædwalla agreed to let the heirs of Arwald , the king of the Isle of Wight , be baptised before they were executed . Two of Cædwalla 's charters were grants of land to Wilfrid , and there is also subsequent evidence that Cædwalla worked with Wilfrid and Eorcenwald , a bishop of the East Saxons , to establish an ecclesiastical infrastructure for Sussex . However , there is no evidence that Wilfrid exerted any influence over Cædwalla 's secular activities or his campaigns .
Wilfrid 's association with Cædwalla may have benefited him in other ways : the Life of Wilfrid asserts that the Archbishop of Canterbury , Theodore , expressed a wish that Wilfrid succeed him in that role , and if this is true it may be a reflection of Wilfrid 's association with Cædwalla 's southern overlordship .
The Church of St Martin , Ludgate , in the City of London , claimed on a plaque , that it was both founded by Cædwalla and that he was interred in its crypt . It would be strange for a king of the West Saxons to institute a church in the rival kingdom of Essex . However , as the intramural area of ' Londinium ' was not actually occupied until at least 200 years after Cædwalla died and this claim roundly contradicts Bede 's history of his baptism and monument tomb in Rome it is plain that there is no basis to the story .
= = Abdication , baptism and death = =
In 688 Cædwalla abdicated , and went on a pilgrimage to Rome , possibly because he was dying of the wounds he had suffered while fighting on the Isle of Wight . Cædwalla had not been baptised , and Bede states that he wished to " obtain the particular privilege of receiving the cleansing of baptism at the shrine of the blessed Apostles " . He is known to have stopped in Francia at Samer , near Calais , and to have given money there for the foundation of a church , and is also recorded at the court of Cunincpert , king of the Lombards , in what is now northern Italy . In Rome , he was baptised by Pope Sergius I on the Saturday before Easter ( according to Bede ) taking the baptismal name Peter , and died not long afterwards , " still in his white garments " . He was buried in St. Peter 's church . Bede 's Ecclesiastical History and the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle agree that Cædwalla died on 20 April , but the latter says that he died seven days after his baptism , although the Saturday before Easter was on 10 April that year . The epitaph on his tomb described him as " King of the Saxons " .
Cædwalla 's departure in 688 appears to have led to instability in the south of England . Ine , Cædwalla 's successor , abdicated in 726 , and the West Saxon Genealogical Regnal List says that he reigned for thirty @-@ seven years , implying his reign began in 689 instead of 688 . This could indicate an unsettled period between Cædwalla 's abdication and Ine 's accession . The kingship also changed in Kent in 688 , with Oswine , who was apparently a Mercian client , taking the throne ; and there is evidence of East Saxon influence in Kent in the years immediately following Cædwalla 's abdication .
In 694 , Ine extracted compensation of 30 @,@ 000 pence from the Kentishmen for the death of Mul ; this amount represented the value of an aetheling 's life in the Saxon system of Weregild . Ine appears to have retained control of Surrey , but did not recover Kent . No king of Wessex was to venture so far east until Egbert , over a hundred years later .
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= Taunton by @-@ election , 1754 =
The Taunton by @-@ election of 1754 to the Parliament of Great Britain was held across thirteen days , from 10 – 24 December 1754 in Taunton , the county town of the southwestern English county of Somerset . It took place following the death of the incumbent Whig Member of Parliament , John Halliday . The by @-@ election was contested by Robert Maxwell on behalf of the Whigs , and Sir John Pole , 5th Baronet for the Tories . Maxwell was elected with a majority of 56 . The election had over 700 rejected votes , and the result caused rioting in Taunton , during which two people were killed .
The election was fiercely contested , and both sides incurred great expenses during the campaign . There was not another contested election in Taunton for almost twenty years , and during that time the Taunton Market House Society was set up with the aim of preventing the bad blood of a contested election , and to spend money that would have otherwise been spent on campaigning on improving the town . Maxwell remained as one of Taunton 's members of parliament until 1768 .
= = Background = =
= = = Vacancy and nominations = = =
In the mid @-@ 18th century , the parliamentary constituency of Taunton , which had an electorate of around 500 , returned predominantly Whig members of parliament , partly due to an agreement between Charles Wyndham , 2nd Earl of Egremont and the local Dissenters ; Lord Egremont , the chief landowner in the borough , would nominate a candidate for one of the two seats , while the Dissenters would name the second . Nationally , parliament had been controlled by the Whigs since 1715 , in what was dubbed the " Whig Supremacy " by Basil Williams . At the 1754 general election , Lord Egremont put forward his brother @-@ in @-@ law , George Carpenter , 3rd Baron Carpenter , while the Dissenters nominated one of their own , John Halliday . The pair were elected unopposed . Two months after the election , on 8 June 1754 , Halliday died , resulting in a by @-@ election being called to fill the vacant seat .
The Dissenters proposed Robert Webb , who had previously served as the member for Taunton from 1747 until the general election in 1754 , to fill the vacancy . The recent history of the elections in Taunton suggested that no opposition would be offered : the last contested election had been in 1741 . That however proved not to be the case , and a group of Tories put forward their own candidate , Sir John Pole , 5th Baronet of Shute in Devon . Webb did not want the expense of a contested election , and withdrew , leaving the Dissenters without a candidate . Unable to find a suitable candidate , the Dissenters appealed to Lord Egremont to locate someone to stand for the Whiggish interest . The Mayor , Henry Manly , was sent to London to meet with the Whig Prime Minister , Thomas Pelham @-@ Holles , 1st Duke of Newcastle , to try and secure a candidate . Manly reported that the Duke of Newcastle did not want the seat to go to a Tory , and was willing to fund the election from the secret service account ( more accurately the King 's private money , a fund which was not accountable to Parliament ) . Eventually , through communication with both Lord Egremont and the Duke of Newcastle , Robert Maxwell came forward as the Whig candidate . Maxwell offered to spend up to £ 3 @,@ 000 on the election , in addition to the money promised from the secret service fund .
= = = Candidates = = =
John Pole was the only son of Sir William Pole , 4th Baronet . The family owned the Shute House estate in east Devon , and had returned six generations of members of parliament , including John Pole 's father . He had inherited the estate , and the baronetcy upon his father 's death in 1741 . Robert Maxwell was the oldest son of John Maxwell , 1st Baron Farnham , an Irish politician and peer . Robert had been a member of the Parliament of Ireland since 1743 for the constituency of Lisburn . He had not stood for the British parliament during the 1754 general election , though he was by that time almost certainly resident in England .
= = Result = =
When Halliday died in June , parliament was in recess . As a result of this , a writ could not be issued until parliament reconvened in the winter . This extended the election campaign to run for six months , causing major disruption to the wool trade in the town . In his History of Taunton , Joshua Toulmin reported that the length of the campaigning allowed " the display of every manoeuvre , and the exertion of every power , by which the parties could counteract each other 's views . " A lot of money was spent on both sides of the election ; in addition to the £ 3 @,@ 000 which Maxwell said he was willing to spend , the government put forward £ 3 @,@ 675 of secret service money for his campaign . Both men had plates and mugs made which were given free to the voters , generally full of food and drink . A number of delft plates bearing the enscription " Sir John Pole for ever " still exist , and one such plate sold for over £ 2 @,@ 000 in 2011 . A drinking glass with a similar inscription is housed at the British Museum in London . The public houses became aligned to one of the two candidates , and much of the campaign money was placed into these to gain their support . Toulmin lamented that " the houses of entertainment were kept open during all this time ; [ ... ] habits of idleness and licentiousness were formed . " In a letter to Lord Sackville , Maxwell wrote that the election campaign involved " a great deal of smoking , some drinking , and kissing some hundreds of women . "
Maxwell travelled down to Taunton in August to contest the seat , and the vacancy was nationally advertised in October . Despite this , the voting did not commence until 10 December 1754 . The voting ran for thirteen days , and closed on 24 December ; Maxwell received 198 votes to Pole 's 142 , giving Maxwell a majority of 56 . During the course of the voting , over 700 votes were discounted , and it has been referred to as being " notoriously corrupt " .
When the result was announced , the public showed " their displeasure by assaulting the friends of Mr Maxwell . " Maxwell himself had to be escorted back to where he was staying , but during the rioting that ensued , the houses of those known to support Maxwell were attacked . The Derby Mercury reported that Robert Pearsall , a Dissenter minister who had been prominent in Maxwell 's campaign , was threatened with having his house pulled down and being sacrificed . Two people , a man and a woman , were killed during the rioting , which prompted two troops of dragoons to be sent to the town , placed at the command of the Mayor , in case of emergency . One of the murderers was caught and sent to the County Jail in Ilchester , but the other escaped .
= = Aftermath = =
Maxwell , who became the 2nd Baron Farnham upon his father 's death in 1759 , and then Viscount Farnham in 1760 , was returned unopposed at the 1761 general election . He pressed for a position in parliament , suggesting " being in the Admiralty or being paymaster of the pensions . " However , this desire was only because he thought that such a position would provide a stepping stone to a higher peerage , and he was made the Earl of Farnham , in the Irish peerage in 1763 . He initially stood at the general election in 1768 , but withdrew from the election in the face of strong opposition .
The Market House Society was formed in Taunton in 1763 by a group who wished to avoid a repeat of the expensive and violent election in 1754 . They made it their aim to " prevent the evils and drunkenness of a contested election " , and vowed to spend the money that would have otherwise been spent on campaigning on improving Taunton . They put forward two candidates in 1768 , who after the withdrawal of Maxwell and another , were returned unopposed for Taunton .
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= Augusta , Lady Gregory =
Isabella Augusta , Lady Gregory ( née Persse ; 15 March 1852 – 22 May 1932 ) was an Irish dramatist , folklorist and theatre manager . With William Butler Yeats and Edward Martyn , she co @-@ founded the Irish Literary Theatre and the Abbey Theatre , and wrote numerous short works for both companies . Lady Gregory produced a number of books of retellings of stories taken from Irish mythology . Born into a class that identified closely with British rule , her conversion to cultural nationalism , as evidenced by her writings , was emblematic of many of the political struggles to occur in Ireland during her lifetime .
Lady Gregory is mainly remembered for her work behind the Irish Literary Revival . Her home at Coole Park , County Galway , served as an important meeting place for leading Revival figures , and her early work as a member of the board of the Abbey was at least as important for the theatre 's development as her creative writings . Lady Gregory 's motto was taken from Aristotle : " To think like a wise man , but to express oneself like the common people . "
= = Early life and marriage = =
Gregory was born at Roxborough , County Galway , the youngest daughter of the Anglo @-@ Irish gentry family Persse . Her mother , Frances Barry , was related to Viscount Guillamore , and her family home , Roxborough , was a 6 @,@ 000 @-@ acre ( 24 km ² ) estate located between Gort and Loughrea , the main house of which was later burnt down during the Irish Civil War . She was educated at home , and her future career was strongly influenced by the family nurse ( i.e. nanny ) , Mary Sheridan , a Catholic and a native Irish speaker , who introduced the young Augusta to the history and legends of the local area .
She married Sir William Henry Gregory , a widower with an estate at Coole Park , near Gort , on 4 March 1880 in St Matthias ' Church , Dublin . Sir William , who was 35 years her elder , had just retired from his position as Governor of Ceylon ( now Sri Lanka ) , having previously served several terms as Member of Parliament for County Galway . He was a well @-@ educated man with many literary and artistic interests , and the house at Coole Park housed a large library and extensive art collection , both of which Lady Gregory was eager to explore . He also had a house in London , where the couple spent a considerable amount of time , holding weekly salons frequented by many leading literary and artistic figures of the day , including Robert Browning , Lord Tennyson , John Everett Millais and Henry James . Their only child , Robert Gregory , was born in 1881 . He was killed during the First World War , while serving as a pilot , an event which inspired Yeats ' poems " An Irish Airman Foresees His Death , " " In Memory of Major Robert Gregory , " and " Shepherd and Goatherd . "
= = Early writings = =
The Gregorys travelled in Ceylon , India , Spain , Italy and Egypt . While in Egypt , Lady Gregory had an affair with the English poet Wilfrid Scawen Blunt , during which she wrote a series of love poems , A Woman 's Sonnets .
Her earliest work to appear under her own name was Arabi and His Household ( 1882 ) , a pamphlet — originally a letter to The Times — in support of Ahmed Orabi Pasha , leader of what has come to be known as the Urabi Revolt , an 1879 Egyptian nationalist revolt against the oppressive regime of the Khedive and European domination of Egypt . She later said of this booklet , " whatever political indignation or energy was born with me may have run its course in that Egyptian year and worn itself out " . Despite this , in 1893 she published A Phantom 's Pilgrimage , or Home Ruin , an anti @-@ Nationalist pamphlet against William Ewart Gladstone 's proposed second Home Rule Act .
She continued to write prose during the period of her marriage . During the winter of 1883 , while her husband was in Ceylon , she worked on a series of memoirs of her childhood home with a view to publishing them under the title An Emigrant 's Notebook , but this plan was abandoned . She wrote a series of pamphlets in 1887 called Over the River , in which she appealed for funds for the parish of St. Stephens in Southwark , south London . She also wrote a number of short stories in the years 1890 and 1891 , although these also never appeared in print . A number of unpublished poems from this period have also survived . When Sir William Gregory died in March 1892 , Lady Gregory went into mourning and returned to Coole Park where she edited her husband 's autobiography , which she published in 1894 . She was to write later , " If I had not married I should not have learned the quick enrichment of sentences that one gets in conversation ; had I not been widowed I should not have found the detachment of mind , the leisure for observation necessary to give insight into character , to express and interpret it . Loneliness made me rich — ' full ' , as Bacon says . "
= = Cultural nationalism = =
A trip to Inisheer in the Aran Islands in 1893 re @-@ awoke an interest in the Irish language and in the folklore of the area in which she lived . She organised Irish lessons at the school at Coole and began collecting tales from the area around her home , especially from the residents of Gort workhouse . One of the tutors she employed , was Norma Borthwick , who would visit Coole numerous times . This activity led to the publication of a number of volumes of folk material , including A Book of Saints and Wonders ( 1906 ) , The Kiltartan History Book ( 1909 ) , and The Kiltartan Wonder Book ( 1910 ) . She also produced a number of collections of " Kiltartanese " versions of Irish myths , including Cuchulain of Muirthemne ( 1902 ) and Gods and Fighting Men ( 1904 ) . ( " Kiltartanese " is Lady Gregory 's term for English with Gaelic syntax , based on the dialect spoken in Kiltartan . ) In his introduction to the former , Yeats wrote " I think this book is the best that has come out of Ireland in my time . " James Joyce was to parody this claim in the Scylla and Charybdis chapter of his novel Ulysses .
Towards the end of 1894 , encouraged by the positive reception of the editing of her husband 's autobiography , Lady Gregory turned her attention to another editorial project . She decided to prepare selections from Sir William Gregory 's grandfather 's correspondence for publication as Mr Gregory 's Letter @-@ Box 1813 – 30 ( 1898 ) . This entailed researching Irish history of the period , and one outcome of this work was a shift in her own position from the " soft " Unionism of her earlier writing on Home Rule to a definite support of Irish nationalism and Republicanism and what she was later to describe as " a dislike and distrust of England " .
= = Founding of the Abbey = =
Edward Martyn was a neighbour of Lady Gregory 's , and it was during a visit to his home , Tullira Castle , in 1896 that she first met W. B. Yeats . Discussions between the three of them over the following year or so led to the founding of the Irish Literary Theatre in 1899 . Lady Gregory undertook fundraising , and the first programme consisted of Martyn 's The Heather Field and Yeats 's The Countess Cathleen .
The Irish Literary Theatre project lasted until 1901 , when it collapsed due to lack of funding . In 1904 , Lady Gregory , Martyn , Yeats , John Millington Synge , Æ , Annie Horniman and William and Frank Fay came together to form the Irish National Theatre Society . The first performances staged by the society took place in a building called the Molesworth Hall . When the Hibernian Theatre of Varieties in Lower Abbey Street and an adjacent building in Marlborough Street became available , Horniman and William Fay agreed to their purchase and refitting to meet the needs of the society .
On 11 May 1904 , the society formally accepted Horniman 's offer of the use of the building . As Horniman was not normally resident in Ireland , the Royal Letters Patent required were paid for by her but granted in the name of Lady Gregory . One of her own plays , Spreading the News was performed on the opening night , 27 December 1904 . At the opening of Synge 's The Playboy of the Western World in January 1907 , a significant portion of the crowd rioted , causing the remainder of the performances to be acted out in dumbshow . Lady Gregory did not think as highly of the play as Yeats did , but she defended Synge as a matter of principle . Her view of the affair is summed up in a letter to Yeats where she wrote of the riots : " It is the old battle , between those who use a toothbrush and those who don 't . "
= = Later career = =
Lady Gregory remained an active director of the theatre until ill health led to her retirement in 1928 . During this time she wrote more than 19 plays , mainly for production at the Abbey . Many of these were written in an attempted transliteration of the Hiberno @-@ English dialect spoken around Coole Park that became widely known as Kiltartanese , from the nearby village of Kiltartan . Her plays had been among the most successful at the Abbey in the earlier years , but their popularity declined . Indeed , the Irish writer Oliver St John Gogarty once wrote " the perpetual presentation of her plays nearly ruined the Abbey " . In addition to her plays , she wrote a two @-@ volume study of the folklore of her native area called Visions and Beliefs in the West of Ireland in 1920 . She also played the lead role in three performances of Cathleen Ni Houlihan in 1919 .
During her time on the board of the Abbey , Coole Park remained her home and she spent her time in Dublin staying in a number of hotels . At the time of the 1911 national census for example , she was staying in a hotel at 16 South Frederick Street . In these , she ate frugally , often on food she brought with her from home . She frequently used her hotel rooms to interview would @-@ be Abbey dramatists and to entertain the company after opening nights of new plays . She spent many of her days working on her translations in the National Library of Ireland . She gained a reputation as being a somewhat conservative figure . For instance , when Denis Johnston submitted his first play Shadowdance to the Abbey , it was rejected by Lady Gregory and returned to the author with " The Old Lady says No " written on the title page . Johnson decided to rename the play , and The Old Lady Says ' No ' was eventually staged by the Gate Theatre in 1928 .
= = Retirement and death = =
When she retired from the Abbey board , Lady Gregory returned to live in Galway , although she continued to visit Dublin regularly . The house and demesne at Coole Park had been sold to the Irish Forestry Commission in 1927 , with Lady Gregory retaining life tenancy . Her Galway home had long been a focal point for the writers associated with the Irish Literary Revival and this continued after her retirement . On a tree in what were the grounds of the now demolished house , one can still see the carved initials of Synge , Æ , Yeats and his artist brother Jack , George Moore , Seán O 'Casey , George Bernard Shaw , Katharine Tynan and Violet Martin . Yeats wrote five poems about or set in the house and grounds : " The Wild Swans at Coole " , " I walked among the seven woods of Coole " , " In the Seven Woods " , " Coole Park , 1929 " and " Coole Park and Ballylee , 1931 " .
The woman Shaw once described as " the greatest living Irishwoman " died at home aged 80 from breast cancer , and is buried in the New Cemetery in Bohermore , County Galway . The entire contents of Coole Park were auctioned three months after her death and the house demolished in 1941 .
Her plays fell out of favour after her death and are now rarely performed . Many of the diaries and journals she kept for most of her adult life have been published , providing a rich source of information on Irish literary history during the first three decades of the 20th century .
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= Persona 3 The Movie : No. 1 , Spring of Birth =
Persona 3 The Movie : # 1 Spring of Birth ( 劇場版 「 ペルソナ3 」 第１章 , Gekijōban Perusona 3 Dai Ichi Shō ) is a 2013 Japanese animated film and the first installment in a film series based on the Shin Megami Tensei : Persona 3 video game by Atlus . Directed by Noriaki Akitaya and written by Jun Kumagai , it is based on the original story by Atlus and distributed by Aniplex . It stars voice actors Akira Ishida , Megumi Toyoguchi , Kōsuke Toriumi , Rie Tanaka , Hikaru Midorikawa and Mamiko Noto . Set in 2009 , the film follows the exploits of transfer student Makoto Yuki who , upon moving to Iwatodai City , discovers the Shadow creatures which feed on human psyche during the Dark Hour midnight phenomenon . After awakening to an ability called Persona , Yuki finds himself intertwined in the battle against the Shadows with his new schoolmates .
Development of the film was first announced in a teaser trailer during the limited theatrical release of Persona 4 The Animation : The Factor of Hope on June 9 , 2012 . Aniplex later announced a Fall 2013 release date and that the main voice acting cast of the original PlayStation 2 game would reprise their roles in the film . The committee that was involved in Persona 4 : The Animation was selected for the film and included music composer Shoji Meguro and supervisor Seiji Kishi , both veterans in works of the Megami Tensei franchise . The film was animated by AIC ASTA . The characterization of Makoto Yuki was noted as being particularly difficult during production due to his concept in the original game .
A promotional campaign was launched by Aniplex which also included the release of trailers and merchandise by making use of various mechanisms of the Persona 3 game as they applied to the real world . The film premiered at Tokyo 's Shinjuku Wald 9 cinema on November 16 , 2013 followed by its release across Japan on November 23 , 2013 . It made a gross earning of over US $ 1 @.@ 9 million at the end of 2013 . Critics praised the animation techniques used in the film with focus on its dark visual style . However it was described as being a simple and straightforward movie which lacked a suitable sense of closure . The film was released in Japan on Blu @-@ ray and DVD editions on May 14 , 2014 , and internationally on imported editions on May 20 , 2014 . A sequel titled Persona 3 The Movie : # 2 Midsummer Knight 's Dream was released on June 7 , 2014 .
= = Plot = =
Due to an unfortunate accident during the Spring of April 6 , 2009 , Makoto Yuki ( Akira Ishida ) arrives in the city late at night on a delayed train . Upon disembarking at midnight , a strange phenomenon grips the city — shutting down all forms of technology and causing humans to become encased in coffins . Unperturbed , Makoto casually makes his way to the Iwatodai Dormitory where a mysterious boy ( Akira Ishida ) greets him with a contract after which he meets fellow dormmates , Yukari Takeba ( Megumi Toyoguchi ) and Mitsuru Kirijo ( Rie Tanaka ) , albeit the pair weary of his arrival at midnight .
The next day , Makoto enrolls at Gekkoukan High School as a sophomore with Yukari and fellow classmate Junpei Iori ( Kōsuke Toriumi ) . Afterwards the school 's Chairman of the board , Shuji Ikutsuki ( Hideyuki Hori ) , asks Yukari to keep a close eye on Makoto due to his uncanny characteristics which hint at his " potential " and coincidental circumstances involving the death of his parents during an accident in the city some ten years previous . Meanwhile Makoto finds himself in a place called the Velvet Room and becomes acquainted with Igor ( Isamu Tanonaka ) and Elizabeth ( Miyuki Sawashiro ) .
During the full moon of April 9 , while Ikutsuki , Mitsuru and Yukari are observing Makoto during the midnight phenomenon , Akihiko Sanada ( Hikaru Midorikawa ) rushes back to the dorm just as it comes under the attack of a swarm of monstrous creatures . Yukari immediately grabs Makoto and flees to the roof . However they are cornered by a giant creature who knocks Yukari out . Much to everyone 's amazement though , Makoto awakens to the power of Persona , calling forth Orpheus . However another Persona known as Thanatos , rips out of Orpheus and grotesquely destroys the creature before Makoto faints .
After having been unconscious for over a week , Makoto awakens in the hospital to find Yukari , who explains their similarity in having both lost parents during the accident in the past . The next day Ikutsuki , Akihiko and Mitsuru recruit Makoto to the Specialized Extracurricular Execution Squad — SEES to help them fight the Shadow creatures responsible for the Apathy Syndrome by preying on humans during the Dark Hour midnight phenomenon . Not long after as Junpei also joins SEES , Akihiko deduces that they have enough members to begin exploring their school 's Dark Hour form , a Shadow @-@ infested labyrinth called Tartarus , where they hope to unearth the mystery of the Dark Hour . Makoto also befriends Fuka Yamagishi ( Mamiko Noto ) and learns of her strained relationship with class bully , Natsuki Moriyama ( Yuka Komatsu ) .
During the full moon on May 9 , Mitsuru detects an abnormally large Shadow presence aboard a train and deploys Makoto , Yukari and Junpei to investigate . However the trio are ambushed by the Shadows just as the train begins accelerating . Junpei charges ahead and encounters the Priestess Arcana which overwhelms him . However as the train nears an inevitable collision , Makoto evokes the Wild Card ability to defeat the Priestess with Junpei before stopping the runaway train .
On the night of May 30 , two girls fall victim to the Apathy Syndrome in front of the school which prompts widespread rumors . Yukari , Junpei and Makoto go looking for answers from the delinquents behind Port Island Station and learn from Shinjiro Aragaki ( Kazuya Nakai ) that the girls had been bullying Fuka before the latter suddenly disappeared that same night . On June 8 , Natsuki confesses to Mitsuru that she and her friends had locked Fuka inside the school 's gymnasium . However when her friends went to check on Fuka that same night , she had mysteriously vanished while the latter developed the Apathy cases after being preyed on by Shadows . That night the SEES members deduce that Fuka may be trapped inside the Tartarus tower and plan to rescue her . However when Mitsuru asks Makoto to accompany them , Yukari grows frustrated at his ambivalence and he excludes himself from the mission . Instead , Mitsuru elects him to protect Natsuki at the dorm where he listens to Natsuki 's reasoning for bullying Fuka and relates that Fuka genuinely considers her as a friend .
Afterwards the SEES members break into the school and indeed find Fuka inside Tartarus when the Dark Hour strikes . However when Akihiko pieces together the connection between the full moon and the powerful Shadows , Mitsuru and Yukari come under attack by the Emperor and Empress Arcanas at Tartarus ' entrance . Junpei , Akihiko and Fuka rush to their aid however the Arcanas easily overwhelm all of their Personas . In the midst of the battle , Fuka also awakens a Persona , Lucia , to defend an entranced Natsuki . However when the Emperor moves to attack her , Makoto arrives in the nick of time and launches a barrage of Persona attacks despite his teammates begging him to flee for his safety . With everyone approaching their physical limits , Fuka uses Lucia to sense the Arcanas ' weaknesses and coordinates the SEES members in a collaborative effort which results in the Shadows ' defeat . A few days later , Fuka moves into the Iwatodai dorm and repairs her relations with Natsuki , while life returns to a level of normalcy .
In a post @-@ credits scene , the mysterious boy appears to Makoto and introduces himself as Pharos . Meanwhile at an undisclosed location , a girl awakens from a slumber .
= = Cast = =
= = = Main = = =
Akira Ishida as :
Makoto Yuki :
Having lost his parents in a tragic accident at an early age , Makoto began living in the suburbs with his relatives . In the Spring of April 2009 he returns to Iwatodai City after having lived there ten years previously , and moves into the Iwatodai Dormitory upon enrolling at Gekkoukan High School . However he soon finds life is not as normal as he was expecting when he awakens to a mysterious power called " Persona " and becomes intertwined in a struggle against monsters called " Shadows " whilst simultaneously delving into the mystery that shrouds Iwatodai City . He possesses an ability known as the " Wild Card " which enables him to wield multiple Personas , although his main Persona is Orpheus . Ishida stated that he was quite surprised when he learned of the movie adaptation since a considerable amount of time had passed since its [ Persona 3 ] release . He further noted that he had enjoyed recording the scene of Makoto 's initial meeting with Pharos , since he was presented with the roles of both characters .
Pharos :
A mysterious boy who appears to Makoto upon arrival at the Iwatodai Dormitory and presents him with a contract . He is usually dressed in black and white striped clothing . Akira Ishida also dubbed voice of Pharos and was fond of recording the interaction between both of his characters .
Megumi Toyoguchi as Yukari Takeba :
Yukari is a sophomore at Gekkoukan High School and a classmate and dormmate of Makoto at the Iwatodai Dormitory . In the past , Yukari lost her father in a tragic incident and enrolled at Gekkoukan High in order to investigate the details surrounding his death . She is a member of the Specialized Extracurricular Execution Squad . Her Persona is Io . Toyoguchi described her character as being an honest " straight shooter " and enjoyed dubbing Yukari 's scenes with Makoto . Director Noriyaki Akitaya stated that Yukari was his favorite character and jokingly hinted at a romance between her and Makoto in future films .
Kōsuke Toriumi as Junpei Iori :
Junpei is a rather upbeat sophomore at Gekkoukan High School who loves cracking jokes . He resides in the same class with Makoto and Yukari and relates to Makoto since being a transfer student himself . Junpei has a habit of charging headfirst into situations without much thought for the consequences of his actions . He develops a rivalry with Makoto despite sharing a close bond with him . Junpei 's Persona is Hermes . Toriumi stated that since his character was the same role given to him in the Persona 3 game , he had not changed much of his voice mechanics . He also credited the script for having a " well summarized storyline of the game " and was further impressed by how well the film 's depictions of social life and battling were balanced together .
Rie Tanaka as Mitsuru Kirijo :
Mitsuru is a third @-@ year student at Gekkoukan High School where her popularity amongst the student body gained her the position of Student Council President . She is heir to the Kirijo Group , a multinational corporation which built Tatsumi Port Island and sponsors Gekkoukan High School . Mitsuru awakened to the power of Persona at a young age and is the founder of the Specialized Extracurricular Execution Squad . Her Persona is Penthesilea . Tanaka described her character as a strong lead female because of her [ Mitsuru ] exceptional leadership skills and feminine dignity . Tanaka also described the Persona summoning scenes as being quite enjoyable .
Hikaru Midorikawa as Akihiko Sanada :
Akihiko is a third year student at Gekkoukan High School and resident at the Iwatodai Dormitory . He had been friends with Mitsuru since middle school and upon learning of the Shadows , he too awakened to the power of Persona and joined her cause . Belonging to the boxing team at Gekkoukan High , Akihiko is constantly training to become a stronger fighter . His Persona is Polydeuces . Midorikawa noted that the Persona summoning scenes were his favorite . Midorikawa 's co @-@ cast members from the Shin Megami Tensei : Digital Devil Saga video game were also featured for the supporting cast of the film .
Mamiko Noto as Fuka Yamagishi :
Sophomore at Gekkoukan High School . Her quiet and gentle personality coupled with a rather weak @-@ looking appearance made her fall victim to constant bullying from her classmates . Her Persona is Lucia . Noto stated that the film brings with it the theme of comradery amongst friends working together for a common cause and cited the battle scenes as being " powerful " . Noto was also interested in the interaction between Fuka and Natsuki although she did not elaborate further on this .
Kazuya Nakai as Shinjiro Aragaki :
Ex @-@ third year Gekkoukan High student and SEES member , who dropped out of both for his own reasons . He is old friends with Akihiko and Mitsuru , but tends to keep their relationship at arm 's length . Nakai was initially surprised at the timing of the film in relation to the release of the game [ Persona 3 ] but noted that the film 's story kept true to the game . Nakai also expressed interest in the relationship between the characters Fūka and Natsuki .
Isamu Tanonaka as Igor :
Master of the Velvet Room , a place which exists in the realm between dreams and reality . Due to Tanonaka 's death in 2010 , archived audio recordings of his role as " Igor " in the Persona 3 game are used for the film . He was credited as giving a special performance .
Miyuki Sawashiro as Elizabeth :
Igor 's aide in the Velvet Room . She is usually dressed as an elevator attendant and carries around a book known as the " Persona Compendium " . Sawashiro described her scenes with Igor as deeply " nostalgic and sad " but was happy to once again reprise her role as Elizabeth from the game . She fondly described " the funky disco " [ Club Escapade ] as her favorite place in the Persona 3 world , although stated that " it is not depicted in the film " .
= = = Supporting = = =
Hideyuki Hori as Shuji Ikutsuki :
Chairman of the board committee at Gekkoukan High School and club adviser to the Specialized Extracurricular Execution Squad . Hori , along with his fellow cast members from Shin Megami Tensei : Digital Devil Saga and the Persona 3 Drama CDs , reprised their characters in the film .
Atsumi Tanezaki as Natsuki Moriyama :
A girl at Gekkoukan High School who bullies Fuka . A few of the actors drew significance in the relationship established between the characters Natsuki and Fuka .
Yuka Komatsu as Isako Toriumi :
The homeroom teacher of class 2F at Gekkoukan High School .
Hiroaki Miura as Hidetoshi Odagiri :
He is the rather strict student council vice @-@ president of Gekkoukan High with a zero tolerance policy on rule breaking . Miura reprised his role in the film from the Persona 3 Drama CDs along with his fellow cast members from Shin Megami Tensei : Digital Devil Saga .
Kenji Nojima as Kenji Tomochika :
A student of class 2F who befriends Makoto . Nojima reprised his role from the Persona 3 Drama CDs along with his fellow cast members from Shin Megami Tensei : Digital Devil Saga .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Persona 3 The Movie : No. 1 , Spring of Birth was animated by AIC ASTA . The main staff consisted of the same people behind Persona 4 : The Animation along with a few modifications . The film was directed by Noriaki Akitaya , following his directional work on the Bakuman and Code Geass anime series . Akitaya remarked that he had ' jumped ' onto the idea of the film adaptation ever since he was included in talks due to his love of games created by Atlus . He described the game as something which gave fans direct input in the events which take place and hence made it a goal to help them enjoy the adaptation as much as possible from their perspective of only being able to view the film .
" I believe that Persona 3 's charm lies within the coolness of the characters , more than anything . We pride ourselves in having made a movie that might just make you want to play the game after watching it ... "
Seiji Kishi , a veteran director of the Megami Tensei franchise was approached to supervise the overall production process and hence brought his experience from directing the anime adaptations of two well known games in the franchise — Persona 4 and Devil Survivor 2 . Kishi had proposed a new " visual combat system " to be employed in the film rather than the one used for Persona 4 : The Animation since he felt that the darker themes of Persona 3 required such a change .
At the same time , script writer Jun Kumagai , had nothing but praise for the Persona 3 game and stated that " the original game is a masterpiece which can be called the innovation of RPG " . Kumagai had also expressed his hope that the screenplay would be compelling both to fans of the game and those new to the Persona series . From the visual perspective , the original character designs of the game were completely revamped for the film by animation director Keisuke Watabe , who retained the characters ' likeness . The various Personas and Shadows were designed by Kyouma Aki while art direction was handled by Toshihiro Kohama . Kaoru Aoki aided with the art designs while Junpei Takatsu was in charge of the visual designs . Saori Goda held the position of color coordination while Shinobu Tsuneki designed the film 's props . Other staff directors included the executive animation directors Akiko Asaki and Mizuka Takahashi , action director Ryo Tanaka and composite director Hideki Imaizumi . Finally , Takashi Sakurai served as the film 's editor .
= = = = Characterization of Makoto Yuki = = = =
In a Famitsu interview , Akitaya explained that one of his biggest challenges was , " getting the protagonist , who is the [ human @-@ controlled ] ' player ' in the game , and making him into a character named Makoto Yuki for the film , then figuring out how to integrate him [ Makoto ] into the story . " Akitaya went about constructing Makoto 's character with extreme care in terms of speech , gestures and behavior all the while staying true to what was already established in the game . Akitaya admitted that he would not have been able to meet the expectations of the individual fans of the game since they were able to choose their own unique name and personality for the Protagonist . He instead incorporated the most general traits of the Protagonist from fan reaction to form Yuki 's character . Akitaya had joked that during initial pre @-@ production the Protagonist 's name was still not determined and had proposed the placeholder , " Tsukitarō Yamada " ( 山田 月太郎 , Yamada Tsukitarō ) until the first draft was developed . However even as Kumagai began working on the script , the placeholder went unchanged for the next four to five months and Akitaya found himself growing steadily attached despite eventually changing it . Akitaya stated that his favorite scene in the film occurred when Makoto summoned his Persona for the first time . He elaborated that Makoto 's maniacal laugh helped give depth to the scene and establish Watabe 's character designs as being one of the film 's main attractions .
= = = Music = = =
The soundtrack for No. 1 , Spring of Birth was composed by Shoji Meguro , while the sound director Satoki Iida helped in the track arrangement and selection . Meguro was initially thrilled at being selected as the film 's musical composer and remarked that its soundtrack would be his twelfth work for the Megami Tensei franchise . Meguro described the user interface of the Persona 3 game as having a " fancy atmosphere " which compelled him to create its unique pop @-@ like soundtrack . However he felt that he needed to give the film 's songs a deeper feeling and hence utilized string instruments to create such an effect .
The first music compilation titled " Persona 3 The Movie # 1 Spring of Birth Theme Song " was released by Aniplex on October 2 , 2013 . The disc features " More Than One Heart " by Yumi Kawamura which was used as the main theme song for the film . Kawamura had previously been the vocal contributor of many of the songs produced for the Persona 3 video game . She also provided the vocals for the " Spring of Birth " version of Persona 3 's " Burn My Dread " theme song , which also made its debut on the disc . The film 's original soundtrack was released together with the Blu @-@ ray on May 14 , 2014 .
= = Marketing = =
= = = Previews = = =
The Persona 3 The Movie project was first revealed during a thirty second post @-@ credits teaser trailer at the end of the limited theatrical release of the Persona 4 The Animation : The Factor of Hope feature film during its screening in Japan on June 9 , 2012 . The teaser noted that the project had been green lit for production . Featured in the teaser was the Persona 3 Protagonist holding an " Evoker " ( a unique game mechanic of summoning a " Persona " ) to his head and pulling the trigger , all showcased in Japanese @-@ style 2D animation . This left some speculation amongst the media as to whether the project would be an anime film or otherwise since at the time this was left to ambiguity . Following later confirmation of the project 's animated theatrical nature , a slightly altered fifteen @-@ second version of the teaser was streamed online .
The first official trailer saw its release on March 27 , 2013 and showcased a clock striking midnight which established the film 's key plot devices including the Dark Hour phenomenon , the primary antagonists — the Shadows and the main protagonist summoning his Persona , Orpheus . When the second trailer was released on July 22 , 2013 , it was also the first to feature dialogue as well as the main theme song for the film , titled " More Than One Heart " by Yumi Kawamura . The third trailer was released on October 19 , 2013 and introduced the Tartarus tower along with designs of the signature weapons used by each individual character . A reporter at Kotaku described the animation as " gorgeous " and felt as though the movie reflected the game 's [ Persona 3 ] cut @-@ scenes . The fourth and final trailer was released on November 18 , 2013 and was the lengthiest of its predecessors . It showcased new footage including the characters Igor and Elizabeth in the Velvet Room , more use of the Evokers , a bit of Makoto Yuki 's back story ( in flashbacks ) along with new dialogue . At the end of the trailer , a reference alluding to Makoto 's ambivalence is made by the character Junpei Iori who asks , " I wonder ... Just why is he [ Makoto ] fighting ? " — a trait later mentioned by film critics . The last trailer was also streamed every midnight outside Alta Studio Co . Ltd. in East Shinjuku until November 25 , 2013 .
An advanced sneak peek screening of Persona 3 The Movie : No. 1 , Spring of Birth was held at the Shinjuku Wald 9 cinema in Shinjuku , Tokyo on November 16 , 2013 . Akira Ishida , Megumi Toyoguchi and Kōsuke Toriumi participated in special talk show at the event to highlight some of the film 's features before its screening . The actors talked about the dubbing process for the film . For instance , Toyoguchi stated that their dubbing roles were recorded around Spring 2013 . Toriumi — the voice of ' Junpei Iori ' , explained how passage of time between the release of the Persona 3 game and the film affected his dubbing role since his present voice sounded more akin to an adult . However Satoki Iida had requested that he try to make himself sound younger for his character . Toyoguchi also joked that many of the 2006 @-@ era items were held true in the film , such as the use of Cathode ray tube TVs and mobile phones . A Q & A Twitter session was also part of the show during which the Protagonist 's characterization was questioned by fans and answered by producer , Kazuki Adachi .
= = = Promotion = = =
The official website and Twitter account for the project were both launched on July 3 , 2012 and confirmed the Persona 3 : The Movie project 's theatrical nature . The July 3 launch was scheduled so as to pay homage to the use of two major plot mechanics in the Persona 3 video game — namely the midnight Dark Hour phenomenon as well as correlation to the lunar phases with respect to the calendar full moon whereby an exceptionally powerful Shadow would appear on the night of its occurrence . This tactic was henceforth utilized by Aniplex to mark succeeding updates regarding the project and also aided by the Twitter account which updated at select lunar occurrences thereafter . When the official website was launched it featured the simple ambiguous caption " Coming soon " . This was later changed during the full moon of December 28 , 2012 when the website showcased the first promotional image along with the line , " Persona 3 the Movie # 1 2013 in theaters " — teasing a future film franchise . However word had yet to be announced on the number of planned films .
Three months later , during the full moon of March 27 , 2013 , the film project was confirmed to be a series of anime films and not just a single release — with the first film given the subtitle : " # 1 Spring of Birth " . This news came alongside the release of the first official trailer which also featured a list of the production staff and confirmed that the main voice acting cast of the original PlayStation 2 game would reprise their roles in the film . Almost four months later , at midnight during the full moon of July 22 , 2013 , the official website received a completely revamped design with the announcement that November 23 , 2013 would be film 's official release date . This came alongside a list of 26 theaters throughout Japan which would screen the film during its opening weekend . Almost a month later during the full moon of August 21 , 2013 at 12 : 00AM JST a minor update was released which detailed the track @-@ list for the film 's official music CD release titled " Persona 3 The Movie # 1 Spring of Birth Theme Song CD " . Aniplex soon began releasing updates at an accelerated pace as the film 's premiere date drew closer . For instance the next minor update was released during the new moon of September 5 , 2013 which announced that the 2011 anime series : Persona 4 : The Animation would begin re @-@ airing on Tokyo MX , GYT , GTV and BS11 as a follow up to the film .
A couple weeks later and during the full moon of September 19 , 2013 an update was released which revealed limited edition railcards featuring promotional images of the film . The cards were scheduled to go on sale at the Shimbashi and Toyosu train stations between October 1 and 31 , 2013 . They granted a bearer access to the New Transit Yurikamome train which connects to the artificial island of Odaiba in Tokyo Bay between Minato and Kōtō in Tokyo .
An animated feature was broadcast on Tokyo MX during the airing of Disco Train at noon on October 13 , 2013 . The segment paid homage to a shopping infomercial titled " Tanaka 's Amazing Commodities " , an event usually triggered on Sundays in the Persona 3 game . The program featured the Persona 3 character President Tanaka , advertising the ticket bundle for the " Persona 3 The Movie Theme Song CD " set . An official website for Tanaka 's in @-@ game company — Jika Net was also set up for a limited time to accept pre @-@ orders of the set which included an exclusive bonus sticker . The website also featured other products obtainable in the Persona 3 game but were all listed as " sold out " .
Another update was released during the full moon of October 19 , 2013 and included the third movie trailer along with a host of new artwork . A dynamic lunar calendar of the same design used in the Persona 3 game was also added to the main page of the official website and began featuring new artwork on a daily basis — some of which included production storyboards . It was also announced that a Persona 3 @-@ themed " mystery event " would take place at the Odaiba VenusFort from November 23 - December 1 , 2013 . Known as the " Persona3 The Movie # 1 Spring of Birth x Nazomate " , the interactive event was set up by Nazomate and required participants to role @-@ play as a resident of the Iwatodai Dormitory just as it comes under the attack of a Shadow . The participants needed to awaken their Personas and take a test to become a member of the Specialized Extracurricular Execution Squad . Those who were able to complete the event were awarded with a randomly chosen exclusive Nazomate Character Card featuring the film 's main characters . Those who failed were given another card featuring the character " Elizabeth " as proof of participation . In addition , other merchandise was made available for purchase at the event . An exclusive store Persona @-@ themed store was also opened at the Marui department store 's " Space ONE " area in Shinjuku , Tokyo from November 21 , 2013 to December 15 , 2013 .
One week before the film 's release and during the full moon of November 17 , 2013 , different cast members began posting their autographs on the official website once per day . This was also accompanied by special digital wallpapers released in the same manner which featured the film 's main characters .
= = = Merchandising = = =
Aniplex began distributing official movie merchandise during the 2013 Anime Contents Expo event at the Makuhari Messe convention center on March 30 – 31 . Along with screening the film 's first teaser , a dish sold at the Hagakure ramen restaurant in the Persona 3 game called the " Hidden Leaf Bowl " was made available at the food area of the event . Almost four months later on July 22 , 2013 , Aniplex launched phase one of a special ticket promotion whereby movie @-@ goers who pre @-@ ordered early tickets between August 10 and September 20 , 2013 would receive special collectable folders containing leaflets which sported depictions of the characters Makoto Yuki , Yukari Takeba and , Junpei Iori along with their respective Personas chosen at random . The second phase of the promotion was continued on September 5 , 2013 and in the same manner , special folders and leaflets were given to those who pre @-@ ordered early tickets between September 21 and late October 2013 — this time featuring the characters Mitsuru Kirijo , Akihiko Sanada and , Fuka Yamagishi along with their respective Personas . The third phase of the promotion allowed movie @-@ goers access to a promotional poster with purchase of a ticket between the period of October 26 - November 22 , 2013 .
Animate and Gamers stores began their first wave of merchandise distribution between July 23 - September 26 , 2013 whereby an A3 Metal Poster was sold in a bundle with an advance movie ticket . The second wave of distribution began on November 2 , 2013 and in the same manner , included rubber mascots featuring the characters Makoto Yūki and Elizabeth . Happy @-@ Kuji also revealed a lottery contest on August 21 , 2013 which officially began on September 21 , 2013 . Official movie merchandise , consisting of mostly figurines were offered as prizes for the contest . During the film 's first three weeks of release in Japan , special Persona 3 themed Bikkuriman stickers were given out to movie goers . Each patron received one sticker at random out of the 29 piece set called " Super PS3 Seals " . The sticker artwork was illustrated by Minoru Yonezawa and Satoshi Hyodo of Green House Co . Ltd . Yonezawa remarked that he had not known of the [ Persona ] game series until he was approached by Aniplex for commissioning — rather only being aware of the original Megami Tensei games . Due to his unfamiliarity with the series Yonezawa ( and Hyodo ) found difficulty in deforming the characters . They also drew the design of the special " Tanaka " sticker given to those who placed orders on the Jika Net website . A host of other Persona 3 @-@ themed merchandise and accessories were also released to help promote the film .
= = Other media = =
= = = Drama CD = = =
Aniplex launched a limited edition drama CD at the 84th bi @-@ annual Japanese Comiket event on August 10 , 2013 at the Tokyo International Exhibition Center . Sales of the CD continued at the Persona Music FES Concert at the Nippon Budokan on August 13 , 2013 . However limited quantities quickly sold out due to its popularity at both events . Due to high demand , the disc was later made available for mail @-@ order purchase on Aniplex 's Plus webstore . The CD features the characters Mitsuru Kirijo , Akihiko Sanada and Shinjiro Aragaki in a side story titled " Seaside Vacation before Death ’ s Scythe " which took place during the year 2008 and before the events of the film .
= = = Publications = = =
Two promotional booklets were released in Japan in the months before the film 's release . The first was aimed primarily to those unfamiliar with the Persona 3 story and titled " Persona 3 The Movie Quick Start Guide . It was freely distributed at the 84th bi @-@ annual Japanese Comiket event on August 10 , 2013 . The second booklet was titled " Persona 3 The Movie Contact Book " . This one was distributed at the Tokyo Game Show event held at the Makuhari Messe on September 28 , 2013 .
An official art book was scheduled to be released for sale by the Famima convenience stores in Japan on August 24 , 2013 but the date was pushed back to September 21 , 2013 . The book contained a cel shaded image and included a general admission movie ticket .
= = Release = =
The entire film received an advanced midnight screening on November 16 , 2013 at the Shinjuku Wald 9 cinema in Shinjuku , Tokyo ahead of its November 23 release . During its release weekend , the film mostly attracted a young audience ranging from teenagers to those in their early thirties . Among this demographic , males were outnumbered by females at a ratio of 4 : 6 which suggested that the original game itself was mostly popular among women . In addition a significant number of patrons who were not familiar with the game were also present during the release weekend .
= = = Box office = = =
Persona 3 The Movie : No. 1 , Spring of Birth sold 39 @,@ 963 tickets across 26 theaters in Japan during its November 23 opening weekend and earned ¥ 60 @,@ 912 @,@ 300 ( US $ 599 @,@ 000 ) , making its debut at 7th in Japan as compared to The Tale of Princess Kaguya which placed 1st and grossed ¥ 284 @,@ 252 @,@ 550 ( US $ 2 @.@ 8 million ) from 222 @,@ 822 tickets across 456 theaters during the same weekend . During its second November 30 weekend , the film earned ¥ 30 @,@ 569 @,@ 795 ( US $ 297 @,@ 053 ) . The film eventually made a gross earning of US $ 1 @,@ 956 @,@ 267 and was ranked at 118 in Japan at the end of 2013 by Box Office Mojo .
= = = Reception = = =
Richard Eisenbeis of Kotaku described Makoto Yuki as being an initially " ambivalent , broken character " and added that the character 's growth took center stage in the film . He also remarked that the film could have " been a very dark , difficult @-@ to @-@ see movie " since the majority of it takes place at night but praised the lighting effects and contrasts which rendered the action easily visible while creating a " visual style all its own " . On the flip side , Eisenbeis explained that while the movie covers only the very beginning of the Persona 3 story , there was " the unfortunate side effect of a good chunk of the main cast and the majority of the antagonists not even being in the movie . " Adding that since none of the game 's key plot twists are reached , he felt that it was " a very simple , straight @-@ forward movie . " Eisenbeis also noted that the film had " more images of teen suicide than you can shake a stick at " . The " Evokers " which in the Persona 3 world allowed the characters to summon Personas by putting one to their heads and pulling the trigger , were likened to guns in this context . Despite not being actual weapons , Eisenbeis stated that " it still looks like they are blowing their brains out — often complete with spiritual brain and skull fragments . "
Elliot Gay of Japanator elaborated on the challenges that could have been faced in adapting a 50- to 80 @-@ hour RPG into a 90 @-@ minute film but praised its admirable job at pacing albeit a few issues . He noted that one such example was with as with the introduction of the Tartarus Tower which he felt was " rushed and somewhat under @-@ explained " . Gay also noted that the film " suffers from not having a strong narrative through @-@ line " and that there was no sense of closure since " nothing truly significant [ took ] place " . He argued that this was as an " unavoidable side effect of adapting Persona 3 " . Like Eisenbeis though , Gay felt that Makoto 's experiences ultimately result in his growth and that the subtitle Spring of Birth " refers to Makoto and the forward progress he makes as a person . " Gay went on to praise the film 's visuals , explaining that the " film captures the darker atmosphere of the game admirably . " Overall , Gay described the film as delivering " a nostalgic trip down memory lane for longtime fans , and an accessible entry point for folks curious about the franchise . "
= = = Home media = = =
Persona 3 The Movie : No. 1 , Spring of Birth was released on Blu @-@ ray and DVD in Japan on May 14 , 2014 in both Limited and Normal Editions . The Limited Edition versions of the discs included the Director 's Cut of the film with 7 minutes of previously unreleased footage . During the first week of the Limited Edition release in Japan , the Blu @-@ ray version sold 23 @,@ 514 copies while the DVD version sold 4 @,@ 693 copies . Aniplex of America went on to release the film with English subtitles in North America and other select parts of the world on the imports of the Japanese Blu @-@ ray editions on May 20 , 2014 . The imports were made available in Collector 's and Standard Editions and included bonus features such as the original theatrical version of the film , trailers , commercials and audio commentary . Bonus merchandise including artwork , a sizable booklet and the film 's Original Soundtrack were also included in the Collector 's Edition . Both editions included the original theatrical and extended Director 's Cut versions of the film .
= = = Sequel = = =
The film 's post @-@ credits sequence announced that a sequel titled Persona 3 The Movie : No. 2 would be " comming [ sic ] early summer 2014 " . It was later revealed on December 5 , 2013 that the full title of the sequel would be Persona 3 The Movie : # 2 Midsummer Knight 's Dream .
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= Ellis Paul =
Ellis Paul ( born Paul Plissey ; January 14 , 1965 ) is an American singer @-@ songwriter and folk musician . Born in Aroostook County , Maine , Paul is a key figure in what has become known as the Boston school of songwriting , a literate , provocative and urbanely romantic folk @-@ pop style that helped ignite the folk revival of the 1990s . His pop music songs have appeared in movies and on television , bridging the gap between the modern folk sound and the populist traditions of Woody Guthrie and Pete Seeger .
Having grown up in a small town in Maine , Paul attended Boston College on a track scholarship where he majored in English . An athletic injury sustained during his junior year changed the course of his professional career . Paul picked up a guitar to pass the time while sidelined , and discovered that playing guitar and writing songs was the creative outlet he had been looking for . After graduating from college he began playing at open mic nights in the Boston area while working with inner @-@ city school children . Paul 's growing popularity at Boston coffeehouses , coupled with winning a Boston Acoustic Underground songwriter competition and national exposure on a Windham Hill Records compilation combined to give him the confidence to resign his day @-@ job and pursue a career as a professional musician .
To date , Paul has released 19 albums and has been the recipient of 14 Boston Music Awards , considered by some to be a pinnacle of contemporary acoustic music success . He has published a book of original lyrics , poems , and drawings and released a DVD that includes a live performance , guitar instruction , and a road @-@ trip documentary . In 2014 his children 's CD Hero in You was published as a book by Albert Whitman & Company . As a touring musician , Paul plays close to 200 dates each year and his extensive club and coffeehouse touring , together with radio airplay , has brought him a solid national following .
= = Growing up = =
Ellis Paul was born in Fort Kent , Maine , a small , rural potato @-@ farming town near the Canadian border . Paul 's family had strong connections to the potato industry — his father , Ed Plissey , was Executive Director of the Maine Potato Commission and his grandfather owned a 140 @-@ acre ( 0 @.@ 57 km2 ) potato farm . Schools in the area closed for three weeks each year so that school children could help with the potato harvest . Paul spent many hours working on his grandfather 's farm . Paul 's mother , the former Marilyn Bonney of Buckfield , Maine , is a University of Maine graduate and was an extension agent for northern Aroostook County . She and her husband often worked together on special projects for the service . In the 1960s , Mrs. Plissey produced her own television show " The Aroostook Homemaker " which aired every third week on Presque Isle television station WAGM @-@ TV .
While attending high school in Presque Isle , Maine , Paul listened to Top @-@ 40 radio and participated in track . He played trumpet in the school 's stage band where he was introduced to the big band jazz music of Stan Kenton and Maynard Ferguson . He excelled in track , becoming the Maine State champion in five @-@ kilometer distance running , a feat that garnered several scholarship offers , including an offer from Boston College . Having graduated high school with the class of 1983 , Paul relocated to Boston , leaving small @-@ town rural life behind . In an interview with Daniel Gewertz of the Boston Herald Paul stated , " It wasn 't until I went to Boston College on a track scholarship that I first heard folk . " Paul was particularly moved when he heard Bob Dylan singing " The House of the Rising Sun " . It was then that he began to take folk music seriously .
Paul was inducted into the Presque Isle High School Athletic Hall of Fame on Jan. 11 , 2013 .
= = Early career : 1987 – 1990 = =
Paul majored in English at Boston College where he continued to participate in track . His best time in the 10 @,@ 000 meters ( 30 : 18 : 50 ) remains the fourth best men 's outdoor record in Boston College history . When a knee injury in his junior year sidelined him from athletics , Paul picked up an acoustic guitar to pass the time . He taught himself to play guitar with the help of a Hits of the 70s songbook , and began to write songs . Boston radio included a classic hits station that played the music of Bob Dylan , Joni Mitchell , Neil Young and James Taylor ; artists who were mostly unfamiliar to Paul . Within a few years they became major influences . Having a career in music was the furthest thing from Paul 's mind at that point , but as his playing and writing improved it became a bigger focus in his life . In an interview with FolkWax journalist Arthur Wood , Paul stated :
" I started playing and learned a few songs by other writers to begin with . I started writing originals within a few months . My songs were pretty horrendous to begin with . They kept getting better and better . When I graduated , I started playing at open mics in bars in Boston . Eventually discovered that there were folk clubs where people were actually listening , and not drinking and carousing while you played . I got involved in that circuit . I think that 's why I 've become so lyric conscious — because of those listening rooms , where you really have to rely on words in those situations . "
The open mic circuit in the Boston area included The Nameless Coffeehouse in Cambridge , Westborough 's Old Vienna Kaffeehouse and The Naked City Coffeehouse in Allston . Paul became a regular face at those clubs along with other young folk musicians such as Shawn Colvin , Patty Griffin , Dar Williams and Vance Gilbert . In 1989 he won the Nameless Coffeehouse 's New Songwriter Award . Paul played Cambridge 's Club Passim , a venue that would become his " home " venue , for the first time when he opened for John Gorka in October 1989 . Less than four years later he performed his first shows at Passim as a headliner . The three consecutive nights of shows took place on February 19 – 21 , 1993 .
It was at the Old Vienna that Paul met Jon Svetkey , Brian Doser and Jim Infantino , all struggling young local musicians . In 1989 the four young men formed a collective called " End Construction " and in 1990 released a compilation of songs titled Resume Speed : New Artist Compilation on the End Construction Productions label . The four songwriters each performed four of his own original songs on the CD release . The Resume Speed liner notes stated that End Construction Productions was a small independent production , promotion and recording company run by songwriters and musicians " hellbent on getting the good music out there . " In the interview with Wood , Paul stated that the four songwriters started doing group shows together and collaborated on each other 's material . Although he goes on to say that the collaboration " was a good thing " and that the four musicians learned a lot from each other , eventually the foursome " burned out on the competitiveness " . The collaboration lasted three years .
Following his graduation from Boston College in 1987 , Paul worked a day @-@ job at the COMPASS school as a teacher and social worker with inner city school children performing at open mics three or four nights a week . It was not until the fall of 1992 that he quit his day @-@ job to pursue music as a full @-@ time career . During this period Paul met his manager , Ralph Jaccodine , and together they founded Black Wolf Records . In 1989 the label released Paul 's first two albums of original material : Am I Home and Urban Folksongs and Paul began touring outside the Boston area . Although originally released on cassette , the two albums were re @-@ released on CD in 2001 .
= = Rising success : 1990 – 2000 = =
Winning the Boston Acoustic Underground Award in 1991 resulted in Paul playing to the largest crowd of his career to that point – 300 . He continued to play in and around the New England area . Around this time , Windham Hill Records , which had previously released the Legacy songwriter compilation , put a call out to the music industry asking for songwriter submissions to be considered for the follow @-@ up Legacy II compilation . After the Old Vienna Kaffeehouse sent one of Paul 's tapes to Windham Hill , Paul 's " Ashes to Dust " from Urban Folksongs was chosen to be on the compilation . In the interview with Wood , Paul stated that he felt very excited to be on the Windham Hill release because it served as a calling card that every DJ and folk promoter in the country would recognize . Legacy II was released in 1992 and included songs performed by Patty Larkin , Patty Griffin , Greg Brown , Cheryl Wheeler and several others . Legacy II was Paul 's first national exposure .
After Paul opened for Bill Morrissey several times , Morrissey became one of Paul 's earliest mentors . Morrissey introduced Paul to the traditional songwriting of Woody Guthrie and Mississippi John Hurt , as well as songwriters of the 60s , such as Randy Newman . In a 2001 interview with Scott Alarik , Morrissey said that Paul jumped into listening to traditional songwriters " bigtime " and as a result is a much better writer and performer .
Paul asked Morrissey to produce his first album Say Something , which was released in 1993 on Black Wolf records . Fiddler Johnny Cunningham and guitarist Duke Levine , both friends of Morrissey 's , can be heard on the recording along with the background vocals of Patty Griffin . Scott Alarik wrote : " As his lovely , demanding and brilliant debut album Say Something attests , there is a precocious credibility and emotional truth to his real @-@ life ballads . "
Levine would co @-@ produce Paul 's follow @-@ up release Stories , which was released on Black Wolf in 1994 and re @-@ released on Rounder Records the following year . It was also in 1994 that Paul was first invited to play the Kerrville Folk Festival , winning the Kerrville New Folk award .
Paul became a follower of the music of Woody Guthrie during the early 1990s . In a 1998 Boston Globe article , Paul refers to a tattoo of Woody Guthrie on his right shoulder saying that Woody 's image was the only thing he could put on his body that would be " like a badge of who he was . " Paul 's tattoo of Woody Guthrie resulted in a chance meeting with Nora Guthrie , Woody Guthrie 's daughter , at a Folk Alliance Conference when Nora asked to see Paul 's tattoo . That chance meeting resulted in Paul being invited to perform at a Woody Guthrie tribute show at the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in Cleveland , Ohio . The 10 @-@ day celebration , held in September 1996 , included other notable musicians such as Bruce Springsteen , Billy Bragg , The Indigo Girls and Ani DiFranco . DiFranco 's record label , Righteous Babe , released a compilation of the event , ' Til We Outnumber ' Em , in 2000 .
Jerry Marotta , a drummer who had worked with Peter Gabriel , produced Paul 's third CD release A Carnival of Voices which was released on Rounder in 1996 . Marotta brought in bassist Tony Levin , guitarist Bill Dillon , and once again Duke Levine . Paul stated that A Carnival of Voices comprised character sketches of different people in different towns tied to " the carnival mentality of traveling . " A Carnival of Voices hit # 3 on The CMJ New Music Report Triple chart and World Café voted it the # 1 album of the year . By 1997 Paul 's mailing list passed 7 @,@ 000 names as his fan @-@ base continued to grow .
As Paul 's reputation and popularity grew , he was asked to return to folk venues and festivals around the country including the Falcon Ridge Folk Festival , the Kerrville Folk Festival and the Newport Folk Festival . The number of shows he performed annually increased to more than 200 . Although Paul performed mostly self @-@ penned songs , he would often include a Woody Guthrie song into his set . Woody 's " Hard Travelin ' " was always a crowd pleaser , especially in Oklahoma , Woody 's birthplace . In July 1998 , the 1st Woody Guthrie Folk Festival was held in Woody 's hometown of Okemah , Oklahoma . Not only did Paul headline the festival along with Billy Bragg , but the city of Okemah made him an honorary citizen . Paul stated that when he made the pilgrimage to Okemah he felt that he was walking in Woody 's footsteps and that the experience was " like going to the mount " . Paul 's sixth CD , Translucent Soul , was released later that year in October . Again produced by Jerry Marotta , the title track is a song about his relationship with good friend Vance Gilbert and tackles the issue of racism .
At the end of the decade , Paul was invited to perform at Club Passim 's 40th anniversary show . The event took place on January 16 , 1999 at the Sanders Theater in Cambridge . The four @-@ hour sold @-@ out concert also included Patty Larkin , Joan Baez , The Nields , and others . Joan Anderman , covering the event for the Boston Globe , reported that Paul 's " thinking @-@ person 's poetry " at the Sanders theater was " embellished with the bite of an electric guitarist and the earthy cool of a percussionist " , and that his set was " a model of modern organic grace " .
= = Career : 2000 – 2003 = =
Paul released his first live recording , simply titled Live , on March 14 , 2000 . The double @-@ disk included recordings from several shows , as well as previously unreleased studio tracks . Highlights of the year 2000 included Paul singing the National Anthem at Fenway Park , and having his song " The World Ain 't Slowing Down " chosen for the theme song in the Farrelly brothers movie Me , Myself and Irene starring Jim Carrey and Renée Zellweger . Both events took place on the same June weekend . In November 2001 , Paul was again successful in having a song in a movie when " Sweet Mistakes " was featured in Shallow Hal starring Gwyneth Paltrow and Jack Black . Paul released his 8th CD , Sweet Mistakes , a collection of audience @-@ favorites not yet recorded , on November 15 , 2001 . In January 2002 , Paul was named the FolkWax Artist of the Year for 2001 .
Paul often recites original poetry for his audiences . Some of those poems can be found in Notes from the Road , a collection of Paul 's original poems , lyrics , and journal entries published by Black Wolf Press in May 2002 . In her review for Performing Songwriter , Abby White said , " The book has an intimate , conversational tone , and Paul 's childlike drawings , song lyrics and poetry provide commercial breaks to his personal journal entries and vivid recollections of significant events he encounters while touring " . As the 21st century began Paul recited his " Millennium Poem " , regularly at shows .
In 2002 Paul became friends with Nora Guthrie . Nora Guthrie is executive director of the Woody Guthrie Foundation and Archives in New York City where hundreds of Woody Guthrie 's handwritten lyrics — many without music — are housed . She invited Paul to visit the Archives and choose one set of lyrics to put to song . Referring to the huge undertaking of finding songwriters to write music for hundreds of her father 's lyrics , Nora Guthrie stated that there was a " job description " that her father left behind that " Ellis took on " . Paul chose " God 's Promise " , lyrics that Woody had adapted in 1955 from " What God Hath Promised " , a hymn of the day and recorded it for his 2002 release Speed of Trees . Paul said that visiting the Woody Guthrie Archives was like going through a time capsule of his biggest hero and that the posthumous collaboration with Woody Guthrie was one of the " coolest things " he 'd ever done . The Nov. 5th episode of the TV series Ed featured Paul 's " If You Break Down " .
Paul 's connection to Woody Guthrie continued into 2003 when he was invited to perform in the Ribbon of Highway , Endless Skyway tribute show to honor Woody Guthrie . The ensemble show , which was the brainchild of Texas singer @-@ songwriter Jimmy LaFave , toured around the country and included a rotating cast of singer @-@ songwriters individually performing Guthrie 's songs . Interspersed between songs were Guthrie 's philosophical writings read by a narrator . In addition to LaFave and Paul , members of the rotating cast included Slaid Cleaves , Eliza Gilkyson , Joel Rafael , husband @-@ wife duo Sarah Lee Guthrie ( Woody Guthrie 's granddaughter ) and Johnny Irion , Michael Fracasso , and The Burns Sisters . Oklahoma songwriter Bob Childers , sometimes called " the Dylan of the Dust , " served as narrator . When word spread about the tour , performers began contacting LaFave whose only prerequisite was to have an inspirational connection to Guthrie . Each artist chose the Guthrie songs that he or she would perform as part of the tribute . One of the songs Gilkyson chose was " Pastures of Plenty " , while Cleaves chose " This Morning I Am Born Again " - a song he wrote using Guthrie 's lyrics . One of the songs Paul chose was a song he wrote using Guthrie 's lyrics - " God 's Promise " . LaFave said , " It works because all the performers are Guthrie enthusiasts in some form " . The Ribbon of Highway tour kicked @-@ off on February 5 , 2003 at the Ryman Auditorium in Nashville . The abbreviated show was a featured segment of " Nashville Sings Woody " , yet another tribute concert to commemorate the music of Woody Guthrie held during the Folk Alliance Conference . The cast of " Nashville Sings Woody " , a benefit for the Woody Guthrie Foundation and Archives , also included Arlo Guthrie , Marty Stuart , Nanci Griffith , Guy Clark , Ramblin ' Jack Elliott , Janis Ian , and others .
Paul 's 3000 Miles DVD was released in February 2003 . Divided into four segments , the DVD begins with a live show recorded on October 3 , 2001 at Boston 's Somerville Theater - a show that was the final date of a six @-@ week tour with Susan Werner . The second segment is a 39 @-@ minute road movie filmed in 1995 by Matt Linde , an independent filmmaker who accompanied Paul on a cross @-@ country tour . Individual vignettes chronicle shows , conversations and events in Paul 's daily life as a traveling musician . A third segment shows Paul demonstrating the open tunings he uses in many of his songs , while the final segment is a discussion of songwriting with fellow songwriters Christopher Williams and Vance Gilbert . In her review for Dirty Linen , Annette C. Eshleman said , " In just under three hours , viewers are able to watch as Paul evolves from a young , inexperienced folk singer wearing a backwards baseball cap to the highly respected , confident , seasoned performer that he is today " .
= = Career : 2004 – 2009 = =
On May 1 , 2004 Paul was the recipient of the 2nd annual Boston College Arts Council Alumni Award for Artistic Achievement . The award was presented as part of the sixth annual Boston College Arts Festival . His appearances at the festival also included an " Inside the BC Studio " interview with music writer Scott Alarik , a master class on songwriting , and a concert . In 2004 Paul was also awarded his 13th Boston Music Award in the category of Outstanding Singer / Songwriter . At the time Paul was writing what he called " country tunes " when he teamed up with an Irish musician , producer , and studio expert named Flynn . This resulted in American Jukebox Fables , released April 5 , 2005 , a recording produced by Flynn that surprised some fans by melding folk , pop and electronica . Paul said that his collaboration with Flynn formed a partnership where he brought banjos and accordions and Flynn brought a laptop and keyboard . Although Paul knew that the end result would fall outside the comfort zone of some fans who expected another acoustic folk album , experimenting with Flynn 's musical chemistry set injected excitement and fun into the recording project .
Since approximately 1995 ( no one seems to know for certain ) , Paul has annually played Club Passim over New Year 's , performing two shows on December 30 and two shows on New Year 's Eve . In early 2006 Black Wolf Records released Live at Club Passim , a recording compiled from Paul 's 2005 New Year 's Eve shows . In May 2006 , Paul toured Europe and England playing to sold @-@ out shows in Paris , France ; Twickenham , England ; Cheltenham , England and Wasserburg , Germany . The tour also included two BBC radio interviews and a radio interview in Paris . Paul was included on the Woody Guthrie Coalition 's DVD Woody Sez : a Tribute to Woody Guthrie released in 2006 . The tribute show , recorded July 13 , 2005 at the Crystal Theater in Okemah , Oklahoma , included Paul performing a duet with The Burns Sisters on " God 's Promise " . Also released in 2006 was Paul 's " best of " album , released as Ellis Paul Essentials , on October 10 . The two @-@ disk retrospective of Paul 's 15 @-@ year career contained some songs that were absolutes and others that were included based on polls held on his website and discussion board . In his Folkwax review of Ellis Paul Essentials , Arthur Wood stated : " If you 've never visited " musically " with Mr. Ellis Paul , Essentials is a stunning place to start . " In his review for The Washington Post , Mike Joyce said " Essentials , a career @-@ spanning double CD from veteran singer @-@ songwriter Ellis Paul , has a few newly produced , John Jennings @-@ helmed tracks of previously recorded tunes that help set this compilation apart from most retrospectives . " In her review for Sing Out ! , Kari Estren said " Paul 's Essentials is just that and a must for your folk collection . "
In January 2008 , Paul released a children 's and family record entitled The Dragonfly Races . Inspired after the birth of his second daughter , Paul said that he wanted to teach his children about the world through the use of music . The songs are meant to be enjoyed by both children and adults , and Paul said " I wanted my kids to hear music with social commentary and some fantasy involved . " Scott Alarik said " Paul sings movingly about what really worries new parents , and turns lazy dragonflies , gentle monsters , and resilient roses into useful metaphors for world peace , the power of faith , and the delights of a sleepy day . " In April 2008 the Parents ' Choice Foundation awarded The Dragonfly Races a Silver Medallion . The Parents ' Choice Awards program honors the best material for children in these categories : books , toys , music and storytelling , magazines , software , videogames , television and websites .
In 2009 , country musician Jack Ingram chose to record a song written by Paul . According to CMT , Paul 's " The World Ain 't Slowing Down " , may be the song that takes Ingram to the " next level " . Ingram says " It 'll be fun for me to expose people to a fantastic song from an artist who 's had a 20 @-@ year career of being a very successful folk artist . "
= = Career : 2010 – 2014 = =
Paul 's sixteenth CD , The Day After Everything Changed , was released on January 12 , 2010 . Rather than work with a record label , Paul invited fans to help finance the recording by offering donors various premiums determined by the level of donation . Although Paul wasn 't sure what to expect when the United States economy collapsed , the fan @-@ funding initiative resulted in more than $ 100 @,@ 000 being collected - more , according to Paul , - than any label had ever spent on him . Recorded in Nashville with a guest appearance by Kristian Bush that includes a duet on the track , " Paper Dolls " , Paul says the fan support inspired him to make " the best record I could " . One reviewer wrote : " This is such a tuneful , beautifully drawn set of songs played and sung with authority that it reminds you how much we need storytellers back in pop music — storytellers with empathy , fine eyes and an understanding that even though we live in a soulless , indifferent world our music doesn 't have to reflect our culture . " In her review for the Folk and Acoustic Music Exchange , Roberta Schwartz said that the CD is " a masterwork filled with the best music and lyrics of his career . "
Five concerts commemorating Paul 's 20th anniversary in the music business took place at Boston 's Club Passim the weekend of July 9 – 10 , 2010 . Paul performed his eight solo albums in chronological order over four shows . In addition , he also performed a children 's concert . The Mayor of Boston , Thomas M. Menino , proclaimed July 9 , 2010 as Ellis Paul Day in the City of Boston .
WUMB announced that its listeners voted The Day After Everything Changed one of the Top 10 CDs of 2010 .
Paul 's second children 's album , The Hero in You , was released on January 1 , 2012 . The songs on the album are all written about persons who Paul considers to be American heroes including Benjamin Franklin , Thomas Edison , Georgia O 'Keeffe , and Rosa Parks . The album is Paul 's attempt to teach children about some of America 's most famous heroes . " I was a big fan of Schoolhouse Rock in the 70s . There was always a really great charm about the music . The main reason I can still remember the Preamble of the Constitution is because of those little songs " , Paul said . The illustrations in the accompanying lyrics booklet were all created by Paul .
In a review for the Folk and Acoustic Music Exchange , Roberta Schwartz said that The Hero in You contains some of the best melodies and most moving lyrics of Paul 's career . She goes on to cite " Chief Joseph " as an example - a song that incorporates one of the most famous quotes in Native American history : " I will fight no more forever " .
The Hero in You received a Gold Medal from the Parents ' Choice Foundation .
Paul 's first Christmas album , City of Silver Dreams , was released on December 1 , 2012 . Produced by Flynn , the album consists of nine original songs - several co @-@ written with Kristian Bush - and one cover song , the classic " Have Yourself a Very Merry Christmas " written by Hugh Martin and Ralph Blane . In her review for No Depression , Holley Dey wrote : " It 's a collection with multifaceted personality , offering both melodic romanticism and a folk styled humor that twinkles with good natured fun . "
On July 12 , 2014 , Paul was one of four performers inducted into the Maine Music Awards Hall of Fame . The awards ceremony took place in the Portland ( Maine ) Civic Center . Paul performed along with other members of the inaugural class which included Don McLean , Howie Day , and David Mallett .
Paul 's 19th and second fan @-@ funded album , Chasing Beauty , was released on September 9 , 2014 . The 14 @-@ track CD was produced by Kristian Bush ( Sugarland ) and Brandon Bush ( Train ) and recorded primarily in Decatur , Georgia . Paul is supported by Kristian Bush ( acoustic / electric guitar , mandolin , banjo , bass ) , Brandon Bush ( keyboards ) , Sugarland ’ s Travis McNabb ( drums ) , Gray Griggs ( bass ) , Megan Lovell ( lap steel ) , Tim Smith ( bass ) , Ben Torres ( trombone ) , Michael Snell ( trumpet ) and Brandyn Taylor ( baritone sax ) . Rebecca Loebe and Red Molly make guest appearances .
= = Career : 2015 @-@ present = =
Paul was invited to present the keynote address at the 2015 NERFA ( Northeast Regional Folk Alliance ) conference held Nov. 12 @-@ 15 , 2015 at the Hudson Valley Resort in Kerhonkson , New York . The 26 @-@ minute address presented on Nov. 13 , 2015 was later published on his website and on YouTube .
In late 2015 , an announcement was made that Paul 's song " Nelly Bly " from the album Hero in You would appear in the movie 10 Days in a Madhouse being released in the fall of 2015 .
= = Collaborations = =
In September 2003 Paul released Side of the Road , a duo album recorded with good friend Vance Gilbert . The two songwriters , who have often shared the stage , each chose four cover songs to record - individual favorites - plus one song of their own . Although the album did not start out as a " 9 / 11 " project , the inclusion of Mark Erelli 's " The Only Way " set a theme . A review in No Depression magazine said this about Paul and Gilbert 's choice of songs :
" Thematically they 're mostly about individuals — indeed , an entire planet — in desperate need of healing . To that end , Paul 's original tune " Citizen of the World " is a wonderful balm , as he and Gilbert trade lyrics about the crossed bloodlines , attitudes and experiences that make us all brothers and sisters . Their version of Van Morrison 's " Comfort You " works magic of a similar sort . "
Sugarland 's first holiday album , Gold and Green released on October 13 , 2009 includes " City of Silver Dreams " and " Little Wood Guitar " , co @-@ written by Paul and Kristian Bush . In his review of the album , Matt Bjorke wrote , " City of Silver Dreams " could actually find itself a seminal holiday song like Joni Mitchell 's " River " as it tells a wonderfully soft and melodic story of New York City and the beauty of a new romance within the context of Christmas . "
= = Songwriting = =
" Boston @-@ style " songwriting refers to the introspective and literate breed of singer @-@ songwriter so prevalent in the modern folk music landscape . According to Paul , Boston @-@ style songwriting grew out of Boston 's thriving folk scene with its dense collection of colleges , college radio stations and listening rooms . Boston radio includes the University of Massachusetts ' WUMB , the country 's foremost radio station for folk and acoustic music 24 @-@ hours a day . Paul said the Boston songwriters tend to be more thoughtful and soft because in an intimate listening room , " all you 've got is you and your words . " Boston @-@ style songwriting tends to be more about lyric than melody , is intimate and thoughtful but also relevant , often addressing social issues . Boston @-@ style songwriting does not only refer to Boston musicians , but includes national artists such as Shawn Colvin , John Gorka , Susan Werner , Bill Morrissey , and Dar Williams . In an interview with Paul Freeman for the East Bay Daily News , Paul commented on how he hopes audience members relate to his songs , " Each song is supposed to be like a little three @-@ dimensional world . I 'm hoping to invite them in , have them make out the details and the reasons for being there , and apply them to their own lives . But I 'm also hoping to entertain them . "
After graduating from Boston College , Paul worked as a case worker at an inner city school in the Jamaica Plain section of Boston , working with children with behavioral problems and also worked as a social worker in Boston with clients who were drug dealers , rapists , and other kinds of criminal offenders . His work experiences opened his eyes to see the world in a broader , more open @-@ minded way and provided material for the songs he was beginning to write . Early in his career Paul promised himself that he would always write about the things he knew well . In her review of Ellis Paul Live for the Folk and Music Exchange , Roberta Schwartz said , " His finely honed songs tell stories filled with images that sparkle like jewels . His is a poet 's heart , and a romantic 's soul . He is an optimist who believes in people and possibilities . "
In her 1993 review of Paul 's Say Something , Debbie Catalano wrote , " Ellis Paul draws a picture with his words then draws you into the world he 's painting . " Like a Norman Rockwell painting , Paul 's songs are replete with crucial details and careful observations that tell a story with a minimum or words . In a 2002 article , Thomas Conner dissected a verse from Paul 's " Conversation with a Ghost " from Say Something . " Instead of bluntly saying , " I ran into an old flame in Central Park " , Paul writes around it , avoiding the clichés , painting the picture , showing us everything — the motives , the setting , the serendipity — except what we expect . "
When teaching songwriting classes , Paul often introduces aspiring songwriters to his " six @-@ step program to effective songwriting " which is based on the premise that songwriters should show and not tell . Paul teaches this six @-@ step method to develop a character in a song :
Choose a name for the person .
List five items in the person 's bedroom .
List five things the person would see if he or she looked in a mirror .
Choose two colors that bring the person to mind .
Choose one non @-@ human metaphor describing the person .
Write one line of dialogue that conveys the way the person speaks .
The most important advice he gives aspiring songwriters is to write what you know or what you 've experienced . " Use reality as the springboard to whatever you 're writing about " , Paul said . Paul also says that being a successful songwriter is like being a journalist who writes about what he sees and knows , the times people are living in and the things people are facing today . " The journalist looks out the window and writes about what is really happening . " " I make sure it 's real . I don 't want to fictionalize about things I haven 't witnessed . " Paul states that over the years he 's learned the value of simplicity in writing . He 's learned that he can say more when he writes more simply and direct . " It 's almost as if you can be complex and intricate by adopting a shorter , less complicated structure . " " I 'm not doing rocket science -- I 'm a storyteller " , he said . " I hope to inspire people to think and feel and to walk out with more than they came in with . "
When asked to describe the difference between writing songs for children and song for adults , Paul said : " The difference between writing a kids ' song and an adult song is that in the kids ' songs you tend to use primary colors and the words are brighter and the tempos are always upbeat . There 's a nuance to the adult songs that is different . It 's still the story telling , but its different shades and angles . You read between the lines more . "
Paul continues playing close to 200 dates annually on the folk circuit . His songs have appeared on more than 50 compilation CDs , and he has made nearly 40 guest appearances on the albums of artists including Lori McKenna , David Wilcox and Mark Erelli . When asked if he would rather play the 19 @,@ 600 @-@ seat Fleet Theater or the 900 @-@ seat Somerville Theater – both in Boston , Paul replied , " I prefer to keep it intimate . That way people can see the whites of your eyes . I 'd love to write a hit song and have it on the radio like " American Pie " or something , but I 'm just gonna do what I do and take what I can and run with it , because it 's a hard business to have even what I have . So I don 't have pie @-@ in @-@ the @-@ sky Springsteen @-@ esque hopes . I just want to write great songs . "
In a review for the Folk and Acoustic Music Exchange , Roberta Schwartz said , " Ellis Paul is one of the best singer / songwriters of his generation . And for many of us he is the face of contemporary folk music — few are as smart , as literate and as poetic as Paul . He has spun his story songs for nearly twenty years now , and has eleven studio recordings ( with an additional two early recordings on cassette — now available on CD ) to his credit . I cannot think of another artist on the acoustic music scene who is better @-@ loved by fans , or more respected by his contemporaries . "
= = Children 's books = =
On September 1 , 2014 , Paul 's children 's CD Hero in You was published as a book by Albert Whitman & Company . Illustrated by Angela Padron , the book of American biographies includes a copy of the CD with exclusive introductory tracks by Paul . The accompanying CD allows young readers to listen to each song while discovering additional facts about Paul 's heroes on each page .
Paul 's second children 's book was published - again by Albert Whitman & Company - in October 2015 . Based on his Christmas poem The Night the Lights Went Out on Christmas , the book , illustrated by Scott Brundage , is the whimsical yet heartwarming story of a neighborhood where families trying to outdo one another with Christmas lights and decorations use so much electrical power that the neighborhood is thrown into darkness . The poem originally appeared on Paul 's City of Silver Dreams Christmas CD and is included as a downloadable mp3 file with the book .
= = Sports honor = =
In September 2012 , Presque Isle High School announced that Paul would be one of four high school graduates inducted into its Athletic Hall of Fame at the third annual ceremony on January 11 , 2013 . During his high school career , Paul - a member of the class of 1983 - starred in cross @-@ country and track . He won a cross @-@ country state championship as a senior as well as three Eastern Maine titles and a 5 @,@ 000 @-@ meter state crown in track . He also finished second in the 15 @-@ 16 age division of the 1981 AAU national cross @-@ country championships and later during his career placed seventh in the 17 @-@ 18 age group at the AAU Junior Olympic national championships .
Coinciding with the Athletic Hall of Fame induction ceremony were two performances to benefit the Wintergreen Arts Center , one at The Whole Potato Cafe and Commons and one at the University of Maine at Presque Isle 's Wieden Auditorium .
= = University of Maine honor = =
On May 17 , 2014 Paul was the commencement address speaker at the University of Maine at Presque Isle 's 105th commencement . Paul was also awarded an honorary Doctor of Humane Letters degree during the commencement ceremony . At the conclusion of his commencement address , Paul performed his composition " Rise Up , Presque Isle " which has been adopted as the school 's new Alma Mater .
= = Discography = =
= = Awards = =
= = = Books = = =
2003 — Kerouac , Jack . Doctor Sax and the Great World Snake , Mint Publishers , ISBN 0 @-@ 9729733 @-@ 0 @-@ 3 . ( Screenplay recorded on two audio CDs with Ellis Paul as the voice of Lousy . )
2003 — Alarik , Scott . Deep Community : Adventures in the Modern Folk Underground , Boston : Black Wolf Press , ISBN 0 @-@ 9720270 @-@ 1 @-@ 7 . ( Prominently features Ellis Paul . )
2002 — Paul , Ellis . Notes From the Road , Boston : Black Wolf Press , ISBN 0 @-@ 9720270 @-@ 0 @-@ 9 . ( Paul 's self @-@ illustrated book of lyrics , poems and journal entries . )
2002 — Kubica , Chris and Hochman , Will . Letters to J.D. Salinger , University of Wisconsin Press , ISBN 0 @-@ 299 @-@ 17800 @-@ 5 . ( Includes an entry written by Ellis Paul . )
2001 — Stambler , Irwin . Folk & Blues : The Encyclopedia : The Premier Encyclopedia Of American Roots Music , Thomas Dunne Books , ISBN 0 @-@ 312 @-@ 20057 @-@ 9 . ( Includes an entry for Ellis Paul . )
= = = Magazines = = =
( See the Ellis Paul Archives for a more comprehensive listing . )
2006 — Perricone , Mike. gallery : ellis paul . Did Galileo Pray ? Symmetry : Dimensions of Particle Physics , Jun / Jul 2006 , p . 28 @-@ 9 . Retrieved February 10 , 2007 .
2005 — Soroff , Jonathan . Soroff on Ellis Paul . Improper Bostonian , Apr 6 – 19 , 2005 , p . 16 .
2002 — Rutz , Kathy . New Release Spotlight : Ellis Paul . Performing Songwriter , Dec 2002 , p . 26 .
2000 — Weider , Tamara . Ellis Paul : On the road again . Improper Bostonian , June 14 , 2000 , p . 18 – 22 .
1996 — Fagan , Neil . Artist spotlight : Ellis Paul . Performing Songwriter , Jan / Feb 1996 , p . 30 @-@ 1 .
= = = Miscellany = = =
2011 — Never Not Funny : The Jimmy Pardo Podcast Video of Ellis Paul appearing on Never Not Funny hosted by Jimmy Pardo . February 2 , 2011 .
2007 — Studio Concert Series : Ellis Paul . Video interview / performance recorded at Blue Rock Studios in Wimberley , Texas .
May 10 , 2007 .
2004 — " Inside the BC Studio : A Conversation with Ellis Paul " . Video interview at Boston College with Scott Alarik as part of the Boston College Arts Council Alumni Award weekend festivities . April 30 , 2004 .
1999 — Ellis Paul on The Millennium Stage of the Kennedy Center Video performance in Washington , D.C .. June 22 , 1999 .
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= Interstate TDR =
The Interstate TDR was an early unmanned combat aerial vehicle — referred to at the time as an " assault drone " — developed by the Interstate Aircraft and Engineering Corporation during the Second World War for use by the United States Navy . Capable of being armed with bombs or torpedoes , 2000 aircraft were ordered , but only around 200 were built . The type saw some service in the Pacific Theater against the Japanese , but continuing developmental issues affecting the aircraft , along with the success of operations using more conventional weapons , led to the decision being made to cancel the assault drone program in October 1944 .
= = Design and development = =
In 1936 , Lieutenant Commander Delmar S. Fahrney proposed that unpiloted , remotely controlled aircraft had potential for use by the United States Navy in combat operations . Due to the limitations of the technology of the time , development of the " assault drone " project was given a low priority , but by the early 1940s the development of the radar altimeter and television made the project more feasible , and following trials using converted manned aircraft , the first operational test of a drone against a naval target was conducted in April 1942 . That same month , following trials of the Naval Aircraft Factory TDN assault drone , Interstate Aircraft received a contract from the Navy for two prototype and 100 production aircraft to a simplified and improved design , to be designated TDR @-@ 1 .
Control of the TDR @-@ 1 would be conducted from either a control aircraft , usually a Grumman TBF Avenger , with the operator viewing a tv screen showing the view from a camera mounted aboard the drone along with the radar altimeter 's readout , or via a pilot on board the TDR @-@ 1 for test flights . Powered by two Lycoming O @-@ 435 engines of 220 horsepower ( 160 kW ) each , the TDR @-@ 1 used a remarkably simple design , with a steel @-@ tube frame constructed by the Schwinn bicycle company covered with a molded wood skin , thus making little use of strategic materials so as not to impede production of higher priority aircraft . Capable of being optionally piloted for test flights , an aerodynamic fairing was used to cover the cockpit area during operational missions . The TDR @-@ 1 was equipped with a fixed tricycle landing gear , that on operations would be jettisoned following takeoff for improved performance .
= = Operational history = =
Under the code @-@ name Operation Option , the Navy projected that up to 18 squadrons of assault drones would be formed , with 162 Grumman TBF Avenger control aircraft and 1000 assault drones being ordered . However technical difficulties in the development of the TDR @-@ 1 , combined with a continued low priority given to the project , saw the contract modified with the order reduced to only around 300 aircraft . A single TDR @-@ 1 was tested by the U.S. Army Air Forces as the XBQ @-@ 4 , however no production contract resulted from this testing .
In 1944 , under the control of the Special Air Task Force ( SATFOR ) , the TDR @-@ 1 was deployed operationally to the South Pacific for operations against the Japanese . TDR @-@ 1 aircraft equipped a single mixed squadron ( Special Air Task Group 1 ) along with TBM Avenger control aircraft , and the first operational mission took place on September 27 , conducting bombing operations against Japanese ships . Despite this success , the assault drone program had already been canceled after the production of 189 TDR @-@ 1 aircraft , due to a combination of continued technical problems , the aircraft failing to live up to expectations , and the fact that more conventional weaponry was proving adequate for the defeat of Japan . The final mission was flown on October 27 , with 50 drones having been expended on operations , 31 aircraft successfully striking their targets , without loss to the pilots of STAG @-@ 1 .
Following the war , some TDR @-@ 1s were converted for operation as private sportsplanes .
= = Aircraft on display = =
A single example of the TDR @-@ 1 survives , and is on display at the U.S. Navy 's National Museum of Naval Aviation in Pensacola , Florida .
= = Variants and operators = =
United States Navy
XTDR @-@ 1 - Two prototypes .
TDR @-@ 1 - Production version of XTDR @-@ 1 , 189 aircraft produced .
XTD2R @-@ 1 - Variant with two Franklin O @-@ 805 @-@ 2 engines , two prototypes ordered , canceled in favor of TD3R .
XTD3R @-@ 1 - Variant with Wright R @-@ 975 radial engines , three prototypes .
XTD3R @-@ 2 - Variant of XTD3R @-@ 1 , one prototype .
TD3R @-@ 1 - Production version of XTD3R @-@ 1 , 40 aircraft ordered but cancelled .
United States Army Air Forces
XBQ @-@ 4 - Army designation for TDR @-@ 1 . One aircraft converted from TDR @-@ 1 .
XBQ @-@ 5 - Army designation for XTD2R @-@ 1 . Designation reserved but no aircraft ordered .
XBQ @-@ 6 - Army designation for XTD3R . No aircraft produced .
BQ @-@ 6A - Army designation for TD3R @-@ 1 . No aircraft produced .
= = Specifications ( TDR @-@ 1 ) = =
Data from Parsch
General characteristics
Crew : 0 @-@ 1 ( optional pilot )
Wingspan : 48 ft ( 15 m )
Gross weight : 5 @,@ 900 lb ( 2 @,@ 676 kg )
Powerplant : 2 × Lycoming O @-@ 435 @-@ 2 opposed piston engines , 220 hp ( 160 kW ) each
Performance
Cruise speed : 140 mph ( 122 kn ; 225 km / h )
Range : 425 mi ( 369 nmi ; 684 km )
Armament
One 2 @,@ 000 @-@ pound ( 910 kg ) bomb or one aerial torpedo
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= Cyclone Bingiza =
Tropical Cyclone Bingiza was the only named storm to make landfall in the inactive 2010 – 11 South @-@ West Indian Ocean cyclone season . The second of three storms , Bingiza developed on February 9 to the northeast of Madagascar . For a few days it meandered generally southwestward , failing to intensify significantly . On February 12 , the storm began a steady westward track as environmental conditions became more favorable . In a 24 ‑ hour period , Bingiza developed from a moderate tropical storm into an intense tropical cyclone with a well @-@ defined eye . After attaining peak 10 – minute sustained winds of 155 km / h ( 100 mph ) , the cyclone moved ashore in northeastern Madagascar on February 14 and quickly weakened as it crossed the country . It emerged into the Mozambique Channel as a weak tropical disturbance , and it turned southward to move across western Madagascar . Bingiza attained tropical storm status before making its final landfall near Morondava , dissipating on February 18 .
Across Madagascar , the cyclone killed 34 people and injured 13 others . High winds destroyed 25 @,@ 464 houses , which left 25 @,@ 845 people homeless . Bingiza first affected the Masoala National Park , destroying half of a village and leaving it isolated . High winds and heavy rainfall left over 500 km2km ( 195 mi2 ) of damaged crops , which increased food prices and threatened the economic livelihoods of the affected people .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origins of Cyclone Bingiza were from a persistent area of disorganized convection on February 8 , about 880 km ( 545 mi ) north @-@ northeast of Réunion . At the time , the system consisted of a poorly defined circulation , located in an area of low wind shear . It moved west @-@ southwestward along the northern periphery of a ridge , and its convection gradually became more organized over the center . On February 9 , Météo @-@ France ( MF ) classified the system as Tropical Disturbance 5 , and six hours later upgraded it to a tropical depression . Shortly thereafter , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) issued a tropical cyclone formation alert after convective banding and outflow increased . Following intensification of the depression into a moderate tropical storm , MF advised the Madagascan Weather Service to name the storm as Bingiza which they did late on February 9 .
Upon becoming a tropical storm , Bingiza was located in an area of weak steering currents , which resulted in a slow , meandering motion toward the southwest . Its motion turned to the south on February 10 , with conditions only marginally favorable for further intensification . After two days of meandering without strengthening , Bingiza turned to the southwest on due to a building ridge to its southwest toward Madagascar . Around the same time , upper @-@ level conditions began improving , which allowed the convection to increase in coverage . Based on the improved appearance , MF upgraded Bingiza to a severe tropical storm at 0600 UTC on February 12 about 335 km ( 210 mi ) east of the coast of Madagascar . Later that day an eye became apparent on satellite imagery , signaling the beginning of a rapid deepening trend . Late on February 12 , MF upgraded Bingiza to tropical cyclone intensity , which is the equivalent of a hurricane or typhoon . With minimal wind shear and warm waters , the agency forecast the cyclone to intensify further to peak 10 – sustained winds of 195 km / h ( 120 mph ) . Continuing to strengthen , Bingiza attained 10 minute sustained winds of 155 km / h ( 100 mph ) early on February 13 . Similarly , the JTWC estimated peak 1 minute sustained winds of 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) , noting a contracting eye 37 km ( 23 mi ) in diameter in the process of an eyewall replacement cycle .
Despite initial forecasts , the cyclone failed to strengthen further due to interaction with Madagascar . Early on February 14 , Bingiza made landfall along the Masoala Peninsula with winds of at least 150 km / h ( 90 mph ) . It emerged into the Antongil Bay , before moving ashore north of Manambolosy . It quickly weakened over land , although it produced heavy rainfall along its northern periphery . Early on February 15 , Bingiza weakened to a tropical depression . The center became difficult to locate over land , although it emerged into the Mozambique Channel north of Besalampy as a tropical disturbance . After moving over waters , the system was able to re @-@ intensify due to favorable water temperatures and inflow . It quickly organized into a tropical depression again , although strengthening was halted after it turned southward over western Madagascar due to a ridge to its north . It again moved into the Mozambique Channel , and Bingiza re @-@ intensified into a tropical storm on February 17 . The storm developed a concentrated area of convection near the center , as well as a poorly defined eye . The re @-@ intensification was short @-@ lived after Bingiza made its final landfall just south of Morondava around 1330 UTC on February 17 . Around that time , the circulation was dissipating over land , and its remnants left the island on February 19 .
= = Impact = =
When Bingiza made its first Madagascar landfall , it became the first cyclone to strike the country in the cyclone season . It first moved through the Masoala National Park , a sparsely @-@ populated protected region with significant amounts of trees . In Vinanivao , located along the Masoala peninsula , the cyclone destroyed half of the buildings as well as the roads and bridges , leaving it only accessible by boat . The cyclone affected five districts , primarily Mananara Nord . There , an early report indicated that 80 % of the houses were destroyed , along with one hospital and four other health facilities . The high winds caused heavy crop damage , including to rice and banana , which left minimal food supplies in some areas . The vanilla crop was also severely affected , and the mayor of Mananara was uncertain whether any of the crop could be harvested . Bingiza struck at what one relief worker described as the " worst time of year for a cyclone " , because many farmers were unable to replant their damaged crops . The cyclone damaged 40 % of the food crops and 10 % of the cash crops in Manambolosy , as well as 70 % of the food crops in Antanambaobe . Overall , the cyclone destroyed 405 @.@ 23 km2 ( 156 @.@ 46 mi2 ) of rice fields , as well as 101 @.@ 67 km2 ( 39 @.@ 26 mi2 ) of other crops . The cyclone also damaged the road infrastructure in Mananara , which made it difficult to transport fish in the region to other areas of the country . The resulting crop and road damage resulted in increased food prices .
Across its path , Bingiza destroyed 25 @,@ 464 houses and damaged 36 schools . Overall , the damage was less than expected , given the strength of the cyclone . Most of the damage occurred due to the poor infrastructure and drainage systems of Madagascar , along with high levels of poverty . A total of 34 deaths were reported , along with 13 injuries . When Bingiza made its final landfall , it produced five days of rainfall to a region already severely affected by flooding . In Vangaindrano district in southeastern Madagascar , the cyclone caused widespread flooding that isolated five villages , as well as covering fields of rice and other crops . A total of 310 people in the southern portion of the country were left homeless .
Immediately after the storm moved ashore , high winds prevented disaster teams from assessing damage in the affected areas . By February 18 , CARE international had dispatched relief teams to the most affected regions . The teams distributed plastic tarps and food for 10 @,@ 000 people . High winds halted locust @-@ control operations , while heavy rainfall provided favorable breeding conditions . In the area of the cyclone 's first landfall , most people were able to rebuild their houses using trees and supplies from the surrounding countryside . Overall , about 25 @,@ 845 people became homeless due to the cyclone , although most were able to return to their homes after a few days after they were repaired . In the months after the storm 's passage , the European Commission allocated € 200 @,@ 000 ( $ 287 @,@ 000 USD ) to CARE France for the storm victims .
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= 2015 Gent – Wevelgem =
The 2015 Gent – Wevelgem was a one @-@ day cycling classic that took place in Belgium and France on 29 March 2015 . It was the 77th edition of the Gent – Wevelgem race ; it took place on 29 March and was the seventh race of the 2015 UCI World Tour . The defending champion was John Degenkolb ( Giant – Alpecin ) , who had won the 2014 edition in a bunch sprint .
Gent – Wevelgem is part of the spring classics season and is known as the " sprinter 's classic " , because its terrain is less challenging than most of the other classics . The 2015 edition followed a 239 @.@ 1 @-@ kilometre ( 148 @.@ 6 mi ) route that started in Deinze and ended in Wevelgem . The race took place in difficult weather conditions with heavy wind and rain ; as a result , only 39 riders finished the race of the 200 who had started . The race was won by Luca Paolini ( Team Katusha ) , who attacked a small group in the final 6 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 7 mi ) and took a solo victory . Niki Terpstra ( Etixx – Quick @-@ Step ) sprinted to second place , ahead of Geraint Thomas ( Team Sky ) .
= = Route = =
The 2015 Gent – Wevelgem was 239 @.@ 1 kilometres ( 148 @.@ 6 mi ) in length , starting in the Belgian city of Deinze , west of the city of Gent , and finishing in Wevelgem . Most of the spring classics centre around Oudenaarde and the many small hills in the nearby region . Gent – Wevelgem , however , travels west into West Flanders and France and has fewer hills , making it more suitable for sprinters .
After the race began in the Grote Markt in Deinze , the route took the riders west towards the coast ; after 73 kilometres ( 45 mi ) of flat roads , they reached Adinkerke , southwest of Nieuwpoort , where the route turned south . They travelled another 23 kilometres ( 14 mi ) before reaching Roesbrugge and , after 97 @.@ 8 kilometres ( 60 @.@ 8 mi ) , entered the Nord department of France . The first 12 kilometres ( 7 mi ) of French roads took them west , before they turned south at Wormhout . The first climb of the day came another 10 kilometres ( 6 mi ) later , as the riders climbed the Casselberg . A 6 kilometres ( 4 mi ) loop brought them round to climb the Casselberg a second time , though from a different direction .
The route then turned east . The final French climb was the Catsberg , which came after 143 kilometres ( 89 mi ) . The riders continued east after this and , after 148 @.@ 2 kilometres ( 92 @.@ 1 mi ) , re @-@ entered Belgium at Westouter , on the outskirts of Heuvelland , to enter the key section of the race . This began with the climb of the Baneberg , 152 kilometres ( 94 mi ) from the start . 8 kilometres ( 5 mi ) later , they climbed the Kemmelberg in the town of Kemmel . 4 kilometres ( 2 mi ) after that , they climbed the Monteberg . This succession of climbs was interspersed with steep descents , including the difficult descent of the Kemmelberg . A flat , 29 kilometres ( 18 mi ) section of road followed , as the route went east towards Mesen , then gradually looped back west through Nieuwkerke . After this flat section , the riders returned to the same roads that they had ridden previously and repeated the Baneberg – Kemmelberg – Monteberg sequence of climbs .
At the top of the second climb of the Monteberg , there were 34 @.@ 6 kilometres ( 21 @.@ 5 mi ) remaining , mostly on flat roads . The route turned north @-@ east out of Kemmel to Ypres , where several cobbled roads were used . After Ypres , the route turned east through Menen and into Wevelgem .
= = Teams = =
As Gent – Wevelgem is a UCI World Tour event , all 17 UCI WorldTeams were invited automatically and were obliged to send a squad . Eight Professional Continental teams received wildcard invitations . With eight riders on each team , the peloton at the beginning of the race was made up of 200 riders .
= = Pre @-@ race favourites = =
The 2015 Gent – Wevelgem was without two of the main classics riders , Tom Boonen ( Etixx – Quick @-@ Step ) and Fabian Cancellara ( Trek Factory Racing ) , both of whom had been injured in races earlier in the spring . However , their absence was not expected to affect the race as much as it would other races in the classics season , such as the Tour of Flanders the following weekend , as Gent @-@ Wevelgem is particularly suited to sprinters . This is because it has fewer climbs than the other spring classics ; difficulty often comes from crosswinds on the exposed parts of West Flanders .
The defending champion , John Degenkolb ( Giant – Alpecin ) , was the principal favourite for victory before the race . He had won Milan – San Remo the week before and was in good form . Degenkolb is seen as a sprinter , but has good ability at getting over short climbs , having had no difficulty on the Kemmelberg in the 2014 Gent – Wevelgem .
Alexander Kristoff ( Team Katusha ) , who was second in Milan – San Remo and fourth a few days earlier at E3 Harelbeke , was also among the favourites , especially in the bad weather expected for Gent – Wevelgem . Peter Sagan ( Tinkoff – Saxo ) , the 2013 champion , was also in form following E3 Harelbeke , and was expected to be able to win either from a bunch sprint or from an attack .
The Etixx – Quick @-@ Step team was also expected to feature strongly in the race , even in Boonen 's absence . They were led by Mark Cavendish , one of the strongest sprinters , who had already won Kuurne – Brussels – Kuurne , which is similar to Gent – Wevelgem . Other options for the team included Zdeněk Štybar , second in E3 Harelbeke . Team Sky also brought a strong squad . Their team included Geraint Thomas , the winner of E3 Harelbeke , Ian Stannard , the winner of the Omloop Het Nieuwsblad , and Bradley Wiggins , but they were expected to support sprinter Elia Viviani .
There were many other riders considered to have a chance of victory in the race . These included classics riders such as Sep Vanmarcke ( LottoNL – Jumbo ) , Daniel Oss and Greg Van Avermaet ( both BMC Racing Team ) and sprinters such as André Greipel ( Lotto – Soudal ) , Arnaud Démare ( FDJ ) , Nacer Bouhanni ( Cofidis ) , Sam Bennett ( Bora – Argon 18 ) , Heinrich Haussler ( IAM Cycling ) , Sacha Modolo ( Lampre – Merida ) , Adam Blythe ( Orica – GreenEDGE ) , Tyler Farrar and Edvald Boasson Hagen ( both MTN – Qhubeka ) . Moreno Hofland ( LottoNL – Jumbo ) was also expected to be among the favourites , but he withdrew the day before the race with an illness .
= = Race report = =
The race took place in very wet and windy conditions . This included a headwind in the early stages of the race , which delayed the formation of a breakaway . When the breakaway did form , it included seven riders , who built up a nine @-@ minute lead within the first hour of racing . These riders were Tim Kerkhof ( Team Roompot ) , Alexis Gougeard ( AG2R La Mondiale ) , Albert Timmer ( Giant – Alpecin ) , Alex Dowsett ( Movistar Team ) , Pavel Brutt ( Tinkoff @-@ Saxo ) , Jesse Sergent ( Trek Factory Racing ) and Mirko Tedeschi ( Southeast Pro Cycling ) . Soon afterwards the peloton was split into groups as riders began to withdraw from the race . The principal difficulty throughout the race was the wind : Cyclingnews.com described the riders as " constantly balancing on their bike , leaning into the wind , trying not to be blown off the road " .
As the riders entered the flat lands near the Belgian coast , the winds became more problematic . Around three @-@ quarters of the peloton had been dropped or had withdrawn from the race by the time the riders turned back inland . Gert Steegmans ( Trek Factory Racing ) was blown sideways into a ditch ; the wind knocked several other riders over and caused Martin Velits ( Etixx @-@ Quick Step ) and Lars Bak ( Lotto @-@ Soudal ) to withdraw from the race . Mark Cavendish crashed and was forced to chase to attempt to rejoin the leading riders . The conditions were so severe that some team officials called for the race to be neutralised to ensure the riders ' safety . Shortly afterwards , two large groups came back together . The main peloton was therefore made up of around 100 riders and was approximately two minutes behind the breakaway . The breakaway was caught soon afterwards .
Around Cassel , the peloton was again split into small groups by the strong winds . The front group was reduced to 25 riders . Bradley Wiggins was left behind and withdrew from the race , along with Edvald Boasson Hagen ( MTN @-@ Qhubeka ) , who had hit a pole by the side of the road and had broken his clavicle . The front group included Vanmarcke , Thomas , Kristoff and Sagan , with Démare , Greipel , Matti Breschel and Van Avermaet joining soon afterwards . On the Catsberg , Maarten Tjallingii ( LottoNL – Jumbo ) attacked alone and gained a one @-@ minute lead over the main group . Several riders attacked the group but no one was able to get away and they came to the Kemmelberg together .
Jürgen Roelandts ( Lotto @-@ Soudal ) attacked after the summit of the Kemmelberg . He initially built a small lead over the chasing group , which was led by riders from Etixx @-@ Quick Step . They stopped chasing , however , after Zdeněk Štybar suffered a puncture . This allowed riders to attack the group . Stijn Vandenbergh ( Etixx @-@ Quick Step ) was the first to attack ; he was then joined first by Daniel Oss ( BMC ) and Thomas , and then also by Jens Debusschere ( Lotto @-@ Soudal ) and Vanmarcke . Despite their superior numbers , Roelandts as able to maintain his lead ; the peloton , meanwhile , quickly fell a long way behind . Riders continued to crash during this period , including Sylvain Chavanel ( IAM Cycling ) and Mat Hayman ( Orica – GreenEDGE ) . Jack Bauer ( Cannondale @-@ Garmin ) suffered a crash when another rider 's rain jacket got caught in the spokes of his wheels ; he picked up his bike and threw it into a ditch . With many of the team cars full , some riders asked for directions so that they could ride directly to their team hotels rather than completing the race .
Luca Paolini ( Katusha ) attacked from the main group and caught the five chasers , with Niki Terpstra ( Etixx @-@ Quick Step ) doing the same shortly afterwards . While Paolini and Terpstra were chasing , Geraint Thomas was blown violently from his bike , landing on his left shoulder . He landed on the grass and was able to rejoin the group , although he appeared to be shaken by the crash . As the riders approached the Kemmelberg for the final time , Roelandts had a lead of around two minutes . Vandenbergh led up the climb , with Thomas following closely and the other riders struggling . Vanmarcke and Terpstra soon caught up , with Debusschere quickly following . Paolini eventually returned to the group , but Oss was unable to do so . As they crossed the final climb of the day with 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) remaining , Roelandts had a one @-@ minute lead ahead of the six @-@ man group .
By this point , Roelandts had led solo for around 50 kilometres ( 31 mi ) and was beginning to struggle . He was caught with around 20 kilometres ( 12 mi ) remaining . As he was caught , Terpstra suffered a puncture . He quickly returned to the group and immediately attacked , with Paolini joining him . Thomas led the chase , with Vanmarcke and Debusschere looking tired . The six riders therefore came into the final 10 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) together . With around 6 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 7 mi ) remaining , Paolini attacked and was chased down by the other riders ; he then attacked again and built a gap , which he was able to maintain to the finish . Terpstra beat Thomas to second place , followed by Vandenbergh , Debusschere , and Vanmarcke within a minute and Roelandts and Oss further behind . The main peloton came in more than five minutes behind Paolini , with Kristoff winning the sprint for ninth place ahead of Sagan . Only 39 riders finished the race .
= = Results = =
= = Post @-@ race analysis = =
There was widespread comment in the media after the race about the weather conditions . Cyclingnews.com described it as " mayhem " and " one of the wildest [ races ] in recent years " . Paolini said that he had crashed twice on the way to victory and had used a total of three bikes , but also that he had been lucky later in the race . He said " we 're up in the north and this is real cycling " . Paolini pointed at his head and heart as he crossed the finish line – the same gesture that he had performed when winning a stage in the 2013 Giro d 'Italia – and explained the gesture as indicating that such wins required " head and heart as much as legs " .
Patrick Lefevere , the Etixx @-@ Quick Step team manager , afterwards described the team 's " bad luck " throughout the race , which included crashes for Cavendish and Martin Velits and punctures for Terpstra and Štybar . Lefevere pointed to the absence of Tom Boonen as a reason for his riders ' nervousness . Geraint Thomas felt that the other riders had been looking at him in particular to chase Paolini because of his win in the E3 Harelbeke ; he said that he " didn 't have much left " in the sprint at the end of the race .
VeloNews wrote that the riders had come close to calling for the neutralisation of the race because of the extreme weather conditions . The winds reached approximately 70 to 80 km / h ( 40 – 50 mph ) and were so strong that the riders were even unable to form into echelons . However the website also quoted Brian Cookson , the president of the UCI , who described the conditions as " very difficult , but not impossible " and the race as " a real classic " .
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= Mechanical @-@ electrical analogies =
Mechanical @-@ electrical analogies are the representation of mechanical systems as electrical networks . At first , such analogies were used in reverse to help explain electrical phenomena in familiar mechanical terms . James Clerk Maxwell introduced analogies of this sort in the 19th century . However , as electrical network analysis matured it was found that certain mechanical problems could more easily be solved through an electrical analogy . Theoretical developments in the electrical domain that were particularly useful were the representation of an electrical network as an abstract topological diagram ( the circuit diagram ) using the lumped element model and the ability of network analysis to synthesise a network to meet a prescribed frequency function .
This approach is especially useful in the design of mechanical filters — these use mechanical devices to implement an electrical function . However , the technique can be used to solve purely mechanical problems , and can also be extended into other , unrelated , energy domains . Nowadays , analysis by analogy is a standard design tool wherever more than one energy domain is involved . It has the major advantage that the entire system can be represented in a unified , coherent way . Electrical analogies are particularly used by transducer designers , by their nature they cross energy domains , and in control systems , whose sensors and actuators will typically be domain @-@ crossing transducers . A given system being represented by an electrical analogy may conceivably have no electrical parts at all . For this reason domain @-@ neutral terminology is preferred when developing network diagrams for control systems .
Mechanical @-@ electrical analogies are developed by finding relationships between variables in one domain that have a mathematical form identical to variables in the other domain . There is no one , unique way of doing this ; numerous analogies are theoretically possible , but there are two analogies that are widely used : the impedance analogy and the mobility analogy . The impedance analogy makes force and voltage analogous while the mobility analogy makes force and current analogous . By itself , that is not enough to fully define the analogy , a second variable must be chosen . A common choice is to make pairs of power conjugate variables analogous . These are variables which when multiplied together have units of power . In the impedance analogy , for instance , this results in force and velocity being analogous to voltage and current respectively .
Variations of these analogies are used for rotating mechanical systems , such as in electric motors . In the impedance analogy , instead of force , torque is made analogous to voltage . It is perfectly possible that both versions of the analogy are needed in , say , a system that includes rotating and reciprocating parts , in which case a force @-@ torque analogy is required within the mechanical domain and a force @-@ torque @-@ voltage analogy to the electrical domain . Another variation is required for acoustical systems ; here pressure and voltage are made analogous ( impedance analogy ) . In the impedance analogy , the ratio of the power conjugate variables is always a quantity analogous to electrical impedance . For instance force / velocity is mechanical impedance . The mobility analogy does not preserve this analogy between impedances across domains , but it does have another advantage over the impedance analogy . In the mobility analogy the topology of networks is preserved , a mechanical network diagram has the same topology as its analogous electrical network diagram .
= = Applications = =
Mechanical @-@ electrical analogies are used to represent the function of a mechanical system as an equivalent electrical system by drawing analogies between mechanical and electrical parameters . A mechanical system by itself can be so represented , but analogies are of greatest use in electromechanical systems where there is a connection between mechanical and electrical parts . Analogies are especially useful in analysing mechanical filters . These are filters constructed of mechanical parts but designed to work in an electrical circuit through transducers . Circuit theory is well developed in the electrical domain in general and in particular there is a wealth of filter theory available . Mechanical systems can make use of this electrical theory in mechanical designs through a mechanical @-@ electrical analogy .
Mechanical @-@ electrical analogies are useful in general where the system includes transducers between different energy domains . Another area of application is the mechanical parts of acoustic systems such as the pickup and tonearm of record players . This was of some importance in early phonographs where the audio is transmitted from the pickup needle to the horn through various mechanical components entirely without electrical amplification . Early phonographs suffered badly from unwanted resonances in the mechanical parts . It was found that these could be eliminated by treating the mechanical parts as components of a low @-@ pass filter which has the effect of flattening out the passband .
Electrical analogies of mechanical systems can be used just as a teaching aid , to help understand the behaviour of the mechanical system . In former times , up to about the early 20th century , it was more likely that the reverse analogy would be used ; mechanical analogies were formed of the then little understood electrical phenomena .
= = Forming an analogy = =
Electrical systems are commonly described by means of a circuit diagram . These are network diagrams that describe the topology of the electrical system using a specialised graph notation . The circuit diagram does not try and represent the true physical dimensions of the electrical components or their actual spatial relationship to each other . This is possible because the electrical components are represented as ideal lumped elements , that is , the element is treated as if it is occupying a single point ( lumped at that point ) . Non @-@ ideal components can be accommodated in this model by using more than one element to represent the component . For instance , a coil intended for use as an inductor has resistance as well as inductance . This can be represented on the circuit diagram as a resistor in series with an inductor . Thus , the first step in forming an analogy of a mechanical system is to describe it as a mechanical network in a similar way , that is , as a topological graph of ideal elements . Alternative , more abstract , representations to the circuit diagram are possible , for instance the bond graph .
In an electrical network diagram , limited to linear systems , there are three passive elements : resistance , inductance , and capacitance ; and two active elements : the voltage generator , and the current generator . The mechanical analogs of these elements can be used to construct a mechanical network diagram . What the mechanical analogs of these elements are depends on what variables are chosen to be the fundamental variables . There is a wide choice of variables that can be used , but most commonly used are a power conjugate pair of variables ( described below ) and the pair of Hamiltonian variables derived from these .
There is a limit to the applicability of this lumped element model . The model works well if the components are small enough that the time taken for a wave to cross them is insignificant , or equivalently , if there is no significant phase difference in the wave either side of the component . What amounts to significant depends on how accurate the model is required to be , but a common rule of thumb is to require components to be smaller than one sixteenth of a wavelength . Since wavelength decreases with frequency , this puts an upper limit on the frequency that can be covered in this kind of design . This limit is much lower in the mechanical domain than the equivalent limit in the electrical domain . This is because the much higher propagation speeds in the electrical domain lead to longer wavelengths ( mechanical vibrations in steel propagate at about 6 @,@ 000 m / s , electromagnetic waves in common cable types propagate at about 2 x 108 m / s ) . For instance , traditional mechanical filters are only made up to around 600 kHz ( although MEMS devices can operate at much higher frequencies due to their very small size ) . In the electrical domain , on the other hand , the transition from the lumped element model to the distributed element model occurs in the hundreds of megahertz region .
In some cases it is possible to continue using a topological network diagram even when components needing a distributed element analysis are present . In the electrical domain , a transmission line , a basic distributed element component , can be included in the model with the introduction of the additional element of electrical length . The transmission line is a special case because it is invariant along its length and hence the full geometry need not be modelled . Another way of dealing with distributed elements is to use a finite element analysis whereaby the distributed element is approximated by a large number of small lumped elements . Just such an approach was used in one paper to model the cochlea of the human ear . Another condition required of electrical systems for the application of the lumped element model is that no significant fields exist outside the component since these can couple to other unrelated components . However , these effects can often be modelled by introducing some virtual lumped elements called strays or parasitics . An analog of this in mechanical systems is vibration in one component being coupled to an unrelated component .
= = = Power conjugate variables = = =
The power conjugate variables are a pair of variables whose product is power . In the electrical domain the power conjugate variables chosen are invariably voltage ( v ) and current ( i ) . Thus , the power conjugate variables in the mechanical domain are analogs . However , this is not enough to make the choice of mechanical fundamental variables unique . The usual choice for a translational mechanical system is force ( F ) and velocity ( u ) but it is not the only choice . A different pair may be more appropriate for a system with a different geometry , such as a rotational system .
Even after the mechanical fundamental variables have been chosen , there is still not a unique set of analogs . There are two ways that the two pairs of power conjugate variables can be associated with each other in the analogy . For instance the associations F with v and u with i can be made . However , the alternative associations u with v and F with i are also possible . This leads to two classes of analogies , the impedance analogies and the mobility analogies . These analogies are the dual of each other . The same mechanical network has analogs in two different electrical networks . These two electrical networks are the dual circuits of each other .
= = = Hamiltonian variables = = =
The Hamiltonian variables , also called the energy variables , are those variables which when time differentiated are equal to the power conjugate variables . The Hamiltonian variables are so called because they are the variables which usually appear in Hamiltonian mechanics . The Hamiltonian variables in the electrical domain are charge ( q ) and flux linkage ( λ ) because ,
<formula> ( Faraday 's law of induction ) and , <formula>
In the translational mechanical domain the Hamiltonian variables are distance displacement ( x ) and momentum ( p ) because ,
<formula> ( Newton 's second law of motion ) and , <formula>
There is a corresponding relationship for other analogies and sets of variables . The Hamiltonian variables are also called the energy variables . The integrand of a power conjugate variable with respect to a Hamiltonian variable is a measure of energy . For instance ,
<formula> and , <formula>
are both expressions of energy . They can also be called generalised momentum and generalised displacement after their analogs in the mechanical domain . Some authors discourage this terminology because it is not domain neutral . Likewise , the use of the terms I @-@ type and V @-@ type ( after current and voltage ) is also discouraged .
= = Classes of analogy = =
There are two principle classes of analogy in use . The impedance analogy ( also called the Maxwell analogy ) preserves the analogy between mechanical , acoustical and electrical impedance but does not preserve the topology of networks . The mechanical network is arranged differently to its analogous electrical network . The mobility analogy ( also called the Firestone analogy ) preserves network topologies at the expense of losing the analogy between impedances across energy domains . There is also the through and across analogy , also called the Trent analogy . The through and across analogy between the electrical and mechanical domain is the same as in the mobility analogy . However , the analogy between the electrical and acoustical domains is like the impedance analogy . Analogies between the mechanical and acoustical domain in the through and across analogy have a dual relationship with both the impedance analogy and mobility analogy .
Different fundamental variables are chosen for mechanical translation and rotational systems leading to two variants for each of the analogies . For instance , linear distance is the displacement variable in a translational system , but this is not so appropriate for rotating systems where angle is used instead . Acoustical analogies have also been included in the descriptions as a third variant . While acoustical energy is ultimately mechanical in nature , it is treated in the literature as an instance of a different energy domain , the fluid domain , and has different fundamental variables . Analogies between all three domains − electrical , mechanical and acoustical − are required to fully represent electromechanical audio systems .
= = = Impedance analogies = = =
Impedance analogies , also called the Maxwell analogy , classify the two variables making up the power conjugate pair as an effort variable and a flow variable . The effort variable in an energy domain is the variable analogous to force in the mechanical domain . The flow variable in an energy domain is the variable analogous to velocity in the mechanical domain . Power conjugate variables in the analog domain are chosen that bear some resemblance to force and velocity .
In the electrical domain , the effort variable is voltage and the flow variable is electrical current . The ratio of voltage to current is electrical resistance ( Ohm 's law ) . The ratio of the effort variable to the flow variable in other domains is also described as resistance . Oscillating voltages and currents give rise to the concept of electrical impedance when there is a phase difference between them . Impedance can be thought of as an extension to the concept of resistance . Resistance is associated with energy dissipation . Impedance encompasses energy storage as well as energy dissipation . The impedance analogy gives rise to the concept of impedance in other energy domains ( but measured in different units ) .
= = = = Translational mechanical impedance analogy = = = =
The translational impedance analogy describes mechanical systems moving in a single linear dimension and gives rise to the idea of mechanical impedance . The unit of mechanical impedance is the mechanical ohm ; in SI units this is N @-@ s / m , or Kg / s .
= = = = Rotational mechanical impedance analogy = = = =
The rotational impedance analogy describes rotating mechanical systems and gives rise to the idea of rotational impedance . The unit of rotational impedance in the SI system is N @-@ m @-@ s / rad .
= = = = Acoustical impedance analogy = = = =
The acoustical impedance analogy gives rise to the idea of acoustic impedance . The unit of acoustic impedance is the acoustic ohm ; in SI units this is N @-@ s / m5 .
= = = Mobility analogies = = =
Mobility analogies , also called the Firestone analogy , are the electrical duals of impedance analogies . That is , the effort variable in the mechanical domain is analogous to current ( the flow variable ) in the electrical domain , and the flow variable in the mechanical domain is analogous to voltage ( the effort variable ) in the electrical domain . The electrical network representing the mechanical system is the dual network of that in the impedance analogy .
The mobility analogy is characterised by admittance in the same way that the impedance analogy is characterised by impedance . Admittance is the algebraic inverse of impedance . In the mechanical domain , mechanical admittance is more usually called mobility .
= = = = Translation mechanical mobility analogy = = = =
= = = = Rotational mechanical mobility analogy = = = =
= = = = Acoustical mobility analogy = = = =
= = = Through and across analogies = = =
Through and across analogies , also called the Trent analogy , classify the two variables making up the power conjugate pair as an across variable and a through variable . The across variable is a variable that appears across the two terminals of an element . The across variable is measured relative to the element terminals . The through variable is a variable that passes through , or acts through an element , that is , it has the same value at both terminals of the element . The through variable is not a relative measure . Thus , in the electrical domain the across variable is voltage and the through variable is current . In the mechanical domain the analogous variables are velocity and force , as in the mobility analogy .
= = = = Translational mechanical through and across analogy = = = =
= = = = Rotational mechanical through and across analogy = = = =
= = = = Acoustical through and across analogy = = = =
Pressure is an across variable because pressure is measured relative to the two terminals of an element , not as an absolute pressure . It is thus not analogous to force which is a through variable , even though pressure is in units of force per area . Forces act through an element ; a rod with a force applied to the top will transmit the same force to an element connected to its bottom . Thus , in the through and across analogy the mechanical domain is analogous to the electrical domain like the mobility analogy , but the acoustical domain is analogous to the electrical domain like the impedance analogy .
= = = Other energy domains = = =
The electrical analogy can be extended to many other energy domains . In the field of sensors and actuators , and for control systems using them , it is a common method of analysis to develop an electrical analogy of the entire system . Since sensors can be sensing a variable in any energy domain , and likewise outputs from the system can be in any energy domain , analogies for all energy domains are required . The following table gives a summary of the most common power conjugate variables used to form analogies .
It is perhaps more common in the thermal domain to choose temperature and thermal power as the fundamental variables because , unlike entropy , they can be measured directly . The concept of thermal resistance is based on this analogy . However , these are not power conjugate variables and are not fully compatible with the other variables in the table . An integrated electrical analogy across multiple domains that includes this [ Which one ? The conjugate pair in the table or the non @-@ conjugate pair described in this paragraph ? ] thermal analogy will not correctly model energy flows .
Similarly , the commonly seen analogy using mmf and magnetic flux as the fundamental variables , which gives rise to the concept of magnetic reluctance , does not correctly model energy flow . The variable pair mmf and magnetic flux is not a power conjugate pair . The analogy shown in the table , which does use a power conjugate pair is sometimes called the gyrator @-@ capacitor model .
= = Transducers = =
A transducer is a device that takes energy from one domain as input and converts it to another energy domain as output . They are often reversible , but are rarely used in that way . Transducers have many uses and there are many kinds , in electromechanical systems they can be used as actuators and sensors . In audio electronics they provide the conversion between the electrical and acoustical domains . The transducer provides the link between the mechanical and electrical domains and thus a network representation is required for it in order to develop a unified electrical analogy . To do this the concept of port from the electrical domain is extended into other domains .
Transducers have ( at least ) two ports , one port in the mechanical domain and one in the electrical domain , and are analogous to electrical two @-@ port networks . This is to be compared to the elements discussed so far which are all one @-@ ports . Two @-@ port networks can be represented as a 2 × 2 matrix , or equivalently , as a netork of two dependent generators and two impedances or admittances . There are six canonical forms of these representations : impedance parameters , chain parameters , hybrid parameters and their inverses . Any of them can be used . However , the representation of a passive transducer converting between analogous variables ( for instance an effort variable to another effort variable in the impedance analogy ) can be simplified by replacing the dependent generators with a transformer .
On the other hand , a transducer converting non @-@ analogous power conjugate variables cannot be represented by a transformer . The two @-@ port element in the electrical domain that does this is called a gyrator . This device converts voltages to currents and currents to voltages . By analogy , a transducer that converts non @-@ analogous variables between energy domains is also called a gyrator . For instance , electromagnetic transducers convert current to force and velocity to voltage . In the impedance analogy such a transducer is a gyrator . Whether a transducer is a gyrator or a transformer is analogy related ; the same electromagnetic transducer in the mobility analogy is a transformer because it is converting between analogous variables .
= = History = =
James Clerk Maxwell developed very detailed mechanical analogies of electrical phenomena . He was the first to associate force with voltage ( 1873 ) and consequently is usually credited with founding the impedance analogy . This was the earliest mechanical @-@ electrical analogy . However , the term impedance was not coined until 1886 , long after Maxwell 's death , by Oliver Heaviside . The idea of complex impedance was introduced by Arthur E. Kennelly in 1893 , and the concept of impedance was not extended into the mechanical domain until 1920 by Kennelly and Arthur Gordon Webster .
Maxwell 's purpose in constructing this analogy was not to represent mechanical systems in terms of electrical networks . Rather , it was to explain electrical phenomena in more familiar mechanical terms . As electrical phenomena became better understood the reverse of this analogy , using electrical analogies to explain mechanical systems , started to become more common . Indeed , the lumped element abstract topology of electrical analysis has much to offer problems in the mechanical domain , and other energy domains for that matter . By 1900 the electrical analogy of the mechanical domain was becoming commonplace . From about 1920 the electrical analogy became a standard analysis tool . Vannevar Bush was a pioneer of this kind of modelling in his development of analogue computers , and a coherent presentation of this method was presented in a 1925 paper by Clifford A. Nickle .
In 1933 Floyd A. Firestone proposed a new analogy , the mobility analogy , in which force is analogous to current instead of voltage . Firestone introduced the concept of across and through variables in this paper and presented a structure for extending the analogy into other energy domains . A variation of the force @-@ current analogy was proposed by Horace M. Trent in 1955 and it is this version that is generally meant by the through and across analogy . Trent used a linear graph method of representing networks which has resulted in the force @-@ current analogy historically being associated with linear graphs . The force @-@ voltage analogy is historically used with bond graph representations , introduced in 1960 by Henry M. Paynter , however , it is possible to use either analogy with either representation if desired .
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= Charlottesville and Albemarle Railway =
The Charlottesville and Albemarle Railway ( C & A ) was a short electric street railroad operating within the city of Charlottesville , Virginia , United States , during the early 20th century . The line was preceded by several streetcar lines operating both horse @-@ drawn and electric powered cars dating back to 1887 . After facing financial difficulties , the predecessor lines were reorganized into the C & A in 1903 . The C & A 's electric streetcars operated off of an overhead line system that was powered by the railroad 's own power plant . The C & A also offered electric power generated by its plant to the city of Charlottesville . During the mid @-@ 1910s , the line received numerous upgrades , including the construction of a new power plant on the Rivanna River , a new company headquarters building , expansion of track , and the purchase of new streetcars .
Increased expenses and decreasing ridership , coupled with the Great Depression , caused the railway to cease streetcar operations in 1935 . The railway was reorganized as the Charlottesville and Albemarle Bus Company in 1936 with a transition to bus service . Today , Charlottesville Area Transit provides bus service to the city of Charlottesville ; however , the city has recently investigated the feasibility of a streetcar line following much of the same route as the Charlottesville and Albemarle Railway .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
Charlottesville gained its first railroad in 1850 , when the Virginia Central Railroad – formerly the Louisa Railroad – arrived as it progressed westward towards the Blue Ridge Mountains . The Orange and Alexandria Railroad , chartered in 1848 , entered into a contract in the early 1850s with the Virginia Central to use the Virginia Central 's track from Gordonsville to Charlottesville for its extension southward towards Lynchburg . This line began operations to Charlottesville in April 1854 . Thus , two major railroads – the Virginia Central in an east @-@ west direction and the Orange and Alexandria in a north @-@ south direction – converged at Charlottesville , ensuring the town 's prosperity . In 1868 , the Virginia Central was reorganized with the Covington and Ohio Railroad to form the Chesapeake and Ohio Railroad , which was renamed as the Chesapeake and Ohio Railway ( C & O ) in 1878 . After a series of mergers , the Orange and Alexandria Railroad was incorporated into the newly formed Southern Railway in 1894 . Charlottesville became a significant junction of the two railroads , with two railroad stations in operation . One was on the C & O line and the second , the Union Station , was just west of the C & O station at the junction between the C & O and Southern railroads .
The first local transit system within Charlottesville was established in 1883 as an omnibus line operating on a regular schedule . This service , which consisted of a large mule- or horse @-@ drawn cart , operated between downtown Charlottesville and the University of Virginia . Fare for the one @-@ way trip cost 10 ¢ ( $ 2 @.@ 54 today ) . This service would soon be replaced by the development of Charlottesville 's streetcar system .
= = = Development of the streetcar system = = =
The C & A 's earliest predecessor line was chartered by the Virginia General Assembly on March 30 , 1887 as the Charlottesville and University Street Railway Company . This line constructed the first horse @-@ drawn streetcar line within Charlottesville and began operation on June 14 , 1887 . The Piedmont Construction and Improvement Company ( renamed as Piedmont Traction Company in January 1896 ) was incorporated by the General Assembly on March 4 , 1890 and began work on an electrified streetcar line . Meanwhile , the Charlottesville and University Street Railway Company – renamed as the Charlottesville City and Suburban Railway in 1895 – continued operation . For a time these two companies operated both horse @-@ drawn and electric streetcars on parallel tracks simultaneously , beginning with the first operation of the electric streetcars on January 12 , 1895 .
This continued until all of the Piedmont Traction Company 's holdings were transferred to the Charlottesville City and Suburban Railway on July 31 , 1896 , at which time the operation of horse @-@ drawn streetcars ceased . Several other companies , including the Charlottesville and University Electric Light and Gas Company , the Consolidated Ice and Electric Company , and the Jefferson Park Company , were acquired by the Charlottesville City and Suburban Railway around 1900 . Having defaulted on six months of payments towards bonds and mortgages , the Charlottesville City and Suburban Railway was sold at public auction on November 10 , 1903 , after which it was reorganized as the Charlottesville and Albemarle Railway .
= = = Expansion , development , and decline = = =
After the reorganization of the company as the Charlottesville and Albemarle Railway in 1903 , the new railway faced hardship in establishing a profitable business . Charlottesville , as of the 1900 Census , had only a population of 6 @,@ 449 people and few industries , making the development of an electric power provider and streetcar service difficult . Furthermore , the company 's electric power service , at that time using direct current , competed with the municipal gas provider . The C & A 's streetcar service was not expansive either , running for only 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) down Main Street from the C & O station west to the University of Virginia with multiple branches . Thus , the C & A 's profitability suffered and the railway went further into debt until it was purchased in 1912 by F.C. Todd , Norman James , and John L. Livers . Under the new ownership , the company was revitalized with many improvements including the construction of a new power plant producing alternating current electricity , the purchase of one @-@ man streetcars ( operated by one man ) , and a refocus of the company 's power service .
The C & A 's 3 @-@ mile ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) track was expanded by 1 ⁄ 2 mile ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) during this time to reach the University of Virginia 's new stadium . The new one @-@ man streetcars required an alteration of the track at each end of the C & A 's line to accommodate the turning of the cars . After failing to receive permission from the C & O Railway to construct a loop at the C & O station , the C & A constructed a small turntable ; however , this was later replaced by a loop . The C & A also increased the number of Main Street sidings from three to five , thus reducing travel time to five minutes .
By 1922 , the C & A had grown to serve 28 @,@ 000 customers and employed 55 people . This prosperity , however , would soon reverse with the coming of the Great Depression at the end of the decade . Like many other transit companies , the C & A suffered financially during the depression . With a decrease in ridership and increased operational costs , the C & A ended streetcar operations in 1935 . On February 2 , 1936 , the company was renamed as the Charlottesville and Albemarle Bus Company and began providing bus service . Today , Charlottesville Area Transit provides bus transit in the Charlottesville area .
= = Operation and infrastructure = =
= = = Route Description = = =
As of 1920 , the C & A 's line was approximately 3 @.@ 5 miles ( 5 @.@ 6 km ) long . The line began at its easternmost point at the C & O Station and continued west down West Main Street . At the intersection of West Main Street and Ridge Street , a short branch line down Ridge Street was in service to reach the company 's car barn . The main street line continued past Ridge Street , the Charlottesville Union Station , and passed over the Southern Railway tracks before coming to the junction of West Main Street and Jefferson Park Avenue approximately 0 @.@ 3 miles ( 0 @.@ 48 km ) west of the Southern tracks . At this point the line split , with one line following Jefferson Park Avenue south for approximately 1 @.@ 6 miles ( 2 @.@ 6 km ) to Jefferson Park and Fry 's Spring . The other line , approximately 1 ⁄ 2 mile ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) long , continued west on West Main Street to the University of Virginia , passing the Rotunda , before turning north on Rugby Road where the line ended just before reaching the C & O mainline .
The C & A 's five passing sidings were located at the following locations : approximately halfway between the C & O station and Ridge Street on West Main Street , at the intersection of West Main Street and Ridge Street , near the union station , before the intersection of West Main Street and Jefferson Park Avenue , and approximately halfway down the Jefferson Park Avenue branch .
= = = Company headquarters = = =
In 1914 , the C & A began construction on a new company headquarters building at 300 West Main Street , which was completed in 1916 . Built in the Jeffersonian style of architecture , the new building featured red brick , white trim , and green shutters with bronze letters spelling the company name on the front . The building served as the company 's headquarters , a sales room , and an electrical substation . The substation was attached to the rear of the office building and featured two 200 @-@ kilowatt converters and three 65 @-@ kilowatt transformers for the purpose of reducing the 2200 @-@ volt AC power generated at the power plant to 600 @-@ volt DC power for use in the street railway system . The substation also contained devices to prepare the power for use in street lighting . The Southern Railway took advantage of the substation and installed transformers , raising the voltage to 4400 volts , for use along the Southern 's line between Calverton and Lynchburg . The building has since become an office building .
Located behind the company headquarters building was the railway 's car barn , the location where the streetcars were stored and maintained . Though constructed of only leftover rail and corrugated iron , the car barn suited the railway 's purpose , and most repair work was done in shop . The car barn has since become the entrance to a Greyhound Lines bus station .
= = = Power plant = = =
The C & A 's original power plant was located within the city of Charlottesville and produced direct current power for distribution to city residents . By the 1912 ownership change , this power plant had become worn and expensive to maintain , costing as much as 8 ¢ per kilowatt hour ( kWh ) to generate electricity ( equivalent today to $ 1 @.@ 89 ) . The plant also suffered from a flywheel explosion that caused $ 15 @,@ 000 dollars worth of damage on February 14 , 1913 . Because of the high expense , along with the difficulties of distributing DC power over an expanding system , the building of a new power plant to produce AC power was deemed necessary .
A location was selected east of Charlottesville where the C & O mainline followed the Rivanna River , providing both an easy water supply and rail access . The Red Land Power Corporation , chartered March 29 , 1913 , was charged to construct a 2 @,@ 000 @-@ horsepower plant for the C & A and was merged into the C & A on November 25 , 1913 . The old power plant was used temporarily , with new equipment , to produce AC power for the city as the new plant was being completed . Coal was provided to the new plant by way of rail , where a spur off of the C & O railway was provided to allow coal from hopper cars to be unloaded into a storage bin beneath . Two 400 hp boilers were installed along with multiple turbines and generators in order to generate the electricity . The completed plant produced 175 @,@ 000 kWh per month as of 1914 and consumed four hopper cars worth of coal per month ; this is contrasted with the old power plant 's generation of 125 @,@ 000 kWh per month consuming 14 – 15 cars worth , demonstrating the new plant 's efficiency .
= = = Jefferson Park = = =
Jefferson Park , which was located near the university in western Charlottesville , was owned by the C & A. The 13 @-@ acre park was improved in the mid @-@ 1910s with a renovated dance hall using materials harvested from a hotel that was torn down nearby . The park also featured motion picture shows , boxball , roller @-@ skating , and swings . The C & A used the park 's attractions to garner further passengers on its streetcar line .
= = Streetcars = =
The C & A possessed multiple types of streetcars throughout its history . Both open and closed cars were used by the C & A , with these cars seating an average of 24 passengers and weighing between 24 @,@ 000 and 30 @,@ 000 pounds ( 11 @,@ 000 and 14 @,@ 000 kg ) . The closed cars were refurbished as part of the series of upgrades across the line to include new interior paint , tungsten lamps , and orange and blue exterior paint , a move to make the cars " more attractive to the students " of the University of Virginia , as these were the school 's colors .
Although the old cars received cosmetic upgrades , the energy inefficiency of the cars , due in part to their heavy weight , caused the railway to seek a new and improved car . Orders were placed with the J.G. Brill Company for five new near @-@ side one @-@ man streetcars sometime around 1913 . By June 1914 , two additional cars were ordered and placed in service making for a total of seven new streetcars servicing Charlottesville . These new cars offered multiple advantages to the company , as they were lighter , weighing around 18 @,@ 000 pounds ( 8 @,@ 200 kg ) , seated 36 people , and could be operated by one man . The near @-@ side cars were in length 31 feet 2 1 ⁄ 4 inches ( 9 @.@ 5 m ) and rode on a single truck . The benefits of the new cars allowed the company to scrap most of the older cars soon after the arrival of the new replacements .
= = Future plans = =
Though the Charlottesville and Albemarle Railway 's streetcars are long gone from Charlottesville , public transit is still of interest to the city . Since the rise of the personal automobile , Charlottesville has struggled to provide an effective public transportation system . Although bus service has been implemented under Charlottesville Area Transit , the city is challenged by expanding development and the lack of consumer willingness to use public transportation . In the early 2000s , the city began planning and analyzing various methods of public transportation for implementation within Charlottesville , one of which includes the development of a streetcar system . A 2005 study entitled Shaping Community with Transit laid out plans for the development of a streetcar system that would operate along West Main Street from the University of Virginia to downtown Charlottesville , following much of the same path as the Charlottesville and Albemarle Railway . A Streetcar Task Force was created in December 2006 by the City Council to examine the feasibility of a streetcar system , though no concrete plans have been developed or implemented as of 2012 .
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= Ottawa Senators ( original ) =
The Ottawa Senators were an amateur , and later , professional , ice hockey team based in Ottawa , Canada which existed from 1883 to 1954 . The club was the first hockey club in Ontario , a founding member of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) and played in the NHL from 1917 until 1934 . The club , which was officially the Ottawa Hockey Club ( Ottawa HC ) , was known by several nicknames , including the Generals in the 1890s , the Silver Seven from 1903 to 1907 and the Senators dating from 1908 .
Generally acknowledged by hockey historians as one of the greatest teams of the early days of the sport , the club won numerous championships , starting with the 1891 to 1893 Ontario championships . Ottawa HC played in the first season during which the Stanley Cup was challenged in 1893 , and first won the Cup in 1903 , holding the championship until 1906 ( the Silver Seven years ) . The club repeated its success in the 1920s , winning the Stanley Cup in 1920 , 1921 , 1923 and 1927 ( the Super Six years ) . In total , the club won the Stanley Cup eleven times , including challenges during two years it did not win the Cup for the season . In 1950 , Canadian sports editors selected the Ottawa HC / Senators as Canada 's greatest team in the first half of the 20th century .
The club was one of the first organized clubs in the early days of the sport of ice hockey , playing in the Montreal Winter Carnival ice hockey tournaments in the early 1880s and founding the Amateur Hockey Association of Canada and the Ontario Hockey Association . Along with the rise of professionalism in ice hockey in the first decade of the 1900s , the club changed to a professional team and were founding members of the National Hockey Association ( NHA ) and its successor , the National Hockey League . The club competed in the NHL until the 1933 – 34 season , when it relocated the NHL franchise to St. Louis , Missouri , due to financial difficulties to become the St. Louis Eagles . The organization continued the Senators as an amateur , and later semi @-@ professional , team in Quebec senior men 's leagues until 1954 .
= = Team history = =
= = = Early amateur era ( 1883 – 1902 ) = = =
The Ottawa Hockey Club ( Ottawa HC ) was founded by a small group of like @-@ minded hockey enthusiasts . A month after witnessing games of hockey at the 1883 Montreal Winter Carnival , Halder Kirby , Jack Kerr and Frank Jenkins met and founded the club . Being the first organized ice hockey club in Ottawa , and also the first in Ontario , the club had no other clubs to play that season . The only activities that winter were practices at the " Royal Rink " starting on March 5 , 1883 .
The club first participated competitively at the 1884 Montreal Winter Carnival ice hockey tournament ( considered the Canadian championship at the time ) wearing red and black uniforms . Future Ottawa mayor Nelson Porter is recorded as the scorer of the club 's first @-@ ever goal , at the 1884 Carnival . Frank Jenkins was the first captain of the team ; he later became the president of the Hockey Club in 1891 and of the Amateur Hockey Association of Canada ( AHA or AHAC ) in 1892 .
For the 1885 season , the club adopted gold and blue as its colours and returned to the Montreal tournament . Ottawa earned its first @-@ ever victory at the tournament over the Montreal Victorias , but lost its final match to the Montreal Hockey Club ( Montreal HC ) to place second in the tournament . The 1886 Montreal tournament was cancelled due to an outbreak of smallpox and the club would not play an outside match again until 1887 .
= = = = Formation of the AHAC = = = =
On December 8 , 1886 , the first championship league , the Amateur Hockey Association of Canada was founded in Montreal . It was composed of several clubs from Montreal plus a Quebec City club and the Ottawa club . Ottawa 's Thomas D. Green was named the first president of the league . The league did not have a set schedule , and instead games were played in " challenge series " , whereby a team held the championship and entertained challengers until the end of the season , a format the league employed until 1893 . Under the format , Ottawa lost the one challenge it played in that first 1887 season to the Montreal Victorias .
After that season , Ottawa HC became inactive . The Royal Rink , which had been their primary facility , had been converted to a roller skating rink , and ice rink facilities were at a shortage . This changed with the opening of the Rideau Skating Rink in February 1889 . One of the principal organizers in the restarting of the team was Ottawa Journal publisher P. D. Ross , who also played on the team . Returning as captain was Frank Jenkins , and the other players were Halder Kirby , Jack Kerr , Nelson Porter , Ross , George Young , Weldy Young , Thomas D. Green , William O 'Dell , Tom Gallagher , Albert Low and Henry Ami . In 1889 , the club played only one match against an outside club , an exhibition at the Rideau rink against the Montreal HC ' second ' team .
In November 1889 , the Ottawa Amateur Athletic Club ( OAAC ) was opened at the corner of today 's Elgin and Laurier Streets on the site of today 's Lord Elgin Hotel . The Club building would also be the Hockey Club 's headquarters . The OAAC was affiliated with the Ottawa Amateur Athletic Association ( OAAA ) , and the Hockey Club through the affiliation also became OAAA members . When the club began outside competition again in 1889 – 90 , it was with new sweaters of white with black stripes and the OAAA red " triskelion " logo . It was during this period of affiliation with the OAAC , that the club would become known by the nickname " Generals " , attributed to the club 's insignia . The club is also referred to as the " Capitals " in literature , although there was a rival Ottawa Capitals club organized by the Capital Amateur Athletics Association active at the time .
In the 1889 – 90 season , Ottawa HC played two competitive games but this was to increase greatly the next season . The 1890 – 91 season saw the club play 14 games , playing in three leagues . Ottawa HC was a founding member of two new leagues , the Ottawa City Hockey League ( OCHL ) and the Ontario Hockey Association ( OHA ) and also rejoined the AHAC . Ottawa HC won the Ottawa and Ontario championships , and two games against AHAC opponents , but lost to the AHAC champion Montreal HC in its one challenge for the championship .
= = = = OHA championships = = = =
The team was the OHA champion for that league 's first three years . The first championship was played on March 7 , 1891 , at the Rideau rink and was won 5 – 0 by Ottawa over Toronto St. George 's . The 1891 championship was the only OHA final played in Ottawa , as Ottawa played the 1892 final in Toronto , defeating Osgoode Hall 4 – 2 , and in 1893 the Toronto Granites defaulted by not appearing for the championship match scheduled for Ottawa . The club resigned from the OHA in February 1894 after the OHA refused the club 's demand to have the 1894 final in Ottawa and ordered Ottawa HC to play the final in Toronto . The dispute caused a permanent schism between Ottawa area teams competing in the Ottawa City Hockey League ( OCHL ) and the Ontario Hockey Association . As of 2010 , Ottawa and area teams remain unaffiliated with the OHA ; the official association under Hockey Canada is the Ottawa District Hockey Association , a descendant of the OCHL .
It was at a dinner to honour the 1892 OHA champions at the Russell Hotel that the Governor General , Lord Stanley , announced his new Dominion Challenge Trophy , now known as the Stanley Cup , for the Canadian champions . Former player and president of the club , P. D. Ross , was selected by Stanley to be a trustee of the Cup .
= = = = Re @-@ entry into the AHAC = = = =
Ottawa HC did not win a game in its return to AHAC challenge play in 1890 – 91 , but in the next season of AHAC play in 1891 – 92 the club won the league championship , and held it for most of the season , from January 10 until March 7 , 1892 . The club took the championship from Montreal HC , who were previously undefeated , and won five straight games before Montreal won the championship back by a 1 – 0 score in the last challenge of the season . Montreal 's win in the final challenge was their only win of the season and their only one in four games against Ottawa .
Lord Stanley , who often attended Ottawa HC games , felt the loss of the title after holding it all season was an unsuitable way to determine the championship . In the letter announcing the Stanley Cup , Stanley suggested that the AHAC start a ' round @-@ robin ' type regular season format , which the AHAC implemented in the following season of 1892 – 93 . The key match @-@ up in that season for Ottawa was a loss in the opening game of the season against the Montreal Victorias on January 7 , 1893 , as Ottawa split its season series with eventual winner Montreal HC , both teams otherwise winning all of their games . This loss provided the one game margin in the standings that led to Lord Stanley awarding the initial Cup to Montreal HC .
In 1893 – 1894 , Ottawa HC finished in a four @-@ way tie for first in the AHAC standings . A playoff was arranged in Montreal for the championship between Ottawa , Montreal HC and Montreal Victorias ( the other first place club , Quebec , having dropped out of the playoff ) . These games would be the first Stanley Cup playoff games ever played . As the ' away ' team , Ottawa was given a bye to the final game . On March 23 , 1894 , at the Victoria Rink , Ottawa and Montreal HC played for the championship . Ottawa scored the first goal , but Montreal would score the next three to win the game 3 – 1 . Ottawa captain Weldy Young fainted from exhaustion at the end of the game .
For the period of 1894 to 1900 , the club did not win the league championship , finishing as high as second several times , and fifth ( last ) once . For the 1896 – 97 season , the Ottawa club unveiled the first use of the ' barber @-@ pole ' style jerseys of horizontal bars of black , red and white . This basic style would be used by the club until 1954 except for the 1900 and 1901 seasons , when the team used a plain jersey with only the letter ' O ' on the front , identical in design to the jerseys of the Ottawa Football Club , also an OAAA affiliate .
In 1898 , the AHAC dissolved over the admission of the intermediate @-@ level team Ottawa Capitals of the rival Capital Amateur Association to the AHAC by a vote of the league executive . The Capitals had won the intermediate championship of the AHAC and were eligible to join the senior ranks . After they were outvoted by the intermediate @-@ level teams of AHAC which wanted to promote the Capitals to the senior @-@ level , the senior @-@ level Ottawa , Montreal HC , Montreal Victorias and Quebec clubs left the AHAC and formed the Canadian Amateur Hockey League ( CAHL ) , shutting out the Capitals .
In 1901 , the club won the CAHL league regular season title , its first league championship since winning the OHA in 1893 . It wished to challenge the Stanley Cup champion Winnipeg Victorias at first , but chose not to after deliberating for a week after the season . According to hockey historian Charles L. Coleman , it was due to the " lateness of the season " .
Notable players of this period included Albert Morel and Fred Chittick in goal , leaders of the league several times in goaltending , and future Hall of Famers Harvey Pulford , Alf Smith , Harry Westwick and brothers Bruce Stuart and Hod Stuart . It was during this period that the nickname Senators was first used ; however , from 1903 to 1906 , the team is better known as the Silver Seven .
= = = Silver Seven era ( 1903 – 1906 ) = = =
The first " dynasty " of the Ottawa HC was from 1903 until 1906 , when the team was known as the " Silver Seven " . The era started with the arrival of Frank McGee for the 1903 season and ended with his retirement after the 1906 season . Having lost an eye in local amateur hockey , he was persuaded , despite the threat of permanent blindness , to join the Senators . The youngest player on the team and standing 5 feet 6 inches ( 1 @.@ 68 m ) tall , he went on to score 135 goals in 45 games . In a 1905 challenge against the Dawson City , he scored 14 goals in a 23 – 2 win . He retired in 1906 at the age of 23 .
In the 1903 CAHL season , Ottawa and the Montreal Victorias both finished in first place with 6 – 2 records . The top scorers were the Victorias ' Russell Bowie , who scored seven goals in one game and six in another , and McGee , whose top performance saw him score five goals in a game . The two clubs faced off in a two @-@ game total goals series to decide the league championship and Stanley Cup . The first game , played in Montreal on slushy ice that made it a desperate struggle to score , ended 1 – 1 . The return match in Ottawa , witnessed by three thousand fans , was on ice coated with an inch of water . The conditions did not hinder Ottawa , as they won 8 – 0 , with McGee scoring three goals and the other five shared among the three Gilmour brothers , Dave ( 3 ) , Suddy ( 1 ) and Bill ( 1 ) , to win their first Cup . This started a period in which the team held the Stanley Cup and defeated all challengers until March 1906 .
For that Stanley Cup win , each of the team 's players was given a silver nugget by team executive Bob Shillington , an Ottawa druggist and mining investor . He gave them nuggets instead of money since the players were still technically amateurs and to give them money would have meant disqualification from the league . In a 1957 interview , Harry Westwick recalled that at the presentation " One of the players said ' We ought to call ourselves the Silver Seven . ' and the name caught on right there . " ( At the time , hockey teams iced seven men — a goaltender , three forwards , two defencemen and a rover ) .
The Silver Seven moved between three leagues during this time , and for a time were independent of any league . In February 1904 , during the CAHL season , Ottawa resigned from the league in a dispute over the replaying of a game . The team had arrived late for a game in Montreal and the game had been called at midnight , with a tied score . The league demanded that the game be replayed . The club agreed to play only if the game mattered in the standings . The impasse led to Ottawa leaving the league . For the rest of that winter , the club played only in Cup challenge series . Quebec went on to win the championship of the league and demanded the Stanley Cup , but the Cup 's trustees ruled that Ottawa still retained it . The trustees offered to arrange a challenge between Ottawa and the CAHL champion , but the CAHL refused to consider it . The next season , Ottawa joined the Federal Amateur Hockey League ( FAHL ) , winning the league championship . The club was only in the FAHL for one season , and the Montreal Wanderers became their new rival . For the 1906 season Ottawa , along with the Wanderers and several of the CAHL teams , formed the Eastern Canada Amateur Hockey Association ( ECAHA ) , unifying the top teams into one league .
= = = = Style of play = = = =
The Silver Seven were well known for the number of injuries that they inflicted on other teams . In a Stanley Cup challenge game in 1904 , the Ottawas injured seven of the nine Winnipeg players , and the Winnipeg Free Press called it the " bloodiest game in Ottawa . " The next team to challenge the Ottawas , the Toronto Marlboroughs , were similar treated . According to the Toronto Globe :
The style of hockey seems to be the only one known and people consider it quite proper and legitimate for a team to endeavor to incapacitate their opponents rather than to excel them in skill and speed ... slashing , tripping , the severest kind of cross @-@ checking and a systematic method of hammering Marlboroughs on hand and wrists are the most effective points in Ottawa 's style .
According to one player , the " Marlboroughs got off very easily . When Winnipeg Rowing Club played here , most of their players were carried off on stretchers . " This style of hockey would continue for years to come .
= = = = Dawson City challenge = = = =
The Silver Seven participated in perhaps the most famous Stanley Cup challenge of all , that of Dawson City of Yukon Territory in 1905 . Organized by Joe Boyle , a Toronto @-@ born prospector , who had struck it rich in the Yukon gold rush of 1898 , Dawson City had Lorne Hanna , who had played for Brandon against Ottawa in a 1904 challenge and two former elite hockey players : Weldy Young , who had played for Ottawa in the 1890s , and D. R. McLennan , who had played for Queen 's College against the Montreal Victorias in an 1895 challenge . The remaining players were selected from other Dawson City clubs . Dawson City 's challenge was accepted in the summer of 1904 by the Stanley Cup trustees and scheduled to start on Friday , January 13 , 1905 . The date of the challenge meant that Young had to travel separately to Ottawa , as he had to work in a federal election that December and would meet the club in Ottawa .
To get to Ottawa , several thousand miles away , the club had to get to Whitehorse by overland sleigh , catch a train from there to Skagway , Alaska , then catch a steamer to Vancouver , B.C. and a train from there to Ottawa . On December 18 , 1904 , several players set out by dog sled and the rest left the next day by bicycle for a 330 @-@ mile trek to Whitehorse . At first the team made good progress , but the weather turned warm enough to thaw the roads , forcing the players to walk several hundred miles . The team spent the nights in police sheds along the road . At Whitehorse , the weather turned bad , causing the trains not to run for three days and the Nuggets to miss their steamer in Skagway . The next one could not dock for three days due to the ice buildup . The club found the sea journey treacherous , and it caused seasickness amongst the team . When the steamer reached Vancouver , the area was too fogged in to dock , and the steamer docked in Seattle . The team from there caught a train to Vancouver , from which it left on January 6 , 1905 , arriving in Ottawa on January 11 .
Despite the difficult journey , the Ottawas refused to change the date of the first game , only two days away . Ottawa arranged hospitable accommodations for the Dawson City team . The Yukoners received a huge welcome at the train station , had a welcoming dinner , and used the Ottawa Amateur Athletic Club 's rooms for the duration of their stay . Young did not arrive in time to play for Dawson .
The first game was close at the halfway point , Ottawa leading Dawson three to one . In the second half , the play became violent . Norman Watt of Dawson tripped Ottawa 's Art Moore , who retaliated with a stick to the mouth of Watt . Watt promptly knocked Moore out , hitting him on the head with his stick . The game ended 9 – 2 for Ottawa . The game left a poor taste in the mouth for the Yukoners , who complained that several goals were offside .
After the game , Watt was quoted as saying " [ Frank ] McGee doesn 't look like too much , " as he had only scored once in the first game . McGee scored four goals in the first half of the second match and 10 in the second half , leading Ottawa to a 23 – 2 score ; his 14 goals remains a record for a single game of major senior hockey . Eight of those 14 goals were scored consecutively in a span of less than nine minutes . Despite this high score , the newspapers claimed that Albert Forrest , the Dawson City goalie , had played a " really fine game " , otherwise the score " might have been doubled " . Ottawa celebrated by hosting Dawson at a banquet . After this , the players took the Cup and attempted to drop @-@ kick it over the Rideau Canal . The stunt was unsuccessful , as the Cup landed on the frozen ice and had to be retrieved the next day .
Considering the lopsided score of the series , historians such as Paul Kitchen question why Dawson City was even granted a chance at the Cup . Dawson City had won no championships and did not belong to any recognized senior league . While team official Weldy Young knew Stanley Cup trustee P. D. Ross personally through their joint connection with the club , it may have been the political connections that Joe Boyle had with the government Interior Minister of the time , Clifford Sifton , that got Dawson City the series .
= = = = Stanley Cup Challenge win streak = = = =
The Ottawas were the dominant team for three years :
The end of the streak came in March 1906 . Ottawa and the Montreal Wanderers tied for the ECAHA league lead in 1906 , forcing a playoff series for the league championship and the Cup . Montreal won the first game in Montreal by a score of 9 – 1 . In the return match , Ottawa replaced their goaltender Billy Hague and used goaltender Percy LeSueur , formerly of Smiths Falls . In the return match in Ottawa , Ottawa overcame the eight @-@ goal deficit , getting a 9 – 1 lead to tie the series by the midway point of the second half . Harry Smith then scored to put Ottawa ahead , only to have the goal ruled offside . It was then that Lester Patrick of the Wanderers took it upon himself , scoring two goals to win the series 12 – 10 . This was Frank McGee 's last game and he scored two goals .
The players
Besides McGee , future Hall of Fame players Billy Gilmour , Percy LeSueur , Harvey Pulford , Alf Smith , Bouse Hutton and Harry Westwick played for the Ottawas . Alf Smith was also the coach . Other players of the ' Seven ' included Arthur Allen , Dave Finnie , Arthur Fraser , Horace Gaul , Dave Gilmour , Suddy Gilmour , Jim McGee , Art Moore , Percy Sims , Hamby Shore , Charles Spittal , Frank White and Frank Wood .
The club was able to continue the streak despite the death of one of its members . Jim McGee , Frank McGee 's brother , died after the 1904 season in a horseback riding accident . He was also the Ottawa Football Club 's captain at the time . The funeral cortege was estimated at a half @-@ mile in length , and it included Canadian prime minister Wilfrid Laurier .
= = = Early professional era ( 1907 – 1917 ) = = =
= = = = Transition to professional ( 1907 – 1910 ) = = = =
Until the 1906 – 07 season , the players were not paid to play hockey , as the team was abiding by the principles of amateur sports . Ottawa HC had an advantage in attracting top players to its squad . The players could work for the government , and the work allowed the players to play for the team . Meanwhile , in the United States , the International Hockey League was paying players . In response to this , the ECAHA , while still having several purely amateur teams , started to allow professional players . The top teams could therefore compete for the top players and the gate attractions that they were . The only restriction was that the status of each and every player had to be publicized .
The period saw the rivalry between the Senators and the Wanderers continue , and at times it was brutally contested . On January 12 , 1907 , a full @-@ scale " donnybrook " took place between the two teams at a game in Montreal . Charles Spittal of Ottawa was described as " attempting to split Blachford 's skull " , Alf Smith hit Hod Stuart " across the temple with his stick , laying him out like a corpse " and Harry Smith cracked his stick across Ernie Johnson 's face , breaking Johnson 's nose The Wanderers won the game 4 – 2 . Discipline was first attempted by the league at a meeting on January 18 , in which the Victorias proposed suspending Spittal and Alf Smith for the season , but this was voted down and the president of the league resigned . The police arrested Spittal , Alf and Harry Smith on their next visit to Montreal , leading to $ 20 fines for Spittal and Alf Smith and an acquittal for Harry Smith . The tactics did not work on the Wanderers ; they won the return match in Ottawa in March and went undefeated for the season , leaving Ottawa in second place . However , it may have affected the Wanderers in another way : they lost the Stanley Cup a week after the donnybrook in a Stanley Cup challenge series to the Kenora Thistles .
The 1907 – 08 season was a season of change for Ottawa . Harry Smith and Hamby Shore left to join Winnipeg . Ottawa hired several free agents , including Marty Walsh , Tommy Phillips and Fred ' The Listowel Whirlwind ' Taylor . Taylor was hired away from the International Professional Hockey League ( IHL ) for the 1908 season for a $ 1000 salary and a guaranteed federal civil service job . He was an immediate sensation and earned a new nickname of ' Cyclone ' for his fast skating and end @-@ to @-@ end rushes , the nickname attributed to the Canadian governor @-@ general Earl Grey . Phillips was signed from Kenora to an even higher salary of $ 1 @,@ 500 for the season , partially paid for by Ottawa sportsmen .
Ottawa moved into their new arena , simply dubbed The Arena , with seating for 4 @,@ 500 and standing room for 2 @,@ 500 . With the free agent signings and the new arena , Ottawa started selling season @-@ tickets , the first of their kind , $ 3 @.@ 75 for five games , eventually selling 2 @,@ 400 . The capacity was topped with a crowd of 7 @,@ 100 in the home opener , attending a game against the Wanderers on January 11 , which Ottawa won 12 – 2 . However , Ottawa started the season with two losses out of three games and ended in second place behind the Wanderers again . Walsh tied for the scoring lead with 28 goals in 9 games ( including 7 in one match ) , while Phillips was close behind at 26 goals in 10 games .
In 1908 – 09 , the Eastern Canada Amateur Hockey Association became completely professional and changed its name to the Eastern Canada Hockey Association ( ECHA ) . This led to the retirement of several stars , including Ottawa 's Harvey Pulford and Montreal 's Russell Bowie , who insisted on keeping their amateur status . The Montreal Victorias and Montreal HC founded the Interprovincial Amateur Hockey Union , leaving only Ottawa , Quebec , Montreal Wanderers and Montreal Shamrocks in the ECHA . It was another season of player turn @-@ over for Ottawa . Besides Pulford , Ottawa lost Alf Smith , who formed a competing Ottawa Senators professional team in the Federal League , and Tommy Phillips , who joined Edmonton . The club picked up Bruce Stuart from the Wanderers , Fred Lake from Winnipeg and Dubby Kerr from Toronto . This lineup had a successful season , winning 10 out of 12 games . Walsh led all scorers with 38 goals in 12 games , while Stuart had 22 and Kerr had 20 . The season was clinched with a win against the Wanderers on March 3 in Ottawa , 8 – 3 , as Ottawa won the league and Stanley Cup .
Notable players of this time period include future Hall of Famers Percy LeSueur in goal , Dubby Kerr , Tommy Phillips , Harvey Pulford , Alf Smith , Bruce Stuart , Fred ' Cyclone ' Taylor and Marty Walsh .
= = = = National Hockey Association ( 1910 – 1917 ) = = = =
The 1909 – 10 hockey season saw major changes in the hockey world , as the ECHA organization split and created two organizations , the Canadian Hockey Association ( CHA ) and the National Hockey Association ( NHA ) . The CHA was formed to ' freeze out ' the Wanderers , whose ownership change led the team to move to a smaller arena . At the same time , millionaire businessman J. Ambrose O 'Brien , who wanted his Renfrew Creamery Kings to challenge for the Stanley Cup , saw his Renfrew application to join the CHA rejected . Together with the Wanderers , O 'Brien instead decided to form the NHA , and founded the Montreal Canadiens . The NHA became the fore @-@ runner of today 's National Hockey League .
Ottawa was one of the founders of the CHA and one of the teams that had rejected Renfrew . However , after a few poorly attended games showed that fans had no interest in the league , Ottawa and the Montreal Shamrocks abandoned the CHA to join the NHA . Ottawa , the defending Stanley Cup champion and Wanderers ' rival , was readily accepted by the NHA . This enabled Ottawa to continue the rivalry with the Wanderers and take in the gate revenues those games provided . The Wanderers won the championship in 1910 , and Ottawa won in 1911 and 1915 .
It is during the NHA period that the nickname " Ottawa Senators " came into common usage . Although there had been a competing Senators club in 1909 , and there had been mention of the Senators nickname as early as 1901 , the nickname was not adopted by the club . The official name of the Ottawa Hockey Club remained in place until ownership changes in the 1930s .
Star player Cyclone Taylor had defected to Renfrew , and despite a salary war with Renfrew , Ottawa managed to re @-@ sign their other top players , Dubby Kerr , Fred Lake and Marty Walsh for the 1909 – 10 season . On Taylor 's first return in February 1910 , he made a promise to score a goal while making a rush backwards against Ottawa . This led to incredible interest , with over 7 @,@ 000 in attendance . A bet of $ 100 was placed at the King Edward Hotel against him scoring at all . Ottawa won 8 – 5 ( scoring 3 goals in overtime ) and kept Taylor off the scoresheet . Later in the season at the return match in Renfrew , Taylor made good on his boast with a goal scored backwards , although it was simply a goal scored on a backhand shot . This was the final game of the season , and Ottawa had no chance at the league title and did not appear to have put in an effort in the 17 – 2 loss .
In 1910 – 11 , the NHA contracted and imposed a salary cap , leading many of the Ottawa players to threaten to form a competing league . However , team owners controlled the rinks and the players accepted the new conditions . For Ottawa players , conditions did not deteriorate much as the club provided bonuses after the season . Ottawa gained revenge for the previous loss to Renfrew by defeating Renfrew 19 – 5 . The team went 13 – 3 to win the NHA and inherit the Stanley Cup ; Marty Walsh and Dubby Kerr led the goal scoring with 37 and 32 goals in 16 games . After the season Ottawa played two challenges , against Galt , winning 7 – 4 , and against Port Arthur , winning 13 – 4 . In the Port Arthur game Marty Walsh came close to matching Frank McGee 's total , scoring ten goals . 1910 – 11 was the debut season of right winger Jack Darragh who scored 18 goals in 16 games .
The 1911 – 12 through 1913 – 14 seasons saw a decline for both Ottawa and the Wanderers . After the withdrawal of O 'Brien 's Renfrew team in 1911 , the two clubs fought over the rights to Cyclone Taylor , who wanted to return to Ottawa , where his fiance lived and he still had a government job . The NHA had given the Wanderers the rights to Taylor in a dispersal of the Renfrew players . Trade talks were unfruitful . Ottawa , insistent in their claim for Taylor , played him in one game for Ottawa against the Wanderers . The Senators won the game ; however , Taylor was ineffectual . The move backfired on the Senators , as the league ruled that the game could not stand and would have to be replayed . The Senators lost the replay and it was the difference in the league championship , as the defending champion Senators placed second by one game behind Quebec . Quebec 's Bulldogs won the only two Stanley Cup championships in the club 's history that season and the next , and the Toronto Blueshirts won in 1914 . Taylor did not play in the NHA again , as he joined Vancouver in the off @-@ season . The Senators finished fifth in 1912 – 13 and fourth in 1913 – 14 . 1912 – 13 saw the debut of right winger Punch Broadbent , who scored 20 goals in 18 games .
In 1914 – 15 , both Ottawa and the Wanderers bounced back to the top of league , tying each other for the NHA season title . This was also the season that future Hall of Famer Clint Benedict became the Senators ' top goaltender , taking over from Percy LeSueur . Former Wanderer Art Ross joined the Senators and helped Ottawa win in a two @-@ game playoff , 4 – 1 . The Senators then played in the first inter @-@ league Stanley Cup final playoff series with the Vancouver Millionaires of the Pacific Coast ( PCHA ) league . Cyclone Taylor , now of the Millionaires , haunted his old team , scoring six goals in three games as Ottawa lost three straight in Vancouver . Future Senator centreman Frank Nighbor played in this series for Vancouver and scored five goals .
In 1915 – 16 , the Senators placed second to the eventual Stanley Cup champion Montreal Canadiens . Punch Broadbent left the team to fight in World War I , while Frank Nighbor joined the Senators in his place and became the team 's leading scorer . Nighbor had been signed away from Vancouver for the salary of $ 1 @,@ 500 , making him the highest paid player on the club , ahead of Art Ross and Eddie Gerard . Benedict led the league as the top goaltender for the first time . With the wartime shortage of players , Rat Westwick and Billy Gilmour of ' Silver Seven ' days attempted comebacks with the club but both played only two games before retiring for good .
In the off @-@ season , Ottawa 's president Llewellyn Bate proposed to suspend the team 's operations until the end of the war . Gate receipts had declined 17 per cent . The other NHA owners refused to suspend the league . Rather than simply cease operations , Bate and the other directors of the team turned it over to Ted Dey , owner of the Arena . Dey cut player salaries and let players go , including Art Ross to the Wanderers . Dey also fired manager Alf Smith , saving on his $ 750 salary .
In 1916 – 17 , the last season of the NHA , Ottawa won the second @-@ half of the split schedule . An Army team , the Toronto 228th Battalion , composed of enlisted professional players , joined the league before leaving for war after the first half @-@ season . When the Battalion left , the other Toronto team , the Blueshirts was suspended by the league and its players dispersed including Corb Denneny , brother of Cy Denneny , who joined the Senators . Future Hall of Famer Cy had been picked up in a trade with Toronto earlier that season and he would be a member of the Senators until 1928 . Benedict was the NHA 's top goaltender once again , and Nighbor tied for the scoring lead with 41 goals in 19 games . As second @-@ half winners , the Senators played off in a series with the Canadiens , the first @-@ half winners . The Senators ended their play in the NHA by losing a two @-@ game total goals playoff series to the Canadiens , who eventually lost to Seattle in the Stanley Cup final . This season saw the final decline of Ottawa 's old rivals , the Wanderers , who finished at the bottom of the standings . The next year , the Wanderers played only four games in the NHL , winning only one before folding the franchise after their home arena burned down .
While World War I affected all NHA teams , Ottawa was able to retain players and be competitive . The club finished no worse than second during the wartime seasons of 1914 – 15 to 1917 – 18 .
= = = = Stanley Cup champions in 1906 and 1910 : Historians ' debate = = = =
Due to the ' challenge ' format of Stanley Cup play before 1915 , there is often confusion about how many Stanley Cups the Senators should be given credit for : nine , ten or eleven . The Senators were Stanley Cup champions at the end of nine hockey seasons without dispute . In another two seasons , 1905 – 06 and 1909 – 10 , the Senators won Stanley Cup challenges but were not champions at the end of the season . The Hockey Hall of Fame and the National Hockey League agree that the Senators of 1906 were champions but disagree on whether the Senators were champions in 1910 . In both seasons , the Senators were the undisputed defending champions , and during that year 's hockey season , the Senators won Stanley Cup challenges . However , by the end of both hockey seasons , they were no longer holders of the Stanley Cup .
In 1906 , Ottawa defeated OHA champions Queen 's University and FAHL champions Smiths Falls in Stanley Cup challenges . However , Ottawa tied the Montreal Wanderers for the ECAHA regular season championship . To decide the ECAHA championship and the Stanley Cup , the Senators played a two @-@ game total goals series against the Wanderers in March 1906 and lost . The 1906 hockey season ended with the Wanderers as the Stanley Cup champions . The Hockey Hall of Fame recognizes both Ottawa and the Wanderers as champions for that year , as does the NHL .
In January 1910 , Ottawa defeated Galt , champions of the OPHL , during the CHA regular season , as well as Edmonton of the AAHA during the NHA regular season ( the Senators switched leagues in @-@ between ) . At the end of the season Ottawa gave up the Cup to the Montreal Wanderers , regular @-@ season champions of the new NHA league . Unlike the 1906 case , the Hockey Hall of Fame does not recognize the Senators as champions for January 1910 , although the NHL does .
In October 1992 , at the first game of the current Ottawa Senators NHL club , banners were raised to commemorate Stanley Cups in nine seasons , excluding 1906 and 1910 . In media guides published by the club , they listed the original Senators as nine @-@ time winners . This changed in March 2003 , when the team raised banners for the 1906 and 1910 years to join the other nine banners hanging at the Corel Centre . The club and the NHL now list the original Senators as eleven @-@ time winners .
= = = NHL years ( 1917 – 1934 ) = = =
After struggling through the war years , the Ottawa Hockey Association put the Club up for sale for $ 5 @,@ 000 in the fall of 1917 . Montreal Canadiens ' owner George Kennedy was leading an effort to get rid of Toronto Blueshirts ' owner Eddie Livingstone , and he needed the Senators in his corner . He loaned Ottawa Citizen sports editor Tommy Gorman ( who also doubled as a press representative for the Canadiens ) $ 2 @,@ 500 to help buy into the Senators . Gorman , along with Martin Rosenthal and Ted Dey ( owner of The Arena ) , bought the club . At a meeting held at Montreal 's Windsor Hotel , the Senators , Canadiens , Wanderers and Bulldogs formed a new league — the National Hockey League — effectively leaving Livingstone in the NHA by himself . Gorman represented the Senators at the meeting . " A great day for hockey , " he was quoted as saying , " Without [ Livingstone ] we can get down to the business of making money . " Within a year , Gorman and partner Ted Dey had made enough money to pay back Kennedy . Gorman also attended the following year 's meeting of the NHA owners in which the final vote to suspend the league was made .
The Senators first season in the NHL , 1917 – 18 , did not go well . Salary squabbles delayed the home opener as players protested that their contracts were for twenty games , while the season schedule was for twenty four . Enough players were appeased that the game started , 15 minutes late , while two players Hamby Shore and Jack Darragh , stayed in the dressing room while negotiations went on . The Senators lost their home opener 7 – 4 . The Senators lost their previous top rival , the Wanderers , after five games . The team struggled and finished in third place after the first half of the season . The club made player changes in the second half , getting Horace Merrill out of retirement and releasing Dave Ritchie . It was Shore 's last season as he would die of pneumonia in October 1918 . Shore 's last career game was in the third @-@ last game of the season and he was sat out for the last two games . In the end , the team placed second in the second half and missed the playoffs . Cy Denneny led the team , coming second overall in scoring in the league with 36 goals in 20 games .
Prior to the 1918 – 19 season , ownership of the Senators changed . While Ted Dey negotiated with Percy Quinn for a lease for The Arena , Dey was also negotiating with Rosenthal over the lease , causing Rosenthal to seriously consider moving the team from The Arena back to Aberdeen Pavilion . However , it turned out that Dey was engineering a takeover of the club and Rosenthal ended up selling his share of the club to Dey , making Dey the majority owner in both the Arena and the hockey club . Rosenthal , a prominent local jeweller , had been involved with the club since 1903 . Dey 's machinations also helped the NHL in its continuing fight against Blueshirts owner Livingstone . The Senators instigated an agreement with the other NHL clubs , binding them to the NHL for the next five years and locking out any rival league from their arenas .
In 1918 – 19 , the Senators won the second half of the split schedule . Clint Benedict had the top goalkeeper average , and Cy Denneny and Frank Nighbor placed third and fourth in scoring with 18 and 17 goals in 18 games , respectively . The schedule was abbreviated by the Toronto Arenas club suspending operations , so the Senators and Canadiens played off in the first best @-@ of @-@ seven series . Due to a family bereavement , Ottawa was without star centre Frank Nighbor for the first three games and lost all three . Ottawa asked to use Corb Denneny of Toronto , but the Canadiens turned down the request . Nighbor returned for the fourth game in Ottawa , which Ottawa won 6 – 3 . The series ended in five games , as the Canadiens won the final match 4 – 2 to win the series . The Stanley Cup final between Montreal and Seattle was left undecided , as an influenza outbreak suspended the final .
= = = = The ' Super Six ' ( 1920 – 1927 ) = = = =
The " Super Six " Senators of the 1920s are considered by the NHL to be its first dynasty . The club won four Stanley Cups and placed first in the regular season seven times . The team 's success was based on the timely scoring of several forwards , including Frank Nighbor and Cy Denneny , and a defence @-@ first policy , which led to the NHL changing the rules in 1924 to force defencemen to leave the defensive zone once the puck had left the zone . The talent pool in Ottawa and the Ottawa valley was deep ; the Senators traded away two future Hall of Famers ( Clint Benedict and Harry Broadbent ) in 1924 to make way for two prospects ( Alex Connell and Hooley Smith ) , who would also become Hall of Famers . Benedict and Broadbent led the Montreal Maroons to a playoff defeat of the Senators on the way to a Stanley Cup win in 1926 .
In the 1919 – 20 season , the NHL reactivated the Quebec Bulldogs NHA franchise ; with this addition , the NHL played with four teams again . There were no playoffs , as Ottawa won both halves of the schedule , the undisputed NHL championship and the O 'Brien Cup . Clint Benedict again led league in goalkeeper goals @-@ against average and Frank Nighbor came third in the league scoring race with 25 goals in 23 games .
The Senators then played the Seattle Metropolitans of the PCHA for the Stanley Cup . Because Seattle 's red @-@ white @-@ green striped uniforms were nearly the same as Ottawa 's red @-@ white @-@ black jerseys , the Senators played in simple white sweaters adorned with a large red " O " for this series . The first three games were held in Ottawa ( the first Stanley Cup games played in Ottawa since 1911 ) and ended with scores of 3 – 2 and 3 – 0 for Ottawa and 3 – 1 for Seattle . The first three games had been played on ice covered with water and slush due to warm weather in Ottawa . At this point , NHL president Calder moved the series to the Arena Gardens in Toronto , which had an artificial ice rink , the only one in eastern Canada at that time . Seattle won 5 – 2 to tie the series , cheered on by the Toronto fans . In the fifth and deciding game , Ottawa won 6 – 1 on Jack Darragh 's three goal performance and won their first Stanley Cup as a member of the NHL . It was after this win that T. P. Gorman dubbed the team the ' Super Six . ' See the article 1920 Stanley Cup Finals .
In the 1920 – 21 season , the league transferred two Senators players to help its competitive balance . Punch Broadbent was transferred to Hamilton while Sprague Cleghorn was transferred to Toronto . Even without the two , the Senators won the first half of the season to qualify for the playoffs . By the end of the playoffs , both players were back with Ottawa . Benedict again led league in goalkeeper average and Cy Denneny came second in scoring with 34 goals in 24 games . The Senators shut out Toronto 7 – 0 in a two @-@ game total goals playoff and went west to play off against Vancouver for the Stanley Cup . Vancouver still had Cyclone Taylor , though it was near the end of his career and he scored no goals . The best @-@ of @-@ five series was heavily attended , with 11 @,@ 000 fans attending the first game , the largest crowd in history to see a hockey game up until that time and a total attendance for the five @-@ game series of over 51 @,@ 000 . Ottawa won the series with scores of 1 – 2 , 4 – 3 , 3 – 2 , 2 – 3 and 2 – 1 , with Jack Darragh scoring the winning goal . See the article 1921 Stanley Cup Finals .
The 1921 – 22 season saw Sprague Cleghorn leave and Jack Darragh retire , opening spaces for new defencemen Frank Boucher and Frank " King " Clancy . Clancy 's first goal came on his first shot , against Hamilton in overtime on February 7 , and was noted for having actually come in ( illegally ) through the side of the net . Broadbent and Cy Denneny , the " Gold Dust Twins " , finished one and two in league scoring , together producing 59 of Ottawa 's 106 goals . Broadbent scored in 16 consecutive games , an NHL record , that as of 2009 , still stands . The Senators won the regular season title but lost to eventual Stanley Cup winner Toronto St. Patricks 5 – 4 in a two @-@ game total goals series . The series had the Boucher brothers play for Ottawa , while Cy Denneny played for Ottawa and his brother Corbett played for Toronto .
In 1922 – 23 , the Senators were led by the league 's top goalie Clint Benedict , the goal scoring of Cy Denneny and the return from retirement of Jack Darragh . The season also saw the debut of defenceman Lionel Hitchman . An unsurpassed iron man record was set when Frank Nighbor played in six consecutive games without substitution , averaging a goal a game during the stretch . The Senators won the regular season and took the playoff against the Canadiens 3 – 2 in a two @-@ game total @-@ goals playoff .
The Cup Final playoff format had changed . There were semi @-@ finals against the PCHA champion , followed by the final against the WCHL champion . In the Cup semi @-@ finals , Ottawa again faced Vancouver ( now known as the Maroons ) in Vancouver . New attendance records were set during this series , with 9 @,@ 000 for the first game and 10 @,@ 000 for the second . Ottawa won the series with scores of 1 – 0 , 1 – 4 , 3 – 2 , and 4 – 1 , with Benedict getting the shutout and Harry Broadbent scoring five goals . The Senators next had to play Edmonton in a best @-@ of @-@ three series and won it in two games with scores of 2 – 1 and 1 – 0 , with Broadbent scoring the winning goal . The second game of the finals is famous for being the game in which King Clancy ( then only a substitute for the team ) played all positions , including goal . See the article 1923 Stanley Cup Finals .
That year , club owners Dey and Gorman entered into a partnership with Frank Ahearn . Ahearn 's family was well @-@ off , owning the Ottawa Electric Company and the Ottawa Street Railway Company . Ted Dey then sold his share of the club and retired . The first work of the partnership was a new arena , the Ottawa Auditorium , which was a 7 @,@ 500 seat ( 10 @,@ 000 capacity with standing room ) arena with artificial ice . The new Ottawa Auditorium 's first regular season game came on December 26 , 1923 . A crowd of 8 @,@ 300 fans attended a game against the Canadiens , in which rookie Howie Morenz scored his first NHL goal .
The 1923 – 24 season saw the Senators win the season but lose the playoff to the Canadiens , 0 – 1 and 2 – 4 , with Georges Vezina getting the shutout and Morenz scoring 3 goals . Frank Nighbor was the first winner of the Hart Trophy as ' most valuable player ' for his play in the regular season . After the disappointing loss in the playoff series , goaltender Clint Benedict became embroiled in a controversy with the club over late nights and drinking . He was traded away , along with Harry Broadbent , to the new Montreal Maroons before the next season , for cash . Ottawa hockey fans got to see a Stanley Cup final game played in Ottawa as the Auditorium hosted the final match of the Stanley Cup finals between the Canadiens and the Calgary Tigers , moved because of poor natural ice at the Canadiens ' arena .
The 1924 – 25 season , the first year of NHL expansion to the United States , saw major changes in Ottawa 's lineup . Jack Darragh retired and had died from appendicitis months after his final game . Making his debut in goal for Ottawa was Alex Connell , replacing Benedict . Replacing Broadbent was Hooley Smith , who had played for Canada in the 1924 Olympics . Lionel Hitchman was sold to the expansion Boston Bruins and replaced by Ed Gorman . It was also the debut season of Frank Finnigan . Off the ice , Gorman and Ahearn squabbled over ownership . In January 1925 , during the season , Gorman sold his share of the Senators to Ahearn and left the Senators organization , later joining the expansion New York Americans .
With all the changes , the Senators slipped to fourth place in the standings . Cy Denneny continued his scoring ways , placing fourth in league scoring with 28 goals in 28 games . Frank Nighbor became the first winner of the Lady Byng Trophy for gentlemanly play , donated by Marie Evelyn Moreton ( Lady Byng ) , wife of Julian Byng , 1st Viscount Byng of Vimy , who was Governor General of Canada from 1921 to 1926 . Nighbor received the trophy personally from Lady Byng during a presentation at Rideau Hall . Nighbor won the trophy in 1925 – 26 and 1926 – 27 as well .
The NHL expanded further into the United States in the 1925 – 26 season with the new New York Americans and Pittsburgh Pirates . Ottawa won the league title , led by Alex Connell in goal , who recorded 15 shutouts in 36 games , and Cy Denneny , who scored 24 goals . The team received a bye to the playoff finals . However , the Montreal Maroons won the two @-@ game total goals series with scores of 1 – 1 and 1 – 0 ; former Senator Clint Benedict got the shutout . The Maroons went on to win the Stanley Cup against Victoria . The season also marked the debut of future Hall of Famer Hec Kilrea .
The 1926 – 27 season saw the NHL divided for the first time into two divisions , and they made the playoffs , winning the Canadian Division title . They advanced to the semi @-@ finals and defeated the Canadiens , 4 – 0 , and 1 – 1 , en route to facing the Boston Bruins for the Cup . In the first series for the Stanley Cup with only NHL opponents , Ottawa defeated Boston with scores of 0 – 0 , 3 – 1 , 1 – 1 and 3 – 1 , with the final game taking place in Ottawa ; it would be the Senators ' final Stanley Cup championship . Alex Connell led the way in goal , allowing only three goals in the four games . Cy Denneny led the way in scoring with four goals , including the Cup winner . The Senators won three trophies as NHL champions , along with the Stanley Cup , the club also won two other trophies , the O 'Brien Cup and the Prince of Wales Trophy , the last time the trophies were given to winners of the NHL championship . They would be given out to divisional winners in the following season . After the series , the Senators players received a parade in Ottawa , a civic banquet and an 18 – carat gold ring with fourteen small diamonds in the shape of an ' O ' . See the article 1927 Stanley Cup Finals .
= = = = Decline ( 1927 – 34 ) = = = =
Ottawa had been by far the smallest market in the NHL even before American teams began playing in 1924 . The later 1931 census listed only 110 @,@ 000 people in the city of Ottawa — roughly one @-@ fifth the size of Toronto , which was the league 's second @-@ smallest market . The team sought financial relief from the league as early as 1927 . Despite winning the Stanley Cup , the Senators were already in financial trouble , having lost $ 50 @,@ 000 for the season . The league 's expansion to the United States did not benefit the Senators . Attendance was low for games against the expansion teams , which provided a poor gate at home . There were also higher travel costs for away games , although the American arenas were larger . This fact was the basis for attempts to increase revenues , as the team played " home " games in other cities .
In the 1927 @-@ 28 season , the Senators played two " home " games in Detroit , collecting the bulk of the gate receipts ( thus allowing them to actually turn a profit for that season ) , while Jack Adams retired to become the coach and general manager of the Detroit Cougars . The brightest note from the campaign was goaltender Alex Connell 's play , in which he set a NHL record ( unsurpassed as of 2015 ) of six consecutive shutouts , a shutout run of 460 minutes and 49 seconds .
Taking advantage of a spending spree by the Montreal Maroons at the onset of the 1928 @-@ 29 season , the Senators sold their star right wing Hooley Smith to the Maroons for $ 22 @,@ 500 and the return of former star Punch Broadbent . Also for cash , the team sent long @-@ time member Cy Denneny to the Bruins . The club further repeated the scheme of playing two " home " games in Detroit en route to an undistinguished campaign in which they missed the playoffs for only the third time in the NHL 's history .
In the 1929 – 30 season , with cash still hemorrhaging , the team transferred two scheduled home games to Atlantic City ( one each against the New York Rangers and New York Americans ) , two to Detroit , and one to Boston . The Senators rallied , however , to make the playoffs for a final time , finishing third in the Canadian Division . The Senators faced off against the New York Rangers in a two @-@ game total @-@ goals series . In the last NHL playoff game in Ottawa until 1996 , the Senators tied the Rangers 1 – 1 on March 28 , 1930 , but lost game two in New York 5 – 1 to lose the series 6 goals to 2 . The season also marked the debut of future star Syd Howe with the Senators while long @-@ time star Frank Nighbor was sold to Toronto .
By the 1930 – 31 season , the team was openly selling players to make ends meet . Star defenceman King Clancy was sold to Toronto for an unprecedented $ 35 @,@ 000 and two players on October 11 , 1930 . The team fell into last place for the first time since 1898 . In 1931 , a potential deal arose with the owners of Chicago Stadium , including grain magnate James E. Norris , who wanted to move the team to Chicago , but the deal was vetoed by Chicago Black Hawks owner Frederic McLaughlin who did not want another team in his territory . Norris bought the bankrupt Detroit Falcons instead and turned them into the Detroit Red Wings .
The Senators and the equally strapped Philadelphia Quakers asked the NHL for permission to suspend operations for the 1931 – 32 season in order to rebuild their fortunes . The league granted both requests on September 26 , 1931 . Ottawa received $ 25 @,@ 000 for the use of its players , and the NHL co @-@ signed a Bank of Montreal loan of $ 28 @,@ 000 to the club . The Senators seriously considered moving to Toronto , as Conn Smythe desired a second tenant for the new Maple Leaf Gardens . However , they balked when Smythe wanted a $ 100 @,@ 000 guarantee , with a 40 % / 60 % split of revenues .
Returning after a one @-@ year hiatus and despite the return of players such as Cooney Weiland , Finnigan , Howe and Kilrea , the Senators finished with the worst record in the league in the two seasons that followed . Attendance was poor , the club only drawing well when the league 's other three Canadian teams came to town . Frank Finnigan recalled that they frequently played home games before small crowds of 3 @,@ 500 to 4 @,@ 000 . 1932 – 33 saw the return of Cy Denneny to Ottawa as coach . He would last only the one season . In June 1933 , former captain Harvey Pulford was given an option to buy the team and move it to Baltimore , but the option was never exercised . In October 1933 , Kilrea was sold for $ 10 @,@ 000 to Toronto .
In December 1933 , rumours surfaced that the Senators would merge with the equally strapped New York Americans ; however , this was denied by Ottawa club president Frank Ahearn , who had sought financial help from the league . The team played the full 1933 – 34 season , transferring one home game to Detroit . Near the end of the season , reports surfaced that the club had entered into a deal with St. Louis " interests " to move the club . The team lost its last home game by a score of 3 – 2 to the Americans on March 15 , 1934 , before a crowd of 6 @,@ 500 . The Senators had lent Alex Connell to the Americans when the Americans ' goalie Worters was hurt , and he turned in a " sensational performance " for the visitors . The home crowd was in a " throwing mood " and " carrots , parsnips , lemons , oranges and several other unidentified objects were thrown onto the ice continuously for no reason whatsoever . " The final game of the season was a 2 – 2 tie with the Maroons at the Montreal Forum on March 18 , 1934 .
= = = = 1934 : End of the first NHL era in Ottawa = = = =
Despite finishing in last place for the second year in a row , the Senators actually improved their attendance over the previous season . Even with the increased gate , they barely survived the season . After the season ended , it was announced by Auditorium president F. D. Burpee that the franchise would not return to Ottawa for the 1934 – 35 season due to losses of $ 60 @,@ 000 over the previous two seasons . The losses were too great to be made up by the sale of players ' contracts , and the club needed to be moved to " some very large city which has a large rink , if we are to protect the Auditorium shareholders and pay off our debts . " The NHL franchise was moved to St. Louis , Missouri and operated as the St. Louis Eagles . The Eagles played only one season , finishing last again . They suspended operations after the season , never to return . Flash Hollett was the last member of the Senators to play in the NHL , retiring with the Detroit Red Wings in 1946 .
The city of Ottawa did not have an NHL franchise again until the new Ottawa Senators franchise was awarded for the 1992 – 93 season . The NHL presented the Senators with a " certificate of reinstatement " commemorating Ottawa 's return to the league , and the current Senators honour the original franchise 's 11 Stanley Cups . However , records for the two teams are kept separately . Frank Finnigan , the last surviving member of the original Senators ' last Stanley Cup winner , played a key role in the drive to win an expansion franchise for Ottawa . He was slated to drop the puck in a ceremonial face @-@ off for the new franchise 's first game , but died a year before that game took place . The new Senators honoured Finnigan by retiring his # 8 jersey .
After the NHL franchise relocated , the Senators were continued as a senior amateur club in the Montreal Group of the Quebec Amateur Hockey Association ( QAHA ) , beginning in the 1934 – 35 season . One player , Eddie Finnigan , played for both the Senators and the Eagles in the 1934 – 35 season . The ' Senior Senators ' renewed the rivalry with Montreal @-@ area senior amateur teams such as the Montreal Victorias that the old Senators had played in the years prior to turning openly professional . Later , Tommy Gorman bought the team and helped to found the Quebec Senior Hockey League . Winning the Allan Cup in 1949 , the senior Senators continued until December 1954 , finally ending the Senators ' storied 71 @-@ year history .
= = Team information = =
= = = Nicknames = = =
The club began in 1883 as the Ottawa Hockey Club and was known by that name officially , even after joining the Ottawa Amateur Athletic Association ( OAAA ) . Reports of the club in early play in the 1890s sometimes refer to the club as the Generals . The club is also referred to as the Capitals , although there was a competing Capital Athletic Association hockey team using that name . Other nicknames included the Silver Seven , a name the players gave themselves after receiving silver nuggets from manager Bob Shillington after the 1903 Stanley Cup win . The Super Six name was given in the 1920s .
The first reference to the nickname of Senators was in a game report ( " The Ottawas Made a Good Start " ) of the Ottawa Journal on January 7 , 1901 and used in other newspapers around that time . While the nickname was used occasionally , the club continued to be known as the Ottawa Hockey Club . In 1909 , a separate Ottawa Senators pro team existed in the Federal League . Ottawa newspapers referred to that club as the Senators , and the Ottawa HC as ' Ottawa ' , ' Ottawas ' or the ' Ottawa Pro Hockey Club ' . The Toronto Globe first refers to the Ottawa Hockey Club as the Senators in an article entitled ' Quebec defeated Ottawa ' on December 30 , 1912 . Eventually this became the official nickname , and was the only name used in descriptions of the club in NHL play .
= = = Logos and jerseys = = =
For the first two years of their existence , Ottawa used red and black horizontally @-@ striped jerseys . The club then changed to jerseys of gold and blue until it later affiliated with the Ottawa Amateur Athletic Association in 1889 . The team then adopted the colours of the OAAA organization : red , white and black . The logo of the team was a simplified version of the ' triskelion ' or ' winged legs ' logo of the OAAA , which can be described as a " running wheel " . The jerseys were solid white with the club logo in red . The players wore knee @-@ length white pants with black stockings , as shown in the 1891 team photo .
In 1896 , the club first adopted the " barber @-@ pole " design , with which the team became synonymous . The design was simple : strong horizontal stripes of red , black and white . Players wore white pants and red , white and black striped stockings . The basic design would be used for the rest of the organization 's existence , except for one season , 1909 – 10 , where the stripes were vertical and Montreal fans nicknamed the team derisively as ' les suisses ' , a slang term for chipmunk . The " barber @-@ pole " uniform was later adopted by the Ottawa 67 's junior ice hockey team .
No logo was present on the jersey at first , and until 1930 logos were not used for more than a year at a time . During World War I , the club adopted a logo of flags to show allegiance to the war effort , as shown in the 1915 photo . After each Stanley Cup win , the club affixed a badge or logo stating " World Champions " . In the 1929 – 30 season , the club added the " O " logo to the chest of the jersey .
= = = Ownership = = =
From the start , the club was owned and operated by its members and known as the Ottawa Hockey Club , becoming an affiliate of the Ottawa Amateur Athletic Association in 1889 . In 1907 , according to hockey historian Charles L. Coleman , some of the ownership was transferred to five of the players : Smith , Pulford , Moore , Westwick and LeSueur . In 1911 , the club incorporated itself and the organization took on the name of the " Ottawa Hockey Association " . In 1917 , the club was separated from the Association and sold to Tommy Gorman , Ted Dey and Martin Rosenthal for $ 5 @,@ 000 in time to join the National Hockey League .
In 1918 , Rosenthal was forced out by Dey in a complex scheme . Dey was negotiating , as owner of The Arena , with both Rosenthal on behalf of the Senators and Percy Quinn ( who held an option to purchase the Quebec NHA club ) on behalf of a proposed new professional league over exclusive rights to the Arena for professional hockey . In a plan to derail the proposed new league , Dey maintained publicly that he had reserved the Arena for Quinn 's proposed league when , in fact , he had not cashed a cheque received from Quinn to reserve an option on the Arena . Rosenthal , believing the club could no longer play at the Arena , attempted to find alternate arrangements for the club , including refurbishing Aberdeen Pavilion , but was unsuccessful . Dey purchased Rosenthal 's share of the club on October 28 , 1918 , and Rosenthal resigned from the club . Quinn filed a lawsuit against Dey for his deception but it was dismissed . Quinn would get further action from the NHL , as the NHL suspended Quinn 's franchise and took over its players ' contracts .
In 1923 , Dey retired after selling his ownership interest to Gorman and new investor Frank Ahearn . Ahearn and Gorman had an uneasy partnership and at one point Gorman was going to buy out Ahearn . By January 1925 , the deal was nearly finalized when Gorman backed out of the deal . Instead , Ahearn bought Gorman 's interest in the club for $ 35 @,@ 000 and a share of the Connaught Park Racetrack and Gorman moved on to New York to manage the New York Americans . In 1929 , Ahearn sold the club to the Ottawa Auditorium corporation for $ 150 @,@ 000 , financed by a share issue . William Foran , the Stanley Cup trustee , became president of the Club . As the Auditorium did not meet its payments , Ahearn resumed a share of the club in 1931 .
In 1931 , a dispute arose between Foran , in his role as Stanley Cup trustee , and the NHL . The American Hockey League had asked for a Stanley Cup challenge against the champions of the NHL . Foran had agreed to the challenge and ordered the NHL to comply , but the NHL refused to play the challenge . Foran was fired from his position as Senators ' president and was replaced by Redmond Quain .
While the Ottawa Auditorium owned the hockey club , it was heavily indebted to Frank Ahearn and his father , and tried to clear its debt . In December 1930 , the club was put up for sale for $ 200 @,@ 000 under conditions it stay in Ottawa . The best local bid was $ 100 @,@ 000 , while a bid to move the club to Chicago was made for $ 300 @,@ 000 , ultimately denied by the Chicago Blackhawks ownership . Later , the Auditorium tried to relocate the team to Baltimore under the ownership of former player Harvey Pulford . A possible relocation to Toronto was also explored , but in the end , no sales occurred .
In 1934 , the club 's NHL franchise was transferred to St. Louis , although the Association continued its ownership of the franchise and player contracts as well as the senior club . On October 15 , 1935 , the NHL bought back the franchise and players ' contracts for $ 40 @,@ 000 and suspended its operations again . Under the agreement , the NHL paid for the players and took back possession of the franchise . If the franchise was resold , the proceeds would go to the Ottawa Hockey Association .
In July 1936 , the Auditorium bond @-@ holders foreclosed on the arena and it was put under the control of the Royal Securities Corporation . The senior club was sold in 1937 to James MacCaffery , the owner of the Ottawa Rough Riders football team . Former owner Tommy Gorman returned to Ottawa in 1944 , when he purchased the club and the Auditorium . He operated the senior team until December 1954 , when he shut down the team over the " rise of hockey on television . "
= = = Fans = = =
When the Ottawa Hockey Club began play , there was no division between the ice surface and the stands like today . The fans became quite wet in the times when the temperature was warm . In the 1903 Stanley Cup Final against the Montreal Victorias , the Governor @-@ General ( who had a private box seat at the ice 's edge ) is recorded as getting wet from the play . On another occasion , in the 1906 Stanley Cup Final against the Wanderers , the Governor @-@ General 's top hat was knocked off by the stick of Ernie Johnson . The top hat was taken by a fan and given to Johnson .
One custom of the Ottawa fans towards opposition teams was to throw lemons . Cyclone Taylor , on his first visit back to Ottawa after signing with Renfrew , was pelted with lemons as well as a bottle .
= = Team record = =
= = = List of Stanley Cup final appearances = = =
A. ^ Montreal refused to continue the series in Ottawa , thereby losing by default .
= = Players = =
= = = Hall of Famers = = =
Source : Ottawa Senators
= = = Team captains = = =
Sources :
1902 – 1934 : " Ottawa Senators " . Sportsecyclopedia.com. Retrieved 2008 @-@ 10 @-@ 30 .
= = = Team scoring leaders ( NHL ) = = =
Note : Pos |
= Position ; GP =
Games Played ; G |
= Goals ; A =
Assists ; Pts = Points
Games : Frank Finnigan , 363
Penalty Minutes : George Boucher , 604
Goaltending Games : Alex Connell , 293
Goaltending Wins : Connell , 158
Shutouts : Connell , 70
Source : Diamond , Dan ( 1998 ) . Total hockey : the official encyclopedia of the National Hockey League . New York , New York : Total Sports . ISBN 0 @-@ 8362 @-@ 7114 @-@ 9 .
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= Poitou donkey =
The Poitou donkey or Poitou ass ( French : Baudet du Poitou ) , also called the Poitevin donkey or simply the Poitou , is a breed of donkey originating in the Poitou region of France . It is one of the largest donkey breeds , and was selected for size so that it could be used for the production of large working mules , in conjunction with the Poitevin horse breed . It is known for its distinctive coat , called a cadanette , which hangs in long , ungroomed cords . Breeders originally prized the coats highly , but today , many Poitou donkeys are shorn for hygienic reasons .
Poitous developed in the French Poitou region , possibly from donkeys introduced to the area by the Romans . They may have been a status symbol during the Middle Ages , and by the early 18th century , their physical characteristics had been established . A studbook for the breed was established in France in 1884 , and the 19th and early 20th centuries saw them being used for the production of mules throughout Europe . During this same time , Poitou bloodlines were also used to develop other donkey breeds , including the American Mammoth Jack in the United States . Increasing mechanization in the mid @-@ 20th century saw a decline in the need for , and hence population of , the breed , and by 1977 , a survey found only 44 members worldwide . Conservation efforts were begun by a number of public and private breeders and organizations , and by 2005 there were 450 purebred Poitou donkeys .
= = Description = =
The Poitou donkey is " instantly recognizable " for a number of unusual characteristics that distinguish it from other donkeys . Its shaggy coat , called a cadanette , hangs in long cords when ungroomed because of the long , soft hair . Animals with great cadanettes of matted and tangled hair were most highly valued . A purebred Poitou has a more massive bone structure and a larger foot than a part @-@ bred animal , but the shaggy coat is such a dominant trait that even a 1 / 8 Poitou donkey may resemble a pure @-@ bred . In modern times , the coat is still considered important but less so than size and measurements . Today , many Poitou donkeys are shorn for the purpose of hygiene , but some are allowed to grow their coats out so as to have " bourailloux " , or coats of great length . The coat is always dark brown or black . While lacking the stripes and cross @-@ like markings on the coats of some other breeds of donkey , the Poitou should have a white underbelly , nose and rings around its eyes .
The Poitou donkey is a large breed ; among other European donkeys only the Andalucian donkey reaches a similar size . In order to breed large mules , the original breeders of the Poitou chose animals with large features , such as ears , heads and leg joints . The ears developed to such an extent that their weight sometimes causes them to be carried horizontally . Minimum height is 1 @.@ 40 m ( 55 in ) for jacks and 1 @.@ 35 m ( 53 in ) for jennies . They have large , long heads , strong necks , long backs , short croups and round haunches . The limb joints and feet are large , and the legs strong . The temperament of the Poitou has been described as " friendly , affectionate and docile " . Historically , most Poitou donkeys were used to breed large mules , but in recent years , they have found an increasing number of uses . Breed enthusiasts use them for agricultural work , driving and riding .
= = History = =
The exact origins of the Poitou breed are unknown , but donkeys and their use in the breeding of mules may have been introduced to the Poitou region of France by the Roman Empire . The Baudet de Poitou ( donkey of Poitou ) , and the Mulassière ( mule breeder ) horse breed ( also known as the Poitevin ) were developed together for the use of producing superior mules . In the Middle Ages , owning a Poitou donkey may have been a status symbol among the local French nobility . It is not known when the Poitou 's distinctive characteristics were gained but they seem to have been well @-@ developed by 1717 when an advisor to King Louis XV described :
There is found , in northern Poitou , donkeys which are as tall as large mules . They are almost completely covered in hair a half @-@ foot long with legs and joints as large as a those of a carriage horse .
In the mid @-@ 1800s , Poitou mules were " regarded as the finest and strongest in France " , and between 15 @,@ 000 and 18 @,@ 000 were sold annually . In 1884 , a studbook was established for the Poitou donkey in France . During the first half of the 20th century , the mules bred by the Poitou and the Poitevin continued to be desired throughout Europe , and were called the " finest working mule in the world " . Purchasers paid higher prices for Poitou mules than for other mules , and up to 30 @,@ 000 mules were bred annually in the Poitou region , with some estimates putting the number as high as 50 @,@ 000 . As mechanization increased around World War II , mules became outmoded , and population numbers for both mules and donkeys dropped dramatically .
Poitou donkey and mule breeders were extremely protective of their breeding practices , some of which were " highly unusual and misguided . " Jacks were kept in closed @-@ in stalls throughout the year once they had begun covering mares , in often unhygienic conditions . Once the mares had been covered , a folk belief held that if they were underfed , they would produce colts , which were more valuable , rather than fillies . This often led to mares being starved during their pregnancies . Colostrum , vital for foal development , was considered unhealthy and withheld from newborns . A lack of breeding records resulted in fertility problems , and there was a significant amount of foal mortality , due to jacks being used to cover horse mares before jennies of their own kind , resulting in late @-@ born foals that were vulnerable to cold fall and winter temperatures . Despite these husbandry issues , one author , writing in 1883 , stated that " mule @-@ breeding is about the only branch of agricultural industry in which France has no rival abroad , owing its prosperity entirely to the zeal of those engaged in it . "
= = = Conservation efforts = = =
A 1977 inventory revealed only 44 Poitou donkeys worldwide , and there were still fewer than 80 animals as of 1980 . Conservation efforts were led by several public and private groups in France . In 1979 , the Haras Nationaux , ( the French national stud ) and the Parc Naturel Regional du Marais Poitevin , working with private breeders , launched an effort to improve the genetics of the Poitou , develop new breeding techniques and collect traditional knowledge on the breed . In 1981 , 18 large donkeys from Portugal were acquired for use in breeding Poitou donkeys . This preceded the creation of the Asinerie Nationale Experimentale , which opened in Charente @-@ Maritime in Dampierre @-@ sur @-@ Boutonne in 1982 , as an experimental breeding farm for Poitous . The Parc also works to preserve the Poitevin horse breed . In 1988 , the Association pour la Sauvegarde du Baudet du Poitou ( SABAUD ) was formed as a breeder network that focuses on marketing and fundraising for the breed , and in 1989 became the financial support arm of the Asinerie Nationale Experimentale . The Association des Éleveurs des Races Équine , Mulassière et Asine , Baudet du Poitou is the registering body for the Poitou donkey . The early conservation efforts were sometimes sidetracked as some breeders sold crossbred Poitous as purebreds , which are worth up to ten times as much . Forged pedigrees and registration papers were sometimes used to legitimize these sales . However , by the 1990s , DNA testing and microchip technology began to be used to identify and track purebred animals .
The conservation efforts in the latter decades of the 20th century and the early years of the 21st were successful , and a 2005 survey revealed 450 purebred registered animals . This number had dropped to just under 400 by 2011 . The French studbook for the breed is split into two sections . The first , Livre A , is for purebred animals with documented Poitou parentage on both sides of their pedigree . The second , Livre B , is for animals with one purebred Poitou parent . The American Livestock Breeds Conservancy lists the Poitou as " Critical " on its Conservation Priority List , a category for breeds with less than 2 @,@ 000 animals worldwide and less than 200 registrations annually in the US .
In 2001 , scientists in Australia successfully implanted a Poitou donkey embryo created by artificial insemination in the womb of a Standardbred mare . Worries that joint problems might prevent a healthy pregnancy in the foal 's biological mother led to the initiative . The resultant foal became one of three Poitou donkeys in Australia . The procedure was unusual because it is often difficult for members of one Equus species to accept implanted embryos from another species in the same genus .
= = = In the United States = = =
Historical records exist of several sets of exports of Poitous from France to the US during the 19th and early 20th centuries , including a 1910 import of 10 donkeys . Most of these were integrated into the generic pool of donkey bloodstock , rather than being bred pure . During this time , Poitous were used in the creation of the American Mammoth Jack breed . Due to high purchase and transportation costs , the breed played a smaller role in the development of the Mammoth Jack than some breeders would have preferred . Imports to the US continued until at least 1937 , when a successful breeding jack name Kaki , who stood 16 @.@ 2 hands ( 66 inches , 168 cm ) high , was brought to the country . The 1940s through the 1960s saw a dearth of Poitou imports , and only a few arrived between 1978 and the 1990s . By 1996 , there were estimated to only be around 30 Poitous in North America .
In 1996 , Debbie Hamilton , an American , founded the Hamilton Rare Breeds Foundation on a 440 @-@ acre ( 180 ha ) farm in Hartland , Vermont , to breed Poitou donkeys . As of 2004 , she owned 26 purebred and 14 partbred Poitous , making hers the largest Poitou breeding operation in the United States , and the second largest in the world , behind the French government @-@ sponsored experimental farm . Hamilton works with French officials toward the preservation of the breed , and has received praise from French veterinarians , who appreciate her technical and financial contributions to the breed . Techniques for using cryopreservation to develop a sperm bank for Poitou donkeys have been in development in France since at least 1997 , but Hamilton has pioneered the use of artificial insemination using frozen semen in the breed , in order to use genetic material from France to improve Poitou herds in the US . The North American Baudet de Poitou Society , organized by the American Donkey and Mule Society , is the American registry for the breed , coordinating with French officials for inspections and registrations of American @-@ bred Poitou stock .
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= Long @-@ tailed ground roller =
The long @-@ tailed ground roller ( Uratelornis chimaera ) is a species of bird in the ground roller family Brachypteraciidae , placed in the monotypic genus Uratelornis . Endemic to arid spiny forests near the coast in southwestern Madagascar , this ground roller occurs at extremely low population densities throughout its habitat . This species requires shade and a deep layer of leaves on the ground , and it is absent from parts of the spiny forest lacking these features . It has no recognized subspecies , and its closest relative is the scaly ground roller . The long @-@ tailed ground roller is the only ground roller to definitively display sexual dimorphism ( differences in plumage or size between sexes ) . It is a medium @-@ sized bird with a plump silhouette and a long tail . The upperparts are dark brown with black streaks while the underparts are light gray . The white throat is framed by black malar stripes and a black breastband , and a white stripe is present at the base of the bill . Sky @-@ blue feathers are visible at the edge of the wings and the tail . Calls are rarely made outside of the breeding season , though multiple courtship calls are made .
These ground rollers feed primarily on invertebrates , including ants , beetles , butterflies , and worms , which they find by searching through deep leaf litter or by remaining still and watching attentively . The ground roller primarily runs through its habitat on its strong legs , as its wings are relatively weak . The long @-@ tailed ground roller is a monogamous species , and it defends a territory during the breeding season of October to February . The species digs a tunnel in the sand , at the end of which is a wider chamber where it makes its nest out of leaves and earthy pellets . Two to four eggs are laid . After the chicks fledge , the birds continue living in family groups until at least February before dispersing more widely across the scrubland .
This bird is classified as vulnerable by the IUCN and is threatened by habitat destruction . The arid spiny forests in which it lives are not protected by the Malagasy government , and as such the bird is losing habitat to slash @-@ and @-@ burn agriculture , charcoal collection , and logging . This ground roller is also hunted by the native peoples of Madagascar .
= = Taxonomy = =
British banker and naturalist Walter Rothschild first described the long @-@ tailed ground roller in 1895 , giving it the scientific name Uratelornis chimaera ; Rothschild published his description in Novitates Zoologicae , the periodical of his private museum . The adaptations required for the ancestral long @-@ tailed ground roller to inhabit scrubland led Rothschild to create the monotypic genus Uratelornis for the species in his description . The genus name Uratelornis is derived from the Ancient Greek word oura " tail , " and atelornis in reference to another genus of ground roller . Atelornis comes from the Ancient Greek words ateles " indeterminate or incomplete , " and ornis " bird . " The specific name , chimaera , is a reference to the Ancient Greek mythological creature known as the chimera . The long @-@ tailed ground roller is placed in the ground roller family , which gets its common name due to its similarity to the rollers and its largely terrestrial nature . Until recently the ground rollers , cuckoo roller , and rollers were all placed in a single family , Coraciidae , in which each of the three groups formed a subfamily . In 1971 , Joel Cracraft proposed a separate family for the ground rollers based on significant differences in behavior , plumage , and post @-@ cranial anatomy between the groups . This position is supported by DNA evidence . It has been suggested , but not widely accepted , that ground rollers are closely related to the puffbirds and jacamars . It has been speculated that the ancestor of the long @-@ tailed ground roller was an arboreal roller that crossed over from Africa to Madagascar and developed a terrestrial lifestyle before moving from the rainforests into the long @-@ tailed ground roller 's arid scrubland . No fossils have been found for this genus , and genetic analysis suggests that this bird 's closest relative is the scaly ground roller . The long @-@ tailed ground roller has no subspecies .
= = Description = =
The long @-@ tailed ground roller 's silhouette is highly distinctive due to its long tail and plump silhouette . The bird is 34 to 47 centimeters ( 13 to 19 in ) long , although its tail can contribute up to 30 centimeters ( 12 in ) of the length , which makes it the longest tail of any of the ground rollers . This ground roller has short wings and long , pinkish @-@ brown legs . The male has a sandy buff crown and dark brown upperparts with black streaks . Its supercilium is a pale buff color , while the ear @-@ coverts are brown . The eyes are brown , while the short and stout beak is black . Its tongue is long with a brush @-@ like tip to help it collect insects . A white stripe is present at the base of the bill and is surrounded by brown and black malar stripes . These malar stripes and the black breastband frame a white throat . The tail has 15 to 20 dark brown bars marking it , while the outer rectrices are sky blue ; this sky blue is also present on the wing @-@ coverts . In flight , the bird 's two black and white bands on the primaries and secondaries are conspicuous . The underparts are a light gray , and the breast white . The toes are zygodactylous , with the first and fourth toes turned outwards and the middle two toes turned inwards . The female resembles the male , but is smaller and has a narrower chestband and a shorter tail . Also , the female loses her tail while nesting . These differences make the long @-@ tailed ground roller the only ground roller to definitively display sexual dimorphism . Juveniles of both sexes resemble the adult female , but have duller plumage , particularly in the black bands on the chest , neck , and eyes .
Although it is generally a silent species , during the breeding season the vocalizations of the long @-@ tailed ground roller include a " hooting " sound , a " popping " tu @-@ tuc , and a soft boo sound . The low @-@ pitched " hooting " is given by males from a perch 2 to 6 meters ( 6 @.@ 6 to 19 @.@ 7 ft ) above the ground at dusk or at night . The sound carries for a distance of at least 200 meters ( 660 ft ) and may either attract a mate or defend a territory . The bird pumps its tail while giving this call . One territorial call is a series of soft boo notes , typically coming in sets of six to ten and descending in volume near the end . Another call , given by both sexes , is a series of chuckling tu @-@ tuc sounds lasting between 10 and 40 seconds that occasionally ends in a loud snapping sound produced by the wings . This call is given when birds are close to each other either on the ground or on low perches , and it does not carry over long distances . The use of wing @-@ snapping to produce a sound is a rare phenomenon in birds , and in the order Coraciiformes only one other family , the todies , is known to do it . Low gu notes are given by mates as they come in contact with each other .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Endemic to the island nation of Madagascar , the long @-@ tailed ground roller inhabits a narrow strip of suitable habitat by the coast in the southwestern part of the island . This strip is bordered by the Mangoky River in the north , the Fiherenana River in the south , and lowland hills in the east . It totals about 10 @,@ 500 square kilometers ( 4 @,@ 100 sq mi ) in area ; however , the species is extremely uncommon within its range and occurs at densities of about 0 @.@ 8 to 10 per square kilometer ( 2 @.@ 1 to 25 per square mile ) . This area ranges in elevation from sea level to 100 meters ( 330 ft ) . The long @-@ tailed ground roller does not migrate , though it may disperse across a larger area outside of the breeding season .
This species ' prime habitat is spiny forest , a mix of sub @-@ arid thorn @-@ scrub and deciduous woodland that only receives on average 500 millimeters ( 20 in ) of water a year and is covered in sandy soil . The dominant plants in these spiny forests belong to the cactus @-@ like Didiereaceae family ( especially Didierea madagascariensis ) and more tree @-@ like Euphorbiaceae family ( especially Euphorbia stenoclada ) . Baobab trees are also prevalent . It was formerly believed that the long @-@ tailed ground roller preferred an undisturbed forest habitat , while tolerating small amounts of disturbance . Later studies have concluded that it actually prefers degraded habitat . Despite this , shade is necessary , and the species is not found in deforested habitat or on the shadeless dunes prevalent in its range .
= = Ecology and behavior = =
The long @-@ tailed ground roller is a shy and elusive bird and , if seen by a human observer , it either freezes or runs away . As its short wings suggest , the species rarely flies , but it is a powerful runner . While largely terrestrial , it roosts in low trees and bushes , and sings from low perches . Long @-@ tailed ground rollers are solitary outside the breeding season . Although diurnal , it does occasionally forage at night unlike most other ground rollers . When calling , this ground roller bobs its head and raises its tail . The long @-@ tailed ground roller also raises its tail when it is excited .
= = = Diet = = =
This species forages almost exclusively from the ground , where it alternates between remaining still and watching attentively and actively searching for it by rummaging through deep leaf litter . It eats a wide range of invertebrates , including ants , beetles , butterflies , caterpillars , cockroaches , grasshoppers , woodlice , and worms , and occasionally small vertebrates . Despite the long @-@ tailed ground roller 's poor flying abilities , it has been seen catching butterflies in midair .
= = = Reproduction = = =
The breeding season coincides with the rainy season , which lasts from October to January . During this period this bird abandons its solitary habits to find a mate , with which it remains monogamous . Males form territories during the breeding season , and they defend their area with territorial calls . These calls are given from a perch up to 6 meters ( 20 ft ) off the ground for an hour after sunrise and occasionally throughout the day and night . During courtship , males have been observed feeding the female .
Male and female long @-@ tailed ground rollers use their bills and feet to excavate a burrow in consolidated , flat sand and construct their nest at the end of it . The burrow , always constructed away from grassy vegetation , is downward @-@ sloping and is between 0 @.@ 8 and 1 @.@ 2 meters ( 2 @.@ 6 and 3 @.@ 9 ft ) long with a diameter of 8 centimeters ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) . The end of the burrow widens into a 20 @-@ centimeter ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) wide chamber with a shallow depression covered in dry leaves and earthy pellets . When digging its nest , the long @-@ tailed ground roller occasionally walks underneath a low branch , tilts its head upwards , and , while remaining motionless , releases a rising crescendo of its tu @-@ tuc calls . At the height of the crescendo the bird breaks off its call and flies upwards onto the branch while producing a " ripping and crackling sound " with its wingbeats . From the perch the bird releases a stream of boo notes . This display is thought to be part of a courtship ritual . Each pair digs one to six nesting burrows during the breeding season ; the extra burrows are known as speculative burrows .
Between October and January , and peaking in November , the species normally lays two smooth , white eggs , though sometimes it lays three or four . The incubation period and fledging time of this ground roller is unknown . After the young fledge , they live in a family group of four to five birds until approximately February , at which point the family disperses .
= = Conservation = =
Classified as vulnerable by the IUCN due to ongoing habitat destruction and a decline in the quality of the remaining habitat , the long @-@ tailed ground roller is believed to be the most threatened species of ground roller . Thirty percent of its already small habitat area was degraded between the mid @-@ 1970s and 2000 . Slash @-@ and @-@ burn agriculture , charcoal production , logging , and cattle grazing have all contributed to the loss of habitat . As of 2012 , no reserves protect any portion of its habitat , and as a result its habitat has been described as the area of Madagascar most in need of conservation efforts . It is also threatened by both hunting and egg @-@ collecting . In addition to humans , dogs hunt this species , and the introduced black rat is a nest predator . This ground roller is capable of tolerating some habitat disturbance , but requires a suitable amount of shade and leaf litter to continue living in the area . Although it was fairly common at the beginning of the twentieth century , its population went into decline and it was considered rare by the 1960s . As of 2012 , the estimated population of the long @-@ tailed ground roller is between 9 @,@ 500 and 32 @,@ 700 birds and declining .
= = Relationship with humans = =
As the long @-@ tailed ground roller is remarkably silent and difficult to see during the non @-@ breeding season , the local inhabitants of Madagascar once believed that this bird hibernated in its burrows . While not particularly tasty , this species is hunted for food due to its large size and the relative ease of capture compared with arboreal birds . In the early twentieth century , it was hunted by herdsmen with blowguns . In the 1950s and 1960s , natives trapped this ground roller and dug out its nesting burrows . This bird has been featured on several of Madagascar 's stamps . Only one zoo , Germany 's Weltvogelpark Walsrode , keeps this species . It is considered by birdwatchers to be one of the world 's most elusive birds .
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= The Convention ( The Office ) =
" The Convention " is the second episode of the third season of the American comedy television series The Office , and the show 's thirtieth episode overall . Written by the writing team of Gene Stupnitsky and Lee Eisenberg , and directed by Ken Whittingham , the episode originally aired in the United States on September 28 , 2006 on NBC .
In the episode , Josh and Jim from Dunder Mifflin Stamford , as well as Michael and Dwight from Dunder Mifflin Scranton leave for Philadelphia for the annual office supply convention . Michael , angry at both Jim for leaving the Scranton branch , as well as Josh for being superior to him , tries to one @-@ up both Jim and Josh at every opportunity . Meanwhile , Kelly sets up Pam on a double date with one of her friends which goes nowhere . Toby 's interest in Pam is piqued , beginning an unrequited crush on his part .
= = Plot = =
Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) and Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) from the Scranton branch of Dunder Mifflin , Josh Porter ( Charles Esten ) and Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) from the Stamford branch , and Jan Levenson ( Melora Hardin ) from the corporate headquarters all descend upon Philadelphia for an office supply convention . Michael is bitter that Jim left Scranton for Stamford and tries to one @-@ up Josh at every opportunity . Michael also spreads the word that he is throwing a party in his hotel room that night . Later in the evening , Michael surprises everyone with the news that he has broken Staples 's exclusive hold on Hammermill products .
In Scranton , Kelly Kapoor ( Mindy Kaling ) sets up Pam Beesly ( Jenna Fischer ) on a double date with her neighbor Alan , a cartoonist for the local newspaper . Kelly is quietly disappointed that Pam intends to wear just her normal work clothes to the date . On the double date , Kelly appears to be the only one having a good time with Ryan Howard ( B.J. Novak ) . Pam chats awkwardly with the cartoonist , who at one point sneaks a peek down Pam 's shirt , and they fail to hit it off . At Michael 's party , Jim attends as the only guest , and explains that he did not leave Scranton because of Michael ( whom Jim claims is a great boss ) , but rather because Pam rejected him , twice . The two mend their friendship just as other guests arrive , and Michael promises he would take care of the situation .
= = Production = =
" The Convention " was the fourth episode of the series written by the writing team of Gene Stupnitsky and Lee Eisenberg , and the third episode of the series directed by Ken Whittingham . This episode originally had a scene with Angela and Dwight in the office kitchen . Producer Greg Daniels stated : " They had a couple lines , there was a pause , and then Angela said , ' I 'm late ' , turned around , and left . " This would imply that she may be pregnant . The scene was cut because Daniels ultimately concluded , " It was a big move , but we had it in a show that had a lot of other big moves . ... You don 't introduce a C plot line of an illicit office romance and then all of a sudden have one of the characters get knocked up ! " Executive producer and show runner Greg Daniels had hoped to get Mackenzie Crook , Martin Freeman , and Lucy Davis from the original British Office series to appear in the episode as their respective characters ( Gareth Keenan , Tim Canterbury , and Dawn Tinsley ) but was unsuccessful due to scheduling conflicts .
The third season DVD contains a number of deleted scenes from the episode , including Michael unsuccessfully inviting Ryan to attend the convention , Michael reminiscing on being abandoned by Todd Packer at a club and being attacked by bouncers , Michael telling Dwight he almost worked at a local factory , Dwight asking Josh if he has ever been convicted of a felony , Dwight asking Josh about his experiences in the coast guard and in Israel , and Dwight leaving Michael to go see Angela .
= = Reception = =
" The Convention " received a 3 @.@ 8 / 10 in the Nielsen ratings among persons aged 18 – 49 , meaning that 3 @.@ 8 percent of all people aged 18 – 49 watched the episode , and ten percent of all people in the age group watching TV at the time watched the episode . It received an estimated audience of 7 @.@ 8 million viewers overall , and ranked # 1 in its time period among men 18 – 34 .
The episode was received generally well by critics . Brian Zoromski of IGN stated that : " Any episode that places Michael and Dwight outside of their normal office environment is set up for some very funny ( and usually awkward ) situations and ' The Convention ' is no exception . Some of the episode 's best uncomfortable moments centered on Michael believing he 's the life of the party and that he 's Jim 's friend . Michael and Dwight pretending to laugh along to an inside joke made by Jim 's new boss , Josh , is a prime example . Michael 's comment , ' I love inside jokes . Love to be part of one someday , ' creates the kind of uncomfortable silence that The Office excels at . " Also on IGN , the show received a 9 @.@ 8 out of 10 " incredible " rating from the site 's editorial staff .
Abby West , of Entertainment Weekly , praised the interactions between characters as some of the highlights of the episode , stating " Jim is the show 's salt — he makes everyone else seem just a little better . He 's the perfect straight man to showcase Michael 's insanity ... " West also commented on the awkwardness of the relationship between Ryan and Kelly , stating that " Speaking of weird love connections , I 'm really starting to worry about Ryan , who 's now letting crazy Kelly force @-@ feed him . What happened to him ? " Mat Brewster , of BlogCritics Magazine , felt that the episode didn 't live up to the status set by the previous episode " Gay Witch Hunt " , stating " this week ’ s episode , “ The Convention , ” failed to live up to my expectations . "
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= Tylopilus tabacinus =
Tylopilus tabacinus is a species of bolete fungus in the Boletaceae family . It is characterized by a tawny @-@ brown cap measuring up to 17 @.@ 5 cm ( 6 @.@ 9 in ) in diameter , and a reticulated stem up to 16 @.@ 5 cm ( 6 @.@ 5 in ) long by 6 cm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) thick . A characteristic microscopic feature is the distinctive crystalline substance encrusted on the hyphae in the surface of the cap . The species is known from the eastern United States from Florida north to Rhode Island , and west to Mississippi , and from eastern Mexico . It is a mycorrhizal species , and associates with oak and beech trees . The edibility of the mushroom is unknown .
= = Taxonomy = =
The species was first described by American mycologist Charles Horton Peck in 1896 under the name Boletus tabacinus . Peck collected the type specimens in red clay on the bank of a roadside ditch in Alabama . William Alphonso Murrill transferred the species to his then newly described genus Ceriomyces in 1909 ; this genus has since been subsumed into Boletus . Rolf Singer moved the species to Tylopilus in 1944 . Although Singer considered B. tabacinus to be the same species as Boletus pisciodorus , this opinion was contested by William Alphonso Murrill , who , after examining the type specimens of both species , considered them to be distinct . Murrill 's conclusion was later corroborated by Alexander H. Smith and Harry D. Thiers in the 1971 monograph of boletes . In 1945 , Singer defined the varieties amarus and dubius that he collected in Florida .
= = Description = =
The caps of the fruit body initially have a rounded shape , but later become broadly convex and eventually flattened in age ; they reach dimensions of 4 @.@ 5 – 17 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 8 – 6 @.@ 9 in ) wide . The color ranges from yellowish @-@ brown to orangish @-@ brown to tobacco brown . The cap surface is dry with a somewhat velvet @-@ like texture , although in larger specimens the surface is areolate ( divided into small areas by cracks ) . The cap margin is even and wavy .
The tubes on the underside of the cap ( comprising the hymenium ) are dark brown to cinnamon @-@ brown . The angular to circular pores are lighter in color than the tubes and number about 1 – 2 pores per millimeter , while the tubes are up to 1 @.@ 4 cm ( 0 @.@ 55 in ) long . The pore surface is depressed around the stem . The cap flesh is white , but typically stains purplish @-@ buff or pinkish @-@ buff when cut . The stipe typically measures 4 – 16 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 – 6 @.@ 5 in ) by 2 @.@ 5 – 6 cm ( 1 @.@ 0 – 2 @.@ 4 in ) thick . When young , it is bulbous , but matures to become more or less equal in width throughout . Its color is roughly the same as the cap , although it tends to be slightly darker in the upper portion , where it is reticulate ( covered with a net @-@ like patterns of ridges ) . The odor of the mushroom has been described variously as " not distinctive , fruity , fishy , or pungent " , while the taste is indistinct to slightly bitter . The edibility of the mushroom is unknown . The variety amarus is similar in appearance , but has bitter @-@ tasting flesh , while variety dubius has a lighter colored @-@ cap and less distinctive reticulations on the apex of the stem .
Fruit bodies produce a spore print ranging in color from pinkish @-@ brown to reddish @-@ brown . The spores measure 10 – 17 by 3 @.@ 5 – 4 @.@ 5 μm , and are fusoid ( somewhat spindle @-@ shaped ) to elliptical . Spores have a smooth surface , and a plage ( a depressed area where the spore was once attached to the basidium via the sterigma ) . The spore walls are thin , up to 0 @.@ 2 μm . They are pale yellow to cream green in a solution of potassium hydroxide , pale yellow @-@ rust in Melzer 's reagent , and blue in Methyl blue ; without stain , they appear hyaline to pale yellow . The cap cuticle is an interwoven trichodermium — a cellular arrangement whereby the hyphae are of roughly equal length and arranged perpendicularly to the surface . The terminal ( end ) cells of the trichodermium are 6 @.@ 5 – 11 @.@ 5 μm in diameter , and roughly equal in width throughout their length . They are encrusted with a crystalline substance , a feature that is uncommon in the Boletaceae . The hyphae of the tubes are 5 @.@ 0 – 13 @.@ 0 μm in diameter . Clamp connections are absent from the hyphae .
The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) of T. tabacinus are club @-@ shaped and measure 23 @.@ 5 – 37 @.@ 0 by 8 @.@ 5 – 13 @.@ 0 μm . The pleurocystidia ( cystidia found on the inner surface of the tubes ) are 45 @.@ 0 – 60 @.@ 0 by 6 @.@ 5 – 12 @.@ 5 μm , lanceolate ( lance @-@ shaped ) to narrowly fusoid @-@ ventricose ( enlarged in the middle and somewhat spindle @-@ shaped ) . Cheilocystidia ( cystidia on the outer edges of the tubes ) are absent . The caulocystidia ( cystidia on the stem ) form the reticulations on the stem ; they are usually club @-@ shaped and measure 21 @.@ 0 – 40 @.@ 5 by 6 @.@ 5 – 10 @.@ 5 μm .
= = = Similar species = = =
Boletus pisciodorus is similar in form to Tylopilus tabacinus . Unlike , T. tabacinus however , B. pisciodorus has spores that are hyaline in mass , and dark yellowish @-@ brown rather than hyaline when viewed with a light microscope . Further , B. pisciodorus has a fishy odor that is apparent in both fresh and dried specimens .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Tylopilus tabacinus forms ectomycorrhizal associations with oaks , and fruit bodies are usually found solitarily , scattered , or in groups on sandy soil under oaks or in mixed oak @-@ pine woods from July to September . In the United States , the mushroom is distributed from Florida north to Rhode Island , and west to Mississippi . It has also been collected from a montane cloud forest of Mexican Beech ( Fagus grandifolia var. mexicana ) in the state of Hidalgo , Mexico . The occurrence of the mushroom is " occasional to fairly common " . The varieties amarus and dubius are rare , known only from their original collection locations in Gainesville , Florida .
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= Artist 's Studio — Look Mickey =
Artist 's Studio — Look Mickey ( sometimes Artist 's Studio , Look Mickey , Artist 's Studio – Look Mickey or Artist 's Studio No. 1 ( Look Mickey ) ) is a 1973 painting by Roy Lichtenstein . It is one of five large @-@ scale studio interior paintings in a series . The series is either referred to as the Artist 's Studio series or more colloquially as the Studios and sometimes is described as excluding the other 1973 painting , reducing the series to four .
The series refers to a set of works by Henri Matisse , with this work specifically referring to L 'Atelier Rouge . The work incorporates several other Lichtenstein 's works and gets its name from the large portion of Lichtenstein 's Look Mickey that is included . Lichtenstein used a much more realistic representation of his own works than is standard for most artists . Elements of the work also refer to works from both Fernand Léger and Matisse .
= = Background = =
Lichtenstein 's studios reference what are known as Matisse 's four Symphonic Interiors of 1911 ( The Pink Studio , The Painter 's Family , Interior with Eggplants , The Red Studio ) and an earlier Matisse The Dance . Artist 's Studio — Look Mickey was part of a series that included The Artist 's Studio – with Model , 1974 , Artist 's Studio , Foot Medication , 1974 , Artist 's Studio , the " Dance " , 1974 , Artist 's Studio / A Still Life , 1973 . Artist 's Studio — Look Mickey was the only one of the five to include a corner of the room , like The Red Studio . Many sources , including Lichtenstein himself only include four works in the series ( excluding Artist 's Studio / A Still Life , 1973 ) . In a 1995 lecture in conjunction with the Kyoto Prize , he said " I did a series of four large , about 8 ' x10 ' , paintings of interiors of artists ' studios . They were inspired by Matisse 's paintings ... " Artist 's Studio — Look Mickey is regarded as the first of the four Artist 's Studio works . From among the Artist 's Studio series works , this depicts " the deepest , most plainly articulated interior space . "
= = Description = =
The work , which is in part a retrospective , " conflated early modernism with emergent postmodernism " . Lichtenstein refers to some of his paintings , including Look Mickey in this work , which depicts his own studio as the ideal studio and implies that the public consensus ratifies his choice of popular culture subject matter . The series depicts individual Lichtenstein works as well as groups of works in closed room that is ironically devoid of paint brushes or easels . The series served as a review of Lichtenstein 's post 1961 work , with objects of his prior works decorating the room as furnishings . In Artist 's Studio — Look Mickey , the couch , door , wall frieze , telephone and fruit all are drawn from earlier works and serve this setting as interior decoration , while Look Mickey is almost presented undisturbed in its entirety . Less notable works include the mirror and the Trompe @-@ l 'œil painting of the rear side of the canvas . Two other paintings were works in progress at the time of this work and one became a painting within a year after the completion of this work : the gull and the dune landscape . The speech balloon was never produced as a separate work . However , its juxtaposition to the speech balloon from Donald Duck is intriguing . He references his Entablatures works as ceiling molding .
Lichtenstein 's approach to presenting his own works within his works was non @-@ traditional . The works were revisited as exact duplicates rather than the more standard distanced revisitation . This choice of exact duplication contrary to popular practice intrigued Lichtenstein . Lichtenstein liked this quality of his paintings within his paintings , saying " I like the combination of a very separate quality that each of my paintings has within the painting , and the fact that everything works as one painting too . " In fact , Lichtenstein commented on this as an attempt to eliminate any modulation :
A couple of years ago I started some paintings that had my own paintings in them , and which were similar to the Matisse studios . There was one difference that I think shows up mostly in the Look Mickey : When I reproduce one of my own paintings in my painting , it 's different from Matisse reproducing one of his paintings in his painting , because even though in both paintings the depicted painting is submerged for the good of the whole work , it 's much more so in Matisse . I wanted my paintings to read as individual paintings with the work , so that there would be some confusion . There ’ s no remove in my work , no modulation or subtlety of line , so the painting @-@ of @-@ a @-@ painting looks exactly like the painting it 's of . This is not true , of course , of many early — including Renaissance — depictions of paintings on walls , where there ’ s always a remove indicated through modulation , or some other way of showing that the depicted painting is not pasted on the picture or something like that .
The Studio series was inspired by Matisse paintings , and Diane Waldman claims that this particular effort was modelled upon Matisse 's L 'Atelier Rouge ( The Red Studio ) , although the Lichtenstein Foundation website credits two other Matisse works as inspiration as well as Fernand Léger 's The Baluster , 1925 , which is represented in the far right corner . Léger was one of Lichtenstein 's closest friends . By incorporating Matisse in his own studio setting , Lichtenstein is perceived as presenting himself as Matisse 's peer and in so doing repositions pop art as a historical style rather than a contemporary one .
A sketch for this work demonstrates Lichtenstein 's original intent to incorporate a " plant @-@ in @-@ vessel arrangement " as well as fruit on the table , but these Matisse references were instead depicted on the floor of the studio . The table instead includes the telephone from Lichtenstein 's own R @-@ R @-@ R @-@ R @-@ Ring ! ! with differences from the original that amount to puns . In the original , Lichtenstein depicted sound with motion lines that present a pronounced movement of the object . This contrasts with the same phone in the studio setting in " perfect stasis " , which contributes to the pacific still life setting .
= = Reception = =
According to Janis Hendrickson , " For someone familiar with the artist 's oeuvre , the Studios could become mental playgrounds . " Waldman notes that " Perhaps the most significant aspect of the work is its retrospective nature and the decision by the artist to reflect on his life , past and present . " The small portion of the original that was cropped out was the majority of Mickey Mouse , emphasizing Donald Duck , who Graham Bader sees as Lichtenstein 's metaphorical representation .
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= Psycho ( 1960 film ) =
Psycho is a 1960 American psychological horror thriller directed and produced by Alfred Hitchcock , and written by Joseph Stefano , starring Anthony Perkins , Janet Leigh , John Gavin , Vera Miles and Martin Balsam , and was based on the 1959 novel of the same name by Robert Bloch . The film centers on the encounter between a secretary , Marion Crane ( Leigh ) , who ends up at a secluded motel after stealing money from her employer , and the motel 's disturbed owner @-@ manager , Norman Bates ( Perkins ) , and its aftermath .
When originally made , the film was seen as a departure from Hitchcock 's previous film North by Northwest , having been filmed on a low budget , with a television crew and in black and white . Psycho initially received mixed reviews , but outstanding box office returns prompted reconsideration which led to overwhelming critical acclaim and four Academy Award nominations , including Best Supporting Actress for Leigh and Best Director for Hitchcock . Psycho is now considered one of Hitchcock 's best films and praised as a work of cinematic art by international film critics and film scholars . Ranked among the greatest films of all time , it set a new level of acceptability for violence , deviant behavior and sexuality in American films , and is widely considered to be the earliest example of the slasher film genre .
After Hitchcock 's death in 1980 , Universal Studios began producing follow @-@ ups : three sequels , a remake , a television film spin @-@ off , and a TV series . In 1992 , the US Library of Congress deemed the film " culturally , historically , or aesthetically significant " and selected it for preservation in the National Film Registry .
= = Plot = =
During a lunchtime tryst in Phoenix , Arizona , a real estate secretary named Marion Crane discusses with her boyfriend , Sam Loomis , how they cannot afford to get married because of Sam 's debts . After lunch , Marion returns to work , where a client drops off a $ 40 @,@ 000 cash payment on a property . Her boss asks her to deposit the money in the bank , and she asks if she can take the rest of the afternoon off . Returning home , she begins to pack for an unplanned trip , deciding to steal the money and give it to Sam in Fairvale , California . She is seen by her boss on her way out of town , which makes her nervous . During the trip , she pulls over on the side of the road and falls asleep , only to be awakened by a state patrol officer . He is suspicious about her nervous behavior but allows her to drive on . Shaken by the encounter , Marion stops at an automobile dealership and trades in her Ford Mainline , with its Arizona license plates , for a Ford Custom 300 that has California tags . Her transaction is all for naught — the highway patrolman sees her at the car dealership and witnesses her purchase of the newer car .
Driving on , Marion encounters a sudden rainstorm and decides to stop for the night at the Bates Motel ; the proprietor , Norman Bates , invites her to a light dinner after she checks in . She accepts , but then hears an argument between Norman and his mother about bringing a woman into her house . They eat in the motel parlor , where he tells her about his hobby of taxidermy and his life with his mother , who is mentally ill and forbids him to have a life outside of her . Returning to her room , Marion decides to go back to Phoenix to return the stolen money . She prepares to take a shower , unaware that Norman is spying on her . As she is showering , a female figure suddenly appears and stabs her to death with a chef knife . Norman discovers the murder and meticulously cleans up the crime scene , putting Marion 's corpse and her possessions — including the embezzled money — into the trunk of her car and sinking it in the swamps near the motel .
A week later , Marion 's sister Lila arrives in Fairvale and confronts Sam about the whereabouts of her sister . A private investigator named Arbogast approaches them and confirms that Marion is wanted for stealing the $ 40 @,@ 000 from her employer . He eventually comes across the Bates Motel , where Norman 's behavior arouses his suspicions . After hearing that Marion had met with Norman 's mother , he asks to speak with her , but Norman refuses . Arbogast calls Lila and Sam , informing them of what he has discovered and saying he intends to speak with Norman 's mother . He goes to the Bates ' home in search of her ; as he reaches the top of the stairs , Mrs. Bates suddenly appears from the bedroom and murders him . When Lila and Sam do not hear from Arbogast , they go to the local sheriff , who informs them that Mrs. Bates has been dead for ten years ; she had killed herself and her lover . Concerned , Lila and Sam make their way to the motel . Meanwhile , Norman takes his unwilling mother from her room , telling her he needs to hide her for a while in the fruit cellar .
At the motel , Lila and Sam meet Norman . Sam distracts him by striking up a conversation while Lila sneaks up to the house . When Norman eventually realizes what they want , he knocks Sam out and rushes to the house . Lila sees Norman approaching and attempts to hide by going down steps that lead to a cellar . There she finds Mrs. Bates sitting in a chair . Lila turns her around and discovers that she is in fact a mummified corpse . Lila screams as a figure comes running into the cellar : Norman , holding a chef knife and wearing his mother 's clothes and a wig . Before Norman can attack Lila , Sam , having regained consciousness , subdues him .
At the local courthouse , a psychiatrist explains that Norman murdered Mrs. Bates and her lover 10 years prior out of jealousy . Unable to bear the guilt , he exhumed her corpse and began to treat it as if she were still alive . In order to preserve that illusion , he recreated his mother in his own mind as an alternate personality , often dressing in her clothes and talking to himself in her voice . The " Mother " personality is as jealous and possessive as the real Mrs. Bates had been : Whenever Norman feels attracted to another woman , " Mother " flies into a rage and kills her . As " Mother " , Norman had killed two missing girls prior to Marion , as well as Arbogast . The psychiatrist then says the " Mother " personality has taken permanent hold of Norman 's mind . While Norman sits in a holding cell , Mrs. Bates ' voice is heard protesting that the murders were Norman 's doing and that she " wouldn 't even harm a fly . " The final shot of the film shows Marion 's car being dragged from the swamp .
= = Cast = =
Anthony Perkins as Norman Bates
Janet Leigh as Marion Crane
Vera Miles as Lila Crane
John Gavin as Sam Loomis
Martin Balsam as Detective Milton Arbogast
John McIntire as Al Chambers
Simon Oakland as Dr. Fred Richmond
Frank Albertson as Tom Cassidy
Pat Hitchcock as Caroline
Vaughn Taylor as George Lowery
Lurene Tuttle as Mrs. Chambers
John Anderson as California Charlie ( used car salesman )
Mort Mills as Highway Patrol Officer
Virginia Gregg , Jeanette Nolan , and Paul Jasmin as voice of Norma Bates
Ted Knight as a policeman guarding Norman Bates ( uncredited )
The success of Psycho jump @-@ started Perkins ' career , but he soon began to suffer from typecasting . However , when Perkins was asked whether he would have still taken the role knowing that he would be typecast afterwards , he replied with a definite " yes " .
Until her death , Leigh continued to receive strange and sometimes threatening calls , letters , and even tapes detailing what they would like to do to Marion Crane . One letter was so " grotesque " that she passed it along to the FBI , two of whose agents visited Leigh and told her the culprits had been located and that she should notify the FBI if she received any more letters of that type .
Norman 's mother was voiced by Virginia Gregg , Paul Jasmin , and Jeanette Nolan , who also provided some screams for Lila 's discovery of the mother 's corpse . The three voices were thoroughly mixed , except for the last speech , which is all Gregg 's .
As Perkins was in New York working on a Broadway stage show when the shower sequence was filmed , actresses Anne Dore and Margo Epper stepped in as his body doubles for that scene .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Psycho is based on Robert Bloch 's 1959 novel of the same name , which was loosely inspired by the case of convicted Wisconsin murderer and grave robber Ed Gein . Both Gein , who lived just 40 miles from Bloch , and the story 's protagonist , Norman Bates , were solitary murderers in isolated rural locations . Each had deceased , domineering mothers , had sealed off a room in their home as a shrine to her , and dressed in women 's clothes . However , unlike Bates , Gein is not strictly considered a serial killer , having been charged with murder only twice .
Peggy Robertson , Hitchcock 's long @-@ time assistant , read Anthony Boucher 's positive review of the novel and decided to show the book to her employer , even though studio readers at Paramount Pictures had already rejected its premise for a film . Hitchcock acquired rights to the novel for $ 9 @,@ 500 and reportedly ordered Robertson to buy up copies to preserve the novel 's surprises . Hitchcock , who had come to face genre competitors whose works were critically compared to his own , was seeking new material to recover from two aborted projects with Paramount , Flamingo Feather and No Bail for the Judge . He disliked stars ' salary demands and trusted only a few people to choose prospective material , including Robertson .
Paramount executives balked at Hitchcock 's proposal and refused to provide his usual budget . In response , Hitchcock offered to film Psycho quickly and inexpensively in black and white using his Alfred Hitchcock Presents television series crew . Paramount executives rejected this cost @-@ conscious approach , claiming their sound stages were booked even though the industry was in a slump . Hitchcock countered he would personally finance the project and film it at Universal @-@ International using his Shamley Productions crew if Paramount would merely distribute . In lieu of his usual $ 250 @,@ 000 director 's fee he proposed a 60 % stake in the film negative . This combined offer was accepted and Hitchcock went ahead in spite of naysaying from producer Herbert Coleman and Shamley Productions executive Joan Harrison .
= = = Novel adaptation = = =
James P. Cavanagh , a writer on the Alfred Hitchcock Presents television series , penned the original screenplay . Hitchcock felt the script dragged and read like a television short horror story , an assessment shared by an assistant . Though Stefano had worked on only one film before , Hitchcock agreed to meet with him ; despite Stefano 's inexperience , the meeting went well and he was hired .
The screenplay is relatively faithful to the novel , with a few notable adaptations by Hitchcock and Stefano . Stefano found the character of Norman Bates — who , in the book , is middle @-@ aged , overweight , and more overtly unstable — unsympathetic , but became more intrigued when Hitchcock suggested casting Anthony Perkins . Stefano eliminated Bates ' drinking , which evidently necessitated removing Bates ' " becoming " the Mother personality when in a drunken stupor . Also gone is Bates ' interest in spiritualism , the occult and pornography . Hitchcock and Stefano elected to open the film with scenes in Marion 's life and not introduce Bates at all until 20 minutes into the film , rather than open with Bates reading a history book as Bloch does . Indeed , writer Joseph W. Smith notes that , " Her story occupies only two of the novel 's 17 chapters . Hitchcock and Stefano expanded this to nearly half the narrative " . He likewise notes there is no hotel tryst between Marion and Sam in the novel . For Stefano , the conversation between Marion and Norman in the hotel parlor in which she displays a maternal sympathy towards him makes it possible for the audience to switch their sympathies towards Norman Bates after Marion 's murder . When Lila Crane is looking through Norman 's room in the film she opens a book with a blank cover whose contents are unseen ; in the novel these are " pathologically pornographic " illustrations . Stefano wanted to give the audience " indications that something was quite wrong , but it could not be spelled out or overdone . " In his book of interviews with Hitchcock , François Truffaut notes that the novel " cheats " by having extended conversations between Norman and " Mother " and stating what Mother is " doing " at various given moments .
The first name of the female protagonist was changed from Mary to Marion , since a real Mary Crane existed in Phoenix . Also changed is the novel 's budding romance between Sam and Lila . Hitchcock preferred to focus the audience 's attention on the solution to the mystery , and Stefano thought such a relationship would make Sam Loomis seem cheap . Instead of having Sam explain Norman 's pathology to Lila , the film uses a psychiatrist . ( Stefano was in therapy dealing with his relationship with his own mother at the time of writing the film . ) The novel is more violent than the film ; for instance , Crane is beheaded in the shower as opposed to being stabbed to death . Minor changes include changing Marion 's telltale earring found after her death to a scrap of paper that failed to flush down the toilet . This provided some shock effect , since toilets were virtually never seen in American cinema in the 1960s . The location of Arbogast 's death was moved from the foyer to the stairwell . Stefano thought this would make it easier to conceal the truth about " Mother " without tipping that something was being hidden . As Janet Leigh put it , this gave Hitchcock more options for his camera .
= = = Pre @-@ production = = =
Paramount , whose contract guaranteed another film by Hitchcock , did not want Hitchcock to make Psycho . Paramount was expecting No Bail for the Judge starring Audrey Hepburn , who became pregnant and had to bow out , leading Hitchcock to scrap the production . Their official stance was that the book was " too repulsive " and " impossible for films " , and nothing but another of his star @-@ studded mystery thrillers would suffice . They did not like " anything about it at all " and denied him his usual budget . In response Hitchcock financed the film 's creation through his own Shamley Productions , shooting at Universal Studios under the Revue television unit . The original Bates Motel and Bates house set buildings , which were constructed on the same stage as Lon Chaney Sr. ' s The Phantom of the Opera , are still standing at Universal Studios in Universal City near Hollywood and are a regular attraction on the studio 's tour . As a further result of cost cutting , Hitchcock chose to film Psycho in black and white , keeping the budget under $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 . Other reasons for shooting in black and white were his desire to prevent the shower scene from being too gory and his admiration for Les Diaboliques 's use of black and white .
To keep costs down , and because he was most comfortable around them , Hitchcock took most of his crew from his television series Alfred Hitchcock Presents , including the cinematographer , set designer , script supervisor , and first assistant director . He hired regular collaborators Bernard Herrmann as music composer , George Tomasini as editor , and Saul Bass for the title design and storyboarding of the shower scene . In all , his crew cost $ 62 @,@ 000 .
Through the strength of his reputation , Hitchcock cast Leigh for a quarter of her usual fee , paying only $ 25 @,@ 000 ( in the 1967 book Hitchcock / Truffaut , Hitchcock said that Leigh owed Paramount one final film on her seven @-@ year contract which she had signed in 1953 ) . His first choice , Leigh agreed after having only read the novel and making no inquiry into her salary . Her co @-@ star , Anthony Perkins , agreed to $ 40 @,@ 000 . Both stars were experienced and proven box @-@ office draws .
Paramount did distribute the film , but four years later Hitchcock sold his stock in Shamley to Universal 's parent company ( MCA ) and his next six films were made at and distributed by Universal Pictures . After another four years , Paramount sold all rights to Universal .
= = = Filming = = =
The film , independently produced and financed by Hitchcock , was shot at Revue Studios , the same location as his television show . Psycho was shot on a tight budget of $ 807 @,@ 000 , beginning on November 11 , 1959 and ending on February 1 , 1960 . Filming started in the morning and finished by six p.m. or earlier on Thursdays ( when Hitchcock and his wife would dine at Chasen 's ) . Nearly the whole film was shot with 50 mm lenses on 35 mm cameras . This trick closely mimicked normal human vision , which helped to further involve the audience .
Before shooting began in November , Hitchcock dispatched assistant director Hilton A. Green to Phoenix to scout locations and shoot the opening scene . The shot was supposed to be an aerial shot of Phoenix that slowly zoomed into the hotel window of a passionate Marion and Sam . Ultimately , the helicopter footage proved too shaky and had to be spliced with footage from the studio . Another crew filmed day and night footage on Highway 99 between Gorman and Fresno , California for projection when Marion drives from Phoenix . Footage of her driving into Bakersfield to trade her car is also shown . They also provided the location shots for the scene in which she is discovered sleeping in her car by the highway patrolman . In one street scene shot in downtown Phoenix , Christmas decorations were discovered to be visible ; rather than re @-@ shoot the footage , Hitchcock chose to add a graphic to the opening scene marking the date as " Friday , December the Eleventh " .
Green also took photos of a prepared list of 140 locations for later reconstruction in the studio . These included many real estate offices and homes such as those belonging to Marion and her sister . He also found a girl who looked just like he imagined Marion and photographed her whole wardrobe , which would enable Hitchcock to demand realistic looks from Helen Colvig , the wardrobe supervisor . The look of the Bates house was modeled on Edward Hopper 's painting The House by the Railroad , a fanciful portrait of the Second Empire Victorian home at 18 Conger Avenue in Haverstraw , NY .
Both the leads , Perkins and Leigh , were given freedom to interpret their roles and improvise as long as it did not involve moving the camera . An example of Perkins ' improvisation is Norman 's habit of eating candy corn .
Throughout filming , Hitchcock created and hid various versions of the " Mother corpse " prop in Leigh 's dressing room closet . Leigh took the joke well , and she wondered whether it was done to keep her on edge and thus more in character or to judge which corpse would be scarier for the audience .
During shooting , Hitchcock was forced to uncharacteristically do retakes for some scenes . The final shot in the shower scene , which starts with an extreme close @-@ up on Marion 's eye and pulls up and out , proved very difficult for Leigh , since the water splashing in her face made her want to blink , and the cameraman had trouble as well since he had to manually focus while moving the camera . Retakes were also required for the opening scene , since Hitchcock felt that Leigh and Gavin were not passionate enough . Leigh had trouble saying " Not inordinately " for the real estate office scene , requiring additional retakes . Lastly , the scene in which the mother is discovered required complicated coordination of the chair turning around , Miles hitting the light bulb , and a lens flare , which proved to be the sticking point . Hitchcock forced retakes until all three elements were to his satisfaction .
According to Hitchcock , a series of shots with Arbogast going up the stairs in the Bates house before he is stabbed were helmed by assistant director Hilton A. Green , working with storyboard artist Saul Bass ' drawings only while Hitchcock was incapacitated with the common cold . However , upon viewing the dailies of the shots , Hitchcock was forced to scrap them . He claimed they were " no good " because they did not portray " an innocent person but a sinister man who was going up those stairs " . Hitchcock later re @-@ shot the scene , though a little of the cut footage made its way into the film . Filming the murder of Arbogast proved problematic owing to the overhead camera angle necessary to hide the film 's twist . A camera track constructed on pulleys alongside the stairway together with a chairlike device had to be constructed and thoroughly tested over a period of weeks .
Alfred Hitchcock 's cameo is a signature occurrence in most of his films . In Psycho , he can be seen through a window — wearing a Stetson hat — standing outside Marion Crane 's office . Wardrobe mistress Rita Riggs has said that Hitchcock chose this scene for his cameo so that he could be in a scene with his daughter ( who played one of Marion 's colleagues ) . Others have suggested that he chose this early appearance in the film in order to avoid distracting the audience .
= = = The shower scene = = =
The murder of Leigh 's character in the shower is the film 's pivotal scene and one of the best @-@ known in all of cinema . As such , it spawned numerous myths and legends . It was shot from December 17 – 23 , 1959 , and features 77 different camera angles . The scene runs 3 minutes and includes 50 cuts . Most of the shots are extreme close @-@ ups , except for medium shots in the shower directly before and directly after the murder . The combination of the close shots with their short duration makes the sequence feel more subjective than it would have been if the images were presented alone or in a wider angle , an example of the technique Hitchcock described as " transferring the menace from the screen into the mind of the audience " .
In order to capture the straight @-@ on shot of the shower head , the camera had to be equipped with a long lens . The inner holes on the shower head were blocked and the camera placed a sufficient distance away so that the water , while appearing to be aimed directly at the lens , actually went around and past it .
The soundtrack of screeching violins , violas , and cellos was an original all @-@ strings piece by composer Bernard Herrmann titled " The Murder " . Hitchcock originally intended to have no music for the sequence ( and all motel scenes ) , but Herrmann insisted he try his composition . Afterward , Hitchcock agreed it vastly intensified the scene , and nearly doubled Herrmann 's salary . The blood in the scene is reputed to have been Bosco chocolate syrup , which shows up better on black @-@ and @-@ white film , and has more realistic density than stage blood . The sound of the knife entering flesh was created by plunging a knife into a casaba melon .
There are varying accounts whether Leigh was in the shower the entire time or a body double was used for some parts of the murder sequence and its aftermath . In an interview with Roger Ebert and in the book Alfred Hitchcock and the Making of Psycho , Leigh stated she was in the scene the entire time and Hitchcock used a stand @-@ in only for the sequence in which Norman wraps Marion 's body in a shower curtain and places it in the trunk of her car . The 2010 book The Girl in Alfred Hitchcock 's Shower by Robert Graysmith contradicts this , identifying Marli Renfro as Leigh 's body double for some of the shower scene 's shots .
A popular myth emerged that , in order for Leigh 's scream in the shower to sound realistic , ice @-@ cold water was used . Leigh denied this on numerous occasions , saying the crew was very accommodating , supplying hot water throughout the week @-@ long shoot . All of the screams are Leigh 's .
Another myth concerns Saul Bass , the graphic designer who created many of the title sequences of Hitchcock 's films and storyboarded some of Psycho 's scenes , claiming he had directed the shower scene . This was refuted by several figures associated with the film , including Leigh , who stated : " absolutely not ! I have emphatically said this in any interview I 've ever given . I 've said it to his face in front of other people ... I was in that shower for seven days , and , believe me , Alfred Hitchcock was right next to his camera for every one of those seventy @-@ odd shots . " Hilton A. Green , the assistant director , also refutes Bass ' claim : " There is not a shot in that movie that I didn 't roll the camera for . And I can tell you I never rolled the camera for Mr. Bass . " Roger Ebert , a longtime admirer of Hitchcock 's work , summarily dismissed the rumor , stating , " It seems unlikely that a perfectionist with an ego like Hitchcock 's would let someone else direct such a scene . "
However , commentators such as Stephen Rebello and Bill Krohn have argued in favor of Bass ' contribution to the scene in his capacity as visual consultant and storyboard artist . Along with designing the opening credits , Bass is termed " Pictorial Consultant " in the credits . When interviewing Hitchcock in 1967 , François Truffaut asked about the extent of Bass ' contribution , to which Hitchcock replied that in addition to the titles , Bass had provided storyboards for the Arbogast murder ( which he claimed to have rejected ) , but made no mention of Bass providing storyboards for the shower scene . According to Bill Krohn 's Hitchcock At Work , Bass ' first claim to have directed the scene was in 1970 , when he provided a magazine with 48 drawings used as storyboards as proof of his contribution .
Krohn 's analysis of the production of Psycho in his book Hitchcock at Work , while refuting Bass ' claims for directing the scene , notes that these storyboards did introduce key aspects of the final scene — most notably , the fact that the killer appears as a silhouette , and details such as the close @-@ ups of the slashing knife , Leigh 's desperate outstretched arm , the shower curtain being torn down , and the transition from the hole of the drainage pipe to Marion Crane 's dead eyes . Krohn notes that this final transition is highly reminiscent of the iris titles that Bass created for Vertigo .
Krohn 's research also notes that Hitchcock shot the scene with two cameras : one a BNC Mitchell , the other a handheld French Éclair camera which Orson Welles had used in Touch of Evil ( 1958 ) . In order to create an ideal montage for the greatest emotional impact on the audience , Hitchcock shot a lot of footage of this scene which he trimmed down in the editing room . He even brought a Moviola on the set to gauge the footage required . The final sequence , which his editor George Tomasini worked on with Hitchcock 's advice , however did not go far beyond the basic structural elements set up by Bass ' storyboards .
According to Donald Spoto in The Dark Side of Genius , Hitchcock 's wife , Alma Reville , spotted a blooper in one of the last screenings of Psycho before its official release : after Marion was supposedly dead , one could see her blink . According to Patricia Hitchcock , talking in Laurent Bouzereau 's " making of " documentary , Alma spotted that Leigh 's character appeared to take a breath . In either case , the postmortem activity was edited out and was never seen by audiences . Although Marion 's eyes should be dilated after her death , the contact lenses necessary for this effect would have required six weeks of acclimation to wear them , so Hitchcock decided to forgo them .
It is often claimed that , despite its graphic nature , the " shower scene " never once shows a knife puncturing flesh . However , a frame by frame analysis of the sequence shows one shot in which the knife appears to penetrate Leigh 's abdomen , but the effect may have been created by lighting and reverse motion . Leigh herself was so affected by this scene when she saw it , that she no longer took showers unless she absolutely had to ; she would lock all the doors and windows and would leave the bathroom and shower door open . She never realized until she first watched the film " how vulnerable and defenseless one is " .
Leigh and Hitchcock fully discussed what the scene meant :
Marion had decided to go back to Phoenix , come clean , and take the consequence , so when she stepped into the bathtub it was as if she were stepping into the baptismal waters . The spray beating down on her was purifying the corruption from her mind , purging the evil from her soul . She was like a virgin again , tranquil , at peace .
Film theorist Robin Wood also discusses how the shower washes " away her guilt " . He comments upon the " alienation effect " of killing off the " apparent center of the film " with which spectators had identified .
= = Soundtrack = =
= = = Score = = =
Hitchcock insisted that Bernard Herrmann write the score for Psycho despite the composer 's refusal to accept a reduced fee for the film 's lower budget . The resulting score , according to Christopher Palmer in The Composer in Hollywood ( 1990 ) is " perhaps Herrmann 's most spectacular Hitchcock achievement . " Hitchcock was pleased with the tension and drama the score added to the film , later remarking " 33 % of the effect of Psycho was due to the music . " The singular contribution of Herrmann 's score may be inferred from the unusual penultimate placement of the composer 's name in the film 's opening credit sequence , as it is followed only by Hitchcock 's directing credit .
Herrmann used the lowered music budget to his advantage by writing for a string orchestra rather than a full symphonic ensemble , contrary to Hitchcock 's request for a jazz score . He thought of the single tone color of the all @-@ string soundtrack as a way of reflecting the black @-@ and @-@ white cinematography of the film . The strings play con sordini ( with a muting device placed across the bridge ) for all the music other than the shower scene , creating a darker and more intense effect . Hollywood composer Fred Steiner , in an analysis of the score to Psycho , points out that string instruments gave Herrmann access to a wider range in tone , dynamics , and instrumental special effects than any other single instrumental group would have .
The main title music , a tense , hurtling piece , sets the tone of impending violence , and returns three times on the soundtrack . Though nothing shocking occurs during the first 15 – 20 minutes of the film , the title music remains in the audience 's mind , lending tension to these early scenes . Herrmann also maintains tension through the slower moments in the film through the use of ostinato .
There were rumors that Herrmann had used electronic means , including amplified bird screeches to achieve the shocking effect of the music in the shower scene . The effect was achieved , however , only with violins in a " screeching , stabbing sound @-@ motion of extraordinary viciousness . " The only electronic amplification employed was in the placing of the microphones close to the instruments , to get a harsher sound . Besides the emotional impact , the shower scene cue ties the soundtrack to birds . The association of the shower scene music with birds also telegraphs to the audience that it is Norman , the stuffed @-@ bird collector , who is the murderer rather than his mother .
Herrmann biographer Steven C. Smith writes that the music for the shower scene is " probably the most famous ( and most imitated ) cue in film music , " but Hitchcock was originally opposed to having music in this scene . When Herrmann played the shower scene cue for Hitchcock , the director approved its use in the film . Herrmann reminded Hitchcock of his instructions not to score this scene , to which Hitchcock replied , " Improper suggestion , my boy , improper suggestion . " This was one of two important disagreements Hitchcock had with Herrmann , in which Herrmann ignored Hitchcock 's instructions . The second one , over the score for Torn Curtain ( 1966 ) , resulted in the end of their professional collaboration . A survey conducted by PRS for Music , in 2009 , showed that the British public consider the score from ' the shower scene ' to be the scariest theme from any film .
To honor the fiftieth anniversary of Psycho , in July 2010 , the San Francisco Symphony obtained a print of the film with the soundtrack removed , and projected it on a large screen in Davies Symphony Hall while the orchestra performed the score live . This was previously mounted by the Seattle Symphony in October 2009 as well , performing at the Benaroya Hall for two consecutive evenings .
= = = Recordings = = =
Several CDs of the film soundtrack have been released , including :
The 1970s soundtrack recording with Bernard Herrmann conducting the National Philharmonic Orchestra [ Unicorn CD , 1993 ] .
The 1997 Varèse Sarabande CD features a re @-@ recording of the complete score performed by the Royal Scottish National Orchestra and conducted by Joel McNeely .
The 1998 Soundstage Records SCD 585 CD claims to feature the tracks from the original master tapes . However , it has been asserted that the release is a bootleg recording .
The 2011 Doxy Records DOY650 ( Italy ) 180 gram LP release of the complete original 1960 score conducted by Herrmann .
= = Controversy = =
Psycho is a prime example of the type of film that appeared in the United States during the 1960s after the erosion of the Production Code . It was unprecedented in its depiction of sexuality and violence , right from the opening scene in which Sam and Marion are shown as lovers sharing the same bed , with Marion in a bra . In the Production Code standards of that time , unmarried couples shown in the same bed would be taboo .
According to the book Alfred Hitchcock and the Making of Psycho , the censors in charge of enforcing the Production Code wrangled with Hitchcock because some of them insisted they could see one of Leigh 's breasts . Hitchcock held onto the print for several days , left it untouched , and resubmitted it for approval . Each of the censors reversed their positions : those who had previously seen the breast now did not , and those who had not , now did . They passed the film after the director removed one shot that showed the buttocks of Leigh 's stand @-@ in . The board was also upset by the racy opening , so Hitchcock said that if they let him keep the shower scene he would re @-@ shoot the opening with them on the set . Since they did not show up for the re @-@ shoot , the opening stayed .
Another cause of concern for the censors was that Marion was shown flushing a toilet , with its contents ( torn @-@ up note paper ) fully visible . No flushing toilet had appeared in mainstream film and television in the United States at that time .
Internationally , Hitchcock was forced to make minor changes to the film , mostly to the shower scene . In Britain , the BBFC requested cuts to stabbing sounds and visible nude shots , and in New Zealand the shot of Norman washing blood from his hands was objected to . In Singapore , though the shower scene was left untouched , the murder of Arbogast , and a shot of Norman 's mother 's corpse were removed .
The most controversial move was Hitchcock 's " no late admission " policy for the film , which was unusual for the time . It was not entirely original as Clouzot had done the same in France for Diabolique . Hitchcock thought that if people entered the theater late and never saw the star actress Janet Leigh , they would feel cheated . At first theater owners opposed the idea , claiming that they would lose business . However , after the first day , the owners enjoyed long lines of people waiting to see the film .
= = Promotion = =
Hitchcock did most of the promotion on his own , forbidding Leigh and Perkins to make the usual television , radio , and print interviews for fear of their revealing the plot . Even critics were not given private screenings but rather had to see the film with the general public , which , despite possibly affecting their reviews , certainly preserved the secret .
The film 's original trailer features a jovial Hitchcock taking the viewer on a tour of the set , and almost giving away plot details before stopping himself . It is " tracked " with Herrmann 's Psycho theme , but also jovial music from Hitchcock 's comedy The Trouble with Harry ; most of Hitchcock 's dialogue is post @-@ synchronized . The trailer was made after completion of the film , and since Janet Leigh was no longer available for filming , Hitchcock had Vera Miles don a blonde wig and scream loudly as he pulled the shower curtain back in the bathroom sequence of the preview . Since the title , " Psycho " , instantly covers most of the screen , the switch went unnoticed by audiences for years . However , a freeze @-@ frame analysis clearly reveals that it is Miles and not Leigh in the shower during the trailer .
= = Release = =
The film was so successful that it was reissued to theaters in 1965 . A year later , CBS purchased the television rights for $ 450 @,@ 000 . CBS planned to televise the film on September 23 , 1966 , but three days earlier , Valerie Percy , daughter of Illinois senate candidate Charles H. Percy , was murdered . As her parents slept mere feet away , she was stabbed a dozen times with a double @-@ edged knife . In light of the murder , CBS agreed to postpone the screening , but as a result of the Apollo pad fire of January 27 , 1967 , the network washed its hands of Psycho , and shortly afterward Paramount included the film in its first syndicated package of post @-@ 1950 movies , " Portfolio I " . WABC @-@ TV in New York City was the first station in the country to air Psycho ( with some scenes significantly edited ) , on its late @-@ night movie series , The Best of Broadway , on June 24 , 1967 . Following another successful theatrical reissue in 1969 , the film finally made its way to general television airing in one of Universal 's syndicated programming packages for local stations in 1970 . Psycho was aired for twenty years in this format , then leased to cable for two years before returning to syndication as part of the " List of a Lifetime " package .
The film was re @-@ released on September 20 & 23 , 2015 , as part of the " TCM Presents " series by Turner Classic Movies and Fathom Events .
= = Reception = =
Initial reviews of the film were thoroughly mixed . Bosley Crowther of The New York Times wrote , " There is not an abundance of subtlety or the lately familiar Hitchcock bent toward significant and colorful scenery in this obviously low @-@ budget job . " Crowther called the " slow buildups to sudden shocks " reliably melodramatic but contested Hitchcock 's psychological points , reminiscent of Krafft @-@ Ebing 's studies , as less effective . While the film did not conclude satisfactorily for the critic , he commended the cast 's performances as " fair " . British critic C. A. Lejeune was so offended that she not only walked out before the end but permanently resigned her post as film critic for The Observer . Other negative reviews stated , " a blot on an honorable career " , " plainly a gimmick movie " , and " merely one of those television shows padded out to two hours . " Positive reviews stated , " Anthony Perkins ' performance is the best of his career ... Janet Leigh has never been better " , " played out beautifully " , and " first American movie since Touch of Evil to stand in the same creative rank as the great European films . " A good example of the mix is the New York Herald Tribune 's review , which stated , " ... rather difficult to be amused at the forms insanity may take ... keeps your attention like a snake @-@ charmer . "
The public loved the film , with lines stretching outside of theaters as people had to wait for the next showing . This , along with box office numbers , led to a reconsideration of the film by critics , and it eventually received a very large amount of praise . It broke box @-@ office records in Japan and the rest of Asia , France , Britain , South America , the United States , and Canada , and was a moderate success in Australia for a brief period . It was the most profitable black @-@ and @-@ white sound film ever made , and Hitchcock personally realized well in excess of $ 15 million ( about $ 120m today ) . He then swapped his rights to Psycho and his TV anthology for 150 @,@ 000 shares of MCA , making him the third largest shareholder in MCA Inc . , and his own boss at Universal , in theory ; however , this did not stop them from interfering with his later films . Psycho was , by a large margin , the most profitable film of Hitchcock 's career , earning over $ 12 million for the studio on release , and $ 15 million by the end of the year . Hitchcock 's second most profitable was Family Plot ( $ 7 @,@ 541 @,@ 000 ) , and third place was a tie between Torn Curtain ( 1966 ) and Frenzy ( 1972 ) , each earning $ 6 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 . Around the time of the run 's end , the film had grossed $ 32 million in domestic theaters .
In the United Kingdom , the film shattered attendance records at the London Plaza Cinema , but nearly all British critics panned it , questioning Hitchcock 's taste and judgment . Reasons cited for this were the critics ' late screenings , forcing them to rush their reviews , their dislike of the gimmicky promotion , and Hitchcock 's expatriate status . Perhaps thanks to the public 's response and Hitchcock 's efforts at promoting it , the critics did a re @-@ review , and the film was praised . TIME switched its opinion from " Hitchcock bears down too heavily in this one " to " superlative " and " masterly " , and Bosley Crowther put it on his Top Ten list of 1960 .
Psycho was initially criticized for making other filmmakers more willing to show gore ; three years later , Blood Feast , considered to be the first " splatter film " , was released . Psycho 's success financially and critically had others trying to ride its coattails . Inspired by Psycho , Hammer Film Productions launched a series of mystery thrillers including The Nanny ( 1965 ) starring Bette Davis and William Castle 's Homicidal ( 1961 ) was followed by a slew of more than thirteen other splatter films .
On the review aggregator website , RottenTomatoes.com , Psycho holds a ' Certified : Fresh ' score of 96 % , with the critics consensus reading : " Infamous for its shower scene , but immortal for its contribution to the horror genre . Because Psycho was filmed with tact , grace , and art , Hitchcock didn 't just create modern horror , he validated it " .
= = Interpretations = =
= = = Subversion of romance through irony = = =
In Psycho , Hitchcock subverts the romantic elements that are seen in most of his work . The film is instead ironic as it presents " clarity and fulfillment " of romance . The past is central to the film ; the main characters " struggle to understand and resolve destructive personal histories " and ultimately fail . Lesley Brill writes , " The inexorable forces of past sins and mistakes crush hopes for regeneration and present happiness . " The crushed hope is highlighted by the death of the protagonist , Marion Crane , halfway through the film . Marion is like Persephone of Greek mythology , who is abducted temporarily from the world of the living . The myth does not sustain with Marion , who dies hopelessly in her room at the Bates Motel . The room is wallpapered with floral print like Persephone 's flowers , but they are only " reflected in mirrors , as images of images — twice removed from reality " . In the scene of Marion 's death , Brill describes the transition from the bathroom drain to Marion 's lifeless eye , " Like the eye of the amorphous sea creature at the end of Fellini 's La Dolce Vita , it marks the birth of death , an emblem of final hopelessness and corruption . " Unlike heroines in Hitchcock 's other films , she does not reestablish her innocence or discover love .
Marion is deprived of " the humble treasures of love , marriage , home and family " , which Hitchcock considers elements of human happiness . There exists among Psycho 's secondary characters a lack of " familial warmth and stability " , which demonstrates the unlikelihood of domestic fantasies . The film contains ironic jokes about domesticity , such as when Sam writes a letter to Marion , agreeing to marry her , only after the audience sees her buried in the swamp . Sam and Marion 's sister Lila , in investigating Marion 's disappearance , develop an " increasingly connubial " relationship , a development that Marion is denied . Norman also suffers a similarly perverse definition of domesticity . He has " an infantile and divided personality " and lives in a mansion whose past occupies the present . Norman displays stuffed birds that are " frozen in time " and keeps childhood toys and stuffed animals in his room . He is hostile toward suggestions to move from the past , such as with Marion 's suggestion to put his mother " someplace " and as a result kills Marion to preserve his past . Brill explains , " ' Someplace ' for Norman is where his delusions of love , home , and family are declared invalid and exposed . "
Light and darkness feature prominently in Psycho . The first shot after the intertitle is the sunny landscape of Phoenix before the camera enters a dark hotel room where Sam and Marion appear as bright figures . Marion is almost immediately cast in darkness ; she is preceded by her shadow as she reenters the office to steal money and as she enters her bedroom . When she flees Phoenix , darkness descends on her drive . The following sunny morning is punctured by a watchful police officer with black sunglasses , and she finally arrives at the Bates Motel in near darkness . Bright lights are also " the ironic equivalent of darkness " in the film , blinding instead of illuminating . Examples of brightness include the opening window shades in Sam 's and Marion 's hotel room , vehicle headlights at night , the neon sign at the Bates Motel , " the glaring white " of the bathroom tiles where Marion dies , and the fruit cellar 's exposed light bulb shining on the corpse of Norman 's mother . Such bright lights typically characterize danger and violence in Hitchcock 's films .
= = = Motifs = = =
The film often features shadows , mirrors , windows , and , less so , water . The shadows are present from the very first scene where the blinds make bars on Marion and Sam as they peer out of the window . The stuffed birds ' shadows loom over Marion as she eats , and Norman 's mother is seen in only shadows until the very end . More subtly , backlighting turns the rakes in the hardware store into talons above Lila 's head .
Mirrors reflect Marion as she packs , her eyes as she checks the rear @-@ view mirror , her face in the policeman 's sunglasses , and her hands as she counts out the money in the car dealership 's bathroom . A motel window serves as a mirror by reflecting Marion and Norman together . Hitchcock shoots through Marion 's windshield and the telephone booth , when Arbogast phones Sam and Lila . The heavy downpour can be seen as a foreshadowing of the shower , and its cessation can be seen as a symbol of Marion making up her mind to return to Phoenix .
There are a number of references to birds . Marion 's last name is Crane and she is from Phoenix . Norman comments that Marion eats like a bird . The motel room has pictures of birds on the wall . Brigitte Peucker also suggests that Norman 's hobby of stuffing birds literalizes the British slang expressions for sex - " stuffing " - and desirable women - " birds " . Robert Allan suggests that Norman 's mother is his original " stuffed bird " , both in the sense of having preserved her body and the incestuous nature of Norman 's emotional bond with her .
= = = Psychoanalytic interpretation = = =
Psycho has been called " the first psychoanalytical thriller . " The sex and violence in the film were unlike anything previously seen in a mainstream film . " The shower scene is both feared and desired , " wrote French film critic Serge Kaganski . " Hitchcock may be scaring his female viewers out of their wits , but he is turning his male viewers into potential rapists , since Janet Leigh has been turning men on ever since she appeared in her brassiere in the first scene . "
In his documentary The Pervert 's Guide to Cinema , Slavoj Žižek remarks that Norman Bates ' mansion has three floors , paralleling the three levels of the human mind that are postulated by Freudian psychoanalysis : the top floor would be the superego , where Bates ' mother lives ; the ground floor is then Bates ' ego , where he functions as an apparently normal human being ; and finally , the basement would be Bates ' id . Žižek interprets Bates ' moving his mother 's corpse from top floor to basement as a symbol for the deep connection that psychoanalysis posits between superego and id .
= = Recognition = =
In 1992 , the film was deemed " culturally , historically , or aesthetically significant " by the United States Library of Congress and was selected for preservation in the National Film Registry .
In 1998 , TV Guide ranked it # 8 on their list of the 50 Greatest Movies on TV ( and Video ) .
Leigh asserted , " no other murder mystery in the history of the movies has inspired such merchandising . " Any number of items emblazoned with Bates Motel , stills , lobby cards , and highly valuable posters are available for purchase . In 1992 , it was adapted scene @-@ for @-@ scene into three comic books by the Innovative Corporation .
Psycho has appeared on a number of lists by websites , television channels , and magazines . The shower scene was featured as number four on the list of Bravo Network 's 100 Scariest Movie Moments , whilst the finale was ranked number four on Premiere 's similar list . Entertainment Weekly 's book titled The 100 Greatest Movies of All Time ranked the film as # 11 .
American Film Institute lists
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Movies – # 18
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Thrills – # 1
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Heroes and Villains :
Norman Bates – # 2 Villain
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Movie Quotes :
" A boy 's best friend is his mother . " – # 56
" We all go a little mad sometimes . " – Nominated
AFI 's 100 Years of Film Scores – # 4
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Movies ( 10th Anniversary Edition ) – # 14
= = Legacy = =
= = = Impact = = =
Psycho has become one of the most recognizable films in cinema history , and is arguably Hitchcock 's best known film . In his novel , Bloch used an uncommon plot structure : he repeatedly introduced sympathetic protagonists , then killed them off . This played on his reader 's expectations of traditional plots , leaving them uncertain and anxious . Hitchcock recognized the effect this approach could have on audiences , and utilized it in his adaptation , killing off Leigh 's character at the end of the first act . This daring plot device , coupled with the fact that the character was played by the biggest box @-@ office name in the film , was a shocking turn of events in 1960 .
The most original and influential moment in the film is the " shower scene " , which became iconic in pop culture because it is often regarded as one of the most terrifying scenes ever filmed . Part of its effectiveness was due to the use of startling editing techniques borrowed from the Soviet montage filmmakers , and to the iconic screeching violins in Bernard Herrmann 's musical score . The iconic shower scene is frequently spoofed , given homage to and referenced in popular culture , complete with the violin screeching sound effects ( see Charlie and the Chocolate Factory , among many others ) .
Psycho is now considered to be the first film in the slasher film genre , and has been referenced in films numerous times ; examples include the 1974 musical horror film Phantom of the Paradise , 1978 horror film Halloween ( which starred Jamie Lee Curtis , Janet Leigh 's daughter ) , the 1977 Mel Brooks tribute to many of Hitchcock 's thrillers , High Anxiety , the 1980 Fade to Black , the 1980 Dressed to Kill and Wes Craven 's 1996 horror satire Scream . Bernard Herrmann 's opening theme has been sampled by rapper Busta Rhymes on his song " Gimme Some More " ( 1998 ) . Manuel Muñoz 's 2011 novel What You See in the Dark includes a sub @-@ plot that fictionalizes elements of the filming of Psycho , referring to Hitchcock and Leigh only as " The Director " and " The Actress " . In the comic book stories of Jonni Future , the house inherited by title character is patterned after the Bates Motel .
= = = Sequels = = =
Three sequels were produced : Psycho II ( 1983 ) , Psycho III ( 1986 ) , and Psycho IV : The Beginning ( 1990 ) , the last being a part @-@ prequel television movie written by the original screenplay author , Joseph Stefano . Anthony Perkins returned to his role of Norman Bates in all three sequels , and also directed the third film . The voice of Norman Bates ' mother was maintained by noted radio actress Virginia Gregg with the exception of Psycho IV , where the role was played by Olivia Hussey . Vera Miles also reprised her role of Lila Crane in Psycho II . The sequels were well received but considered inferior to the original .
= = = 1987 Bates Motel pilot = = =
Bates Motel was a failed television pilot spin @-@ off which later aired as a television movie ( before the release of Psycho IV ) . Anthony Perkins declined to appear in the pilot , so Norman 's cameo appearance was played by Kurt Paul , who was Perkins ' stunt double on Psycho II and III .
= = = 1998 remake = = =
Gus Van Sant directed a 1998 remake of Psycho . The film is in color and features a different cast , but aside from this it is a near shot @-@ for @-@ shot remake copying Hitchcock 's camera movements and editing . The film was panned by critics and audiences alike and was a box office bomb .
A Conversation with Norman ( 2005 ) , directed by Jonathan M. Parisen , was a film inspired by Psycho .
= = = 2012 Hitchcock film = = =
In 2005 , it was reported that a new film was in development based on the book by Stephen Rebello , Alfred Hitchcock and the Making of Psycho . The film was originally titled Alfred Hitchcock Presents , and it was originally to be directed by Ryan Murphy . Later the film was retitled Hitchcock , and filming began on April 13 , 2012 . Filming was completed in early June 2012 with a worldwide release on December 14 , 2012 . The film centers on the relationship between Hitchcock and his wife and co @-@ worker Alma Reville during the filming of Psycho in 1959 . The film was directed by Sacha Gervasi and written by John McLaughlin and Stephen Rebello . The film stars Anthony Hopkins as Hitchcock , Helen Mirren as Reville , Scarlett Johansson as Janet Leigh , Jessica Biel as Vera Miles , and James D 'Arcy as Anthony Perkins . The film was released worldwide on December 14 , 2012 , to mostly positive reviews and one Academy Award nomination .
= = = The Psycho Legacy = = =
On October 19 , 2010 , an independent documentary called The Psycho Legacy was released on DVD . The documentary discussed the legacy and impact Psycho has had , not only on cinema , but on the world in general . The documentary also included production stories about Psycho II , Psycho III and Psycho IV : The Beginning . This documentary received mostly positive reviews from critics and fans .
= = = Bates Motel series = = =
On January 13 , 2012 , A & E announced that a television series called Bates Motel was in development at the network . The TV series has nothing to do with the earlier Bates Motel failed TV pilot released in 1987 . The series takes place before the events of the original film and chronicles Norman Bates ' teen years living at the Bates Motel , as did the flashback sequences in Psycho IV : The Beginning . However , the series is set in the present day in a seaside town in Oregon rather than the inland California town of the film — thus the series is a reboot , though it 's been widely reviewed as a prequel , as it is devoted to providing a backstory to a younger Norman Bates prior to his becoming a murderer . In July 2012 , A & E announced that the network had picked up the show for a 10 episode first season , skipping the initial pilot stage . The series premiered on March 18 , 2013 to high ratings and very positive reviews . The show aired a second season in 2014 , a third in 2015 , and a fourth in 2016 . Executive producer Carlston Cuse confirmed the series ' fifth season , which will air in early 2017 , will be the show 's last and will adapt the plot of Psycho , and will feature Marion Crane and the shower scene .
= = = Psychos = = =
On February 24 , 2014 , a mashup of Alfred Hitchcock 's and Gus Van Sant 's versions of Psycho appeared on Steven Soderbergh 's Extension 765 website . Retitled " Psychos " and featuring no explanatory text , the recut appears to be a fan edit of the two films by Soderbergh . Reaction to the mashup appears to reinforce the prejudice against the 1998 film . The opening credits intermingle names from both the 1960 and 1998 versions , and all color has been removed from Van Sant 's scenes .
= = Ratings = =
Psycho has been rated and re @-@ rated several times over the years by the MPAA . Upon its initial release , the film received a certificate stating that it was " Approved " ( certificate # 19564 ) under the simple pass / fail system of the Production Code in use at that time . Later , when the MPAA switched to a voluntary letter ratings system in 1968 , Psycho was one of a number of high @-@ profile motion pictures to be retro @-@ rated with an " M " ( Mature Audiences ) . This remained the only rating the film would receive for 16 years , and according to the guidelines of the time " M " was the equivalent of a " PG " rating . Then , in 1984 , during the uproar of increased parental concern regarding violence in " PG " films , Psycho was retro @-@ rated again to its current rating of " R " . This rating took effect , however , before the institution of the " PG @-@ 13 " rating by the MPAA that same year , and there are those who have speculated that if the rating had existed at the time , or if Psycho were rated in America today , it would receive a " PG @-@ 13 " .
= = Home media = =
The film has been released several times on videotape , LaserDisc , DVD , and Blu @-@ ray Disc . MCA DiscoVision Incorporated ( parent company , MCA Inc ) first released Psycho on the LaserDisc format in " standard play " ( 5 sides ) in 1979 , and " extended play " ( 2 sides ) in October 1981 . MCA / Universal Home Video released a new LaserDisc version of Psycho in August 1988 ( Catalog # : 11003 ) . In May 1998 , Universal Studios Home Video released a deluxe edition of Psycho as part of their Signature Collection . This THX ® certified Widescreen ( 1 @.@ 85 : 1 ) LaserDisc Deluxe Edition ( Catalog # : 43105 ) is spread across 4 extended play sides and 1 standard play side , and includes a new documentary and isolated Bernard Herrmann score . A DVD edition was released in at the same time as the LaserDisc .
Laurent Bouzereau produced a documentary looking at the film 's production and reception for the initial DVD release . Universal released a fiftieth Anniversary edition on Blu @-@ ray in the United Kingdom on August 9 , 2010 , with Australia following with the same edition ( featuring a different cover ) being made available on September 1 , 2010 . A Blu @-@ ray in US was released on October 19 , 2010 to mark the film 's 50th anniversary , featuring yet another different cover . The film is also included on two different Alfred Hitchcock Blu @-@ ray boxsets from Universal .
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= Super Monkey Ball ( video game ) =
Super Monkey Ball ( スーパーモンキーボール , Sūpā Monkī Bōru ) is a 2001 platform / party video game developed by Amusement Vision and published by Sega . The game debuted in Japan at the 2001 Amusement Operators Union trade show as Monkey Ball ( モンキーボール , Monkī Bōru ) , an arcade cabinet running on Sega 's NAOMI hardware and controlled with a distinctive banana @-@ shaped analog stick . Due to the failure of Sega 's Dreamcast home console and the company 's subsequent restructuring , an enhanced port dubbed Super Monkey Ball was released as a launch title for Nintendo 's GameCube in late 2001 , garnering interest as Sega 's first game published for Nintendo hardware .
Conceived by Amusement Vision head Toshihiro Nagoshi , Super Monkey Ball involves guiding a transparent ball containing one of four monkeys — AiAi , MeeMee , Baby and GonGon — across a series of maze @-@ like platforms . The player must reach the goal without falling off or letting the timer reach zero to advance to the next stage . There are also several multiplayer modes : independent minigames as well as extensions of the main single @-@ player game .
Super Monkey Ball received highly positive reviews from critics , who praised the simplicity and subtle depth of its control scheme as well as the new multiplayer modes not present in its arcade counterpart , although some felt its presentation was lacking . The game was commercially successful and remained one of Sega 's best @-@ sellers in the United States for much of 2002 , eventually spawning a direct sequel , Super Monkey Ball 2 , and an entire Super Monkey Ball franchise .
= = Modes = =
Super Monkey Ball has three game modes : main game , party games , and mini @-@ games . The mini @-@ games are unavailable at first , and must be unlocked by earning 2 @,@ 500 " play points " through playing the main game in single @-@ player mode .
= = = Main game = = =
Reminiscent of Marble Madness and Labyrinth , the objective of the main game is to guide one of four playable monkeys ( AiAi , MeeMee , Baby and GonGon ) encased in a transparent ball across a suspended series of platforms and through a goal . By moving the analog stick , the player tilts the entire set of platforms that make up a level , called a floor , and the ball rolls accordingly . If the ball falls off a floor ( an event dubbed a fall out ) or the in @-@ game timer reaches zero , the player loses a life , and is given three lives to start . The speed , in miles per hour , at which the ball is moving is displayed in the corner of the screen . Pausing the game and selecting the " View Stage " option allows one to rotate the camera around and examine the floor . A replay is presented after a floor 's goal has been reached ; replays can be saved to a memory card and viewed at whim . Every second remaining on the timer when a floor is completed adds 100 points to the player 's score . Collectible bananas found throughout the game are also worth 100 points , while multipliers increasing the player 's score by a factor of two or four are activated when a floor is finished in under half the allotted time or via a warp gate . The player receives an extra life for every 100 bananas collected .
The main game features three difficulty levels — Beginner , Advanced , and Expert , consisting of 10 , 30 , and 50 floors each — as well as three modes — Normal , Practice , and Competition . Normal mode allows one to four players to take turns progressing through the arcade Monkey Ball , whereas competition mode involves two to four player simultaneous split screen races across a selection of floors . In practice mode , any floor already played in normal mode can be repeated indefinitely with no penalties for failure . In normal mode , the player experiences a " Game Over " when they have lost all of their lives , but is allowed six opportunities to continue ; eventually , unlimited " Continues " can be unlocked . Beginner Extra , Advanced Extra and Expert Extra floors are unlocked when each respective difficulty level is completed without using a continue ( or losing a life in Beginner and Advanced ) — and a hidden set of Master floors can be unlocked through playing the Extra floors .
= = = Party games = = =
The following party games are available :
Monkey Race : One to four players simultaneously race across six courses divided into three difficulty levels . Steering is handled with the analog stick , while the A button is used to activate items ( if enabled ) that can be used to produce an increase in speed or to adversely affect opponents . A Time Attack mode involves the careful use of three available speed items to achieve faster times .
Monkey Fight : One to four players simultaneously engage in combat by rolling in any direction with the analog stick and using the A button to punch opponents with a boxing glove attached to their monkey 's ball . Points are awarded for knocking opponents off one of the three available arenas , with more points being awarded when the player currently in the lead is knocked off . The player with the most points is declared the winner of a round when the in @-@ game timer reaches zero . Items can be used to extend the reach , size , and strength of one 's boxing glove .
Monkey Target : One to four players take turns rolling their monkey down a ramp , launching it into the sky . The monkey 's ball opens on command to resemble a pair of wings , allowing it to fly . The monkey 's trajectory is manipulated with the analog stick . Wind direction and strength , altitude , and speed ( in addition to random hazards selected by an optional " Wheel of Danger " feature before each flight ) impact the player 's ability to land the monkey on one of several dartboard @-@ like targets in the middle of the ocean . Bananas collected while airborne enable the use of items in later rounds that can eliminate wind resistance , control the ball 's roll , multiply the player 's score , or ensure a sticky landing .
= = = Mini @-@ games = = =
The mini @-@ games are based on real sporting activities , but with the player 's ball containing their monkey . The following mini @-@ games are available , once unlocked through the earning of play points :
Monkey Billiards : One to two players take turns competing in a game of nine @-@ ball . The analog stick determines the direction of each shot and the A button is used to stop the moving gauge that determines shot speed . A tournament mode featuring four AI challengers is also available .
Monkey Bowling : One to four players take turns competing in a game of ten @-@ pin bowling . The analog stick is used to move left and right , the A button sets the direction and strength for each throw , and the L or R buttons apply spin to the ball . A challenge mode featuring 10 pin arrangements and permitting only 12 throws is also available .
Monkey Golf : One to four players take turns competing across 18 holes in a game of golf with stroke play scoring , or two players compete using match play scoring . The direction and general rolling distance of each shot is arranged with the analog stick , and the shot 's strength is set by the A button .
= = Development = =
Super Monkey Ball was developed by Amusement Vision , a branch of the Japanese video game publisher Sega that was created in 2000 and composed of about fifty people . Amusement Vision president Toshihiro Nagoshi , who had previously worked under Sega AM2 's Yu Suzuki and been credited as the creator of the arcade titles Daytona USA and Virtua Striker , devised the concept of rolling spheres through mazes based on his desire to move away from realistic simulations and instead create a game that was instantly possible to understand and play . Prototypes involving a plain ball or a ball with an illustration were considered visually unappealing due to difficulties in perceiving its movement , so after a series of revisions monkey characters previously created by a female Amusement Vision designer were placed inside the ball , with their appearance being altered to include their " distinctive " ears . Intended to feature a " cute " aesthetic and accurate physics engine , the game debuted at the 2001 Amusement Operator Union trade show as Monkey Ball , a single @-@ player arcade cabinet controlled with a distinctive banana @-@ shaped analog stick .
In early 2001 , Sega announced that it was discontinuing its Dreamcast home console and restructuring itself into a " platform @-@ agnostic " third @-@ party publisher . As a result , an enhanced version of Monkey Ball dubbed Super Monkey Ball was released for the Nintendo GameCube as a launch game in Japan on September 14 , 2001 and North America on November 18 , 2001 . The GameCube version was demonstrated to the public at E3 in May 2001 and at Nintendo 's Space World show in August 2001 ; Sega confirmed that it would arrive in time for the GameCube 's launch at the June 2001 World Hobby Fair . As the first game Sega published for a Nintendo console , Super Monkey Ball was considered a milestone for the company . Although Monkey Ball had been developed for Sega 's NAOMI arcade board , which shared technology with the Dreamcast and was optimized to ensure games could be easily ported between the two platforms , Nagoshi commented that Ninendo 's young demographic made the GameCube an even more fitting console for the title . According to Nagoshi , Amusement Vision staff felt more comfortable with the GameCube than Sega 's own hardware and this ease of development contributed to their decision to focus on the system over the PlayStation 2 or Xbox ; he also joked that Nintendo was the only hardware manufacturer the staff did not " hate " . Out of a team composed of ten to twenty individuals , it took four Amusement Vision employees between several weeks and two months to port Monkey Ball to the GameCube . Its graphics were enhanced with new background details as well as reflections and particle effects . Moreover , the developers spent an additional six months incorporating six extra modes into the game , with an emphasis on multiplayer competition and the introduction of GonGon as a fourth playable character .
The bananas in the game display the Dole Food Company logo , but this was removed in Super Monkey Ball Deluxe due to a licensing dispute . A theme song called " Ei Ei Puh ! " , which was arranged by Cheru Watanabe and featured vocals by Yu Abiru , was created for the Japanese version of Super Monkey Ball but removed from its U.S. release .
= = Reception = =
= = = Sales = = =
Super Monkey Ball was commercially successful upon release and remained one of Sega 's best @-@ selling titles in the United States through much of 2002 , with total sales of the game and its immediate sequel estimated at over one million units . While it sold well in all major territories , Nagoshi was disappointed by the game 's performance in Japan , where he had expected it would be most successful ; weak GameCube launch sales were cited as negatively impacting its performance in the country .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Released to positive reviews , with aggregated scores of 87 / 100 on Metacritic and 88 @.@ 7 % on GameRankings , some journalists considered Super Monkey Ball the highlight of the GameCube 's launch lineup . The staff of Edge praised the main game as " absorb [ ing ] " due to its high level of difficulty , noting that the trial and error required to complete challenging levels forces one to learn the nuances of its " reductive control system " and eventually enables the player to perform seemingly impossible tasks with increasing ease : " Once a level falls , the mysticism around it vanishes . It 's beatable ; it 's an afterthought on the route to your next impossible hurdle . " Writing for GameSpy , Ben Turner commented on the " excellent progression of difficulty " engendered by three distinct difficulty modes and thoughtful stage design , expounding " most levels introduce some new idea or concept to the game " and " every single level played adds to your skill . " IGN 's Matt Casamassina commended the " great level variation " , with " well created mazes and puzzles that must be completed using a combination of physics calculations , careful planning and a huge helping of patience . " Turner complimented the frequent introduction of incentives to keep playing such as additional continues and hidden levels , adding that a high " ceiling of mastery " enhanced the game 's longevity through a " simple but well conceived " scoring system and the ability to test strategies in practice mode . Edge and Casamassina thought similarly , with the latter stating " there are shortcuts that can be carved out by the crafty player , physics to be considered when navigating and more . " N @-@ Sider 's Tim Knowles pointed out that " the latter levels in the game get extremely difficult and you will often get frustrated " , while Casamassina felt " it may be a little too difficult for the casual gamer . " However , N @-@ Sider 's Mark Medina called the learning curve " perfectly spot on " : " Any falling off the platforms feels entirely your fault and at the same time , you always get the sense that you 're just that little bit closer to that elusive goal . " Edge and N @-@ Sider 's Jason Nuyens and Will Stevenson agreed with this sentiment , with the latter emphasizing the addictive quality of the gameplay . On a technical note , GamePro 's Four @-@ Eyed Dragon faulted the camera system , which " can get out of position , making it hard to maneuver in tight spots . " In The Japan Times , Steven L. Kent described the game as " a test of nerve " requiring " advanced eye – hand coordination . " Turner reflected on the game 's ability to evoke feelings of " nervous excitement " , " intensity " , and " electrifying , stomach @-@ wrenching fear " : " It 's a thrilling feeling to be winding down a paper @-@ thin path with ten seconds on the clock , hoping against hope that you can keep your balance for just a few more seconds and make it to the goal before time expires . " Edge opined that the game is " defined " by " unrefined and angular " emotions :
" Every second brings another jagged spike of highrise elation or freefall despair , and that 's what makes the game so superb ... when you finally beat a maze on your 15th try , on the last life of your last continue , it 's all worth it . If that experience could be distilled into a single word , it would be euphoria ; reducing Super Monkey Ball to one word is simpler . It 's genius . "
On the party and mini games , Kent asserted " All of the activities ... were designed with an unerring eye for quality " , Edge contended " none are half @-@ assed throwaway rewards " , and the staff of Nintendo Power remarked " each one is a fully realized activity that you could play for hours . " GameSpot 's Ricardo Torres called Monkey Race " a solid little racer " , and Casamassina recounted it felt " polished and finely tuned . " Stevenson " loved Monkey Fight " , while Casamassina and Kent highlighted the use of a crown to identify the player currently in the lead as encouraging " players to gang up on each other . " Casamassina hailed Monkey Fight as " a thing of beauty " , but Turner dismissed it as " a dud , as it 's too much frantic button smacking and not enough skill or thought . " Monkey Target , lauded by Kent as the " most addictive interactive activity of 2001 " and considered " the most complex " of the party games by Turner , was complimented by Casamassina for its " simple and brilliantly intuitive " control scheme and " careful science of when to use an item and when to forgo it . " Nintendo Power and Medina , respectively , described Monkey Billiards as " a full @-@ blown pool game " and " a very fun alternative to the real game " ; Casamassina applauded its " ultra @-@ realistic physics engine that perfectly mimics how pool balls would react ... it all works just as good if not better than any pool simulation available to home consoles . " Casamassina was further impressed by the physics of Monkey Bowling , elaborating that " when the pins break apart one would swear it 's the real deal " , but Turner criticized its physics as " slightly wonky " . Medina singled out Monkey Bowling 's " nailbiting " challenge mode as a personal favorite , while Nintendo Power considered Monkey Bowling " as good as tenpin gets " and Kent wrote it " is one of the most robust bowling simulations I have ever played . " Finally , Four @-@ Eyed Dragon conveyed that Monkey Golf provided " a humongous challenge " with " crazy , lopsided miniature golf course [ s ] " , while Kent called it an " absolutely infuriating ... test [ of ] your aim and your logic . "
Although " not extremely complex or technically impressive in the way that many other launch titles strive to be " Turner believed the graphics were " extremely well @-@ realized and perfectly suited to the game . " According to Torres , " while the four selectable monkey models and the various levels are simple in design , they are generously modeled with well @-@ textured and shaded polygons and have a very rich look . " Four @-@ Eyed Dragon spoke highly of the " hilarious " monkey animations , " sharp reflections and cool water effects " . Likewise , Casamassina enjoyed the dances performed by the monkeys after winning a match and cited the water effects as " particularly incredible " . Described by Turner as " colorful " and " crisp " and by Torres as " cartoony " and " clean " , Edge likened the game 's aesthetic to Sega 's Sonic the Hedgehog series : " Every surface is bright and solid and shiny , every aspect impeccably presented . " Casamassina , Turner , and Torres all praised the consistent frame rate , with Casamassina emphasizing " it truly , always runs at a full 60 frames per second . " However , Four @-@ Eyed Dragon noted the visuals were " not greatly detailed " and Casamassina observed " there isn 't much geometry being drawn at any single point in the title and the backgrounds are often barren , whether it be for power or stylistic purposes . " Moreover , Casamassina was disappointed that the three difficulty modes reused level themes and by the absence of progressive scan support . Torres regarded the game 's sound as " good " but " probably [ its ] weakest aspect " , calling the music " catchy " but finding the monkey noises repetitive and the remaining sound effects " unspectacular . " Conversely , Blue @-@ Eyed Dragon was favorable to the " boisterously entertaining monkey sounds that can be heard once a chimp hits a wall or falls off a ledge " as well as the " eclectic mix of instrumental tunes " . Turner " thought the music ... set the mood perfectly , but some may find it annoying " .
Kent named Super Monkey Ball " the best party game of all time . " Torres opined that the game " makes a strong case for the power of simple yet incredibly addictive gameplay . " Knowles stated it represented " Sega at its pure best . " The staff of Famitsu " liked the mini @-@ games in addition to the regular modes . " Nintendo Power hailed the game as " one of the ultimate party games " and " the best in serious gaming , too . " Turner declared it " that rarity of rarities : a perfectly @-@ realized launch title " , with a " bounty of extras " that set " a new standard for arcade to home conversions " . According to Medina , " probably the greatest thing about this game is that it 's so unassuming , in that you are genuinely very surprised at its extremely high quality . "
= = Legacy = =
The success of the game spawned a franchise , with 16 sequels or spin @-@ offs released to date . Due to its complex physics engine and abundance of possible shortcuts , Super Monkey Ball has been popular with professional speedrunners . A 2006 study conducted by the Beth Israel Medical Center found that surgeons who played the game for 20 minutes prior to performing a surgical drill finished slightly faster and made fewer mistakes . Super Monkey Ball inspired Neverball , a free game for Microsoft Windows , OS X , Linux , Dreamcast , and iOS . In 2006 , Nintendo Power ranked it the 38th best game available on Nintendo platforms , commenting " who knew that such cute characters with cinnamon roll ears could be the source of so much tension ( when the clock is ticking ) and so much relief ( when they finally break the ribbon ) ? " In 2009 , Edge ranked the game # 39 on its list of " The 100 Best Games To Play Today " , stating " Seeing its sturdy physics model being used to perform incredible acrobatic feats shows just how finely honed it is . " Writing in 1001 Video Games You Must Play Before You Die , Christian Donlan described Super Monkey Ball as " one of Sega 's grade @-@ A triumphs . "
= = = Explanatory notes = = =
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= Saint Lucia at the 2008 Summer Olympics =
Saint Lucia sent a delegation to compete at the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing , China . The 2008 Saint Lucian team included four athletes that competed in two sports : swimming and athletics . Of these four athletes , Danielle Beaubrun , at age 18 , was the youngest of the competitors . Dominic Johnson , at age 32 , was the oldest , and was the only man sent as part of the 2008 delegation ; additionally , Johnson was the only Saint Lucian athlete in the 2008 delegation who had previously participated in the Olympics .
None of the four athletes advanced past the qualifying stages , and thus did not win any medals . Evans ranked thirtieth overall in the qualifying round for javelin ; Johnson also ranked thirtieth overall in the pole vault qualifying round ; and Spencer ranked twenty @-@ seventh in the qualifying round for high jump . Additionally , Beaubrun ranked forty @-@ second in the swimming qualifying stages .
= = Background = =
The Saint Lucia Olympic Committee sent President Richard Peterkin , Minister of Youth and Sports Lenard Montoute , Chief de Mission Alfred Emmanuel , Coach Henry Bailey , and Coach Karen Beaubrun to Beijing alongside the four @-@ person athletic delegation . Saint Lucia was the 67th nation in line at the 2008 Summer Olympics opening ceremony , in which high jumper Levern Spencer was the flagbearer . Saint Lucians were unable to view the 7 : 00 am opening ceremony because of issues with the local cable provider .
= = Athletics = =
Three of Saint Lucia 's four athletes competed in athletics : Dominic Johnson , Lavern Spencer , and Erma @-@ Gene Evans . Johnson , at age 32 , was the oldest of Saint Lucia 's athletes to participate in the 2008 Summer Olympics .
Erma @-@ Gene Evans participated in athletics as a javelin thrower . The 2008 Summer Olympics was her Olympic debut . Evans moved forward through two rounds after qualifying under the B standard during her event on 18 August 2008 , but did not rank in the third qualifying round . With a best mark distance of 56 @.@ 27 , Evans ranked thirtieth overall . She did not advance .
Dominic Johnson participated in athletics as a pole vaulter , returning to the Olympics for his third time ; Johnson had previously participated as a pole vaulter ( and , at one time , a relay runner ) on behalf of Saint Lucia in the 2000 Summer Olympics and 1996 Summer Olympics . Johnson flew to San Diego days before the competition cutoff and made the qualifying preliminary height for the Olympics shortly after winning a silver medal at the Central American and Caribbean Championships in Cali , Columbia . Johnson 's event took place on 20 August 2008 . With a height of 5 @.@ 30 metres , Johnson did not qualify , although he tied for seventeenth place in his qualifying group . As such , he did not advance . Johnson tied with the Czech pole vaulter Štěpán Janáček for thirtieth place overall .
Levern Spencer participated in athletics as a high jumper , making her first appearance in the Olympics . Spencer trained with Coach Wayne Norton of the University of Georgia to hone her skills in the time preceding her performance in the Olympics . Levern Spencer 's personal best time has been compared to medal winners in the event from the 2004 Summer Olympics . Spencer 's best height cleared was 1 @.@ 85 , placing fourteenth in Qualifying Group B. However , during her event on 20 August 2008 , Spencer placed twenty @-@ seventh overall , and did not advance .
Key
Note – Ranks given for track events are within the athlete 's heat only
Q
= Qualified for the next round
q =
Qualified for the next round as a fastest loser or , in field events , by position without achieving the qualifying target
NR
= National record
N / A =
Round not applicable for the event
Bye = Athlete not required to compete in round
Men
Women
= = Swimming = =
Danielle Beaubrun was the only Saint Lucian swimmer to participate in the Beijing Olympics . She was the youngest member of the Saint Lucian delegation , at age 18 . The 2008 Summer Olympics served as Beaubrun 's Olympic debut . Beaubrun did not initially qualify for Olympic standards . However , because Saint Lucia had no naturally qualifying swimmers , the country was invited by FINA to send two swimmers to the Olympics , granted the swimmer had participated in the 2007 World Championships . Beaubrun met this criterion , and was selected for this reason . At the time , Beaubrun was enrolled at The Bolles School in Jacksonville , Florida and trained with coach Sergio Lopez .
The event in which Beaubrun participated was the 100 meter breaststroke . This event took place on 10 August 2008 . In the second heat of the qualifying round , Beaubrun scored third , with a time of 1 : 12 @.@ 85 . However , overall , Danielle Beaubrun ranked forty @-@ second , and , as a result , did not advance .
Women
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= Edwin P. Morrow =
Edwin Porch Morrow ( November 28 , 1877 – June 15 , 1935 ) was an American politician who served as the 40th Governor of Kentucky from 1919 to 1923 . He was the only Republican elected to this office between 1907 and 1927 . He championed the typical Republican causes of his day , namely equal rights for African @-@ Americans and the use of force to quell violence . Morrow had been schooled in his party 's principles by his father , Thomas Z. Morrow , who was its candidate for governor in 1883 , and his uncle , William O. Bradley , who was elected governor in 1895 . Both men were founding members of the Republican Party in Kentucky .
After rendering non @-@ combat service in the Spanish – American War , Morrow graduated from the University of Cincinnati Law School in 1902 and opened his practice in Lexington , Kentucky . He made a name for himself almost immediately by securing the acquittal of a black man who had been charged with murder based on an extorted confession and perjured testimony . He was appointed U.S. District Attorney for the Eastern District of Kentucky by President William Howard Taft in 1910 and served until he was removed from office in 1913 by President Woodrow Wilson . In 1915 , he ran for governor against his good friend , Augustus O. Stanley . Stanley won the election by 471 votes , making the 1915 contest the closest gubernatorial race in the state 's history .
Morrow ran for governor again in 1919 . His opponent , James D. Black , had ascended to the governorship earlier that year when Stanley resigned to take a seat in the U.S. Senate . Morrow encouraged voters to " Right the Wrong of 1915 " and ran on a progressive platform that included women 's suffrage and quelling racial violence . He charged the Democratic administration with corruption , citing specific examples , and won the general election in a landslide . With a friendly legislature in 1920 , he passed much of his agenda into law including an anti @-@ lynching law and a reorganization of state government . He won national acclaim for preventing the lynching of a black prisoner in 1920 . He was not hesitant to remove local officials who did not prevent or quell mob violence . By 1922 , Democrats regained control of the General Assembly , and Morrow was not able to accomplish much in the second half of his term . Following his term as governor , he served on the United States Railroad Labor Board and the Railway Mediation Board , but never again held elected office . He died of a heart attack on June 15 , 1935 , while living with a cousin in Frankfort .
= = Early life = =
Edwin Morrow was born to Thomas Zanzinger and Virginia Catherine ( Bradley ) Morrow in Somerset , Kentucky , on November 28 , 1877 . He and his twin brother , Charles , were the youngest of eight children . His father was one of the founders of the Republican Party in Kentucky and an unsuccessful candidate for governor in 1883 . His mother was a sister to William O 'Connell Bradley , who was elected the first Republican governor of Kentucky in 1895 .
Morrow 's early education was in the public schools of Somerset . At age 14 , he entered preparatory school at St. Mary 's College near Lebanon , Kentucky . He continued there throughout 1891 and 1892 . From there , he enrolled at Cumberland College ( now the University of the Cumberlands ) in Williamsburg , Kentucky , and distinguished himself in the debating society . He was also interested in sports , playing halfback on the football team and left field on the baseball team .
On June 24 , 1898 , Morrow enlisted as a private in the 4th Kentucky Infantry Regiment for service in the Spanish – American War . He was first stationed at Lexington , Kentucky , and later trained at Anniston , Alabama . Due to a bout with typhoid fever , he never saw active duty , and mustered out as a second lieutenant on February 12 , 1899 . In 1900 , he matriculated for the fall semester at the University of Cincinnati Law School . He graduated with a Bachelor of Laws degree in 1902 .
Morrow opened his practice in Lexington . He established his reputation in one of his first cases — the trial of William Moseby , a black man accused of murder . Moseby 's first trial had ended in a hung jury , but because the evidence against him included a confession ( which he later recanted ) , most observers believed he would be convicted in his second trial . Unable to find a defense lawyer for Moseby , the judge in the case turned to Morrow , who as a young lawyer was eager for work . Morrow proved that his client 's testimony had been extorted ; he had been told that a lynch mob waited outside the jail for him , but no such mob had ever existed . Morrow further showed that other testimony against his client was false . Moseby was acquitted September 21 , 1902 .
Morrow returned to Somerset in 1903 . There , he married Katherine Hale Waddle on June 18 , 1903 . Waddle 's father had studied law under Morrow 's father , and Edwin and Katherine had been playmates , schoolmates , and later sweethearts . The couple had two children , Edwina Haskell in July 1904 and Charles Robert in November 1908 .
= = Political career = =
In 1904 , Morrow was appointed city attorney for Somerset , serving until 1908 . President William Howard Taft appointed him U.S. District Attorney for the Eastern District of Kentucky in 1910 . He continued in this position until he was removed from office by President Woodrow Wilson in 1913 .
Morrow 's first political experience was working in his uncle William O. Bradley 's gubernatorial campaign in 1895 . In 1899 , Republican gubernatorial candidate William S. Taylor offered to make Morrow his Secretary of State in exchange for Bradley 's support in the election ; Bradley refused . Despite the encouragement of friends , Morrow declined to run for governor in 1911 .
In 1912 , Morrow was chosen as the Republican candidate for the Senate seat of Thomas Paynter . Paynter had decided not to seek re @-@ election , and the Democrats nominated Ollie M. James of Crittenden County . The General Assembly was heavily Democratic and united behind James . On a joint ballot , James defeated Morrow by a vote of 105 – 28 . Due to the passage of the Seventeenth Amendment the next year , this was the last time the Kentucky legislature would elect a senator .
At the state Republican convention in Lexington on June 15 , 1915 , Morrow was chosen as the Republican candidate for governor over Latt F. McLaughlin . His Democratic opponent was his close friend , Augustus O. Stanley . Morrow charged previous Democratic administrations with corruption and called for the election of a Republican because " You cannot clean house with a dirty broom . " Both men ran on progressive platforms , and the election went in Stanley 's favor by only 471 votes . Although it was the closest gubernatorial vote in the state 's history , Morrow refused to challenge the results , which greatly increased his popularity . His decision was influenced by the fact that a challenge would be decided by the General Assembly , which had a Democratic majority in both houses .
= = = Governor of Kentucky = = =
Morrow served as a delegate to the Republican National Convention in 1916 , 1920 , and 1928 . In 1919 , he was chosen by acclamation as his party 's candidate for governor . This time , his opponent was James D. Black . Black was Stanley 's lieutenant governor and had ascended to the governorship in May 1919 when Stanley resigned to take a seat in the U.S. Senate .
Morrow encouraged the state 's voters to " Right the Wrong of 1915 " . He again ran on a progressive platform , advocating an amendment to the state constitution to grant women 's suffrage . His support was not as strong for a prohibition amendment . He attacked the Stanley – Black administration as corrupt . Days before the election , he exposed a contract awarded by the state Board of Control to a non @-@ existent company . Historian Lowell H. Harrison argued that Black 's refusal to remove the members of the board following this revelation probably sealed his defeat . Morrow won the general election by more than 40 @,@ 000 votes . It was the largest margin of victory for a Republican gubernatorial candidate in the state 's history .
On January 6 , 1920 , Governor Morrow signed the bill ratifying the Nineteenth Amendment , making Kentucky the 23rd state to ratify it , and the moment is captured in a photograph with members of the Kentucky Equal Rights Association . During the 1920 legislative session , the Republicans held a majority in the state House of Representatives and were a minority by only two votes in the state Senate . During the session , Morrow was often able to convince C. W. Burton , a Democratic senator from Grant County , to support Republican proposals . Tie votes in the Senate were broken by Republican lieutenant governor S. Thruston Ballard . Consequently , Morrow was able to effect a considerable reorganization of the state government , including replacing the Board of Control with a nonpartisan Board of Charities and Corrections , centralizing highway works , and revising property taxes . He oversaw improvements to the education system , including better textbook selection and a tax on racetracks to support a minimum salary for teachers . Among Morrow 's reforms that did not pass was a proposal to make the judiciary nonpartisan .
Morrow urged enforcement of state laws against carrying concealed weapons and restricted activities of the Ku Klux Klan . During his first year in office , he granted only 100 pardons . This was a considerable decrease from the number granted by his immediate predecessors . During their first years in office , J. C. W. Beckham granted 350 pardons , James B. McCreary ( during his second stint as governor ) granted 139 , and Augustus O. Stanley granted 257 . He was also an active member of the Commission on Interracial Cooperation , a society for the elimination of racial violence in the South .
On February 9 , 1920 , Morrow dispatched the Kentucky National Guard to Lexington to protect Will Lockett , a black World War I veteran on trial for murder . Morrow told the state adjutant general " Do as much as you have to do to keep that negro in the hands of the law . If he falls into the hands of the mob I do not expect to see you alive . " Lockett had already confessed , without the benefit of a lawyer , to the murder . His trial took only thirty minutes as he pleaded guilty but asked for a life sentence instead of death . Despite his plea , he was sentenced to die in the electric chair .
A crowd of several thousand gathered outside the courthouse while Lockett 's trial was underway . A cameraman asked a large group of those gathered to shake their fists and yell so he could get a picture . The rest of the crowd mistakenly believed they were storming the courthouse and rushed forward . In the ensuing skirmish , one policeman was injured so badly that his arm later had to be amputated . The National Guard opened fire , killing six people and wounding approximately fifty . Some members of the mob looted nearby stores in search of weapons to retaliate , but reinforcements arrived from a nearby army post by mid @-@ afternoon . Martial law was declared , and no further violence was perpetrated . A month later , Lockett was executed at the Kentucky State Penitentiary in Eddyville .
The incident is believed to be the first forceful suppression of a lynch mob by state and local officials in the South . Morrow received a laudatory telegram from the NAACP , and most of the national press regarding the incident was favorable . W. E. B. Du Bois called it the " Second Battle of Lexington " . Morrow was consistent in his use of state troops to end violence in the state . In 1922 , he again dispatched the National Guard to quell a violent mill strike in Newport .
Morrow also demanded consistency from local law enforcement officials . In 1921 , he removed the Woodford County jailer from office because he allowed a black inmate to be lynched and offered a reward of $ 25 @,@ 000 for information leading to the arrest and conviction of the perpetrators . Citizens of Versailles were more outraged that the jailer had been removed from office than that the prisoner had been lynched . The locals refused to aid in the investigation , and the lynchers were never arrested or charged . Local officials appointed the jailer 's wife to finish his term in an attempt to skirt the removal .
In August 1922 , a traveling salesman named Jack Eaton was arrested for allegedly assaulting several young girls . The girls ' parents refused to press charges , and Eaton was released . Later , he was captured by a mob , who cut him several times and poured turpentine into his wounds . An investigation found that the Scott County sheriff had willfully delivered Eaton to the mob , and Morrow removed him from office . Though Eaton was a white man , blacks were elated with the removal because they hoped it would encourage other jailers to step up efforts to protect against lynchings and mob violence .
Morrow was frequently mentioned as a potential candidate for vice president in 1920 , but he withdrew his name from consideration , sticking to a campaign promise not to seek a higher office while governor . On July 27 , 1920 , he made a speech in Northampton , Massachusetts , officially notifying Calvin Coolidge of his nomination for that office . Although he supported Frank O. Lowden for president , the nomination went to Warren G. Harding , and Morrow campaigned vigorously on behalf of his party 's ticket .
In his address to the 1922 legislature , Morrow asked for $ 50 million for improvements to the state highway system and for the repeal of all laws denying equal rights to women . He also recommended a large bond issue to finance improvements to the state 's universities , schools , prisons , and hospitals . By this time , however , the Republicans had surrendered their majority in the state House , and practically all of Morrow 's proposals were voted down . Morrow countered by vetoing several Democratic bills , including $ 700 @,@ 000 in appropriations . Among the few accomplishments of the 1922 legislature were passage of an anti @-@ lynching law , the abolition of convict labor and the establishment of normal schools at Murray and Morehead . Today , these schools are Murray State University and Morehead State University , respectively . The 1922 legislature also established a commission to govern My Old Kentucky Home State Park and approved construction of the Jefferson Davis Monument .
Despite the fact that Morrow gained national praise for his handling of the Lockett trial , historian James C. Klotter opined that he " left behind a solid , and rather typical , record for a Kentucky governor . " He cited Morrow 's fiscal conservatism and inability to control the legislature in 1922 as reasons for his lackluster assessment , although he praised Morrow 's advancement of racial equality in the state . Morrow was prohibited by the state constitution from seeking a second consecutive term , and the achievements of his administration were not significant enough to ensure the election of Charles I. Dawson , his would @-@ be Republican successor in the gubernatorial election of 1923 .
= = = Later career and death = = =
Following his term as governor , Morrow retired to Somerset where he became active in the Watchmen of the Republic , an organization devoted to the eradication of prejudice and the promotion of tolerance . He served on the United States Railroad Labor Board from 1923 to 1926 and its successor , the Railway Mediation Board , from 1926 to 1934 . He resigned to run for a seat in the U.S. House of Representatives representing the Ninth District , but lost his party 's nomination to John M. Robsion .
Following his defeat in the congressional primary , Morrow made plans to return to Lexington to resume his law practice . On June 15 , 1935 , he died unexpectedly of a heart attack while temporarily living with a cousin in Frankfort . He is buried in Frankfort Cemetery .
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= HMS Essex ( 1901 ) =
HMS Essex was one of 10 Monmouth @-@ class armoured cruisers built for the Royal Navy in the first decade of the 20th century . Upon completion in 1904 she was assigned to the 2nd Cruiser Squadron of the Channel Fleet . The ship was placed in reserve in March 1906 and recommissioned in 1909 for service with the 4th Cruiser Squadron on the North America and West Indies Station . In 1912 , Essex returned home and was assigned to the Training Squadron of the Home Fleet . After a refit the following year , she rejoined the 4th Cruiser Squadron in early 1914 .
After the beginning of World War I in August , the ship captured a German merchantman the following month . Essex spent most of the first half of the war in the Atlantic Ocean , escorting convoys and searching for German commerce raiders . The ship captured another German merchantman in mid @-@ 1916 and was reduced to second @-@ line roles such as depot ship and accommodation ship a few months later . She was paid off in 1919 and sold for scrap two years later .
= = Design and description = =
The Monmouths were designed to protect British merchant shipping from fast cruisers like the French Guichen , Châteaurenault or the Dupleix class . The ships were designed to displace 9 @,@ 800 long tons ( 10 @,@ 000 t ) . They had an overall length of 463 feet 6 inches ( 141 @.@ 3 m ) , a beam of 66 feet ( 20 @.@ 1 m ) and a deep draught of 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) . They were powered by two 4 @-@ cylinder triple @-@ expansion steam engines , each driving one shaft , which produced a total of 22 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 16 @,@ 000 kW ) designed to give a maximum speed of 23 knots ( 43 km / h ; 26 mph ) . Essex , however , was one of three of the Monmouths that failed to meet her designed speed . The engines were powered by 31 Belleville boilers . She carried a maximum of 1 @,@ 600 long tons ( 1 @,@ 600 t ) of coal and her complement consisted of 678 officers and ratings .
The Monmouth @-@ class ships ' main armament consisted of fourteen breech @-@ loading ( BL ) 6 @-@ inch Mk VII guns . Four of these guns were mounted in two twin @-@ gun turrets , one each fore and aft of the superstructure , and the others were positioned in casemates amidships . Six of these were mounted on the main deck and were only usable in calm weather . They had a maximum range of approximately 12 @,@ 200 yards ( 11 @,@ 200 m ) with their 100 @-@ pound ( 45 kg ) shells . Ten quick @-@ firing ( QF ) 12 @-@ pounder ( 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) ) 12 @-@ cwt guns were fitted for defence against torpedo boats . Essex also carried three 3 @-@ pounder ( 1 @.@ 9 in ( 47 mm ) ) Hotchkiss guns and two submerged 18 @-@ inch ( 450 mm ) torpedo tubes .
Beginning in 1915 , the main deck six @-@ inch guns of the Monmouth @-@ class ships were moved to the upper deck and given gun shields . Their casemates were plated over to improve seakeeping . The twelve @-@ pounder guns displaced by the transfer were repositioned elsewhere . At some point in the war , a pair of three @-@ pounder anti @-@ aircraft guns were installed on the upper deck .
The waterline armour belt of the Monmouths had a maximum thickness of 4 inches ( 102 mm ) and was closed off by 5 @-@ inch ( 127 mm ) transverse bulkheads . The armour of the gun turrets and their barbettes was 4 inches thick while that of the casemates had a thickness of 5 inches . The protective deck armour ranged in thickness from .75 – 2 inches ( 19 – 51 mm ) and the conning tower was protected by 10 inches ( 254 mm ) of armour .
= = Construction and service = =
Essex , named to commemorate the English county , was laid down at Pembroke Royal Dockyard , Wales , on 2 January 1900 and launched on 29 August 1901 , when she was christened by Mrs. Barlow , wife of the Captain @-@ Superintendent of the dockyard . The ship was completed on 22 March 1904 and was initially assigned to the 2nd Cruiser Squadron of the Channel Fleet . Essex was placed in reserve in March 1906 and suffered a six @-@ inch gun explosion in July while training . She was recommissioned in September 1909 and assigned to the 4th Cruiser Squadron on the North America and West Indies Station . She was transferred to the Home Fleet Training Squadron in 1912 and refitted the following year . Essex rejoined the 4th Cruiser Squadron in January 1914 with Commander Hugh Tweedie in command .
After visiting Madeira and Jamaica , the ship arrived in Veracruz , Mexico , on 9 February to relieve her sister ship , Suffolk , and protect British interests during the on @-@ going Mexican Revolution . Two weeks later , she visited Galveston , Texas , before heading for Tampico , Mexico where she arrived on 11 March . Essex only spent a few days there before returning to Veracruz on 13 March . She was in Tampico when Mexican soldiers briefly detained American sailors buying gasoline for their ship on 9 April ( the Tampico Affair ) and returned to Veracruz ten days later , two days before the Americans began landing there on 21 April . They were not satisfied by the Mexican apologies and U.S. President Woodrow Wilson ordered the city occupied in retribution and to forestall a major arms delivery to Victoriano Huerta 's forces . The Mexicans resisted and stray bullets hit Essex the next day , wounding one man who was shot in both feet . Tweedie , escorted by two ratings , was sent to take dispatches for the British Minister in Mexico City on the 26th and returned two days later . Rear @-@ Admiral Christopher Craddock inspected the ship and her crew on 5 – 6 May . Essex sailed for Tampico on 10 May before leaving Mexican waters on the 14th . A month later , the ship was in Quebec City when she was visited by the Canadian Minister of Marine and Fisheries on 16 June . The following month , Essex ferried the Governor General of Canada , Prince Arthur , Duke of Connaught and Strathearn , to Newfoundland and Labrador before returning to Quebec City on 20 July .
= = = World War I = = =
When Craddock received the preliminary war warning on 27 July , he ordered Essex to join her sister Lancaster in Bermuda , which she reached three days later . The ship was ordered to patrol the area north and northwest to protect British shipping and destroy any German commerce raiders . As the Germans appeared to be concentrating their efforts in the Caribbean , Craddock ordered Essex south to reinforce his forces there in early September . On 7 September , she captured the tender , SS Bethania , for the armed merchant cruiser SS Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse , en route from Halifax to Jamaica . The ship continued to patrol the sealanes from the Caribbean Sea to Canadian waters until the end of February 1915 , when she escorted a troop convoy from Halifax to Queenstown , Ireland . Essex then sailed to Barrow @-@ in @-@ Furness where she began a refit that lasted until 29 April . Now assigned to the 7th Cruiser Squadron of the Grand Fleet , she spent the next several weeks in Avonmouth or Scapa Flow before being transferred to Cruiser Force I and began patrolling the area between the Azores , Madeira , Cape Verde and Gibraltar on 8 June . Rear @-@ Admiral Archibald Moore , commander of the 9th Cruiser Squadron , hoisted his flag aboard the ship on 4 September and pulled it down on the 29th . Essex began a brief refit at Gibraltar on 1 October that lasted until the 26th and then resumed patrolling the Central Atlantic . She captured a German merchantman , SS Telde , on 3 May 1916 in the Canary Islands . The ship resumed patrolling until her arrival in Devonport on 17 August ; Essex was paid off days later .
Later in the year , she was recommissioned and served as a destroyer depot ship at Devonport . By April 1918 , Essex was an accommodation ship there . As of 1 December , she was serving as a training ship , but she reverted to her previous role as an accommodation ship by 1 May 1919 . Essex was paid off again by October 1919 and was later sold for scrap on 8 November 1921 and broken up in Germany .
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= Avon Gorge =
The Avon Gorge ( grid reference ST560743 ) is a 1 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 2 @.@ 5 @-@ kilometre ) long gorge on the River Avon in Bristol , England . The gorge runs south to north through a limestone ridge 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) west of Bristol city centre , and about 3 miles ( 5 km ) from the mouth of the river at Avonmouth . The gorge forms the boundary between the unitary authorities of North Somerset and Bristol , with the boundary running along the south bank . As Bristol was an important port , the gorge formed a defensive gateway to the city .
On the east of the gorge is the Bristol suburb of Clifton , and The Downs , a large public park . To the west of the gorge is Leigh Woods , the name of both a village and the National Trust forest it is situated in . There are three Iron Age hill forts overlooking the gorge , as well as an observatory . The Clifton Suspension Bridge , an icon of Bristol , crosses the gorge .
= = Geology and formation = =
The gorge cuts through a ridge mainly of limestone , with some sandstone . This particular ridge runs from Clifton to Clevedon , 10 miles ( 16 km ) away on the Bristol Channel coast , although limestone is found throughout the Bristol area . The fossil shells and corals indicate that the limestone formed in shallow tropical seas in the Carboniferous , 350 million years ago . For a long time it was unclear what caused the Avon to cut through the limestone ridge , rather than run south west through the Ashton Vale towards Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare . However , Bristol was at the southern edge of glaciation during the last ice age , and it has been suggested that ice blocked the river 's natural route through Ashton Vale to the west . At the Clifton Suspension Bridge the Gorge is more than 700 feet ( 213 m ) wide and 300 feet ( 91 m ) deep .
In the 18th century the gorge was quarried to produce building stone for the city . Stone was taken by boat into the floating harbour . In the 19th century celestine was discovered in Leigh Court estate and the Miles family authorised quarrying . Between 1880 and 1920 Bristol was producing 90 % of the world 's Celestine , but the enterprise did not last long into the 20th century . Bristol Diamonds , brilliant quartz crystals found in geodes in dolomitic conglomerate in the gorge , were popular souvenirs for visitors to the Hotwells spa in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries . Quarries on the Bristol side of the gorge are now popular with climbers and are a habitat for Peregrine falcons and other wildlife .
= = Ecology = =
The steep walls of the gorge support some rare fauna and flora , including species unique to the gorge . There are a total of 24 rare plant species and two unique trees : the Bristol and Wilmotts 's whitebeams . Other notable plants include Bristol rock cress , Bristol onion , spiked speedwell , Autumn squill and honewort . Because of its steep sides , there are many parts of the gorge on which trees cannot grow , making way for smaller plants . The gorge is also home to rare invertebrate species . The gorge has a microclimate around 1 degree warmer than the surrounding land . The steep south @-@ west facing sides receive the afternoon sunlight , but are partially sheltered from the prevailing winds . When winds come from the Bristol Channel in the north west they may be funnelled into the gorge , creating harsh and wet conditions .
The steep gorge walls make an ideal habitat for peregrine falcons , with a plentiful supply of food nearby in the form of pigeons and sea gulls . Peregrines have a history of nesting in the gorge , but having become rare in the British Isles they did not breed and were rarely seen in the gorge after the 1930s . In 1990 Peregrines returned to the gorge , and have successfully bred in most of the following years . On warm days a strong uplift forms in the gorge , on which birds of prey soar while hunting . The gorge also houses large populations of Jackdaw and horseshoe bats , both of which find homes in the caves and bridge buttresses .
Due to its geology and ecology , an area of 155 @.@ 4 hectares ( 384 @.@ 0 acres ) of the gorge and surrounding woodland has been protected as a biological and geological Site of Special Scientific Interest ( SSSI ) , the original notification taking place in 1952 . The site may in future be protected as a Special Area of Conservation under the European Commission Habitats Directive ( 92 / 43 / EEC ) . The Leigh Woods side of the gorge is largely owned by the National Trust . The Downs on the city side of the gorge are owned by Bristol City Council and managed as a large public park . The gorge side is protected in partnership with Bristol Zoo , WWF and English Nature . The council 's management of the gorge involves balancing the need to protect its ecology with recreational uses such as rock climbing .
Green @-@ flowered helleborine is found on the western side of the gorge , in a wooded area next to the towpath below Leigh Woods. lady orchid was discovered here in 1990 , in Nightingale Valley on the west side of the Gorge ; there is some doubt as to whether this was a wild plant or an introduction. fly orchid and bee orchid are found in the gorge , along with their hybrid . A single plant of lesser meadow @-@ rue is present in the gorge . Bristol rock @-@ cress occurs here , and at nearby Penpole Point ; in the gorge , there are about 3 @,@ 000 plants on the Bristol side , and about 2 @,@ 000 below Leigh Woods . Hutchinsia is found on both sides of the gorge . Bloody crane 's @-@ bill grows on the Bristol side of the gorge , where it is believed to be native . Little robin occurs on both sides of the gorge . Spiked speedwell grows on both sides of the gorge : the first British record of this plant was from the gorge , in 1641 .
= = History of human use = =
The gorge area was inhabited at least as early as the Iron Age , probably by the Dobunni tribe . In Leigh Woods above Nightingale Valley , a steep dry valley beside the suspension bridge , is Stokeleigh Camp , one of three Iron Age hill forts in the area . Stokeleigh was occupied from 3BCE to 1CE , and was also used in the Middle Ages . The camp was protected on two sides by the cliff faces of the gorge and Nightingale Valley , and was also protected by earthworks , and is now a scheduled ancient monument . A second hill fort was situated across Nightingale Valley , but has since been built on , and bridge road cuts through it . The third hill fort was situated on the opposite side of the gorge , in what is now observatory green . Archaeology , plus the configuration of the three forts , suggest they played a role in defending the gorge .
During the Middle Ages and industrial revolution the area which now forms The Downs was used as common grazing land . It was mined for lead , calamine , iron and limestone , and became home to a windmill which produced snuff from the tobacco which had become one of the city 's principal imports . In 1777 the windmill burnt out in a storm , and the building was converted into the observatory , which houses a camera obscura . In the 18th and 19th centuries Bristol 's economy boomed and Clifton became a desirable place to live . Mansion houses were built overlooking the gorge , but after grazing was stopped , trees grew and obscured the view from these mansions . In the Victorian era , with houses creeping further onto the Downs , an Act of Parliament was passed to protect them as a park for the people of Bristol . In 1754 a bridge to span the gorge was proposed , but it was nearly 80 years before work began on Isambard Kingdom Brunel 's Clifton Suspension Bridge , and a further 30 years before it was completed . Today the bridge is perhaps the best known landmark in Bristol .
Throughout Bristol 's history the gorge has been an important transport route , carrying the River Avon , major roads and two railways . It is the gateway to Bristol Harbour , and provided protection against storms or attack . The Bristol Channel and Avon estuary have a very high tidal range of 15 metres ( 49 ft ) , second only to Bay of Fundy in Eastern Canada ; and the gorge is relatively narrow and meandering , making it notoriously difficult to navigate . Several vessels have grounded in the gorge including the SS Demerara soon after her launch in 1851 , the schooner Gipsy in 1878 , the steam tug Black Eagle in 1861 and the Llandaff City . The phrase " ship shape and Bristol fashion " arises from when the main harbour in Bristol was tidal , the bottom of which was rocky . If ships were not of stout construction then they would simply break up as the tide receded , hence the phrase .
A railway , the Bristol Port Railway , was built through the gorge on the east side from Hotwells to Avonmouth between 1863 and 1865 . The Portishead Railway was opened on the west side in 1867 . The section of the Bristol Port Railway between Hotwells and Sneyd Park junction was closed in 1922 , when construction of a major road through the gorge , the Portway , was started . The Portway was opened in 1926 . The road is now part of the A4 road , linking Bristol city centre to the M5 motorway , which bypasses the city near Avonmouth .
Two railways still run through the gorge . On the east side the Severn Beach Line to Avonmouth and Severn Beach uses the remaining part of the Bristol Port Railway through part of the gorge , and through a tunnel under the Downs . On the west side the Portishead Railway was closed by the Beeching Axe in the 1960s , but has now been reopened for freight traffic as far as Royal Portbury Dock , 2 @.@ 5 miles ( 4 km ) downstream . Between 1893 and 1934 , the Clifton Rocks Railway linked the passenger steamer pier at Hotwells with Clifton on the rim of the gorge .
A footpath and National Cycle Network cycleway run alongside the Portishead Railway and along the old towpath .
= = Mythology = =
The formation of the Avon Gorge is the subject of mediaeval mythology . The myths tell tales of two giant brothers , Goram and Vincent , who constructed the gorge . One variation holds that Vincent and Goram were constructing the gorge together and Goram fell asleep , to be accidentally killed by Vincent 's pickaxe . Another variation tells of the brothers falling for Avona , a girl from Wiltshire , who instructs the giants to drain a lake which stretches from Rownham Hill to Bradford @-@ on @-@ Avon ( i.e. the Avon valley ) . Goram began digging the nearby Hazel Brook Gorge in Blaise Castle estate , but consumed too much beer and fell asleep . Vincent dug the Avon Gorge and drained the lake , winning the affection of Avona . Upon waking Goram stamped his foot , creating " The Giant 's Footprint " in the Blaise Castle estate , and threw himself into the Bristol Channel , turning to stone and leaving his head and shoulder above water as the islands of Flat Holm and Steep Holm .
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= Old Court – New Court controversy =
The Old Court – New Court controversy was a 19th @-@ century political controversy in the U.S. state of Kentucky in which the Kentucky General Assembly abolished the Kentucky Court of Appeals and replaced it with a new court . The justices of the old court refused to recognize the action as valid , and for a time , two separate courts operated as the court of last resort for the state .
The controversy began when the financial Panic of 1819 left many Kentuckians in debt and unable to meet their financial obligations . A debt relief movement began in the state , and pro @-@ relief candidates won majorities in the General Assembly in 1820 . The Assembly passed a law of replevin that was extremely favorable to debtors . Disgruntled creditors challenged the constitutionality of the law , appealing their case to the Court of Appeals . The court opined in favor of the creditors . Attempts to remove the anti @-@ relief justices failed . The pro @-@ relief legislature passed a measure abolishing the Court of Appeals and replacing it with a new court , to which pro @-@ relief governor Joseph Desha appointed pro @-@ relief justices who upheld the replevin law .
As the economic situation in the state improved in the second half of the 1820s , the Old Court supporters regained control of both houses of the General Assembly . They abolished the New Court and restored the Old Court to power . In an 1829 case , the Court nullified decisions rendered by the New Court . In a 1935 case , the Court struck all the New Court cases from Kentucky common law .
= = Background = =
A period of national prosperity followed the end of the War of 1812 . In Kentucky , rapid population growth and strong demand for the state 's goods led to land speculation becoming a popular enterprise . The charter of the Kentucky Insurance Company in 1802 and the Bank of Kentucky in 1806 made currency for loans plentiful . The establishment of branches of the Second Bank of the United States in Louisville and Lexington further augmented the availability of credit . In 1818 , the General Assembly chartered 40 more state banks , and later added six more .
In late 1818 , however , demand for U.S. goods fell sharply in Europe . Land values also began to fall , touching off the Panic of 1819 . Many persons in the state were unable to repay their loans . A struggle began between creditors seeking to collect money owed to them and debtors seeking relief from obligations they could not meet . A Debt Relief Party sprang up in the state , which had long been a single @-@ party bastion .
In 1819 , Governor Gabriel Slaughter agreed to repeal the charters of the 46 banks — now known as " The Forty Thieves " — established by the General Assembly . He concurred when the General Assembly abolished damages on disputed bills of exchange .
= = Beginning of the controversy = =
In 1820 , the Debt Relief Party gained majorities in both houses of the General Assembly . On February 11 , 1820 , the Assembly passed a law of replevin , or " stay law , " that prevented creditors from seeking court order for payment of a debt for a period of one year . They hoped that this would provide time for an economic recovery which would allow debtors to save their investments . If the creditor would not accept bank notes issued by the Bank of Kentucky , he was forced to wait an additional year to collect the debt .
On November 29 , 1820 , the Assembly chartered the Bank of the Commonwealth , another source from which debtors could obtain money . Creditors did not want to accept payment from either the Bank of Kentucky or the Bank of the Commonwealth ; the notes of the former were depreciated due to a lack of capital and the latter had no capital and no guarantee of state credit . In December 1820 , the Assembly modified the replevin law to state that creditors who would accept payment in notes from the Bank of the Commonwealth but not the Bank of Kentucky would be forced to wait three months to collect on a debt . The wait was one year if the creditor accepted only notes from the Bank of Kentucky , and it remained two years for creditors who would not accept notes from either .
By 1821 , the Relief Party had successfully ended the practice of debt imprisonment in Kentucky . In December 1822 , the party became so dissatisfied with the sound money practices of the Bank of Kentucky that they revoked its charter .
= = = Williams v. Blair and Lapsley v. Brashear = = =
Forced to choose between accepting depreciated money in payment for outstanding debts or waiting long times to collect debts , creditors turned to the courts for relief . In 1822 , Bourbon County circuit court judge James Clark ruled in the case of Williams v. Blair that the replevin law violated the state and federal constitutions . This ruling was so unpopular with the Relief Party that they attempted to remove him from office , but the 59 – 35 vote fell just short of the needed two @-@ thirds majority . Fayette County circuit court judge Francis P. Blair issued a similar ruling in the case of Lapsley v. Brashear .
Both cases were appealed to the Kentucky Court of Appeals — then the highest court in Kentucky — in 1823 . In the case of Blair , the debt relief position was argued by George M. Bibb , while the anti @-@ relief position was represented by Robert Wickliffe . In Lapsley , Wickliffe joined George Robertson and Ben Hardin to represent the anti @-@ relief position , while the relief position was argued by John Rowan and William T. Barry . Chief Justice John Boyle wrote the majority opinion in Blair on October 8 , 1823 , and Associate Justice William Owsley issued the court 's opinion in Lapsley three days later . In both cases , the anti @-@ relief position was upheld .
= = Formation of the New Court = =
The Assembly passed resolutions against all three justices on the Court of Appeals , but did not possess the two @-@ thirds majority to remove them . Governor John Adair , a Relief Party supporter , urged the resistance , framing the issue as the court impeding the right of the people to self @-@ govern . His efforts drew a resolution against him from the anti @-@ relief minority on November 8 , 1823 .
Frustrated by their defeats in the judiciary , the Relief Party turned its attention to the gubernatorial election of 1824 , where they backed General Joseph Desha . Desha 's election by the overwhelming vote of 38 @,@ 378 – 22 @,@ 499 was seen by the party as a mandate to pursue the relief agenda . An early proposal to reduce the salaries of the Court of Appeals justices to 25 cents per year was discarded without a vote , but the House of Representatives mustered the votes to remove the offending justices . The justices were spared removal when the Senate failed to pass the measure with a two @-@ thirds majority . The vote was 23 – 12 .
On December 9 , 1824 , the Senate voted to repeal the law that had established the Court of Appeals and to establish a new Court of Appeals with four justices . The measure came to the House floor on December 23 . During the debate , Governor Desha personally lobbied legislators to support the measure , a blatant violation of the rules of the House . The next day the measure passed in the House by a vote of 54 – 43 . Governor Desha appointed pro @-@ relief stalwart William T. Barry as Chief Justice , and three associate justices who were also Relief Party supporters .
The existing court and the anti @-@ relief party refused to recognize the new court as valid . Achilles Sneed , clerk of the Old Court , refused a legislative mandate to turn over his records to the New Court by January 1825 . Francis Blair , the New Court clerk , assembled a group that broke into Sneed 's office and took what records they could find . Sneed was charged with contempt of court and fined for refusing to turn over the records . The Old Court continued to meet in a church in Frankfort ; with two supreme courts , the possibility of civil war in Kentucky loomed .
= = Resolution of the controversy = =
In the elections of 1825 , the Old Court supporters won control of the Kentucky House of Representatives . When the General Assembly 's session opened in November 1825 , Old Court partisans immediately formed a committee to make recommendations related to the court of appeals . On November 23 , Old Court supporters introduced a bill to repeal the reorganization act . The measure passed the House , but failed in the Senate , where Old Court and New Court supporters were equal in number ; the deciding vote was cast by Lieutenant Governor Robert B. McAfee , aligned with New Court advocates . In December , the Assembly 's committee concluded that the Old Court justices were " constitutional judges " and consequently , the legislature did not have power to abolish their positions . The best the Old Court supporters were able to do in 1825 was to pass a non @-@ binding resolution condemning the reorganization act .
By 1826 , economic prosperity was beginning to return to the state . The Old Court party augmented their majority in the House and gained a majority in the Senate . One legislator 's proposition to resolve the controversy was to call for the resignation of the governor and lieutenant governor , the entire General Assembly , as well as the justices from both the Old and New Courts , essentially allowing the state to reset its entire government . This extreme measure was rejected . Instead , on December 29 , 1826 , the General Assembly repealed the reorganization act , and overrode Governor Desha 's veto of the measure . They also repealed the replevin law that had touched off the controversy . On January 1 , 1827 , Francis Blair returned the court records in his possession to the Old Court .
Old Court chief justice John Boyle resigned to accept a federal judgeship . The General Assembly decided to speed the reconciliation of the two sides of the controversy by naming New Court partisan George Bibb as Boyle 's replacement . Old Court justices Mills and Owsley resigned , hoping to clarify the situation further . They were immediately reappointed , but the Senate refused to confirm their appointments . The governor appointed George Robertson and Joseph R. Underwood , who were both confirmed by the Senate .
In all , the New Court heard 77 cases during the Old Court – New Court controversy . In the April 1829 case of Hildreth 's Heirs v. McIntire 's Devisees , the reconstituted Court of Appeals declared all of these decisions void . In 1935 , in Smith v. Overstreet 's Adm 'r , the court formally ruled that the decisions were not part of the common law of Kentucky .
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= Late Registration =
Late Registration is the second studio album by American hip hop producer and rapper Kanye West , released on August 30 , 2005 , by Roc @-@ A @-@ Fella Records and Def Jam Recordings . It was recorded over the course of a year in sessions held across studios in New York City and Hollywood , with West collaborating with American record producer and composer Jon Brion . The album features guest contributions from Adam Levine , Lupe Fiasco , Jamie Foxx , Common , Jay @-@ Z , Brandy , and Nas , among others . Its production was notably more lush and elaborate than West 's 2004 debut album The College Dropout , as he utilized intricate sampling methods and string orchestration with Brion . West 's lyrics explore both personal and political themes , including poverty , drug trafficking , racism , healthcare , and the blood diamond trade .
Late Registration received rave reviews from critics and earned West several accolades , including a Grammy Award for Best Rap Album at the 2006 Grammy Awards and an Album of the Year nomination . It appeared at the top of several publications year @-@ end lists of top albums . Rolling Stone named it the best album of 2005 , and included it at number 118 on its list of the 500 Greatest Albums of All Time in 2012 . Late Registration debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 chart , selling 860 @,@ 000 copies in its first week .
The album has thus far sold over 3 @.@ 1 million copies in the United States and has been certified triple platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America . Late Registration produced five singles , including the international hits " Touch the Sky " , " Heard ' Em Say " and " Gold Digger " , the latter of which topped the Billboard Hot 100 at number one . Music videos for all five singles were produced . West supported the album with a promotional concert tour , and the live album Late Orchestration .
= = Background = =
Late Registration is the second of Kanye West 's planned four education @-@ themed studio albums . Following the major success of The College Dropout , the album reveals his progression in writing lyrics and an incorporation of a wider range of musical styles . At the time , the focal point of West 's production style was the use of sped @-@ up vocal samples from soul records . However , due in part to the acclaim of The College Dropout , such sampling had been much copied by others ; with that overuse , and also because West felt he had become too dependent on the technique , he decided to find a new sound .
A longtime fan of the English trip hop group Portishead , West had been significantly influenced by Roseland NYC Live , the band 's 1998 live album with the New York Philharmonic Orchestra . Early in his career , the live album had inspired him to incorporate string arrangements into his hip hop production . Though West had not been able to afford many live instruments around the time of his debut album , the money from his commercial success enabled him to hire a string orchestra for his second album . West juxtaposed the lush , intricate melodies of the string section with the hard , pounding drum rhythms of hip @-@ hop , and used the sound for the foundation of his rapping .
West collaborated with American film score composer Jon Brion , who served as the album 's co @-@ executive producer for several tracks . West had been exposed to Brion 's work while watching the film Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind , for which Brion had composed music . West was also listening to songs Brion had produced for When the Pawn ... , the second studio album of alternative singer @-@ songwriter Fiona Apple , another one of West 's favorite musicians and sources of musical inspiration for the album . Although Brion had no prior experience in creating hip @-@ hop records , he and West found that they could productively work together after their first afternoon in the studio where they discovered that neither confined his musical knowledge and vision to one specific genre . When questioned if his presence made Late Registration any less hip @-@ hop , Brion replied , " There are colors and ideas that make [ the album ] different from average hip @-@ hop , but Kanye is already different from the average hip @-@ hop guy . He 's got this sense of pop record @-@ making which is really solid , and he likes tracks with a lot of things going on in them — which is not necessarily common for hip @-@ hop . He was already barking up that tree . This is definitely not just a hip @-@ hop album . But it is also by no means overtly arty , or non @-@ hip @-@ hop . I don 't think it 's a weird record by any means . "
= = Recording = =
West took over a year and invested two million dollars towards the construction of Late Registration . The majority of the recording sessions for the album took place at Sony Music Studios in New York City and at The Record Plant in Hollywood , California ; other sessions took place at Chalice Recording Studios and Grandmaster Recording Studios in Hollywood . He began working in the studio after he finished touring with Usher on the R & B singer 's The Truth Tour . By November 2004 , West had completed nearly seventy @-@ five percent of the album . However he felt unsatisfied with its outcome and in March of the following year , he brought in Jon Brion , which drastically altered the project 's direction .
The album 's recording sessions between West and Brion were largely exploratory , with the two experimenting with a broad spectrum of sounds . West would construct a song 's basic structure , bringing in samples , drum beat programming and occasionally unfinished rap verses . After brainstorming over the musical direction the album could go , he would then select from a variety of unique instruments that Brion provided ( and played ) and attempt to incorporate their distinctive sound into the song 's texture . West envisioned the album as like the creation of a film : visualizing the songs as scenes , outlining each in such a way that they efficiently conveyed their respective social or introspective context , and ensuring that all synchronized within the fabric of the complete set . This sentiment was shared by Jon Brion who said , " He thinks in frequency ranges . I can recognize when someone sees music architecturally , which is how I work . I see it as a spatial thing : left to right , front to back , up and down . It 's animated and it 's moving in real time . Kanye has that . He tries things out until it fits , until it sits where it is supposed to sit and everything has the correct emotional function . He has real instincts like any great record @-@ maker . "
Late Registration has a diverse number of collaborations for its individual tracks . West chose his guest artists based on the effect each of their voices had on him when he heard them , citing the serene vocals of Adam Levine , the trademark sound of Brandy , and the lyricism of Lupe Fiasco and Paul Wall as primary examples . Adam Levine , lead vocalist of pop rock band Maroon 5 is featured on the album 's opening track , " Heard ' Em Say . " The two had previously collaborated when Maroon 5 commissioned West to produce a remix for " This Love " and later developed a friendship while sitting together on a flight to Rome for the 2004 MTV Europe Music Awards . While playing songs from his second album on his iPod for him during the flight , West came across the demo for " Heard ' Em Say " to which Levine added a R & B hook he had recently written and thought was perfect for it . The track was recorded quickly after the 2005 Grammy Awards ceremony , as Levine only had a couple of free hours available for time in the studio , and Brion was able to translate the two compositions in a matter of hours .
West originally produced and recorded " Gold Digger " in Ludacris 's home in Atlanta , Georgia for Shawnna 's 2004 debut album Worth Tha Weight and had written the chorus from a female first @-@ person viewpoint . However , Shawnna passed on the song . West rewrote the two verses from a male 's point @-@ of @-@ view for himself ; about a year later , just before " Gold Digger " was set to be released , adding a third verse , recording and mastering it at Sony Music Studios in New York in a week . After he went with friend John Mayer to see Foxx 's portrayal of Ray Charles in the 2004 film Ray , West decided to have Foxx sing an interpolation of Charles ' song " I Got a Woman " in place of the original sample . Once the track was in place , it was layered with additional instruments provided by Brion and individually selected by West .
Houston @-@ based rapper Paul Wall appears alongside West and his G.O.O.D. Music label @-@ mate GLC on " Drive Slow " , which was recorded in Los Angeles after the two had met while posing for a photo shoot in an August issue of King magazine in a spread titled " Coming Kings " . West had originally wanted Sri Lankan rapper M.I.A. to appear on the track , but she opted out of the appearance due to a busy schedule . " My Way Home " is performed by West 's close friend and G.O.O.D. Music associate Common , whose sixth studio album Be was being produced and recorded by West simultaneously with Late Registration . Certain tracks West originally crafted for Be that Common passed on subsequently ended up on his second album .
While the original version of " Diamonds from Sierra Leone " featured West as the sole performer , he decided to record a remix to the song which included guest verse provided by Jay @-@ Z — who had come out of retirement from rapping — after learning of the civil war in Sierra Leone financed by conflict diamonds . Both the original and remix versions of " Diamond from Sierra Leone " appear on the album , with the former included as a bonus track . The song contains live drums played by Michel Gondry , the director of Eternal Sunshine and later the first music video for " Heard ' Em Say " , who had visited the studio on a day Brion set up a drum kit . According to Jay @-@ Z , West mixed " Diamonds from Sierra Leone " about fourteen times before he felt comfortable to release it as the album 's lead single . The recording also experienced delay when West and Brion were required to wait two weeks to rent the harpsichord that they used for percussion on the song .
West recorded a verse by rap artist Nas — one of his idol rappers — for the track " We Major " without informing Jay @-@ Z , who at the time was engaged in a feud with Nas . G.O.O.D , music label @-@ mate Really Doe also appears on the track , delivering its elongated chorus . West later revealed that part of the reason he created the song was to dismantle the feud between the MCs , which they did later that year . " Hey Mama " , dedicated to his mother Donda West , was first recorded by West as early as 2000 . Brion ran into some obstruction while conducting a twenty @-@ piece orchestra for " Celebration " , as its musicians found themselves giggling at West 's humorous lyrics which hampered their playing . On " Roses , " West and Brion had some minor discord ; Brion initially layered it with keyboard arrangements , only for West to remove his keys along with the beat and completely reconfigure the entire song in such a way that its verses are built around the rhythm formed by his vocals and Brion 's arrangements arrive during the choruses . Brion later lightheartedly compared the indecision surrounding the construction of the track to that of Prince 's famous last @-@ minute removal of the bass line from " When Doves Cry . "
= = Music and production = =
On Late Registration , West drew inspiration from English trip hop band Portishead and collaborated with film score composer Jon Brion . The album 's music blends West 's primary soulful hip hop production with Brion 's elaborate chamber pop orchestration , and experimentally delves into a wide array of different genres , including jazz , blues , rock , R & B , spoken word , funk , turntablism , western classical , and psychedelic soul . With the presence of Brion , who conducts a twenty @-@ piece orchestra and plays instruments individually selected by West , the album is largely orchestral in nature , brandishing a euphony of string arrangements , piano chords , brass flecks , and horn riffs among other symphonic instrumentation . They also incorporated a myriad of foreign and vintage instruments not typical in popular music , let alone hip hop , such as a celesta , harpsichord , Chamberlin , CS @-@ 80 analog synthesizer , Chinese bells and berimbau , vibraphones , and marimba .
For Late Registration , Serena Kim of Vibe magazine took note of how West uses unconventional styles and sudden musical shifts in song structures , drawing comparisons to The Beatles during their experimental era . Rolling Stone described Late Registration as West claiming " the whole world of music as hip @-@ hop turf " chronicling the album as " his mad quest to explode every cliché about hip @-@ hop identity . " Kim concurred with this sentiment , stating , " West ambitiously attempts to depart from the street sensibilities of Dropout by giving Late Registration a shiny , quasi @-@ alt @-@ pop finish . "
The album 's opening track " Heard ' Em Say " exhibits a cascading piano melody provided by excerpts of " Someone That I Used To Love " as performed by Natalie Cole embellished over tumbling beats and warped bass as well as acoustic guitar . The song 's intricately composed outro , which adopts new sonic elements such as synthesizer and foreign bells , exemplifies the musical complexity of the album as a whole . " Touch the Sky " stands as the sole song on the entire album not to feature production by West . The song was produced by fellow Roc @-@ a @-@ Fella producer Just Blaze , who uses a slowed @-@ down sample of Curtis Mayfield 's " Move on Up " filled with jubilant Latin horn blares and dynamic drum patterns . " Gold Digger " contains an interpolation of " I Got a Woman " by Ray Charles and a bouncy beat formed from handclaps as well as scratches by West 's touring DJ A @-@ Trak . Towards the end , the song employs vintage 1970s synthesizers which emit a honking sound in cadence to Kanye 's voice . West 's production approach comes full circle within " Drive Slow " , a song that samples Hank Crawford 's " Wildflower " and distinctively retains a sluggish but smooth alto jazz @-@ infused drum loop , antithetical to his once essential sped @-@ up soul style .
The interlude " My Way Home " contains a sample of " Home is Where the Hatred Is " by Gil Scott @-@ Heron . This facet is accentuated by Common 's performance , which pays homage to the poet by the delivering its single verse in a distinctive proto @-@ rap manner reminiscent of Scott @-@ Heron 's influential vocal style . " Crack Music " is sparsely built on incessant snare drum hits and clipped horn blares . The track sees an ephemeral return of West 's old production attributes , as it possesses a syncopated martial beat , gospel choir symphony , and a spoken word passage within its coda . The poetic " Roses " is partially a cappella in structure , displaying verses rapped over sparse keyboards and a slowed rhythm with the music arriving at the chorus , which features additional vocals , trumpet riffs , electric guitar phrasings , and finally a vocal and piano sample from Bill Withers ' " Rosie " . " Bring Me Down " carries a bombast dramatic air , as it holds more orchestration than any other track on Late Registration . Additionally , it features an overdubbing of Brandy 's vocals to create a chorus effect , a recording technique in which her lone voice produces the illusion of a choir singing harmonies during the choruses . The up @-@ tempo arrangement of " Addiction " contains ambient , rhythmic guitar licks , congas , filtered hi @-@ hats and a sampled line from " My Funny Valentine " as performed by Etta James . All the while , West 's overdubbed vocals reverbs in and out of the track . For " Diamonds from Sierra Leone " , West used a music sample of the theme song for the 1971 James Bond film , Diamonds Are Forever as performed by Shirley Bassey and layered it with live drums , piano keys , harpsichord arpeggios , and string arrangements that all build in intensity with his voice .
Late Registration 's longest track , the seven minute @-@ long " We Major " , implements exuberant , amplified backing vocals and a " splashy disco groove " embellished by horn blares , droning bassline , and electric piano glissandos . The melody of " Hey Mama " is laced with a folksy looped " La @-@ la @-@ la " vocal sample from " Today Won 't Come Again " by Donal Leace while its beat is produced by a tin drum . Additionally , it contains vocoder @-@ processed background vocals , a xylophone solo and a cascading synth outro . Opening with an electronic twinkling sound , " Celebration " contains samples of " Heavenly Dream " by The KayGees . A columnist for The Guardian described it as evoking " the lavish 1970s psychedelic soul of Rotary Connection . " Some of the most elaborate orchestral arrangement expressed on the entire album is contained within its closing track " Gone . " The composition begins with a vocal sample of " It 's Too Late " by Otis Redding and a two @-@ chord piano ostinato , followed by a simplistic funk beat . As the song progresses , its structure gradually morphs and develops more and more musicality . Overtime , the composition assumes ten violins , four violas and four cellos in the midst of verses , all of which initially come in brief staccato bursts that simply punctuate the rhythm but eventually expand and consolidate into a fully formed string section by the arrival of the harmonic choruses . After its third verse , the song enters an instrumental passage before returning with a fourth verse from West , where the rise and fall of his voice is intricately emulated by the fluctuation of the string orchestra .
= = Lyrics and themes = =
According to Josh Tyrangiel of Time magazine , Late Registration serves as an exhibition of " the stealthy power of West 's storytelling . " West stated that his goal for the album was to touch on topics that people from all walks of life could find relatable , while remaining true to himself : " [ I wanted to have ] raps that were just as ill as Jadakiss and just as understandable as Will Smith . " The opening track " Heard ' Em Say " is a " mournfully contemplative " song that " talks about being honest with yourself in a world that is not . " The song is written from the perspective of an afflicted , impoverished American quietly lamenting the fallacies of society and questioning the ways of the world around him . West delivers a tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek lyrical narrative within " Gold Digger " in which he critically depicts the disastrous life of a man married to a woman who manipulates him for financial gain . However , another story arises within the third verse , which illustrates a once destitute black male who earns a fortune and decides to leave a loyal , unselfish girlfriend for a white woman .
" Crack Music " continues the avenue of socio @-@ political commentary initiated within " Heard ' Em Say . " However , two songs express polar opposite tones ; where " Heard ' Em Say " was self @-@ effacing and passive @-@ aggressive , " Crack Music " is audacious and straightforward . In the song , West dually discusses the spread and devastating impact of crack cocaine in black communities and champions the sovereignty of music pioneered by black musicians , metaphorically equating their contrarily addictive power and influence on American society . On the sentimental " Roses " , Kanye gives a firsthand account of the hospitalization of his ailing grandmother within a melancholic poem to produce a critique of the healthcare system .
The original version of " Diamonds from Sierra Leone " is largely free @-@ associative and is filled with a litany of lyrical punchlines which serve to loosely chronicle his past experiences being a part of the Roc @-@ A @-@ Fella family , from touring with Jay @-@ Z on his Blueprint Lounge Tour to the label 's subsequent fall out and revival . However , West uses the remix to " Diamonds from Sierra Leone " to directly address the issue of " blood diamonds " that people unknowingly wear every day are used to fund horrific civil wars in West Africa . Lyrically , the extensive , uplifting " We Major " is a spiritual exhultation of generational and personal success . " Hey Mama " is West 's dedication to his mother , Donda West . In the ballad , West recounts past hardships he and his mother suffered through together and expresses his love and devotion for her and appreciation for her tireless support , even when he was going directly against her expectations for him .
In addition , the album includes a series of humorous skits that involve West joining a fictional black fraternity , " Broke Phi Broke , " whose members pride themselves in living a life without money or worldly possessions , despite the glaring disadvantages such a lifestyle brings . His character is eventually expelled from the fraternity after their leader discovers that not only has West been making beats for cash on the side but has also been breaking some of its rules , such as eating meals everyday , buying new clothes , and taking showers . According to music writer Mickey Hess , the skits serve to encapsulate , " a contradiction at the core of contemporary American life : the need to belong , to fit in , with your fellow humans versus the Darwinistic mad grab at material things , success in the latter being the very definition of success in our culture . "
= = Release and promotion = =
West presented music audiences with the first taste of Late Registration on April 20 , 2005 while appearing on New York radio station Hot 97 , where he played his lead single " Diamonds from Sierra Leone . " The album was originally set to be released on July 12 , 2005 , but was shifted to August 16 by Roc @-@ A @-@ Fella / Def Jam . It was pushed back once more to August 30 by West himself as he needed more time to complete the album . Late Registration was anticipated to become the biggest @-@ selling record of the year and over 1 @.@ 6 million copies were distributed to stores in preparation of its first week of release . On the iTunes Store , the album became one of the most pre @-@ ordered titles in the online digital media store 's history . West filmed a live album featuring tracks from Late Registration and College Dropout , titled Late Orchestration which was released April 2006 .
A television advertisement for Late Registration was directed and animated by Maggie Rogers , Abby Johnson and Paul Tuersley of Mr & Mrs Smith Design Ltd . It featured a gigantic version of West 's teddy bear mascot Dropout Bear roaming through the streets of London . The advert received an award from British music magazine Music Week for Best Music TV Commercial . On the day of the album 's release , West made an in @-@ store appearance at New York 's Lincoln Center Tower Records to autograph copies for fans . That same day , Late Registration was released in its entirety for online streaming on AOL Music .
The art direction and music packaging for Late Registration was done by Brooklyn graphic design studio Morning Breath , Inc . Similar to its predecessor , the album artwork of the second album carries an educational motif . Where The College Dropout was designed in a manner reminiscent of a high school yearbook , the images contained within the liner notes of Late Registration were taken at Princeton University . West 's vision for the style of the pictures was inspired by the works of American satirical painter John Currin , one of his favorite artists . The liner notes also contain a banner that reads Tardus Subcriptio , which is Latin for Late Registration . The album artwork centers around " Dropout Bear " , West 's anthropomorphic teddy bear mascot , who is dressed in a collegian outfit . Entering Princeton on the front cover , Dropout wanders its hallways , sits in empty lecture halls , and reads multiple library books before departing from the institution the same way he came in on the back cover .
In its first week of release , Late Registration debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 and sold 860 @,@ 000 copies in the United States . This was nearly double that of The College Dropout 's first @-@ week sales . It also debuted at number one on the charts in Canada . In the United Kingdom , the album debuted and peaked at number two on the UK Albums Chart for the issue date of September 5 . On the Billboard 200 , Late Registration remained at number one for two consecutive weeks and , by its second week , had reached sales of 1 @.@ 14 million copies . By June 2013 , it had sold 3 @.@ 1 million copies in the US .
= = Critical reception = =
Late Registration received widespread acclaim from critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream publications , the album received an average score of 85 , based on 31 reviews . Writing for Rolling Stone , Rob Sheffield deemed the record " an undeniable triumph , packed front to back , so expansive it makes the debut sound like a rough draft " , while calling West " a real MC " . Uncut magazine 's Simon Reynolds found most of the songs brilliant and highlighted by what he called an unparalleled use of vocal samples by West , while Josh Tyrangiel from Time said the sampling and string arrangements on " Gone " may persuade listeners to believe West 's own hype . In The Guardian , Alexis Petridis praised West 's topicality and subversive studio production , writing that " Late Registration suggests an artist effortlessly outstripping his peers : more ideas , better lyrics , bigger hooks , greater depth . " The Observer viewed the album as a significant milestone in hip hop while calling West " the Brian Wilson of hip @-@ hop " because he " plays up the struggle between conscience and covetousness , the pop mainstream and what can be achieved within the notional boundaries of hip hop " . Robert Hilburn of the Los Angeles Times compared West 's dignified execution of pop crossover to that of The Beatles , Johnny Cash , and Bob Marley . Sean Fennessey from Pitchfork Media felt West avoided the sophomore slump with an " expansive , imperfect masterpiece " that drew on his enthusiastic , ambitious , and scattered personality . Christgau , writing in The Village Voice , praised the album 's " exquisite details " , both lyrical and musical , and concluded that West is " as good as he thinks he is ... He wants everybody to buy this record . So do I " .
In a less enthusiastic review for The New York Times , Jon Pareles believed West 's elevated status undermines the underdog quality that accentuated his debut album : " for much of Late Registration , the striver has turned into a hip @-@ hop V.I.P. , and a cool arrogance has crept into the songs " . Spin magazine 's Jon Caramanica viewed that the augmented versatility and eccentricity of West 's flow still " pales in comparison to his sonic ambition " . Hattie Collins of NME was highly impressed by the beats in the music , which she called " pure cranium @-@ crushing boom bap at its best " , but lamented the lack of " rubbish lyrics " and clumsy charm that distinguished West 's debut album . Nathan Rabin wrote in The A.V. Club that it is as ambitious but " less successful " than The College Dropout because of melodramatic lyrics and " symphonics " without a " strong narrative " to hold the songs together .
= = = Accolades = = =
Late Registration topped numerous music critic polls and was called the best album of the year by numerous publications , including USA Today , Spin , and Time . Rolling Stone awarded the second effort the highest position on their year @-@ end top albums list and hailed it as a " sweepingly generous , absurdly virtuosic hip @-@ hop classic . " In The Village Voice 's 2005 Pazz & Jop nationwide poll of 795 popular music critics , Late Registration finished at number one by a wide margin over any of the other album nominees . This was the second year in a row that West topped the poll , a feat that had occurred only one other time over twenty years ago by The Clash . It was also named the year 's second best album by Pitchfork Media , and eighteenth best by PopMatters , Late Registration became West 's second consecutive album to be rated " XXL " by XXL , the magazine 's highest rank , which has been awarded to only sixteen other hip @-@ hop albums .
At the 2006 Grammy Awards , Late Registration received a nomination for Album of the Year and won Best Rap Album . West 's single " Gold Digger " was nominated for Record of the Year and received the award for Best Rap Solo Performance . He also won Best Rap Song for " Diamonds from Sierra Leone . " At the 37th NAACP Image Awards , the second album received a nomination for Outstanding Album . Late Registration was nominated for Album of the Year at the third annual Vibe Awards , but lost to Mariah Carey 's The Emancipation of Mimi . West received the awards for Top Rap Album for Late Registration as well as Hot Rap Track for " Gold Digger " at the 2006 Billboard R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Awards , where he also received nominations for Top R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Album and Top R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Song . Late Registration was nominated for best International Album at the 2006 BRIT Awards . In a decade @-@ end poll of critics and musicians , it finished number 40 on Rolling Stone 's list of the 100 Best Albums of the Decade . In his ballot for the magazine 's poll , Robert Christgau ranked it as the second best album of the 2000s decade . In 2012 , Rolling Stone ranked the album number 118 on its revised list of the 500 greatest albums of all time .
= = Track listing = =
Credits are adapted from the album 's liner notes .
= = = Track notes = = =
" Wake Up Mr. West " features additional vocals by Deray .
" Heard ' Em Say " features additional vocals by Tony " Penafire " Williams .
" Gold Digger " features additional vocals by Plain Pat and Don C.
" Drive Slow " features additional vocals by Tony " Penafire " Williams .
" Crack Music " features additional vocals by Tony " Penafire " Williams , Keyshia Cole and Charlie Wilson .
" Roses " features additional vocals by Tony " Penafire " Williams .
" Addiction " features additional vocals by Strings .
" We Major " features additional vocals by Tony " Penafire " Williams .
" Hey Mama " features additional vocals by John Legend .
" Celebration " features additional vocals by John Legend .
= = = Sample credits = = =
" Wake Up Mr. West " and " Heard Em Say " both contain excerpts of " Someone That I Used to Love " as performed by Natalie Cole
" Touch the Sky " contains samples of " Move On Up " as performed by Curtis Mayfield
" Gold Digger " contains samples of " I Got a Woman " as performed by Ray Charles
" Drive Slow " contains samples of " Wildflower " as performed by Hank Crawford
" My Way Home " contains samples of " Home Is Where the Hatred Is " as performed by Gil Scott @-@ Heron
" Crack Music " contains samples of " Since You Came in My Life " as performed by New York Community Choir
" Roses " contains samples of " Rosie " as performed by Bill Withers
" Addiction " contains elements of " My Funny Valentine " as performed by Etta James
" Diamonds from Sierra Leone " contains samples of " Diamonds Are Forever " as performed by Shirley Bassey
" We Major " contains samples of " Action " as performed by Orange Krush
" Hey Mama " contains samples of " Today Won 't Come Again " as performed by Donal Leace
" Celebration " contains samples of " Heavenly Dream " as performed by The KayGees
" Gone " contains samples of " It 's Too Late " as performed by Otis Redding
" Late " contains samples of " I 'll Erase Away Your Pain " by The Whatnauts .
= = Personnel = =
Credits are adapted from the album 's liner notes .
= = = Vocalists = = =
Paul Wall – featured artist ( track 6 )
Cam 'ron – featured artist ( track 19 )
Brandy – featured artist ( track 10 )
Common – featured artist ( track 7 )
Consequence – featured artist ( track 19 )
Lupe Fiasco – featured artist ( track 3 )
The Game – featured artist ( track 8 )
GLC – featured artist ( track 6 )
Jay @-@ Z – featured artist ( track 13 )
Adam Levine – featured artist ( track 2 )
Nas – featured artist ( track 14 )
Really Doe – featured artist ( track 14 )
Jamie Foxx – featured artist ( track 4 )
Tony Williams – additional vocals ( track 9 )
Charlie Wilson – additional vocals ( track 8 )
Keyshia Cole – additional vocals ( track 8 )
DeRay Davis – additional vocals ( track 1 )
John Legend – additional vocals ( tracks 16 and 17 )
= = Charts = =
Chart precession and succession
= = Certifications = =
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= Hurricane Henriette ( 2007 ) =
Hurricane Henriette was a minimal Category 1 hurricane that affected portions of Mexico in late August and early September 2007 . The storm , which caused nine fatalities , formed from an area of disturbed weather on August 30 , 2007 , and became a tropical storm the next day . The cyclone moved parallel to the Mexican Pacific coast , but its proximity to the shore resulted in heavy rainfall over land . The most affected city was Acapulco , Guerrero , where six people were killed by landslides , and where over 100 families had to be evacuated after the La Sabana River flooded . Henriette then turned north and headed towards the Baja California peninsula , and became a Category 1 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale . Henriette made its first landfall east of Cabo San Lucas at peak intensity , ( Eye witness reports state the first landfall was directly over Cabo ) causing the death of one woman due to high surf .
Hurricane Henriette then emerged over the Gulf of California , and made its second landfall near Guaymas , Sonora . After causing heavy rains in Sonora , the storm dissipated over the Sierra Madre Occidental and its remnants went on to cause flooding in New Mexico and Texas . Damage totaled about $ 275 million ( 2007 MXN , $ 25 million 2007 USD ) . It hit Mexico on the same day Hurricane Felix hit Nicaragua , only one of two occurrences in which a North Atlantic hurricane and a Pacific hurricane made landfall on the same day .
= = Meteorological history = =
Henriette originated from a tropical wave that departed the west coast of Africa on August 20 , 2007 . The wave produced some convection while in the Caribbean Sea but reached Central America on August 28 before any significant development could occur . Early on August 30 , the area of low pressure , now 400 miles ( 640 km ) south @-@ southeast of Acapulco , Mexico , started to gain clusters of strong convection . By the afternoon of August 30 the system continued to show strong convection and had developed a broad but well defined area of low to mid level cyclonic turning . By 0600 UTC that day the system became a tropical depression about 360 miles ( 579 km ) southeast of Acapulco and was designated as Tropical Depression Eleven @-@ E.
Convection continued but the cyclone was encountering extensive easterly to north @-@ easterly wind shear which stinted the strengthening of this storm throughout its history . The cyclone initially headed toward the west @-@ northwest around a subtropical ridge that was centered over the western Gulf of Mexico . The depression moved north west , parallel with the west coast of Mexico due to being steered by the mid / upper @-@ level ridge . On August 31 , it strengthened to become Tropical Storm Henriette , 85 miles ( 137 km ) south of Acapulco .
It continued to move along the Mexican coast bringing heavy rains . With continued strong convection , Henriette maintained its strengthening and was predicted to reach hurricane strength . However , despite the low wind shear and apparent warm waters . Henriette did not strengthen as expected . This is believed to be due to its proximity to land and colds waters being brought up due to Henriette 's slow movement . The convection and strengthening continued and maintained itself as it moved away from Jalisco . Henriette turned westward and away from the Pacific coast of Mexico late on September 1 as the subtropical ridge built westward over northern Mexico .
Henriette continued to improve in structure and with the formation of a distinct eye feature , reached hurricane strength on September 4 as it turned north @-@ northwestward toward the Baja California peninsula , ahead of a mid @-@ latitude trough approaching the west coast of the United States . The hurricane reached its peak intensity of 85 mph ( 135 km / h ) that morning while centered about 75 miles ( 120 km ) south @-@ southeast of Cabo San Lucas .
The center of Henriette made landfall just east of Cabo San Lucas on the afternoon of September 4 with winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) . It was over land for only about six hours before emerging into the Gulf of California . The brief interaction with land caused a slight weakening , but Henriette remained a Category 1 hurricane for most of that day . The next day it made final landfall near Guaymas in the state of Sonora . Henriette weakened quickly over land and dissipated over the mountains of northwestern Mexico early on September 6 . The remnants of Tropical Storm Henriette continued to track across west Texas and southeastern New Mexico as it was being absorbed by a cold front moving through New Mexico . The flow of moisture from originating from these remnants , moderate instability , and marginal shear contributed to flash flooding and severe thunderstorms .
= = Preparations = =
The formation of Henriette was not anticipated well in NHC Tropical Weather Outlooks . The incipient system was first mentioned only about 31 hours before it became a tropical depression , and the potential for the formation of a depression was explicitly stated beginning only about 13 hours prior to genesis .
On August 31 , 2007 the National Meteorological Service in Mexico decreed zone of alert from Lagunas de Chacahua , Oaxaca to Cabo Corrientes , Jalisco . It requested the public to take precautions before the possible coming of rain , intense winds and storm surges in the south and southwestern coasts of Mexico . The Ministry of Education of Guerrero canceled classes at all schools in the evening and close the port navigation . Faced with the prospect of Henriette strengthening , The Head of the Harbor Bay in Acapulco stopped all travel for small craft and coastal fisheries . Also blue and yellow flags were raised as a preventive measure for swimmers . On September 4 , the port of Mazatlán , Sinaloa had to be shut down to all navigation due to the inclement weather produced by the hurricane . The port authority reported that Henriette produced waves surpassing 4 meters ( 13 ft ) in height . The Carnival Pride cruise scheduled to arrive at the port had to be diverted out to sea as a result of the port 's closure . In the city itself , school was suspended for two days , and officials stated that approximately 600 families might have to be evacuated . Further north , the port of Topolobampo , Sinaloa was also closed due to Henriette 's threat , and 20 families were evacuated from their homes in an ejido .
In La Paz , the Municipal Direction of Civil defense informed that the first of 13 temporary shelters would be opened and anticipated the evacuation of more than 2000 people that lived in high @-@ risk zones . In some areas , the local police recommended to the population , mostly those living in areas of high risk , that they should take care not to leave their homes unless necessary and to find evacuation routes and temporary shelters . Both Manuel Márquez de León International Airport in La Paz and Los Cabos International Airport in San José del Cabo were shut down , stranding 7 @,@ 500 – 8 @,@ 500 tourists . Henriette also forced the ports in Los Cabos to close completely , and the port in La Paz to close to small craft .
= = Impact = =
Henriette struck hardest in the resort town of Acapulco . Though the storm never passed closer than 70 mi ( 110 km ) to the town , heavy rains along the coast saturated the ground , leading to mudslides . Six people were reported dead as a result of rockslides in two suburban neighborhoods of the city and in the port itself . Three were killed by a huge rock hitting their house , and the other three were killed when their dwellings partially collapsed . In addition , flooding from the overflowing of the River La Sabana , led to the evacuation of at least one hundred families from around the river by the Consejo Estatal de Proteccion Civil .
Jorge Antonio Pacheco Albert , Director of Civil Protection for the Port of Acapulco , reported that approximately 800 were injured during the passage of Henriette along the coast and that 337 people relocated to temporary shelters . In Michoacán , Henriette damaged 10 @,@ 000 square meters ( 107 @,@ 000 sq. ft ) of beach near Ixtapilla , destroying approximately 5 @,@ 000 Olive Ridley turtle nests , comprising 10 % of the endangered species 's nests in the state .
In Sonora , the hurricane destroyed 450 homes and damaged another 5 @,@ 000 dwellings in Etchojoa and Huatabampo , which both have large Mayo Indian populations . The storm 's precipitation flooded nearby agricultural fields , stopping wheat production , forcing local government to fumigate the region to try to prevent a dengue fever outbreak . In the Yaqui River valley , two people were killed , and another 70 homes were destroyed by Henriette 's winds . Throughout the state , 24 @,@ 000 families were left homeless .
One woman died due to high surf near Cabo San Lucas on the Baja California peninsula . Two fishermen were reported killed off the Sonora coast . The road connecting Guaymas to Ciudad Obregón was closed due to damage from the overflow of the brook Cocoraque which stranded around 600 cars . Lázaro Cárdenas was affected when the Acalpican River broke its banks . At least 50 houses located in the community of El Habillal , were flooded by water levels of up to 1 m ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) . The residents had to leave their houses and be relocated in provisional housing . The remnants of Henriette caused flash floods and surface water 8 – 12 inches ( 20 – 30 cm ) deep which covered roads with depths up to 1 @.@ 5 inches ( 4 cm ) in the U.S. States of New Mexico and Texas . Hail also accumulated on roadways . Damage in Mexico totaled about $ 275 million ( 2007 MXN , $ 25 million 2007 USD ) .
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= The Boat Race 1881 =
The 38th Boat Race , an annual side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames , took place on 8 April 1881 . In a race umpired by Robert Lewis @-@ Lloyd , Oxford won by a margin of three lengths in a time of 21 minutes 51 seconds taking the overall record to 20 – 17 in their favour .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is an annual rowing eight competition between the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge . First held in 1829 , the competition is a 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) race along The Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities and followed throughout the United Kingdom and worldwide . Oxford went into the race as reigning champions having won the previous year 's race by three @-@ and @-@ three @-@ quarter lengths , and held the overall lead , with 19 victories to Cambridge 's 17 ( excluding the " dead heat " of 1877 ) .
Cambridge were coached by Constantine William Benson ( who rowed for Cambridge in the 1872 , 1873 and 1875 races ) , Charles Gurdon ( a Blue four times from 1876 to 1879 ) , Thomas Edmund Hockin ( also rowed four times from 1876 to 1879 ) and Edward Henry Prest ( who represented Cambridge in the 1878 , 1879 and 1880 races ) . Oxford 's coaches were S. D. Darbishire ( who rowed for Oxford in the 1868 , 1869 and 1870 races ) , William Grenfell ( who rowed in 1877 and 1879 , and was non @-@ rowing boat club president in 1879 ) , H. B. Southwell ( a Blue three times from 1878 to 1880 ) and W. B. Woodgate ( who rowed twice , in the 1862 and 1863 races ) . The umpire for the race was Robert Lewis @-@ Lloyd ( who had rowed for Cambridge four times between 1856 and 1859 ) and the starter was Edward Searle .
The night before the race , an anniversary dinner was held to belatedly commemorate the fiftieth anniversary of the event .
= = Crews = =
The Oxford crew weighed an average of 11 st 11 @.@ 75 lb ( 75 @.@ 0 kg ) , 2 pounds ( 0 @.@ 9 kg ) more than their opponents . Cambridge 's crew included two former Blues , with Humphrey Sandford making his third appearance in the event . Oxford saw five rowers with Boat Race experience return , including J. H. T. Wharton who was rowing for a third time .
= = Race = =
On the day of the race , Oxford 's number six David Edward Brown was ill – author and rower George Drinkwater suggested that " it was necessary for West [ Oxford 's stroke ] to nurse him as much as possible . " Oxford won the toss and elected to start from the Middlesex station , handing the Surrey side of the river to Cambridge . In a cold north @-@ easterly wind , the race commenced at 8.24am with the Dark Blues outrating Cambridge and taking an early lead . Taking advantage of the favourable bend in the river , Oxford were half @-@ a @-@ length ahead by the Crab Tree pub .
Cambridge began to reduce the deficit as Oxford decreased their stroke rate , and by Harrods Furniture Depository the crews were nearly level . Although the bend of the river now was in favour of Cambridge , Oxford increased their rating once again and by Hammersmith Bridge held a three @-@ quarter @-@ length lead . They held off spurts from the Light Blues along Chiswick Reach and by Chiswick Eyot were clear . A two @-@ length lead at Barnes Railway Bridge was increased to three by the time Oxford passed the finishing post , winning in a time of 21 minutes 51 seconds . It was Oxford 's second consecutive victory and took the overall record to 20 – 17 in their favour .
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= Beowulf : The Monsters and the Critics =
" Beowulf : The Monsters and the Critics " was a 1936 lecture given by J. R. R. Tolkien on literary criticism on the Old English heroic epic poem Beowulf . It was first published as a paper in that year in the Proceedings of the British Academy , and has since been reprinted in many collections .
Tolkien argues that the original poem has almost been lost under the weight of the scholarship on it ; that Beowulf must be seen as a poem , not just as a historical document ; and that the quality of its verse and its structure give it a powerful effect . He rebuts suggestions that the poem is an epic or exciting narrative , likening it instead to a strong masonry structure built of blocks that fit together . He points out that the poem 's theme is a serious one , mortality , and that the poem is in two parts : the first on Beowulf as a young man , defeating Grendel and his mother ; the second on Beowulf in old age , going to his death fighting the dragon .
The work has been praised by critics including the poet and Beowulf translator Seamus Heaney . Michael D. C. Drout called it the most important article ever written about the poem . Scholars of Anglo @-@ Saxon agree that the work was influential , transforming the study of Beowulf .
= = Overview = =
J. R. R. Tolkien 's essay " Beowulf : The Monsters and the Critics " , initially delivered as a lecture in 1936 , is regarded as a formative work in modern Beowulf studies . In it , Tolkien speaks against critics who play down the monsters in the poem , namely Grendel , Grendel 's mother , and the dragon , in favour of using Beowulf solely as a source for Anglo @-@ Saxon history . Tolkien argues that rather than being merely extraneous , these elements are key to the narrative and should be the focus of study . In doing so he drew attention to the previously neglected literary qualities of the poem and argued that it should be studied as a work of art , not just as a historical document . Later critics such as Hugh Magennis who agree with Tolkien on this point have cited him to defend their arguments .
The essay is a redacted version of a series of lectures that Tolkien delivered to Oxford undergraduates in the 1930s . Notes for these lectures exist in two manuscript versions published together in 2002 as Beowulf and the Critics , edited by Michael D. C. Drout ; these offer some insight into the development of Tolkien 's thinking on the poem , especially his much @-@ quoted metaphor of the material of the poem as a tower . " Beowulf : The Monsters and the Critics " is available in various collections including the 1983 The Monsters and the Critics and Other Essays edited by Christopher Tolkien .
= = Tolkien 's argument = =
= = = Rebuttal of earlier critics = = =
Tolkien begins by noting that the original book has almost been lost under the extensive " ' literature ' " ( his inverted commas ) on the subject . He explains that Beowulf had mainly been quarried as " an historical document " , and that most of the praise and censure of the poem was due to beliefs that it was " something that it was not – for example , primitive , pagan , Teutonic , an allegory ( political or mythical ) , or most often , an epic ; " or because the scholar would have liked it to be something else , such as " a heathen heroic lay , a history of Sweden , a manual of Germanic antiquities , or a Nordic Summa Theologica . " Tolkien gives an allegory of a man who inherits a field full of stone from an old hall . He builds a tower with some of it , but when people find the stones are older than the tower , they pull it down " to look for hidden carvings and inscriptions " .
Tolkien quotes at length what the scholar W. P. Ker thought of Beowulf , namely that " there is nothing much in the story " , and that " the great beauty , the real value , of Beowulf is in its dignity of style " . Tolkien notes that Ker 's opinion had been a powerful influence in favour of a paradoxical contrast between the poem 's supposed defect in speaking of monsters , and ( in Tolkien 's words ) its agreed " dignity , loftiness in converse , and well @-@ wrought finish " . Tolkien cites other critics , such as Raymond Wilson Chambers and Ritchie Girvan , who objected to the poem 's " wilderness of dragons " and its unworthy choice of theme . Tolkien finds it improbable that " a mind lofty and thoughtful " , as evidenced by the quality of the poetry , " would write more than three thousand lines ( wrought to a high finish ) on matter that is really not worth serious attention " . He notes that heroic human stories had been held to be superior to myth , but argues that myth has a special value : " For myth is alive at once and in all its parts , and dies before it can be dissected . " Finally Tolkien states directly " We do not deny the worth of the hero by accepting Grendel and the dragon . "
= = = Man in a hostile world = = =
In Tolkien 's view , the poem is essentially about a " man at war with the hostile world , and his inevitable overthrow in Time . " The essential tragedy is man 's brief mortal life . Grendel and the dragon are identified as enemies of a Christian God , unlike the monsters encountered by Odysseus on his travels . What had happened is that Northern courage , exultant , defiant in the face of inevitable defeat by " Chaos and Unreason " ( Tolkien cites Ker 's words ) , fuses with a Christian faith and outlook . The Beowulf poet uses both what he knew to be the old heroic tradition , darkened by distance in time , along with the newly acquired Christian tradition . The Christian , Tolkien notes , is " hemmed in a hostile world " , and the monsters are evil spirits : but as the transition was incomplete in the poem , the monsters remain real and the focus remains " an ancient theme : that man , each man and all men , and all their works shall die . "
Tolkien returns to the monsters , and regrets we know so little about pre @-@ Christian English mythology ; he resorts instead to Icelandic myth , which he argues must have had a similar attitude to monsters , men and gods . The Northern gods , like men , are doomed to die . The Southern ( Roman and Greek ) pagan gods were immortal , so to Tolkien ( a Christian ) , the Southern religion " must go forward to philosophy or relapse into anarchy " : death and the monsters are peripheral . But the Northern myths , and Beowulf , put the monsters , mortality and death in the centre . Tolkien is therefore very interested in the contact of Northern and Christian thought in the poem , where the scriptural Cain is linked to eotenas ( giants ) and ylfe ( elves ) , not through confusion but " an indication of the precise point at which an imagination , pondering old and new , was kindled . " The poem is , Tolkien states , " an historical poem about the pagan past , or an attempt at one " , obviously not with modern ideas of " literal historical fidelity " . The poet takes an old plot ( a marauding monster troubling the Scylding court ) paints a vivid picture of the old days , for instance using the Old Testament image of the shepherd patriarchs of Israel in the folces hyrde ( people 's shepherd ) of the Danes .
= = = Structure : youth versus age = = =
The general structure of the poem is then clear , writes Tolkien . " It is essentially a balance , an opposition of ends and beginnings . In its simplest terms it is a contrasted description of two moments in a great life , rising and setting ; an elaboration of the ancient and intensely moving contrast between youth and age , first achievement and final death . " Part A ( youth ) is lines 1 to 2199 ; part B ( age ) is lines 2200 to 3182 ( the end ) .
A secondary division of the poem occurs , Tolkien writes , at line 1887 , after which all the earlier story is summarized , so a complete account of Beowulf 's tragedy is given between 1888 and the end , but without the account of the gloomy court of Heorot , or of the contrast between the young Beowulf and the old Hrothgar .
The poem 's metre , too , is founded on a balance of two halves to each line , " more like masonry than music " . Tolkien argues that the poem is not meant to be an exciting narrative , nor a romantic story , but a word @-@ picture , " a method and structure that ... approaches rather to sculpture or painting . It is a composition not a tune . " Far from being weakly structured , it " is curiously strong " . It
is not an ' epic ' , nor even a magnified ' lay ' . No terms borrowed from Greek or other literatures exactly fit : there is no reason why they should . Though if we must have a term , we should choose rather ' elegy ' . It is an heroic @-@ elegiac poem ; and in a sense all its first 3 @,@ 136 lines are the prelude to a dirge .
= = = A singular effect = = =
Tolkien takes a moment to dismiss another criticism , that monsters should not have been made to appear in both halves . He replies he can see the point of no monsters , but not in complaining about their mere numbers ; the poet could not , he argues , have balanced Beowulf 's rise to fame through a war in Frisia , against death by dragon . Similarly , he dismisses notions that the poem is primitive : it is instead a late poem , using materials left over from a vanished age :
When new Beowulf was already antiquarian , in a good sense , and it now produces a singular effect . For it is now to us itself ancient ; and yet its maker was telling of things already old and weighted with regret , and he expended his art in making keen that touch upon the heart which sorrows have that are both poignant and remote . If the funeral of Beowulf moved once like the echo of an ancient dirge , far @-@ off and hopeless , it is to us as a memory brought over the hills , an echo of an echo . There is not much poetry in the world like this ;
Tolkien finishes by arguing that Beowulf " has its own individual character , and peculiar solemnity ; " and would still be powerful even if it came from some unknown time and place ; but that in fact its language , Old English ,
has still essential kinship with our own , it was made in this land , and moves in our northern world beneath our northern sky , and for those who are native to that tongue and land , it must ever call with a profound appeal – until the dragon comes .
= = Reception = =
= = = Scholars = = =
Scholars and critics agree on the work 's wide influence . Tom Shippey wrote that the essay " was seized upon eagerly , even gratefully , by generations of critics " . Alvin A. Lee wrote that " Tolkien 's manifesto and interpretation have had more influence on readers than any other single study , even thought it has been challenged on just about every one of its major points . " Seth Lerer wrote that the essay " may well be the originary piece of modern Beowulf criticism . . . . The strategies . . . control the fundamental assumptions of Old English scholarship for the next fifty years . " R.D. Fulk commented that " No one denies the historical importance of this lecture . ... opening the way to the formalist principles that played such a vital role in the subsequent development of further Beowulf scholarship . ... the methodology ... remains a model for emulation . " . Bruce Mitchell and Fred C. Robinson call it in their Beowulf , An Edition ( 1998 ) " the most influential literary criticism of the poem ever written " . George Clark calls it " The most influential critical essay on the poem " , stating it without qualification or justification as a known fact . Michael Lapidge similarly names it " his widely influential critical discussion of the poem " .
The scholar and translator Roy Liuzza commented that Tolkien 's essay " is usually credited with re @-@ establishing the fabulous elements and heroic combats at the center of the modern reader 's appreciation of the poem . " Liuzza at once went on to write , however , that " the separation of the poem into ' mythical ' and ' historical ' elements is a false dichotomy " . He argues that if myth can condense and hold the deepest sources of tension between self and the social order , and dramatises current ideologies by projecting them into the past , then even the hero Beowulf 's mythic fights are at the same time throwing light on society and history .
The historian Patrick Wormald wrote of the essay : " it would be no exaggeration to describe [ it ] as one of the most influential works of literary criticism of that century , and since which nothing in Beowulf studies has been quite the same . " However , Wormald continues : " The arguments of Tolkien 's paper were not universally accepted , and some of its effects would perhaps have been disowned by the author , but its general impact could be summarized by saying that most critics have learnt to take the Beowulf poet a great deal more seriously " . Wormald added that
Tolkien argued powerfully that , for the Germanic mentality that gave birth to the myth of Ragnarök , the monsters of the poem were the only appropriate enemies for a great hero , and thus shifted Beowulf from the irrelevant fringes to the very centre of the Anglo @-@ Saxon thought world . This naturally encouraged a pre @-@ existent tendency to square the poem with what else was known of the ' serious ' levels of Anglo @-@ Saxon thought - chiefly the Latin scholarship of the Church . Secondly , Tolkien went far towards vindicating the structure of the poem by arguing that it was a balance of contrasting and interlocking halves . His thesis not only convinced many critics but inspired them to follow his example , with the result that Tolkien 's own position has been outflanked . Whereas previous generations of scholars , Tolkien included , had been quite prepared to explain what they considered structural and stylistic blemishes as interpolations , modern writers seek evidence of artistic refinement in some of the poem 's least promising features .
Michael D. C. Drout similarly describes the essay 's importance and arguments , writing that it
is the most important article ever written about Beowulf ... Tolkien 's shadow looms long over Beowulf scholarship . Much of this influence is because of the enormous success of [ the essay ] , which is viewed as the beginning of modern Beowulf criticism . ... Tolkien was so influential ... because he developed a big @-@ picture reading of the poem that has found favour with several generations of critics . ... [ He ] made the first widely accepted case for viewing Beowulf as aesthetically successful , and he showed how the monsters in Beowulf were symbolic ( not allegorical ) representations of chaos and night , set in opposition to stability and civilization . ... Thus , Tolkien interpreted the theme of Beowulf to be that " man , each man and all men and all their works shall die , " a theme consistent with the heathen past but one that " no Christian need despise . " It was this theme , Tolkien argued , that brought the great dignity to the poem that even scholars who had regretted the monsters had noted .
Drout then remarks on the paradoxical success of the essay :
The massive influence of " The Homecoming " and " Beowulf : The Monsters and the Critics " is in some ways ironic . The great majority of Tolkien 's work on Beowulf was of the sort represented by the textual commentry in Finn and Hengest - detailed , philological , historical , and infinitely painstaking . Yet the most influential of Tolkien 's discussions of the poem are those in which he makes the greatest unsupported ( or lightly supported ) generalizations and in which he discusses the poem in the broadest possible terms . Tolkien would perhaps have seen a fundamental continuity between the detailed and philological and the broader and more interpret [ at ] ive work , but because of the accidents of publication — and because of Tolkien 's great gift for rhetoric — only the latter has shaped the field of Beowulf criticism .
John D. Niles observed that " Bypassing earlier scholarship , critics of the past fifty years have generally traced the current era of Beowulf studies back to 1936 " , meaning to Tolkien 's essay , which he called " eloquent and incisive " . Niles argued that the essay quickly came to be a starting point , as scholars from then on assumed — with Tolkien — that the poem was " an aesthetic unity endowed with spiritual significance . " In Niles 's view , Tolkien thought that the battles with monsters and the sombre , elegiac tone of the poem expressed the " artistic designs of a deep thinker , religiously enlightened , who let his mind play over a lost heroic world of the imagination " , in other words that the Beowulf poet was a man much like Tolkien . Niles cited George Clark 's observation that Tolkien left Beowulf scholars with the " myth of the poet as brooding intellectual , poised between a dying pagan world and a nascent Christian one . " Niles noted that Tolkien 's view of the melancholic vision of the Beowulf poet , and of the heroic fatalism of the poem 's leading characters , was not wholly new , but that his view of the poet himself as a hero was .
= = = Press = = =
Joan Acocella , writing in the The New Yorker , calls it " a paper that many people regard as not just the finest essay on the poem but one of the finest essays on English literature . " She adds that " Tolkien preferred the monsters to the critics . "
Regina Weinreich , reviewing The Monsters and the Critics : And Other Essays in The New York Times , wrote that the title essay " revolutionized the study of the early English poem Beowulf , in which a young hero crushes a human @-@ handed monster called Grendel . Against the scorn of critics , Tolkien defends the centrality and seriousness of literary monsters , declaring his own belief in the symbolic value of such preternatural representations of sheer evil . " Weinreich added that " Beowulf , like other ancient legends , served to nourish Tolkien 's imagination . "
John Garth , writing in The Guardian , describes the paper as " still well worth reading , not only as an introduction to the poem , but also because it decisively changed the direction and emphasis of Beowulf scholarship . Up to that point it had been used as a quarry of linguistic , historical and archaeological detail " . Garth notes that
Tolkien pushed the monsters to the forefront . He argued that they represent the impermanence of human life , the mortal enemy that can strike at the heart of everything we hold dear , the force against which we need to muster all our strength – even if ultimately we may lose the fight . Without the monsters , the peculiarly northern courage of Beowulf and his men is meaningless . Tolkien , veteran of the Somme , knew that it was not .
= = = Translator = = =
Tolkien 's paper was praised by the Irish poet Seamus Heaney in the introduction to his critically acclaimed translation of Beowulf . He wrote that the " epoch @-@ making paper " stood out in considering Beowulf as literature . Heaney argued that Tolkien " took for granted the poem 's integrity and distinction as a work of art " , and showed how the poem achieved that status :
Tolkien assumed that the poet had felt his way through the inherited material - the fabulous elements and the traditional accounts of a heroic past - and by a combination of creative intuition and conscious structuring had arrived at a unity of effect and a balanced order . He assumed , in other words , that the Beowulf poet was an imaginative writer rather than some kind of back @-@ formation derived from nineteenth @-@ century folklore and philology .
Heaney called the paper 's literary treatment " brilliant " . He suggested that it had changed the way that Beowulf was valued , and that it had started " a new era of appreciation " of the poem .
Tolkien 's own translation of Beowulf , published posthumously in 2014 as Beowulf : A Translation and Commentary , has been linked to the essay .
= = Editions = =
Tolkien , J. R. R. ( 1936 ) . " Beowulf : The Monsters and the Critics " . Proceedings of the British Academy 22 : 245 – 95 .
Tolkien , J. R. R. ( 1983 ) . The Monsters and the Critics . London : George Allen & Unwin . ISBN 0 @-@ 04 @-@ 809019 @-@ 0 .
Tolkien , J. R. R. ( 1997 ) . The Monsters and the Critics . London : HarperCollins . ISBN 0 @-@ 261 @-@ 10263 @-@ X.
Nicholson , Lewis E. , ed . ( 1963 ) . An Anthology of Beowulf Criticism . Notre Dame : University of Notre Dame Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 268 @-@ 00006 @-@ 9 .
Fulk , Robert Dennis , ed . ( 1991 ) . Interpretations of Beowulf : A Critical Anthology . Indiana University Press. pp. 14 – 43 . ISBN 0 @-@ 253 @-@ 20639 @-@ 1 .
= = Translations = =
Icelandic : Arndís Þórarinsdóttir , trans . ( 2013 ) . Bjólfskviða : Forynjurnar og fræðimennirnir . Reykjavík : Hið íslenzka bókmenntafélag . ISBN 9789979663096 .
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= Legacy of Pedro II of Brazil =
The legacy of Pedro II of Brazil began to become apparent soon after his death . Emperor Pedro II was the second and last monarch of Brazil , whose long 58 @-@ year reign ( 1831 – 1889 ) represented a time of remarkable prosperity and progress for his country . Despite his achievements , he was deposed in a coup by disgruntled republicans , though there was no desire for a change in the form of government among the majority of the Brazilian people .
His popularity among the citizenry had never waned , and support continued to be evident , even on the eve of his overthrow and throughout his exile . He was seen as a hero , a model citizen , a caring monarch , and the source of national unity and well @-@ being . Following his death , political wrangling prevented the return of his remains to Brazil . Continued efforts to repatriate the bodies of the Emperor and his wife dragged on for decades . The disputes were resolved and this was finally accomplished in 1920 with much fanfare . Over the decades , Pedro II gradually grew within Brazil to represent the archetypical benevolent , self @-@ effacing and effective ruler concerned only for the national welfare .
Aside from the prosperity and modernization Pedro II left to the nation , there was also a heritage of political and personal values . Many of his reforms and achievements had become so much a part of the national consciousness that they were accommodated by successor regimes . These formed the foundation for Brazilian democratic ideals . Historians have also largely agreed that Pedro II 's reign was not merely benign , but rather , exceptionally constructive and progressive . He has also consistently been ranked by scholars as the greatest Brazilian .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Aftermath of his death = = =
The monarchy fell at a point when it had reached its highest popularity among Brazilians , due in part to the abolition of slavery on 13 May 1888 . Indifferent to the new heroes , such as Tiradentes , imposed by the new republican government , Brazilians remained attached to the popular Emperor whom they regarded as a hero . He continued to be thought of as a national symbol , the Father of the People personified . This view was even stronger among those of African descent , who equated the monarchy with freedom . The afro @-@ Brazilians demonstrated their feeling of loyalty towards the monarch in subtle ways , such as by having the Imperial Crown tattooed on their bodies .
In cities throughout the nation , the years immediately following the end of monarchy witnessed the spread of music containing lyrics that reflected popular sentiments favorable to the Emperor . Examples include : " Pedro the Second left / to the kingdom of Lisbon . / The monarchy is over / and now Brazil is adrift . " and " The mother of Deodoro said : This son was once mine / Now he is cursed / by me and by God . " The Brazilian historian Ricardo Salles argued that among the " great — and few — names in our history [ of Brazil ] that hold a place in the popular imagination , is certainly the figure of Dom Pedro II . " The phenomenon of continued support for the deposed monarch is largely credited to an unextinguished and generally held belief that he was a " wise , benevolent , austere and honest ruler . " The positive view towards Pedro II , and nostalgia for his reign , only grew as the nation quickly fell into a series of economic and political crises which Brazilians attributed to the Emperor 's overthrow . He never ceased being a popular hero , and would gradually become , once again , an official hero .
Surprisingly strong feelings of guilt were manifested among republicans , and these became increasingly evident upon the Emperor 's death in exile at the end of 1891 . In Brazil , the news of the Emperor 's death " aroused a genuine sense of regret among those who , without sympathy for a restoration , acknowledged both the merits and the achievements of their deceased ruler . " The overthrown monarchy was still a fresh memory to Brazilians , to which was added a feeling of remorse over what they perceived as an unjust exile , followed by his lonely demise . Some republicans " reconsidered the long banishment and reflected upon the severity of such action . " Even they believed that Pedro II deserved a better end , and nostalgia spread among them as they " started to see in the Imperial epoch a happier time , a golden age , forever gone . " The Empire began to be viewed more tolerantly by the new governments , and its considerable achievements were openly recognized . Now appeared " a feeling that there was once a time when Brazil was more respectable , more honest , and more powerful . "
An odd predilection arose on the part of various republican politicians , including those " of higher standing " , for " praising D. Pedro II and the monarchy . " They did not desire a restoration , but believed that the Brazilian Republic might learn from the fallen regime . Thus , Pedro II " became , paradoxically , a model of republican ideals . " To these " republicans , d . Pedro appeared as the best of themselves ; for the monarchists the compliment meant , clearly , something else [ i.e. , that the Emperor was the best of the monarchists ] . "
After the death of the Emperor , appeals for the repatriation of his body increased over time . The republican periodical A Cidade do Rio ( The City of Rio ) stated that " Brazil is so large that it cannot begrudge some scant feet of land to him " and demanded : " Bring him back . " The Gazeta da Tarde ( Afternoon Gazette ) said that Pedro II deserved an official funeral within the country . In 1895 , Afonso Celso wrote in the Comércio de São Paulo ( Commerce of São Paulo ) : " The body of D. Pedro cannot continue to lie in foreign territory . " By 1906 the poet Olavo Bilac wrote , " The fatherland reclaims your body and it shall have it . " The Jornal do Comércio ( Commerce Newspaper ) predicted that " one day , when all passions have lost their strength , your body shall rest here . "
= = = The end of Pedro II 's exile = = =
A law was proposed in the Chamber of Deputies to authorize the transfer of the bodies of Pedro II and his wife . Although it had support from old republicans , it was put aside due to a precondition from Princess Isabel that this could only be permitted if the banishment of her family was also rescinded . The dedication of a statue of the Emperor in Petrópolis on 5 February 1911 was attended by more than 1 @,@ 500 people , including members of the federal government . Several statues of the monarch were erected throughout the country during the following years . At this time , a manifesto written by former Presidents of the Council of Ministers , Lafayette , Ouro Preto and João Alfredo declared that " given the love that Brazilians have for their sovereigns , we agree to the return of the venerable remains back from São Vicente de Fora . "
A proposed new bill , which would revoke the banishment , was debated in the Chamber in 1913 . The republican deputy Irineu Machado alleged that " futile objections " were being raised which denied " justice to the memory of the emperor . " Another member , Martim Francisco de Andrada III , affirmed that " D. Pedro II departed poor , leaving the country rich ; it was an injustice that the those who are rich and leave the country impoverished be against it . " The deputy Pedro Moacir believed that the return of the remains would represent " the perpetual gratitude of posterity towards the most clement , the most tolerant of all monarchs of his time . " The deputy Maurício de Lacerda said that " now the traces of his political legacy — honesty — are disappearing . " In the Senate , however , the proposal was rejected due to intervention by the caudillo and radical republican Pinheiro Machado . The most famous speech in homage to Pedro II was made in 1914 by the last surviving republican leader of the 1889 coup , the person who had ordered the banishment :
The lack of justice , Mr. Senators , is the great evil of our land , the evil of evils , the origin of all our misfortunes , the source of all our discredit , is the supreme misery of this poor nation . [ ... ] After seeing so much futility triumph , after seeing so much dishonor prosper , after seeing so much power in the hands of evil people grow , man becomes disheartened about virtue , he laughs to himself at honor and becomes ashamed of being honest . This has been the work of the Republic in the last years . In the other regime [ the Monarchy ] the man who had a certain disgrace in his life was lost forever , as a political career would be closed to him . There was a vigilant sentinel [ Dom Pedro II ] , whose severity everyone feared and that , bright and very high , protected the surroundings as a lighthouse that never fades away , in benefit of honor , justice and morality .
Two years later , in 1916 , President Venceslau Brás agreed to the return of the bodies and revocation of the banishment , but opted to await the end of World War I to officially approve the Act . On 3 September 1920 , his successor Epitácio Pessoa signed the law ( using a gold quill provided by the Brazilian Press Association ) which ended the banishment and allowed repatriation of the remains . Rui Barbosa said that those " who created the federal republic do not have claims against the ashes of the old emperor , whose virtues were much higher than his faults . " He concluded , " Therefore , in the republican gallery there is a proper place , and a great one , for D. Pedro II . "
= = = The Emperor returns home = = =
In 1920 the dreadnought São Paulo bore the imperial coffins to Brazil . The Portuguese republican government granted Pedro II an exhumation with dignities befitting a Head of State , and he received the same honors upon arrival in Brazil . The Count of Eu accompanied the remains , along with his only surviving son , Pedro de Alcântara . His wife , Princess Isabel , was elderly , unwell and unable to participate . She died one year later , without ever seeing her homeland again . President Artur Bernardes declared a national holiday and the return of the Emperor was celebrated throughout the nation .
In attendance at the main ceremony in Rio de Janeiro was councilor Antonio Prado , the last minister of the Empire still living , who had traveled from São Paulo . Thousands of people attended the event . The " elderly people cried . Many kneeled . All clapped . There was no distinction between republicans and monarchists . They were all Brazilians . " It marked the reconciliation of Republican Brazil with its monarchical past . However , " the official return of the figure of d . Pedro as a national hero would truly come only in 1922 , owing to the great national commemoration of the centenary celebration of Brazilian independence " during which the Emperor was highly acclaimed .
Three years later , Brazilians spontaneously commemorated Pedro II 's centenary . There was a clear " disproportion between the enthusiasm generated by the festivities around the birth of d . Pedro , and the little interest in the anniversary of the Republic , which was then 36 years old . " President Artur Bernardes recognized the popularity of the monarch and affirmed that he would not refuse " the justice that the Emperor deserves . He loved Brazil and while he had the strength and energy he served the country together with the best men of that time . " Pedro II became , once again , the " Father of the Fatherland " ( or " Father of the Nation " ) .
His body was temporarily housed in the Cathedral of Rio de Janeiro until construction on the Cathedral of Petrópolis was complete . The final burial would only occur on 5 December 1939 , when the dictator Getúlio Vargas took advantage of the ceremony as an opportunity to benefit his own popularity ( just as Mussolini had done during Anita Garibaldi 's funeral in 1932 ) . Vargas dedicated the funerary chapel in the Cathedral of Petrópolis where the mortal remains of the Emperor and his wife were interred .
Many of the most profound transformations achieved under Pedro II would survive him . Concepts such as a representative political system and a paradigm of citizenship had been allowed to flourish and become ingrained under the Empire , so much so that they survived " during three succeeding regimes : the Old Republic ( 1889 – 1930 ) , the Vargas Era ( 1930 – 45 ) , the Liberal Republic ( 1945 – 64 ) . " The concept of a nation @-@ state , as envisioned by Pedro II , was even appropriated by the military which seized control during 1964 . Though during the 1980s , this concept began to change , it still endures . At the beginning of the twenty @-@ first century his " name is widely employed to evoke both traditional values and the nation 's heritage . His image confers respectability , dignity , and integrity on whatever event or institution employs it . "
= = Historical assessments = =
Historians have expressed high regard for Pedro II and his reign . The scholarly literature dealing with him is vast and , with the exception of the period immediately after his ouster , overwhelmingly positive , and even laudatory . Emperor Pedro II is usually regarded by historians in Brazil as the greatest Brazilian . In a manner quite similar to methods which had been used by the republican politicians , historians point to the Emperor 's virtues as an example to be followed , although none go so far as to advocate a restoration of the monarchy . " Most twentieth @-@ century historians , moreover , have looked back on the period [ of Pedro II 's reign ] nostalgically , using their descriptions of the Empire to criticize — sometimes subtly , sometimes not — Brazil 's subsequent republican or dictatorial regimes . "
American historian Dana Munro wrote in her study about Latin America that Pedro II " grew up to be serious minded , irreproachable in his private life , and indefatigable in the performance of what he considered his duty . " She added that he was " an able and intelligent ruler if not a great statesman " . Another American historian writing on Brazilian history , Thomas Skidmore , remarked that the Emperor " brought a natural talent to his work . Even at age 14 , he was steady , equilibrated and discrete " . He states that during " his reign , he acquired the reputation of being just and objective , projecting the image of an honest and ethical sovereign who would not hesitate in disciplining politicians who were caught turning away from his strict standards " . The British historian Roderick . J. Barman wrote in his biography of Pedro II that he " was at once the model emperor and the model citizen . He literally and metaphorically towered above his fellow Brazilians . Pedro II 's achievements at home and the high reputation he established abroad convinced Brazilians that the goals he advocated would create a country as powerful and as civilized as France , Great Britain or the United States " .
The Brazilian American historian Richard Graham praised Brazilian politics affirming that " Brazil enjoyed all appearances of a functioning representative democracy . Foreign observers were virtually unanimous in praising a political system that seemed so like the bourgeois regimes of Europe . The main focus of their enthusiasm lay in the regularity of elections and in the alternation of parties in power . The government scrupulously observed the Constitution , individual rights seemed protected , and no military leader or other dictator overthrew the elected government . " The Brazilian historian Pedro Calmon in his work covering Brazilian history asserted that during Pedro II 's reign the " politics became British – like , and were improved , creating processes which began to function under the vigilant eyes of the emperor " , and which allowed " the evolution of democracy in Brazil " .
José Murilo de Carvalho , a biographer of the Emperor , wrote that at the time he was deposed the nation had been consolidated , the slave trade had been abolished , and the foundations of a representative system had been established due to uninterrupted elections and broad freedom of the press . He remarked that for " the longevity of his government and the transformations effected during its course , no other head of State has marked more deeply the history of the country . "
The historian Pedro Karp Vasquez wrote that the Emperor ushered " the country into a period of stability and prosperity after 1850 . Enormously interested in everything that was related to scientific discoveries , Dom Pedro II sought to modernize the nation , in many instances anticipating initiatives in European nations . " Another biographer of Pedro II , Renato Sêneca Fleury , remarked that " in the History of Brazil , the pages dedicated to Pedro II , ascribe to him complete justice , heightening his moral greatness , his immense patriotism and the great well – being he accorded to Brazil " and that he " became immortal in the heart of the Brazilian people . Schools , libraries , hospitals , cultural societies , theaters , streets , squares , here , there , all over Brazil , exist which have received Pedro II 's name . "
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= 2007 Indy Japan 300 =
The 2007 Indy Japan 300 was an IndyCar Series motor race held on April 21 , 2007 , at the Twin Ring Motegi in Motegi , Tochigi , Japan . It was the third race of the 2007 IndyCar Series season , the fifth annual edition of the Indy Japan 300 in the IndyCar Series , and the tenth anniversary running of the race ( including its five years on the Championship Auto Racing Teams ( CART ) schedule ) . Andretti Green Racing driver Tony Kanaan won the race with a 0 @.@ 4828 second margin of victory over Chip Ganassi Racing 's Dan Wheldon . Dario Franchitti , Scott Dixon , and Sam Hornish , Jr. rounded out the top five .
Hélio Castroneves , the defending champion of the Indy Japan 300 , won the pole position by posting the fastest lap in qualifying . In the race , Wheldon gained the lead from Castroneves on lap 44 and led for more than half of the 200 laps , but a pit stop with 14 laps remaining forced him to relinquish the top position . Kanaan took the lead because of a late pit stop by Dixon , and held off a late challenge by Wheldon to secure first place .
There were four cautions and nine lead changes among five different drivers during the race . It was Kanaan 's first win of the season , and the eighth of his career . The result moved Wheldon into the lead of the Drivers ' Championship , three points ahead of Kanaan . Dixon , who led the championship before the race , dropped to third .
= = Report = =
= = = Background = = =
The Indy Japan 300 was confirmed as a part of the Indy Racing League 's ( IRL ) 2007 schedule for the IndyCar Series in September 2006 . It was to be the fifth consecutive year the race was held in the series , and the tenth Indy Japan 300 , counting the period from 1998 to 2002 when it was a CART event . Uniquely in the 2007 season , the race took place at a non @-@ American location . The Indy Japan 300 was the third race scheduled for 2007 by the IRL , out of 17 . At this early stage in the season , Dixon held the lead in the point standings with 80 points . Castroneves and Wheldon were tied for second with 75 points , and Kanaan and Hornish , Jr. were fourth and fifth on 65 and 61 points , respectively .
= = = Practice = = =
Two days before the race , on April 19 , a pair of two @-@ hour practice sessions were held at the Twin Ring Motegi . The racers were split into two groups , which were each allowed to run laps for one hour per session . The first practice session began at 10 : 30 a.m. Japan Standard Time ( JST ) ; five minutes later a yellow caution flag came out due to a crash by Vitor Meira , who was forced into a backup car when he returned later in the day . A second caution flag was shown at noon local time to allow for an inspection of the track ; 30 minutes later the session came to an end . From 1 : 30 to 3 : 30 p.m JST , the second practice session of the day took place . Danica Patrick posted the fastest lap of the day , going around the circuit in 26 @.@ 9585 seconds in an average speed of 202 @.@ 979 miles per hour ( 326 @.@ 663 km / h ) . Japanese driver Kosuke Matsuura , who called the Indy Japan 300 his " most important " race of the season , had the second @-@ fastest lap time of the day , followed by Castroneves , Kanaan , and Wheldon .
Before qualifying took place on April 20 , there was a third round of practice from 10 : 30 a.m. to 12 : 05 p.m JST ; the drivers were each allowed 45 minutes of track time . Two caution flags came out ; the first came half an hour into the session when Jeff Simmons spun out coming off the track 's fourth turn . The other caution was a track inspection , which came 18 minutes into the second group 's allotted time . Kanaan had the best lap of the session ; his average speed of 204 @.@ 465 miles per hour ( 329 @.@ 055 km / h ) topped Patrick 's leading mark from the previous day .
= = = Qualifying = = =
An hour and 25 minutes after the last practice session ended , the 18 drivers determined the starting grid through qualifying . Each driver ran two laps , with the starting order determined by the competitors ' fastest times . Castroneves , the winner of the 2006 Indy Japan 300 , gained pole position with a lap time of 26 @.@ 6416 seconds ; it was the second consecutive year he qualified first . Two @-@ time race winner Wheldon earned the other front @-@ row starting position ; his lap was .0328 seconds slower than Castroneves ' . Kanaan and Patrick qualified third and fourth , respectively ; they were followed by Hornish , Jr. and Dixon , who would start in the third row . Dario Franchitti and Tomas Scheckter qualified in the fourth row , while Matsuura and Marco Andretti rounded out the top 10 . The difference between the first and tenth @-@ best lap times was less than three @-@ tenths of a second .
= = = Race = = =
The conditions on the grid were dry but cloudy before the event with an air temperature between 70 – 74 ° F ( 21 – 23 ° C ) and a track temperature of 80 ° F ( 27 ° C ) . Bridgestone CEO Soshi Arakawa commanded the drivers to start their engines . The race began at 1 : 00 p.m. JST , as Tomikazu Fukuda , governor of Tochigi Prefecture ( location of the Twin Ring Motegi track ) , waved the opening green flag to signify the start . Shortly afterward , however , Matsuura suffered an accident ; he crashed into the turn two wall during the first lap after he spun , and did not return to the race . A caution flag came out as a result of the incident ; several drivers made pit stops for new tires , fuel and car adjustments during the caution , and Meira made two stops . On lap 9 , the field returned to green flag racing , and Castroneves maintained his lead , which reached nearly three seconds by lap 25 . The second caution flag of the race was flown on lap 31 , to allow for the removal of debris on the track in the fourth turn . A round of pit stops occurred during the caution ; Castroneves held on to the lead , with Wheldon and Kanaan in second and third . The green flag came back out on lap 39 , and Hornish , Jr. immediately took third place from Kanaan . Lap 44 saw a lead change as Wheldon passed Castroneves ; he would go on to lead 126 of the race 's 200 laps . Wheldon gradually increased the lead to almost two seconds by lap 80 . Kanaan had risen to second by this point , ahead of Franchitti and Castroneves .
From laps 81 to 90 , pit stops were made by all the drivers . After Ed Carpenter 's stop , one of his wheels came off while he attempted to return to the track ; he would ultimately finish 15th , eight laps behind . At the end of this series of pit stops under the green flag , Wheldon remained out in front , ahead of Kanaan . By the halfway point of the race , Kanaan had begun to narrow his deficit , which by lap 115 was less than a second . Wheldon , meanwhile , was faced with a mechinical problem — his radio was malfunctioning , preventing him from talking to his pit crew ; he later said that he and his team " lost radio contact early on " . On lap 122 , Kanaan made a pass while coming out of turn two , taking the lead from Wheldon . Soon after , the drivers began their third round of pit stops , and Wheldon took back the lead before Andretti was afflicted with oversteer and crashed into the turn four inside wall on lap 135 , bringing out a caution flag . The yellow flag period saw pit stops continue . Castroneves stopped twice on pit lane on top of a prior stop just before the caution ; during the second yellow flag stop , he overshot his designated area on pit road , and his car needed to be pushed into position by crew members . With 51 laps left , the caution period ended , and Wheldon slowly built a gap over Kanaan of 1 @.@ 8834 seconds entering the final 20 laps .
Wheldon made a pit stop on lap 186 , giving Kanaan , who had been conserving fuel since early in the race , the lead . Four laps later , Kanaan stopped , and the lead briefly went to Hornish , Jr . , before he too pitted and Dixon assumed the top spot . On lap 196 , however , Dixon was also forced into the pits . Kanaan had come off pit road ahead of Wheldon after his stop , and therefore was in position to assume the lead . Wheldon closed in on Kanaan , and by the final lap was less than four @-@ tenths of a second behind . Kanaan , though , held off Wheldon to win the race with a .4828 of a second margin of victory . Third place went to Franchitti , who was over 11 seconds off the pace . Dixon was fourth , followed by Hornish , Jr . , who finished one lap behind the leaders , having stalled his engine on pit road in the closing laps . Scott Sharp was the sixth @-@ place finisher , and early leader Castroneves wound up seventh . Simmons , Scheckter , and Buddy Rice finished eighth through tenth ; all other drivers ended the race two or more laps behind .
There were nine lead changes in the race ; five drivers reached the front of the field . Wheldon 's total of 126 laps led was the highest of any competitor . Kanaan led four different times , for a total of 26 laps . The victory was the eighth of Kanaan 's IRL career and the first of a series @-@ high five wins he posted in the 2007 season .
= = = Post @-@ race = = =
In interviews after the race , Kanaan credited his team 's fuel strategy for being the main factor in his victory . During many of the laps that Wheldon led , Kanaan drafted behind him to use less gasoline than normal , and he was able to stay on the track longer than other drivers as a result . He said of the strategy , " that 's what probably gave me the win . " On the other hand , Wheldon later said that his radio problem forced more " conservative " pit stop planning by himself and his team . Third @-@ place finisher Franchitti said : " We had to take the gamble to try to get the win . I thought we had as good a car as TK ( Tony Kanaan ) and Dan ( Wheldon ) . I think I could have hung with them , but I don 't think I could have caught up with them . " Matsuura admitted his first @-@ lap accident was his fault and apologized to his Japanese fans . After his accident on the 135th lap , Andretti was taken to the track 's infield care center for a precautionary X @-@ ray scan of his right shoulder which showed a negative result . He said that he struggled with controlling his car but was happy . With his second @-@ place finish , Wheldon gained the season points lead with 188 , three ahead of Kanaan and 17 in front of Dixon . The standings were closely contested , with the top six drivers separated by 27 points .
= = Classification = =
= = = Qualifying = = =
= = = Race = = =
= = Standings after the race = =
Note : Only the top five positions are included for the drivers ' standings .
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= BioShock =
BioShock is a first @-@ person shooter video game developed by 2K Boston ( later Irrational Games ) and 2K Australia , and published by 2K Games . The game was released for Microsoft Windows and Xbox 360 platforms in August 2007 ; a PlayStation 3 port by Irrational , 2K Marin , 2K Australia and Digital Extremes was released in October 2008 , and an OS X port by Feral Interactive in October 2009 . A mobile version was developed by IG Fun . The game 's concept was developed by Irrational 's creative lead , Ken Levine , and was based on the ideas of Objectivism as promulgated by Ayn Rand , while incorporating influences from other authors such as George Orwell . The game is considered a spiritual successor to the System Shock series , which many of Irrational 's team including Levine had worked on previously .
BioShock is set in 1960 . The player guides the protagonist , Jack , after his airplane crashes in the ocean near the bathysphere terminus that leads to the underwater city of Rapture . Built by the business magnate Andrew Ryan , the city was intended to be an isolated utopia , but the discovery of ADAM , a genetic material which can be used to grant superhuman powers , initiated the city 's turbulent decline . Jack tries to find a way to escape , fighting through hordes of ADAM @-@ obsessed enemies , and the iconic , deadly Big Daddies , while engaging with the few sane humans that remain and eventually learning of Rapture 's past . The player , as Jack , is able to defeat foes in a number of ways by using weapons , utilizing plasmids that give unique powers , and by turning Rapture 's own defenses against them . BioShock includes elements of role @-@ playing games , giving the player different approaches in engaging enemies such as by stealth , as well as moral choices of saving or killing characters ; additionally , the game and biopunk theme borrow concepts from the survival horror genre .
BioShock received critical acclaim and was particularly praised by critics for its morality @-@ based storyline , immersive environments , and its unique setting , and is considered to be one of the greatest video games of all time . It received several Game of the Year awards from different media outlets , including from BAFTA , Game Informer , Spike TV , and X @-@ Play . Since its release a direct sequel has been released , BioShock 2 by 2K Marin , as well as a third game titled BioShock Infinite by Irrational Games . A remastered version of the game will be released on Microsoft Windows , PlayStation 4 and Xbox One on September 13 , 2016 , as part of BioShock : The Collection , along with BioShock 2 and Infinite .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Setting = = =
BioShock is set in 1960 in the underwater city of Rapture ; the city 's history is mostly revealed via audio recordings the player can collect during the game . Rapture was planned and constructed in the 1940s by Objectivist business magnate Andrew Ryan who wanted to create a utopia for society 's elite to flourish outside of government control . Scientific progress greatly expanded , including the discovery of the genetic material " ADAM " created by sea slugs on the ocean floor . ADAM allows its users to alter their DNA to grant them super @-@ human powers like telekinesis and pyrokinesis .
Despite the apparent utopia , class distinctions grew , and former gangster and businessman Frank Fontaine used his influence of the lower class to plan a coup of Rapture . Fontaine created black market routes with the surface world , and together with Dr. Brigid Tenenbaum , created a cheap plasmid industry by mass @-@ producing ADAM through the implanting of the slugs in the stomachs of orphaned girls , nicknamed " Little Sisters " . Fontaine used his plasmid @-@ enhanced army to attack Ryan , but reportedly was killed in the battle . Ryan took the opportunity to seize his assets including the plasmid factories . In the months that followed , a second figure named Atlas rose to speak for the lower class , creating further strife . Atlas led attacks on the factories housing the Little Sisters , and Ryan countered by creating " Big Daddies " , plasmid @-@ enhanced humans surgically grafted into giant lumbering diving suits who were psychologically compelled to protect the Little Sisters at all costs . Ryan also created his own army of plasmid @-@ enhanced soldiers , named " Splicers " , which he controlled using pheromones distributed through Rapture 's air system .
Tension came to a head on New Year 's Eve of 1958 , when Atlas ordered an all @-@ out attack on Ryan . The battle left many dead , and the few sane survivors barricaded themselves away . What once was a beautiful utopia had fallen into a crumbling dystopia . Some of the events described above are revisited and expanded upon in the downloadable expansion BioShock Infinite : Burial at Sea , which takes place in Rapture during the latter months of 1958 and leads up to Atlas ' assault on Ryan 's forces .
= = = Plot = = =
In 1960 , at the start of the game , player character Jack is a passenger on a plane that goes down in the Atlantic Ocean . As the only survivor , Jack makes his way to a nearby lighthouse that houses a bathysphere terminal that takes him to Rapture .
Jack is contacted by Atlas via radio , and is guided to safety from the Splicers and the perils of the run down city . Atlas requests Jack 's help in stopping Ryan , directing him to a docked bathysphere where he claims Ryan has trapped his family . When Jack encounters a wandering Little Sister and its fallen Big Daddy , Atlas urges Jack to kill the Little Sister to harvest her ADAM for himself ; Dr. Tenenbaum overhears this and intercepts Jack before he harms the Little Sister , urging him to spare the child and any other Little Sisters he encounters , providing him with a plasmid that would force the sea slug out of her body . Jack eventually works his way to the bathysphere , but Ryan destroys it before Jack can reach it . Enraged , Atlas directs Jack towards Ryan 's mansion through Ryan 's army of Splicers and Big Daddies . At times , Jack is forced to travel through areas controlled by Ryan 's allies that have now become deranged , such as Sander Cohen , a former musician that now takes enjoyment in watching the death and misery of others .
Ultimately , Jack enters Ryan 's personal office , where Ryan is patiently waiting for Jack by casually playing golf . Ryan explains he fully knew of Atlas ' plan , and explains that Jack is his illegitimate child , taken from his mother by Fontaine who placed him out of Ryan 's reach on the surface , and genetically modified to age rapidly . Fontaine had planned to use Jack as a trump card in his war with Ryan , bringing him back to Rapture when the time was right ; Jack 's genetics would allow him to access systems such as the bathysphere that Ryan had locked out long ago . With no place to run , Ryan is willing to accept death by his own free will , quoting one of his own principles : " A man chooses . A slave obeys . " He asks Jack " would you kindly " kill him with the golf club , and Jack is compelled to do so . As Ryan dies Jack becomes aware that the phrase " would you kindly " has preceded many of Atlas ' commands as a hypnotic trigger forcing him to follow Atlas ' orders without question ; a flashback reveals Jack himself was responsible for crashing his plane near the bathysphere terminal after reading a letter containing the trigger phrase . Atlas reveals himself as Fontaine , having used the Atlas alias to hide himself while providing a figure for the lower class to rally behind . Without Ryan , Fontaine takes over control of Ryan 's systems , and leaves Jack to die as he releases hostile security drones into Ryan 's locked office .
Jack is saved by Dr. Tenenbaum and the Little Sisters who had previously been rescued . Dr. Tenenbaum helps Jack to remove Fontaine 's conditioned responses , including one that would have stopped his heart . With the help of the Little Sisters , Jack is able to make his way to Fontaine 's lair to face him . Fontaine , being cornered by Jack , injects himself with a large amount of ADAM , becoming an inhuman monster . Jack is aided by the Little Sisters in draining the ADAM in Fontaine 's body and eventually killing him .
The ending depends on how the player interacted with the Little Sisters :
If the player has rescued all of the Little Sisters ( or harvest only one of them ) , Jack takes five of them back to the surface with him , and Tenenbaum happily narrates how they go on to live full lives under his care , eventually surrounding him on his deathbed .
If the player harvests more than one Little Sister , Jack turns on the Little Sisters to harvest their ADAM . Tenenbaum sadly narrates what occurred , condemning Jack and his actions . A submarine then comes across the wreckage of the plane , and finds itself suddenly surrounded by bathyspheres containing Splicers who attack the crew and take control of it . The submarine is revealed to be carrying nuclear missiles , with Tenenbaum claiming that Jack has now " stolen the terrible secrets of the world " : the more Little Sisters are harvested , the harsher and more furious Tenenbaum 's narrative becomes .
= = Gameplay = =
BioShock is a first @-@ person shooter with role @-@ playing game customization and stealth elements , and is similar to System Shock 2 . The player takes the role of Jack as he is guided through Rapture towards various objectives . The player collects various weapons and plasmids as they work their way through enemy forces . The player can switch between one active weapon and one active plasmid at any time , allowing them to find combination attacks that can be effective against certain enemies , such as first shocking a Splicer then striking them down with a wrench . Weapons are limited by ammunition that the player collects ; many weapons have secondary ammo types that can be used instead for additional benefits , such as bullets that inflict fire damage . Plasmid use consumes a serum called EVE which can be restored using EVE syringes collected by the player . The player has a health meter that decreases when they take damage . The player can restore their health with medical packs found throughout Rapture . If the player 's health reduces to zero , they will be regenerated at the last Vita @-@ Chamber that they passed with limited amounts of health and EVE . A patch for the game allows players to disable these Vita @-@ Chambers , requiring players to restart a saved game if the character dies .
The game provides several options for players to face challenges . In addition to direct combat , the player can use plasmids to lure enemies into traps or to turn enemies against each other , or employ stealth tactics to avoid detection by hostiles including the security systems and turrets . The player can hack into any of Rapture 's automated systems ; the hacking process is done via a mini @-@ game similar to Pipe Mania where the player must connect two points on opposite sides of a grid with a limited set of piping within a fixed amount of time , with failure to complete in time costing health and potentially sounding alarms . Early in the game , the player is given a research camera ; by taking photographs of enemies , the player will cumulatively gain knowledge about the individual foes which translates into attack boosts and other benefits when facing that enemy type in the future .
The player collects money by exploring Rapture and from the bodies of defeated foes ; this money can be used at vending machines to restock on ammunition , health and EVE , and other items ; like security cameras , vending machines can also be hacked to reduce the costs of items from it . The player will also receive rewards in the form of ADAM from completing some tasks , as well as from either saving or killing the Little Sisters after defeating their Big Daddy guardian . ADAM is used to purchase new plasmids from Gatherer 's Garden machines scattered around Rapture . In addition to plasmids , the player will also collect and buy tonics that provide passive bonuses , such as increasing Jack 's strength , using EVE more efficiently , or making Jack more resistant to damage . The player can only have a limited number of plasmids and tonics active at any time , and can swap between the various plasmids and tonics at certain stations located throughout Rapture .
= = Development = =
= = = Game design = = =
Lead developer Ken Levine had created Irrational Games in 1997 out of former members from Looking Glass Studios . Their first game was System Shock 2 , a sequel to Looking Glass ' System Shock , and was met with critical success , though it did not prove a financial one . Levine had attempted to pitch a sequel to System Shock 2 to Electronic Arts , but the publisher rejected the idea based on the poor performance of the earlier game . Irrational would proceed to develop other games , including Freedom Force , Tribes : Vengeance , the cancelled title Deep Cover , and the completed The Lost which was never released due to legal complications , but at this point , Levine wanted to return to a game in the same style as System Shock 2 , a more free @-@ form game with strong narrative .
In 2002 , the team had come up with a core gameplay mechanic idea based on three groups of forces ; drones that would carry a desirable resource , protectors that would guard the drones , and harvesters that would attempt to take the resource from the drones ; these would eventually bear out as the Little Sisters , Big Daddies , and splicers in the final game , but at the time of the concept , there was no set theme . They began working on creating a setting for the game as to be able to pitch the idea to game publishers . A 2002 demonstration version was based on the Unreal Engine 2 for the first Xbox . This demonstration was primarily set aboard a space station overtaken with genetically @-@ mutated monsters ; the main character was Carlos Cuello , a " cult deprogrammer " — a person charged with rescuing someone from a cult , and mentally and psychologically readjusting that person to a normal life . Ken Levine cites an example of what a cult deprogrammer does : " [ There are ] people who hired people to [ for example ] deprogram their daughter who had been in a lesbian relationship . They kidnap her and reprogram her , and it was a really dark person , and that was the [ kind of ] character that you were . " This story would have been more political in nature , with the character hired by a Senator . The team collectively agreed that this game was not what they had set out to make , and were having trouble finding a publisher . They considered ending development , but as news about their efforts to make a spiritual successor to System Shock 2 began to appear in gaming magazines and websites , the team opted to continue development , performing a full revamp the game .
By 2004 , 2K Games , a subsidiary of Take Two , offered to publish the game primarily based on the drone / protector / harvester concept , giving Irrational the freedom to develop the story and setting . By this point , the story and setting had changed significantly , taking place in an abandoned World War II @-@ era Nazi laboratory that had been recently unearthed by 21st century scientists . Over the decades , the genetic experiments within the labs had gradually formed themselves into an ecosystem centered on the three groups . This version of game included many of the gameplay elements that would remain in the final BioShock , themselves influenced by concepts from System Shock 2 . These elements included the use of plasmids and EVE , the need to use stealth or other options to deal with automated security systems , direction through the environment from a non @-@ player character relayed over a radio , and story elements delivered through audio recordings and " ghosts " of deceased characters .
While the gameplay with the 2004 reveal was similar to what resulted in the released version of BioShock , both design and story underwent changes , consistent with what Levine says was then @-@ Irrational Games ' guiding principle of putting game design first . These areas were also issued due to some internal strife and lack of communication between the various teams within Irrational , part of the result of having to expand the team from six to sixty members for the scope of the project . The environment was considered bland , and there were difficulties by the team 's artists to come up with a consistent vision to meet the level designer 's goals . A critical junction was a short experiment performed by level designer Jean Paul LeBreton and artist Hoagy de la Plante , setting themselves aside to co @-@ develop a level that would later become part of the " Tea Garden " area in the released game , which Levine would later use as a prime example of a " great BioShock space " , emphasizing the need for departments to work together . Levine also found that the cyberpunk theme had been overplayed considering their initial reject from Electronic Arts for System Shock 3 , leading towards the underwater setting of Rapture .
= = = Story and theme development = = =
The thematic core of BioShock was born when Levine was walking at Rockefeller Center near the GE Building . He saw the uniqueness of the art deco styling of the building along with imagery around the building such as the statue of Atlas near it , and recognized that these were spaces that had not been experienced in the first @-@ player shooter genre . The history of the Rockefeller Center also fed into the story concept ; Levine noted how the Center had started construction prior to the Great Depression of the 1920s ; when the primary financiers had pulled out , John D. Rockefeller backed the remaining construction to complete the project himself , as stated by Edge magazine " a great man building an architectural triumph against all the odds " . The history of Rapture and the character of Andrew Ryan is loosely based on Rockefeller 's story .
At this point in the development , the backdrop of Rapture had been fleshed out , but they had yet to come on how to represent the drones , protectors , and harvesters from their original game idea . The Big Daddy concept as the protector class was developed early in the process , but the team had yet to reach a satisfying design for the drones , having used several possible designs including bugs and dogs in wheelchairs . The team wanted to have the player care for the drones in some way and create pathos for these characters . The idea of using little girls came out of brainstorming , but was controversial and shocking within the team at first , recognizing that they could easily be killed and make the game more horrific in the style of Night Trap . However , as Levine worked on the story , he started to bring in the Objectivism philosophy of Ayn Rand , primarily outlined in the book Atlas Shrugged , into the storyline , tied in with his previous observations on Rockefeller and his writings . Levine , from his liberal arts degree , was already familiar with works from Rand and George Orwell , and considered their ideas " fascinating " . He brought in the ideas that Rand put forth , that man should be driven by selfishness and not altruism . This gave them the confidence to apply the same idea when it came to dealing with the little girls as drones ( now Little Sisters ) , whether the player should try to save the girls or harvest the ADAM for their own benefit . 2K Games expressed concern about the initial mechanic of the Little Sisters , where the player would actively prey on the Little Sister , which would have alerted a Big Daddy and setting up the fight with the player . This approach did not sit well with Levine , and 2K Games asserted that they would not ship a game " where the player gets punished for doing the right thing " . They altered this approach where the Little Sisters would be invulnerable until the player had dealt with their Big Daddy , though LeBreton considered this " a massive kludge " into the game 's fiction . The idea of creating the Little Sisters and presenting the player with this choice became a critical part of the game 's appeal to the larger gaming market though would still be met with criticism from some outlets .
Other elements came into the story design . Levine had an interest in " stem cell research and the moral issues that go around [ it ] " . In regard to artistic influences , Levine cited the books Nineteen Eighty @-@ Four and Logan 's Run , representing societies that have " really interesting ideas screwed up by the fact that we 're people " . The idea of the mind control used on Jack was offered by LeBreton , inspired by films like The Manchurian Candidate , as a means to provide a better reason to limit the player 's actions as opposed to the traditional use of locked doors to prevent them exploring areas they shouldn 't . The team had agreed that Jack 's actions would be controlled by a key phrase , but struggled with coming up with one that would not reveal Atlas ' true nature . Levine happened upon " Would you kindly " after working on marketing materials for the game that asked the reader hypothetical questions such as " Would you kill people , even innocent people , to survive ? " , later working that phrase into the first script for the game . Levine also noted that " it was never my intention to do two endings for the game . It sort of came very late and it was something that was requested by somebody up the food chain from me . " Another late addition , in response to lackluster playtesting feedback , was the initial plane crash into the water ; Levine based this on the premise of the television show Lost , as it helped to give enough information to the player about Jack before immersing them in the game , helping them to connect to the character .
Numerous tensions within the team and from publisher 2K Games continued during the development process . According to LeBreton , Levine was distrustful of some of the more egotistical newer hires and was often arguing with them to enforce his vision of BioShock . 2K Games was concerned with the growing budget for the title , and told Levine to market the title more as a first @-@ person shooter rather than the first @-@ person shooter / role player game hybrid they set out for . Near the targeted release date , Levine ordered the team into round @-@ the @-@ clock development , creating more strife in the team . Paul Hellquist , the game 's lead designer , was often omitted from key design meetings , which he later recounted was due to his contrary nature to Levine , questioning several of his choices ; he used his frustration to put into the design efforts for the Medical Pavilion level that he was in charge of at that time . Near the anticipated completion date , 2K decided to give Irrational another three months to polish up the game , extending the current crunch time the studio was already under . A critical playtest of the game occurred in January 2007 , where initial feedback from the players was mostly negative , including issues of the setting being too dark , having no idea where to go , and distrusting Atlas , who at the time was voiced in a southern drawl , described as a " lecherous Colonel Sanders " . The team took this criticism to heart , revamping several elements during those extra months such as improving the lighting , implementing a quest marker , and using an Irish voice for Atlas to make him sound more trustworthy .
The game was successfully released in August 2007 with a final budget of about $ 25 million . Despite the critical success of the title , many of those on the team would leave Irrational to pursue other projects due to late development strife that occurred .
= = = Game engine = = =
BioShock uses a heavily modified Unreal Engine 2 @.@ 5 with some of the advanced technologies from Unreal Engine 3 . Irrational had previous experience with modifying and expanding on the Unreal Engine in SWAT 4 , and continued this advancement of the engine within BioShock . One major improvement they added was improved water effects , given the nature of the game 's setting , hiring a programmer and artist just to focus on the water effects . This graphical enhancement has been lauded by critics , with GameSpot saying , " Whether it 's standing water on the floor or sea water rushing in after an explosion , it will blow you away every time you see it . " BioShock also uses the Havok Physics engine that allows for an enhancement of in @-@ game physics , the integration of ragdoll physics , and allows for more lifelike movement by elements of the environment . The Windows version was built to work in both Direct3D 10 ( DirectX 10 ) and DirectX 9 , with the DirectX 10 version supporting additional water and particle effects .
= = = Soundtrack = = =
BioShock contains both licensed music and an original score . The licensed music from the 1940s and 1950s can be heard playing on phonograph throughout Rapture . In total , 30 licensed songs can be heard throughout the game . The original score was composed by Garry Schyman . He works his pieces to mesh well with the chosen licensed music as to keep the same feel , while also trying to bring out something that was " eerie , frightening and at times beautiful " to mesh well with Rapture 's environments .
2K Games released an orchestral score soundtrack on their official homepage on August 24 , 2007 . Available in MP3 format , the score — composed by Garry Schyman — contains 12 of the 22 tracks from the game . The Limited Edition version of the game came with The Rapture EP remixes by Moby and Oscar The Punk . The three remixed tracks on the CD include " Beyond the Sea " , " God Bless the Child " and " Wild Little Sisters " ; the original recordings of these songs are in the game . BioShock 's score was released on a vinyl LP with the BioShock 2 Special Edition
= = = Release and promotion = = =
An initial demo of the game was made available in August 2007 for Xbox 360 and Microsoft Windows . This demo included cutscenes to introduce the player to Rapture , the game 's tutorial section , and its first levels ; the demo also included weapons , plasmids , and tonics that would otherwise be introduced later in the full title , as to give the player more of the features that would be found in the published game . The Xbox demo was the fastest demo at that time to reach one million downloads on the Xbox Live service . The full game was released for these platforms on August 21 , 2007 .
The first patch for the Xbox 360 version was released about two weeks after release to fix some of the game stability issues players had reported The patch was found to introduce more problems to the game for some users , including occasional freezes , bad framerates , and audio @-@ related issues , though methods to resolve these issues through the console 's cache system were outlined by Irrational Games .
In December 2007 , a common patch was released for both the Xbox and Windows version . The patch included additional content such as new Plasmids , new achievements for the Xbox 360 version , and additional graphics settings to address some of the field @-@ of @-@ view issues identified by players . ( See below ) . The patch also added in an option to disable the use of Vita @-@ Chambers , a feature requested by players to make the game more challenging , as well as an achievement to complete the game at its hardest setting without using a Vita @-@ Chamber .
= = = Ports = = =
In an August 2007 interview , when asked about the possibility of a PlayStation 3 version of BioShock , Ken Levine had stated only that there was " no PS3 development going on " at the time ; however , on May 28 , 2008 , 2K Games confirmed that a PlayStation 3 version of the game was in development by 2K Marin , and it was released on October 17 , 2008 . On July 3 , 2008 2K Games announced partnership with Digital Extremes and said that the PlayStation 3 version is being developed by 2K Marin , 2K Boston , 2K Australia and Digital Extremes . Jordan Thomas was the director for the PlayStation 3 version . While there are no graphical improvements to the game over the original Xbox 360 version , the PlayStation 3 version offers the widescreen option called " horizontal plus " , introduced via a patch in the 360 version , while cutscene videos are of a much higher resolution than in the DVD version . Additional add @-@ on content will also be released exclusively for the PlayStation 3 version . One addition is " Survivor Mode " , in which the enemies have been made tougher , and Vita @-@ Chambers provide less of a health boost when used , making the player become creative in approaching foes and to rely more on the less @-@ used plasmids in the game . BioShock also supports Trophies and PlayStation Home . A demo version was released on the PlayStation Store on October 2 , 2008 . An update for the PlayStation 3 version was released on November 13 , 2008 to fix some graphical problems and occasions where users experienced a hang and were forced to reset the console . This update also incorporated the " Challenge Room " and " New Game Plus " features .
A port to OS X systems was made by Feral Interactive and released in October 2009 .
In early 2008 , IG Fun secured the rights to develop and publish a mobile phone version of BioShock . This version was developed as a top @-@ down , two @-@ dimensional platformer that attempted to recreate most of the plot and game elements of the original title ; IG Fun worked with Irrational to determine the key story elements they wanted to keep in the game . IG Fun recognized they would not be able to include the full storyline within a single mobile title , and so planned to split the title into three " episodes " . Only the first episode was released .
A port to iOS devices done by the 2K China studio was released on August 27 , 2014 . The iOS version is content complete and functionally equivalent to the original Xbox 360 and Windows version , featuring either the use of touch @-@ screen virtual gamepad controls or the use of a Bluetooth @-@ enabled controller , and with a graphics engine optimized for iOS devices . The game was later delisted from the App Store in September 2015 ; the game had become unplayable for many that upgraded to iOS 8 @.@ 4 on their devices , and while a patch had been discussed , a 2K representative stated that the decision to remove the game came from the developer . 2K later clarified that they will be working on resolving the issues with the game 's compatibility with the new firmware and will re @-@ release the title once that has been completed .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
BioShock has received universal acclaim . Mainstream press reviews have praised the immersive qualities of the game and its political dimension . The Boston Globe described it as " a beautiful , brutal , and disquieting computer game ... one of the best in years " , and compared the game to Whittaker Chambers ' 1957 riposte to Atlas Shrugged , Big Sister Is Watching You . Wired also mentioned the Ayn Rand connection ( a partial anagram of Andrew Ryan ) in a report on the game which featured a brief interview with Levine . The Chicago Sun @-@ Times review said " I never once thought anyone would be able to create an engaging and entertaining video game around the fiction and philosophy of Ayn Rand , but that is essentially what 2K Games has done ... the rare , mature video game that succeeds in making you think while you play " .
The Los Angeles Times review concluded , " Sure , it 's fun to play , looks spectacular and is easy to control . But it also does something no other game has done to date : It really makes you feel . " The New York Times reviewer described it as : " intelligent , gorgeous , occasionally frightening " and added , " Anchored by its provocative , morality @-@ based story line , sumptuous art direction and superb voice acting , BioShock can also hold its head high among the best games ever made . "
According to review aggregator Metacritic , the game received an average review score of 96 / 100 for Xbox 360 and Microsoft Windows , and 94 / 100 for PlayStation 3 . As of July 2013 , it is one of the highest @-@ rated games on Metacritic , tied with a number of other games for the third @-@ highest aggregate score . GameSpy praised BioShock 's " inescapable atmosphere " , and Official Xbox Magazine lauded its " inconceivably great plot " and " stunning soundtrack and audio effects . " The gameplay and combat system have been praised for being smooth and open @-@ ended , and elements of the graphics , such as the water , were praised for their quality . It has been noted that the combination of the game 's elements " straddles so many entertainment art forms so expertly that it 's the best demonstration yet how flexible this medium can be . It 's no longer just another shooter wrapped up in a pretty game engine , but a story that exists and unfolds inside the most convincing and elaborate and artistic game world ever conceived . "
Reviewers did highlight a few negative issues in BioShock , however . The recovery system involving " Vita @-@ Chambers " , which revive a defeated player at half life , but do not alter the enemies ' health , makes it possible to wear down enemies through sheer perseverance , and was criticised as one of the biggest flaws in the gameplay . IGN noted that both the controls and graphics of the Xbox 360 version are inferior to those of the PC version , in that switching between weapons or plasmids is easier using the PC 's mouse than the 360 's radial menu , as well as the graphics being slightly better with higher resolutions . The game has been touted as a hybrid first @-@ person shooter , but two reviewers found advances from comparable games lacking , both in the protagonist and in the challenges he faces . Some reviewers also found the combat behavior of the splicers lacking in diversity ( and their A.I. behavior not very well done ) , and the moral choice too much " black and white " to be really interesting . Some reviewers and essayists such as Jonathan Blow also found that the " moral choice " the game offered to the player ( saving or harvesting the little sisters ) was flawed because it had no real impact on the game , which ultimately leads the player to think that the sisters were just mechanics of no real importance . Similarly , the game also inspired the coining of the term " ludonarrative dissonance " by former LucasArts employee Clint Hocking , a term used to describe inconsistencies between a game 's story and mechanics , in reference to how BioShock 's story advocates selflessness while its gameplay encourages selfishness .
= = = Awards = = =
At E3 2006 , BioShock was given several " Games of the Show " awards from various online gaming sites , including GameSpot , IGN , GameSpy and GameTrailers 's Trailer of the Year . BioShock received an award for Best Xbox 360 Game at the 2007 Leipzig Games Convention . After the game 's release , the 2007 Spike TV Video Game Awards selected BioShock as Game of the Year , Best Xbox 360 Game , and Best Original Score , and nominated it for four awards : Best Shooter , Best Graphics , Best PC Game , Best Soundtrack. and the game also won the 2007 BAFTA " Best Game " award . X @-@ Play also selected it as " Game of the Year " , " Best Original Soundtrack " , " Best Writing / Story " , and " Best Art Direction " .
At IGN 's " Best of 2007 " BioShock was nominated for Game of The Year 2007 , and won the award for PC Game of the Year , Best Artistic Design , and Best Use of Sound . GameSpy chose it as the third best game of the year , and gave BioShock the awards for Best Sound , Story and Art Direction . GameSpot awarded the game for Best Story , while GamePro gave BioShock the Best Story , Xbox 360 and Best Single @-@ Player Shooter awards . BioShock won the " Best Visual Art " , " Best Writing " , and " Best Audio " awards at the 2008 Game Developers Choice Awards . Guinness World Records awarded the game a record for " Most Popular Xbox Live Demo " in the Guinness World Records : Gamer 's Edition 2008 . BioShock is ranked first on Game Informer 's list of The Top 10 Video Game Openings . GamesRadar placed Bioshock as the 12th best game of all time . In 2011 BioShock was awarded the number 1 spot in GameTrailer 's " Top 100 Video Game Trailers of All Time " , for submerging the viewer into the BioShock universe and its enduring impact . In August 2012 , IGN gave it the top spot on their list of the Top 25 Modern PC Games , a ranking of the best PC games released since 2006 . In November 2012 , Time named it one of the 100 greatest video games of all time . In July 2015 , the game placed 9th on USgamer 's The 15 Best Games Since 2000 list .
= = = Sales = = =
The Xbox 360 version was the third best @-@ selling game of August 2007 , with 490 @,@ 900 copies . The Wall Street Journal reported that shares in Take @-@ Two " soared nearly 20 % " in the week following overwhelmingly favorable early reviews of the game . Take @-@ Two announced that by June 5 , 2008 , over 2 @.@ 2 million copies of BioShock had been shipped . In a June 10 , 2008 interview , Roy Taylor , Nvidia 's VP of Content Business Development , stated that the PC version has sold over one million copies . According to Take @-@ Two 's chairman Strauss Zelnick , the game had sold around 3 million copies by June 2009 . By March 2010 , BioShock has sold 4 million copies .
= = = Artistic recognition = = =
BioShock has received praise for its artistic style and compelling storytelling . In their book , Digital Culture : Understanding New Media , Glen Creeber and Royston Martin perform a case study of BioShock as a critical analysis of video games as an artistic medium . They praised the game for its visuals , sound , and ability to engage the player into the story . They viewed BioShock as a sign of the " coming of age " of video games as an artistic medium .
In February 2011 the Smithsonian Institution announced it would be holding an exhibit dedicated to the art of video games . Several games were chosen initially and the public could vote for which games they felt deserved to be displayed via a poll on the exhibit 's website . BioShock was considered a front runner to be displayed because of its status as a game that demonstrated how artistic the medium can be .
= = = PC technical issues and DRM = = =
The initial Windows release was criticized by players for several perceived shortcomings . The game was shipped with SecuROM copy protection that required activation from 2K Games ' servers over the Internet ; the unavailability of these servers was reported as the reason for the cancellation of the game 's midnight release in Australia . Players found that the SecuROM limited the number of times the game could be activated to two ; user feedback led to 2K Games to increase the activation count to five , and later offer a tool that allowed users to revoke previous activations on their own . Ultimately 2K Games removed the activation limit , though retail versions of the game still required the activation process . Levine admitted that their initial approach to the activation process was malformed , harming their reputation during the launch period .
The SecuROM software also caused some virus scanners and malware detector to believe the software was malicious . 2K Games assured players that the software installation process did not install any malicious code or rootkit However , players observed that some of the SecuROM software was not fully removed on uninstallation of the game .
Some of the graphic capabilities of BioShock were also criticised by players . The initial release of the game was found to use a field of view ( FOV ) in widescreen that presented a smaller view compared to the game running at a 4 : 3 screen resolution , conflicting with original reports from a developer on how widescreen would have been handled . Though the choice of FOV was a design decision made during development , Irrational included an option for " Horizontal FOV Lock " in the December 2007 patch that allows widescreen users a wider field of view , without cutting anything off the image vertically . BioShock was also criticized for not supporting pixel shader 2.0b video cards ( such as the Radeon X800 / X850 ) , which were considered high @-@ end graphics cards in 2004 – 2005 , and accounted for about 24 % of surveyed hardware collected through Valve 's Steam platform at the time of BioShock 's release .
On July 8 , 2014 , 2K Games released a DRM @-@ free version of BioShock on the Humble 2K Bundle , and then re @-@ released on the Humble Store .
= = Related media = =
= = = Sequels = = =
In response to the game 's high sales and critical acclaim , Take @-@ Two chairman Strauss Zelnick revealed in a conference call to analysts that the company now considered the game as part of a franchise . He also speculated on any follow @-@ ups mimicking the development cycle of Grand Theft Auto , with a new release expected every two to three years . 2K 's president Christoph Hartmann stated that BioShock could have five sequels , comparing the franchise to the Star Wars movies .
BioShock 2 was announced in 2008 , with its development being led by 2K Marin . Levine stated that Irrational ( then 2K Boston ) was not involved in the game 's sequel because they wanted to " swing for the fences " and try to come up with something " very , very different " , which was later revealed as BioShock Infinite . BioShock 3 was also announced , with its release assumed to likely coincide with the BioShock film . BioShock 2 takes place about ten years following the events of the first game . The player assumes the role of Subject Delta , a precursor of the Big Daddies who must search the fallen city of Rapture for his former Little Sister , Eleanor . BioShock 2 was released for Windows PC , Mac , Xbox 360 , and the PlayStation 3 worldwide on February 9 , 2010 .
While BioShock Infinite , developed by Irrational Games and released in 2013 , shares the name and many similar gameplay concepts with BioShock , the title is not a sequel or prequel in story , instead taking place aboard the collapsing air @-@ city of Columbia in the year 1912 , and following former Pinkerton agent Booker DeWitt as he tries to rescue a woman named Elizabeth from the dystopia it has become . Infinite involves the possibilities of multiple universes , and one scene during the game take place at the lighthouse and bathysphere terminus of Rapture as part of this exploration , though any direct canonical connection is not given in the main game . The episodic expansion , Burial at Sea , takes place in Rapture in 1959 , prior to the war between Atlas and Ryan , while continuing the story of Booker and Elizabeth . This content links the two stories while providing expansion on the causes and behind @-@ the @-@ scenes events alluded to by the in @-@ game background from BioShock .
After completing BioShock Infinite and its expansion , Levine announced that he was restructuring Irrational Games to focus on smaller , narrative @-@ driven titles . 2K Games continues to hold on to the BioShock intellectual property and plans to continue to develop games in this series , considering the framework set by Levine and his team as a " rich creative canvas " for more stories .
= = = Limited edition = = =
Following the creation of a fan petition for a special edition , Take @-@ Two stated that they would publish a special edition of BioShock only if the petition received 5 @,@ 000 signatures ; this number of signatures was reached after just five hours . Subsequently , a poll was posted on the 2K Games operated Cult of Rapture community website in which visitors could vote on what features they would most like to see in a special edition ; the company stated that developers would take this poll into serious consideration . To determine what artwork would be used for the Limited Edition cover , 2K Games ran a contest , with the winning entry provided by Crystal Clear Art 's owner and graphic designer Adam Meyer .
On April 23 , 2007 , the Cult of Rapture website confirmed that the Limited Collector 's Edition would include a 6 @-@ inch ( 150 mm ) Big Daddy figurine ( many of which were damaged due to a dropped shipping container ; a replacement initiative is in place ) , a " Making Of " DVD , and a soundtrack CD . Before the special edition was released , the proposed soundtrack CD was replaced with The Rapture EP .
= = = Printed media = = =
BioShock : Breaking the Mold , a book containing artwork from the game , was released by 2K Games on August 13 , 2007 . It is available in both low and high resolution , in PDF format from 2K Games 's official website . Until October 1 , 2007 , 2K Games was sending a printed version of the book to the owners of the collector 's edition whose Big Daddy figurines had been broken , as compensation for the time it took to replace them . On October 31 , 2008 , the winners of " Breaking the Mold : Developers Edition Artbook Cover Contest " were announced on cultofrapture.com.
A prequel novel , titled BioShock : Rapture written by John Shirley , was published July 19 , 2011 . The prequel book details the construction of Rapture and the events leading to its demise . The book follows multiple BioShock characters .
= = = Cancelled film = = =
Industry rumors after the game 's release suggested a film adaptation of the game would be made , utilizing similar green screen filming techniques as in the movie 300 to recreate the environments of Rapture . On May 9 , 2008 , Take Two announced a deal with Universal Studios to produce a BioShock movie , to be directed by Gore Verbinski and written by John Logan . The film was expected to be released in 2010 , but was put on hold due to budget concerns . On August 24 , 2009 it was revealed that Verbinski had dropped out of the project due to the studio 's decision to film overseas to keep the budget under control . Verbinski reportedly feels this would have hindered his work on Rango . Then Juan Carlos Fresnadillo was in talks to direct with Verbinski as producer .
In January 2010 the project was in pre @-@ production stage , with director Juan Carlos Fresnadillo and Braden Lynch , a voice artist from BioShock 2 both working on the film . By July the film was facing budget issues but producer Gore Verbinski said they were working it out . He also said the film would be a hard R. Ken Levine , during an interview on August 30 , 2010 , said : " I will say that it is still an active thing and it 's something we are actively talking about and actively working on . " Verbinski later cited that by trying to maintain the " R " rating , they were unable to find any studios that would back the effort , putting the film 's future in jeopardy .
Levine confirmed in March 2013 that the film has been officially cancelled . Levine stated that after Warner 's Watchmen film in 2009 did not do as well as the studio expected , they had concerns with the $ 200 million budget that Verbinski had for the BioShock film . They asked him to consider doing the film on a smaller $ 80 million budget , but Verbinski did not want to accept this . Universal then subsequently brought in a new director to work with the smaller budget , but Levine and 2K Games did not feel that the new director was a good fit with the material . Universal then let Levine make the decision to end the project , which he did believing that the film would not work with the current set of compromises they would have had to make . In January 2014 , artwork from the cancelled film surfaced online , showing what an adaptation could have looked like .
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= Scottish crest badge =
A Scottish crest badge is a heraldic badge worn to show allegiance to an individual or membership in a specific Scottish clan . Crest badges are commonly called clan crests , but this is a misnomer ; there is no such thing as a collective clan crest , just as there is no such thing as a clan coat of arms .
Crest badges consist of a crest and a motto / slogan . These elements are heraldic property and protected by law in Scotland . Crest badges may be worn by anyone ; however , those who are not entitled to the heraldic elements within , wear a crest badge surrounded by a strap and buckle . Those who own the heraldic elements within , may wear a crest badge surrounded by a plain circlet . The strap and buckle represents that the wearer is a follower of the individual who owns the crest and motto .
Crest badges are commonly worn by members of Scottish clans . These badges usually consist of elements from the clan chief 's coat of arms . Clan members who wear their chief 's crest and motto surrounded by a strap and buckle , show they are a member of the chief 's clan ( family ) . There are established clans that do not have chiefs recognised by the Lord Lyon King of Arms . In such cases clan members sometimes wear the crest badge of the last known chief . Some clans wear crest badges derived from the arms of individuals who were never recognised as clan chiefs . Although " clan crests " are commonly bought and sold , the heraldic crest and motto belong to the chief alone and never the individual clan member .
Crest badges , much like clan tartans , do not have a long history , and owe much to Victorian era romanticism , having only been worn on the bonnet since the 19th century . The original badges used by clans are said to have been specific plants worn in bonnets or hung from a pole or spear .
= = Introduction = =
Although the term " clan crest " is most commonly used , it is a misnomer . There is in fact no such thing as a clan crest . Although it is possible to purchase " clan crests " , and the crest badge itself can be owned by a clan member , the heraldic crest and motto of the badge belong to the chief alone and never the clan member . The crest and motto within and are the sole property of the chief , and clan members are only permitted to wear the badge in a show of allegiance to their clan and clan chief . It is illegal for a clan member to misappropriate the chief 's crest and motto in acts such as decorating silverware and inscriptions on signet rings and jewellery . In short , coats of arms , crests and mottos are the personal property of one person only , and in terms of " clan crests " they are the property of the clan chief .
Crest badges are specifically used for people to wear , and are made out of silver or white metal . When illustrated , crest badges should only be printed in monochrome , and should not coloured . Women are entitled to wear the crest badge as a brooch , generally worn on the left side , and as such the crest badge may be of gold .
There are established clans which do not have a chief recognised by the Lord Lyon King of Arms . In such cases , clan members usually wear a crest badge which contains the crest and motto of the last known chief . However , there are instances where such clans wear crest badges which are based upon the arms of someone who was never a recognised clan chief . For example , Clan Macfie , which current does not have a chief , uses a crest badge which is derived from the arms of one of the first two Macfies who registered Arms at Lyon Court . Another clan — Clan MacEwen — whose chiefly line has been untraced since the 15th century , has a crest badge containing the crest and motto of a baronet bearing the surname McEwen . Oddly enough , the McEwen Baronets may not have any actual link with the main Clan MacEwen at all . Another instance is the crest badge of Clan MacInnes . This crest badge is based upon a modern coat of arms of an armigerous clan member , not a clan chief .
According to the English officers of arms John Martin Robinson and Thomas Woodcock , crests have played a relatively insignificant role in Scottish heraldry when compared to English heraldry . In consequence many Scottish armigers , including clan chiefs , have comparatively similar crests to one another . Because of this , crest badges can sometimes show an obvious association with another clan . For example , clans associated with the Chattan Confederation share very similar crest badges bearing wild cats . Clans associated with Clan MacTavish — Clan Campbell of Breadalbane , Clan MacIver and Clan Campbell — use a crest badges which contain similar crests and mottoes that allude to that of the chief of Clan MacTavish .
= = = Who is entitled to wear a crest badge ? = = =
A person does not need to be a member of a clan society to be able to wear a crest badge . Any clan member has a right to it , not just clan societies and clan society members . According to the Court of the Lord Lyon clan membership goes with the surname . Although , today many people who do not bear a clan surname do wear crest badges of their mother 's clan , and anyone who offers their allegiance to a clan chief is a member of a clan ( unless the chief decides to refuse that person 's allegiance ) . Many people bear names that , while not actual clan surnames , are sept names or associated names of certain clans . Surnames such as Smith , Wright , Fletcher , and Miller are examples as such names that are associated names of many clans ( as every clan would have its own smiths , wrights , fletchers and millers ) . It is up to the individual to explore their personal ancestry and discovery the correct clan that they belong to .
= = Elements = =
Scottish crest badges may contain the following elements :
= = Wearing the crest badge = =
Clan chiefs , clan chieftains , armigerous clan members , and un @-@ armigerous clan members may wear crest badges . However , there are differences in the type of crest badge they wear .
= = = Clan chiefs = = =
A clan chief is the head of his or her clan / family , and is the representer of the family 's founder . A clan chief must be recognised as such by the Lord Lyon King of Arms , and must possess the undifferenced arms of their name .
Clan chiefs may wear their crest simpliciter , that is without being encircled by the motto and without any feathers . It is more common , however , for a clan chiefs to wear their own personal crest within a plain circlet inscribed with their motto or slogan ( pictured left ) . The chief 's crest badge does not contain the strap and buckle that other clan members are permitted to wear . Clan chiefs are also entitled to wear three eagle feathers behind the circlet of their crest badge . On certain occasions , such as clan gatherings , it may be appropriate to use real eagle feathers . Clan chiefs that are members of the British Peerage or a feudal baron are entitled to wear the appropriate coronet or baronial chapeau above the circlet on their crest badge , though this is a matter of personal preference .
= = = Clan chieftains = = =
Clan chieftains are the representers of large branches of a Scottish clan . They are officially recognised as clan chieftains by the Lord Lyon King of Arms .
Clan chieftains , like clan chiefs , may wear their own personal crest within a plain circlet inscribed with their own motto or slogan . Clan chieftains may also wear two small eagle feathers ( unlike the chief 's three ) . On certain occasions real eagle feathers may be worn behind the crest badge . If a clan chieftain is a member of the British Peerage or a feudal baron they are permitted to wear the appropriate coronet or baronial chapeau above the circlet on their crest badge . Recently feudal barons have taken to wearing two eagle feathers behind their armiger 's badge but there is no ancient tradition of this and it is solely based upon the fact that anciently feudal barons were most likely to have been chiefs or chieftains . If the feudal baron is a member of a clan it is advisable to consult the clan chief on clan customs and traditions . The Lord Lyon only gives guidance and not governance on the wearing of feathers and recommends consulting with a clan chief who approves the number of feathers worn by members of the clan .
Clan chieftains may also wear the crest badge of their chief in the same manner as an un @-@ armigerous clan member ( see Un @-@ armigerous clan members below ) .
= = = Armigerous clan members = = =
In terms of Scottish Heraldry , an armiger is someone who has registered his or her own coat of arms , or has inherited a coat of arms according to the Laws of Arms in Scotland from an ancestor who had arms recorded in the Lyon Register .
Armigers , like clan chiefs and chieftains , may wear their own personal crest within a plain circlet inscribed with their own motto or slogan . Armigers are permitted to wear one silver eagle feather behind the circlet ( or on certain occasions a real eagle feather ) . If an Armiger is a member of the British Peerage or a feudal baron they are permitted to wear the appropriate coronet or baronial chapeau above the circlet on their crest badge . If an Armiger is a member of a Scottish clan he or she may wear the crest badge of their chief , however it must be encircled by a strap and buckle ( see Un @-@ armigerous clan members below ) .
= = = Non @-@ armigerous clan members = = =
Members of Scottish clans are considered , by the Court of the Lord Lyon , to be relatives of their clan chief . They can be either immediate family or extended family . Clan members can also be people who only bear the " clan surname " or a sept name associated with the clan . The Court of the Lord Lyon has also stated that anyone who professes allegiance to both the clan and its chief can be considered a clan member . All clan members may wear the chief 's crest encircled by a strap and buckle inscribed with their chief 's motto or slogan . The strap and buckle symbolises the membership to the clan and allegiance to the clan chief .
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= Tales of Innocence =
Tales of Innocence ( Japanese : テイルズオブイノセンス , Hepburn : Teiruzu Obu Inosensu ) is an action role @-@ playing video game , developed and released for the Nintendo DS and PlayStation Vita . Innocence is the ninth main installment in the Tales series , developed by Alfa System and published by Bandai Namco Games . It was released in December 2007 . A remake for the Vita developed by 7th Chord , Tales of Innocence R ( テイルズオブイノセンス アール , Teiruzu Obu Inosensu Āru ) , was released in January 2012 . Multiple elements are carried over from previous entries in the series , including the action @-@ based Linear Motion Battle System . Innocence R includes both an updated battle system and additional story content . Both versions remain exclusive to Japan .
Both Innocence and Innocence R focus on Luca , a merchant 's son who encounters a fugitive named Illia . In rescuing her , he discovers he has inherited supernatural powers from his past life . He teams up with Illia and multiple others who have gained similar powers from past lives . The group become involved in the wars consuming the world , along with events pertaining to their past lives and the future of their world .
Innocence began production in 2006 at Alfa System as the next main entry in the Tales series . Developed parallel to the DS spin @-@ off title Tales of the Tempest , the goal was to include all the series ' main gameplay and narrative elements despite the limited medium . The character designs were done by Mutsumi Inomata , while the music was composed by series newcomer Kazuhiro Nakamura . Extensive voice acting was included using CRI Middleware 's Kyuseishu Sound Streamer compression algorithm . After release , it was decided to remake Innocence for the Vita , using platform @-@ specific gameplay functions , redone voice work and music , and new characters . Japanese singer @-@ songwriter Kokia created the opening theme songs for both versions of Innocence . Both versions have been positively received in Japan , and Western opinions on the two versions of Innocence have been mostly positive .
= = Gameplay = =
As with previous entries in the Tales series , Tales of Innocence is an action role @-@ playing video game . The player navigates overworld and town environments , and enters a separate arena @-@ like area during battle . The characters and environments are represented using full 3D graphics and models . Characters gain experience levels using experience points , gained by completing quests and fighting . Side @-@ quests separate from the main narrative can be taken through guilds in various parts of the overworld . As the player completes side @-@ quests , guilds level up with the character , providing extra materials and items . Guilds level up as players complete quests for them , and some of the game 's dungeons are directly linked to guild quests . Guilds are also used to communicate with other players using the Nintendo DS ' wireless function . Multiplayer allows two players to cooperate in battle . During navigation , extra plot @-@ related or casual conversations with characters called Skits can be triggered by the player . Some character interactions used a choice @-@ based " bonding " system , where a dialogue choice is offered while conversing with another character or during certain story scenes : choosing the right response increases the bond with a character , granting both items and special boons in battle .
As with previous games , Innocence uses an retouched version of the " Linear Motion Battle System " ( LMBS ) , a battle system involving direct control of characters similar to a fighting game . The version used is called the " Dimension Stride LMBS " . Full range of movement is available , and when enemies are launched into the air by attacks , characters can jump up after them and continue attacking . Three characters are controllable in battle , with one controlled by the player and two handled by the game 's artificial intelligence ( AI ) . There are standard attacks , and more powerful moves called Artes . The player can switch between characters instantly . By stringing attacks together into long combos or successfully defending against attacks , characters charge up their tension gauge . When fully charged , the selected character enters an " awakened " state , allowing their attacks to deal more damage . This state can be maintained as long as the player continues to successfully attack and defend without taking hits . If the right buttons are pressed during this period , the character teams up with the other two and unleashes powerful Artes . In addition to these standard and special attacks , each character can activate Mystic Artes , transforming into a form resembling their past selves to deal high amounts of damage . Defeated enemies drop items and currency that the player must collect before they fade or the battle ends . Whereas previous titles had set roles for characters in battle such as healing or ranged attacks , Innocence allows full customization of both the AI @-@ controlled characters ' rough roles and their detailed behavior . Materials gathered in exploration and battle can be fused with the weapons . Different fusions can both make the weapon stronger and grant special abilities , such as poisoning the enemy while striking it .
Innocence R uses altered and improved features and elements from the original , including character displays , the " awakened " character state , and the skit , title , grade and cooking systems . The dungeons are rebuilt , featuring new puzzle elements , switches and the need to push boulders to form pathways and unblock passages . An extra dungeon tied into the extra story content is also added . The game uses an altered battle system under the name " Direct Interface LMBS " , which includes a fourth playable character . During battle , the characters can be directly commanded using the PlayStation Vita 's touch screen . A second Mystic Arte is included for the old characters and two new ones introduced for the two extra characters . After each battle , characters earn Ability Points ( AP ) . AP are used in each character 's skill tree by purchasing abilities and stat boosts . Each character has their own unique skill trees . Another additional element is the " Rave Gauge " : players can line up different artes in the battle menu , then unleash them all at once on an enemy during battle . An arena is also open to players , where cameo characters from previous Tales titles can be fought .
= = Plot = =
The world of Innocence is divided between the " divine " world of Devaloka ( divided between the regions of Sensus and Ratio ) and the lower human world of Naraka . As Devaloka needed human souls to survive , the Sensus general Asura decided to use the Manifest , an artifact created by the ancient Primordial Giant , to merge Devaloka and Naraka . This plan was opposed by many , leading to war between Sensus and Ratio . Asura was aided by the Devalokans Inanna , Orifiel and Sakuya ; his sentient sword Durandal ; and his dragon companion Vrtra . Asura eventually won , defeating the Ratio general Hypnos in battle . Before he could use the Manifest , Inanna betrayed and stabbed him with Durandal . He kills her before he dies , leaving the unification of Devaloka and Naraka unfinished . Most of Devaloka 's population is killed in the process , with the others eventually dying years later . In the present , Naraka is governed by the imperial capital of Regnum and the western country of Garam , who are in a state of war . Added to this is the emergence of " avatars " , Devalokans reincarnated in human form who hold supernatural powers . They are hunted and inducted into Regnum 's military and used for experimentation or as front line troops in the war .
The story begins when Luca Milda , the reincarnation of Asura , encountering another avatar Illia Animi , an avatar of Inanna . She is being chased by agents of Regnum . Luca decides to protect her , awakening his supernatural powers . The two are eventually captured and forced to become fighters on the front lines along with swordsman Spada Belforma , the reincarnation of Durandal . During their time as prisoners , Luca develops a relationship with Chitose Cxarma , who is a reincarnation of Sakuya and retains her former self 's deep love for Asura . Luca , Illia and Spada eventually escape , briefly encountering the mercenary Ricardo Soldato , who is a reincarnation of Hypnos . The three are eventually joined by Ricardo , along with Ange Serena and Hermana Larmo , the respective reincarnations of Orifiel and Vrtra . During their travels across the war @-@ torn land , they are confronted by avatars in the service of multiple nations , and Arca , a cult made up of avatars led by a woman known as Mathias . Chitose joins Arca to further their cause of a utopia for avatars , and tries to persuade Luca to join , causing a rift between them . The conflicts between the groups is further inflamed as more people regain their memories as warriors of Sensus or Ratio , sparking old conflicts . During their adventures , the group work to end the fighting and learn about their past lives . When the full truth is revealed , they decide to fulfill Asura 's wishes and unite the two worlds . This brings them into conflict with Mathias , who is revealed to be the incarnation of Asura 's wrath at being betrayed , and now wishes to destroy both Devaloka and Naraka . Chitose , consumed by Sakuya 's love for Asura , helps Mathias in her task . The party confront Mathias and Chitose in Devaloka 's ruined capital , where the Manifest is hidden . They defeat Mathias , and Chitose kills herself in a fit of despair . Luca then proceeds to use the Manifest to merge Devaloka and Naraka , nullifying the avatars ' powers and lessening the chance of future conflicts . The group then returns to their normal lives .
Innocence R mostly preserves the story of Innocence , while adding two further characters : a spearwoman named QQ Selezneva , and a spellcaster named Kongwai Tao . These two belong to different worlds , and enter the world of Innocence through the so @-@ called " Triverse Gate " . Kongwai came to " save " two souls ( Chitose and the antagonist Hasta Ekstermi , a reincarnation of the demonic spear Gaebolg ) , while QQ is an archeologist who comes to investigate the world of Innocence . Each enters and leaves the world while leaving the main events mostly unaltered . While they appear to be on friendly terms , a second playthrough reveals that they are bitter enemies who have been playing a " friendship game " while in the world of Innocence . As they return to their world , they part ways , with QQ swearing to kill Kongwai the next time they meet .
= = = Characters = = =
Luca Milda ( ルカ ・ ミルダ , Ruka Miruda ) is a merchant 's son living in the capital city of Regnum . A student with high school grades , he is naturally shy and often teased by his classmates . He is the reincarnation of the Devalokan Asura ( アスラ ) , general of the Sensus army . Luca is voiced by Akiko Kimura , and Asura is voiced by Rikiya Koyama .
Iria Animi ( イリア ・ アニーミ , Iria Anīmi ) is an honest and independent village girl who was forced to flee from the Regnum authorities after her powers awaken . She is accompanied by Coda , one of a race called " Myusu " who follows her in order to eat nice food . Illia is the reincarnation of Inanna ( イナンナ ) , a former ally of Asura . Illia is voiced by Yuko Sasamoto , and Inanna is voiced by Atsuko Tanaka .
Spada Belforma ( スパーダ ・ ベルフォルマ , Supāda Beruforuma ) is a swordsman from Regnam , a former noble who was rejected by his family . Spada is the reincarnation of Asura 's sentient sword and companion Durandal ( デュランダル ) . Both characters are voiced by Yuji Ueda .
Ricardo Soldato ( リカルド ・ ソルダト , Rikarudo Sorudato ) is a marksman and mercenary who is initially forced to fight Luca , Illia and Spada . Raised in the middle of war , he is a professional type who takes his job seriously . He is the reincarnation of the Ratio general Hypnos ( ヒュプノス ) . Both characters are voiced by Hiroaki Hirata .
Ange Serena ( アンジュ ・ セレナ , Anju Serena ) is a priestess who takes in and cares for avatars , using her powers to heal the sick and wounded , earning the nickname of " saint " . She acts as an older sister figure to Luca . She is the reincarnation of Orifiel ( オリフィエル ) , a strategist who defected from Ratio to Sensus . Agne is voiced by Kaori Nazuka , and Orifiel is voiced by Tomokazu Sugita .
Hermana Larmo ( エルマーナ ・ ラルモ , Erumāna Rarumo ) is a street urchin who looks after war orphans in Regnum 's sewers . Despite her deprived upbringing , she holds a positive outlook on life . She is the reincarnation of Vrtra ( ヴリトラ ) , an ancient dragon who raised Asura . Both characters are voiced by Yuki Matsuoka .
QQ Selezneva ( キュキュ ・ セレツネワ , Kyukyu Seretsunewa ) and Kongwai Tao ( コンウェイ ・ タウ , Konwei Tao ) are two characters introduced in Innocence R. Both traveled from other worlds . While Kongwai is a reserved spellcaster on a secretive mission , QQ is an outgoing , self @-@ proclaimed archeologist fascinated by the technology of Innocence 's world . Kongwai is voiced by Kenji Nojima , and QQ is voiced by Saki Fujita .
= = Development = =
Planning and early development of Innocence began between March and April 2006 , with full development beginning in late 2006 to early 2007 . Total development time came to roughly a year and a half . It was being developed at the same time as Tales of the Tempest , another Tales title for the DS , as the next main entry in the Tales series , as opposed to Tempest which would become a spin @-@ off title . While Tempest was conceived as a " compact " version of a Tales title , Innocence was designed to include all the elements expected from a mainline console title , meaning it was created with very different development goals . Rather than by established Tales developer Namco Tales Studio , Innocence was developed by Alfa System , a Japanese studio that had previously worked on the first two Tales of the World spin @-@ off titles . They were chosen to work on the game because of their previous successful efforts with these spin @-@ offs . It was the company 's first title for the DS . While developing the title , the team drew on previous difficulties suffered while developing Tempest to promote a smoother development and better final product . The team tweaked the battle system used for the title so that it felt fresh to series veterans while still retaining its identity . One of these aspects was the new character growth system , which relied on customization more than gaining levels in a linear fashion through experience ; the theme behind the creation of this system was " a more profound battle with wider frontage " . The team incorporated an updated version of the free @-@ running ability from Tales of the Abyss so players could have maximum freedom in battle .
The game 's title was inspired by Luca 's portrayal as an innocent young boy thrust into the world 's troubles . Luca himself was portrayed as a shy and introverted type , unlike many previous Tales protagonists , which were portrayed as outgoing and confident . As well as themes of coexistence common in the Tales series , the team incorporated aesthetics and motifs from the late 19th and early 20th centuries . The characters were designed by regular Tales artist Mutsumi Inomata , who almost turned down the offer to work on the title due to scheduling conflicts . She created the cast of Innocence at the same time as that of Tales of Hearts , leading to difficulties with her workload . Inomata 's brief was not to emphasise the characters ' status as heroes , with Luca being deliberately drawn and designed as a physically weak character . As with previous games , Innocence was given a characteristic genre name . The name for Innocence was Omoi o tsunagu RPG ( 想いを繋ぐRPG ? , RPG To Tie Thoughts Together ) . This name was carried over into Innocence R. The game 's opening was animated by long @-@ time collaborator Production I.G. Innocence was first announced at a special event in July 2007 , alongside ports of Tales of Rebirth and Tales of Destiny as well as Tales of Symphonia : Dawn of the New World for the Wii . Innocence did not receive a localization , remaining a Japan @-@ exclusive title . Despite this , a fan translation group working under the name " Absolute Zero " created an patch for the game that both translated the text , and fixed bugs and glitches .
= = = Innocence R = = =
At a much later date , members of the team decided to remake Innocence , as fan feedback had pointed out many features they had wanted to include despite putting all that was possible into Innocence . Controlling the characters using the PlayStation Vita 's touch screen was included for ease of play , although gameplay features using the Vita 's other functions was considered during development . Innocence R was developed by Japanese developer 7th Chord . Innocence R was a ground @-@ up remake , with the " R " in the title standing for " re @-@ imagination " , referring to the team 's development wish for the gameplay and story . Everything from the coding to the animation was redone . The team hoped that the game would provide a boost to the sales of its prospective platform . Inomata returned in her role as character designer for the new characters , while Mika Murakita joined Odate as a producer . New opening and in @-@ game anime cutscenes were created by Production I.G. Development overlapped with the Vita remake of Hearts , with staff from Innocence R also working on Hearts R.
The existence of Innocence R was first revealed through information from a leaked issue of V Jump about the Tales games that were scheduled to appear at the 2011 Tokyo Game Show . The game 's teaser site was officially unveiled shortly after this . The first details and gameplay footage were shown to the public during the show alongside Tales of the Heroes : Twin Brave . Innocence R was heavily promoted by the company , with one campaign involving playing out an animated skit using the outdoor monitors around Shibuya Station . As with the original , Innocence R has not received a localization , making it one of three mainline Tales titles not to be released in the west . The decision not to localize it was influenced by poor marketing feedback from western territories . Later , during an interview involving Hearts R and Tales of Xillia 2 , series producer Hideo Baba stated that while the game was never intended for localization , if Hearts R sold well , a localization could be considered .
= = Audio = =
Voice acting in Tempest was restricted to battles . Dissatisfied with this approach , the developers wanted to have full voice acting for Innocence while keeping as many planned features in the game as possible . After some trial and error , and on the verge of scrapping voice acting altogether , the team used CRI Middleware 's Kyuseishu Sound Streamer compression algorithm to fit the voice acting into the game alongside the other features . The team first learned of the algorithm in May 2006 , when the first prototype of Innocence had already been built . The inclusion of the algorithm forced the team to scrap elements of the first build and restart development . The new prototype was completed in November 2006 . The predicted amount of voice recording was estimated at 120 minutes . The final product included 40 minutes more than that . According to Ōdate , approximately 70 @-@ 80 % percent of the main scenario was voiced , with the rest of the game 's dialogue using text due to hardware limitations . The voice work took up one gigabit of storage space on the DS card . For Innocence R , the voice acting was re @-@ recorded , with the entire main scenario being voiced . This enabled minor changes to character portrayals , as in the case of Kimura when she was redoing Luca 's lines : according to her , she worked to inject a little more energy into Luca 's voice . For the two new characters , the team created a fictional language called the " Triverse Language " , which the characters ' actors sometimes had trouble speaking .
= = = Music = = =
The music for Innocence was composed by Kazuhiro Nakamura , who had previously worked on the Time Crisis and Tekken series . The tracks were arranged with the help of Taisuke Sawachika . For his work on the game , Nakamura chose a different style of music from that of Motoi Sakuraba , who had handled the majority of previous Tales titles : he used ethnic music to distinguish it from earlier games . For the battle music , he used Sakuraba 's battle compositions as a reference while keeping to his own style . The remixed and additional music for Innocence R was again handled and composed by Nakamura .
The theme song for Innocence , " Follow the Nightingale " , was created and sung by Japanese singer @-@ songwriter Kokia . She was asked on board by the game 's staff as they were favorably impressed by her voice . While composing the song , she was allowed to draw inspiration from storyboards and early footage . The theme and lyrics of " Follow the Nightingale " tie in with the characters ' status as people reincarnated in the game 's present , focusing on the main protagonist Luca asking why they were reborn . As with some of her earlier songs , she wrote some parts of it in code , with Kokia herself describing them as " perplexing riddle words " . For Innocence R , Kokia was brought in again and asked to create a different opening number , " New Day , New Life " . For this song , Kokia drew from the opening sequence , where Luca wakes from dreaming of his past life and opens the window . Unlike " Follow the Nightingale " , " New Day , New Life " was written entirely in standard Japanese , as she wanted to fully convey Luca 's feelings in the song , along with those of Kongwai .
The official soundtrack album , Tales of Innocence Original Soundtrack Another Innocence ( テイルズ オブ イノセンス オリジナルサウンドトラック アナザーイノセンス ) , was released on December 19 , 2007 . It did not enter the Oricon charts . Reviews of the soundtrack have been mixed to positive . Bryan Matheny , in a review published by Game @-@ OST , said that while the music would satisfy Tales fans , it felt Nakamura had missed the chance of doing something different in the vein of Tales of Legendia . RPGFan 's Patrick Gann called the album " solid " , and noted several tracks that stood out including the battle and overworld themes . Despite this , he felt that it was " forgettable " compared to other Tales soundtracks . " Follow the Nightingale " was released on November 21 , 2007 as a single alongside Innocence 's ending song " say goodbye & good day " . It reached # 33 in the Oricon charts , and remained in the charts for nine weeks . " New Day , New Life " was released on January 25 , 2012 . It reached # 29 in the charts , and remained for four weeks .
= = Reception = =
Prior to release , Innocence was reporting to be one of the most pre @-@ ordered role @-@ playing title at Amazon Japan alongside Xbox 360 exclusive Lost Odyssey . The game received an initial shipment of 160 @,@ 000 copies , with projected sales estimated at 150 @,@ 000 . Innocence reached # 3 in the Japanese sales charts after Wii Fit and Mario Party DS , with estimated opening sales of 104 @,@ 000 copies . After the first week , sales dropped dramatically , selling only 28 @,@ 000 units the following week . Ultimately , Innocence was considered a success by the company , selling approximately 246 @,@ 000 copies and exceeding their sales forecasts for the title . Innocence R reached # 3 in the Japanese sales charts in its opening week , coming behind Armored Core V and Resident Evil : Revelations and selling 54 @,@ 853 copies . By July of that year , Innocence R was the sixth best @-@ selling title for the Vita , with total sales of 74 @,@ 718 copies .
Famitsu praised Innocence 's high @-@ polygon character models , and the story and characters , which were generally engaging and entertaining . Gameplay was also praised , with the increased freedom of movement in battle being positively noted , along with the breadth of character customization available . Some minor points came in for criticism , such as parts of the game that would be difficult for newcomers , and a lack of explanation for some parts of the story . The score given by the magazine was noted as being the highest given by Famitsu to a Tales game up to that point . Paul Koehler of RPGamer , writing up his impression of the game at TGS 2007 , was favorably impressed , calling map navigation " fluid " and saying that the graphics were " one of the better offerings at the show on the DS . " Cubed3 's Adam Riley was generally positive during his hands @-@ on preview . He called the game 's quality acting " amazingly high " , praised the amount of voice acting , and saw it as " one of the better @-@ rounded titles in the franchise so far . " Comparing the game to Tempest , he said that Innocence made the previous DS game " look amateur in nature . " RPGFan 's Neal Chandran shared many points of praise with Riley , saying that the game promised to be " both a high quality RPG for Nintendo 's DS and a high quality entry to this prolific RPG series . "
Innocence R was also well received by Famitsu . General praise to the graphical upgrade over the original version , the rebuilt battle system and added voice acting and story content . Japanese website Game Impress Watch was highly positive , praising the extra characters , updated gameplay and graphics . One minor reservation was that some aspects might be a little difficult or complex for players . The reviewer 's closing comment was that it was a role @-@ playing game they would " recommend to anyone " . Abraham Ashton Liu of RPGFan was fairly mixed about some aspects of it . While he found aspects of comparing the characters ' past and present lives and enjoyed the gameplay and side @-@ characters , he generally found the lead characters irritating . He also found the graphics rather poor for the Vita and saw some gameplay elements as archaic or poorly tuned . In March 2013 , Famitsu ranked the top games of 2012 , and Innocence R reached 13th place . In July 2014 , Innocence R was ranked by Japanese website Inside Games among the top ten popular role @-@ playing games for the Vita .
= = Additional media = =
Multiple pieces of media have been created either to promote or complement the game before and after release . To promote the original title 's release , the company created an " Adventure Voice DVD " , featuring multiple characters from previous Tales games . Multiple books were created after the game 's release , including three guidebooks , a two @-@ part novel adaptation released between January and March 2008 , and a three @-@ part weekly series of instruction guidebooks released between November 30 and December 30 , 2007 . The guidebooks contain gameplay hints , concept art and staff interviews . The game was also adapted into a two @-@ part audio drama . Titled Tales of Innocence Drama CD ( テイルズオブイノセンス ドラマＣＤ , Teiruzu Obu Inosensu Dorama CD ) , the two volumes were released on June 25 and July 25 , 2008 .
Shortly after the release of Innocence R , Bandai Namco developed and released a free smartphone app and released it through iTunes on January 27 , 2012 . The app allowed users to play selected songs from Innocence R , as well as view concept art and character profiles . A rhythm game was also included for the tunes , allowing players to post their scores on Twitter . Innocene R was adapted into a manga . It was collected into a single volume and released on May 25 , 2012 as Tales of Innocence R Comic Anthology ( テイルズオブイノセンス R コミックアンソロジー , Teiruzu Obu Inosensu R Komikku Ansorojī ) .
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= CMLL World Light Heavyweight Championship =
The CMLL World Light Heavyweight Championship ( Campeonato Mundial Semi Completo de CMLL in Spanish ) is a professional wrestling world heavyweight championship promoted by Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre ( CMLL ) since 1991 . As it is a professional wrestling championship , it is not won via legitimate competition ; it is instead won via a scripted ending to a match or on occasion awarded to a wrestler because of a storyline . The official definition of the light heavyweight division in Mexico is between 92 kg ( 203 lb ) and 97 kg ( 214 lb ) , but the weight limits are not always strictly adhered to . Because CMLL puts more emphasis on the lower weight classes , this division is considered more important than the heavyweight division , which is considered the most important championship by most promotions outside of Mexico .
The current CMLL World Light Heavyweight Champion in his first reign is La Máscara , who won it by defeating Ángel de Oro on April 8 , 2016 . La Máscara is the 15th overall champion and the 13th wrestler to officially hold the championship . The title has been vacated only once since its creation in 1991 , and has had one unofficial reign .
= = History = =
The Mexican professional wrestling promotion Empresa Mexicana de Lucha Libre ( EMLL ) was founded in 1933 and initially recognized a series of " Mexican National " wrestling championships , endorsed by the Comisión de Box y Lucha Libre Mexico D.F. ( Mexico City Boxing and Wrestling Commission ) . The Mexican National Light Heavyweight Championship was created in 1942 as EMLL began promoting matches for that championship with the approval and oversight of the wrestling commission . In the 1950s EMLL became a member of the National Wrestling Alliance ( NWA ) and began promoting the NWA World Light Heavyweight Championship in the late 1950s . Previously that championship had been promoted in the US , but the NWA gave EMLL full control of the championship in 1958 , positioning the NWA title as the highest @-@ ranking title in the light heavyweight division with the Mexican National title positioned as the secondary championship .
In the late 1980s EMLL left the NWA to avoid the politics of the NWA and later rebranded themselves as " Consejo Mundal de Lucha Libre " ( CMLL ) . In 1991 CMLL decided to create a series of CMLL @-@ branded world championships , with the CMLL World Light Heavyweight Championship ( Campeonato Mundial Semi Completo de CMLL in Spanish ) created as the second CMLL @-@ branded championship , after the CMLL World Heavyweight Championship . Jerry Estrada was chosen as the first champion , with CMLL booking the tournament for the championship to end with Estrada defeating Pierroth Jr . In 1996 the then @-@ champion Dr. Wagner Jr. lost the championship to Aquarius on a show in Japan , but the title change was not approved by CMLL and thus was never officially recognized . Dr. Wagner Jr. won the title back eight days later before returning to Mexico . Since the title change was not officially recognized CMLL considers Dr. Wagner Jr. a two @-@ time champion , not a three @-@ time champion .
On January 15 , 2013 , then @-@ reigning champion Rush voluntarily gave up the CMLL World Light Heavyweight Championship as part of his ongoing storyline feud with then @-@ CMLL World Heavyweight Champion El Terrible . As part of the storyline El Terrible stated that he would not defend against someone who represented a lower weight class so Rush moved into the Heavyweight division for a title match . CMLL held a 16 @-@ man torneo cibernetico elimination match to determine which two wrestlers should compete in the finals for the vacant title . On January 29 , 2013 , Rey Escorpión defeated Volador Jr. in the tournament finals to become the 13th overall champion .
= = Reigns = =
La Máscara is the current CMLL World Light Heavyweight Champion in his first reign , since defeating Ángel de Oro on April 8 , 2016 . Overall , there have been 15 reigns shared between 13 wrestlers , which does not include one unofficial reign by Aquarius . Only two men have held the title more than once ; both Dr. Wagner Jr. and Atlantis have officially held the title twice . Dr. Wagner Jr. has the longest combined reigns with 1 @,@ 574 days , and Último Guerrero holds the record for the longest individual reign with 3 years , 213 days . Because Aquarius ' eight @-@ day reign in 1996 is not officially recognized by CMLL , the current champion La Máscara , at 109 days and counting , is the shortest reigning champion . If he remains the champion until October 2 , 2016 , he will surpass Estrada 's 175 @-@ day reign . Not only was Último Guerrero 's reign the longest of any individual reign , he is also credited with a record 28 successful championship defenses .
On one occasion CMLL declared the championship vacant , which meant that there was no champion for a period of time . Sometimes , a championship is vacated due to an injury to the reigning champion , or when a champion stops working for the promotion , but in the case of the CMLL World Light Heavyweight Championship , there was a storyline reason behind it being declared vacant . In late 2013 the light heavyweight champion Rush was working a long @-@ running storyline rivalry with El Terrible . When El Terrible won the CMLL World Heavyweight Championship CMLL decided to enhance the rivalry by having Rush voluntarily give up the light heavyweight championship in order to receive a CMLL World Heavyweight Championship match against El Terrible . This allowed CMLL to advance the storyline as well as move the championship off Rush without having Rush lose a match , allowing Rey Escorpión to become the next champion .
= = Rules = =
The official definition by the Mexican lucha libre commission for the light heavyweight division in Mexico is between 92 kg ( 203 lb ) and 97 kg ( 214 lb ) . In the 20th century CMLL were generally consistent and strict about enforcing the actual weight limits . In the 21st century the official definitions have at times been overlooked for certain champions . One example of this was when Mephisto , officially listed as 90 kg ( 200 lb ) , won the CMLL World Welterweight Championship , a weight class with a 78 kg ( 172 lb ) upper limit . Although the heavyweight championship is traditionally considered the most prestigious weight division in professional wrestling , CMLL places more emphasis on the lower weight divisions , often promoting those ahead of the CMLL World Heavyweight Championship .
With twelve CMLL @-@ promoted championships labelled as " World " titles , the promotional focus shifts from championship to championship over time with no single championship consistently promoted as the " main " championship ; instead CMLL 's various major shows feature different weight divisions and are most often headlined by a Lucha de Apuestas ( " Bet match " ) instead of a championship match . From 2013 until June 2016 only two major CMLL shows have featured championship matches , Sin Salida in 2013 and the 2014 Juicio Final show featuring the NWA World Historic Welterweight Championship . The last time a CMLL World Light Heavyweight Championship match was featured on a major CMLL show was on September 18 , 2004 , when Último Guerrero successfully defended the title at the CMLL 71st Anniversary Show . Championship matches usually take place under best two @-@ out @-@ of @-@ three falls rules . On occasion single fall title matches have taken place , especially when promoting CMLL title matches in Japan , conforming to the traditions of the local promotion . Outside of CMLL , the light heavyweight championship has been defended on joint CMLL / Universal Wrestling Association ( UWA ) shows in 1993 , on W * ING , Big Japan Wrestling , Dragondoor and New Japan Pro Wrestling shows in Japan .
= = Tournaments = =
= = = 1991 = = =
CMLL held a 16 @-@ man tournament from September 15 to October 26 , 1991 to crown the first light heavyweight champion . Documentation on Pierroth Jr . ' s path to the finals has not been found .
Tournament brackets
= = = 2013 = = =
CMLL held a tournament to determine the next CMLL World Light Heavyweight Champion starting on January 22 , 2013 , and the finals were held the following week . The first round of the tournament was a 16 @-@ man torneo cibernetico elimination match , with the last two men in the match qualifying for the finals the following week on January 29 . The torneo featured two teams of eight wrestling against each other ; Team A consisted of Delta , El Felino , La Máscara , Mephisto , Mr. Águila , Rey Escorpión , Stuka Jr. and Volador Jr. and Team B consisted of Atlantis , Blue Panther , Diamante , Euforia , Maximo , Morphosis , Psicosis and Sagrado . The match came down to Team A 's Rey Escorpión and Volado Jr. versus Team B 's Euforia . Escorpión pulled off Volador Jr . ' s mask and threw it to rival Euforia , causing Euforia to be disqualified , which meant that Escorpión and Volador Jr. qualified for the finals the following week . On January 29 , Escorpión defeated Volador Jr. in the finals to become the 13th overall CMLL World Light Heavyweight champion .
Cibernetico order of elimination
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= Goodison Park =
Goodison Park is a football stadium located in Walton , Liverpool , England . The stadium has been home to Premier League club Everton F.C. since its completion in 1892 and is one of the world 's oldest purpose @-@ built football grounds . The stadium is built in a residential area served by regular rail and bus services two miles ( 3 km ) from Liverpool city centre .
Goodison has undergone many changes over the years and it presently has an all @-@ seated capacity of 39 @,@ 572 . Everton fans refer to the stadium as " The Grand Old Lady " and the abridged " Goodison " .
It has hosted more top @-@ flight games than any other stadium in England . Goodison has hosted the maximum number of league games since the Premier League was formed in 1992 , as Everton have remained in the top tier of English football since 1954 . The club has only been outside the top division for four seasons , having only been relegated twice ( in 1930 and 1951 ) .
As well as hosting Everton games , the stadium has been the venue for an FA Cup Final and numerous international fixtures , including several in the 1966 FIFA World Cup . The record for the highest attendance in women 's football was set at Goodison Park in 1920 , which stood for 92 years until 31 July 2012 .
= = History = =
= = = Before Goodison Park = = =
Everton originally played on an open pitch in the south @-@ east corner of the newly laid out Stanley Park , the same site where Liverpool F.C. planned a stadium , however abandoned the project . The first official match took place in 1879 . In 1882 , a Mr J. Cruit donated land at Priory Road with the necessary facilities required for professional clubs . Cruit asked the club to leave his land after two years because the crowds became far too large and noisy .
Everton moved to nearby Anfield Road , a site where proper covered stands were built . Everton played at the Anfield ground from 1884 until 1892 . During this time the club turned professional and entered teams in the FA Cup . They became founding members of the Football League and won their first championship at the ground in 1890 – 91 . Anfield 's capacity grew to over 20 @,@ 000 and the club hosted an international match between England and Ireland . During their time at Anfield , Everton became the first club to introduce goalnets to professional football .
In the 1890s , a dispute about how the club was to be owned and run emerged with John Houlding , Anfield 's majority owner and Everton 's Chairman , at the forefront . Houlding and the club 's committee initially disagreed about the full purchase of the land at Anfield from minor land owner Mr Orrell escalating into a principled disagreement of how the club was run . Two such disagreements included Houlding wanting Everton to sell only his brewery produce during an event and for the Everton players to use his public house The Sandon as changing room facilities .
The most famous of the disagreements concerns the level of increased rent Everton were asked to pay . In 1889 , Everton paid £ 100 to Houlding in rent and by the 1889 – 90 season he was charging Everton £ 250 . Everton had to pay for all work and stands . The dispute escalated to a rent of £ 370 per year being demanded . In the complicated lead up to the split in the club , the rent dispute is too simplistic to be singled out as the prime cause . The dispute was compounded by many minor disputed points .
The flashpoint was a covenant in the contract of land purchase by Houlding from Orrell causing further and deep friction . A strip of land at the Anfield ground bordering the adjacent land owned by Mr Orrell , could be used to provide a right of way access road for Orrell 's landlocked vacant site . In early 1891 the club erected a stand on this now proposed roadway , which was also overlapping Orrell 's land , unbeknown to the Everton F.C. Committee . In August 1891 Orrell announced intentions of developing his land next to the football ground and building an access road on the land owned by Houlding and occupied by Everton F.C.
Everton F.C. stated they knew nothing of the covenant , Houlding stated they did . This situation created great distrust and friction between Houlding and the Everton F.C. Committee . The rift and distrust between the committee and Houlding was on three levels , Houlding 's personal business intentions , politically and morally . Nevertheless , the club faced a dilemma of having to destroy the new revenue generating stand or compensate Orrell .
Houlding 's way around the problem was to propose a limited company with floatation of the club enabling the club to purchase Houlding 's and Orrell 's land outright , hoping to raise £ 12 @,@ 000 . Previous attempts to raise money from the community had failed miserably . This would have meant the club would need to find £ 6 @,@ 000 in cash with an additional £ 4 @,@ 875 mortgage . The Everton Committee initially accepted Houlding 's proposal in principle , yet voted against it at a meeting .
After much negotiating and brinkmanship on both sides Everton vacated Anfield , leaving Houlding with an empty stadium and no one to play in it . As a consequence , Houlding formed his own football club , Liverpool , to take up residence at the stadium .
The clubs themselves have differing versions of events of why it occurred .
Houlding explained why this situation arose in a match programme against Cliftonville in April 1893 . He pointed out that he had given Everton a rent free loan until the club started to make money . If the club had gone bust he would have lost it all .
Despite making no profit in this respect , the issue that upset the members at Everton most was his plan to sell Anfield and the land adjoining , with Houlding himself profiting . He felt it was a reasonable reward for the risk he had ventured in the club for nine years . Houlding , as the ambitious businessman he was , saw a great future for the club . He wanted the club to have its own home ground and wanted them to buy land so the club could expand in due course .
Unfortunately most of the Everton FC board members failed to share his forward thinking and lacked confidence . They wanted instead a long term rent deal on all the land , but for this to be acceptable to Houlding , he wanted a rent at a price considered too high for the Club . The members reacted to that by " offering " Houlding less rent . Houlding unsurprisingly refused to accept this stating that he did not want to be dictated : " I cannot understand why a gentleman that has done so much for the club ( Everton ) and its members should be given such treatment " .
During their spell at Anfield , John Houlding decided to charge the Club rent based on the increase of gate receipts from attendances and not , as was previously the case , at a fixed rate .
" This – along with other conflicts with Everton – led to the Club being expelled from Anfield in 1892 and in need of a new home .... fully expecting Houlding to dismiss Everton from their Anfield home , he [ George Mahon ] acquired land on a patch off Stanley Park called ' Mere Green Field ' and also made sure that the Club kept their name . "
= = = Genesis of Goodison Park = = =
On 15 September 1891 , a general meeting took place at Royal Street Hall , near Everton Valley . Everton 's chairman John Houlding proposed that a limited company be formed and that the company should purchase his land and local brewer Joseph Orrel 's adjacent land for a combined £ 9 @,@ 237 . A club run as a limited company was unusual for the time as football clubs were usually run as “ sports clubs ” with members paying an annual fee . The proposal was supported by William Barclay , the club secretary and a close friend of Houlding .
Liberal Party politician and Everton board member George Mahon fought the proposal and put forward his own amendment which was carried by the Everton board . At the time Everton 's board contained both Conservative and Liberal Party councillors . Houlding and Mahon had previously clashed during local elections .
Both men agreed that Everton should operate as an limited company ; however , they had different ideas about share ownership . Houlding suggested that 12 @,@ 000 shares be created with each Everton board member given one share and the other shares sold to the public or Everton board members . Mahon disagreed and proposed that 500 shares be created with no member carrying more than 10 shares and board members being given " 7 or 8 " shares . Mahon reasoned " we would rather have a large number of individual applications so that there will be more supporters of the club . "
A special general meeting was convened at the former Liverpool College building on Shaw Street on 25 January 1892 . John Houlding 's proposal was defeated once more and George Mahon suggested that Everton relocate to another site . A heckler shouted , " You can 't find one ! " Mahon responded " I have one in my pocket " revealing an option to lease Mere Green field , in Walton , Lancashire , the site of the current Goodison Park .
The Liverpool press were partisan . The proposal was deemed to be a positive move for the club by the Liberal @-@ leaning Liverpool Daily Post which described Houlding 's ousting as " having shaken off the incubus . " The Tory @-@ supporting Liverpool Courier and Liverpool Evening Express — owned by Conservative MP for Everton , John A. Willox , a Trustee of the Licensed Victuallers ' and Brewers ' Association — took Houlding 's side . The Courier published letters regularly criticising Mahon 's supporters — many of which were anonymous . Philanthropist William Hartley , a jam manufacturer and Robert William Hudson , a prominent soap @-@ manufacturer supported Mahon .
The stadium was named Goodison Park because the length of the site was built against Goodison Road . The road was named after a civil engineer named George Goodison who provided a sewage report to the Walton Local Board in the mid @-@ 1800s and later became a local land owner .
The Mere Green field was owned by Christopher Leyland with Everton renting until they were in a position to buy the site outright . Initially , the field needed work as parts of the site needed excavation , the field was levelled , a drainage system was installed and turf was laid . This work was considered to be a ' formidable initial expenditure ' with local contractor Mr Barton contracted to work on the 29 @,@ 471 square yards ( 25 @,@ 000 m2 ) site at 4 ½ d per square yard — a total cost of £ 552 . A J. Prescott was brought in as an architectural advisor and surveyor .
Walton @-@ based building firm Kelly Brothers were instructed to erect two uncovered stands that could each accommodate 4 @,@ 000 spectators . A third covered stand accommodating 3 @,@ 000 spectators was also requested . The combined cost of these stands was £ 1 @,@ 640 . Everton inserted a penalty clause into the contract in case the work was not completed by its 31 July deadline . Everton officials were impressed with the builder 's workmanship and agreed two further contracts : exterior hoardings were constructed at a cost of £ 150 and 12 turnstiles were installed at a cost of £ 7 each . In 1894 , Benjamin Kelly of Kelly Brothers was appointed as a director of Everton .
Dr. James Baxter of the Everton committee donated a £ 1 @,@ 000 interest @-@ free loan to build Goodison Park . The stadium was England 's first purpose @-@ built football ground , with stands on three sides . Goodison Park was officially opened on 24 August 1892 by Lord Kinnaird and Frederick Wall of the Football Association . No football was played ; instead the 12 @,@ 000 crowd watched a short athletics event followed by music and a fireworks display . Upon its completion the stadium was the first joint purpose @-@ built football stadium in the world ; Celtic 's basic Celtic Park ground in Glasgow , Scotland was inaugurated on the same day as Goodison Park .
The first football match at Goodison Park was on 2 September 1892 between Everton and Bolton Wanderers . Everton wore its new club colours of salmon and dark blue stripes and won the exhibition game 4 – 2 . The first league game at Goodison Park took place on 3 September 1892 against Nottingham Forest ; the game ended in a 2 – 2 draw . The stadium 's first competitive goal was scored by Forest 's Horace Pike and the first Everton goal scored by Fred Geary . Everton 's first league victory at their new ground came in the next home game with a 6 – 0 defeat of Newton Heath in front of an estimated 10 @,@ 000 spectators .
It was announced at a general meeting on 22 March 1895 that the club could finally afford to buy Goodison Park . Mahon revealed that Everton were buying Goodison Park for £ 650 less than the price of Anfield three years earlier , with Goodison Park having more land and a 25 % larger capacity . The motion to purchase Goodison Park was passed unanimously . Dr. Baxter also lent the club £ 5 @,@ 000 to redeem the mortgage early at a rate of 3 ½ % . By this time the redrawing of political boundaries put Walton , and hence Goodison Park , inside the City of Liverpool .
In 1999 , The Independent newspaper journalist David Conn unexpectedly coined the nickname " The Grand Old Lady " for the stadium when he wrote " Another potential suitor has apparently thought better of Everton , walking away on Tuesday from the sagging Grand Old Lady of English football , leaving her still in desperate need of a makeover . "
= = = Structural developments = = =
The Goodison Park structure was built in stages . In the summer of 1895 a new Bullens Road stand was built and a roof placed on the original Goodison Road stand but only after five directors , including Chairman , George Mahon had resigned over what was described in the club minutes as ' acute administrative difficulties ' . In 1906 , the doubled @-@ decker Goodison Avenue Stand was built behind the goal at the south end of the ground . The stand was designed by Liverpool architect Henry Hartley who went on to chair the Liverpool Architectural Society a year later . The club minutes from the time show that Hartley was unhappy with certain aspects of the stand and the poor sightlines meant that the goal line had to be moved seven metres north , towards Gwladys Street . In January 1908 , he complained that his fees had not been paid and the bill for the stand was near £ 13 @,@ 000 . There were 2 @,@ 657 seats on its upper tier with a terrace below .
Archibald Leitch designed the Goodison Road Stand with construction in 1909 . In September that year Ernest Edwards , the Liverpool Echo journalist who christened the terrace at Anfield the " Spion Kop " , wrote of the newly built stand , " The building as one looks at it , suggests the side of Mauretania at once . " The stand was occasionally referred to as the " Mauretania Stand " , in reference to the Liverpool @-@ registered RMS Mauretania , then the world 's largest ship , which operated from the Port of Liverpool .
The two @-@ tier steel frame and wooden floor Bullens Road Stand , designed by Archibald Leitch , was completed in 1926 . The upper tier was seated , with terracing below , a part of the ground called The Paddock . Few changes were made until 1963 when the rear of the Paddock was seated and an overhanging roof was added . The stand is known for Archibald Leitch 's highly distinctive balcony trusses which also act as handrails for the front row of seats in the Upper Bullens stand . Goodison Park is the only stadium with two complete trusses designed by Leitch . Of the 17 created , only Goodison Park , Ibrox and Fratton Park retain these trusses .
Everton constructed covered dugouts in 1931 . The idea was inspired by a visit to Pittodrie to play a friendly against Aberdeen , where such dugouts had been constructed at the behest of the Dons ' trainer Donald Colman . The Goodison Park dugouts were the first in England .
The ground become an entirely two @-@ tiered affair in 1938 with another Archibald Leitch stand at the Gwladys Street end . The stand completed at a cost of £ 50 @,@ 000 , being delayed because an old man would not move from his to be demolished home . The original Gwladys Street having had terraced houses on either side , with those backing on to the ground making way for the expansion . Architect Leitch and Everton Chairman Will Cuff became close friends with Cuff appointed as Leitch 's accountant with Leitch moving to nearby Formby .
In 1940 , during the Second World War , the Gwladys Street Stand suffered bomb damage . The bomb had landed directly in Gwladys Street and caused serious injury to nearby residents . The bomb splinter damage to the bricks on the stand is still noticeable . The cost of repair was £ 5 @,@ 000 and was paid for by the War Damage Commission .
The Director 's minutes read : " It was decided also that Messrs A. Leitch be instructed to value the cost of complete renewal of damaged properties and that a claim should be forwarded to the War Damage Claims department within the prescribed 30 days .
" The damage referred to included the demolition of a wide section of the new stand outer wall in Gwladys St , destruction of all glass in this stand , damage to every door , canteen , water and electricity pipe and all lead fittings : perforate roof in hundreds of places .
" On Bullens Road side , a bomb dropped in the school yard had badly damaged the exterior wall of this stand and the roof was badly perforated here also . A third bomb outside the practice ground had demolished the surrounding hoarding and had badly damaged glass in the Goodison Ave and Walton Lane property . "
The first floodlit match at Goodison Park took place when Everton hosted Liverpool on 9 October 1957 in front of 58 @,@ 771 spectators . Four pylons 185 feet ( 56 m ) each with 36 lamps installed were installed behind each corner of the pitch , at the time they were tallest in the country . There was capacity for 18 more lamps per pylon if it was felt the brightness was insufficient for the game . Each bulb was a 1 @,@ 500 watt tungsten bulb 15 inches in diameter and cost 25 shillings . It was recommended that the club made a habit of changing them after three to four seasons to save the club performing intermittent repairs . MANWEB installed a transformer sub @-@ station to cope with the 6 @,@ 000 volt @-@ load .
The first undersoil heating system in English football was installed at Goodison Park in 1958 , with 20 miles ( 30 km ) of electric wire laid beneath the playing surface at a cost of £ 16 @,@ 000 . The system was more effective than anticipated and the drainage system could not cope with the quantity of water produced from the melting of frost and snow . As a consequence the pitch had to be relaid in 1960 to allow a more suitable drainage system to be installed .
The Everton chairman Sir John Moores who presided over the club between 1960 and 1973 provided finances for the club in the form of loans to become involved in large @-@ scale redevelopment projects and compete with other clubs for the best players , for a period of time under his stewardship Everton were known as ' The Mersey Millionaires ' .
Goodison Park featured in the filming of The Golden Vision , a BBC film made for television . The matches featured in the film were Division One games against Manchester City on 4 November 1967 ( 1 – 1 draw ) and 18 November 1967 versus Sheffield United ( 1 – 0 win ) — the scorer of the winner that day was Alex Young , also known as The Golden Vision or Golden Ghost after whom the film was named .
Everton were the first club to have a scoreboard installed in England . On 20 November 1971 Everton beat Southampton 8 – 0 with Joe Royle scoring four , David Johnson three and Alan Ball one . The scoreboard did not have enough room to display the goal scorer 's names and simply read " 7 9 7 9 8 9 9 7 " as it displayed the goal scorers ' shirt numbers instead .
The Goodison Road Stand was partially demolished and rebuilt during the 1969 – 70 season with striking images of both old and new stands side by side . The new stand opened 1971 , at a cost of £ 1 million . The new stand housed the 500 and 300 members clubs and an escalator to the tallest stand in the ground — the Top Balcony . However , not everyone thought that the upgrade was necessary at the time . Journalist Geoffrey Green of The Times wrote " Goodison Park has always been a handsome fashionable stage for football , a living thing full of atmospherics @-@ like a theatre . And now it has stepped into the demanding seventies with a facelift it scarcely seemed to need compared with some of us I know . New giant stands in place of the old ; the latest in dazzling floodlight systems that cast not a shadow . A cathedral of a place indeed , fit for the gods of the game . "
The Safety of Sports Grounds Act 1975 saw the Bullens Road Stand extensively fireproofed with widened aisles , which entailed closure of parts of the stand . Because of the closure , Anfield was chosen over first choice Goodison Park for a Wales vs. Scotland World Cup qualifying tie .
Following Moores ' exit from Everton 's hierarchy , minimum changes have been made to Goodison Park 's structure due to costs , two British Government Acts ; the Safety of Sports Grounds Act 1975 and Football Spectators Act 1989 have forced the club 's hand into improving the facilities . Upon Moore 's death the club was sold to Peter Johnson .
Everton legends William Ralph ' Dixie ' Dean and former manager Harry Catterick both died at Goodison Park . Dean suffered from a heart attack aged 73 in 1980 , whilst Catterick died five years later , also suffering a heart attack aged 65 .
Everton F.C. celebrated the centenary of Goodison Park with a game against German club side Borussia Mönchengladbach in August 1992 . In addition , 200 limited edition medals were created and Liverpool based author and journalist Ken Rogers wrote a book One Hundred Years of Goodison Glory to commemorate the occasion .
= = = Post @-@ Taylor Report = = =
Following the publication of the 1990 Taylor Report , in the wake of the Hillsborough disaster , top @-@ flight English football grounds had to become all @-@ seated . At the time three of the four sides of the ground had standing areas . The Enclosure , fronting the main stand , had already been made all @-@ seated in time for the 1987 – 88 season and was given the new name of Family Enclosure . The Paddock , the Park End terrace and the Gwladys Street terrace , known as ' the Ground ' , were standing and had to be replaced . The fences around the perimeter of the ground fronting the terracing ( which were to prevent fans , notably hooligans , running onto the pitch ) were removed immediately post Hillsborough , in time for the rearranged league fixture with Liverpool . The Everton match versus Luton Town in May 1991 was the final time that Gwladys Street allowed standing spectators . Seats were installed in the Paddock , while the Lower Gwladys Street was later completely rebuilt to accommodate seating with new concrete steps .
Everton opted to demolish the entire Park End stand in 1994 and replace it with a single @-@ tier cantilever stand , with the assistance of a grant of £ 1 @.@ 3 million from the Football Trust .
= = Current structure = =
Goodison Park has a total capacity of 39 @,@ 572 all @-@ seated and comprises four separate stands : the Goodison Road Stand , Gwladys Street Stand , Bullens Road Stand , and the Park End Stand .
= = = Goodison Road Stand = = =
Built in sections from 1969 to 1971 , replacing the large double @-@ decker 1909 Archibald Leitch designed stand . The Goodison Road Stand is a double @-@ decker stand with the lower deck being two @-@ tier . Each level is given a separate name . The middle @-@ deck level is known as the Main Stand and is fronted by another seated section known as the Family Enclosure . The Enclosure was originally terracing prior to the advent of all @-@ seater stadia . The Top Balcony is the highest part of the stadium . The stand became all seated in 1987 and now has a capacity of 12 @,@ 664 .
The back wall of the stand cuts into the stand because of the non @-@ square nature of the Goodison Park site . The Goodison Road Stand is also home to the conference and hospitality facilities . On non @-@ match days Goodison Park holds conferences , weddings , meetings and parties on a daily basis .
= = = Bullens Road = = =
On the east side of the ground , the Bullens Road stand is divided into the Upper Bullens , Lower Bullens and The Paddock . The rear of the south end of the stand houses away supporters . The north corner of the stand is connected to the Gwladys Street Stand . The current capacity of the stand is 10 @,@ 546 . The stand takes its name from the adjacent Bullens Road . The Upper Bullens is decorated with Archibald Leitch 's distinctive truss design .
= = = Howard Kendall Gwladys Street End = = =
Behind the goal at the north end of Goodison Park , the Gwladys Street Stand is divided into Upper Gwladys and Lower Gwladys . This stand is the " Popular End " , holding the most boisterous and vociferous home supporters . It is known colloquially as " The Street End " . If Everton win the toss before kick @-@ off the captain traditionally elects to play towards the Gwladys Street End in the second half . One of the traditions of the stand is also to applaud the visiting goalkeeper as he runs out to the goal of the stand . The stand has a capacity of 10 @,@ 611 and gives its name to Gwladys Street 's Hall of Fame .
= = = Sir Philip Carter Park Stand = = =
At the south end of the ground , behind one goal , the Park End Stand backs onto Walton Lane which borders Stanley Park . The name of the stand was originally the Stanley Park End but it 's commonly referred to as the Park End . The single tiered stand broke from the multi @-@ tiered tradition of Goodison Park . The Park End has the smallest capacity at Goodison Park . The current layout of the stand was opened on 17 September 1994 with a capacity of 5 @,@ 750 . It was opened by David Hunt , a Member of Parliament . During the structure 's development , fans were able to watch matches by climbing trees in neighbouring Stanley Park .
In the late 1970s and 1980s the stand accommodated the away fans . Previously it was open to home supporters . The lower tier of the old stand was terracing and this was closed off by the turn of the 1980s due to it being a fire hazard as the terracing steps were wooden . The front concrete terracing remained and was one of the last standing areas at a Premiership ground . During the 1960s and 1970s , both ends of the ground featured a large arc behind the goals . This was created as a requirement for the 1966 World Cup because the crowd had to be a required distance from the goals .
The area around Goodison Park when built was a dense area full of terraced housing , and Goodison Avenue behind the Park End stand was no different . Oddly housing was built right into the stand itself ( as shown on old photographs of Goodison and in programmes ) . The club had previously owned many of the houses on the road and rented them to players . One of the players to live there , Dixie Dean later had a statue erected in his honour near the Park End on Walton Lane . By the 1990s the club had demolished virtually the whole street and this coincided with the redevelopment of the Park End stand . However at present the majority of the land is now an open car park for the club and its Marquee .
= = = St Luke 's Church = = =
Goodison Park is unique in the sense that a church , St Luke 's , protrudes into the site between the Goodison Road Stand and the Gwladys Street Stand only yards from the corner flag . Everton do not play early kick @-@ offs on Sundays in order to permit Sunday services at the church . The church is synonymous with the football club and a wooden church structure was in place when Goodison Park was originally built . Former Everton players such as Brian Harris have had their funeral service held there .
The church can be seen from the Park End and Bullens Road and has featured prominently over the years as a backdrop during live televised matches . It is also the home to the Everton Former Players ' Foundation of which the Reverend is a trustee .
The church has over the years curtailed development of the ground . Everton did attempt to pay for its removal in order to gain extra space for a larger capacity . One of two jumbotron screens ( both installed in 2000 ) has been installed between the Goodison Road stand and Gwladys Street stand partially obscuring the church from view . The other is situated between the Bullens Road and Park End .
Imaginative spectators would climb the church and watch a football game from the rooftop however they have now been deterred from doing so with the installation of security measures such as barbed wire and anti @-@ climb paint . In addition , the introduction of the ' all @-@ seater ' ruling following the Taylor Report has meant that spectators no longer resort to climbing nearby buildings for a glimpse of the event as a seat is guaranteed with a purchased ticket .
= = The future = =
Since the late 1990s the board of Everton have been seeking a new , alternative stadium to replace Goodison Park . Plans for a possible relocation were first mentioned in 1996 , when then chairman Peter Johnson announced his intention to build a new 60 @,@ 000 @-@ seat stadium for the club . At the time , no English league club had a stadium with such a high capacity .
In January 2001 , plans were drawn up to move to a 55 @,@ 000 @-@ seat purpose @-@ built arena on the site of the King 's Dock in Liverpool . The proposed stadium would have had a retractable roof enabling it to be used for concerts and chairman Bill Kenwright had hoped to have it ready for the 2005 – 06 season .
However , the plans were abandoned in April 2003 due to the club not being able to raise adequate funds . Following this , plans were made to move to Kirkby , just outside the city , in a joint venture with the supermarket chain Tesco . The scheme was greatly divisive amongst supporters and local authorities , but was rejected in late November 2009 following a decision by Secretary of State for Communities and Local Government .
The site of Goodison Park was earmarked in 1997 and 2003 for a food store by Tesco who offered £ 12 million which was valued at £ 4 million for the site but Liverpool City Council 's advisor 's advised against allowing planning permission . The club were advised that the planning permission required would not necessarily be granted , and chose not to take the scheme further .
Supporters ' groups have fought against the club moving to a new stadium twice . In 2007 a group was established called Keep Everton in Our City ( KEIOC ) whose aim is to keep Everton FC inside the city of Liverpool . The KEIOC attempted to prevent the club moving to a new stadium in Kirkby , just outside the city limits . The supporters ' groups have argued that it is possible to expand Goodison Park , despite the odd shaped landlocked site being surrounded by housing , local authority buildings , and have produced image renders , architectural drawings and costings for a redeveloped Goodison Park . The then Liverpool City Council leader Warren Bradley stated in November 2009 that a redevelopment of Goodison Park was his favoured option , and that relocation of the homes , infrastructure and businesses in streets adjoining the ground is " not a major hurdle " . The current Council leader Joe Anderson stated , " the setback for Everton was an opportunity for both clubs to go back to the drawing board " .
Everton 's current position regarding the future of Goodison Park is that they are considering all options , including relocation , redevelopment of the current ground , or a groundshare with Liverpool F.C. , in a new , purpose @-@ built stadium in Stanley Park , stressing that finance is the main factor affecting decision @-@ making .
In 2010 , Everton supporters approached University of Liverpool and Liverpool City Council to initiate a dedicated ' Football Quarter ' / ' Sports City ' zone around Goodison Park , Stanley Park and Anfield . The University and City Council met with the North West Development Agency , Everton and Liverpool F.C. representatives but no further action has been taken .
On 10 February 2011 , Liverpool City Council Regeneration and Transport Select Committee proposed to open the eastern section of the Liverpool Outer Loop line using " Liverpool Football Club and Everton Football Club as priorities , as economic enablers of the project " . This proposal would place both football clubs on a rapid @-@ transit Merseyrail line circling the city giving high throughput , fast transport access . This would entail Liverpool FC abandoning the relocation plans from their Anfield ground to the planned nearby Stanley Park Stadium .
= = = Walton Lane development = = =
In August 2010 , Everton announced plans to build a new development situated between the Park End stand and Walton Lane , the site is currently used for a hospitality marquee . The £ 9m scheme was designed by Manchester @-@ based Formroom Architects . In September 2010 the club submitted a planning application to Liverpool City Council .
The proposed development is a four @-@ storey building which include a retail store , ticket office , offices , conference and catering facilities and a museum . The project has been delayed twice and is currently on hold .
= = Transport = =
Goodison Park is located two miles ( 3 km ) north of Liverpool City Centre . Liverpool Lime Street railway station is the nearest mainline station . The nearest station to the stadium is Kirkdale railway station on the Merseyrail Northern Line which is located just over half a mile ( 800 m ) away . On match days there is also a frequent shuttle bus service from Sandhills railway station known as " SoccerBus " . In 2007 Sandhills underwent a £ 6million renovation to help encourage people to use the rail service .
Walton and Anfield railway station located on Walton Lane — the same road that the Park End backs onto — was the nearest station to Goodison Park until its closure in 1948 . It is possible that the station could be re @-@ opened should the freight only Canada Dock Branch line once again run passenger trains . A new Stanley Park railway station is proposed for nearby Liverpool FC , being near enough for use by both clubs .
There are on @-@ site parking facilities for supporters ( limited to 230 spaces ) and the streets around the ground allow parking only for residents with permits . The Car Parking resident parking scheme is operated by Liverpool City Council .
= = Records = =
Everton has staged more top @-@ flight football games than any other club in England , eight more seasons than second placed Aston Villa . Everton have played at Goodison Park for all but 4 of their 106 league seasons , giving Goodison Park the distinction of hosting more top @-@ flight games than any other ground in England . Goodison is the only English club ground to have hosted a FIFA World Cup semi final . Until the expansion of Old Trafford in 1996 Goodison Park held the record Sunday attendance on a Football League ground ( 53 @,@ 509 v West Bromwich Albion , FA Cup , 1974 ) .
Everton won 15 home league games in a row between 4 October 1930 and 4 April 1931 . In the 1931 – 32 season Goodison Park was the venue of the most goals scored at home in a league season , 84 by Everton . Between 23 April 1984 and 2 September 1986 Everton scored consecutively in 47 games . , registering 36 wins and 7 draws and scoring 123 goals in the process while conceding 38 . Scottish striker Graeme Sharp scored 32 of these goals .
Jack Southworth holds the record for most goals scored in one game at Goodison Park , scoring six versus West Bromwich Albion on 30 December 1893 .
The most goals scored in a game at Goodison Park is 12 , this occurred in two Everton games ; versus Sheffield Wednesday ( 9 – 3 ) on 17 October 1931 and versus Plymouth Argyle ( 8 – 4 ) on 27 February 1954 .
= = Attendances = =
Whilst at Goodison Park the club has had one of the highest average attendances in the country . The stadium has only had six seasons where Everton FC has not been amongst the top ten highest attendances in the country .
The highest average attendance in the club 's history has been 51 @,@ 603 ( 1962 – 63 ) and the lowest was 13 @,@ 230 ( 1892 – 93 ) which was recorded in Goodison Park 's first year .
The five highest attendances for Everton at Goodison Park are :
Source :
The five lowest attendances for Everton at Goodison Park are :
Source :
= = Other uses = =
Despite being purposefully built for Everton F.C. to play football , Goodison Park has hosted many other types of events .
= = = Goodison Park as host stadium for football = = =
Goodison Park became the first Football League ground to hold an FA Cup Final , in 1894 . Notts County beat Bolton Wanderers , watched by crowd of 37 @,@ 000 . An FA Cup final replay was staged in 1910 with Newcastle United beating Barnsley 2 – 0 .
On 26 December 1920 , Goodison Park hosted a match between ; Dick , Kerr 's Ladies & St Helens Ladies . An estimated 53 @,@ 000 attended the match , at a time when the average gate at Goodison Park in 1919 – 20 was near 29 @,@ 000 . Dick , Kerr 's Ladies won 4 – 0 . More than £ 3 @,@ 000 was raised for charity . Shortly after , the Football Association banned women 's football . The reasons given by the FA were not substantial and it is perceived by some that the women 's teams were a threat to the men 's game . The ban was lifted in 1970 .
During the Second World War , Goodison Park was chosen as a host venue for the " Football League – Northern Section " .
In 1949 , Goodison Park became the site of England 's first ever defeat on English soil by a non @-@ Home Nations country , namely the Republic of Ireland . The ground hosted five matches including a semi @-@ final for the 1966 FIFA World Cup . In April 1895 Goodison Park hosted England versus Scotland and so Everton became the first club to host England internationals on two grounds ( the other being Anfield in 1889 when England won 6 – 2 versus Ireland ) . The city of Liverpool also became the first English city to stage England games at three different venues , the other being Aigburth Cricket Club .
In 1973 Goodison hosted Northern Ireland 's home games against Wales and England .
= = = = 1966 FIFA World Cup = = = =
Goodison Park hosted five games during the 1966 FIFA World Cup . The original schedule of the 1966 World Cup meant that if England won their group and then reached the Semi final , the match would be held at Goodison Park . However , the organising committee were allowed to swap the venues , with England playing Portugal at Wembley Stadium .
= = = = = Group stage = = = = =
= = = = = Quarter Final = = = = =
= = = = = Semi Finals = = = = =
Portugal 's Eusébio won the tournament 's Golden Boot scoring nine goals , six of them at Goodison Park . Eusébio later stated that " Goodison Park is for me the best stadium in my life " . In Garrincha 's 50 caps for Brazil , the only defeat he experienced was in the game versus Hungary at Goodison Park .
= = = = FA Cup Final = = = =
Two years after construction , Goodison Park was chosen by the Football Association to host the final of the FA Cup .
= = = = British Home championships = = = =
= = = = = England = = = = =
Goodison Park has played host to England on eight occasions during the Home Championships . When Everton player Alex Stevenson scored for Ireland in the 1935 British Home Championship versus England , he became the first player to score an international away goal on his club 's home ground .
= = = = = Northern Ireland = = = = =
On 22 February 1973 the Irish Football Association announced that Northern Ireland 's home matches in the 1973 British Home Championship would be moved to Goodison Park due to the civil unrest within Belfast at that time .
Both Northern Ireland goalscorers Dave Clements ( vs. England ) and Bryan Hamilton ( vs. Wales ) went on to play for Goodison Park 's club side Everton later on in their careers .
= = = = Other neutral matches at Goodison Park = = = =
= = = Non @-@ football usage = = =
On 11 July 1913 Goodison Park became the first English football ground to be visited by a reigning monarch when King George V and Queen Mary attended . The attending royals had opened Gladstone Dock on the same day . A tablet was unveiled in the Main Stand to mark the occasion . During the First World War Goodison frequently hosted Territorial Army training drill sessions .
On 19 May 1938 George VI and Queen Elizabeth attended Goodison Park to present new colours to the 5th Battalion the King 's Regiment ( Liverpool ) and the Liverpool Scottish ( Queens Own Cameron Highlanders ) in front of 80 @,@ 000 spectators .
In 1921 , Goodison Park played host to Lancashire 's rugby team when they took on Australia national rugby union team and lost 29 – 6 . Goodison Park was chosen as one of two English venues for the Sox @-@ Giants 1924 World Tour . On 23 October 1924 , 2 @,@ 000 spectators witnessed US baseball teams Chicago White Sox and New York Giants participate in an exhibition match . One player managed to hit a ball clear over the large Goodison Road Stand . The other English venue selected was Stamford Bridge .
In September 1939 , Goodison Park was commandeered by military , the club 's minutes read : " The Chairman reported that our ground has been commandeered as an anti @-@ aircraft ( Balloon Barrage section ) , post . " During World War Two , an American forces baseball league was based at Goodison Park . In addition , a baseball game between two Army Air Force nines watched by over 8 @,@ 000 spectators raised over $ 3 @,@ 000 for British Red Cross and St. John 's Ambulance fund .
The Liverpool Trojans and Formby Cardinals were the last two teams to play baseball at Goodison Park . This was in the Lancashire Cup Final in 1948 .
Goodison Park is used as a venue for weddings . More than 800 fans ' ashes have been buried at Goodison Park and since 2004 the club have had to reject further requests because there is no room for any more . Tommy Lawton wanted his ashes to be scattered at Goodison but his son chose to donate them to the national football museum because of Goodison 's uncertain future .
Goodison Park was the venue for the boxing match between " Pretty " Ricky Conlan ( played by Everton fan Tony Bellew ) and Adonis Creed ( Michael B. Jordan ) in the 2015 movie Creed . The stadium hosted the first outdoor boxing event in Liverpool since 1949 when Bellew defeated Ilunga Makabu on 29 May 2016 to claim the vacant WBC Cruiserweight title .
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= Tryon Creek =
Tryon Creek is a 4 @.@ 85 @-@ mile ( 7 @.@ 81 km ) tributary of the Willamette River in the U.S. state of Oregon . Part of the drainage basin of the Columbia River , its watershed covers about 6 @.@ 5 square miles ( 16 @.@ 8 km2 ) in Multnomah and Clackamas counties . The stream flows southeast from the Tualatin Mountains ( West Hills ) through the Multnomah Village neighborhood of Portland and the Tryon Creek State Natural Area to the Willamette in the city of Lake Oswego . Parks and open spaces cover about 21 percent of the watershed , while single @-@ family homes dominate most of the remainder . The largest of the parks is the state natural area , which straddles the border between the two cities and counties .
The bedrock under the watershed includes part of the last exotic terrane , a chain of seamounts , acquired by the North American Plate as it moved west during the Eocene . Known as the Waverly Hills Formation , it lies buried under ash and lava from later volcanic eruptions , sediments from flooding and erosion , and layers of wind @-@ blown silt . Two dormant volcanoes from the Boring Lava Field are in the Tryon Creek watershed .
Named for mid @-@ 19th century settler , Socrates Hotchkiss Tryon , Sr. , the creek ran through forests of cedar and fir that were later logged by the Oregon Iron Company and others through the mid @-@ 20th century . Efforts to establish a large park in the watershed began in the 1950s and succeeded in 1975 when the state park was formally established . As of 2005 , about 37 percent of the watershed was wooded and supported more than 60 species of birds as well as small mammals , amphibians , and fish . At the same time , the human population was about 18 @,@ 000 .
= = Course = =
Tryon Creek begins slightly north of Interstate 5 ( I @-@ 5 ) and Oregon Route 99W near Multnomah Village and flows southeast for 4 @.@ 85 miles ( 7 @.@ 81 km ) through Portland residential neighborhoods as well as Marshall Park and the Tryon Creek State Natural Area to its confluence with the Willamette River in the city of Lake Oswego . Not far from its source , the main stem runs through three closely spaced culverts with a combined length of 260 feet ( 79 m ) then flows on the surface before entering another culvert , 160 feet ( 49 m ) long under Southwest 30th Avenue at river mile ( RM ) 4 @.@ 56 or river kilometer ( RK ) 7 @.@ 34 . Shortly thereafter , the stream passes under Route 99W ( Barbur Boulevard ) and I @-@ 5 through another culvert , 560 feet ( 170 m ) long .
Tryon Creek receives Falling Creek from the right at 4 @.@ 16 miles ( 6 @.@ 69 km ) from the mouth . Quail and Burlingame creeks enter from the right shortly thereafter . At Marshall Park , the stream passes through a series of rock pools and steps known as the Marshall Cascade from RM 3 @.@ 48 ( RK 5 @.@ 60 ) to RM 3 @.@ 28 ( RK 5 @.@ 28 ) . Arnold Creek , which is Tryon Creek 's largest tributary , enters from the right 2 @.@ 68 miles ( 4 @.@ 31 km ) from the mouth . Almost immediately , the creek enters a culvert , about 150 feet ( 46 m ) long , that passes under Southwest Boones Ferry Road .
Shortly thereafter , Tryon Creek enters the Tryon Creek State Natural Area . To the stream 's right is the North Creek Trail . Soon the creek receives Fourth Avenue Creek from the left . At this point , the Fourth Avenue Trail runs parallel to the creek along the left bank . This trail soon merges with the Lewis and Clark Trail , which also runs parallel to the creek along the left bank . Then Tryon Creek passes under the High Bridge , the uppermost of five footbridges that span the main stem within the park . High Bridge carries the Middle Creek Trail as well as a linear horse trail connecting the park 's North and South horse loops . Below this bridge , the creek flows for about 0 @.@ 20 miles ( 0 @.@ 32 km ) before passing under the Beaver Bridge . In this stretch , the Middle Creek Trail parallels the stream along the right bank but crosses to the left bank at the bridge . Shortly thereafter , the creek passes under Obie 's Bridge , which carries the Old Man Trail .
Park Creek enters from the right at RM 1 @.@ 80 ( RK 2 @.@ 90 ) . Slightly below the confluence , the creek passes under the Red Fox Bridge , which carries the Red Fox Trail . Thereafter , the creek runs roughly parallel to the South Creek Trail , which is on the right for about 0 @.@ 40 miles ( 0 @.@ 64 km ) . The creek receives Red Fox Creek from the right and Palatine Hill Creek from the left , then flows out of Portland and Multnomah County and into the city of Lake Oswego and Clackamas County . The stream then passes under the Iron Mountain Bridge , which carries the Iron Mountain Trail . Just below the bridge , Nettle Creek enters from the right at 1 @.@ 06 miles ( 1 @.@ 71 km ) from the mouth , and shortly thereafter the creek passes a United States Geological Survey ( USGS ) stream gauge , which is on the right . The creek leaves the Tryon Creek State Natural Area just before entering a 200 @-@ foot ( 61 m ) culvert under Oregon Route 43 at RM 0 @.@ 24 ( RK 0 @.@ 39 ) and soon thereafter a set of Union Pacific Railroad tracks . Below this , Tryon Creek forms the boundary between the city of Lake Oswego and Briarwood , an unincorporated Clackamas County community , which is to the left . The Tryon Creek Wastewater Treatment Plant is on the right during this last stretch before the creek enters the Willamette River about 20 miles ( 32 km ) upstream from its confluence with the Columbia River .
= = = Discharge = = =
Since 2002 , the USGS has monitored the flow of Tryon Creek at a station 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) from the mouth . The average flow between 2002 and 2011 was 8 @.@ 72 cubic feet per second ( 0 @.@ 25 m3 / s ) . This is from a drainage area of 6 @.@ 28 square miles ( 16 @.@ 27 km2 ) , about 97 percent of the total Tryon Creek watershed . The maximum flow recorded during this period was 1 @,@ 210 cubic feet per second ( 34 m3 / s ) on December 9 , 2010 . The minimum was 0 @.@ 09 cubic feet per second ( 0 @.@ 0025 m3 / s ) on September 4 , 5 , and 12 , 2002 .
= = Geology = =
One hundred and fifty million years ago , Oregon did not exist . Not until plate tectonics separated North America from Europe and North Africa and pushed it westward did the continent acquire , bit by bit , what became the Pacific Northwest . Over many millions of years , the continent collided with and incorporated islands , reefs , and other exotic terranes . Part of the last major exotic terrane acquired by the North American Plate during the Eocene lies under the Tryon Creek watershed . The terrane consisted of a chain of seamounts that by 34 million years ago was being uplifted to become the Oregon Coast Range and the Tualatin Mountains ( West Hills ) . The easternmost exposure of the basalts of this terrane is in Waverly Heights , near Milwaukie , across the Willamette River from Tryon Creek , and this formation underlies most of Tryon Creek State Park .
Between 15 and 16 million years ago , in the Middle Miocene , eruptions of Columbia River basalts from volcanic vents in eastern Oregon and Washington flowed across much of northern Oregon , sometimes reaching the Pacific Ocean . Although these basalts have been mapped in the West Hills under Marquam Hill , Hoyt Arboretum , and the steepest slopes of Forest Park , they flowed around but did not completely cover the Waverly Hills Formation in the Tryon Creek watershed .
Starting about 3 million years ago and continuing at least through the late Pleistocene , extensional faulting of the Earth 's crust led to eruption of small volcanoes in the Boring volcanic field . This field extended roughly from Portland and Tualatin on the west to Battle Ground , Washington , on the north to Sandy and Boring on the east . Two of these volcanoes , Mount Sylvania and Cook 's Butte , are in the Tryon Creek watershed . The Mount Sylvania eruptions included ash plumes and lava flows that covered some of the Waverly Heights Formation and Columbia River basalts .
About 15 @,@ 000 years ago , cataclysmic ice age events known as the Missoula Floods or Bretz Floods originating in the Clark Fork region of northern Idaho inundated the Columbia River basin many times . These floods deposited huge amounts of debris and sediment and created new floodplains in the Willamette Valley . Over long stretches of time between the great floods , dry winds deposited silt . At elevations above 300 feet ( 90 m ) in the Tryon Creek watershed , wind @-@ blown silt covers the lava , while at lower elevations sand and gravel cover the bedrock .
= = Watershed = =
The Tryon Creek watershed covers about 4 @,@ 100 acres ( 1 @,@ 700 ha ) or 6 @.@ 5 square miles ( 17 km2 ) . Of this , about 80 percent is within the Portland city limits , and the remaining 20 percent is split among the jurisdictions of the city of Lake Oswego , and the counties of Multnomah and Clackamas . These four overlap with the jurisdiction of the State of Oregon , which owns the natural area . Watersheds that border the Tryon Creek watershed are Fanno Creek to the west and northwest , Stephens Creek to the north , the Willamette River to the east and Oswego Lake to the south . More than 70 miles ( 110 km ) of surface streets , including parts of Interstate 5 , Oregon Route 99W , Oregon Route 43 , Boones Ferry Road , Taylors Ferry Road , and Terwilliger Boulevard , run through the watershed .
About 35 inches ( 890 mm ) of precipitation , almost entirely rain , fall on the watershed each year . Summers are dry , and most of the precipitation occurs between October and May . Elevations within the drainage basin vary from Mount Sylvania , which rises to 970 feet ( 300 m ) above sea level in the West Hills , to 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) where the creek enters the Willamette River . Between 60 and 75 percent of the slopes in the watershed exceed a 30 @-@ percent grade and are especially steep near the headwaters . Impervious surfaces cover about 24 percent of the basin . These surfaces and the relatively impermeable silt and clay soils that underlie the area contribute to rapid runoff and low baseflows in the creek and its tributaries . The total length of surface streams in the drainage basin is about 27 miles ( 43 km ) , while another 3 miles ( 5 km ) run through culverts or pipes . Although major flooding in 1996 caused landslides and severe damage to stream beds and banks along Tryon Creek and its tributaries , it caused no significant property damage in the watershed .
In 2000 , the population of the Tryon Creek watershed within Portland was about 18 @,@ 000 . In 2005 , Portland 's Bureau of Environmental Services ( BES ) described land @-@ use zoning in the watershed as follows : single @-@ family residential , 55 percent ; parks and open space , 14 percent ; multi @-@ family residential , 5 percent ; commercial , 3 percent , and insufficient data , 2 percent . To reach 100 percent , BES listed but did not differentiate by zoning type the roughly 20 percent of the watershed that lies beyond the Portland city limits . Metro , the regional government for the Portland metropolitan area , says that parks and natural areas cover about 21 percent of the total watershed , while single @-@ family housing dominates most of the rest .
= = = Tributaries = = =
The major smaller streams in the Tryon Creek watershed are Arnold Creek and Falling Creek . The larger of the two , Arnold Creek , has a watershed of roughly 1 @.@ 2 square miles ( 3 @.@ 1 km2 ) or 18 percent of the 6 @.@ 5 @-@ square @-@ mile ( 17 km2 ) total , while Falling Creek 's watershed covers 0 @.@ 4 square miles ( 1 @.@ 0 km2 ) or 6 percent of the total . The seven named tributaries from mouth to source are Nettle , Palatine Hill , Red Fox , Park , Fourth Avenue , Arnold , and Falling creeks .
= = = Water quality = = =
Oregon Department of Environmental Quality ( DEQ ) developed the Oregon Water Quality Index ( OWQI ) in the 1970s to rate general water quality at different locations . Scores can vary from 10 ( worst ) to 100 ( ideal ) . Portland 's Bureau of Environmental Services ( BES ) incorporated the OWQI into its monitoring of Tryon Creek in 1997 . As of 2004 , the overall OWQI score for Tryon Creek was 74 or " poor " ; this was slightly better than nearby Fanno Creek at 67 . The State of Oregon listed Tryon Creek as " water @-@ quality limited " in 1998 because water temperatures on the lower 5 miles ( 8 km ) of the main stem as well as on Nettle , Arnold , and Falling creeks exceeded the upper limit for protecting salmonid fish rearing and migratory fish passage during the summer .
BES monitors water quality at three Tryon Creek sites . Two are near I @-@ 5 and Barbur Boulevard in the upper watershed , and the third is at Southwest Boones Ferry Road , about 2 @.@ 7 miles ( 4 @.@ 3 km ) from the mouth . BES looks at several indicators such as dissolved oxygen , nutrients , and total suspended solids . Diffuse pollution from nonpoint sources enters the creek from its urban surroundings . Point sources of pollution in the creek include two major upper @-@ watershed stormwater outfalls draining 368 acres ( 149 ha ) of the upper watershed and contributing about half of the creek 's total suspended solids . As of 2004 , the only water @-@ quality indicator in the watershed that failed to meet minimal standards was the water temperature .
= = = Annual report card = = =
In 2015 , BES began issuing annual " report cards " for watersheds or fractions thereof that lie within the city . BES assigns grades for each of four categories : hydrology , water quality , habitat , and fish and wildlife . Hydrology grades depend on the amount of pavement and other impervious surfaces in the watershed and the degree to which its streams flow freely , not dammed or diverted . Water @-@ quality grades are based on measurements of dissolved oxygen , E @-@ coli bacteria , temperature , suspended solids , and substances such as mercury and phosphorus . Habitat ranking depends on the condition of stream banks and floodplains , riparian zones , tree canopies , and other variables . The fish and wildlife assessment includes birds , fish , and macroinvertebrates . In 2015 , the BES grades for Tryon Creek are hydrology , B ; water quality , B ; habitat , B , and fish and wildlife , C − .
= = History = =
Multnomah and Clackamas counties were named after groups of Native Americans who lived in the area before settlement by European Americans in the 19th century . Evidence suggests that people lived in the northern Oregon Cascades as early as 10 @,@ 000 years ago . By 2 @,@ 000 to 3 @,@ 000 years ago , the Clackamas River basin , about 5 miles ( 8 km ) upriver from the mouth of Tryon Creek and on the east side of the Willamette , was home to the Clackamas tribe . They were a subgroup of the Chinookan speakers who lived near the Columbia River from Celilo Falls to the Pacific Ocean . The Clackamas lands included the lower Willamette River from Willamette Falls at what became Oregon City to its confluence with the Columbia River . When Lewis and Clark visited the area in 1806 , the Clackamas tribe consisted of about 1 @,@ 800 people living in 11 villages . Epidemics of smallpox , malaria , and measles reduced this population to 88 by 1851 , and in 1855 the tribe signed a treaty surrendering its lands . Another group of Chinookans , the Multnomahs , lived on Sauvie Island , about 17 miles ( 27 km ) downriver from the mouth of Tryon Creek . Lewis and Clark estimated that 800 Multnomahs inhabited 5 villages on the island in 1806 , but disease reduced them later in the century to near extinction .
In 1850 , Socrates Hotchkiss Tryon , Sr. , a pioneer settler of European descent , established a donation land claim at the south end of Tryon Creek canyon . Five years later , he died , leaving the land to his wife , Frances . The land then passed to other relatives , including Socrates Tryon , Jr . , who sold the 645 acres ( 261 ha ) in 1874 to the Oregon Iron Company . For nearly 25 years , the company cut virgin cedar and fir to use in its foundry in Lake Oswego . Its logging road later became Old Iron Mountain Trail in the Tryon Creek State Natural Area . In 1900 , fire in the upper canyon left charred snags still visible along the natural area 's Center and Big Fir trails .
Logging resumed in 1912 in the north part of the canyon , where The Boone 's Ferry Wood and Tie Company had a site near what became Alfred Street . A sawmill and steam donkey engine operated near the future sites of Beaver Bridge and Obie 's Bridge . The lumber was used chiefly for railroad ties , cordwood and flagpoles , and left huge cedar stumps that remain in the park . Intermittent logging continued through 1961 , and a 1962 windstorm known as the Columbus Day Storm blew down many remaining trees .
Local efforts began in the 1950s to establish a park along the creek , In 1969 , the government of Multnomah County bought 45 acres ( 18 ha ) to start a large regional park and sought citizen assistance with the project . This led to formation of Friends of Tryon Creek Park , which raised funds , helped arrange land deals , worked on problems of jurisdiction in a two @-@ county , two @-@ city park , and sought help from the state . In 1970 , Oregon Governor Tom McCall announced the formation of Tryon Creek State Park .
Over the next few years , the state bought more than 600 acres ( 240 ha ) of land for nearly $ 3 million , including federal matching funds . The Friends and the state collaborated in park planning and further fund @-@ raising . In 1973 , more than 300 volunteers built trails , and the nature center and shelter were finished by 1975 . The park was officially dedicated on July 1 , 1975 and later renamed Tryon Creek State Natural Area .
= = Vegetation and wildlife = =
About 37 percent of the watershed is wooded . Dominant trees are red alder , bigleaf maple , Douglas @-@ fir , western redcedar , and western hemlock . The forest understory in the Tryon Creek State Natural Area includes many trilliums ; they are celebrated each spring during the park 's Trillium Festival . More than 90 species of wildflower such as fringecup are found in the park as well as plants such as sword fern . Invasive species found in many parts of the watershed include English ivy , Himalayan blackberry , English holly , garlic mustard , and western clematis .
Riparian zones and floodplains are relatively intact along the lower reaches of the main stem in the state natural area , fairly intact in Marshall Park , and marginal in the upper reaches surrounded by homes . Arnold Creek has riparian corridors wider than 100 feet ( 30 m ) in good condition , while Falling Creek 's riparian zones , surrounded by homes , are in poor condition . Damaged zones from which native vegetation has been removed lead to erosion , stream bank failure , sedimentation , lack of shading , and higher stream temperatures .
Tryon Creek is among the few streams in the Portland metropolitan area with a run of steelhead Trout , and coho salmon have been recorded spawning in the creek . Surveys by the Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife in 2002 found coho , chinook salmon , steelhead , and coastal cutthroat trout in different parts of the creek at different times of the year . None was present in large number . Cutthroat trout had the biggest population , estimated at 53 individual fish during the spring of 2002 . Water striders , which are invertebrates that can walk on water , are common in the pools of Tryon Creek . More than 60 species of birds , including Cooper 's hawks , great blue herons , kingfishers , towhees , waxwings , and wrens frequent the area . Some of the resident mammals are bats , coyotes , moles , rabbits , skunks , and squirrels , while frogs , salamanders , snakes , and turtles also do well in the watershed .
= = Parks = =
Parks in the Tryon Creek watershed include Tryon Creek State Natural Area , Oregon 's only metropolitan state park . At about 630 acres ( 250 ha ) , the natural area is much larger than the watershed 's other parks .
The state park includes a 3 @-@ mile ( 5 km ) bicycle path that runs along Terwilliger Boulevard on the east edge of the park as part of the Portland metropolitan area 's system of greenway trails known as the 40 Mile Loop . Equestrians can ride through the woods on horse trails totaling about 5 miles ( 8 km ) . Hikers can use the bike path , horse trails , and about 8 miles ( 13 km ) of hiking trails . A paved loop trail of about 0 @.@ 35 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 56 km ) , furnished with drinking fountains and interpretive signs , can accommodate wheelchairs . A park building called the Nature Center houses a gift shop , a large classroom , space for educational exhibits , and a play area for small children .
Tryon Creek , which flows through the middle of the state park , also runs through Marshall Park , a modified natural area of about 26 acres ( 11 ha ) in a canyon in the hills northwest of Mount Sylvania . It features hiking trails , a playground , picnic tables , a waterfall , and a stone bridge over the creek . Other parks in the watershed include West Portland Park , a natural area of about 15 acres ( 6 ha ) , and Maricara Park , a natural area of about 17 acres ( 7 ha ) . Metro plans to acquire additional land along the creek to add to the parks .
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= British Airways =
British Airways , often shortened to BA , is the flag carrier and the largest airline in the United Kingdom based on fleet size . When measured by passengers carried , it is second @-@ largest in the United Kingdom behind easyJet . The airline is based in Waterside near its main hub at London Heathrow Airport .
A British Airways Board was established by the United Kingdom government in 1972 to manage the two nationalised airline corporations , British Overseas Airways Corporation and British European Airways , and two smaller , regional airlines , Cambrian Airways , from Cardiff , and Northeast Airlines , from Newcastle upon Tyne . On 31 March 1974 , all four companies were merged to form British Airways . After almost 13 years as a state company , British Airways was privatised in February 1987 as part of a wider privatisation plan by the Conservative government . The carrier soon expanded with the acquisition of British Caledonian in 1987 , followed by Dan @-@ Air in 1992 and British Midland International in 2012 .
British Airways is a founding member of the Oneworld airline alliance , along with American Airlines , Cathay Pacific , Qantas , and the now defunct Canadian Airlines . The alliance has since grown to become the third @-@ largest , after SkyTeam and Star Alliance . British Airways merged with Iberia on 21 January 2011 , formally creating the International Airlines Group ( IAG ) , the world 's third @-@ largest airline group in terms of annual revenue and the second @-@ largest in Europe . IAG is listed on the London Stock Exchange and in the FTSE 100 Index .
A long @-@ time Boeing customer , British Airways ordered 59 Airbus A320 family aircraft in August 1998 . In 2007 it purchased 12 Airbus A380s and 24 Boeing 787 Dreamliners , marking the start of its long @-@ haul fleet replacement . The centrepiece of the airline 's long @-@ haul fleet is the Boeing 777 , with 58 in the fleet . British Airways is the largest operator of the Boeing 747 @-@ 400 in the world , with 51 registered to the airline .
= = History = =
In January 1972 , a British Airways Board was established by the United Kingdom government following the passing of the Civil Aviation Act of 1971 , to manage British Overseas Airways Corporation ( BOAC ) and British European Airways ( BEA ) . On 1 September 1972 the management service functions of both BOAC and BEA were combined under the newly formed British Airways Group .
British Airways was established as an airline on 31 March 1974 by the dissolution of BOAC and BEA . Following two years of fierce competition with British Caledonian , the second @-@ largest airline in the United Kingdom at the time , the Government changed its aviation policy in 1976 so that the two carriers would no longer compete on long @-@ haul routes .
British Airways and Air France operated the supersonic airliner Aerospatiale @-@ BAC Concorde , and the world 's first supersonic passenger service flew in January 1976 from London Heathrow to Bahrain . Services to the US began on 24 May 1976 with a flight to Washington Dulles airport , and flights to New York JFK airport followed on 22 September 1977 . Service to Singapore was established in co @-@ operation with Singapore Airlines as a continuation of the flight to Bahrain . Following the Air France Concorde crash in Paris and a slump in air travel following the 11 September attacks in New York in 2001 , it was decided to cease Concorde operations in 2003 after 27 years of service . The final commercial Concorde flight was BA002 from New York JFK to London Heathrow on 24 October 2003 .
In 1981 the airline was instructed to prepare for privatisation by the Conservative Thatcher government . Sir John King , later Lord King , was appointed chairman , charged with bringing the airline back into profitability . While many other large airlines struggled , King was credited with transforming British Airways into one of the most profitable air carriers in the world . The flag carrier was privatised and was floated on the London Stock Exchange in February 1987 . British Airways effected the takeover of the UK 's " second " airline , British Caledonian , in July of that same year .
The formation of Richard Branson 's Virgin Atlantic Airways in 1984 created a competitor for BA . The intense rivalry between British Airways and Virgin Atlantic culminated in the former being sued for libel in 1993 , arising from claims and counter claims over a " dirty tricks " campaign against Virgin . This campaign included allegations of poaching Virgin Atlantic customers , tampering with private files belonging to Virgin and undermining Virgin 's reputation in the City . As a result of the case BA management apologised " unreservedly " , and the company agreed to pay £ 110 @,@ 000 damages to Virgin , £ 500 @,@ 000 to Branson personally and £ 3 million legal costs . Lord King stepped down as chairman in 1993 and was replaced by his deputy , Colin Marshall , while Bob Ayling took over as CEO . Virgin filed a separate action in the US that same year regarding BA 's domination of the trans @-@ Atlantic routes , but it was thrown out in 1999 .
In 1992 British Airways expanded through the acquisition of the financially troubled Dan @-@ Air , giving BA a much larger presence at Gatwick airport . British Asia Airways , a subsidiary based in Taiwan , was formed in March 1993 to operate between London and Taipei . That same month BA purchased a 25 % stake in the Australian airline Qantas and , with the acquisition of Brymon Airways in May , formed British Airways Citiexpress ( later BA Connect ) . In September 1998 , British Airways , along with American Airlines , Cathay Pacific , Qantas , and Canadian Airlines , formed the Oneworld airline alliance . Oneworld began operations on 1 February 1999 , and is the third largest airline alliance in the world , behind SkyTeam and Star Alliance .
Bob Ayling 's leadership led to a cost savings of £ 750m and the establishment of a budget airline , Go , in 1998 . The next year , however , British Airways reported an 84 % drop in profits in its first quarter alone , its worst in seven years . In March 2000 , Ayling was removed from his position and British Airways announced Rod Eddington as his successor . That year , British Airways and KLM conducted talks on a potential merger , reaching a decision in July to file an official merger plan with the European Commission . The plan fell through in September 2000 . British Asia Airways ceased operations in 2001 after BA suspended flights to Taipei . Go was sold to its management and the private equity firm 3i in June 2001 . Eddington would make further workforce cuts due to reduced demand following 11 September attacks in 2001 , and BA sold its stake in Qantas in September 2004 . In 2005 Willie Walsh , managing director of Aer Lingus and a former pilot , became the chief executive officer of British Airways . BA unveiled its new subsidiary OpenSkies in January 2008 , taking advantage of the liberalisation of transatlantic traffic rights between Europe and the United States . OpenSkies flies non @-@ stop from Paris to New York 's JFK and Newark airports .
On July 2008 British Airways announced a merger plan with Iberia , another flag carrier airline in the Oneworld alliance , wherein each airline would retain its original brand . The agreement was confirmed in April 2010 , and in July the European Commission and US Department of Transport permitted the merger and began to co @-@ ordinate transatlantic routes with American Airlines . On 6 October 2010 the alliance between British Airways , American Airlines and Iberia formally began operations . The alliance generates an estimated £ 230 million in annual cost @-@ saving for BA , in addition to the £ 330 million which would be saved by the merger with Iberia . This merger was finalised on 21 January 2011 , resulting in the International Airlines Group ( IAG ) , the world 's third @-@ largest airline in terms of annual revenue and the second @-@ largest airline group in Europe . Prior to merging , British Airways owned a 13 @.@ 5 % stake in Iberia , and thus received ownership of 55 % of the combined International Airlines Group ; Iberia 's other shareholders received the remaining 45 % . As a part of the merger , British Airways ceased trading independently on the London Stock Exchange after 23 years as a constituent of the FTSE 100 Index .
In September 2010 Willie Walsh , now CEO of IAG , announced that the group was considering acquiring other airlines and had drawn up a shortlist of twelve possible acquisitions . In November 2011 IAG announced an agreement in principle to purchase British Midland International from Lufthansa . A contract to purchase the airline was agreed the next month , and the sale was completed for £ 172 @.@ 5 million on 30 March 2012 . The airline established a new subsidiary based at London City Airport operating Airbus A318s .
British Airways was the official airline partner of the London 2012 Olympic Games . On 18 May 2012 it flew the Olympic flame from Athens International Airport to RNAS Culdrose while carrying various dignitaries , including Lord Sebastian Coe , Princess Anne , the Olympics minister Hugh Robertson and the London Mayor Boris Johnson , along with the footballer David Beckham .
= = Corporate affairs = =
= = = Operations = = =
British Airways is the largest airline based in the United Kingdom in terms of fleet size , international flights , and international destinations and was , until 2008 , the largest airline by passenger numbers as well . The airline carried 34 @.@ 6 million passengers in 2008 , but rival carrier easyJet transported 44 @.@ 5 million passengers that year , passing British Airways for the first time . British Airways holds a United Kingdom Civil Aviation Authority Type A Operating Licence , it is permitted to carry passengers , cargo , and mail on aircraft with 20 or more seats .
The airlines ' head office , Waterside , stands in Harmondsworth , a village near London Heathrow Airport . Waterside was completed in June 1998 to replace British Airways ' previous head office , Speedbird House , which was located on the grounds of Heathrow .
British Airways ' main base is at London Heathrow Airport , but it also has a major presence at Gatwick Airport . It also has a base at London City Airport ( LCY ) , where its subsidiary BA CityFlyer is the largest operator . BA had previously operated a significant hub at Manchester Airport . Manchester to New York ( JFK ) services were withdrawn ; later all international services outside London ceased when the subsidiary BA Connect was sold . Passengers wishing to travel internationally with BA either to or from regional UK destinations must now transfer in London . Heathrow Airport is dominated by British Airways , which owns 40 % of the slots available at the airport . The majority of BA services operate from Terminal 5 , with the exception of some short @-@ haul and mid @-@ haul flights at Terminal 1 arising from the purchase of BMI and some short @-@ haul flights at Terminal 3 , owing to a lack of capacity at Terminal 5 . With the imminent opening of the brand @-@ new Terminal 2 in 2014 , Star Alliance airlines will progressively be moving all their services into the new terminal and Terminal 1 will be closed for demolition in due course . British Airways ' services will then be concentrated in Terminals 3 and 5 .
In August 2014 Willie Walsh advised the airline would continue to use flight paths over Iraq despite the hostilities there . A few days earlier Qantas announced it would avoid Iraqi airspace , while other airlines did likewise . The issue arose following the downing of Malaysia Airlines Flight 17 over Ukraine , and a temporary suspension of flights to and from Ben Gurion Airport during the 2014 Israel – Gaza conflict .
= = = Subsidiaries and shareholdings = = =
BA CityFlyer , a wholly owned subsidiary , offers flights from its base at London City Airport to 23 destinations throughout Europe . It flies 17 Embraer E @-@ 170 / E @-@ 190 aircraft and two leased Saab 2000 . The airline focuses on serving the financial market , though it has recently expanded into the leisure market , offering routes to Ibiza , Palma and Venice . The onboard product is identical to that of the BA Short Haul product from both LHR and LGW .
In March 2015 , Qatar Airways purchased a 10 % stake in International Airlines Group , the parent of British Airways and Iberia , for € 1 @.@ 2 billion ( US $ 1 @.@ 26 billion ) .
BEA Helicopters was renamed British Airways Helicopters in 1974 and operated passenger and offshore oil support services until it was sold in 1986 . Other former subsidiaries include the German airline Deutsche BA from 1997 until 2003 and the French airline Air Liberté from 1997 to 2001 . British Airways also owned Airways Aero Association , the operator of the British Airways flying club based at Wycombe Air Park in High Wycombe , until it was sold to Surinder Arora in 2007 .
South Africa 's Comair and Denmark 's Sun Air of Scandinavia have been franchisees of British Airways since 1996 . British Airways obtained a 15 % stake in UK regional airline Flybe from the sale of BA Connect in March 2007 . It sold the stake in 2014 . BA also owned a 10 % stake in InterCapital and Regional Rail ( ICRR ) , the company that managed the operations of Eurostar ( UK ) Ltd from 1998 to 2010 , when the management of Eurostar was restructured .
With the creation of an Open Skies agreement between Europe and the United States in March 2008 , British Airways started a new subsidiary airline called OpenSkies ( previously known as " Project Lauren " ) . The airline started operations in June 2008 , and now flies direct from Paris to New York 's JFK and Newark airports .
British Airways Limited was established in 2012 to take over the operation of the premium service between London City Airport and New York @-@ JFK . BA began the service in September 2009 , using two Airbus A318s fitted with 32 lie @-@ flat beds in an all business class cabin . Flights operate under the numbers previously reserved for Concorde : BA001 — BA004 .
British Airways provides cargo services under the British Airways World Cargo brand . The division has been part of IAG Cargo since 2012 , and is the world 's twelfth @-@ largest cargo airline based on total freight tonne @-@ kilometres flown . BA World Cargo operates using the main BA fleet . Until the end of March 2014 they also operated three Boeing 747 @-@ 8 freighter aircraft providing dedicated long @-@ haul services under a wet lease arrangement from Global Supply Systems . The division operates an automated cargo centre at London Heathrow Airport and handles freight at Gatwick and Stansted airports .
= = = Business trends = = =
The key trends for the British Airways Plc Group are shown below .
On the merger with Iberia , the accounting reference date was changed from 31 March to 31 December ; figures below are therefore for the years to 31 March up to 2010 , for the nine months to 31 December 2010 , and for the years to 31 December thereafter :
= = = Industrial relations = = =
Staff working for British Airways are represented by a number of trade unions , pilots are represented by British Air Line Pilots ' Association , cabin crew by British Airlines Stewards and Stewardesses Association ( a branch of Unite the Union ) , while other branches of Unite the Union and the GMB Union represent other employees . Bob Ayling 's management faced strike action by cabin crew over a £ 1 billion cost @-@ cutting drive to return BA to profitability in 1997 ; this was the last time BA cabin crew would strike until 2009 , although staff morale has reportedly been unstable since that incident . In an effort to increase interaction between management , employees , and the unions , various conferences and workshops have taken place , often with thousands in attendance .
In 2005 , wildcat action was taken by union members over a decision by Gate Gourmet not to renew the contracts of 670 workers and replace them with agency staff ; it is estimated that the strike cost British Airways £ 30 million and caused disruption to 100 @,@ 000 passengers . In October 2006 , BA became involved in a civil rights dispute when a Christian employee was forbidden to wear a necklace bearing the cross , a religious symbol . BA 's practice of forbidding such symbols has been publicly questioned by British politicians such as the former Home Secretary John Reid and the former Foreign Secretary Jack Straw .
Relations have been turbulent between BA and Unite . In 2007 , cabin crew threatened strike action over salary changes to be imposed by BA management . The strike was called off at the last minute , British Airways losing £ 80 million . In December 2009 , a ballot for strike action over Christmas received a high level of support , action was blocked by a court injunction that deemed the ballot illegal . Negotiations failed to stop strike action in March , BA withdrew perks for strike participants . Allegations were made by the Guardian newspaper that BA had consulted outside firms methods to undermine the unions , the story was later withdrawn . A strike was announced for May 2010 , British Airways again sought an injunction . Members of the Socialist Workers Party disrupted negotiations between BA management and Unite to prevent industrial action . Further disruption struck when Derek Simpson , a Unite co @-@ leader , was discovered to have leaked details of confidential negotiations online via Twitter .
= = Destinations = =
British Airways serves over 160 destinations , including six domestic . It is one of the few airlines to fly to all six permanently inhabited continents , along with Air China , Delta Air Lines , Emirates , Etihad Airways , Korean Air , Qantas , Qatar Airways , Singapore Airlines , South African Airways , United Airlines and Air Canada .
= = = Partnerships and codeshare agreements = = =
British Airways has codeshare agreements and / or partnerships with the following airlines :
= = = Alliance = = =
British Airways is a member and one of the founders of Oneworld Global Alliance .
= = Fleet = =
With the exception of the Boeing 707 and early Boeing 747 variants from BOAC , British Airways inherited a mainly UK @-@ built fleet of aircraft when it was formed in 1974 . The airline introduced the Boeing 737 and Boeing 757 into the fleet in the 1980s , followed by the Boeing 747 @-@ 400 , Boeing 767 and Boeing 777 in the 1990s . BA is now the largest operator of Boeing 747 @-@ 400s , with 57 in its fleet . Prior to the introduction of the 787 , when Boeing built an aircraft for British Airways , it was allocated the customer code 36 , which appeared in their aircraft designation as a suffix , such as 737 – 436 .
In 1991 , British Airways placed its first order for 777 @-@ 200 aircraft , ordering another four for fleet expansion in 2007 at a cost of around US $ 800 million . BA 's first 777s were fitted with General Electric GE90 engines , but BA switched to Rolls @-@ Royce Trent 800s for subsequent aircraft . A BA Boeing 777 @-@ 200 became the fastest subsonic New York to London flight at 5 hours and 16 minutes in January 2015 due to strong winds .
Later in 2007 , BA announced their order of thirty @-@ six new long @-@ haul aircraft , including twelve Airbus A380s and twenty @-@ four Boeing 787 Dreamliners . Rolls @-@ Royce Trent engines were again selected for both orders with Trent 900s powering the A380s and Trent 1000s powering the 787s . The Boeing 787s will replace 14 of British Airways ' Boeing 767 fleet , while the Airbus A380s will replace 20 of BA 's Boeing 747 @-@ 400s and will most likely be used to increase capacity on key routes from London Heathrow .
On 1 August 2008 , BA announced orders for six Boeing 777 @-@ 300ERs and options for four more as an interim measure to cover for delays over the deliveries of their 787 @-@ 8 / 9s . Of the six that have been ordered , four will be leased and two will be fully acquired by British Airways .
On 22 April 2013 , IAG confirmed that it had signed a memorandum of understanding to order 18 A350 @-@ 1000 aircraft for British Airways , with an option for a further 18 . The aircraft would replace some of the airline 's fleet of Boeing 747 @-@ 400s . Options for 18 Boeing 787 aircraft , part of the original contract signed in 2007 , have been converted into firm orders for delivery between 2017 and 2021 .
On 26 June 2013 , British Airways took delivery of its first 787s . The aircraft began operations to Toronto on 1 September 2013 , and began service to Newark on 1 October 2013 . BA 's first A380 was delivered on 4 July 2013 . It began regular services to Los Angeles on 24 September 2013 , followed by Hong Kong on 22 October 2013 .
The combined International Airlines Group entity ( that BA is now a part of ) , operates around 400 aircraft , carries over 62 million passengers annually , and serves more than 200 destinations .
= = = Current fleet = = =
As of July 2016 , the British Airways fleet is made up of the following registered aircraft ( including non @-@ operational aircraft ) :
= = = Fleet gallery = = =
Hover over each photo to view label detail
= = = Cargo fleet = = =
IAG 's cargo division , IAG Cargo , handles cargo operations using capacity on British Airways ' passenger aircraft . IAG reached an agreement with Qatar Airways in 2014 to operate flights for IAG Cargo using Boeing 777F of Qatar Airways Cargo .
British Airways World Cargo was the airline 's freight division prior to its merger with Iberia Cargo to form IAG Cargo . Aircraft types used by the division between 1974 and 1983 were Vickers 953C , Boeing 707 @-@ 300C and Boeing 747 @-@ 200F while the Boeing 747 @-@ 400F was operated from the 1990s to 2001 through Atlas Air and 2002 to early 2012 by Global Supply Systems , of these only one of Atlas Air 's aircraft wore BA livery , the others flew in Atlas and Global Supply 's own colours . From 2012 until the termination of Global Supply System 's contract in 2014 , three Boeing 747 @-@ 8F aircraft were flown for British Airways World Cargo .
= = = Former fleet = = =
= = = British Airways Engineering = = =
The company has its own engineering branch to maintain its aircraft fleet , this includes line maintenance at over 70 airports around the world . As well as hangar facilities at Heathrow and Gatwick airport it has two major maintenance centres at Glasgow and Cardiff Airports .
= = Marketing = =
= = = Branding = = =
The musical theme predominantly used on British Airways advertising is " The Flower Duet " by Léo Delibes . This , and the slogan " The World 's Favourite Airline " were introduced in 1989 with the launch of the iconic " Face " advertisement . The slogan was dropped in 2001 after Lufthansa overtook BA in terms of passenger numbers . " Flower Duet " is still used by the airline , and has been through several different arrangements since 1989 . The most recent version of this melody was shown in 2007 with a new slogan : " Upgrade to British Airways " . Other advertising slogans have included " The World 's Best Airline " , " We 'll Take More Care of You " , and " Fly the Flag " .
BA had an account for 23 years with Saatchi & Saatchi , an agency that created many of their most famous advertisements , including the influential " Face " campaign . Saatchi & Saatchi later imitated this advert for Silverjet , a rival of BA , after BA discontinued their business activities . Since 2007 BA has used Bartle Bogle Hegarty as its advertising agency .
British Airways purchased the internet domain ba.com in 2002 from previous owner Bell Atlantic , ' BA ' being the company 's acronym and its IATA Airline code . In 2011 BA launched its biggest advertising campaign in a decade , including a 90 @-@ second cinematic advert celebrating the airline 's ninety @-@ year heritage and a new slogan " To Fly . To Serve " .
British Airways is the official airline of the Wimbledon Championship tennis tournament , and was the official airline and tier one partner of the 2012 Summer Olympics and Paralympics . British Airways was also the official airline of England 's bid to host the 2018 Football World Cup .
High Life , founded in 1973 , is the official in @-@ flight magazine of the airlines .
= = = Liveries and tail fins = = =
Since its formation in 1974 , British Airways ' aeroplanes carried a Union Jack scheme painted on their tail fins . The original tail scheme was changed in 1984 as part of a new livery designed by Landor Associates .
In 1997 , there was a controversial change from the use of the former British Airways branding ( which incorporated stylised elements of the Union Jack ) to a new livery which was intended mainly to reflect the diversity of places served by the airline – so @-@ called " World Images " . This involved a range of different designs appearing on tailfins and elsewhere , although the bodies of all the planes would use the corporate colours consistently ; the exception was the Concorde fleet , which would have a new tailfin design based on a stylised , fluttering Union flag . What became known as the " ethnic images " included Delftware or Chinese calligraphy , related to countries on the company 's network of routes . This was reported to have caused problems with air traffic control : previously controllers had been able to tell pilots to follow a BA plane , but they were now harder to visually identify . Several people spoke out against the change , including the former Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher , who famously covered the tail of a model 747 at an event with a handkerchief , to show her displeasure . BA 's traditional rival , Virgin Atlantic , took advantage of the negative press coverage by applying the Union flag to the winglets of their aircraft along with the slogan " Britain 's national flagcarrier " . In 1999 the CEO of British Airways , Bob Ayling , announced that all BA planes would adopt the tailfin design originally intended to be used only on the Concorde , based on the Union Flag .
= = = Loyalty programmes = = =
British Airways ' tiered loyalty programme , called the Executive Club , includes access to special lounges and dedicated " fast " queues . BA also invites its top corporate accounts to join a " Premier " incentive programme . British Airways operates airside lounges for passengers travelling in premium cabins , and these are available to certain tiers of Executive Club members . First class passengers , as well as Gold Executive Club members , are entitled to use First Class Lounges . Business class passengers ( called Club World or Club Europe in BA terms ) as well as Silver Executive Club members may use Business lounges . At airports in which BA does not operate a departure lounge , a third party lounge is often provided for premium or status passengers . In 2011 , due to the merger with Iberia , British Airways announced changes to the Executive Club to maximise integration between the airlines . This included the combination and rebranding of Air Miles , BA Miles and Iberia Plus points as the IAG operated loyalty programme Avios .
= = = = Inflight Magazines = = = =
high life Magazine is the name for British Airways ' complimentary inflight magazine . The magazine is available to all customers across all cabins and aircraft types .
high life shop Magazine is the name for British Airways ' inflight shopping magazine . The magazine is available to all customers on all aircraft where the inflight shopping range can be carried .
First life is the name of the complimentary magazine offered to all customers travelling in the First cabin . The magazine has a of articles including fashion , trends and technology with an upmarket target audience .
Business life is the name of the complimentary magazine targeted towards the business traveller and frequent flyers of British Airways . The magazine can be found in all short haul aircraft seat pockets , in the magazine selection for Club World customers and in British Airways operated lounges .
= = Cabins & Services = =
= = = Short haul = = =
= = = = Economy Class = = = =
UK Domestic is British Airways ' economy class on domestic UK flights . Flights into Heathrow are mostly operated by Airbus A320 series aircraft – a small number of peak services to Glasgow and Edinburgh are operated by Boeing 767 @-@ 300ERs configured in an all @-@ economy layout . Flights into Gatwick are operated by Airbus A320 series aircraft in a one @-@ class configuration . On flights departing before 09 : 30 a complimentary hot breakfast item is served with orange juice and tea or coffee . For all flights departing after 09 : 30 a complimentary bar service is offered along with a light snack item .
Euro Traveller is British Airways ' economy class offering on flights from the UK to the rest of Europe . Heathrow based flights are operated by the Airbus A320 series aircraft and Boeing 767 @-@ 300ER aircraft . Gatwick based flights are operated by Airbus A320 series aircraft . Standard seat pitch varies from 29 " to 34 " depending on aircraft type and location of seat . Complimentary drinks and snacks are offered and vary depending on flight length and time of day . Longer services over 3 hours from Heathrow usually have a hot meal service .
= = = = Business Class = = = =
Club Europe is the short @-@ haul business class on all short @-@ haul flights ( excluding those within the UK ) . This class allows for access to business lounges at most airports . Club Europe provides seats in a 2 – 2 configuration on narrowbody aircraft , with the middle seat not used . Instead , a table folds up from under the middle seat on refurbished aircraft . Pillows and blankets are available on longer flights .
In @-@ flight entertainment is offered on selected longer flights operated by the Boeing 767 @-@ 300ER and some A320 aircraft . Headphones are provided to all customers on services where IFE is available .
= = = Mid @-@ haul = = =
In 2012 , British Airways launched a new mid @-@ haul product for the Airbus A321s on routes formerly operated by BMI . These aircraft have been designated to serve routes such as Almaty , Tbilisi , Baku , Cairo , Amman , Beirut and Tel Aviv .
= = = = Business = = = =
The ' Club World ' business class on these narrowbody aircraft is slightly different from the product operated on the rest of the long @-@ haul fleet : An alternating 1 : 2 / 2 : 1 configuration of 23 seats is used in the front section of the aircraft . The full Club World bar and main meal service is offered . Larger individual LCD TV screens are fitted to each seat back .
= = = = Economy = = = =
The ' World Traveller ' service is also offered on these flights with complimentary drinks , food and individual IFE screens . All seats on the aircraft are fitted with the Thales i5000 or Rockwell Collins in @-@ flight entertainment system .
= = = Long haul = = =
= = = = First class = = = =
First class is offered on all Airbus A380s , all Boeing 747 @-@ 400s , some Boeing 777 @-@ 200s , and all Boeing 777 @-@ 300ERs and Boeing 787 @-@ 9s on launch . There are fourteen ( eight on 787 @-@ 9 ) private " demi @-@ cabins " on most of these aircraft , each with a 6 ft 6 in ( 1 @.@ 98 m ) bed , a 15 @-@ inch ( 38 cm ) wide entertainment screen , and in @-@ seat power . Dedicated British Airways ' Galleries First ' lounges are available at some airports . The exclusive ' Concorde Room ' lounges at Heathrow Terminal 5 and New York JFK airports extend the offering with waiter service pre @-@ flight dining and more intimate space . Business lounges are used where these are not available .
= = = = Business Class = = = =
Club World is the long @-@ haul business class , and is offered on all long @-@ haul configured Boeing 767 , Boeing 777 , Boeing 787 , Boeing 747 @-@ 400 , Airbus A318 and A380 aircraft . The cabin features fully flat beds . In 2006 British Airways launched Next Generation New Club World , featuring larger seats . The Club World cabins are all configured in a similar design on widebody aircraft with aisle seats facing forwards while middle seats and window seats face backwards ( British Airways is one of only three carriers with backwards facing Business class seats ; American Airlines and United Airlines are the others ) .
= = = = Premium Economy = = = =
World Traveller Plus is the premium economy offering provided on all long @-@ haul aircraft except the Airbus A318 . This cabin offers wider seats , extended leg @-@ room , additional seat comforts such as larger IFE screen ( on most aircraft ) a foot rest and power sockets . A complimentary ' World Traveller ' bar is offered along with an upgraded main meal course .
= = = = Economy = = = =
World Traveller is the long @-@ haul economy class offered on international flights to destinations outside Europe . It offers seat @-@ back entertainment , complimentary drinks and meals . AVOD is offered on all A380s , 747s , long @-@ haul 767s , and all of the 777s and 787s . On the Airbus A380 , Boeing 787 , Boeing 777 @-@ 300ER and refurbished 777 @-@ 200 aircraft , AC power outlets and USB plug @-@ in points are offered in every seat row . The outlets accept both UK and US plugs . The outlets in World Traveller are located between each seat .
= = Incidents and accidents = =
In November 1974 , British Airways Flight 870 was hijacked shortly after take @-@ off from Dubai for London Heathrow , The Vickers VC10 landed at Tripoli for refuelling before flying on to Tunis . The captain , Jim Futcher , returned to the aircraft to fly it knowing the hijackers were on board . The hijackers eventually surrendered after 84 hours , but not before a hostage was murdered . Futcher was awarded the Queen 's Gallantry Medal , the Guild of Air Pilots and Air Navigators Founders Medal , the British Air Line Pilots Association Gold Medal and a Certificate of Commendation from British Airways for his actions during the hijacking .
On 10 September 1976 , a Trident 3B on British Airways Flight 476 departed from London Heathrow to Istanbul . It collided in mid @-@ air with an Inex Adria DC9 @-@ 31 near Zagreb . All 54 passengers and 9 crew members on the BA aircraft died . This is the only fatal accident to a British Airways aircraft since the company 's formation in 1974 .
On 24 June 1982 , British Airways Flight 9 , a Boeing 747 @-@ 200 registration G @-@ BDXH , flew through a cloud of volcanic ash and dust from the eruption of Mount Galunggung . The ash and dust caused extensive damage to the aircraft , including the failure of all four engines . The crew managed to glide the plane out of the dust cloud and restart all four of its engines , although one later had to be shut down again . The volcanic ash caused the cockpit window to be scratched to such an extent that it was difficult for the pilots to see out of the plane . However , the aircraft made a successful emergency landing at Halim Perdanakusuma International Airport just outside Jakarta . There were no fatalities or injuries .
On 10 June 1990 , British Airways Flight 5390 , a BAC One @-@ Eleven flight between Birmingham and Málaga , suffered a windscreen blowout due to the fitting of incorrect bolts the previous day . The Captain , Tim Lancaster , suffered major injuries after being partially blown out of the aircraft , but the co @-@ pilot landed the plane safely at Southampton Airport . Despite the physical trauma he suffered , Lancaster fully recovered , and five months later he returned to duty . The co @-@ pilot never returned to flying due to the trauma he sustained .
On 2 August 1990 , British Airways Flight 149 landed at Kuwait International Airport four hours after the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait . The aircraft , a Boeing 747 @-@ 100 G @-@ AWND , was destroyed , and all passengers and crew were captured . Two of the landing gears were salvaged , and are on display in Waterside , BA Headquarters in London .
On 29 December 2000 , British Airways Flight 2069 was en route from London to Nairobi when a mentally @-@ ill passenger entered the cockpit and grabbed the controls . As the pilots struggled to remove the intruder , the Boeing 747 @-@ 400 stalled twice and banked to 94 degrees . Several people on board were injured by the violent manoeuvres , which briefly caused the aircraft to descend at 30 @,@ 000 ft per minute . The man was finally restrained with the help of several passengers , and the co @-@ pilot regained control of the aircraft . The flight landed safely in Nairobi .
On 17 January 2008 , British Airways Flight 38 , a Boeing 777 @-@ 200ER G @-@ YMMM , from Beijing to London crash @-@ landed approximately 1 @,@ 000 feet ( 300 m ) short of London Heathrow Airport 's runway 27L , and slid onto the runway 's displaced threshold . The aircraft sustained damage to its landing gear , wing roots and engines , resulting in the first hull loss of a Boeing 777 . There were no fatalities , but there was one serious injury and 12 minor injuries . The accident was caused by icing in the fuel system , resulting in a loss of power .
On 22 December 2013 , British Airways Flight 34 , a Boeing 747 – 436 G @-@ BNLL , hit a building at O. R. Tambo International Airport in Johannesburg after missing a turning on a taxiway . The starboard wing was severely damaged but there were no injuries amongst the crew or 189 passengers , however four members of ground staff were injured when the wing smashed into the building . The aircraft was officially withdrawn from service in February 2014 .
On 8 September 2015 , British Airways Flight 2276 , a Boeing 777 @-@ 236ER G @-@ VIIO , aborted its takeoff at Las Vegas McCarran International Airport due to the uncontained engine failure of its left ( # 1 ) General Electric GE90 engine , which led to a substantial fire . The aircraft was evacuated on the main runway . All 157 passengers and 13 crew escaped the aircraft , at least 14 people sustaining minor injuries .
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= The Itchy & Scratchy Show =
The Itchy & Scratchy Show ( often shortened as Itchy & Scratchy ) is a running gag and fictional animated television series featured in the animated television series The Simpsons . It usually appears as a part of The Krusty the Clown Show , watched regularly by Bart and Lisa Simpson . Itself an animated cartoon , The Itchy & Scratchy Show depicts a sadistic anthropomorphic blue mouse , Itchy ( voiced by Dan Castellaneta ) , who repeatedly maims and kills an anthropomorphic , hapless threadbare black cat , Scratchy ( voiced by Harry Shearer ) . The cartoon first appeared in the Tracey Ullman Show short " The Bart Simpson Show " , which originally aired November 20 , 1988 . The cartoon 's first appearance in The Simpsons was in the 1990 episode " There 's No Disgrace Like Home " . Typically presented as 15 @-@ to @-@ 60 @-@ second @-@ long cartoons , the show is filled with gratuitous violence . The Simpsons also occasionally features characters who are involved with the production of The Itchy & Scratchy Show , including Roger Meyers , Jr . ( voiced by Alex Rocco , and , later , Hank Azaria ) , who runs the studio and produces the show .
The Itchy and Scratchy characters are grotesque , extremely violent parodies of Tom and Jerry and Herman and Katnip ; the names were inspired by " Pixie and Dixie " , who were mice on Pixie and Dixie and Mr. Jinks . The Italian comic strip Squeak the Mouse is also considered as an apparent inspiration for the characters . The mouse ( or mice ) are almost always the aggressors and , as in Tom and Jerry , are almost always the victors , killing Scratchy and any other cats around . The cartoons became popular among the show 's writers and animators and are often added when an episode needs expanding . As the shorts became popular with fans , the writers decided to have full episodes that centered on the production of The Itchy & Scratchy Show and featured multiple shorts . The first was " Itchy & Scratchy & Marge " ( season two , 1990 ) , which was a commentary on censorship . Other episodes to feature the show in a prominent role include " Itchy & Scratchy : The Movie " ( season four , 1992 ) , " The Front " ( season four , 1993 ) , " Itchy & Scratchy Land " ( season six , 1994 ) , " The Day the Violence Died " ( season seven , 1996 ) and " The Itchy & Scratchy & Poochie Show " ( season eight , 1997 ) and " Treehouse of Horror IX " ( season ten , 1998 ) .
= = Role in The Simpsons = =
The Itchy & Scratchy Show is a show within a show that appears occasionally in episodes of The Simpsons . They typically appear in the form of 15 @-@ 60 second cartoons that are filled with gratuitous violence , usually initiated by Itchy the mouse against Scratchy the cat ; Itchy is almost always the victor . Itchy & Scratchy airs as a segment on The Krusty the Clown Show , and also aired on its brief replacements , Sideshow Bob 's Cavalcade of Whimsy and Gabbo .
Itchy & Scratchy is usually a parody of traditional cartoons or takeoffs on famous films , but the plot and content are always violent . The most direct and obvious example is Tom and Jerry , an animated series which was also about a constant battle between a cat and a mouse , with the mouse usually victorious . Itchy & Scratchy also includes shorts such as Scratchtasia , a parody of Fantasia , and Pinitchio , a parody of Pinocchio . Animation @-@ related jokes are prevelent in the show , such as the Manhattan Madness cartoon in " The Day the Violence Died " , which is based on very early animated cartoons such as Gertie the Dinosaur . The cartoons also occasionally serve to play out an exaggerated form of the conflict in the surrounding episode . For example , in " Deep Space Homer " ( season five , 1994 ) , Homer is recruited by NASA , and later watches an Itchy & Scratchy cartoon which directly ( and gruesomely ) parodies the films 2001 : A Space Odyssey and Alien .
= = = Fictional production history = = =
Chester J. Lampwick created Itchy for the now @-@ lost silent cartoon Manhattan Madness , in which the mouse brutally attacks and kills an Irishman and Theodore Roosevelt , in 1919 ( the year of the first Felix the Cat cartoon ) . However , the character was later stolen by Roger Meyers . Scratchy starred in his first cartoon in 1928 , titled That Happy Cat . The film , a 13 @-@ second @-@ long animation showing the cat whistling and tipping his hat , was a commercial failure . Later that year , Itchy and Scratchy starred in their first cartoon together , Steamboat Itchy , a violent parody of Disney 's Steamboat Willie . Along with the cartoon shorts , Itchy and Scratchy were featured in a World War II @-@ era radio series , at least two films — Pinitchio and Scratchtasia ( parodies of Pinocchio and Fantasia ) , and television commercials for Laramie Cigarettes .
Itchy & Scratchy Studios is run by Roger Meyers , Jr . , the son of Roger Meyers , the cartoon 's " creator . " The studio was bankrupted after it was sued by Lampwick for $ 800 billion , but was saved after receiving a large cash settlement from the government over its use of Mr. ZIP . The show underwent a brief , non @-@ violent retooling following a protest campaign led by Marge Simpson , but returned to its original violent format after Marge was later discredited . Itchy & Scratchy has spawned an Academy Award @-@ winning film adaptation , amusement parks , and a musical , and like Krusty 's show , localized versions are produced for other countries , such as Jamaica 's The Itchem and Scratchem Blow .
= = Characters = =
= = = The Itchy & Scratchy Show = = =
Itchy and Scratchy are the main characters in the show . The duo first appeared in The Tracey Ullman Show short " The Bart Simpson Show , " which aired November 20 , 1988 . Their first appearance in The Simpsons was " There 's No Disgrace Like Home . " Itchy , voiced by Dan Castellaneta , is a blue mouse , and usually the aggressor and the victor over the hapless Scratchy in their battles . An exception is in " Homer Goes to College " ( season five , 1993 ) . Bart and Lisa watch a cartoon called " Burning Down the Mouse , " as Lisa puts it , " This is the one where Scratchy finally gets Itchy . " However , due to the Simpsons ' television being unplugged , the viewer does not see the end of the cartoon and Krusty proclaims that the network will never let it be shown again . Scratchy , voiced by Harry Shearer , is a black cat and is the victim of much abuse from the sadistic Itchy . The writers often forget which character is which ; a trick they use is that Scratchy contains the letters c , a and t .
Poochie , voiced by Dan Castellaneta and Alex Rocco , is an anthropomorphic dog that appeared in " The Itchy & Scratchy & Poochie Show " ( season eight , 1997 ) . In the episode , the producers of The Itchy & Scratchy Show believed the cartoons were getting stale , and needed a new character to reinvigorate the show . Homer Simpson gets the job of voicing Poochie , who is introduced in the cartoon , " The Beagle Has Landed . " A product of marketing department thinking , Poochie was near @-@ universally despised , and was killed off in his second appearance , despite Homer 's objections . The episode was both a reference to TV shows which added new characters purportedly to reinvigorate the show , and a commentary on the growing complaints of fans of The Simpsons . The original idea for the episode was that Poochie would be obnoxious because he was so rich , rather than because he was so cool . Poochie would later make brief speaking cameo appearances in " Treehouse of Horror IX " and " Little Big Mom . "
Disgruntled Goat , Uncle Ant , Ku Klux Klam , an anthropomorphic goat , ant and clam , respectively , were characters introduced in a short @-@ lived " Itchy and Scratchy and Friends " show . Bart and Lisa find plush toys of them in a gift shop in the " Itchy and Scratchy Land " episode .
= = = Production staff = = =
Roger Meyers , Jr . , voiced by Alex Rocco and Hank Azaria , is the chairman and CEO of Itchy & Scratchy Studios and is the son of Roger Meyers . He first appeared in " Itchy & Scratchy & Marge " ( season two , 1990 ) . He distributes the cartoon and is a jaded and selfish businessman who has nothing but contempt for the children who comprise his audience . He also possesses an extremely obnoxious personality , where he only cares about people who can help him . This is displayed in his contempt for the writers of The Itchy & Scratchy Show .
Alex Rocco also voiced Meyers in " The Day the Violence Died " and " The Itchy & Scratchy & Poochie Show . " He said that he liked voicing Meyers because " I get to be a big @-@ shot . " He professed being nervous when voicing the character for the first time in " Itchy & Scratchy & Marge " because he said that he had never done a voice @-@ over before . At first he tried doing a special voice , but was told to " just be yourself . " Rocco was one of Bill Oakley 's and Josh Weinstein 's favorite guest stars , and they liked including him in their episodes so they could " have a little fun with him . " On occasions when Rocco was unavailable to do a voice over , Meyers was voiced by Hank Azaria in " The Front " ( season four , 1993 ) , " Lady Bouvier 's Lover " ( season five , 1994 ) and " Itchy & Scratchy Land . "
The spelling of Meyers ' name has been inconsistent in the show . His last name was spelt both Myers and Meyers in " Itchy & Scratchy & Marge , " and Myers the later episode " The Day the Violence Died . " His name is spelt Meyers in " The Front , " as well as in the book The Simpsons : A Complete Guide to Our Favorite Family .
Roger Meyers , Sr. first appeared in video footage in " Itchy & Scratchy Land " and has never had a speaking role . He was created because the writers felt it would have been " tortured logic " to have the Roger Meyers , Jr. be the creator . Roger Meyers Sr. has similarities to Walt Disney . For example , Disney 's alleged antisemitism is spoofed when it is revealed that Meyers made a cartoon called Nazi Supermen are Our Superiors .
June Bellamy , voiced by Tress MacNeille , is the actress who portrays both Itchy and Scratchy . Her only appearance was in " The Itchy & Scratchy & Poochie Show . " It is assumed she is a reference to veteran voice actress June Foray , based on the same first name . In the episode , Bellamy states that a woman voiced the characters , although Itchy and Scratchy are voiced by male actors .
Chester J. Lampwick , voiced by Kirk Douglas , is the creator of Itchy and only appeared in " The Day the Violence Died . " The producers ' first choice for the character , William Hickey , declined . Douglas 's recording session was fraught with interruptions because he refused to wear the supplied earphones , and said the maximum he would do was two takes .
Writing staff : In several episodes revolving around the production of The Itchy & Scratchy Show , caricatures of the show 's staff are used as the staff of The Itchy & Scratchy Show . This first occurred in " Itchy & Scratchy & Marge " where caricatures of animators David Silverman , Wes Archer and Rich Moore can be seen . In " The Front " many of the show 's writers were used , this in @-@ joke was purely an idea of the animators . John Swartzwelder , George Meyer , Jeff Martin , Al Jean , Sam Simon , Jon Vitti and Mike Reiss all appeared in the episode . This joke returned in " The Itchy & Scratchy & Poochie Show " . Almost all of the writers shown are caricatures of the actual staff of The Simpsons . At the production table , David X. Cohen , Bill Oakley , Josh Weinstein are shown , while Meyer speaks out and gets fired . The animator shown designing Poochie is Silverman . Others who appear include Dan McGrath , Ian Maxtone @-@ Graham , Donick Cary , Ron Hauge , Ned Goldreyer and Mike Scully .
= = Background = =
= = = Origins = = =
The Itchy & Scratchy Show first appeared in the Tracey Ullman Show short " The Bart Simpson Show , " which originally aired November 20 , 1988 . They were the first major recurring characters outside of the Simpson family to appear . They are based on Tom and Jerry and other cat and mouse cartoons . As a child , series creator Matt Groening and his friends would fantasize about an ultra violent cartoon and how much fun it would be to work on a show like that . The names " Itchy " and " Scratchy " were inspired by " Pixie and Dixie , " who were mice on the cartoon show Pixie and Dixie and Mr. Jinks . The comic strip Squeak the Mouse is also considered as an apparent inspiration for the characters . The show is also based on Herman and Katnip , a show that , according to director David Silverman , " is hilarious because it 's just bad . " As a child , Groening really liked the 1961 Disney film One Hundred and One Dalmatians , and it was one of the reasons to why he got into cartooning . In the film , the puppies watch television , and the idea that it is possible to have a cartoon within a cartoon thrilled Groening . From that idea he got the inspiration for The Itchy & Scratchy Show .
David Silverman states that Itchy and Scratchy cartoons are " an ironic commentary on cartoon mayhem in the sense that it 's taken to a more realistic level . The kids on The Simpsons are laughing at it , and we 're laughing too , but part of what you 're laughing at is the over @-@ the @-@ top excessiveness of the violence . "
= = = Development = = =
Itchy and Scratchy cartoons are often added when a show needs expanding or when there is an issue that the writers wish to satirize . In some cases , notably in " The Itchy & Scratchy & Poochie Show , " the writers use Itchy & Scratchy as a way to comment on The Simpsons . The shorts are often difficult for the writers , and take much time to develop and devise a title , and in the end they fill little time . Writing the Itchy & Scratchy cartoons is quite often a group effort , with it being pitched out one gag after another . Itchy & Scratchy are a favorite of John Swartzwelder , who has written many of the episodes that center on them and quite often pitches the ideas for the shorts . In the early seasons , fans wanted more Itchy & Scratchy , so the writers decided to do " Itchy & Scratchy & Marge , " an episode also dealt with censorship issues which would allow them to show several cartoons . The cartoons are often kept short , because according to David Silverman , " it doesn 't really work as a long cartoon . "
During his tenure as showrunner ( season five and six ) David Mirkin was asked by the Fox network not to do any more Itchy & Scratchy cartoons due to the amount of violence in them . In response , the show produced " Itchy & Scratchy Land . " The network asked them not to do the episode , and threatened that if the episode was produced , they would cut the Itchy & Scratchy parts out themselves , but relented when Mirkin threatened to tell the media . The writers nevertheless promised to try not to overdo the violence and in some scenes the violence was cut .
During their tenure as executive producers , Bill Oakley and Josh Weinstein tried to fit in one episode relating to The Itchy & Scratchy Show every season . They note that as the seasons progressed , it became increasingly difficult for them to create new Itchy & Scratchy episode ideas . Although the episode was difficult to animate , " Itchy & Scratchy Land " was " a dream come true " for the animators , as they enjoyed animating scenes filled with violence .
The theme song is adapted from the jazz standard " Should I ( Reveal ) ? "
= = Reception = =
In a 2006 article , IGN ranked Itchy & Scratchy in tenth position on their list of the " Top 25 Simpsons Peripheral Characters , " citing that " the Itchy & Scratchy Show shines a nice mirror on cartoons , showing just how funny cartoon violence really is . " In 2003 , Entertainment Weekly named " Itchy & Scratchy Land " and " The Itchy & Scratchy & Poochie Show " the 7th @-@ best and 23rd @-@ best episodes of The Simpsons , respectively . In 2007 , Vanity Fair named " The Itchy & Scratchy & Poochie Show " the sixth @-@ best episode in the show 's history , describing it as " a classic satire of network influence , obsessed TV fans , and programs that survive long after the shark has been jumped , the episode is a meta @-@ celebration , a tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek rebuttal to everyone who claimed that the quality of The Simpsons had declined over the years . " Todd Gilchrist called it a masterpiece , stating it " could easily be packaged and sold by [ itself ] . " Robert Canning of IGN writes that " it 's always fun to see an ' Itchy and Scratchy ' cartoon " but believes that the shorter and simpler cartoons are better than the longer more complex ones . In his book Planet Simpson , author Chris Turner describes Itchy & Scratchy as " by far the most gleeful visual riffing on The Simpsons [ ... ] each snippet of " Itchy & Scratchy " packs as much frenetically paced action , sight @-@ gaggery and physical humor into its half @-@ minute of screen time as a half @-@ dozen Road Runner cartoons and a dozen Tom & Jerrys . " In a 2014 Vulture article , the Simpsons writers ranked their 9 favourite Itchy and Scratchy cartoons . Season @-@ wise their choices ranged from season 4 's " Steamboat Itchy " to Season 14 's " Bleeder of the Pack " , while also including the opening scene of The Simpsons Movie and the safety video " Safety First " that plays before The Simpsons Ride at Universal Studios , both from 2007 .
= = Merchandising = =
Itchy and Scratchy have appeared in various products and other media relating to The Simpsons . A video game named The Itchy & Scratchy Game was released for Genesis , Game Gear , Super NES and Game Boy . Another game , Itchy and Scratchy in Miniature Golf Madness , was released for Game Boy . Itchy , Scratchy and Poochie play roles in the " Grand Theft Scratchy " section in The Simpsons Game . Itchy & Scratchy have also appeared in commercials for various products , including a 1999 Butterfinger advert where Bart watches a short called " 500 Easy Pieces " . They appear in the very first scene of The Simpsons Movie . The writers of the film knew from the beginning that they were going to start with an Itchy & Scratchy short and the segment was the first scene that was storyboarded by the animators .
The duo also appear in the pre @-@ show video for The Simpsons Ride . They host a video called " Safety First " that shows riders what can happen to them if they do not follow ride requirements . Only Itchy has a speaking part in the ride , because Harry Shearer chose not to participate in the ride , so none of his characters have speaking parts .
British based street @-@ wear label Drop Dead released the first ever Itchy & Scratchy specific clothing range on May 31 , 2014 . The collection includes both men 's and women 's wear including leggings , sweat pants , hoodies , T @-@ shirts , and crew @-@ necks . The collection pays homage to classic simpsons , with a vintage theme throughout . Itchy & Scratchy feature on all almost all the garments , aside from a handful that feature Krusty the Clown .
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= Morpholino =
A morpholino , also known as a morpholino oligomer and as a phosphorodiamidate morpholino oligomer ( PMO ) , is type of oligomer molecule ( colloquially , an oligo ) used in molecular biology to modify gene expression . The molecular structure has a backbone of methylenemorpholine rings and phosphorodiamidate linkages . Morpholinos block access of other molecules to small ( ~ 25 base ) specific sequences of the base @-@ pairing surfaces of ribonucleic acid ( RNA ) . Morpholinos are used as research tools for reverse genetics by knocking down gene function . They are being studied for application in medicine .
This article discusses only the morpholino antisense oligomers , which are nucleic acid analogs . The word " morpholino " can occur in other chemical names , referring to chemicals containing a six @-@ membered morpholine ring . To help avoid confusion with other morpholine @-@ containing molecules , when describing oligos " Morpholino " is often capitalized as a trade name , but this usage is not consistent throughout the scientific literature .
Gene knockdown is achieved by preventing cells from making a targeted protein . Morpholinos can also modify the splicing of pre @-@ mRNA . Knocking down gene expression is a powerful method for learning about the function of a particular protein ; in a similar manner , causing a specific exon to be spliced out of a protein can help to determine the function of the protein moiety encoded by that exon or can sometimes knock down the protein activity altogether . These molecules have been applied to studies in several model organisms , including mice , zebrafish , frogs , and sea urchins .
Morpholinos are in development as pharmaceutical therapeutics targeted against pathogenic organisms such as bacteria or viruses and for amelioration of genetic diseases . These synthetic oligos were conceived by James E. Summerton ( Gene Tools ) and originally developed in collaboration with Dwight D. Weller at a biotech corporation ( formerly Antivirals , renamed AVI BioPharma , renamed Sarepta Therapeutics ) . The experimental Morpholino drug eteplirsen from Sarepta Therapeutics is currently ( April 2016 ) in Phase III clinical trials for treatment of some mutations causing Duchenne muscular dystrophy .
= = Structure = =
Morpholinos are synthetic molecules that are the product of a redesign of natural nucleic acid structure . Usually 25 bases in length , they bind to complementary sequences of RNA by standard nucleic acid base @-@ pairing . In terms of structure , the difference between Morpholinos and DNA is that , while Morpholinos have standard nucleic acid bases , those bases are bound to morpholine rings instead of deoxyribose rings and linked through phosphorodiamidate groups instead of phosphates . This may be easiest to visualize by referring to the first figure and comparing the structures of the two strands depicted there , one of RNA and the other of a Morpholino . Replacement of anionic phosphates with the uncharged phosphorodiamidate groups eliminates ionization in the usual physiological pH range , so Morpholinos in organisms or cells are uncharged molecules . The entire backbone of a Morpholino is made from these modified subunits .
= = Function = =
Morpholinos do not degrade their target RNA molecules , unlike many antisense structural types ( e.g. , phosphorothioates , siRNA ) . Instead , Morpholinos act by " steric blocking " , binding to a target sequence within an RNA and simply getting in the way of molecules that might otherwise interact with the RNA . Morpholino oligos are often used to investigate the role of a specific mRNA transcript in an embryo . Developmental biologists inject Morpholino oligos into eggs or embryos of zebrafish , African clawed frog ( Xenopus ) , sea urchin , and killifish ( F. heteroclitus ) producing morphant embryos , or electroporate Morpholinos into chick embryos at later stages of development . With appropriate cytosolic delivery systems , Morpholinos are effective in cell culture . Vivo @-@ Morpholinos , in which the oligo is covalently linked to a delivery dendrimer , enter cells when administered systemically in adult animals .
= = = Normal gene expression in eukaryotes = = =
In eukaryotic organisms , pre @-@ mRNA is transcribed in the nucleus , introns are spliced out , then the mature mRNA is exported from the nucleus to the cytoplasm . The small subunit of the ribosome usually starts by binding to one end of the mRNA and is joined there by various other eukaryotic initiation factors , forming the initiation complex . The initiation complex scans along the mRNA strand until it reaches a start codon , and then the large subunit of the ribosome attaches to the small subunit and translation of a protein begins . This entire process is referred to as gene expression ; it is the process by which the information in a gene , encoded as a sequence of bases in DNA , is converted into the structure of a protein . A Morpholino can modify splicing or block translation , depending on the Morpholino 's base sequence .
= = = Blocking translation = = =
Bound to the 5 ' -untranslated region of messenger RNA ( mRNA ) , Morpholinos can interfere with progression of the ribosomal initiation complex from the 5 ' cap to the start codon . This prevents translation of the coding region of the targeted transcript ( called " knocking down " gene expression ) . This is useful experimentally when an investigator wishes to know the function of a particular protein ; Morpholinos provide a convenient means of knocking down expression of the protein and learning how that knockdown changes the cells or organism . Some Morpholinos knock down expression so effectively that , after degradation of preexisting proteins , the targeted proteins become undetectable by Western blot ( e.g. , figure 1 in : ) .
= = = Modifying pre @-@ mRNA splicing = = =
Morpholinos can interfere with pre @-@ mRNA processing steps either by preventing splice @-@ directing small nuclear ribonucleoproteins ( snRNP ) complexes from binding to their targets at the borders of introns on a strand of pre @-@ mRNA , or by blocking the nucleophilic adenine base and preventing it from forming the splice lariat structure , or by interfering with the binding of splice regulatory proteins such as splice silencers and splice enhancers . Preventing the binding of snRNP U1 ( at the donor site ) or U2 / U5 ( at the polypyrimidine moiety and acceptor site ) can cause modified splicing , commonly excluding exons from the mature mRNA . Targeting some splice targets results in intron inclusions , while activation of cryptic splice sites can lead to partial inclusions or exclusions . Targets of U11 / U12 snRNPs can also be blocked . Splice modification can be conveniently assayed by reverse @-@ transcriptase polymerase chain reaction ( RT @-@ PCR ) and is seen as a band shift after gel electrophoresis of RT @-@ PCR products .
= = = Other applications : blocking other mRNA sites and use as probes = = =
Morpholinos have been used to block miRNA activity and maturation . Fluorescein tagged Morpholinos , combined with fluorescein @-@ specific antibodies , can be used as probes for in @-@ situ hybridization to miRNAs . Morpholinos can block ribozyme activity . U2 and U12 snRNP functions have been inhibited by Morpholinos . Morpholinos targeted to " slippery " mRNA sequences within protein coding regions can induce translational frameshifts . Morpholinos can block editing of RNA . Activities of Morpholinos against this variety of targets suggest that Morpholinos can be used as a general @-@ purpose tool for blocking interactions of proteins or nucleic acids with mRNA .
= = Specificity , stability and non @-@ antisense effects = =
Morpholinos have become a standard knockdown tool in animal embryonic systems , which have a broader range of gene expression than adult cells and can be strongly affected by an off @-@ target interaction . Following initial injections into frog or fish embryos at the single @-@ cell or few @-@ cell stages , Morpholino effects can be measured up to five days later , after most of the processes of organogenesis and differentiation are past , with observed phenotypes consistent with target @-@ gene knockdown . Control oligos with irrelevant sequences usually produce no change in embryonic phenotype , evidence of the Morpholino oligo 's sequence @-@ specificity and lack of non @-@ antisense effects . The dose required for a knockdown can be reduced by coinjection of several Morpholino oligos targeting the same mRNA , which is an effective strategy for reducing or eliminating dose @-@ dependent off @-@ target RNA interactions .
mRNA rescue experiments can often restore the wild @-@ type phenotype to the embryos and provide evidence for the specificity of a Morpholino . In an mRNA rescue , a Morpholino is co @-@ injected with an mRNA that codes for the same protein that the Morphlino is targeted to knock down . However , the rescue mRNA has a modified 5 ' -UTR ( untranslated region ) so that the rescue mRNA contains no target for the Morpholino but the rescue mRNA 's coding region encodes the protein of interest . Translation of the rescue mRNA replaces production of the protein that was knocked down by the Morpholino . Since the rescue mRNA would not affect phenotypic changes due to modulation of off @-@ target gene expression by the Morpholino , this return to wild @-@ type phenotype is further evidence of Morpholino specificity .
Because of their completely unnatural backbones , Morpholinos are not recognized by cellular proteins . Nucleases do not degrade Morpholinos , nor are they degraded in serum or in cells . Morpholinos do not activate toll @-@ like receptors and so they do not activate innate immune responses such as interferon induction or the NF @-@ κB @-@ mediated inflammation response . Morpholinos are not known to modify methylation of DNA .
Up to 18 % of Morpholinos appear to induce nontarget @-@ related phenotypes including cell death in the central nervous system and somite tissues of zebrafish embryos . Most of these effects have been shown to be due to activation of p53 @-@ mediated apoptosis , and can be suppressed by co @-@ injection of an anti @-@ p53 Morpholino along with the experimental Morpholino ; moreover , the p53 @-@ mediated apoptotic effect of a Morpholino knockdown has been phenocopied using another antisense structural type , showing the p53 @-@ mediated apoptosis to be a consequence of the loss of the targeted protein and not a consequence of the oligo type used to knock down the protein . It appears that these effects are sequence @-@ specific ; as in most cases , if a Morpholino is associated with non @-@ target effects , the 4 @-@ base mismatch Morpholino will not trigger these effects .
A cause for concern in the use of Morpholinos is the potential for " off @-@ target " effects . Whether an observed morphant phenotype is due to the intended knockdown or an interaction with an off @-@ target RNA can often be addressed by running another experiment to confirm that the observed morphant phenotype results from the knockdown of the expected target . This can be done by recapitulating the morphant phenotype with a second , non @-@ overlapping Morpholino targeting the same mRNA or by confirmation of the observed phenotypes by use of a mutant strain or dominant @-@ negative methods . As mentioned above , rescue of observed phenotypes by coinjecting a rescue mRNA is , when feasible , a reliable test of specificity of a Morpholino .
= = Delivery = =
For a Morpholino to be effective , it must be delivered past the cell membrane into the cytosol of a cell . Once in the cytosol , Morpholinos freely diffuse between the cytosol and nucleus , as demonstrated by the nuclear splice @-@ modifying activity of Morpholinos observed after microinjection into the cytosol of cells . Different methods are used for delivery into embryos , into cultured cells or into adult animals . A microinjection apparatus is usually used for delivery into an embryo , with injections most commonly performed at the single @-@ cell or few @-@ cell stage ; an alternative method for embryonic delivery is electroporation , which can deliver oligos into tissues of later embryonic stages . Common techniques for delivery into cultured cells include the Endo @-@ Porter peptide ( which causes the Morpholino to be released from endosomes ) , the Special Delivery system ( no longer commercially available , used a Morpholino @-@ DNA heteroduplex and an ethoxylated polyethylenimine delivery reagent ) , electroporation , or scrape loading .
Delivery into adult tissues is usually difficult , though there are a few systems allowing useful uptake of unmodified Morpholino oligos ( including the inherently leaky muscle cells caused by Duchenne muscular dystrophy or the vascular endothelial cells stressed during balloon angioplasty ) . Though they permeate through intercellular spaces in tissues effectively , unconjugated PMOs have limited distribution into the cytosol and nuclear spaces within healthy tissues following IV administration . Systemic delivery into many cells in adult organisms can be accomplished by using covalent conjugates of Morpholino oligos with cell @-@ penetrating peptides , and , while toxicity has been associated with moderate doses of the peptide conjugates , they have been used in vivo for effective oligo delivery at doses below those causing observed toxicity . An octa @-@ guanidinium dendrimer attached to the end of a Morpholino can deliver the modified oligo ( called a Vivo @-@ Morpholino ) from the blood to the cytosol . Delivery @-@ enabled Morpholinos , such as peptide conjugates and Vivo @-@ Morpholinos , show promise as therapeutics for viral and genetic diseases .
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= Weight Gain 4000 =
" Weight Gain 4000 " is the third episode of the American animated television series South Park . It first aired on Comedy Central in the United States on August 27 , 1997 . In the episode , the residents of South Park excitedly prepare for a visit by celebrity Kathie Lee Gifford , whom the boys ' third @-@ grade teacher Mr. Garrison plans to assassinate because of a childhood grudge . In the meantime , Cartman becomes extremely obese after buying a bodybuilding supplement called Weight Gain 4000 .
The episode was written and directed by series co @-@ founders Trey Parker and Matt Stone . After the South Park pilot episode , " Cartman Gets an Anal Probe " , drew poor test audience results , Comedy Central requested a script for one more new episode before deciding whether or not to commit to a full series . The resulting script for " Weight Gain 4000 " helped the network decide to pick up the show . Although the second episode to be produced , it was originally broadcast as the third episode . It was also the first South Park episode created completely using computers rather than construction paper .
Although some reviewers criticized the episode for its profanity and other material deemed offensive at the time of its original broadcast , several others felt " Weight Gain 4000 " was a significant improvement over the pilot , particularly for its satirical element regarding American consumerism . The episode introduced such recurring characters as Jimbo Kern , Mayor McDaniels , Bebe Stevens and Clyde Donovan . The show 's portrayal of Kathie Lee Gifford was the first time a celebrity was spoofed in South Park . Cartman 's line " Beefcake " became one of the most popular catchphrases from the series .
= = Plot = =
South Park Elementary teacher Mr. Garrison announces that Cartman has won the school 's " Save Our Fragile Planet " essay contest , much to the anger of his classmate Wendy Testaburger , who immediately suspects him of cheating . The rest of the town becomes a flurry of excitement upon learning celebrity television host Kathie Lee Gifford will come to South Park to present Cartman with an award on national television . Mayor McDaniels plans a big event to showcase the town , with hopes of furthering her own career . Mr. Garrison directs rehearsals for a play with the schoolchildren depicting the history of South Park , which is to be shown at the event . Mayor McDaniels is horrified , however , to learn the historically accurate play includes children playing pioneers who attack and brutally beat the students portraying Native Americans .
Unbeknownst to the rest of town , Mr. Garrison relives a traumatic childhood memory in which a young Gifford defeated him in a national talent show . Mr. Garrison is manipulated by his hand puppet , Mr. Hat , to assassinate Gifford out of revenge . He purchases a large rifle from Jimbo 's gun shop and plots to shoot Gifford . Meanwhile , Cartman is excited to appear on live television , and Mayor McDaniels instructs him to get into shape for Gifford 's visit . Seeing a television commercial for a bodybuilding supplement called " Weight Gain 4000 " , Cartman asks his mother to buy it for him . Cartman becomes extremely fat from the product , although he believes he is in excellent shape and the excess weight is strictly muscle . Back at the school , Wendy looks through Mr. Garrison 's papers and confirms Cartman indeed cheated on the contest by writing his name on a copy of Walden by Henry David Thoreau . Wendy also learns about Mr. Garrison 's assassination plan , and enlists the help of her friend Stan to stop him .
Gifford arrives , and most of the town attends the celebratory event , where Chef sings a song to seduce her . Mr. Garrison takes his position in a tall book depository , but he is frustrated to see that Gifford is hidden behind a bulletproof glass bubble . Wendy and Stan arrive and try unsuccessfully to stop Mr. Garrison , saying that they understand his pain , but when Stan accidentally reignites Garrisons anger , he decides to go through with the assassination . Just as he 's about to fire , Cartmans new immense weight causes the stage to collapse , catapulting Gifford off it , and causing the bullet to hit Kenny in the head . Kenny is propelled through the air and impaled on a flagpole . Gifford 's bodyguards whisk Gifford away , costing a disappointed Cartman his chance to be on television . Wendy takes to the stage and reveals that Cartman cheated on his essay , but the townspeople are too upset about Gifford 's departure to care . Mr. Garrison is taken to a mental hospital , where Mr. Hat is placed into a straitjacket . Mr. Garrison apologizes to the kids for costing the town a chance to be on television , although Kyle explains to him that Cartman is now appearing on talk show Geraldo because of his tremendous obesity . The episode ends with Chef having sex with Gifford while watching Geraldo .
= = Production = =
" Weight Gain 4000 " was written and directed by series co @-@ founders Trey Parker and Matt Stone . It was first aired on Comedy Central in the United States on August 27 , 1997 . The South Park pilot , " Cartman Gets an Anal Probe " , did not do well with test audiences , and Comedy Central executives were unsure whether they wanted to order any additional episodes . However , they paid Parker and Stone to write another script when Internet buzz began to generate about the duo and their work on The Spirit of Christmas , the 1995 animated short film that served as a precursor to South Park . The network opted not to commit to a full Comedy Central series until they could read the newly commissioned script . The result was " Weight Gain 4000 " , which the two South Park creators wrote while they were working on their 1997 comedy @-@ action film , Orgazmo .
In writing the script , the duo sought to give Comedy Central executives an idea of what the series would be like and how each show could differ from the others . Parker and Stone also said they would not write another script until the network signed off on the full show with a season of at least six episodes . Comedy Central liked the script and agreed to commit to a series . While " Cartman Gets an Anal Probe " was created almost entirely with construction paper , " Weight Gain 4000 " was the first South Park episode made completely using computers . It was created in little over a month in a studio in Westwood , California , by about 15 animators using PowerAnimator , the Alias Systems Corporation animation program most commonly known as " Alias " , which would be used in subsequent episodes . In the future , South Park shows would be created within a week of their broadcast dates and require about 40 animators . " Weight Gain 4000 " was animated in chronological order from beginning to end . Although Parker and Stone sought to improve the details and textures of the characters and overall animation , they also specifically chose Alias because it would allow the animation to maintain the show 's deliberately crude visual style they first created with construction paper in The Spirit of Christmas and " Cartman Gets an Anal Probe " .
The South Park creators and animators said they were still developing the characters and trying to figure out the future direction of the show with " Weight Gain 4000 " , which was more slow @-@ paced than the series would eventually become . The 30 @-@ page script was shorter than in later episodes , which would average between 45 to 50 pages . The child protagonists also spoke slower . While recording their voice performances , the actors read the lines slowly and the dialogue was then sped up to create the characters ' distinctive voices . At that time , Parker and Stone had not mastered the pace at which they needed to speak . The crowd shots in " Weight Gain 4000 " took a particularly long time to animate due to the large number of people featured , and the animators were especially proud of the use of depth and motion in the perspective of the crosshairs in Mr. Garrison 's rifle scope as he tried to assassinate Kathie Lee Gifford . Mr. Garrison 's hatred for Gifford was foreshadowed in " Cartman Gets an Anal Probe " , where the sentence " I 'm not positive , but I think Cathy [ sic ] Lee Gifford is much older than she claims to be " , can be seen on his classroom 's chalkboard . During a flashback scene in " Weight Gain 4000 " , an eight @-@ year @-@ old Mr. Garrison is shown to already be bald on top with gray hair on the side of his ears . This led to an inconsistency in the first season episode " Cartman 's Mom is a Dirty Slut " , in which he has a full head of hair during a flashback .
= = Themes = =
Describing the general tone of the show , Teri Fitsell of The New Zealand Herald explains that " South Park is a vicious social satire that works by spotlighting not the immorality of these kids but their amorality , and contrasting it with the conniving hypocrisy of the adults who surround them . " The humor of the show comes from the disparity between the cute appearance of the characters and their crude behavior . However , Parker and Stone said in an early interview that the show 's language is realistic . " There are so many shows where little kids are good and sweet , and it 's just not real ... Don 't people remember what they were like in third grade ? We were little bastards . "
Although these elements were established in " Cartman Gets an Anal Probe " and the Spirit of Christmas precursor cartoons , " Weight Gain 4000 " further pushed the conventions of television , and especially of animated television entertainment . In addition to a continued stream of profanities and the promiscuous activities of Chef , an elementary school employee , the episode presents the character of Mr. Garrison as more and more unhinged . Although entrusted with the care of an elementary school class , Mr. Garrison demonstrates a questionable gender identity , poor teaching and unusual relationship with his Mr. Hat hand puppet .
" Weight Gain 4000 " served as a commentary on American consumerism , the equation of personal happiness with consumption and the purchase of material possessions . This satire is particularly demonstrated by Cartman 's blind faith in the Weight Gain 4000 bodybuilding supplement product despite strong evidence that the product fails at its primary function . Specifically , the product promises to build muscle , and Cartman believes it has fulfilled this function even after he only becomes extremely overweight . This blind faith is also illustrated by the complete disregard Cartman demonstrates for warnings that Weight Gain 4000 carries a risk of permanent damage to the liver and kidneys . The tremendous amount of product Cartman buys is further indicative of American purchasing habits .
Cartman 's impulse to buy a bodybuilding supplement based on a single commercial has been described as a satire of the concept of " identity shopping " . The concept involves the obtaining of an identity through what one owns , wears or buys , just as Cartman seeks to remake himself as a bodybuilder by buying Weight Gain 4000 . " Weight Gain 4000 " also satirizes the obsession with celebrity prevalent among most Americans , particularly through the town 's overly enthusiastic reaction to Kathie Lee Gifford 's appearance . Additionally , Anglican theologian Paul F. M. Zahl has suggested Cartman 's addiction to food in the episode , combined with his blind faith in the Weight Gain 4000 supplement and his insistence to " Stay true to your dreams " , reflects the idea that many people falsely cling to the notion of free will when they in fact lack any self @-@ control whatsoever . Zahl wrote , " The two writers of South Park see through the myth of ' free will . ' "
= = Cultural references and impact = =
" Weight Gain 4000 " introduced several characters who would maintain important recurring roles throughout the rest of the series . Among them were Jimbo Kern , Mayor McDaniels , and Wendy 's best friend Bebe Stevens . It also introduces Clyde Donovan , a student from Mr. Garrison 's class who would eventually play significant roles in future seasons , although he was not identified by name . The characters demonstrate the wide range of often @-@ extreme personalities among the adult residents of South Park , as well as serving as individual satires . McDaniels , who imagines herself an instant star upon being seen on television with Gifford , is portrayed as more caring about her own fame than the needs of her constituents , and the neglect with which Jimbo sells a gun to an obviously unstable Mr. Garrison serves as a satire of gun control . Jimbo and his friend Ned ( who was not introduced until " Volcano " ) were inspired by caricatures Parker used to draw during high school . In creating McDaniels , Parker and Stone envisioned a sophisticated mayor who was convinced she was better than the other residents of South Park . The episode also marked the first reference to Jesus and Pals , the public @-@ access television talk show hosted by Jesus Christ . The fictional show is mentioned twice in the background during commercials on television sets , although footage from the show itself is not shown until " Big Gay Al 's Big Gay Boat Ride " later in the season . Jesus and Pals , and the idea of Jesus as a South Park resident , are references to the original The Spirit of Christmas cartoon . Debbie Liebling , who served as a South Park producer at the time of the episode 's broadcast , said the inclusion of a television show hosted by Jesus helped convey for audiences the idea of South Park as a place where " anything can happen " .
Kathie Lee Gifford , then a television hostess on the morning talk show Live with Regis and Kathie Lee , was the first of many celebrities to be spoofed in a South Park episode . The South Park creators said they chose Gifford completely at random , not based on any particular reason or distaste for her . Shortly after " Weight Gain 4000 " aired , the tabloid The Globe hired Suzen Johnson to film herself seducing Frank Gifford , Gifford 's husband , for a newspaper story . The incident was the first of what Parker and Stone called the " South Park Curse " , in which something tragic or embarrassing supposedly happens to a celebrity shortly before or after they were featured in South Park . Actress Karri Turner provided the voice of Gifford in " Weight Gain 4000 " , marking her first and only guest appearance on South Park . Gifford appears at a parade hidden inside a bulletproof glass bubble . The bubble was inspired by an appearance Pope John Paul II made in the Popemobile during a trip to Denver , which was attended by Parker and Stone . They thought the design of the Popemobile , which has a bulletproof booth built into the back of a modified truck , was " hilarious " . The design of the trophy that Gifford was to give to Cartman is a reference to Parker and Stone 's 1997 film Orgazmo .
The line " Beefcake " , which Eric Cartman enthusiastically screams after hearing it on a Weight Gain 4000 commercial , became a well @-@ known catchphrase following the episode 's broadcast , and clothing items with Cartman shouting the line became very popular . One of the earliest and largest South Park fan sites was called www.beef @-@ cake.com. Matt Stone and site creator Taison Tan decided to shut the site down in April 2001 when the official site South Park Studios launched . South Park : Chef 's Luv Shack , a 1999 video game from developer Acclaim , included a mini @-@ game called " Beefcake " , in which players control a Cartman character who moves back and forth between the screen eating cans of Weight Gain 4000 that are thrown down at him . The salesmen from " Weight Gain 4000 " are featured as antagonists in the mini @-@ game . The " beefcake " commercial featured in the episode is also briefly seen in the third season episode " Two Guys Naked in a Hot Tub " , when Stan is quickly flipping through channels on his television .
= = Release and reception = =
When " Weight Gain 4000 " was released , many writers in the mainstream media were still debating the longevity and overall quality of South Park . With the series still in its earliest stages , the episode continued to shock many with its frequent use of profanities by children and the apparent instability of school teacher Mr. Garrison . Audiences were especially shocked by the violence depicted among children during a South Park history play , which included the use of guns and portrayed the bloody slaughter of Native Americans at the hands of white settlers . Audiences were also shocked and offended by Chef 's sexually suggestive song about Gifford . Nevertheless , several reviewers declared " Weight Gain 4000 " a significant improvement over the pilot , " Cartman Gets an Anal Probe " , and felt it went in a much more satirical direction .
Jeff Simon of The Buffalo News , who did not like " Cartman Gets an Anal Probe " , felt " Weight Gain 4000 " proved the series could be funny . He specifically complimented the episode 's commentary on American consumerism . Simon wrote , " It 's all very bitter social satire , and if it weren 't on Comedy Central , believe me , no one in networkland would think it ready for prime time . And you know what else ? It 's funny . " Likewise , The Washington Post critic Tom Shales strongly criticized " Cartman Gets an Anal Probe " , but said the second episode was funny and included " cleverly intertwined " plot @-@ lines . Shales said , " [ It ] suggests the show may be an attempt at satire and not just poopy humor ... Yes , it 's still sick and still twisted , but somehow this episode at least appears to have some comic ingenuity behind it , whereas the first was just a smutfest . " In 2006 , " Weight Gain 4000 " was identified by Winnipeg Free Press as one of the ten most memorable South Park episodes , and ranked twelfth in a list of the top 25 greatest Cartman moments , as determined by voters on the Comedy Central website . The Daily Record in Scotland listed the episode 's ending , and the " Beefcake ! " line , as one of the six most memorable moments in the series .
" Weight Gain 4000 " was released , alongside five other episodes , in a three @-@ VHS set on May 5 , 1998 , marking the first time South Park was made available on video . It was released on the " Volume II " video , along with " Big Gay Al 's Big Gay Boat Ride " ; other featured episodes included " Cartman Gets an Anal Probe " , " Volcano " , " An Elephant Makes Love to a Pig " and " Death " . " Weight Gain 4000 " , along with the other 12 episodes from the first season , was also included in the DVD release " South Park : The Complete First Season " , which was released on November 12 , 2002 . Parker and Stone recorded commentary tracks for each episode , but they were not included with the DVDs due to " standards " issues with some of the statements . They refused to allow the tracks to be edited and censored , so they were released in a CD separately from the DVDs . In 2008 , the duo made " Weight Gain 4000 " and all other South Park episodes available to watch for free on the show 's official website , " South Park Studios " .
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= Keep =
A keep ( from the Middle English kype ) is a type of fortified tower built within castles during the Middle Ages by European nobility . Scholars have debated the scope of the word keep , but usually consider it to refer to large towers in castles that were fortified residences , used as a refuge of last resort should the rest of the castle fall to an adversary . The first keeps were made of timber and formed a key part of the motte @-@ and @-@ bailey castles that emerged in Normandy and Anjou during the 10th century ; the design spread to England as a result of the Norman invasion of 1066 , and in turn spread into Wales during the second half of the 11th century and into Ireland in the 1170s . The Anglo @-@ Normans and French rulers began to build stone keeps during the 10th and 11th centuries ; these included Norman keeps , with a square or rectangular design , and circular shell keeps . Stone keeps carried considerable political as well as military importance and could take up to a decade to build .
During the 12th century , new designs began to be introduced – in France , quatrefoil @-@ shaped keeps were introduced , while in England polygonal towers were built . By the end of the century , French and English keep designs began to diverge : Philip II of France built a sequence of circular keeps as part of his bid to stamp his royal authority on his new territories , while in England castles were built without keeps . In Spain , keeps were increasingly incorporated into both Christian and Islamic castles , although in Germany tall towers called Bergfriede were preferred to keeps in the western fashion . In the second half of the 14th century , there was a resurgence in the building of keeps . In France , the keep at Vincennes began a fashion for tall , heavily machicolated designs , a trend adopted in Spain most prominently through the Valladolid school of Spanish castle design . Meanwhile , tower keeps in England became popular amongst the most wealthy nobles : these large keeps , each uniquely designed , formed part of the grandest castles built during the period .
By the 16th century , however , keeps were slowly falling out of fashion as fortifications and residences . Many were destroyed in civil wars between the 17th and 18th centuries , or incorporated into gardens as an alternative to follies . During the 19th century , keeps became fashionable once again and in England and France a number were restored or redesigned by Gothic architects . Despite further damage to many French and Spanish keeps during the wars of the 20th century , keeps now form an important part of the tourist and heritage industry in Europe .
= = Etymology and historiography = =
Since the 16th century , the English word keep has commonly referred to large towers in castles . The word originates from around 1375 to 1376 , coming from the Middle English term kype , meaning basket or cask , and was a term applied to the shell keep at Guînes , said to resemble a barrel . The term came to be used for other shell keeps by the 15th century . By the 17th century , the word keep lost its original reference to baskets or casks , and was popularly assumed to have come from the Middle English word keep , meaning to hold or to protect .
Early on , the use of the word keep became associated with the idea of a tower in a castle that would serve both as a fortified , high @-@ status private residence and a refuge of last resort . The issue was complicated by the building of fortified Renaissance towers in Italy called tenazza that were used as defences of last resort and were also named after the Italian for to hold or to keep . By the 19th century , Victorian historians incorrectly concluded that the etymology of the words " keep " and tenazza were linked , and that all keeps had fulfilled this military function .
As a result of this evolution in meaning , the use of the term keep in historical analysis today can be problematic . Contemporary medieval writers used various terms for the buildings we would today call keeps . In Latin , they are variously described as turris , turris castri or magna turris – a tower , a castle tower , or a great tower . The 12th @-@ century French came to term them a donjon , from the Latin dominarium " lordship " , linking the keep and feudal authority . Similarly , medieval Spanish writers called the buildings torre del homenaje , or " place of homage . " In England , donjon turned into dungeon , which initially referred to a keep , rather than to a place of imprisonment .
This ambiguity over terminology has made historical analysis of the use of " keeps " problematic . While the term remains in common academic use , some academics prefer to use the term donjon , and most modern historians warn against using the term " keep " simplistically . The fortifications that we would today call keeps certainly did not necessarily form part of a unified medieval style , nor were they all used in a similar fashion during the period .
= = History = =
= = = Timber keeps ( 9th – 12th centuries ) = = =
The earliest keeps were built as part of motte @-@ and @-@ bailey castles from the 10th century onwards – a combination of documentary and archaeological evidence places the first such castle , built at Vincy , in 979 . These castles were initially built by the more powerful lords of Anjou in the late 10th and 11th centuries , in particular Fulk III and his son , Geoffrey II , who built a great number of them between 987 and 1060 . William the Conqueror then introduced this form of castle into England when he invaded in 1066 , and the design spread through south Wales as the Normans expanded up the valleys during the subsequent decades .
In a motte @-@ and @-@ bailey design , a castle would include a mound called a motte , usually artificially constructed by piling up turf and soil , and a bailey , a lower walled enclosure . A keep and a protective wall would usually be built on top of the motte . Some protective walls around a keep would be large enough to have a wall @-@ walk around them , and the outer walls of the motte and the wall @-@ walk could be strengthened by filling in the gap between the wooden walls with earth and stones , allowing it to carry more weight – this was called a garillum . Smaller mottes could only support simple towers with room for a few soldiers , whilst larger mottes could be equipped with a much grander keep . Many wooden keeps were designed with a bretasche , a square structure that overhung from the upper floors of the building , enabling better defences and a more sturdy structural design . These wooden keeps could be protected by skins and hides to prevent them being easily set alight during a siege .
One contemporary account of these keeps comes from Jean de Colmieu around 1130 , who described how the nobles of the Calais region would build " a mound of earth as high as they can and dig a ditch about it as wide and deep as possible . The space on top of the mound is enclosed by a palisade of very strong hewn logs , strengthened at intervals by as many towers as their means can provide . Inside the enclosure is a citadel , or keep , which commands the whole circuit of the defences . The entrance to the fortress is by means of a bridge , which , rising from the outer side of the moat and supported on posts as it ascends , reches to the top of the mound . " At Durham Castle , contemporaries described how the keep arose from the " tumulus of rising earth " with a keep reaching " into thin air , strong within and without " , a " stalwart house ... glittering with beauty in every part " . As well as having defensive value , keeps and mottes sent a powerful political message to the local population .
Wooden keeps could be quite extensive in size and , as Robert Higham and Philip Barker have noted , it was possible to build " ... very tall and massive structures . " As an example of what these keeps may have comprised , the early 12th @-@ century chronicler Lambert of Ardres described the wooden keep on top of the motte at the castle of Ardres , where the " ... first storey was on the surface of the ground , where were cellars and granaries , and great boxes , tuns , casks , and other domestic utensils . In the storey above were the dwelling and common living @-@ rooms of the residents in which were the larders , the rooms of the bakers and butlers , and the great chamber in which the lord and his wife slept ... In the upper storey of the house were garret rooms ... In this storey also the watchmen and the servants appointed to keep the house took their sleep . "
In the Holy Roman Empire , tall , free @-@ standing wooden towers called Bergfriede were commonly built by the 11th century , either as part of motte @-@ and @-@ bailey designs or , as part of Hohenburgen castles , with characteristic inner and outer courts . Bergfriede , which take their name from the German for a belfry , had similarities to keeps , but are usually distinguished from them on account of Bergfriede having a smaller area or footprint , usually being non @-@ residential and being typically integrated into the outer defences of a castle , rather than being a safe refuge of last resort .
= = = Early stone keeps ( 10th – 12th centuries ) = = =
During the 10th century , a small number of stone keeps began to be built in France , such at the Château de Langeais : in the 11th century , their numbers increased as the style spread through Normandy across the rest of France and into England . Some existing motte @-@ and @-@ bailey castles were converted to stone , with the keep amongst usually the first parts to be upgraded , while in other cases new keeps were built from scratch in stone . These stone keeps were introduced into Ireland during the 1170s following the Norman occupation of the east of the country , where they were particularly popular amongst the new Anglo @-@ Norman lords . Two broad types of design emerged across France and England during the period : four @-@ sided stone keeps , known as Norman keeps or great keeps in English – a donjon carré or donjon roman in French – and circular shell keeps .
The reasons for the transition from timber to stone keeps are unclear , and the process was slow and uneven , taking many years to take effect across the various regions . Traditionally it was believed that stone keeps had been adopted because of the cruder nature of wooden buildings , the limited lifespan of wooden fortifications and their vulnerability to fire ; recent archaeological studies have however shown that many wooden castles were as robust and as sophisticated as their stone equivalents . Some wooden keeps were not converted into stone for many years and were instead expanded in wood , such as at Hen Domen . Nonetheless , stone became increasingly popular as a building material for keeps for both military and symbolic reasons .
Stone keep construction required skilled craftsmen . Unlike timber and earthworks , which could be built using unfree labour or serfs , these craftsmen had to be paid and stone keeps were therefore expensive . They were also relatively slow to erect , due to the limitations of the lime mortar used during the period – a keep 's walls could usually be raised by a maximum of only 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 6 metres ) a year ; the keep at Scarborough was not atypical in taking ten years to build . The number of such keeps remained relatively low : in England , for example , although several early stone keeps had been built after the conquest , there were only somewhere between ten and fifteen in existence by 1100 , and only around a hundred had been built by 1216 .
Norman keeps had four sides , with the corners reinforced by pilaster buttresses ; some keeps , particularly in Normandy and France , had a barlongue design , being rectangular in plan with their length twice their width , while others , particularly in England , formed a square . These keeps could be up to four storeys high , with the entrance placed on the first storey to prevent the door from being easily broken down ; early French keeps had external stairs in wood , whilst later castles in both France and England built them in stone . In some cases the entrance stairs were protected by additional walls and a door , producing a forebuilding . The strength of the Norman design typically came from the thickness of the keep 's walls : usually made of rag @-@ stone , these could be up to 24 feet ( 7 @.@ 3 metres ) thick , immensely strong , and producing a steady temperature inside the building throughout summer and winter . The larger keeps were subdivided by an internal wall while the smaller versions had a single , slightly cramped chamber on each floor . Usually only the first floor would be vaulted in stone , with the higher storeys supported with timbers .
There has been extensive academic discussion of the extent to which Norman keeps were designed with a military or political function in mind , particularly in England . Earlier analyses of Norman keeps focused on their military design , and historians such as R. Brown Cathcart King proposed that square keeps were adopted because of their military superiority over timber keeps . Most of these Norman keeps were certainly extremely physically robust , even though the characteristic pilaster buttresses added little real architectural strength to the design . Many of the weaknesses inherent to their design were irrelevant during the early part of their history . The corners of square keeps were theoretically vulnerable to siege engines and galleried mining , but before the introduction of the trebuchet at the end of the 12th century , early artillery stood little practical chance of damaging the keeps , and galleried mining was rarely practised . Similarly , the corners of a square keep created dead space that defenders could not fire at , but missile fire in castle sieges was less important until the introduction of the crossbow in the middle of the 12th century , when arrowslits began to be introduced .
Nonetheless , many stone Norman keeps made considerable compromises to military utility . Norwich Castle , for example , included elaborate blind arcading on the outside of the building and appears to have had an entrance route designed for public ceremony , rather than for defence . The interior of the keep at Hedingham could certainly have hosted impressive ceremonies and events , but contained numerous flaws from a military perspective . Important early English and Welsh keeps such as the White Tower , Colchester , and Chepstow were all built in a distinctive Romanesque style , often reusing Roman materials and sites , and were almost certainly intended to impress and generate a political effect amongst local people . The political value of these keep designs , and the social prestige they lent to their builders , may help explain why they continued to be built in England into the late 12th century , beyond the point when military theory would have suggested that alternative designs were adopted .
The second early stone design , emerging from the 12th century onwards , was the shell keep , a donjon annulaire in French , which involved replacing the wooden keep on a motte , or the palisade on a ringwork , with a circular stone wall . Shell keeps were sometimes further protected by an additional low protective wall , called a chemise , around their base . Buildings could then be built around the inside of the shell , producing a small inner courtyard at the centre . The style was particularly popular in south @-@ east England and across Normandy , although less so elsewhere . Restormel Castle is a classic example of this development , as is the later Launceston Castle ; prominent Normandy and Low Country equivalents include Gisors and the Burcht van Leiden – these castles were amongst the most powerful fortifications of the period . Although the circular design held military advantages over one with square corners , as noted above these really mattered from only the end of the 12th century onwards ; the major reason for adopting a shell keep design , in the 12th century at least , was the circular design of the original earthworks exploited to support the keep ; indeed , some designs were less than circular in order to accommodate irregular mottes , such as that found at Windsor Castle .
= = = Mid @-@ medieval keeps ( late 12th – 14th centuries ) = = =
During the second half of the 12th century , a range of new keep designs began to appear across France and England , breaking the previous unity of the regional designs . The use of keeps in castles spread through Iberia , but some new castles never incorporated keeps in their designs . One traditional explanation for these developments emphasises the military utility of the new approaches , arguing , for example , that the curved surfaces of the new keeps helped to deflect attacks , or that they drew on lessons learnt during the Crusades from Islamic practices in the Levant . More recent historical analysis , however , has emphasised the political and social drivers that underlay these mid @-@ medieval changes in keep design .
Through most of the 12th century , France was divided between the Capetian kings , ruling from the Île @-@ de @-@ France , and kings of England , who controlled Normandy and much of the west of France . Within the Capetian territories , early experimentation in new keep designs began at Houdan in 1120 , where a circular keep was built with four round turrets ; internally , however , the structure remained conventionally square . A few years later , Château d 'Étampes adopted a quatrefoil design . These designs , however , remained isolated experiments .
In the 1190s , however , the struggle for power in France began to swing in favour of Philip II , culminating in the Capetian capture of Normandy in 1204 . Philip II started to construct completely circular keeps , such as the Tour Jeanne d 'Arc , with most built in his newly acquired territories . The first of Philip 's new keeps was begun at the Louvre in 1190 and at least another twenty followed , all built to a consistent standard and cost . The architectural idea of circular keeps may have come from Catalonia , where circular towers in castles formed a local tradition , and probably carried some military advantages , but Philip 's intention in building these new keeps in a fresh style was clearly political , an attempt to demonstrate his new power and authority over his extended territories . As historian Philippe Durand suggests , these keeps provided military security and were a physical representation of the renouveau capétien , or Capetian renewal .
Keep design in England began to change only towards the end of the 12th century , later than in France . Wooden keeps on mottes ceased to be built across most of England by the 1150s , although they continued to be erected in Wales and along the Welsh Marches . By the end of the 12th century , England and Ireland saw a handful of innovative angular or polygonal keeps built , including the keep at Orford Castle , with three rectangular , clasping towers built out from the high , circular central tower ; the cross @-@ shaped keep of Trim Castle and the famous polygonal design at Conisborough . Despite these new designs , square keeps remained popular across much of England and , as late as the 1170s , square Norman great keeps were being built at Newcastle . Circular keep designs similar to those in France really became popular in Britain in the Welsh Marches and Scotland for only a short period during the early 13th century .
As with the new keeps constructed in France , these Anglo @-@ Norman designs were informed both by military thinking and by political drivers . The keep at Orford has been particularly extensively analysed in this regard , and although traditional explanations suggested that its unusual plan was the result of an experimental military design , more recent analysis concludes that the design was instead probably driven by political symbolism and the need for Henry to dominate the contested lands of East Anglia . The architecture would , for mid @-@ 12th century nobility , have summoned up images of King Arthur or Constantinople , then the idealised versions of royal and imperial power . Even formidable military designs such as that at Château Gaillard were built with political effect in mind . Gaillard was designed to reaffirm Angevin authority in a fiercely disputed conflict zone and the keep , although militarily impressive , contained only an anteroom and a royal audience chamber , and was built on soft chalk and without an internal well , both serious defects from a defensive perspective .
During most of the medieval period , Iberia was divided between Christian and Islamic kingdoms , neither of which traditionally built keeps , instead building watchtowers or mural towers . By the 12th century , however , the influence of France and the various military orders was encouraging the development of square keeps in Christian castles across the region , and by the second half of the century this practice was spread across into the Islamic kingdoms .
By contrast , the remainder of Europe saw stone towers being used in castles , but not in a way that fulfilled the range of functions seen in the western European keeps . In the Low Countries , it became popular for the local nobility to build stand @-@ alone , square towers , but rarely as part of a wider castle . Similarly , square stone towers became popular in Venice , but these did not fulfil the same role as western keeps . In Germany , rectangular stone castles began to replace motte @-@ and @-@ bailey castles from the 12th century onwards . These designs included stone versions of the traditional Bergfriede , which still remained distinct from the domestic keeps used in more western parts of Europe , with the occasional notable exception , such as the large , residential Bergfried at Eltville Castle .
Several designs for new castles emerged that made keeps unnecessary . One such design was the concentric approach , involving exterior walls guarded with towers , and perhaps supported by further , concentric layered defenses : thus castles such as Framlingham never had a central keep . Military factors may well have driven this development : R. Brown , for example , suggests that designs with a separate keep and bailey system inherently lacked a co @-@ ordinated and combined defensive system , and that once bailey walls were sophisticated enough , a keep became militarily unnecessary . In England , gatehouses were also growing in size and sophistication until they too challenged the need for a keep in the same castle . The classic Edwardian gatehouse , with two large , flanking towers and multiple portcullises , designed to be defended from attacks both within and outside the main castle , has been often compared to the earlier Norman keeps : some of the largest gatehouses are called gatehouse keeps for this reason .
The quadrangular castle design that emerged in France during the 13th century was another development that removed the need for a keep . Castles had needed additional living space since their first emergence in the 9th century ; initially this had been provided by halls in the bailey , then later by ranges of chambers alongside the inside of a bailey wall , such as at Goodrich . But French designs in the late 12th century took the layout of a contemporary unfortified manor house , whose rooms faced around a central , rectangular courtyard , and built a wall around them to form a castle . The result , illustrated initially at Yonne , and later at Château de Farcheville , was a characteristic quadrangular layout with four large , circular corner towers . It lacked a keep , which was not needed to support this design .
= = = Late medieval keeps ( 14th – 16th centuries ) = = =
The end of the medieval period saw a fresh resurgence in the building of keeps in western castles . Some castles continued to be built without keeps : the Bastille in the 1370s , for example , combined a now traditional quadrangular design with machicolated corner towers , gatehouses and moat ; the walls , innovatively , were of equal height to the towers . This fashion became copied across French and in England , particularly amongst the nouveau riche , for example at Nunney . The royalty and the very wealthiest in France , England and Spain , however , began to construct a small number of keeps on a much larger scale than before , in England sometimes termed tower keeps , as part of new palace fortresses . This shift reflected political and social pressures , such as the desire of the wealthiest lords to have privacy from their growing households of retainers , as well as the various architectural ideas being exchanged across the region , despite the ongoing Hundred Years War between France and England .
The resurgence in French keep design began after the defeat of the royal armies at the battles of Crécy in 1346 and Poitiers in 1356 , which caused high levels of social unrest across the remaining French territories . Charles V of France attempted to restore French royal authority and prestige through the construction of a new range of castles . The Château de Vincennes , where a new keep was completed under Charles by 1380 , was the first example of these palace fortresses . The keep at Vincennes was highly innovative : six stories high , with a chemin de ronde running around the machicolated battlements ; the luxuriously appointed building was protected by an enceinte wall that formed a " fortified envelope " around the keep . The Vincennes keep was copied elsewhere across France , particularly as the French kings reconquered territories from the English , encouraging a style that emphasised very tall keeps with prominent machicolations . No allowance for the emerging new gunpowder weapons was made in these keeps , although later in the century gunports were slowly being added , as for example by Charles VI to his keep at Saint @-@ Malo .
The French model spread into Iberia in the second half of the century , where the most powerful nobles in Castile built a number of similar tall keeps , such as that at Peñafiel , taking advantage of the weakness of the Castilian Crown during the period . Henry IV of Castile responded in the 15th century by creating a sequence of royal castles with prominent keeps at the Castle of La Mota , Portillo , and Alcázar of Segovia : built to particular proportions , these keeps became known as a key element of the Valladolid school of Spanish castle design . Smaller versions of these keeps were subsequently built by many aspiring new aristocracy in Spain , including many converted Jews , keen to improve their social prestige and position in society . The French model of tall keeps was also echoed in some German castles , such as that at Karlštejn , although the layout and positioning of these towers still followed the existing bergfried model , rather than that in western castles .
The 15th and 16th centuries saw a small number of English and occasional Welsh castles develop still grander keeps . The first of these large tower keeps were built in the north of England during the 14th century , at locations such as Warkworth . They were probably partially inspired by designs in France , but they also reflected the improvements in the security along the Scottish border during the period , and the regional rise of major noble families such as the Percies and the Nevilles , whose wealth encouraged a surge in castle building at the end of the 14th century . New castles at Raby , Bolton , and Warkworth Castle took the quadrangular castle styles of the south and combined them with exceptionally large tower keeps to form a distinctive , northern style . Built by major noble houses , these castles were typically even more opulent than the smaller castles like Nunney , built by the nouveau riche . They marked what historian Anthony Emery has described as a " ... second peak of castle building in England and Wales , " following on from the Edwardian designs at the end of the 14th century .
In the 15th century , the fashion for the creation of very expensive , French @-@ influenced palatial castles featuring complex tower keeps spread , with new keeps being built at Wardour , Tattershall , and Raglan Castle . In central and eastern England , some keeps began to be built in brick , with Caister and Tattershall forming examples of this trend . In Scotland , the construction of Holyrood Great Tower between 1528 and 1532 drew on this English tradition , but incorporated additional French influences to produce a highly secure but comfortable keep , guarded by a gun park . These tower keeps were expensive buildings to construct , each built to a unique design for a specific lord and , as historian Norman Pounds has suggested , they " ... were designed to allow very rich men to live in luxury and splendour . "
At the same time as these keeps were being built by the extremely wealthy , much smaller , keep @-@ like structures called tower houses or peel towers were built across Ireland , Scotland , and northern England , often by relatively poorer local lords and landowners . It was originally argued that Irish tower houses were based on the Scottish design , but the pattern of development of such castles in Ireland does not support this hypothesis . A tower house would typically be a tall , square , stone @-@ built , crenelated building ; Scottish and Ulster tower houses were often also surrounded by a barmkyn or bawn wall . Most academics have concluded that tower houses should not be classified as keeps but rather as a form of fortified house .
As the 16th century progressed , keeps fell out of fashion once again . In England , the gatehouse also began to supplant the keep as the key focus for a new castle development . By the 15th century , it was increasingly unusual for a lord to build both a keep and a large gatehouse at the same castle , and by the early 16th century , the gatehouse had easily overtaken the keep as the more fashionable feature : indeed , almost no new keeps were built in England after this period . The classical Palladian style began to dominate European architecture during the 17th century , causing a further move away from the use of keeps . Buildings in this style usually required considerable space for the enfiladed formal rooms that became essential for modern palaces by the middle of the century , and this style was impossible to fit into a traditional keep . The keep at Bolsover Castle in England was one of the few to be built as part of a Palladian design .
= = = Later use and destruction of keeps ( 17th – 21st centuries ) = = =
From the 17th century onwards , some keeps were deliberately destroyed . In England , many were destroyed after the end of the Second English Civil War in 1649 , when Parliament took steps to prevent another royalist uprising by slighting , or damaging , castles so as to prevent them from having any further military utility . Slighting was quite expensive and took considerable effort to carry out , so damage was usually done in the most cost efficient fashion with only selected walls being destroyed . Keeps were singled out for particular attention in this process because of their continuing political and cultural importance , and the prestige they lent their former royalist owners – at Kenilworth , for example , only the keep was slighted , and at Raglan , the keep was the main focus of parliamentary activity . There was some equivalent destruction of keeps in France in the 17th and 18th centuries , such as the slighting of Montaiguillon by Cardinal Richelieu in 1624 , but the catalogue of damage was far less than that of the 1640s and early 1650s in England .
In England , ruined medieval castles became fashionable again in the middle of the 18th century . They were considered an interesting counterpoint to Palladian classical architecture , and gave a degree of medieval allure to their owners . Some keeps were modified to exaggerate this effect : Hawarden , for example , was remodelled to appear taller but also more decayed , the better to produce a good silhouette . The interest continued and , in the late 18th and 19th century , it became fashionable to build intact , replica castles in England , resulting in what A. Rowan has called the Norman style of new castle building , characterised by the inclusion of large keeps ; the final replica keep to be built in this way was at Penrhyn between 1820 and 1840 .
Where there was an existing castle on a site , another response across 19th @-@ century Europe was to attempt to improve the buildings , bringing their often chaotic historic features into line with a more integrated architectural aesthetic , in a style often termed Gothic Revivalism . There were numerous attempts to restore or rebuild keeps so as to produce this consistently Gothic style : in England , the architect Anthony Salvin was particularly prominent – as illustrated by reworking and heightening of the keep at Windsor Castle , while in France , Eugène Viollet @-@ le @-@ Duc reworked the keeps at castles in locations like Pierrefonds during the 1860s and 1870s , admittedly in a largely speculative fashion , since the original keep had been mostly destroyed in 1617 .
The Spanish Civil War and First and Second World Wars in the 20th century caused damage to many castle keeps across Europe ; in particular , the famous keep at Coucy was destroyed by the German Army in 1917 . By the late 20th century , however , the conservation of castle keeps formed part of government policy across France , England , Ireland , and Spain . In the 21st century in England , most keeps are in ruins and form part of the tourism and heritage industries , rather than being used as functioning buildings – the keep of Windsor Castle being a rare exception . This is contrast to the fate of bergfried towers in Germany , large numbers of which were restored as functional buildings in the late 19th and early 20th century , often as government offices or youth hostels , or the modern conversion of tower houses , which in many cases have become modernised domestic homes .
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= Typhoon Rammasun ( 2008 ) =
Typhoon Rammasun , known in the Philippines as Typhoon Butchoy , was recognized as the second typhoon of the 2008 Pacific typhoon season by the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) and the Philippine Atmospheric , Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration ( PAGASA ) . Rammasun was also recognised as the third tropical storm , the second typhoon and the first super typhoon of the 2008 Pacific typhoon season by the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) .
Rammasun formed on May 5 as a tropical disturbance . The next day the Joint Typhoon Warning Center issued a tropical cyclone formation alert on the developing disturbance . On May 7 both the JTWC and the Japan Meteorological Agency designated the disturbance as a tropical depression , while PAGASA named the depression Butchoy . Later that day both the JMA and the JTWC upgraded the depression to a tropical storm with the JMA naming the storm Rammasun . On May 9 both the JTWC and the JMA upgraded Rammasun to a typhoon . The next day the JMA and the JTWC reported that Rammasun had reached its peak winds of 195 km / h ( 120 mph ) and 250 km / h ( 155 mph ) respectively , which made Rammasun a Category 4 super typhoon on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale . After reaching its peak intensity , Rammasun weakened and was downgraded to severe tropical storm on May 12 , before the JTWC declared it extratropical and issued their final advisory . The JMA did not issue their final advisory until several hours later . Within Japan an estimated 10 hectares ( 24 @.@ 7 acres ) of farmland were damaged . In all , the typhoon killed four people , injured 40 others and caused $ 9 @.@ 6 million ( 2008 USD ) worth of damage in both the Philippines and Japan .
= = Meteorological history = =
On May 4 , 2008 , an area of low pressure formed in the Pacific Ocean to the southeast of Yap . The next day , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) upgraded the area of low pressure to a tropical disturbance and assessed the disturbances chances of forming into a significant tropical cyclone within 24 hours as poor . This was because the developing low level circulation center was weak . Early on May 6 , the JTWC upgraded the disturbances chances of forming into a tropical cyclone within 24 hours to " fair " , as the low level circulation center had consolidated further . A Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert was then issued later that day , by the JTWC who upgraded the disturbance 's chances of becoming a tropical cyclone by the next day as good .
Early the next day both the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) and the Philippine Atmospheric , Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration ( PAGASA ) designated the tropical disturbance as a tropical depression with PAGASA assigning the local name of Butchoy to the depression . At this time the depression was located 790 km , ( 490 miles ) , to the east of Mindanao in the Philippines . Later that morning the JMA started to issue full advisories on the tropical depression as forecasts showed that the depression could become a tropical storm within 24 hours . The JTWC then designated the depression as Tropical Depression 02W . Later that day both the JTWC and the JMA reported that the depression intensified into a tropical storm , with the JMA assigning the name Rammasun to the storm .
Rammasun continued to intensify and was designated as a severe tropical storm late on May 8 . The next day both the JMA and the JTWC reported that Rammasun had intensified into a typhoon . Later that day the JTWC reported that the typhoon had rapidly intensified within the last six hours and had become a Category 3 typhoon on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale . At the same time the JMA were reporting that Rammasun had winds of 150 km / h ( 90 mph ) . The typhoon then continued to intensify quickly with the JMA reporting that Rammasun had winds of 160 km / h ( 100 mph ) , the JTWC then reported that Rammasun had become a Category 4 typhoon with winds of 225 km / h ( 140 mph ) . Later that day both the JMA and the JTWC reported that the typhoon had reached its peak winds . The JMA reported peak winds of 195 km / h ( 120 mph ) whilst the JTWC reported that Rammasun had peak winds of 250 km / h ( 155 mph ) , making it a category 4 super typhoon . Typhoon Rammasun 's minimum pressure was officially estimated at 915 hPa which tied with Intense Tropical Cyclone Hondo as second strongest storm of 2008 .
The JTWC kept Rammasun as a super typhoon until early on May 11 , when they reported that the typhoon had weakened into a category four typhoon , while the JMA were reporting that the typhoon had wind speeds of 175 km / h ( 110 mph ) . Later that day both agencies reported that the typhoon had weakened even further , with the JMA reporting that Rammasun had winds of 160 km / h ( 100 mph ) , while the JTWC reported that Rammasun had weakened into a Category 3 typhoon . The JTWC then reported within their next advisory that Rammasun had weakened into a Category 2 typhoon whilst the JMA reported that the typhoon had winds of 140 km / h ( 90 mph ) . The next day as the Typhoon moved out of PAGASA 's area of responsibility Rammasun was downgraded to a Category 1 typhoon by the JTWC . Later that day the JMA downgraded Rammasun to a Severe Tropical Storm whilst the JTWC downgraded it to an extratropical cyclone and released their final advisory on the system . The JMA continued to issue advisories on severe tropical storm Rammasun until early the next day when they downgraded it to an extratropical low .
= = Naming , preparations and impact = =
The name " Rammasun " was one of the 10 original names submitted by Thailand to the ESCAP / WMO Typhoon Committee for use from January 1 , 2000 . Rammasun is the Thai god for thunder . The name was last used in the 2002 Pacific typhoon season , though it was retired in 2015 after Typhoon Rammasun ( the same name used for the 2014 season , Typhoon Glenda in the Philippines ) left considerable damages in the Philippines , China and Vietnam . The Philippine Atmospheric , Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration ( PAGASA ) also assigned the local name of " Butchoy " to Rammasun ; the name " Butchoy " was last used by PAGASA to name a tropical depression in the Philippines in 2004 to name Tropical Storm 02W .
Within the Philippines , PAGASA issued no public storm warning signals , as the storm was too far away from the country to prompt the issuance of such advisories . However , they did warn that the cyclone was expected to enhance the southwest monsoon and bring rain over Central and Southern Luzon , Visayas and Mindanao .
= = = Philippines = = =
On May 12 , a father of two drowned in rough seas produced by Rammasun after saving his children . Later that day , a boat carrying 17 people capsized due to rough seas produced by the typhoon . All of the passengers were rescued the following day by the Philippine Coast Guard . Heavy rains from the outer bands of Rammasun triggered flooding and mudslides in the Philippines . Strong winds also downed numerous trees , one of which , measured at 60 centimetres ( 2 @.@ 0 ft ) in diameter , fell on three forest guards , killing two and critically injuring the other . In Jaro , Iloilo City , a swollen river overflowed its banks , inundating the district . Local reports stated that water in the area was waist @-@ deep in places . In Cauayan , a 15 @-@ year @-@ old girl drowned after being washed away while crossing a bridge . Flooding in Hinoba @-@ an , Negros Occidental destroyed six homes and damaged 24 others . An estimated 3 @,@ 153 families were affected by the storm in the Philippines . A strong extratropical storm from the " tail " of the former typhoon struck the Philippines after Rammasun had become extratropical . The associated winds caused severe damage to buildings , and numerous trees were uprooted . The damage may have been due to a possible tornado , although this possibility is not confirmed . At least 40 people were injured and damage totaled to PHP 61 million ( $ 1 @.@ 2 million USD ) .
= = = Japan = = =
On May 12 , the Japan Meteorological Agency issued warnings for the Tokyo area as Rammasun was forecast to make landfall near the city . As Rammasun became extratropical , the storm brushed the Japanese coastline on May 13 , producing winds gusting up to 85 km / h ( 50 mph ) and high waves for several hours . An estimated 10 hectares ( 24 @.@ 7 acres ) of farmland were damaged . Damage from the storm amounted to ¥ 770 million ( $ 8 @.@ 4 million 2008 USD ) in agricultural losses .
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= 1855 Atlantic hurricane season =
The 1855 Atlantic hurricane season featured tropical cyclone landfalls in the Gulf Coast of the United States , the Greater Antilles , and Mexico , but none along the East Coast of the United States . It was inactive , with only five known tropical cyclones . Operationally , another tropical storm was believed to have existed offshore Atlantic Canada in late August and early September , but HURDAT – the official Atlantic hurricane database – now excludes this system . The first system , Hurricane One , was initially observed on August 6 . The final storm , Hurricane Five , was last observed on September 17 . These dates fall within the period with the most tropical cyclone activity in the Atlantic . At one point during the season , two tropical cyclones existed simultaneously . Two of the cyclones only have a single known point in their tracks due to a sparsity of data , so storm summaries for those systems are unavailable .
Of the season 's five tropical cyclones , four reached hurricane status . Furthermore , one of those four strengthened into a major hurricane , which are Category 3 or higher on the modern @-@ day Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale . The strongest cyclone of the season , Hurricane Five , peaked at Category 3 strength with 125 mph ( 205 km / h ) winds . It brought only minor impact to Louisiana and Mississippi . The first storm of the season brought locally severe impact to Tampico , Tamaulipas , Mexico in early August . Tropical Storm Four caused severe damage in the Lesser Antilles .
The season 's activity was reflected with a low accumulated cyclone energy ( ACE ) rating of 18 . This was the lowest value on record until a rating of 13 during the 1907 season . ACE is , broadly speaking , a measure of the power of the hurricane multiplied by the length of time it existed , so storms that last a long time , as well as particularly strong hurricanes , have high ACEs . ACE is only calculated for full advisories on tropical systems at or exceeding 34 knots ( 39 mph , 63 km / h ) or tropical storm strength .
= = Storms = =
= = = Hurricane One = = =
Based on newspaper reports , the first hurricane of the season was within the vicinity of Tampico , Tamaulipas on August 6 . Maximum sustained winds were at 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) , indicating a Category 2 hurricane . No further information is available on the meteorological history of this storm . However , it is possible that the storm developed in the Caribbean Sea in late July , due to data obtained from the barque Bercaldine . Torrential rainfall in the Tampico area caused disastrous flooding , with heavy damage to goods and property . Eleven vessels were docked at Tampico , some of which lost their cargo . At the mouth of the Pánuco River , a pilot station and a fort were swept away . The event was considered " the worst inundation of Tampico over the last 30 years " .
= = = Hurricane Two = = =
The ship James Foster Jr. encountered a hurricane on August 10 , while located about 575 miles ( 925 km ) east @-@ southeast of Cape Race , Newfoundland . Sustained winds of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) were observed , equivalent to a Category 2 hurricane . Data from the James Foster Jr. and Rebecca indicate that the storm moved rapidly northeastward . This system was last noted about 560 miles ( 900 km ) west of Ireland on August 11 .
= = = Hurricane Three = = =
The HMS Walverine reported a hurricane at 12 @.@ 5 ° N , 83 @.@ 0 ° W , which is located about 15 miles ( 24 km ) north of Corn Islands , Nicaragua . A sustained wind speed of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) was observed . Shortly thereafter , the HMS Walverine was wrecked and no further information is known about this storm .
= = = Tropical Storm Four = = =
Based on reports of a strong gale , a tropical storm was first tracked about 250 miles ( 400 km ) east @-@ southeast of Barbados early on August 24 . It initially headed westward , before re @-@ curving west @-@ northwestward early on the following day . Shortly thereafter , the storm passed through the Windward Islands between Grenada and Saint Vincent and the Grenadines . The storm peaked with winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) while moving northwestward across the Caribbean Sea . It weakened slightly before making landfall near San Pedro de Macorís , Dominican Republic with winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) early on August 27 . The storm slowly weakened over Hispaniola and was last noted near Bombardopolis , Haiti later that day .
There was considerable damage in the Lesser Antilles . On Saint Vincent , rains destroyed roads and a number of houses . Many sugar cane fields were also ruined . Several vessels were lost there and on other islands , including Barbados , Dominica , and Martinique . On Saint Croix in the present @-@ day U.S. Virgin Islands , at least one vessel was destroyed by the heavy gales . There were also strong gales reported in Puerto Rico and Dominican Republic .
= = = Hurricane Five = = =
The ship Orphan encountered a hurricane with winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) in the central Gulf of Mexico on September 15 . It strengthened quickly while moving northward , becoming a Category 2 hurricane later that day . By 0000 UTC on September 16 , the storm peaked as a Category 3 hurricane with maximum sustained winds of 125 mph ( 205 km / h ) , making it the strongest tropical cyclone of the season . Shortly thereafter , the hurricane made landfall near Buras @-@ Triumph , Louisiana at the same intensity . It weakened after moving inland , decreasing to Category 1 intensity later on September 16 . Early on the following day , the system weakened to a tropical storm , several hours before dissipating over central Alabama .
This was regarded as the worst hurricane in the region since 1819 . In Louisiana , winds and storm surge impacted the eastern portions of the state . The wharf and bathhouse in Proctorville were swept away . About 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) of water was reported at Proctor 's Landing . A combination of strong winds and storm surge destroyed a number of houses along the shores of Lake Borgne . Along the coast of Mississippi , most structures were swept to sea . The foundation of the Biloxi Lightouse was endangered due to erosion from this storm . The Cat Island Lighthouse was also left in " severe peril " . Several ships were damaged or capsized in the Mississippi River , including the Atchafalaya , J.S. Chenoweth , Ship Shoal , and Venice .
= = = Other storms = = =
In addition to the five tropical systems , another storm was operationally believed to have existed in late August and early September . The ship Atlantic encountered a very heavy gale while located west of Sable Island , Nova Scotia on August 31 . The storm moved rapidly east @-@ northeastward offshore Atlantic Canada . It was last noted on September 2 and was thought to have transitioned into an extratropical cyclone . However , HURDAT no longer includes this system in its database .
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= Excelsis Dei =
" Excelsis Dei " is the eleventh episode of the second season of the science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered in the United States on the Fox network on December 16 , 1994 . It was written by Paul Brown and directed by Stephen Surjik . The episode is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , unconnected to the series ' wider mythology . " Excelsis Dei " earned a Nielsen household rating of 8 @.@ 9 , being watched by 8 @.@ 5 million households in its initial broadcast . The episode received mixed reviews from television critics ; although some complimented the episode 's effects , others were critical of the way the show handled rape .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . Mulder is a believer in the paranormal , while the skeptical Scully has been assigned to debunk his work . In the episode Mulder and Scully are called in to investigate a claim of rape made by a nurse at a nursing home ; the case falls into the purview of the X @-@ Files because the assailant appears to have been a disembodied spirit .
Surjik personally asked if he could direct the episode because he was a fan of the series ; this was his only credit for the series . Filming the episode was difficult for the cast and crew due largely to the fact that the script arrived for the cast and crew to film only two days in advance . Other issues arose because of technical reasons ; one scene required flooding a hallway with 3 @,@ 300 gallons of water . Many of the scenes were filmed at Riverview Hospital , a mental health facility located in Coquitlam , British Columbia .
= = Plot = =
Agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) are called to the Excelsis Dei private nursing home in Worcester , Massachusetts in order to investigate a nurse 's claim that she was raped by an invisible entity . Severely bruised , Michelle Charters ( Teryl Rothery ) claims that she knows who was responsible and names the attacker as Hal Arden , an elderly resident of Excelsis Dei . When questioned , Arden admits that he made sexual overtures to her , but claims that it was harmless and that he is too elderly to have done anything .
As Mulder and Scully investigate , they discover a Malaysian orderly is illicitly giving the patients an herbal drug made of mushrooms he cultures in the building 's basement . The drug cures their Alzheimer 's , but also allows them to see the spirits of people who have died in the nursing home and channel them into existence . In this state , the spirits assault and murder the orderlies that have looked down on them and treated them poorly while they were patients . When a patient overdoses on the drug , the spirits once again attack Charters , trapping her and Mulder in the bathroom , which begins flooding .
As Scully and the home 's head doctor manage to stop the patient 's seizures , the spirits disappear and the bathroom door gives way , freeing Mulder and Charters . The government of Massachusetts takes over the facility , and the orderly supplying the medicine is turned over to immigration services . The remaining original patients , no longer having access to the drug , revert to their previous state of dementia .
= = Production = =
" Excelsis Dei " was written by Paul Brown , his second and last script after the earlier episode " Ascension " . The episode was directed by Stephen Surjik , his only credit for the series . Surjik requested to direct an episode because he was a fan of the show . The episode was noticeably difficult to create ; the book The Complete X @-@ Files notes that the entry " gave the staff headaches — both during the shoot and editing process " . This was due largely to the fact that the script arrived for the cast and crew to film only two days in advance . In order to film the scene featuring the bathroom door bursting with water — a scene Matt Hurwitz and Chris Knowles called " nail @-@ biting " — special effects supervisor Dave Gauthier built a tank and flooded the set hallway with 3 @,@ 300 gallons of water . One part of the episode that never made the final cut was an extended look at Michelle 's love life . In the script , she is explicitly described as a lesbian and her lover enters her apartment to talk to her . Series creator Chris Carter eventually decided to remove the scene because he felt it " felt gratuitous at that point " .
Many of the scenes were filmed at Riverview Hospital , a mental health facility located in Coquitlam , British Columbia . While filming at the site , several of the members of the production staff claimed they heard mysterious voices and did not dare to " venture into the bowels of the building " for fear that the location was haunted . The episode features several actresses that had previously had parts in other episode of The X @-@ Files . Tasha Simms , who portrayed the daughter of Stan Phillips in the episode , had previously played the part of Cindy Reardon 's mother in the first season episode " Eve " . Sheila Moore , who had appeared as a background character in the episode " Deep Throat " appears in the episode as the director of the home .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Excelsis Dei " premiered in the United States on the Fox network on December 16 , 1994 . This episode earned a Nielsen rating of 8 @.@ 9 , with a 15 share , meaning that roughly 8 @.@ 9 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 15 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . It was viewed by 8 @.@ 5 million households .
Critical reception to the episode was mostly mixed . Entertainment Weekly gave the episode a grade of B- , calling it " offbeat and cute " . Zack Handlen from The A.V. Club was mixed , writing that " the handling of the rape case left a bad taste in my mouth " and that the resolution was " a bit fuzzy " . John Keegan from Critical Myth gave the episode a mixed review and awarded it a 6 / 10 , noting " Overall , this episode focused on a very interesting concept , but the execution of that concept is so hopelessly convoluted that it ’ s lost in the shuffle . However , using the disturbing and abusive atmosphere of a nursing home as a setting provides chills without the addition of sinister spirits , so on a gut level , the episode works well . " Sarah Stegall awarded the episode three stars out of five and noted " could have gotten five [ stars ] out of five " , but that the episode 's lack of closure and the presence of too many questions left unresolved caused it to be less than one of " the best episodes " . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , gave the episode a largely critical review and rated it one star out of five . The two referred to the entry as " the idiot 's version " of the earlier episode " One Breath " . Shearman and Pearson derided the handling of the rape , noting that " there 's a sour atmosphere to the whole proceedings " , pointing out that " only Scully shows the slightest concern that a woman 's been sexually assaulted . " However , the two called the ghost effects " eerie " , but concluded that the scripting was " very stupid " .
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= The Shirelles =
The Shirelles were an American girl group that achieved popularity in the early 1960s . They consisted of schoolmates Shirley Owens ( later Shirley Alston Reeves ) , Doris Coley ( later Doris Kenner @-@ Jackson ) , Addie " Micki " Harris ( later Addie Harris McFadden ) , and Beverly Lee .
Founded in 1957 for a talent show at their high school , they were signed by Florence Greenberg of Tiara Records . Their first single , " I Met Him on a Sunday " , was released by Tiara and licensed by Decca Records in 1958 . After a brief and unsuccessful period with Decca , they went with Greenberg to her newly formed company , Scepter Records . Working with Luther Dixon , the group rose to fame with " Tonight 's the Night " . After a successful period of collaboration with Dixon and promotion by Scepter , with seven top 20 hits , the Shirelles left Scepter in 1966 . Afterwards , they were unable to maintain their previous popularity .
The Shirelles have been described as having a " naive schoolgirl sound " that contrasted with the sexual themes of many of their songs . Several of their hits used strings and baião @-@ style music . They have been credited with launching the girl group genre , with much of their music reflecting the genre 's essence . Their acceptance by both white and black audiences , predating that of the Motown acts , has been noted as reflecting the early success of the African @-@ American Civil Rights Movement . They have received numerous honors , including the Pioneer Award from the Rhythm and Blues Foundation , as well as being accepted in the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1996 , and named one of the 100 best acts of all time by Rolling Stone in 2004 . Two of their songs , " Will You Love Me Tomorrow " and " Tonight 's the Night " , were selected by Rolling Stone on its list of the greatest songs of all time .
= = Initial career and success = =
The group that later became the Shirelles was formed in 1957 by four teenage girls from Passaic , New Jersey , under the name the Poquellos ( or Pequellos ) . The founding members , Shirley Owens ( born June 10 , 1941 ) , Doris Coley ( August 2 , 1941 – February 4 , 2000 ) , Addie " Micki " Harris ( January 22 , 1940 – June 10 , 1982 ) , and Beverly Lee ( born August 3 , 1941 ) , entered a talent show at Passaic High School at the suggestion of a teacher . After hearing them sing " I Met Him on a Sunday " , a song they had written for the show , their classmate Mary Jane Greenberg convinced the reluctant Poquellos to meet with her mother , Florence , the owner of Tiara Records . After several months of avoiding Greenberg and telling her that they were not interested in singing professionally , they were booked to Tiara . By the end of the year they had changed their name to the Shirelles , a combination of the first syllable of Owens ' given name and -el , reminiscent of then @-@ popular group the Chantels , after briefly using the name the Honeytunes . That year , they released their first song , " I Met Him on a Sunday " ; after local success , it was licensed to Decca Records for national broadcast and charted at # 50 . The song was influenced by doo @-@ wop , but infused with pop melodies .
Tiara Records , along with the Shirelles ' contract , was sold to Decca Records in 1959 for $ 4 @,@ 000 ; Greenberg stayed as the manager , securing performances for the group , including one at the Howard Theatre in Washington D.C. After two singles did poorly , including their first release — with Coley as lead vocalist — of " Dedicated to the One I Love " , a cover of the " 5 " Royales song of the same name , Decca returned them to Greenberg and gave up on them , considering them a one @-@ hit act . On Greenberg 's new label , Scepter Records , they rereleased " Dedicated to the One I Love " as a single , which peaked at # 89 ; Wayne Wadhams , David Nathan , and Susan Lindsay in Inside the Hits attribute the low rating to poor distribution . In order to better promote the group , Greenberg asked songwriter Luther Dixon , who had previously worked with Perry Como , Nat King Cole , and Pat Boone and co @-@ written the 1959 hit " 16 Candles " , to write for and produce songs for them . Dixon accepted .
Their first single produced with Dixon , " Tonight 's the Night " , was released in 1960 and peaked at # 39 . The success of " Tonight 's the Night " led to the girls being booked to perform with several major artists , such as Etta James and Little Richard , and facilitated Scepter 's move to a larger office . It was followed by " Will You Love Me Tomorrow " , written by husband @-@ wife songwriting team Gerry Goffin and Carole King ; the song went on to become the first Billboard number @-@ one hit by an African @-@ American girl group , possibly the first by any girl group . " Tonight 's the Night " was later used as the title song for the 1961 album Tonight 's the Night , which also included " Will You Love Me Tomorrow " and " Dedicated to the One I Love " .
After the success of their singles , the Shirelles became frequent guests of Murray the K , who hosted them on his " All Star Rock Shows " on the New York radio station WINS . During this same period they reissued " Dedicated to the One I Love " , which peaked at # 3 , followed by " Mama Said " , then " Baby It 's You " , written by Burt Bacharach , Luther Dixon , and Mack David , " Soldier Boy " , and " Boys " , with saxophonist King Curtis .
In 1963 Dixon left Scepter , which presaged a tailing @-@ off of the number of the Shirelles ' singles to chart . However , they carried on performing and recording . Dionne Warwick replaced Owens and Coley , who took leave to marry their fiancés , in concerts and the group continued to record material . That year , their song " Foolish Little Girl " reached the pop / R & B Top 10 , and they had a cameo in the film It 's a Mad , Mad , Mad , Mad World . However , later in 1963 they learned that the trust , holding their royalties , that they were supposed to receive from Scepter on their 21st birthdays , did not exist . In response , they left the label , and later filed a breach of contract suit against the company . Scepter met this with a countersuit for quitting ; both suits were withdrawn in 1965 , after an agreement was reached . Knowing that Scepter had lied about the trust disappointed the Shirelles , who felt deceived . In a 1981 interview with Bruce Pollock , Owens said that Greenberg had put on a " mother routine " , which the girls had " fall [ en ] for ... completely " .
= = Later career = =
In later years , the Shirelles declined in popularity due to pressure from the British Invasion and the heavy competition from other girl groups , including the Chiffons , the Dixie Cups , the Ronettes , the Supremes , and the Crystals . During this period , Warwick often replaced Coley due to the latter 's family commitments . The Shirelles were still bound to Scepter and thus unable to record for another company until the end of their contract in 1966 . Their last single to chart was 1967 's " Last Minute Miracle " , which peaked at # 99 .
After the commercial failure of their most recent releases , Coley left the group in 1968 to attend to her family . The remaining three Shirelles recorded songs for several labels , including Bell Records , RCA , and United Artists until 1971 . Afterwards , they toured singing their older songs , and participated in the filming of the 1973 documentary Let the Good Times Roll , recording two songs for it . Coley returned as lead singer in 1975 , replacing Owens , who left that year to pursue a solo career . In 1982 Harris died of a heart attack in the Hyatt Regency after two performances in Atlanta , Georgia , with the group . The following year , the remaining three original members performed " Will You Love Me Tomorrow " with Warwick on her album How Many Times Can We Say Goodbye .
= = Current versions of the group = =
Today , the original members tour in different , separate , groups , although the trademark to the Shirelles name was eventually acquired by Lee . Shirley Owens performed on the Doo Wop 51 PBS special in 2000 , and continues to tour under the name ' Shirley Alston Reeves and her Shirelles ' . Lee currently tours with new members , billed as " The Shirelles " . Coley died in Sacramento , California , on February 4 , 2000 , of breast cancer .
= = Style = =
Wadhams , Nathan , and Lindsay describe the style of the Shirelles early work as " tight , almost doo @-@ wop harmony " . Owens ' vocals , described by rock n ' roll writer Alwyn W. Turner as being " wonderfully expressive " , were capable of sounding " almost , but not quite " out of tune , which in his opinion led to Owens ' sounding innocent in her songs ; music critic Albin Zak describes her vocals as being able to intone desire and vulnerability . The other members , singing backup , also convey what Michael Campbell , a professor of music at Western Illinois University , calls a " naive schoolgirl sound " . The lyrics sung by the Shirelles tended to be fairly simple and " barely " concealed the subtexts of the songs . The songs were implicitly directed at female listeners , with the male subjects of songs being referred to as " he " instead of " you " ; this was a change from previous female @-@ written songs , which tended to be more gender neutral , and helped pave the way for the " confessional " songs of 70s singers like Joni Mitchell and Carole King .
Musically , their works with Dixon were influenced by Brazilian baião and featured numerous instances of syncopation .
= = Influences = =
Steve Huey of AllMusic notes that the Shirelles defined " the so @-@ called girl group sound with their soft , sweet harmonies and yearning innocence " , with their songs predating Motown in their widespread crossing of racial demographics , both in the US and in Britain . He also notes that they spawned " legions of imitators " , and laid a blueprint for future female pop stars to follow . Turner writes that the Shirelles " launched [ the girl group ] genre " , noting that their early work already included " the essence " of the genre ; Alwyn Zak expands on the statement , noting that the influx of female groups started after the success of " Will You Love Me Tomorrow " .
Michael Campbell notes that the Shirelles ' success reflected the African @-@ American Civil Rights Movement . He indicates that works such as " Will You Love Me Tomorrow " , written by a white couple , produced by an African @-@ American man , with vocals by young African @-@ American women and strings sounding like they were targeted at a white audience , conveyed a " color @-@ blind " message on top of its more obvious sexual one .
= = Accolades = =
In 1994 , the Shirelles were honored by the Rhythm and Blues Foundation with the Pioneer Award for their contributions to music . The award was accepted by Owens , Lee , and Kenner . As Coley was accepting her award , she said " This is dedicated to the one I love " , and sang an impromptu rendition of " Soldier Boy " together with Owens and Lee . Two years later they were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame , together with Gladys Knight and the Pips . At the ceremony in the Waldorf @-@ Astoria Hotel in New York , the three surviving members sang a medley of songs after being presented the awards by Merry Clayton , Marianne Faithfull , and Darlene Love . In 2002 , they were inducted into the Vocal Group Hall of Fame . Lee and Owens accepted the award .
In 2004 , Rolling Stone ranked them # 76 on their list of the 100 Greatest Artists of All Time . Paul Shaffer , who did the write @-@ up , wrote that the girl @-@ group sound , originated by them , was " everything to [ him ] " ; he also described their impromptu performance of " Soldier Boy " as inspiring . They also included two of the Shirelles ' songs , " Will You Love Me Tomorrow " and " Tonight 's the Night " , on their list of the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time . In the 2010 edition , " Will You Love Me Tomorrow " was ranked 126th , while " Tonight 's the Night " was ranked 409th .
In September 2008 , the Shirelles ' hometown of Passaic honored the group by renaming a section of Paulison Avenue between Passaic and Pennington Avenues ( the section where Passaic High School is located ) " Shirelles Boulevard " . The dedication ceremony was attended by both surviving Shirelles . Owens said that it was different than when they were inducted into the Hall of Fame , as it was their home town . She noted that " the people who loves [ sic ] us and we loved are right here . "
= = Stage musical = =
The Shirelles ' story was shown in Baby It 's You ! , a musical revue written by Floyd Mutrux and Colin Escott , which follows the story of Greenberg and Scepter Records . The revue played on Broadway for 148 performances , opening at the Broadhurst Theatre on April 27 , 2011 and closing on September 4 of the same year.The use of their likenesses without permission led to Lee , as well as the estates of Coley and Harris , to sue Warner Bros.
= = Discography = =
= = = Albums = = =
= = = Compilation Albums = = =
= = = Singles = = =
| * no RnB Charts printed by Billboard during these chart runs
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= Richard Barre =
Richard Barre ( c . 1130 – c . 1202 ) was a medieval English justice , clergyman and scholar . He was educated at the law school of Bologna and entered royal service under King Henry II of England , later working for Henry 's son and successor Richard I. He was also briefly in the household of Henry 's son Henry the Young King . Barre served the elder Henry as a diplomat and was involved in a minor way with the king 's quarrel with Thomas Becket , which earned Barre a condemnation from Becket . After King Henry 's death , Barre became a royal justice during Richard 's reign and was one of the main judges in the period from 1194 to 1199 . After disagreeing with him earlier in his career , Barre was discharged from his judgeship during John 's reign as king . Barre was also archdeacon of Ely and the author of a work of biblical extracts dedicated to one of his patrons , William Longchamp , the Bishop of Ely and Chancellor of England .
= = Early life = =
Whether Barre was a native of England or of Normandy is unknown , but his surname appears to derive from the Norman village of La Barre , near Bernay , in the present @-@ day department of Eure . He was likely born around 1130 and was related to Normandy 's Sifrewast family , knights in Berkshire . Barre had a relative , Hugh Barre , who was Archdeacon of Leicester in the 1150s . Barre studied law at Bologna in Italy before 1150 and was a student there with Stephen of Tournai , who became Bishop of Tournai in 1192 . Another fellow student wrote a short verse addressed to Barre : " Pontificum causas regumque negocia tractes , Qui tibi divicias deliciasque parant " , which translates to " May you manage the causes of bishops and the affairs of kings , Who provide riches and delights for you . " After finishing his schooling , Barre seems to have worked for either Robert de Chesney , the Bishop of Lincoln , or Nicholas , Archdeacon of Huntingdon ; the main evidence for this is that Barre witnessed charters for both men from 1160 to 1164 . By 1165 , Barre had joined the household of King Henry II of England .
= = Service to King Henry = =
Barre served King Henry during the king 's quarrel with Thomas Becket , the Archbishop of Canterbury , who had gone into exile in 1164 over the dispute about the limits of royal authority over the English Church . Because of Barre 's close ties to King Henry , Becket considered him one of the king 's " evil counselors " , and Barre was the subject of denunciations by the archbishop . In late August 1169 , Barre was in Normandy with Henry , where Barre was part of a group of ecclesiastics advising the king on how to resolve the Becket dispute . In September 1169 , Barre was sent along with two other clerks to Rome to complain about the behaviour of papal envoys during negotiations with Becket held at the beginning of September . The papal negotiators at first agreed to a compromise , but the next day claimed that the proposal was unacceptable . With the failure of the negotiations , Becket restored the sentences of excommunication on a number of royal officials , but Barre was not included among those specifically named even though many of his colleagues were . The historian Frank Barlow argues that Barre was not specifically named in the restoration of excommunications , as Becket considered him already excommunicated because of his association with those under the church 's ban .
During January and February 1170 the king sent Barre on a diplomatic mission to the pope in Rome , on a matter related to the king 's dispute with Becket . The mission attempted to secure the rescinding of the excommunication of those whom Becket had placed under clerical ban , but it was unsuccessful ; rumours circulated that the mission sought and secured papal permission for the coronation of King Henry 's eldest living son by someone other than Becket . When Becket protested to Pope Alexander III over this usurpation of the right of the archbishop to crown English kings , Alexander not only stated that no such permission had been granted but threatened to suspend or depose any bishop who crowned Henry 's heir . Barlow thinks it possible that Barre received a verbal agreement from the pope in January to allow the coronation , but there is no written evidence that Alexander agreed to allow the coronation in 1170 .
After Becket 's murder in December 1170 King Henry sent Barre to Rome , accompanied by the Archbishop of Rouen , the bishops of Évreux and Worcester , and other royal clerks , to plead the royal case with the papacy . The mission 's objective was to make it clear to Alexander that Henry had had nothing to do with Becket 's murder and that the king was horrified that it had taken place . Barre was at first refused a meeting with Alexander , but eventually the envoys were allowed to meet with the pope . Although the mission was not a complete success , the royal commission did manage to persuade the papacy not to impose an interdict , or ban on clerical rites , on England or to excommunicate the king . Shortly afterwards Barre was granted the office of Archdeacon of Lisieux , probably as a reward for his efforts in Rome in 1171 . In September he was named a royal justice . He was named chancellor to King Henry 's eldest living son Henry for a brief period in 1172 and 1173 , but when the younger Henry rebelled against his father and sought refuge at the French royal court , Barre refused to join him in exile and returned to the king 's service . Barre took with him the younger Henry 's seal .
In addition to the Lisieux archdeaconry , Barre held the prebend of Hurstborne and Burbage in the Diocese of Salisbury from 1177 and the prebend of Moreton and Whaddon in the Diocese of Hereford from 1180 through 1184 . He continued to hold the archdeaconry at Lisieux until 1188 , and was at Lisieux for most of the late 1170s and 1180s . In 1179 he was at Rouen for the display of the body of Saint Romanus and was one of the witnesses to the event . While holding his Norman archdeaconry , he gave land to the abbey of St @-@ Pierre @-@ sur @-@ Dives along with Ralph , Bishop of Lisieux . In February or March 1198 , King Henry sent Barre on a diplomatic mission to the continent with letters to Frederick Barbarossa , the German Emperor , Bela II , the King of Hungary , and Isaac II Angelos , the Emperor at Constantinople , seeking assistance for his projected crusade . Barre carried letters to the three rulers requesting passage through their lands and the right to procure supplies . Nothing came of this mission , as Henry died in 1189 before the crusade could set off .
= = Later years and death = =
After the death of King Henry , Barre joined the service of William Longchamp , the Bishop of Ely , who was justiciar and Lord Chancellor . Longchamp named Barre as Archdeacon of Ely , with the appointment occurring before 4 July 1190 . Longchamp sent Barre as a royal justice to the counties near Ely in 1190 . However , Longchamp was driven into exile in late 1191 owing to the hostility of the English nobility and Richard 's brother Prince John during Richard 's absence on the Third Crusade . Longchamp 's exile meant that Barre did not serve as a royal justice again until King Richard I returned to England in 1194 . Although Longchamp eventually returned to England , he did not return to his diocese , and much of the administration of Ely would have devolved on Barre during Longchamp 's absence .
Barre was one of the main royal justices between 1194 and 1199 . He also served as a lawyer for the new Bishop of Ely , Eustace , who was elected in August 1197 . But Barre had incurred the hostility of the king 's younger brother Prince John , and when John succeeded Richard as king in 1199 , Barre ceased to be employed as a royal justice , instead returning to Ely and business in his clerical office . His last sure mention in the historical record is on 9 August 1202 , when he was serving as a judge @-@ delegate for Pope Innocent III , but he may have been alive as late as 1213 , as he was part of a papal panel deciding a case that can only be securely dated to between 1198 and 1213 . Barre maintained his friendship with Stephen of Tournai , who corresponded with him later in their lives .
= = Literary work = =
Barre wrote a work on the Bible entitled Compendium de veteri et novo testamento , which he dedicated to Longchamp . The work arranged passages from the Bible under topics , and then annotated the passages with marginal notations such as were done with glosses on Roman law . It is still extant in two manuscript ( MS ) copies , MS British Library Harley 3255 , and Lambeth Palace MS 105 . The Harley manuscript is shorter than the Lambeth manuscript . Richard Sharpe , a modern historian who studied both works , stated that the Harley manuscript " provides [ a ] well structured and systematic ( though not complete ) coverage of the whole Bible . " Because of the dedication to William Longchamp as " bishop , legate , and chancellor " , it is likely that the work was composed between January 1190 and October 1191 , as Longchamp only held those three offices together during that period . The prologue to the work describes it as something to be used privately , and thus Sharpe feels that it was not intended to be a publicly published work ; instead Barre may have intended it for Longchamp 's private use in preparing sermons .
A third copy of Barre 's Compendium may have existed at Leicester Abbey , where a late 15th @-@ century library catalogue records a work by Barre on the Bible that the catalogue titles " Compendium Ricardi Barre super utroque testamento " . The title and contents make this manuscript likely to be a copy of the Compendium . The same catalogue also records five books once owned by Barre – copies of Gratian 's Decretum , Justinian 's Codex , glossed copies of the Psalter and some of the Epistles of Paul , as well as Peter Lombard 's Sentences . Also , another Leicester Abbey manuscript records some satirical verses that were said to have been written by Barre .
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= Brian Twyne =
Brian Twyne ( c . 25 July 1581 – 4 July 1644 ) was an antiquarian and an academic at the University of Oxford . After being educated at Corpus Christi College , Oxford , and becoming a Fellow of the college in 1606 , he published his one main work , a history of the university , in 1608 . This was designed to prove that Oxford was older than Cambridge University , and has been described by a modern writer as a " remarkable achievement for a young scholar of twenty @-@ eight . " His main accomplishment was to play a leading role in the revision of the university statutes under William Laud ( Chancellor of the University of Oxford and Archbishop of Canterbury ) . He was rewarded by appointment in 1634 to the new position of Keeper of the Archives , in which role he obtained a new royal charter for Oxford to confirm its rights and privileges , and helped the university in its disputes with the city authorities .
= = Education and early career = =
Brian Twyne was born on or near 25 July 1581 in Southwark , Surrey ( now part of London ) . His father was the translator and doctor Thomas Twyne , and his grandfather was the schoolmaster and antiquarian John Twyne . He was educated at Corpus Christi College , Oxford ( his father 's college ) , probably after attending the grammar school in Lewes , Sussex , where his father then lived . He matriculated on about 6 February 1596 , taking a place normally kept for a scholar from the county borough of Southampton as there was no vacancy for one from the county of Surrey ( under the system at Corpus Christi for admitting students ) . Taking another county 's vacancy was not unusual , however . He obtained his Bachelor of Arts degree on 23 July 1599 . Despite the assistance of his father 's patron Thomas Sackville , 1st Earl of Dorset ( Lord High Treasurer and Chancellor of the University ) , he failed to be elected to a fellowship at Merton College , Oxford . He studied with the mathematician Thomas Allen , encountering modern developments in astronomy and navigation , and also learned French , Italian and Hebrew . He became a Fellow of Corpus Christi in 1606 , and was ordained in the following year ; although he later became vicar of Rye , Sussex , he stayed in Oxford and the parish duties were undertaken by curates .
= = First history of the University = =
Twyne published one main work : Antiquitatis academiae Oxoniensis apologia , in 1608 . This has been described by Strickland Gibson ( Keeper of the Archives at Oxford 1927 – 1945 ) as being " of a controversial character , and not of a kind to establish his reputation as a sound historian . " It was the first history of the University of Oxford to appear in print , and addressed a dispute between Oxford and Cambridge Universities as to which was the older . Oxford 's contention was that it had originally been established at Cricklade ( or " Greeklade " ) by Trojans and some Greek philosophers under the leadership of Brutus after the Trojan War . Cambridge claimed to have been founded by a King Cantaber of Spain in the pre @-@ Christian era , and said that in contrast Oxford had only been founded by Alfred the Great in the 9th century . In 1603 , however , the historian William Camden published a new edition of the life of Alfred by the 9th @-@ century Welsh monk Asser . In this edition , Asser was recorded as stating that Alfred had visited Oxford in 886 to settle disputes between students – i.e. , the university existed before his visit . This strengthened Oxford 's claim to be older than Cambridge .
In the light of Camden 's publication , Twyne began collecting material to re @-@ establish Oxford as the senior university . He was given permission by the university to borrow documents for this purpose in May 1606 . The work ( running to 456 pages in three volumes ) relies upon archive documents held by the university , the colleges and the city of Oxford , as well as material from three Oxfordshire abbeys and the works of Homer , Aristotle , Cicero , and other classical authors . He submitted his work for inspection by a university committee in early 1608 . It was approved , with one of the four committee members praising the book 's style and learning . Gibson described it as " a remarkable achievement for a young scholar of twenty @-@ eight . " Nevertheless , it appears from Twyne 's records that he had considerable doubts as to the veracity of the material in Camden 's edition . Twyne had been unable to find the reference to Alfred 's visit to Oxford in any known manuscript of Asser 's work , and challenged Camden about it . Camden said that it came from a copy sent to him by Sir Henry Savile , Warden of Merton College , Oxford . It is now generally thought that Savile was responsible for the passage that made the false claim , and that Camden knew this . One more recent history of the university says that " even in his own time Twyne 's opinions on this subject [ i.e. when Oxford was founded ] were received with amused tolerance by the better informed of English antiquaries . "
Twyne dedicated the work to Robert Sackville , 2nd Earl of Dorset : the 1st Earl had died earlier in 1608 . It was published by the university printer , Joseph Barnes , who would have required guarantees for the costs : Gibson 's view was that these were probably provided by Thomas Allen , with the Earl paying " the customary honorarium " as dedicatee .
= = Work at Oxford = =
Twyne studied manuscripts at the Bodleian Library , founded by Thomas Bodley in 1602 . Thomas Twyne , his father , gave books to the library . When Bodley died in 1613 , Twyne was one of the contributors to a volume of verse commemorating him : he wrote eight poems in Latin and one in Greek , and recalled a comment by King James I that Bodley ought to be called " Sir Thomas Godley " . However , Twyne was displeased with the work of Thomas James , the first Bodley 's Librarian , complaining to the library authorities in November 1613 about missing manuscripts , inaccurate records and delays in accessing new acquisitions , and about the librarian 's poor attendance and his habit of scattering his papers around the desks . James was admonished for his conduct .
Thomas Anyan became President of Corpus Christi in 1614 , and he appointed Twyne as Greek lecturer . By 1623 , Twyne had resigned his fellowship , apparently ( according to the 17th @-@ century Oxford historian Antony Wood ) to avoid having to choose which side to support in a dispute between the college president and the fellows . He did not secure any further academic advancement : he hoped to be appointed Camden Professor of Ancient History on the death or resignation of Degory Wheare ( the first professor ) . According to Twyne , Camden promised this to him in a conversation in 1623 , and a patent sealed by Camden in March of that year to this effect was read out to the university 's governing body in January 1624 . Camden , however , wrote to Wheare shortly after the patent was signed and said that he had been tricked by some " foul play " and did not intend to appoint Twyne . In the end , Twyne died three years before Wheare . In 1624 , a House of Commons committee criticised Anyan for , amongst other things , excessive lenience to Twyne for his drunkenness .
= = Statutes and archives = =
The university 's statutes at this time were written in the registers of the chancellor and proctors . The chancellor 's register dated from 1315 , and the contents had been confusingly rearranged by rebinding . The two proctors ' registers , which dated from 1407 and 1477 , were in better arrangement , but repealed statutes remained next to ones that were current . Twyne was first appointed to a 28 @-@ strong committee for revising the statutes in 1614 , although nothing came of their work . He led efforts to improve the archives of Corpus Christi in 1627 and 1628 , producing 30 volumes of manuscript transcriptions of title deeds . In 1630 , Twyne was part of a new delegacy appointed by the new Chancellor of the University William Laud ( who was also Archbishop of Canterbury ) to revise the statutes . The other members were Robert Pink ( Warden of New College ) , Thomas James ( Bodley 's Librarian , later replaced on the committee by Peter Turner ) , and Richard Zouch ( Regius Professor of Civil Law ) . By 1631 , an inventory of the university 's archives had been made . Twyne , assisted by Zouch , carried out the bulk of the work in drafting new statutes , and it was reported to the university 's governing body on 1 September 1633 that work was complete . The Vice @-@ Chancellor asked Turner to make a final revision , and requested that Twyne write a historical account of the previous attempts to reform the statutes as a preface . To Twyne 's intense displeasure , the preface that he hurriedly wrote was shortened and rewritten extensively by Turner .
His reward , however , was to be the university 's first Keeper of the Archives , appointed on 11 August 1634 . The new statute governing the position noted the losses that Oxford had suffered because of the careless keeping of its archives , and the need for an experienced person to take charge of them and to advise the university 's officers in defending its interests . He was to be paid not less than £ 40 annually , with a levy of one shilling from each graduate and undergraduate . Thereafter , he sought to obtain royal confirmation of Oxford 's rights and privileges , to keep the city of Oxford subordinate to the university , and to match the position of Cambridge . A new royal charter was obtained in 1636 to confirm the revised statutes . Under Twyne and his successor as Keeper ( Gerard Langbaine ) , the archives were moved into one of the rooms in the Tower of the Five Orders in the Bodleian Library ; three of the wooden presses that were built at that time to store them are still in use .
Twyne advised the university authorities in their disputes with the city fathers in relation to courts , licensing , markets and other matters . He was " spurred on " , according to one historian of the university , by " violent antipathy towards townsmen " ; Twyne wrote that they were " too near engrafted into the university to be a body of themselves " . As a result , his actions in rejecting even minor claims by the local inhabitants sometimes led to worthless litigation .
= = Personal life = =
Knowledge of Twyne 's private life is derived from his frugal habit of reusing blank sides of letters that he received for making notes upon : in this way , some letters to and from his father between 1596 and 1613 have survived . As a student , Twyne wrote assuring his father that he was working hard , and asking for " money , clothes , books and cheese " . He complained that his allowance was not enough to employ someone to carry out tasks such as making the fire , but his father was unsympathetic . He also is shown to be a keen lute player . Later , his father raised the issue of marriage , and Twyne was anxious to put forward reasons why his father 's suggestion came at the wrong time , because of ( for example ) his lack of an income . His father 's death in 1613 not only freed him from parental pressure to marry , but also ( as the only surviving son ) led to his inheriting his father 's estate ; he remained single for the rest of his life .
= = Death and legacy = =
Twyne died on 4 July 1644 , having made a will earlier that day in which he left his books and manuscripts to his college and the university . He made some pecuniary bequests to friends and those who had assisted him in his final illness . His manuscript collections amounted to 24 main volumes ( about 12 @,@ 000 pages ) with other supplementary material . He was buried in the chapel of Corpus Christi . A hard @-@ working researcher and collector of manuscripts , he was highly regarded and consulted by the legal scholar John Selden , the historian William Camden and Archbishop James Ussher . A later Keeper of the Archives , Strickland Gibson , described him in 1940 as " one of the greatest of Oxford antiquaries " . Twyne 's collections , he said , were " one of his greatest achievements , and in themselves a monument . " They were used extensively by Antony Wood in his history of the university but ( noted Gibson ) without proper credit being given . He was , however , disliked intensely by the city authorities for his actions against them . As it happens , many of the town 's medieval records were lost in the early 17th century and are only known because Twyne had copied them into his collection .
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= Alpine Spaniel =
The Alpine Spaniel is an extinct breed of dog which was used in mountain rescues by the Augustinian Canons , who run hospices in the region around the Great St. Bernard Pass . The spaniel was a large dog notable for its thick curly coat . One of the most famous specimens of the Alpine Spaniel is Barry , however his preserved body has been modified on more than one occasion to fit with descriptions of the extinct breed from earlier time periods . Due to the conditions in the Alps , and a series of accidents , extinction was discussed as a possibility by authors during the 1830s , and at some point prior to 1847 the entire breed was reduced to a single example due to disease . Evidence held at the Natural History Museum in Bern show that two distinct breeds of dog were being used in the area during this time period . The breed is thought to be the predecessor to the modern St. Bernard and the Clumber Spaniel .
= = Description = =
The Alpine was a large breed of spaniel , described as reaching two feet at the withers and six feet from the nose to the tail . It had a closely set coat , curlier than that of the English Cocker Spaniel or the English Springer Spaniel . An intelligent breed , it was particularly adapted to the climate of the Swiss Alps .
Old skulls in the collection of the Natural History Museum in Bern demonstrate a diversity in head shapes . The collection proves at least two distinct variations during the same time period . The larger skulls have a greater pronounced stop with a shorter muzzle while the smaller skulls show a great deal less stop whilst having longer muzzles .
= = History = =
Alpine spaniels were kept by the canons of the monasteries in the Alps in order to search for travellers during heavy snow storms , including the Great St. Bernard Hospice in the Great St Bernard Pass between Italy and Switzerland . The dogs would be dispatched in pairs to search for fallen travellers , and were trained so that upon finding them would return to the canons in order to lead rescuers back to the unfortunate individuals . The Alpine breed was also used as a watchdog to guard sheep and cattle of mountainous regions , including the Himalayas .
Between 1800 and 1814 , a dog named Barry lived as a rescue dog at the hospice , and was famous enough at the time for his body to be preserved at the Natural History Museum of Bern . However , during the preservation , the taxidermist and the director of the Museum agreed to modify the body towards what they thought was a good example of the breed during that period . The head itself was further modified in 1923 to represent the Saint Bernard of that era . Prior to this the skull was a great deal flatter with a moderate stop .
In 1829 a Mastiff like dog was brought from the Great St Bernard Hospice and was exhibited in London and Liverpool to thousands of people . This publicised the existence of an Alpine Mastiff , but drawings of the dog did not match descriptions of the Alpine Spaniel from before the exhibition , and the descriptions of the Spaniel were ridiculed by later publications .
Because of the treacherous conditions in which this breed of dog was used , coupled with a succession of accidents , talk of the whole stock becoming extinct was raised as early as 1839 . However at some point prior to 1847 a pestilence swept through the region and reduced the number down to a single specimen , which forced the canons into crossing it with other breeds .
= = Legacy = =
= = = St. Bernard = = =
The Alpine Spaniel was one of the direct genetic progenitors to the St. Bernard . Starting in 1830 , the monks and canons of the Swiss Alps began crossing the dogs with the Newfoundland , expecting that the resulting offspring would have the longer hair of the Newfoundland and this would protect the dogs better from the cold . Unfortunately ice would form on the longer hair , and seeing that the dogs were no longer effective rescue dogs , the monasteries gave them away to people in the surrounding Swiss valleys .
In 1855 a stud book was opened for these crosses , which supplied the hospice with suitable dogs and also exported the dogs overseas . Many people began breeding them indiscriminately , which resulted in their modern appearance . By 1868 , the breed was commonly being referred to as the " Saint Bernard Dog " first and the Alpine Spaniel second .
= = = Clumber Spaniel = = =
It is thought that the Clumber Spaniel originated in 18th century France from the Basset Hound and the Alpine Spaniel . The name " Clumber " itself comes from Clumber Park , Nottinghamshire .
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= Kootenay River =
The Kootenay ( Kootenai in the U.S. and historically called the Flatbow ) is a major river in southeastern British Columbia , Canada and northern parts of the U.S. states of Montana and Idaho . It is one of the uppermost major tributaries of the Columbia River , which is the largest North American river that empties into the Pacific Ocean . The Kootenay River runs 781 kilometres ( 485 mi ) from its headwaters in the Kootenay Ranges of the Canadian Rockies , flowing from British Columbia 's East Kootenay region into northwestern Montana , thence into northernmost Idaho Panhandle and returning to British Columbia in the West Kootenay region , where it joins the Columbia at Castlegar .
Born in glaciers and flowing through a rugged landscape of mountains and valleys , the river drains an isolated and sparsely populated region of the Pacific Northwest . From its highest headwaters to its confluence with the Columbia River , the Kootenay falls more than two kilometers in elevation . Although comparable in length , watershed and discharge to the Columbia above the conflence , the Kootenay is of a notably different character ; its much steeper gradient results in the formation of many rapids .
People of the Ktunaxa ( Kootenai ) tribe were the first to live along its banks , and for hundreds of years , they hunted and fished on the river , quite isolated from neighboring indigenous groups . In the 19th century , a Canadian explorer , David Thompson , became the first recorded European to reach the Kootenay and established trading posts throughout the region . A gold rush on the Kootenay and later silver and galena strikes in its western basins in the late 19th century drew thousands of miners and settlers to the region , who soon were followed by the arrival of railroads and steamboats . The Doukhobors , a Russian religious sect , immigrated and established a short @-@ lived colony , Brilliant , at the Kootenay 's mouth ; subsequently dispersing into many settlements , they contributed to the region 's lumber and agricultural industries .
As with many Pacific Northwest rivers , dams were built on the Kootenay in the 20th century to generate hydroelectricity , and protect against floods and droughts . Today , over 150 kilometres ( 93 mi ) of the river have been impounded behind five dams — and a sixth to raise the level of Kootenay Lake , the largest natural lake formed by the Kootenay , and one of the largest in British Columbia .
= = Name = =
The river was described with slightly different names by two groups of the local Ktunaxa ( Kootenai ) Indian tribes . These indigenous people who lived along the upper river knew it as aqkinmiluk , simply meaning " river " . The people along the lower river called it aqkoktlaqatl , a name whose meaning is not certain . The name " Flatbow River " comes from the name the Blackfeet used to call the Ktunaxa , for their " powerful , stylish bows " , and was later recorded by French @-@ Canadian fur traders .
While searching for the ultimate source of the Columbia River , explorer David Thompson encountered Columbia Lake , where the Columbia River starts north as a small stream and the Kootenay rushes south , already a powerful river . Already knowing from earlier maps that the region included two rivers called the Columbia and the Kootenay , Thompson thought that what is now called the Columbia was the Kootenay , and he thought that he had not yet found the real Kootenay . Thence he applied the name " McGillivray ’ s River " to the real Kootenay in honor of his trading partners William and Duncan McGillivray . In his writings , the Columbia from Columbia Lake to the Big Bend was actually called the Kootenae .
The name " Kootenai " was also used by French Canadians to refer to the Ktunaxa in the 19th century . " Kootenai " is thought to be a word meaning " water people " in an Algonquian language . The river is still referred to as Kootenai in the United States , while in Canada , where two @-@ thirds of its length and 70 percent of its drainage basin lies , the river is spelled slightly different into Kootenay .
Comparisons of various U.S. Geological Survey ( USGS ) topographic maps from the 20th century show many misinterpretations or alternative names being applied to the segment of the river within the United States . These include " Kootanie " , " Kootenie " , and " Kootienay " . The Geographic Names Information System of the USGS lists " Swan River " as an alternate name although the origin of this name is uncertain . ( There , however , is a Swan River further southeast in Montana . )
= = Course = =
The Kootenay rises on the northeast slopes of the Beaverfoot Range of southeastern British Columbia , and flows initially southeast through the valleys of Kootenay National Park . Its first few kilometers ( miles ) are quiet , threading slowly through a series of marshes and small lakes . The river becomes significantly enlarged as it reaches the confluence with the Vermilion River , which is actually the larger of the two where they meet near the settlement of Kootenay Crossing . It continues southeast , receiving the Palliser River from the left , and swings southwards into a gorge at the confluence with the White River .
At the small town of Canal Flats , British Columbia it passes within 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) of Columbia Lake , the headwaters of the Columbia River , as it merges into the Rocky Mountain Trench and the eastern foothills of the Selkirk Mountains . It receives the Lussier River near Skookumchuck Station of the Canadian Pacific Railway and the St. Mary and Wild Horse rivers at the historic mining town of Fort Steele , then the Bull River at the settlement of the same name . At Wardner , British Columbia , the Kootenay widens into the Lake Koocanusa reservoir , formed by Libby Dam over 130 kilometres ( 81 mi ) downstream at Jennings , Montana . Lake Koocanusa , fed by the Elk River ( one of the Kootenay 's larger tributaries ) spans the U.S.-Canada border .
Below Libby Dam the river , now known as the Kootenai , surges around the south side of the Purcell Mountains in what is known as the Big Bend , where it receives the Fisher River from the left and veers to the west , passing the city of Libby . The Kootenai then drops over Kootenai Falls in a gorge , and veers northwest at the town of Troy . The Yaak River and Moyie River join from the north from headwaters in British Columbia , the latter near the village of Moyie Springs , before and after the Kootenai crosses the Montana @-@ Idaho state line . In Idaho the Kootenai 's current slows significantly as it enters the Kootenai Valley , passing the city of Bonners Ferry , where it turns north .
The Kootenai re @-@ enters Canada and becomes the Kootenay again south of Creston , British Columbia , and slows as it enters the Kootenay Flats before broadening into 100 @-@ kilometre ( 62 mi ) -long Kootenay Lake , where the Duncan River , the largest tributary , contributes its waters . Near Balfour an arm of the lake branches westwards into canyons near Nelson , where below Corra Linn Dam the Kootenay becomes a river again , but not for long . The river drops over several waterfalls at Bonnington Falls , all of which are taken advantage of to generate hydropower . Four run @-@ of @-@ the river dams impound the river in the 22 @-@ kilometre ( 14 mi ) stretch that follows . At Brilliant it widens into a small inland delta , then at Castlegar it joins with the Columbia River .
= = Watershed = =
At 50 @,@ 298 square kilometres ( 19 @,@ 420 sq mi ) in size , the Kootenay river 's watershed is one of the largest sub @-@ basins of the Columbia Basin . Its drainage basin encompasses an area almost 400 kilometres ( 250 mi ) from north to south and 250 kilometres ( 160 mi ) from east to west , roughly defining a region of the Pacific Northwest known as the Kootenays . In Canada , the term " Kootenays " is loosely defined although the Kootenay Land District , which includes the whole region , is formally defined ; the name indirectly refers to the territory of the Kootenay indigenous people spanning from the Rockies on the east and the , Selkirks and Purcells ( Percells in the U.S. ) on the west in southeastern British Columbia ( BC ) , and is used to mean more the area drained by the Kootenay River , namely including the lower Canadian stretches of the Columbia from Revelstoke to the US border , and also the reaches of the upper Columbia north from Canal Flats at least as far as Golden ( the Boundary Country is sometimes referred to as being part of the West Kootenay ) .
Over 70 percent of the Kootenay 's watershed is in Canada while the Montana and Idaho portions occupy 23 and 6 % , respectively . The Kootenay is one of the few major rivers in North America that begin in one country , cross into another , and return to the first — others include the Milk River , a tributary of the Missouri River ; the Souris River , a tributary of the Assiniboine River ; and the Kettle River , a tributary of the Columbia River . It is the third largest tributary of the Columbia by drainage basin and discharge .
The Kootenay River is defined by rocky uplands and steep mountains , and there is relatively little flat land in the watershed . Most of the reasonably level terrain lies in the narrow Kootenay River valley from Bonners Ferry to Kootenay Lake and in parts of the Rocky Mountain Trench from Canal Flats to Lake Koocanusa . Mountain ranges in the region generally trend from northwest to southeast and define drainage patterns with their steep and dramatic vertical relief , with the exception of the Kootenay itself which cuts westwards at its southern bend . Of the Kootenay 's many tributaries , the 206 @-@ kilometre ( 128 mi ) -long Duncan River is the largest . Hundreds of other tributaries join the river in its winding course , including the Vermilion , Cross , Palliser , White , Wild Horse , St. Mary , Elk , Fisher , Yaak , Moyie , Goat , and Slocan rivers .
Many river basins border on the Kootenay — some are part of the Columbia Basin , while others drain to distant shores of the North American continent . On the south and southeast , the divide formed by the Cabinet and Whitefish ranges separate the Kootenay and Flathead River watersheds . The Flathead is a tributary of the Clark Fork River @-@ Pend Oreille River system which borders the Kootenay watershed on the southwest . The upper Columbia River basin forms the boundary on the north , and the Kicking Horse River watershed also borders the north side of the Kootenay basin . To the southwest is the Priest River , a Pend Oreille tributary . On the east side , over the Continental Divide , the Bow River and Oldman River take rise . Both are tributaries of the South Saskatchewan River , which is part of the Hudson Bay drainage basin .
= = = Geology = = =
The geologic story of the Kootenay is strongly connected to the geology of the Columbia , Selkirk and Rocky Mountains . The mountains in much of the Kootenay River catchment are composed of Precambrian sedimentary rock of the Belt Supergroup , in turn stratified into several subgroups with slightly different characteristics and ages . However , most of the rocks have one thing in common ; the rocks are generally hard and erosion @-@ resistant . The Rocky Mountain Trench is thought to be a partial graben , or a long narrow strip of land that has dropped in elevation over time because of parallel faults on both sides . Faults in the Kootenay River watershed trend north @-@ northwest to south @-@ southeast as is common in much of British Columbia . The underlying rock is generally stable and contains more outcroppings of metamorphic and igneous rock as one progresses westwards . Formations of Cambrian and Devonian rock also appear in small amounts in the U.S. portion of the Kootenay .
Bedrock composes much of the streambed in the upper and lower reaches of the Kootenay , but in the middle portion , alluvial sediments allow the river to meander over a broader valley floor . The sediments probably originated through heavy glaciation during the previous Ice Age . About 15 @,@ 000 years ago , the Cordilleran Ice Sheet advanced southwards into present @-@ day BC , Montana and Idaho , blocking the Kootenay River at the outlet of Kootenay Lake , which did not yet exist . Glaciers covered most of the northern Kootenay River watershed and heavily shaped the peaks and valleys one sees today . The glacier that formed Kootenay Lake caused the river to back up into an enormous body of water that stretched all the way to Libby , Montana , near where the Libby Dam now stands , and possibly even connected to Lake Pend Oreille , which also was much enlarged at the time . Glacially deposited sediments buried the old streambed of the Kootenay River and created a natural dam where the Kootenay turns west out of Kootenay Lake . After the glaciers retreated , Kootenay Lake receded to its present level and the Kootenay Flats were formed .
= = History = =
= = = First inhabitants = = =
The first peoples of the Kootenay River valley were the Ktunaxa people ( often referred to as Kootenai ) from whom the river 's name derives . Ktunaxa creation myths state that their people were created by the Quilxka Nupika ( supreme being ) and have always lived in the region ; one reads " I have created you Kootenai people to look after this beautiful land , to honor and guard and celebrate my Creation here . " However , many historians believe that they are descended from Great Plains tribes that were driven out of their historic territory by the Blackfeet in the 16th century . The Ktunaxa are considered quite isolated from other Pacific Northwest and Great Plains tribes . Their language is an " isolate " , which is only distantly related ( if at all ) to the Salishan languages spoken by tribes of the Lake Pend d ' -Oreille area . They were semi @-@ nomadic people and inhabited a large area of the Kootenay valley from the headwaters to Kootenay Lake . Four villages provided their shelter in the winter , while in the rest of the year , they traveled between fishing , hunting and berry @-@ picking areas . The northern Ktunaxa hunted buffalo , while the southerners mainly fished . Notably , the Ktunaxa were the first tribe west of the Rockies to capture and use feral European @-@ introduced horses for their own use .
The origin and meaning of the name " Kootenai " is uncertain . Prior to their discovery by Europeans , they were known as Ksanka , " people of the standing arrow " . It is thought that French @-@ Canadian fur trappers of the Hudson 's Bay Company and other companies in the early 19th century were the first refer to them as Kootenai , which means " water people " in an Algonquian language . It may also mean " deer robes , " referring to their excellent skill for hunting deer . In some written records from the early 19th century , also by the French , the Ktunaxa were sometimes called the Flatbows ( Arcs plats ) and the river called the Flatbow River . Other inhabitants of the area included the Montana Salish ( in the south ) and Shuswap ( in the north ) , but these tribes were mostly not on the main river .
= = = Exploration = = =
In 1806 , explorer David Thompson set out from Saskatchewan to find the source of the Columbia . He crossed over the Canadian Rockies through Howse Pass and eventually arrived on the banks of the Kootenay , which he thought to be the Columbia . Thompson traveled down the river a ways but turned back when he was attacked by Native Americans . The following year , Thompson , his family , and several men made another attempt at finding the Columbia . They crossed over the Rockies at a more northerly spot and traveled down the Blaeberry River to the Columbia , eventually discovering Columbia Lake and establishing there the trading post Kootenae House . In the spring of 1808 , he set off down the Kootenay River , this time reaching present @-@ day Montana and Idaho where he established Kullyspell House and Saleesh House , trading posts on Lake Pend Oreille and the Clark Fork , respectively . After spending a winter in Montana , he tried to reach the Columbia by traveling down the Pend Oreille River but failed in this attempt , eventually returning to Kootenae House via the Kootenay River northwards the following spring .
Through the early 19th century , Thompson continued to trade furs throughout the Kootenay region for the North West Company , and for the few years when he had a total monopoly over the Canadian fur trade west of the Rockies , he outlawed alcoholic drinks altogether . He was known to have written " I had made it a law to myself that no alcohol should pass the mountains in my company " . When two of Thompson 's trading partners tried to make him take two barrels of rum to Kootanae House , Thompson " placed the two kegs on a vicious horse and by noon the kegs were empty and in pieces , the horse rubbing his load against the rocks to get rid of it … I told them what I had done , and that I would do the same to every keg of alcohol . " Of course , wine , beer , rum and other intoxicating drinks were imported in time .
John Palliser crossed the Rockies through a pass in 1858 that led to the headwaters of the Palliser River , a tributary of the Kootenay River now named in his honor . ( However , at first , his party referred to it as Palliser 's River . ) His expedition made it downstream to Columbia Lake , but had some trouble making their way back to Alberta ; the return route that they had chosen proved too dangerous to negotiate . After trading for some horses and new supplies from a band of Ktunaxa , they made it back over the Rockies later that year through North Kootenay Pass near Lower and Upper Kananaskis Lakes , after traveling up the Elk River . The series of expeditions he would later lead through 1859 were to be known as the Palliser Expeditions , or officially , the British North American Exploring Expedition , which although involved some travel west of the Rockies , was mostly limited to the east side of the Continental Divide . Palliser 's earlier travels were credited for being a " vital forerunner to the European settlement of the Prairies [ of central Canada ] , providing volumes of information on the resources of this vast region . "
In September 1859 , Palliser traveled into the Kootenay River valley to find a suitable path for a trade route and possibly a railroad . Instead of crossing the Rockies , as Thompson did , Palliser set out from Fort Colville , a Hudson 's Bay Company trading post near Kettle Falls on the Columbia River . He then proceeded up the Pend Oreille River ( noted as ' Pendoreilles ' ) and crossed into the Kootenay River valley , which in his records was either the " Kootanie " or " Flat Bow River " . Kootenay Lake was called " Flat Bow Lake " . Palliser was told by Ktunaxa tribal members that a trail already existed along the Kootenay River , terminating at Columbia Lake , but was in decrepit condition ( having been out of use for many years ) and " entirely impracticable for horses " . They re @-@ blazed the trail for many miles and returned to Kootenay Lake by mid @-@ October of the same year . The expedition 's findings were later to become important transportation routes through the Rockies to the Kootenays area , and the trail that they followed later became the route of the Canadian Pacific Railway .
= = = Gold and silver boom = = =
In 1863 , a gold strike at the confluence of the Wild Horse and Kootenay Rivers in the East Kootenay region resulted in the Wild Horse Gold Rush in which between three and ten thousand men descended upon the area and the gold rush town of Fisherville was built ; it had to be moved when it was discovered the town sat atop some of the richest deposits . Originally , the river ( and the area ) were known as " Stud Horse " by the early miners , but government officials changed it to Wild Horse . The new town 's site was officially named Kootenai ( though still known as Fisherville ) , also spelled Kootenay and Koutenais and also known as Wild Horse . Galbraith 's Ferry was established across the Kootenay near Fort Steele to facilitate crossing by the incoming rush of prospectors and merchants . Most of the gold was mined out by 1864 , in June of which one American prospector wrote that some 200 miners were arriving each day . By 1865 the peak of the rush was over and the diggings had been found not as rich as previously believed when news arrived in 1865 of the strikes in the Big Bend of the Columbia and the bulk of the mining population moved there en masse .
Fisherville , which had a Hudson 's Bay post and other businesses , continued on with a few hundred residents for a few years ( most of them Chinese by the end , as was the case with many other BC gold towns also ) but was eclipsed as a supply centre with the creation of nearby Fort Steele . The Chinese miners continued to work the " played @-@ out " claims abandoned by American and Canadian miners , taking what little gold was left . Fisherville eventually was abandoned , its buildings left to ruin , and little remains of the settlement today . Other gold rushes on the Moyie and Goat Rivers , tributaries of the Kootenay , were followed by the discovery of silver and galena mines in the Kootenay Lake and Slocan Valley areas ( Silvery Slocan ) , leading rapidly to the settlement of the region and the creation of various " silver city " boomtowns , notably Nelson , at the outlet of Kootenay Lake , Kaslo , midway up its north arm , New Denver , Silverton , Slocan City and Sandon in the 1880s and 1890s . By 1889 , a smelter had been constructed close to the mouth of the Kootenay , near Revelstoke , to process ore from the mines . Serving the mines and settlers , steamer companies plied the Kootenai River from Bonner 's Ferry , Idaho to Nelson and to the Lardeau or " Lardo " district at the north end of Kootenay Lake , and also on the upper Kootenay River between the Cranbrook @-@ Fort Steele area and points in Montana .
= = = Steamboats = = =
When the Canadian Pacific Railway ( CPR ) finished its transcontinental line across southern British Columbia , steamboats began to ply the upper Columbia and Kootenay Rivers , carrying passengers , produce , ore , and other trade items through the region to be distributed via the CPR 's line at Golden . The total run was about 500 kilometres ( 310 mi ) long , ranging from Golden to the north to Jennings , Montana in the south , with a portage at Canal Flats . The Kootenay 's steamboat era was short and lasted for only about 28 years . In 1882 , as part of an incentive to help navigation on the Golden @-@ Jennings run and possibly divert water northwards to the Interior of British Columbia in order to provide flood control for a low @-@ lying area south of Kootenay Lake , called Kootenay Flats , European adventurer William Adolf Baillie @-@ Grohman proposed the creation of a canal between the Kootenay River and Columbia Lake . Construction of the 2 @-@ kilometre ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) -long , 14 @-@ metre ( 46 ft ) -broad channel was finished in 1889 . The Baillie @-@ Grohman Canal , as it was called , had one lock which was 30 metres ( 98 ft ) long and 9 metres ( 30 ft ) wide .
Because of the rugged terrain and rough waters on the two rivers , especially on the glacier @-@ fed Kootenay , steamboat operation was extremely difficult and proved to be anything but cost effective . The roughest water was in Jennings Canyon , now mostly submerged in the Lake Koocanusa reservoir behind Libby Dam . Two of the first steamers , the Duchess and the Cline , both sank when transporting miners to the Wild Horse gold rush on the Kootenay . Both ships had not even reached Canal Flats when they hit rocks in the Columbia . The first steamboat to actually run the Kootenay was the Annerly in 1893 . Later vessels , such as the Gwendoline , had mixed success . Captain Frank P. Armstrong , who had piloted several earlier steamboats on the Golden @-@ Jennings run , was her builder and when she was about three @-@ quarters completed , Armstrong decided to take her to Golden to complete the job . Gwendoline sailed up to the canal , which unfortunately was unusable because the gates of the lock had been dynamited due to a Kootenay flood . Armstrong was forced to portage the vessel and eventually made it to Golden . Gwendoline eventually sailed back south to Jennings to haul iron ore on the Kootenay . She was also the only ship to ever travel through the canal by proper means , and made two of the only three steamboat trips through the canal .
The last ship ever to pass through the canal and one of the last on the Kootenay was the North Star , also piloted by Captain Armstrong . In 1902 , Armstrong decided to take North Star to sail on the Columbia instead , finding business on the Kootenay less and less profitable as the mines in the region played out , as the CPR established its Kootenay Central Railway branch , and for a variety of other reasons . In June of that year , Armstrong took North Star to the Baillie @-@ Grohman Canal , which was in decrepit condition . The lock was also too small to accommodate the vessel . Armstrong had two makeshift dams built to create a temporary lock 40 metres ( 130 ft ) long , and then the forward dam was blown up so the ship could ride the surge of water ahead into Columbia Lake . The transit of North Star to Columbia Lake was the last time the canal was ever used by a steamboat and marked the end of the steamboat era on the Kootenay .
= = = Doukhobor settlement = = =
In the 20th century , members of a Russian religious sect called the Doukhobors living in the plains of Saskatchewan in central Canada were facing persecution , internal problems and land confiscation by the Canadian government . Their leader , Peter Verigin , decided to move them to British Columbia in 1909 , seeking land and an improved life . He chose a townsite on the north bank of the Kootenay , where it joins the Columbia , across the big river from where the present @-@ day town of Castlegar now stands . In 1909 , he purchased about 14 @,@ 000 acres ( 57 km2 ) adjoining the mouth of the Kootenay River partly using funds raised by sale of farm equipment in Saskatchewan , and added to other lands acquired throughout BC , Doukhobor @-@ owned lands ultimately totaled 19 @,@ 000 acres ( 77 km2 ) . There was already a small settlement on the site , called Waterloo , but Verigin renamed it Brilliant , supposedly for the " sparkling waters " of the river . The whole area was known by the name , Dolina Ooteschenie , meaning " valley of consolation " . By 1913 , there were already more than 5 @,@ 000 Doukhobors living in the region .
When they first arrived in British Columbia , the Doukhobors began felling trees adjoining the Kootenay River to build their first homesteads . They also cleared areas of level ground in order to plant orchards and fields , and constructed sawmills on the Columbia and Kootenay rivers to process the logs into lumber . After more settlers began arriving , they built larger buildings that housed multiple families , instead of the small cabins then typical of the region . Each larger house or dom , holding 70 @-@ 100 persons each , was constructed on roughly 41 @-@ hectare ( 100 @-@ acre ) plots of land that Verigin had divided the entire community into back in 1911 . The Doukhobors then constructed a brick factory at the present @-@ day site of Grand Forks , from where they made bricks to be used mostly in the Brilliant settlement . Brilliant was also one of the first cities in the area to have running water — they constructed a reservoir to hold water from the Kootenay River and a local spring , and by 1912 , each household had running water . In 1913 , Verigin converted an abandoned factory in Nelson , about 35 kilometres ( 22 mi ) up the Kootenay from Brilliant , to produce jam and marmalade . The Doukhobors then established a ferry across the Columbia River , and a suspension bridge serving the same purpose was completed in 1913 . Brilliant continued to be a major player in the lumber industry of the region , and before long , the settlement of Brilliant was prospering .
However , Doukhobor views on education and the extremist actions of a Doukhobor group called the Sons of Freedom eventually brought down their prosperous empire . In the 1920s , unknown arsonists destroyed several public schools in Brilliant as an act against British Columbia law . Then in 1924 , on a routine rail trip to Grand Forks , Peter Verigin and seven other people were killed by a dynamite explosion that completely destroyed the coach that he was traveling in . Pieces of battery and alarm clock indicated that this was the work of people who intentionally wanted to kill Verigin , most likely members of the Sons of Freedom , or as some historians put it , by the lover of one of Verigin 's handmaidens . Over 7 @,@ 000 people attended Verigin 's funeral . The Doukhobor leader was buried in an elaborate tomb on a headland overlooking the city of Brilliant and the Kootenay and Columbia Rivers . Verigin was succeeded by his son , Peter P. Verigin , who arrived from Russia in 1927 . Unfortunately , despite the economic reforms he created in response to debt to the federal government , his arrival coincided with a terrible depression and bankruptcy which caused the Doukhobors to lose most of their lands . Verigin Jr. died in 1939 and by 1963 , almost all Doukhobor lands were sold to the government . Today , little remains of the former settlement at Brilliant except for Verigin 's tomb . The Doukhobor suspension bridge spanning the Kootenay River still exists , and was designated a National Historic Site of Canada in 1995 .
= = Ecology = =
The Northwest Power and Conservation Council divides the Kootenay River watershed into six biomes : aquatic ( rivers and lakes ) , riparian zones , wetlands , grassland / shrubs , moderately wet forest , and dry forest . The forested zones extend through the alpine and subalpine reaches of the watershed , while grasslands dominate the low terraces and plateaus surrounding the river , especially in the Lake Koocanusa area and the Montana @-@ Idaho portion of the watershed . In the Canada portion of the watershed , an alpine meadow ecozone occupies most of the high ridges and valleys of the mountains .
In the Canadian portion of the Columbia Basin , almost half of which is part of the Kootenay River basin , there are 447 species of terrestrial vertebrates . Most of the Kootenay basin lies within the Columbia Glaciated ecoregion which encompasses much of northeastern Washington , northern Idaho , northwestern Montana and southern British Columbia . Fish fauna in the region are largely shared with those of the Columbia Unglaciated ecoregion to the south , which has about fifty species of fish and only one endemic species . There are no endemic fish within the Columbia Glaciated region itself .
Riparian vegetation is mostly found along the lower two @-@ thirds of the Kootenay and many of the tributaries that join within the United States . The other sections of the river flow through far more rugged terrain and are characterized by braiding , low nutrient content , shifting channels and coarse sediments , making it difficult for riparian zones to be established , as is with most of its upper and lower tributaries . Wetlands are found primarily where the river broadens into a series of sloughs , side @-@ channels , marshes and small lakes before entering Kootenay Lake . This biologically diverse area , the Kootenay Flats , once supported over 1 million migratory birds every year , before the river was diked and many of the wetlands converted to agriculture .
Naturally , the Kootenay has a high sediment content because of high erosion of glacial sediments in the mountains . Because of the steep rapids and falls between Kootenay Lake and the river 's mouth , the Kootenay ( with the exception of its tributary , the Slocan River ) has never been a significant stream for the annual runs of Columbia River salmon . However , landlocked salmon inhabit the upper reaches of the river above and in Kootenay Lake . This is attributed to a Kootenay River flood a long time ago , before the construction of any dams on the Columbia ( Columbia River dams now block salmon from reaching any of the salmon run streams above Chief Joseph Dam ) which overflowed into Columbia Lake . It was with the creation of this temporary body of water that salmon somehow managed to swim over the submerged Canal Flats and into the Kootenay , where they became trapped .
Populations of large land mammals such as caribou , moose , deer , elk , have been declining dramatically since the reintroduction of wolves . Species almost entirely gone that were once common in the area include the white @-@ tailed jackrabbit , pygmy short @-@ horned lizard , band @-@ tailed pigeon and passenger pigeon . After exploitation of the Kootenay basin by fur trappers , the beaver population was nearly exterminated as well .
= = Economy = =
Even before non @-@ aboriginal people came to the region , the Kootenay River valley was an important path of trade and transport between the tribes of the Canadian Rockies and the Idaho Panhandle , mostly between the Ktunaxa ( who practiced agriculture and aquaculture ) and the Salish , Blackfeet and Pend d 'Oreilles of the south and east , and with the Shuswap in the north . The physiographic continuation of the Kootenai Valley southwards from present @-@ day Bonners Ferry , Idaho into the Pend Oreille basin via the Purcell Trench formed a natural corridor through which natives of the area could interact . The barrier formed by the Rocky Mountains to the east , however , meant that tribes of the area , especially the Ktunaxa , were economically and linguistically isolated from the Great Plains tribes ( with the exception of the Shoshone , whose territory spanned both sides of the Rockies ) .
Logging began in the 19th century as a result of white emigration to the Kootenay region , and remains one of the primary industries of the area . In fact , much of the economy of the Pacific Northwest and Columbia Basin has historically , and even today , is dependent on the lumber industry . Lumber was required for the construction of buildings , forts , railroad tracks , and boats , and today is exported from the region in great amounts providing jobs and income for inhabitants of the area . Even in relatively uninhabited regions of the watershed , logging roads criss @-@ cross the hills and mountainsides . Over 90 percent of the Kootenay basin is forested , but only about 10 percent of the area is not affected by some kind of lumber @-@ industry development , now defined as about twenty " roadless areas " or " blocks " , with 18 in the US .
To a limited extent , the Kootenay River has also been used for navigation . Commercial navigation began with steamboats in the 19th century to transport ores , lumber , passengers and other imported and exported products between the Kootenay River valley and the Canadian Pacific Railway station at Golden , British Columbia . Boat travel on the upper river ceased when a rail line was built along the Kootenay upstream of the big bend . Steamboats also operated briefly on the lower river and Kootenay Lake to service silver mines in the nearby mountains . In modern times , boats continue to ply Kootenay Lake and limited reaches of the Kootenay River .
Mining is also an important economic support of the Kootenay River area . Although originally valuable minerals such as gold and silver were unearthed , today coal is the primary resource extracted from underground . Conventional coal deposits underlie much of the East Kootenay , especially in the Elk River valley which is home to the Elk Valley Coalfield , and the Crowsnest Coalfield in the Purcell Mountains . The East Kootenay is the most important coal @-@ producing area of British Columbia , has since 1898 produced over 500 million tons , and about 25 percent of the world 's steel @-@ making coal comes from the region . Most of the coal from the East Kootenay coalfields is exported to Japan and Korea .
Lead , zinc , copper and silver are still mined at some places in the Kootenay River basin , notably at the giant Sullivan Mine near Kimberley , British Columbia , which is the largest in the Kootenay watershed . Agriculture , however , is a much less important industry , and many of the fertile riverside lands have been flooded by the construction of dams ( most notably Libby Dam in Montana , which backs water into Canada ) . Only about two percent of the entire Kootenay basin ( 1 @,@ 005 square kilometres ( 388 sq mi ) is used for agriculture , and much of that is for pasture and foraging ) . Crops such as oats , barley and wheat account for 62 percent of the agricultural output of the region , much of which is used locally or exported by rail . The primary agricultural region is the Kootenai Valley of northern Idaho just south of Kootenay Lake .
The West Kootenay , however , is transitioning from a coal @-@ mining to a tourism @-@ based economy , and the rest of the Kootenay region is also starting to do so . The economy of southeastern British Columbia is becoming increasingly reliant on tourism , and several Canadian national and state parks have already been established , and several national forests in the U.S.
= = River modifications = =
Dams , power plants and diversions of the Kootenay River , of which there are many , have been built for a variety of reasons throughout the 19th and 20th centuries . The seven dams on the Kootenay serve many purposes , ranging from generation of local electricity to regulation of Columbia River flow between Canada and the United States . None provide for navigation or fish passage . In former times , the Kootenay would rise each spring and early summers with " enormous freshets that every summer flood the Kootenay River valley " , but because of water regulation nowadays , such extreme variation in flow are no longer common on the lower river below Libby Dam .
= = = The Falls = = =
As early as 1898 , without building a dam , the original Lower Bonnington Power Plant was generating hydroelectricity from Bonnington Falls in the Kootenay River near the confluence of the Slocan River in order to supply water to mines in Rossland , British Columbia . For Upper Bonnington , the first dam built on the river , the original goal was to improve navigation between Kootenay Lake and the Kootenay 's mouth on the Columbia by drowning the dangerous Bonnigton Falls rapids that also blocked fish migration , and hopefully introducing fish to the upper river by constructing a fish ladder . None of these amenities for steamboats or salmon were ever constructed — in fact , the dam ended up being built above the falls instead of below them — and Upper Bonnington Dam , when completed in 1906 , only generated hydroelectric power , and has served that purpose ever since .
Commercial demand led to two more dams at the falls , these were South Slocan Dam in 1928 , and Corra Linn Dam , at the rapids above Bonnington in 1932 . Three of the dams are of the run @-@ of @-@ the @-@ river type , the 4 @.@ 5 km length of the falls is now impounded in small lakes . All except Corra Linn , which was built to raise and regulate the level of Kootenay Lake . The Kootenay Canal Generating Station , completed in 1976 by BC Hydro , has its inlet at Kootenay Lake next to Corra Linn . The canal travels several kilometers , parallel to and above the river to utilize the roughly 84 @-@ metre ( 276 ft ) high water drop in elevation between Kootenay Lake and South Slocan , bypassing the old dams . The canal is used to generate hydroelectricity , as are the four dams .
= = = The Lower River = = =
After the falls and the junction with the Slocan River the last 18 kilometres ( 11 mi ) of the river is a gradual slope to the merger with the Columbia . In 1944 the last privately owned development Brilliant Dam was built , just 2 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 6 mi ) before the Kootenay river flows into the Columbia River at Castlegar .
= = = Columbia River Treaty = = =
The Columbia Basin is noted for its spring floods , major flood years were 1876 , 1894 , 1948 and 1964 . As recently as the mid @-@ 1960s , the upper Columbia and Kootenay rivers in British Columbia were still free @-@ flowing and unaffected by dams and reservoirs , resulting in the 1948 Vanport Oregon flood . The uncontrolled discharge past the Canada @-@ U.S. border created problems for electricity generation in the US , and Canada also wanted to utilize the Columbia river for the production of hydroelectric power . Negotiated in 1961 between the governments of the two countries , the Columbia River Treaty attempted to ratify these problems . Construction of the first three of the four dams authorized by the treaty — Mica , Keenleyside and Duncan — was implemented in 1964 . Of the four dams , the first two are on the Columbia , the third is on the Duncan River , a tributary of the Kootenay , and the fourth Libby , on the Kootenay River proper . However , operation of the dams has led to environmental problems in both rivers because they have caused unnatural flow fluctuations , blocked fish migration , flooded fertile agricultural land , and forced over 2 @,@ 000 people to relocate .
Solely built for the purpose of regulating water flow into Kootenay Lake , Duncan Dam , the first dam built for the treaty , was raised in 1967 and increased the 25 @-@ kilometre ( 16 mi ) long size of Duncan Lake to a reservoir 45 kilometres ( 28 mi ) long . Because of its purpose , it has no power generation facilities . Libby Dam , the fourth and last dam built under the treaty , was completed in 1975 by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers . It is the first of the dams that the Kootenay encounters durings its journey and provides further regulation of the water that flows into Kootenay Lake . The other two dams built for the treaty , Keenleyside and Mica , are both on the Columbia River . Kootenay basin reservoirs provide nearly 8 @.@ 6 cubic kilometres ( 7 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 acre · ft ) of storage which constitutes almost half of the 19 @.@ 1 cubic kilometres ( 15 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 acre · ft ) stored in Columbia River Treaty reservoirs .
= = = Diversion proposal = = =
In the 1970s , it was proposed that the Kootenay River be diverted into the Columbia River ( the two rivers are separated by a distance of no more than 2 kilometers ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) in the Rocky Mountain Trench in southeastern British Columbia ) . This would allow for the generation of increased hydroelectric power on the Columbia . It would also make easier the reclamation of the Kootenay Flats , an area south of Kootenay Lake , for agricultural purposes — spring freshets once raised the level of the lake by up to 8 metres ( 26 ft ) , inundating the lowlands around it . There were also never @-@ implemented plans to divert part of the Kootenay enlarged Columbia River through a tunnel to the headwaters of the Thompson River in the northwest , and thence to the Fraser River valley of southwestern British Columbia .
The proposal was strongly opposed by both environmentalists as well as local residents . The economy of southeastern British Columbia is strongly dependent on tourism , with the Columbia River , including Columbia Lake and Windermere Lake , being very popular for summer swimming and boating activities . Diversion of the glacier @-@ fed Kootenay River would have resulted in the Columbia River becoming much deeper and colder , flooding riverside communities and damaging tourism . At the opposite end of the scale , it would dry the bed of the Kootenay River downstream of Canal Flats , cutting off water supply to residents of the upper Kootenay Valley and invalidating the effectiveness of Libby Dam , whose construction was to begin in a few years . As a result , this proposed river diversion was never undertaken .
= = Recreation = =
Many national , provincial and state parks , wilderness preserves , protected areas and national forests lie partially or wholly within the Kootenay River watershed . In Canada , these include those listed below as well as many others .
Popular Banff National Park lies just across the BC @-@ Alberta border , Yoho National Park sits to the north , and Glacier National Park in the northeast . The U.S. portion of the watershed includes Kootenai National Forest and Kaniksu National Forest ( part of the Idaho Panhandle National Forests , which stretch southwards into the state ) .
In Kootenay National Park alone , there are over 200 kilometres ( 120 mi ) of hiking trails , ranging from short day hikes to long backpacking trips . Cross @-@ country skiing and snowshoeing are popular on the park 's trails in the winter . Mount Assiniboine Provincial Park , which sits right next to Kootenay in the Rocky Mountains , also has an extensive trail system affording extensive views of the surrounding ranges . Kikomun Creek Provincial Park , on the northeast shore of Lake Koocanusa , includes campgrounds and access to boat launches on the east shore of the lake . The Kootenai River Trail along the Montana section of the river , about 10 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) long , follows the river from Libby to Kootenai Falls and the well known Swinging Bridge across the Kootenai . Skattebo Reach Trail , on the lower river , is about 14 kilometres ( 8 @.@ 7 mi ) long , running from Brilliant to Glade . Further downstream , five separate sites around Kootenay Lake form the Kootenay Lake Provincial Park . West Arm Provincial Park is on the impounded stretch of the Kootenay River just west of Kootenay Lake , and to the northeast of Nelson . Smaller Kokanee Creek Provincial Park , one of the more popular recreation areas in the West Kootenay , sits across the river from West Arm .
Fishing is generally good on the middle reaches of the Kootenay River and in Kootenay Lake . Westslope cutthroat trout , bull trout , kokanee salmon ( the landlocked Pacific salmon ) , rainbow trout and white sturgeon are among the many species found in the river . Kokanee and rainbows are commonly found in Lake Koocanusa . Kootenai Falls , which drops some 90 metres ( 300 ft ) within a run of a few hundred meters , forms a natural boundary between fishes of the upper and lower river , but Libby Dam , several kilometres upstream , is an even more formidable barrier . Fish in the Kootenay have traditionally been abundant but the construction of the dam may have led to declines in the population of sturgeon , among other fishes , because of changes in water flow . The best season for fishing is from June to November . One may fish from banks , sandbars and islands , or from boats . Because of the size and strength of the river , fishing from drift boats is easier than from the shore . Also , because the Kootenay 's primary sources are glaciers , fishing conditions are quite different from most rivers in Montana and Idaho , which are fed by snowmelt . In the United States , the Kootenay , with its " exceptional " trout fishing , is considered a Blue Ribbon fishery .
Steep and strewn with rapids , the Kootenay , despite being unsuitable for commercial transportation of agricultural and mineral products , is considered an outstanding whitewater river . Whitewater rafting is popular on the Kootenay in two stretches : in Jennings Canyon between the Libby Dam in Montana and Bonners Ferry in Idaho , and in the upper reaches of the river in Kootenay National Park in British Columbia .
Rafting the middle Kootenay between Libby Dam and Bonners Ferry is best at flows of 230 to 340 cubic metres per second ( 8 @,@ 000 to 12 @,@ 000 cu ft / s ) . The run , about 60 kilometres ( 37 mi ) from east to west , includes Class IV + rapids and includes Kootenai Falls , which rarely has been run safely , in the middle of its course . In Montana , the river is rated a Class I water under the Montana Stream Access Law for recreational purposes from Libby Dam to the Montana @-@ Idaho border . Class I represents bodies of water that are navigable and suitable for recreation .
Rafting is also popular in some of the Canadian stretches of the river , especially those near the headwaters that have the steepest gradient and the most challenging rapids . Several Canadian outfitters provide trips on the river near Kootenay National Park ranging from a few hours to several days . Canoeing in the numerous sloughs , side @-@ channels and distributaries of the Kootenay that thread through the wetlands of the Kootenay Flats has the additional benefit of watching birds and wildlife in the Creston Valley Wildlife Management Unit and other surrounding marshes . Larger craft such as houseboats are able to travel on Kootenay and Koocanusa Lakes . Rafting and kayaking is also an activity on the swift @-@ flowing Slocan River , the lowermost major tributary of the Kootenay , and in parts of other major Kootenay tributaries as well .
= = Crossings = =
Crossings of the Kootenay River are listed from upstream to downstream . The name of the road / track , the coordinates , and the location are given .
= = Additional reading = =
Bathymetric Surveys of the Kootenai River near Bonners Ferry , Idaho United States Geological Survey
Sullivan , Gordon ( 2008 ) . Saving Homewaters : The Story of Montana 's Streams and Rivers . Woodstock , VT : The Countryman Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 88150 @-@ 679 @-@ 2 .
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= Breakaway ( Kelly Clarkson album ) =
Breakaway is the second studio album by American singer Kelly Clarkson , released on November 30 , 2004 , by RCA Records . The album is a follow @-@ up to her successful debut album , Thankful ( 2003 ) . Executive produced by Clive Davis , Breakaway sees Clarkson collaborating with various producers and songwriters for the first time , primarily Dr. Luke , Max Martin , Avril Lavigne , Kara DioGuardi , Ben Moody , and David Hodges ; the latter two are former members of American rock band Evanescence . Despite the established commercial success of Thankful , music critics still continued to typecast Clarkson as an American Idol winner and were also critical of her attempts of establishing a commercial appeal on her own . Wanting to stray from those , she was convinced by Davis to work with Dr. Luke and Martin in Stockholm , and with Moody and Hodges in Los Angeles , in pursuit of a pop rock direction . This also led her to part ways with her manager Simon Fuller and hire the management services of Jeff Kwatinetz before the album 's release . Breakaway is predominately a pop rock album with elements of rock and soul music , marking a departure from the R & B @-@ oriented sound of Thankful ; its lyrics explore themes of heartbreak , love , and escapism .
Breakaway received a positive response from music critics , with many commending the album 's new @-@ found pop rock sound and Clarkson 's vocal performances . " It received several awards and nominations , including winning two Grammy Awards and receiving a nomination for a Juno Award . The album became a commercial success worldwide . By selling over 15 million copies worldwide , it remains her most successful album to date . After debuting at number three on the Billboard 200 in the United States , it stayed on the top twenty of the chart for more than a year , eventually being certified 6 × multi @-@ platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for shipments of more than six million copies .
Breakaway 's singles " Breakaway " , " Since U Been Gone " , " Behind These Hazel Eyes " , " Because of You " , and " Walk Away " became worldwide hits and have become some of Clarkson 's signature songs . Their successes prompted Billboard to credit her for landscaping the core sound of mainstream pop music as an uptempo dance @-@ oriented sound in the 2000s . Furthermore , Breakaway established Clarkson as one of the four highest @-@ selling acts of Sony BMG in the 2000s , and made Davis , Dr. Luke , and Martin prominent pop producers . Internationally , the album topped the music charts of Ireland and the Netherlands and became the world 's 7th biggest @-@ selling release of 2005 , eventually being certified platinum in over 17 countries . To support Breakaway , Clarkson embarked on three international concert tours from 2005 to 2006 : the Breakaway World Tour , Hazel Eyes Tour , and the Addicted Tour . Billboard placed the album 77th in the Greatest of All Time Billboard 200 Albums .
= = Background and production = =
In early 2004 , Clarkson began working on new material for her second studio album , which followed her successful debut album Thankful ( 2003 ) , while co @-@ headlining the Independent Tour with Clay Aiken , the runner @-@ up from the second season of American Idol . She had also expressed intentions to record with Fantasia Barrino , who had then just won the series ' third season ; both were expected to release their albums in the same month .
As she began to work for the album with music executive Clive Davis , Clarkson was invited by Whitney Houston to record the song " Breakaway " , which would be included for the soundtrack of the 2004 Walt Disney Pictures feature film The Princess Diaries 2 : Royal Engagement , which Houston had co @-@ produced . The song , written by Avril Lavigne , Matthew Gerrard , and Bridget Benenate , was initially written for Lavigne 's debut album Let Go ( 2002 ) but deemed unsuitable for the album 's themes at the time . Initially reluctant , Clarkson agreed to record the song . " Breakaway " was first released on July 2004 by Walt Disney Records as a single from the soundtrack , acting as an interim record until her second album 's lead single was released . After debuting on the Billboard Hot 100 chart at number 60 , it peaked at number six , a week before the album 's release .
In April 2004 , Clarkson entered the studio immediately after the Independent Tour . She said in an interview , " I 've written most of ( the songs ) so far , but there 's some people who have some stuff for me . I 'm not one of those people who thinks you have to write everything . ( I 'll sing it ) as long as I can relate to it . " During the album 's development , Davis revealed that he was reluctant to let Clarkson write material for the album . He revealed , " I always encourage people to write their own songs , but in the pop arena , where the career is totally dependent on hits , you get skeptical . Artists with great voices like Melissa Manchester and Taylor Dayne could have had much longer careers if they didn 't insist on writing their own material . " Clarkson reiterates that she 's been writing songs since her teens , but rather than argue over labels or abilities , the two reached a détente — she would co @-@ write half the album , with the other half being penned by other songwriters and producers . She said , " I just think it 's funny that all these middle @-@ age guys told me , ' You don 't know how a pop song needs to sound . ' I 'm a 23 @-@ year @-@ old girl ! But I was fighting those battles alone . " In February 2004 , Clarkson met with musicians Ben Moody and David Hodges , who had just departed from their band Evanescence in late 2003 . She said , " I didn 't know that he ( Moody ) wasn 't with Evanescence anymore , " Clarkson said . " I just really liked their vibe and I thought it might be cool to work with one of them . So I just randomly asked people I work with , ' Hey , do you think that he 'd work with me ? ' And then I found out that he kind of split and that 's what he 's doing ... so it worked out perfectly . " Moody recalled , " It 's cool because she wants to do some branching out , and I 'm doing nothing but branching out , We got together and she had all these songs in mind of what she wanted to do . It 's just a really , really cool process for me , because everybody is a new experience . Everybody works differently . "
Worried of Clarkson being continually typecast as a talent show winner , Davis met with various producers , primarily Max Martin , and encouraged them to produce records for Clarkson in a pop rock direction . Clarkson revealed that she expected that she 'll always be labeled as an American Idol winner , she remarked , " I 'm the first one , so it 's going to be on my grave , I 'm aware of that . ( There 's no getting away from it ) so why even try ? " Upon their meeting , Martin presented songs he wrote with Dr. Luke . These songs include " Since U Been Gone " and a demo version of what would have been " Behind These Hazel Eyes " . Davis wanted Clarkson to record the songs , describing them having " a sharp rock edge but were still capable of being pop hits . They would push Kelly in a promising direction for her , while maintaining and even growing her audience . " Martin insisted that the songs should given to rock acts , wanting to stray from his reputation for producing pop singles for the Backstreet Boys and , Britney Spears in the 1990s . Davis recalled , " Max was looking to move on from what he had done with Backstreet Boys , and I really spent time convincing them that an American Idol winner could bring all the feeling and passion that was required to the song . " Martin and Dr. Luke eventually agreed and invited Clarkson to travel to Sweden to record the songs . Upon hearing the tracks , Clarkson was skeptical of the pop elements ; and the three eventually decided to develop a rock sound , a move Clarkson claimed Davis did not approve . Davis reiterated that he was ecstatic with the prospect , claiming that she disliked it and demanded that both the songs be removed from the album . Clarkson then asserted that she wanted it to be on the record and claimed that Davis had detested " Because of You " instead , saying that she " was a shitty writer ( sic ) who should be grateful for the gifts that he bestows upon . Davis reiterated the he loved the song and felt that Clarkson could indeed write hits .
= = Composition = =
= = = Style and inspirations = = =
Wanting to stray away from the R & B @-@ styled music of Thankful , which she described as a showcase of versatility , she revealed that Thankful 's success " empowered me to step more into rock , step more into the soulful vibe . " She described the music of the second album as " like the first CD in the sense that it 's versatile , but it 's more into the rock , It 's more into the soulful roots , and it 's just a little bit deeper , so it 's pretty cool . " Dr. Luke revealed in an interview that alternative music and indie music were inspirations to " Since U Been Gone " , saying , " That was a conscious move by Max and myself , because we were listening to alternative and indie music and talking about some song @-@ I don 't remember what it was . I said , ' Ah , I love this song , ' and Max was like , ' If they would just write a damn pop chorus on it ! ' It was driving him nuts , because that indie song was sort of on six , going to seven , going to eight , the chorus comes ... and it goes back down to five . It drove him crazy . And when he said that , it was like , light bulb . ' Why don 't we do that , but put a big chorus on it ? ' It worked . " Songs such as " Behind These Hazel Eyes " , and " Because of You " were also inspired by her real life experiences , the former about her relationship with an ex @-@ boyfriend and the latter about her experience after her parents ' divorce .
= = = Songs = = =
Clarkson shares writing credits on six songs from Breakaway . " Breakaway " was included as the album 's opening and title track . She described it as a simple song , and further explained , " I think that it 's simplicity is what 's beautiful about it . Whenever writers or producers come to work with me , they take advantage of the fact that I can really belt it out . What 's cool about ' Breakaway ' is that it doesn 't take advantage of that . The song just uses the simplicity of my voice . I 've done country music , I 've done pop , I 've done gospel ... all of my singles have sounded different . But this song was different from everything I 've done ; people didn 't even know it was me ! " Written by Martin and Dr. Luke , Clarkson described the second track " Since U Been Gone " , as " not as " smooth " as pop or R & B. Clarkson said of the track , the very last to be recorded for the album , " It 's very emotional . Vocally , it can be a lot more challenging , but is very fun to play live . " Written by Clarkson , Dr. Luke , and Martin , the third track " Behind These Hazel Eyes " , was the last song she had co @-@ written for the album . She recalled , " I wrote ' Behind The Hazel Eyes ' about my last boyfriend . It 's the last song I wrote for the album , I almost didn 't make the deadline . " The fourth track , " Because of You " , was originally intended for Thankful . Clarkson wrote a draft of the song after a late night talk with a friend who had hard time with her family , with Moody and Hodges providing additional writing . " Gone " , the fifth track , was written by Kara DioGuardi and John Shanks . Clarkson admits she cannot relate thoroughly on the song , but felt that it should be heard nonetheless . The sixth track , " Addicted , was written by Clarkson , Moody , and Hodges . Clarkson revealed that the song was inspired by the songs featured on Evanescence 's debut album Fallen ( 2003 ) . She remarked , " I wanted to work on them with someone as passionate about music as I am . And then I heard that Evanescence record ... I loved their record because of the passion behind it .
Clarkson co @-@ wrote the seventh track , " Where Is Your Heart " , with DioGuardi and Chantal Kreviazuk . She revealed that it was also about her boyfriend , Hodges , whom she described as " wanting to get really into our relationship , and I just thought , ' Where are you in our relationship ? ' " " Walk Away " , the eight track , was also written by the three , with additional writing by Raine Maida . Clarkson described it as " one of the brighter songs " on Breakaway , and said that " It 's very blunt and to the point . ' I 'm done with you , you 're upsetting me . ' " DioGuardi and Shanks co @-@ wrote the ninth track , " You Found Me " . Clarkson revealed , " When I recorded this one , I was actually in a good place with a guy . It was very fitting at the time that I recorded it . " DioGuardi had also co @-@ written the tenth track , " I Hate Myself for Losing You " , with Jimmy Harry and Shep Solomon . Clarkson described the song as " depressing " , but felt it could be used as a foreshadowing device . She explained " I read something that Sting said in an interview , he talked about how the great thing about writing is that it is an emotional and therapeutic thing and you can get it out . " The eleventh track , " Hear Me " , was written by Clarkson , DioGuardi , and Clif Magness . Clarkson explained the song , " It 's is almost like a prayer to God . I haven 't met the person whom I will spend the rest of my life with , but the song is a prayer to God about that . That 's what the song is . ' God , I 'm ready for ' the one ! ' " The twelfth and closing track is a live recording of " Beautiful Disaster " , originally from Thankful . Clarkson admitted that she hated Thankful 's version of the song , and thought the production was distracting from the lyrics . So she decided to record a piano ballad version instead .
= = Release = =
Breakaway was first released in the North America on November 30 , 2004 by RCA Records , 19 Recordings , and S Records , following an influx of releases by American Idol contestants Aiken , Ruben Studdard , and Barrino . The New York Times columnist Jeff Leeds noted that the release could benefit from a holiday season , but " it could also hinder their efforts to establish themselves as recording artists with distinctive personalities and the legitimacy needed for long careers . " Davis reiterated that the release was intended to recede from their ties from American Idol , saying , " I 'm not interested in merely souvenir sales " . The album was titled Breakaway to capitalize on the success of the The Princess Diaries 2 : Royal Engagement soundtrack single " Breakaway " , which was also reissued as the album 's final single . Immediately before the album was released , Clarkson left 19 Management , dismissed Fuller as her manager , and quickly hired the managing services of Jeff Kwatinetz of the The Firm , though still contracted to 19 Recordings . A promotion plan was created for Clarkson for Breakaway 's release . Davis positioned her to be RCA 's top global priority , and at the recommendation of The Firm , removed American Idol from her official biography . Rather than being booked on arenas for her tour , Kwatinetz booked Clarkson for smaller amphitheaters to hone her performance skills . He remarked , " American Idol gave her a lot of exposure that allowed her to skip some steps in her development , and that 's hazardous . " Breakaway was first released internationally on January 3 , 2005 by the Bertelsmann Music Group ( now Sony Music Entertainment ) , and was released in the United Kingdom on July 18 , 2005 by RCA . On November 2005 , a special edition CD + DVD was released , containing additional bonus tracks and music videos .
= = = Promotion = = =
Clarkson , along with Studdard and Barrino , hosted a television musical special on the Fox Broadcasting Company entitled Kelly , Ruben & Fantasia : Home for Christmas on November 25 , 2004 . On the eve of Breakaway 's release , she performed " Since U Been Gone " on the The Tonight Show with Jay Leno . On February 2005 , she appeared on Saturday Night Live to perform " Since U Been Gone " and " Breakaway " . On September 2005 , she appeared on The Oprah Winfrey Show and performed " Breakaway " as well as " Because of You " . Clarkson also performed in award ceremonies and events , she performed " Since U Been Gone " on the 2005 MTV Video Music Awards at the AmericanAirlines Arena and on the 2006 BRIT Awards at the Earls Court . She performed " Because of You " on the 48th Annual Grammy Awards at the Staples Center and on the 15th Echo Awards at the Estrel Berlin .
= = = Singles = = =
Breakaway 's lead single , " Since U Been Gone " , was released on November 2004 , but gained traction at the beginning of 2005 . After debuting at number seventy , it peaked on the Billboard Hot 100 at number two , and stayed in the chart 's top ten for 20 weeks . Despite a number two peak , " Since U Been Gone " remains as Clarkson 's most successful single on the Billboard Hot 100 , outpacing even her number one hits on the chart . It also topped nine other Billboard charts , including the Billboard Mainstream Top 40 and the Billboard Dance / Mix Show Airplay , and became a successful hit around the world . The second single , " Behind These Hazel Eyes " , was released on April 2005 and continued the chart success . After debuting at number 87 on the Billboard Hot 100 , it peaked at number six while " Since U Been Gone " is still in the top ten . It stayed on the chart 's top ten for 15 weeks , and also became an international hit . The third single , " Because of You " , released on August 2005 , performed successfully along with its predecessors , peaking at number seven on the Billboard Hot 100 . While " Since U Been Gone " became Breakaway 's most successful release in the United States , " Because of You " became the album 's most successful release internationally . It topped the Dutch Top 40 chart in the Netherlands , Schweizer Hitparade chart in Switzerland , the Tracklisten Airplay chart in Denmark and became a number one single on the Billboard European Hot 100 Singles chart ; while also attaining a top ten position in nine regions . The follow @-@ up track , " Walk Away " , was released on January 2006 as Breakaway 's fourth single and its final release in the United States . After debuting at number 97 , it peaked at number 12 on the Billboard Hot 100 , and became a top forty hit internationally . Originally released as a single from The Princess Diaries 2 : Royal Engagement soundtrack in July 2004 , the title track " Breakaway " was reissued as the album 's fifth and final single in May 2006 . After peaking on the Billboard Hot 100 at number six , it became a top twenty hit internationally .
= = = Tours = = =
From 2005 to 2006 , Clarkson embarked on three concert tours to promote Breakaway : the Hazel Eyes Tour , the Breakaway World Tour , and the Addicted Tour . The Hazel Eyes tour took place in various theaters throughout North America , with the concert at UCF Arena being streamed live on AOL and AOL Radio . The Breakaway World Tour , which took place in between the Hazel Eyes Tour , marked as her first world tour , visiting theaters and arenas throughout in Europe and Oceania . Upon returning to the United States , she then embarked on the Addicted Tour , performing at various amphitheaters across North America .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
The album received positive reviews from music critics . AllMusic senior editor Stephen Thomas Erlewine , who gave it four out of five stars , wrote " what gives Breakaway its spine are the driving , anthemic pop tunes , numbers that sound simultaneously mainstream and youthful , which is a hard trick to pull off " and describing the tracks as the ones that illustrate Clarkson as a rare thing in the 2000s : a pop singer who 's neither hip nor square , just solidly and enjoyably in the mainstream . Sputnikmusic 's Dave Donnelly gave it a " 4 " rating , remarking that " Breakaway is not a Thriller to her Off The Wall by no means , but that she has at least created a rare type of album : a one that which offers a full selection of potential singles , reminiscent of Michael Jackson 's Bad or Thriller , which he described as having a mass appeal with artistic integrity and perceived longevity . Breakaway may be remembered in years to come as a pop classic , alongside Madonna 's early material perhaps . " Raymond Fiore of Entertainment Weekly gave the album a " B " rating , noting it 's rock direction and describing it as " Avril @-@ meets @-@ Evanescence , with a splash of Pat Benatar . " Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine gave Breakaway a three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half star rating , and commented that though her rocky leanings were hinted at on the less coherent Thankful , Clarkson had always cited Mariah Carey as a primary influence and that she still owes a lot to that former powerhouse artist . Furthering describing it as " what Mariah might sound like if she ever decided to rock out . " Charles Merwin wrote for Stylus Magazine that the album 's probable non @-@ singles still maintain a quality " high enough to quell worries about the " I love the singles , but that 's all I really need to hear " arguments . " He described Clarkson as ranking some where at the top of her class as far as rock albums go among the teen pop set , saying that she " has a long way to go before we 'll ever feel comfortable calling her anything besides an American Idol , but for now she has a sound that seems believable enough to support her considerable chops . " In a quick review , Billboard described Breakaway as a " rare exhibition of substance over style " .
Some critics , however , were less impressed by the album . Shirley Halperin of the Rolling Stone offered a mixed review . Giving the album a three @-@ star rating , saying Clarkson isn 't ready for her new sound . She asked , " You can 't help but wonder , Who is the real Kelly Clarkson , and when will she stop wearing her big sister 's hand @-@ me @-@ downs ? " Caroline Sullivan of The Guardian gave it a two @-@ star rating , saying that the title track expresses Clarkson 's novel desire to " spread my wings and learn to fly " , but settles into a catchy enough rut that at times . "
= = = Commercial performance = = =
Breakaway is currently Clarkson 's most successful release to date , with sales of over 15 million copies worldwide . On the week ending December 18 , 2004 , the album debuted at number three on Billboard 200 chart in the United States with 250 @,@ 000 copies , which were 47 @,@ 000 less than her first week sales of Thankful . Music commercial analysts noted that Clarkson 's commercial appeal has endured beyond American Idol , but also commented on its slumping performance . Billboard director Geoff Mayfield noted the lackluster performance may have been caused by being released in a competitive holiday market . Despite failing to top the chart , the record stayed on the top twenty of the Billboard 200 for 61 consecutive weeks , and became the first title in five years to spend its entire year in the top twenty of the chart . By the end of 2005 , Breakaway became the year 's third best @-@ selling album in the United States , according to Nielsen Soundscan . It was certified 6 × multi @-@ platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America on May 23 , 2007 , and as of 2014 , it has sold over 6 @,@ 307 @,@ 000 copies in the United States and becoming her best @-@ selling record in the region .
Breakaway has also enjoyed commercial success internationally ; it became her first album to chart in over nineteen regions . By the end of 2005 , the album became the world 's seventh best @-@ selling release of the year according to the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry . In the United Kingdom , it debuted on the Official UK Albums Chart at number ten with 17 @,@ 631 copies . At the beginning of 2006 , the album ascended to number three on the chart . As of 2012 , it has sold over 1 @,@ 571 @,@ 278 copies in the region . In Australia , Breakaway debuted on the ARIA Albums Chart at number twenty @-@ nine , and also spent its entire year on the top fifty , peaking at number two . In Ireland , the album debuted on the IRMA Artist Albums chart at number twenty @-@ one , and topped the chart in 2006 . Together with the Australian Recording Industry Association , the Irish Recorded Music Association certified the record as 7 × multi @-@ platinum , its highest certification overall . In the Netherlands , the album debuted on the Mega Album Top 100 at number forty @-@ seven and topped the chart for three weeks . In other regions , Breakaway peaked in the top five in the national charts of Austria , Belgium , Denmark , Germany , Greece , New Zealand , Portugal , and Switzerland ; and has attained a top twenty position in six regions worldwide .
= = = Accolades = = =
It has received various accolades from several music industry awards . It won Grammy Awards for Best Pop Vocal Album and Grammy Award for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance for " Since U Been Gone " at the 49th ceremony , marking the first time she won a Grammy Award . It was also nominated for a Juno Award for International Album of the Year at the 36th Juno Awards . In the 2005 American Music Awards , Breakaway received four nominations , including Favorite Pop / Rock Album , and earned Clarkson two awards for Artist of the Year and Favorite Adult Contemporary Artist . In addition , she won the award for Favorite Pop / Rock Female Artist at the 2006 American Music Awards . It also earned her twelve nominations at the 2005 Billboard Music Awards , nine of which she had won . At the 2005 Teen Choice Awards , Breakaway won four awards , including a Choice Album award . At the TMF Awards , the album enabled Clarkson to win three awards , including a Best Pop Artist and a Best Female Artist award .
Breakaway also appeared on decade @-@ end best @-@ of lists . Newsweek ranked it as the ninth best album of the 2000s . Entertainment Weekly ranked it as the 29th of the 100 best albums from 1988 to 2008 . Rolling Stone ranked it as the 11th top album of the decade @-@ end reader 's poll .
= = Impact = =
Music commercial analysts reported that Clarkson has attained a commercial appeal on her own with Breakaway , despite their initial skepticism of her establishing prominence beyond American Idol . Davis recalled that " With the songs " Since U Been Gone " and " Behind These Hazel Eyes " , we were able to take Clarkson to a major seller of albums all over the world where they had never even heard of American Idol . " According to Mediabase , which monitors radio station airplay in North America , Clarkson was the most played artist on the radio of 2006 . David Corey , program director of WXKS @-@ FM , described it as " very rare " . Just before the release of her third studio album , Davis also stated that she was one of the top four artists at Sony BMG " .
Billboard credits Clarkson for landscaping the core sound of mainstream pop music in the 2000s to a uptempo dance @-@ oriented sound with the release of " Since U Been Gone " and the singles that followed it . The album 's producers also came into prominence due to the album 's success . Dr. Luke , who was the house band lead guitarist for Saturday Night Live at the time of the Breakaway 's release , has credited " Since U Been Gone " as his first big break . Max Martin , who had already found major success as a music producer in the 1990s and early 2000s with , among others , Britney Spears , Backstreet Boys and NSYNC , achieved more prominence due to the success of " Since U Been Gone " and " Behind These Hazel Eyes " .
Breakaway 's critical acclaim also enabled Clarkson to also earn critical respect , particularly from the rock and indie music scene , who had looked down upon American Idol contestants . In his memoir , Davis recalled a meeting Fuller and BMG President Charles Goldstuck , where Fuller acknowledged how the worldwide success of Breakaway has validated American Idol itself . The popularity of " Since U Been Gone " among the rock community has also resulted to various cover versions by rock acts , such as A Day to Remember , Ted Leo , and Tokyo Police Club . She recalled , " It 's ridiculous how well that song was received by hard rockers , by indie people . I was walking around with a friend of mine and this hard @-@ rock guy came up to me and was like , ' I look stupid , but I tell my friends I love this song . ' People at concerts are like , ' That 's my guilty pleasure . I don 't mean to be mean , but I didn 't want to like the American Idol girl . ' But they love that song , and it kind of won them over . "
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits lifted from the album 's liner notes .
Recorded at
Performance credits
Instruments
Production
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
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= Mitochondrion =
The mitochondrion ( plural mitochondria ) is a double membrane @-@ bound organelle found in all eukaryotic organisms , although some cells in some organisms may lack them ( e.g. Red blood cells ) . A number of organisms have reduced or transformed their mitochondria into other structures . To date , only one eukaryote is known to have completely lost its mitochondria . The word mitochondrion comes from the Greek μίτος , mitos , i.e. " thread " , and χονδρίον — , chondrion , i.e. " granule " or " grain @-@ like " .
Mitochondria are commonly between 0 @.@ 75 and 3μm in diameter but vary considerably in size and structure . Unless specifically stained , they are not visible . Mitochondria have been described as " the powerhouse of the cell " because they generate most of the cell 's supply of adenosine triphosphate ( ATP ) , used as a source of chemical energy . In addition to supplying cellular energy , mitochondria are involved in other tasks , such as signaling , cellular differentiation , and cell death , as well as maintaining control of the cell cycle and cell growth . Mitochondrial biogenesis is in turn temporally coordinated with these cellular processes . Mitochondria have been implicated in several human diseases , including mitochondrial disorders , cardiac dysfunction , and heart failure . In 2014 , a study including ten children diagnosed with severe autism suggests that autism may be correlated with mitochondrial defects .
The number of mitochondria in a cell can vary widely by organism , tissue , and cell type . For instance , red blood cells have no mitochondria , whereas liver cells can have more than 2000 . The organelle is composed of compartments that carry out specialized functions . These compartments or regions include the outer membrane , the intermembrane space , the inner membrane , and the cristae and matrix . Mitochondrial proteins vary depending on the tissue and the species . In humans , 615 distinct types of protein have been identified from cardiac mitochondria , whereas in rats , 940 proteins have been reported . The mitochondrial proteome is thought to be dynamically regulated . Although most of a cell 's DNA is contained in the cell nucleus , the mitochondrion has its own independent genome that shows substantial similarity to bacterial genomes .
= = History = =
The first observations of intracellular structures that probably represented mitochondria were published in the 1840s . Richard Altmann , in 1894 , established them as cell organelles and called them " bioblasts " . The term " mitochondria " was coined by Carl Benda in 1898 . Leonor Michaelis discovered that Janus green can be used as a supravital stain for mitochondria in 1900 . In 1904 , Friedrich Meves , made the first recorded observation of mitochondria in plants in cells of the white waterlily , Nymphaea alba and in 1908 , along with Claudius Regaud , suggested that they contain proteins and lipids . Benjamin F. Kingsbury , in 1912 , first related them with cell respiration , but almost exclusively based on morphological observations . In 1913 , particles from extracts of guinea @-@ pig liver were linked to respiration by Otto Heinrich Warburg , which he called " grana " . Warburg and Heinrich Otto Wieland , who had also postulated a similar particle mechanism , disagreed on the chemical nature of the respiration . It was not until 1925 , when David Keilin discovered cytochromes , that the respiratory chain was described .
In 1939 , experiments using minced muscle cells demonstrated that cellular respiration using one oxygen atom can form two adenosine triphosphate ( ATP ) molecules , and , in 1941 , the concept of the phosphate bonds of ATP being a form of energy in cellular metabolism was developed by Fritz Albert Lipmann . In the following years , the mechanism behind cellular respiration was further elaborated , although its link to the mitochondria was not known . The introduction of tissue fractionation by Albert Claude allowed mitochondria to be isolated from other cell fractions and biochemical analysis to be conducted on them alone . In 1946 , he concluded that cytochrome oxidase and other enzymes responsible for the respiratory chain were isolated to the mitchondria . Eugene Kennedy and Albert Lehninger discovered in 1948 that mitochondria are the site of oxidative phosphorylation in eukaryotes . Over time , the fractionation method was further developed , improving the quality of the mitochondria isolated , and other elements of cell respiration were determined to occur in the mitochondria .
The first high @-@ resolution electron micrographs appeared in 1952 , replacing the Janus Green stains as the preferred way of visualising the mitochondria . This led to a more detailed analysis of the structure of the mitochondria , including confirmation that they were surrounded by a membrane . It also showed a second membrane inside the mitochondria that folded up in ridges dividing up the inner chamber and that the size and shape of the mitochondria varied from cell to cell .
The popular term " powerhouse of the cell " was coined by Philip Siekevitz in 1957 .
In 1967 , it was discovered that mitochondria contained ribosomes . In 1968 , methods were developed for mapping the mitochondrial genes , with the genetic and physical map of yeast mitochondrial DNA being completed in 1976 .
= = Origin and evolution = =
There are two hypotheses about the origin of mitochondria : endosymbiotic and autogenous . The endosymbiotic hypothesis suggests that mitochondria were originally prokaryotic cells , capable of implementing oxidative mechanisms that were not possible for eukaryotic cells ; they became endosymbionts living inside the eukaryote . In the autogenous hypothesis , mitochondria were born by splitting off a portion of DNA from the nucleus of the eukaryotic cell at the time of divergence with the prokaryotes ; this DNA portion would have been enclosed by membranes , which could not be crossed by proteins . Since mitochondria have many features in common with bacteria , the most accredited theory at present is endosymbiosis .
A mitochondrion contains DNA , which is organized as several copies of a single , circular chromosome . This mitochondrial chromosome contains genes for redox proteins , such as those of the respiratory chain . The CoRR hypothesis proposes that this co @-@ location is required for redox regulation . The mitochondrial genome codes for some RNAs of ribosomes , and the 22 tRNAs necessary for the translation of messenger RNAs into protein . The circular structure is also found in prokaryotes . The proto @-@ mitochondrion was probably closely related to the Rickettsia . However , the exact relationship of the ancestor of mitochondria to the alphaproteobacteria and whether the mitochondrion was formed at the same time or after the nucleus , remains controversial .
A recent study by researchers of the University of Hawaii at Manoa and the Oregon State University indicates that the SAR11 clade of bacteria shares a relatively recent common ancestor with the mitochondria existing in most eukaryotic cells .
The ribosomes coded for by the mitochondrial DNA are similar to those from bacteria in size and structure . They closely resemble the bacterial 70S ribosome and not the 80S cytoplasmic ribosomes , which are coded for by nuclear DNA .
The endosymbiotic relationship of mitochondria with their host cells was popularized by Lynn Margulis . The endosymbiotic hypothesis suggests that mitochondria descended from bacteria that somehow survived endocytosis by another cell , and became incorporated into the cytoplasm . The ability of these bacteria to conduct respiration in host cells that had relied on glycolysis and fermentation would have provided a considerable evolutionary advantage . This symbiotic relationship probably developed 1 @.@ 7 to 2 billion years ago .
A few groups of unicellular eukaryotes have only vestigial mitochondria or derived structures : the microsporidians , metamonads , and archamoebae . These groups appear as the most primitive eukaryotes on phylogenetic trees constructed using rRNA information , which once suggested that they appeared before the origin of mitochondria . However , this is now known to be an artifact of long @-@ branch attraction — they are derived groups and retain genes or organelles derived from mitochondria ( e.g. , mitosomes and hydrogenosomes ) .
Monocercomonoides appear to have lost their mitochondria completely and at least some of the mitochondrial functions seem to be carried out by cytoplasmic proteins now .
= = Structure = =
A mitochondrion contains outer and inner membranes composed of phospholipid bilayers and proteins . The two membranes have different properties . Because of this double @-@ membraned organization , there are five distinct parts to a mitochondrion . They are :
the outer mitochondrial membrane ,
the intermembrane space ( the space between the outer and inner membranes ) ,
the inner mitochondrial membrane ,
the cristae space ( formed by infoldings of the inner membrane ) , and
the matrix ( space within the inner membrane ) .
Mitochondria stripped of their outer membrane are called mitoplasts .
= = = Outer membrane = = =
The outer mitochondrial membrane , which encloses the entire organelle , is 60 to 75 angstroms ( Å ) thick . It has a protein @-@ to @-@ phospholipid ratio similar to that of the eukaryotic plasma membrane ( about 1 : 1 by weight ) . It contains large numbers of integral membrane proteins called porins . These porins form channels that allow molecules of 5000 daltons or less in molecular weight to freely diffuse from one side of the membrane to the other . Larger proteins can enter the mitochondrion if a signaling sequence at their N @-@ terminus binds to a large multisubunit protein called translocase of the outer membrane , which then actively moves them across the membrane . Mitochondrial pro @-@ proteins are imported through specialised translocation complexes . The outer membrane also contains enzymes involved in such diverse activities as the elongation of fatty acids , oxidation of epinephrine , and the degradation of tryptophan . These enzymes include monoamine oxidase , rotenone @-@ insensitive NADH @-@ cytochrome c @-@ reductase , kynurenine hydroxylase and fatty acid Co @-@ A ligase . Disruption of the outer membrane permits proteins in the intermembrane space to leak into the cytosol , leading to certain cell death . The mitochondrial outer membrane can associate with the endoplasmic reticulum ( ER ) membrane , in a structure called MAM ( mitochondria @-@ associated ER @-@ membrane ) . This is important in the ER @-@ mitochondria calcium signaling and is involved in the transfer of lipids between the ER and mitochondria . Outside the outer membrane there are small ( diameter : 60Å ) particles named sub @-@ units of Parson .
= = = Intermembrane space = = =
The intermembrane space is the space between the outer membrane and the inner membrane . It is also known as perimitochondrial space . Because the outer membrane is freely permeable to small molecules , the concentrations of small molecules , such as ions and sugars , in the intermembrane space is the same as in the cytosol . However , large proteins must have a specific signaling sequence to be transported across the outer membrane , so the protein composition of this space is different from the protein composition of the cytosol . One protein that is localized to the intermembrane space in this way is cytochrome c .
= = = Inner membrane = = =
The inner mitochondrial membrane contains proteins with five types of functions :
Those that perform the redox reactions of oxidative phosphorylation
ATP synthase , which generates ATP in the matrix
Specific transport proteins that regulate metabolite passage into and out of the matrix
Protein import machinery
Mitochondrial fusion and fission protein
It contains more than 151 different polypeptides , and has a very high protein @-@ to @-@ phospholipid ratio ( more than 3 : 1 by weight , which is about 1 protein for 15 phospholipids ) . The inner membrane is home to around 1 / 5 of the total protein in a mitochondrion . In addition , the inner membrane is rich in an unusual phospholipid , cardiolipin . This phospholipid was originally discovered in cow hearts in 1942 , and is usually characteristic of mitochondrial and bacterial plasma membranes . Cardiolipin contains four fatty acids rather than two , and may help to make the inner membrane impermeable . Unlike the outer membrane , the inner membrane doesn 't contain porins , and is highly impermeable to all molecules . Almost all ions and molecules require special membrane transporters to enter or exit the matrix . Proteins are ferried into the matrix via the translocase of the inner membrane ( TIM ) complex or via Oxa1 . In addition , there is a membrane potential across the inner membrane , formed by the action of the enzymes of the electron transport chain .
= = = = Cristae = = = =
The inner mitochondrial membrane is compartmentalized into numerous cristae , which expand the surface area of the inner mitochondrial membrane , enhancing its ability to produce ATP . For typical liver mitochondria , the area of the inner membrane is about five times as large as the outer membrane . This ratio is variable and mitochondria from cells that have a greater demand for ATP , such as muscle cells , contain even more cristae . These folds are studded with small round bodies known as F1 particles or oxysomes . These are not simple random folds but rather invaginations of the inner membrane , which can affect overall chemiosmotic function .
One recent mathematical modeling study has suggested that the optical properties of the cristae in filamentous mitochondria may affect the generation and propagation of light within the tissue .
= = = Matrix = = =
The matrix is the space enclosed by the inner membrane . It contains about 2 / 3 of the total protein in a mitochondrion . The matrix is important in the production of ATP with the aid of the ATP synthase contained in the inner membrane . The matrix contains a highly concentrated mixture of hundreds of enzymes , special mitochondrial ribosomes , tRNA , and several copies of the mitochondrial DNA genome . Of the enzymes , the major functions include oxidation of pyruvate and fatty acids , and the citric acid cycle .
Mitochondria have their own genetic material , and the machinery to manufacture their own RNAs and proteins ( see : protein biosynthesis ) . A published human mitochondrial DNA sequence revealed 16 @,@ 569 base pairs encoding 37 genes : 22 tRNA , 2 rRNA , and 13 peptide genes . The 13 mitochondrial peptides in humans are integrated into the inner mitochondrial membrane , along with proteins encoded by genes that reside in the host cell 's nucleus .
= = = Mitochondria @-@ associated ER membrane ( MAM ) = = =
The mitochondria @-@ associated ER membrane ( MAM ) is another structural element that is increasingly recognized for its critical role in cellular physiology and homeostasis . Once considered a technical snag in cell fractionation techniques , the alleged ER vesicle contaminants that invariably appeared in the mitochondrial fraction have been re @-@ identified as membranous structures derived from the MAM — the interface between mitochondria and the ER . Physical coupling between these two organelles had previously been observed in electron micrographs and has more recently been probed with fluorescence microscopy . Such studies estimate that at the MAM , which may comprise up to 20 % of the mitochondrial outer membrane , the ER and mitochondria are separated by a mere 10 – 25 nm and held together by protein tethering complexes .
Purified MAM from subcellular fractionation has been shown to be enriched in enzymes involved in phospholipid exchange , in addition to channels associated with Ca2 + signaling . These hints of a prominent role for the MAM in the regulation of cellular lipid stores and signal transduction have been borne out , with significant implications for mitochondrial @-@ associated cellular phenomena , as discussed below . Not only has the MAM provided insight into the mechanistic basis underlying such physiological processes as intrinsic apoptosis and the propagation of calcium signaling , but it also favors a more refined view of the mitochondria . Though often seen as static , isolated ' powerhouses ' hijacked for cellular metabolism through an ancient endosymbiotic event , the evolution of the MAM underscores the extent to which mitochondria have been integrated into overall cellular physiology , with intimate physical and functional coupling to the endomembrane system .
= = = = Phospholipid transfer = = = =
The MAM is enriched in enzymes involved in lipid biosynthesis , such as phosphatidylserine synthase on the ER face and phosphatidylserine decarboxylase on the mitochondrial face . Because mitochondria are dynamic organelles constantly undergoing fission and fusion events , they require a constant and well @-@ regulated supply of phospholipids for membrane integrity . But mitochondria are not only a destination for the phospholipids they finish synthesis of ; rather , this organelle also plays a role in inter @-@ organelle trafficking of the intermediates and products of phospholipid biosynthetic pathways , ceramide and cholesterol metabolism , and glycosphingolipid anabolism .
Such trafficking capacity depends on the MAM , which has been shown to facilitate transfer of lipid intermediates between organelles . In contrast to the standard vesicular mechanism of lipid transfer , evidence indicates that the physical proximity of the ER and mitochondrial membranes at the MAM allows for lipid flipping between opposed bilayers . Despite this unusual and seemingly energetically unfavorable mechanism , such transport does not require ATP . Instead , in yeast , it has been shown to be dependent on a multiprotein tethering structure termed the ER @-@ mitochondria encounter structure , or ERMES , although it remains unclear whether this structure directly mediates lipid transfer or is required to keep the membranes in sufficiently close proximity to lower the energy barrier for lipid flipping .
The MAM may also be part of the secretory pathway , in addition to its role in intracellular lipid trafficking . In particular , the MAM appears to be an intermediate destination between the rough ER and the Golgi in the pathway that leads to very @-@ low @-@ density lipoprotein , or VLDL , assembly and secretion . The MAM thus serves as a critical metabolic and trafficking hub in lipid metabolism .
= = = = Calcium signaling = = = =
A critical role for the ER in calcium signaling was acknowledged before such a role for the mitochondria was widely accepted , in part because the low affinity of Ca2 + channels localized to the outer mitochondrial membrane seemed to fly in the face of this organelle 's purported responsiveness to changes in intracellular Ca2 + flux . But the presence of the MAM resolves this apparent contradiction : the close physical association between the two organelles results in Ca2 + microdomains at contact points that facilitate efficient Ca2 + transmission from the ER to the mitochondria . Transmission occurs in response to so @-@ called " Ca2 + puffs " generated by spontaneous clustering and activation of IP3R , a canonical ER membrane Ca2 + channel .
The fate of these puffs — in particular , whether they remain restricted to isolated locales or integrated into Ca2 + waves for propagation throughout the cell — is determined in large part by MAM dynamics . Although reuptake of Ca2 + by the ER ( concomitant with its release ) modulates the intensity of the puffs , thus insulating mitochondria to a certain degree from high Ca2 + exposure , the MAM often serves as a firewall that essentially buffers Ca2 + puffs by acting as a sink into which free ions released into the cytosol can be funneled . This Ca2 + tunneling occurs through the low @-@ affinity Ca2 + receptor VDAC1 , which recently has been shown to be physically tethered to the IP3R clusters on the ER membrane and enriched at the MAM . The ability of mitochondria to serve as a Ca2 + sink is a result of the electrochemical gradient generated during oxidative phosphorylation , which makes tunneling of the cation an exergonic process . Normally , mild calcium influx from cytosol into the mitochondrial matrix causes transient depolarization that is corrected by pumping out protons .
But transmission of Ca2 + is not unidirectional ; rather , it is a two @-@ way street . The properties of the Ca2 + pump SERCA and the channel IP3R present on the ER membrane facilitate feedback regulation coordinated by MAM function . In particular , the clearance of Ca2 + by the MAM allows for spatio @-@ temporal patterning of Ca2 + signaling because Ca2 + alters IP3R activity in a biphasic manner . SERCA is likewise affected by mitochondrial feedback : uptake of Ca2 + by the MAM stimulates ATP production , thus providing energy that enables SERCA to reload the ER with Ca2 + for continued Ca2 + efflux at the MAM . Thus , the MAM is not a passive buffer for Ca2 + puffs ; rather it helps modulate further Ca2 + signaling through feedback loops that affect ER dynamics .
Regulating ER release of Ca2 + at the MAM is especially critical because only a certain window of Ca2 + uptake sustains the mitochondria , and consequently the cell , at homeostasis . Sufficient intraorganelle Ca2 + signaling is required to stimulate metabolism by activating dehydrogenase enzymes critical to flux through the citric acid cycle . However , once Ca2 + signaling in the mitochondria passes a certain threshold , it stimulates the intrinsic pathway of apoptosis in part by collapsing the mitochondrial membrane potential required for metabolism . Studies examining the role of pro- and anti @-@ apoptotic factors support this model ; for example , the anti @-@ apoptotic factor Bcl @-@ 2 has been shown to interact with IP3Rs to reduce Ca2 + filling of the ER , leading to reduced efflux at the MAM and preventing collapse of the mitochondrial membrane potential post @-@ apoptotic stimuli . Given the need for such fine regulation of Ca2 + signaling , it is perhaps unsurprising that dysregulated mitochondrial Ca2 + has been implicated in several neurodegenerative diseases , while the catalogue of tumor suppressors includes a few that are enriched at the MAM .
= = = = Molecular basis for tethering = = = =
Recent advances in the identification of the tethers between the mitochondrial and ER membranes suggest that the scaffolding function of the molecular elements involved is secondary to other , non @-@ structural functions . In yeast , ERMES , a multiprotein complex of interacting ER- and mitochondrial @-@ resident membrane proteins , is required for lipid transfer at the MAM and exemplifies this principle . One of its components , for example , is also a constituent of the protein complex required for insertion of transmembrane beta @-@ barrel proteins into the lipid bilayer . However , a homologue of the ERMES complex has not yet been identified in mammalian cells . Other proteins implicated in scaffolding likewise have functions independent of structural tethering at the MAM ; for example , ER @-@ resident and mitochondrial @-@ resident mitofusins form heterocomplexes that regulate the number of inter @-@ organelle contact sites , although mitofusins were first identified for their role in fission and fusion events between individual mitochondria . Glucose @-@ related protein 75 ( grp75 ) is another dual @-@ function protein . In addition to the matrix pool of grp75 , a portion serves as a chaperone that physically links the mitochondrial and ER Ca2 + channels VDAC and IP3R for efficient Ca2 + transmission at the MAM . Another potential tether is Sigma @-@ 1R , a non @-@ opioid receptor whose stabilization of ER @-@ resident IP3R may preserve communication at the MAM during the metabolic stress response .
= = = = Perspective = = = =
The MAM is a critical signaling , metabolic , and trafficking hub in the cell that allows for the integration of ER and mitochondrial physiology . Coupling between these organelles is not simply structural but functional as well and critical for overall cellular physiology and homeostasis . The MAM thus offers a perspective on mitochondria that diverges from the traditional view of this organelle as a static , isolated unit appropriated for its metabolic capacity by the cell . Instead , this mitochondrial @-@ ER interface emphasizes the integration of the mitochondria , the product of an endosymbiotic event , into diverse cellular processes .
= = Organization and distribution = =
Mitochondria ( and related structures ) are found in all eukaryotes ( except one — the Oxymonad Monocercomonoides sp . ) . Although commonly depicted as bean @-@ like structures they form a highly dynamic network in the majority of cells where they constantly undergo fission and fusion . Mitochondria vary in number and location according to cell type . A single mitochondrion is often found in unicellular organisms . Conversely , numerous mitochondria are found in human liver cells , with about 1000 – 2000 mitochondria per cell , making up 1 / 5 of the cell volume . The mitochondrial content of otherwise similar cells can vary substantially in size and membrane potential , with differences arising from sources including uneven partitioning at cell divisions , leading to extrinsic differences in ATP levels and downstream cellular processes . The mitochondria can be found nestled between myofibrils of muscle or wrapped around the sperm flagellum . Often , they form a complex 3D branching network inside the cell with the cytoskeleton . The association with the cytoskeleton determines mitochondrial shape , which can affect the function as well : different structures of the mitochondrial network may afford the population a variety of physical , chemical , and signalling advantages or disadvantages . Mitochondria in cells are always distributed along microtubules and the distribution of these organelles is also correlated with the endoplasmic reticulum . Recent evidence suggests that vimentin , one of the components of the cytoskeleton , is also critical to the association with the cytoskeleton .
= = Function = =
The most prominent roles of mitochondria are to produce the energy currency of the cell , ATP ( i.e. , phosphorylation of ADP ) , through respiration , and to regulate cellular metabolism . The central set of reactions involved in ATP production are collectively known as the citric acid cycle , or the Krebs cycle . However , the mitochondrion has many other functions in addition to the production of ATP .
= = = Energy conversion = = =
A dominant role for the mitochondria is the production of ATP , as reflected by the large number of proteins in the inner membrane for this task . This is done by oxidizing the major products of glucose : pyruvate , and NADH , which are produced in the cytosol . This type of cellular respiration known as aerobic respiration , is dependent on the presence of oxygen . When oxygen is limited , the glycolytic products will be metabolized by anaerobic fermentation , a process that is independent of the mitochondria . The production of ATP from glucose has an approximately 13 @-@ times higher yield during aerobic respiration compared to fermentation . Recently it has been shown that plant mitochondria can produce a limited amount of ATP without oxygen by using the alternate substrate nitrite . ATP crosses out through the inner membrane with the help of a specific protein , and across the outer membrane via porins . ADP returns via the same route .
= = = = Pyruvate and the citric acid cycle = = = =
Pyruvate molecules produced by glycolysis are actively transported across the inner mitochondrial membrane , and into the matrix where they can either be oxidized and combined with coenzyme A to form CO2 , acetyl @-@ CoA , and NADH , or they can be carboxylated ( by pyruvate carboxylase ) to form oxaloacetate . This latter reaction ” fills up ” the amount of oxaloacetate in the citric acid cycle , and is therefore an anaplerotic reaction , increasing the cycle ’ s capacity to metabolize acetyl @-@ CoA when the tissue 's energy needs ( e.g. in muscle ) are suddenly increased by activity .
In the citric acid cycle , all the intermediates ( e.g. citrate , iso @-@ citrate , alpha @-@ ketoglutarate , succinate , fumarate , malate and oxaloacetate ) are regenerated during each turn of the cycle . Adding more of any of these intermediates to the mitochondrion therefore means that the additional amount is retained within the cycle , increasing all the other intermediates as one is converted into the other . Hence , the addition of any one of them to the cycle has an anaplerotic effect , and its removal has a cataplerotic effect . These anaplerotic and cataplerotic reactions will , during the course of the cycle , increase or decrease the amount of oxaloacetate available to combine with acetyl @-@ CoA to form citric acid . This in turn increases or decreases the rate of ATP production by the mitochondrion , and thus the availability of ATP to the cell .
Acetyl @-@ CoA , on the other hand , derived from pyruvate oxidation , or from the beta @-@ oxidation of fatty acids , is the only fuel to enter the citric acid cycle . With each turn of the cycle one molecule of acetyl @-@ CoA is consumed for every molecule of oxaloacetate present in the mitochondrial matrix , and is never regenerated . It is the oxidation of the acetate portion of acetyl @-@ CoA that produces CO2 and water , with the energy thus released captured in the form of ATP .
In the liver , the carboxylation of cytosolic pyruvate into intra @-@ mitochondrial oxaloacetate is an early step in the gluconeogenic pathway , which converts lactate and de @-@ aminated alanine into glucose , under the influence of high levels of glucagon and / or epinephrine in the blood . Here , the addition of oxaloacetate to the mitochondrion does not have a net anaplerotic effect , as another citric acid cycle intermediate ( malate ) is immediately removed from the mitochondrion to be converted into cytosolic oxaloacetate , which is ultimately converted into glucose , in a process that is almost the reverse of glycolysis .
The enzymes of the citric acid cycle are located in the mitochondrial matrix , with the exception of succinate dehydrogenase , which is bound to the inner mitochondrial membrane as part of Complex II . The citric acid cycle oxidizes the acetyl @-@ CoA to carbon dioxide , and , in the process , produces reduced cofactors ( three molecules of NADH and one molecule of FADH2 ) that are a source of electrons for the electron transport chain , and a molecule of GTP ( that is readily converted to an ATP ) .
= = = = NADH and FADH2 : the electron transport chain = = = =
The redox energy from NADH and FADH2 is transferred to oxygen ( O2 ) in several steps via the electron transport chain . These energy @-@ rich molecules are produced within the matrix via the citric acid cycle but are also produced in the cytoplasm by glycolysis . Reducing equivalents from the cytoplasm can be imported via the malate @-@ aspartate shuttle system of antiporter proteins or feed into the electron transport chain using a glycerol phosphate shuttle . Protein complexes in the inner membrane ( NADH dehydrogenase ( ubiquinone ) , cytochrome c reductase , and cytochrome c oxidase ) perform the transfer and the incremental release of energy is used to pump protons ( H + ) into the intermembrane space . This process is efficient , but a small percentage of electrons may prematurely reduce oxygen , forming reactive oxygen species such as superoxide . This can cause oxidative stress in the mitochondria and may contribute to the decline in mitochondrial function associated with the aging process .
As the proton concentration increases in the intermembrane space , a strong electrochemical gradient is established across the inner membrane . The protons can return to the matrix through the ATP synthase complex , and their potential energy is used to synthesize ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate ( Pi ) . This process is called chemiosmosis , and was first described by Peter Mitchell who was awarded the 1978 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his work . Later , part of the 1997 Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded to Paul D. Boyer and John E. Walker for their clarification of the working mechanism of ATP synthase .
= = = = Heat production = = = =
Under certain conditions , protons can re @-@ enter the mitochondrial matrix without contributing to ATP synthesis . This process is known as proton leak or mitochondrial uncoupling and is due to the facilitated diffusion of protons into the matrix . The process results in the unharnessed potential energy of the proton electrochemical gradient being released as heat . The process is mediated by a proton channel called thermogenin , or UCP1 . Thermogenin is a 33 kDa protein first discovered in 1973 . Thermogenin is primarily found in brown adipose tissue , or brown fat , and is responsible for non @-@ shivering thermogenesis . Brown adipose tissue is found in mammals , and is at its highest levels in early life and in hibernating animals . In humans , brown adipose tissue is present at birth and decreases with age .
= = = Storage of calcium ions = = =
The concentrations of free calcium in the cell can regulate an array of reactions and is important for signal transduction in the cell . Mitochondria can transiently store calcium , a contributing process for the cell 's homeostasis of calcium . In fact , their ability to rapidly take in calcium for later release makes them very good " cytosolic buffers " for calcium . The endoplasmic reticulum ( ER ) is the most significant storage site of calcium , and there is a significant interplay between the mitochondrion and ER with regard to calcium . The calcium is taken up into the matrix by the mitochondrial calcium uniporter on the inner mitochondrial membrane . It is primarily driven by the mitochondrial membrane potential . Release of this calcium back into the cell 's interior can occur via a sodium @-@ calcium exchange protein or via " calcium @-@ induced @-@ calcium @-@ release " pathways . This can initiate calcium spikes or calcium waves with large changes in the membrane potential . These can activate a series of second messenger system proteins that can coordinate processes such as neurotransmitter release in nerve cells and release of hormones in endocrine cells .
Ca2 + influx to the mitochondrial matrix has recently been implicated as a mechanism to regulate respiratory bioenergetics by allowing the electrochemical potential across the membrane to transiently " pulse " from ΔΨ @-@ dominated to pH @-@ dominated , facilitating a reduction of oxidative stress . In neurons , concomitant increases in cytosolic and mitochondrial calcium act to synchronize neuronal activity with mitochondrial energy metabolism . Mitochondrial matrix calcium levels can reach the tens of micromolar levels , which is necessary for the activation of isocitrate dehydrogenase , one of the key regulatory enzymes of the Kreb 's cycle .
= = = Additional functions = = =
Mitochondria play a central role in many other metabolic tasks , such as :
Signaling through mitochondrial reactive oxygen species
Regulation of the membrane potential
Apoptosis @-@ programmed cell death
Calcium signaling ( including calcium @-@ evoked apoptosis )
Regulation of cellular metabolism
Certain heme synthesis reactions ( see also : porphyrin )
Steroid synthesis .
Hormonal signaling Mitochondria are sensitive and responsive to hormones , in part by the action of mitochondrial estrogen receptors ( mtERs ) . These receptors have been found in various tissues and cell types , including brain and heart
Some mitochondrial functions are performed only in specific types of cells . For example , mitochondria in liver cells contain enzymes that allow them to detoxify ammonia , a waste product of protein metabolism . A mutation in the genes regulating any of these functions can result in mitochondrial diseases .
= = Cellular proliferation regulation = =
The relationship between cellular proliferation and mitochondria has been investigated using cervical cancer HeLa cells . Tumor cells require an ample amount of ATP ( Adenosine triphosphate ) in order to synthesize bioactive compounds such as lipids , proteins , and nucleotides for rapid cell proliferation . The majority of ATP in tumor cells is generated via the oxidative phosphorylation pathway ( OxPhos ) . Interference with OxPhos have shown to cause cell cycle arrest suggesting that mitochondria play a role in cell proliferation . Mitochondrial ATP production is also vital for cell division in addition to other basic functions in the cell including the regulation of cell volume , solute concentration , and cellular architecture . ATP levels differ at various stages of the cell cycle suggesting that there is a relationship between the abundance of ATP and the cell 's ability to enter a new cell cycle . ATP 's role in the basic functions of the cell make the cell cycle sensitive to changes in the availability of mitochondrial derived ATP . The variation in ATP levels at different stages of the cell cycle support the hypothesis that mitochondria play an important role in cell cycle regulation . Although the specific mechanisms between mitochondria and the cell cycle regulation is not well understood , studies have shown that low energy cell cycle checkpoints monitor the energy capability before committing to another round of cell division .
= = Genome = =
The human mitochondrial genome is a circular DNA molecule of about 16 kilobases . It encodes 37 genes : 13 for subunits of respiratory complexes I , III , IV and V , 22 for mitochondrial tRNA ( for the 20 standard amino acids , plus an extra gene for leucine and serine ) , and 2 for rRNA . One mitochondrion can contain two to ten copies of its DNA .
As in prokaryotes , there is a very high proportion of coding DNA and an absence of repeats . Mitochondrial genes are transcribed as multigenic transcripts , which are cleaved and polyadenylated to yield mature mRNAs . Not all proteins necessary for mitochondrial function are encoded by the mitochondrial genome ; most are coded by genes in the cell nucleus and the corresponding proteins are imported into the mitochondrion . The exact number of genes encoded by the nucleus and the mitochondrial genome differs between species . Most mitochondrial genomes are circular , although exceptions have been reported . In general , mitochondrial DNA lacks introns , as is the case in the human mitochondrial genome ; however , introns have been observed in some eukaryotic mitochondrial DNA , such as that of yeast and protists , including Dictyostelium discoideum . Between protein @-@ coding regions , tRNAs are present . During transcription , the tRNAs acquire their characteristic L @-@ shape that gets recognized and cleaved by specific enzymes . Mitochondrial tRNA genes have different sequences from the nuclear tRNAs but lookalikes of mitochondrial tRNAs have been found in the nuclear chromosomes with high sequence similarity .
In animals , the mitochondrial genome is typically a single circular chromosome that is approximately 16 kb long and has 37 genes . The genes , while highly conserved , may vary in location . Curiously , this pattern is not found in the human body louse ( Pediculus humanus ) . Instead , this mitochondrial genome is arranged in 18 minicircular chromosomes , each of which is 3 – 4 kb long and has one to three genes . This pattern is also found in other sucking lice , but not in chewing lice . Recombination has been shown to occur between the minichromosomes . The reason for this difference is not known .
While slight variations on the standard code had been predicted earlier , none was discovered until 1979 , when researchers studying human mitochondrial genes determined that they used an alternative code . Although , the mitochondria of many other eukaryotes , including most plants , use the standard code . Many slight variants have been discovered since , including various alternative mitochondrial codes . Further , the AUA , AUC , and AUU codons are all allowable start codons .
Some of these differences should be regarded as pseudo @-@ changes in the genetic code due to the phenomenon of RNA editing , which is common in mitochondria . In higher plants , it was thought that CGG encoded for tryptophan and not arginine ; however , the codon in the processed RNA was discovered to be the UGG codon , consistent with the standard genetic code for tryptophan . Of note , the arthropod mitochondrial genetic code has undergone parallel evolution within a phylum , with some organisms uniquely translating AGG to lysine .
Mitochondrial genomes have far fewer genes than the bacteria from which they are thought to be descended . Although some have been lost altogether , many have been transferred to the nucleus , such as the respiratory complex II protein subunits . This is thought to be relatively common over evolutionary time . A few organisms , such as the Cryptosporidium , actually have mitochondria that lack any DNA , presumably because all their genes have been lost or transferred . In Cryptosporidium , the mitochondria have an altered ATP generation system that renders the parasite resistant to many classical mitochondrial inhibitors such as cyanide , azide , and atovaquone .
= = = Replication and inheritance = = =
Mitochondria divide by binary fission , similar to bacterial cell division . The regulation of this division differs between eukaryotes . In many single @-@ celled eukaryotes , their growth and division is linked to the cell cycle . For example , a single mitochondrion may divide synchronously with the nucleus . This division and segregation process must be tightly controlled so that each daughter cell receives at least one mitochondrion . In other eukaryotes ( in mammals for example ) , mitochondria may replicate their DNA and divide mainly in response to the energy needs of the cell , rather than in phase with the cell cycle . When the energy needs of a cell are high , mitochondria grow and divide . When the energy use is low , mitochondria are destroyed or become inactive . In such examples , and in contrast to the situation in many single celled eukaryotes , mitochondria are apparently randomly distributed to the daughter cells during the division of the cytoplasm . Understanding of mitochondrial dynamics , which is described as the balance between mitochondrial fusion and fission , has revealed that functional and structural alterations in mitochondrial morphology are important factors in pathologies associated with several disease conditions .
The hypothesis of mitochondrial binary fission has relied on the visualization by fluorescence microscopy and conventional transmission electron microscopy ( TEM ) . The resolution of fluorescence microscopy ( ~ 200 nm ) is insufficient to distinguish structural details , such as double mitochondrial membrane in mitochondrial division or even to distinguish individual mitochondria when several are close together . Conventional TEM has also some technical limitations in verifying mitochondrial division . Cryo @-@ electron tomography was recently used to visualize mitochondrial division in frozen hydrated intact cells . It revealed that mitochondria divide by budding .
An individual 's mitochondrial genes are not inherited by the same mechanism as nuclear genes . Typically , the mitochondria are inherited from one parent only . In humans , when an egg cell is fertilized by a sperm , the egg nucleus and sperm nucleus each contribute equally to the genetic makeup of the zygote nucleus . In contrast , the mitochondria , and therefore the mitochondrial DNA , usually come from the egg only . The sperm 's mitochondria enter the egg , but do not contribute genetic information to the embryo . Instead , paternal mitochondria are marked with ubiquitin to select them for later destruction inside the embryo . The egg cell contains relatively few mitochondria , but it is these mitochondria that survive and divide to populate the cells of the adult organism . Mitochondria are , therefore , in most cases inherited only from mothers , a pattern known as maternal inheritance . This mode is seen in most organisms , including the majority of animals . However , mitochondria in some species can sometimes be inherited paternally . This is the norm among certain coniferous plants , although not in pine trees and yews . For Mytilids , paternal inheritance only occurs within males of the species . It has been suggested that it occurs at a very low level in humans . There is a recent suggestion that mitochondria that shorten male lifespan stay in the system because they are inherited only through the mother . By contrast , natural selection weeds out mitochondria that reduce female survival as such mitochondria are less likely to be passed on to the next generation . Therefore , it is suggested that human females and female animals tend to live longer than males . The authors claim that this is a partial explanation .
Uniparental inheritance leads to little opportunity for genetic recombination between different lineages of mitochondria , although a single mitochondrion can contain 2 – 10 copies of its DNA . For this reason , mitochondrial DNA is usually thought to reproduce by binary fission . What recombination does take place maintains genetic integrity rather than maintaining diversity . However , there are studies showing evidence of recombination in mitochondrial DNA . It is clear that the enzymes necessary for recombination are present in mammalian cells . Further , evidence suggests that animal mitochondria can undergo recombination . The data are a bit more controversial in humans , although indirect evidence of recombination exists . If recombination does not occur , the whole mitochondrial DNA sequence represents a single haplotype , which makes it useful for studying the evolutionary history of populations .
Entities undergoing uniparental inheritance and with little to no recombination may be expected to be subject to Muller 's ratchet , the inexorable accumulation of deleterious mutations until functionality is lost . Animal populations of mitochondria avoid this buildup through a developmental process known as the mtDNA bottleneck . The bottleneck exploits stochastic processes in the cell to increase in the cell @-@ to @-@ cell variability in mutant load as an organism develops : a single egg cell with some proportion of mutant mtDNA thus produces an embryo where different cells have different mutant loads . Cell @-@ level selection may then act to remove those cells with more mutant mtDNA , leading to a stabilisation or reduction in mutant load between generations . The mechanism underlying the bottleneck is debated , with a recent mathematical and experimental metastudy providing evidence for a combination of random partitioning of mtDNAs at cell divisions and random turnover of mtDNA molecules within the cell .
= = Population genetic studies = =
The near @-@ absence of genetic recombination in mitochondrial DNA makes it a useful source of information for scientists involved in population genetics and evolutionary biology . Because all the mitochondrial DNA is inherited as a single unit , or haplotype , the relationships between mitochondrial DNA from different individuals can be represented as a gene tree . Patterns in these gene trees can be used to infer the evolutionary history of populations . The classic example of this is in human evolutionary genetics , where the molecular clock can be used to provide a recent date for mitochondrial Eve . This is often interpreted as strong support for a recent modern human expansion out of Africa . Another human example is the sequencing of mitochondrial DNA from Neanderthal bones . The relatively large evolutionary distance between the mitochondrial DNA sequences of Neanderthals and living humans has been interpreted as evidence for the lack of interbreeding between Neanderthals and anatomically modern humans .
However , mitochondrial DNA reflects only the history of the females in a population and so may not represent the history of the population as a whole . This can be partially overcome by the use of paternal genetic sequences , such as the non @-@ recombining region of the Y @-@ chromosome . In a broader sense , only studies that also include nuclear DNA can provide a comprehensive evolutionary history of a population .
Recent measurements of the molecular clock for mitochondrial DNA reported a value of 1 mutation every 7884 years dating back to the most recent common ancestor of humans and apes , which is consistent with estimates of mutation rates of autosomal DNA ( 10 − 8 per base per generation ) .
= = Dysfunction and disease = =
= = = Mitochondrial diseases = = =
Damage and subsequent dysfunction in mitochondria is an important factor in a range of human diseases due to their influence in cell metabolism . Mitochondrial disorders often present themselves as neurological disorders , including autism . They can also manifest as myopathy , diabetes , multiple endocrinopathy , and a variety of other systemic disorders . Diseases caused by mutation in the mtDNA include Kearns @-@ Sayre syndrome , MELAS syndrome and Leber 's hereditary optic neuropathy . In the vast majority of cases , these diseases are transmitted by a female to her children , as the zygote derives its mitochondria and hence its mtDNA from the ovum . Diseases such as Kearns @-@ Sayre syndrome , Pearson syndrome , and progressive external ophthalmoplegia are thought to be due to large @-@ scale mtDNA rearrangements , whereas other diseases such as MELAS syndrome , Leber 's hereditary optic neuropathy , myoclonic epilepsy with ragged red fibers ( MERRF ) , and others are due to point mutations in mtDNA .
In other diseases , defects in nuclear genes lead to dysfunction of mitochondrial proteins . This is the case in Friedreich 's ataxia , hereditary spastic paraplegia , and Wilson 's disease . These diseases are inherited in a dominance relationship , as applies to most other genetic diseases . A variety of disorders can be caused by nuclear mutations of oxidative phosphorylation enzymes , such as coenzyme Q10 deficiency and Barth syndrome . Environmental influences may interact with hereditary predispositions and cause mitochondrial disease . For example , there may be a link between pesticide exposure and the later onset of Parkinson 's disease . Other pathologies with etiology involving mitochondrial dysfunction include schizophrenia , bipolar disorder , dementia , Alzheimer 's disease , Parkinson 's disease , epilepsy , stroke , cardiovascular disease , chronic fatigue syndrome , retinitis pigmentosa , and diabetes mellitus .
Mitochondria @-@ mediated oxidative stress plays a role in cardiomyopathy in Type 2 diabetics . Increased fatty acid delivery to the heart increases fatty acid uptake by cardiomyocytes , resulting in increased fatty acid oxidation in these cells . This process increases the reducing equivalents available to the electron transport chain of the mitochondria , ultimately increasing reactive oxygen species ( ROS ) production . ROS increases uncoupling proteins ( UCPs ) and potentiate proton leakage through the adenine nucleotide translocator ( ANT ) , the combination of which uncouples the mitochondria . Uncoupling then increases oxygen consumption by the mitochondria , compounding the increase in fatty acid oxidation . This creates a vicious cycle of uncoupling ; furthermore , even though oxygen consumption increases , ATP synthesis does not increase proportionally because the mitochondria is uncoupled . Less ATP availability ultimately results in an energy deficit presenting as reduced cardiac efficiency and contractile dysfunction . To compound the problem , impaired sarcoplasmic reticulum calcium release and reduced mitochondrial reuptake limits peak cytosolic levels of the important signaling ion during muscle contraction . The decreased intra @-@ mitochondrial calcium concentration increases dehydrogenase activation and ATP synthesis . So in addition to lower ATP synthesis due to fatty acid oxidation , ATP synthesis is impaired by poor calcium signaling as well , causing cardiac problems for diabetics .
= = = Possible relationships to aging = = =
Given the role of mitochondria as the cell 's powerhouse , there may be some leakage of the high @-@ energy electrons in the respiratory chain to form reactive oxygen species . This was thought to result in significant oxidative stress in the mitochondria with high mutation rates of mitochondrial DNA ( mtDNA ) . Hypothesized links between aging and oxidative stress are not new and were proposed in 1956 , which was later refined into the mitochondrial free radical theory of aging . A vicious cycle was thought to occur , as oxidative stress leads to mitochondrial DNA mutations , which can lead to enzymatic abnormalities and further oxidative stress .
A number of changes can occur to mitochondria during the aging process . Tissues from elderly patients show a decrease in enzymatic activity of the proteins of the respiratory chain . However , mutated mtDNA can only be found in about 0 @.@ 2 % of very old cells . Large deletions in the mitochondrial genome have been hypothesized to lead to high levels of oxidative stress and neuronal death in Parkinson 's disease .
= = In popular culture = =
Madeleine L 'Engle 's 1973 science fantasy novel A Wind in the Door prominently features the mitochondria of main character Charles Wallace Murry , as being inhabited by creatures known as the farandolae . The novel also features other characters travelling inside one of Murry 's mitochondria .
The 1995 horror fiction novel Parasite Eve by Hideaki Sena depicts mitochondria as having some consciousness and mind control abilities , attempting to use these to overtake eukaryotes as the dominant life form . This text was adapted into an eponymous film , video game , and video game sequel all involving a similar premise .
In the Star Wars franchise , microorganisms referred to as " midi @-@ chlorians " give some characters the ability to sense and use the Force . George Lucas , director of the 1999 film Star Wars : Episode I – The Phantom Menace , in which midi @-@ chlorians were introduced , described them as " a loose depiction of mitochondria " . The non @-@ fictional Midichloria genus of bacteria was later named after the midi @-@ chlorians of Star Wars .
As a result of the mitochondrion 's prominence in modern science education , the phrase " mitochondria is [ sic ] the powerhouse of the cell " became a popular Internet meme . The meme is used to imply that secondary education places an insufficient focus on life skills , compared to academic knowledge such as the role of the mitochondrion , which has been considered comparatively impractical .
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= 1965 FA Cup Final =
The 1965 FA Cup Final was an association football match between Liverpool and Leeds United on 1 May 1965 at Wembley Stadium , London . It was the final match of the 1964 – 65 FA Cup , the 93rd season of England 's primary cup competition , the Football Association Challenge Cup , better known as the FA Cup . Liverpool were appearing in their third final , they had lost the previous two in 1914 and 1950 , while Leeds were appearing in their first .
Both teams entered the competition in the third round . The majority of Liverpool 's matches were close affairs , they didn 't score more than two goals in any of their matches and this was also their biggest margin of victory . Leeds ' matches ranged from close affairs to comfortable victories . They won their third round tie against Stockport County 3 – 0 , while they beat Manchester United 1 – 0 in a semi @-@ final replay following a 0 – 0 draw in the initial match .
Watched by a crowd of 100 @,@ 000 , the first 90 minutes of the match were goalless as both sides struggled to create goalscoring chances . Liverpool defender Gerry Byrne broke his collarbone early in the match but carried on as there were no substitutes . He was involved in the opening goal in extra time . Byrne found striker Roger Hunt in the 93rd minute , with a cross from the right @-@ hand side of the pitch , which Hunt headed into the Leeds goal to give Liverpool the lead . Leeds equalised seven minutes later when Billy Bremner scored . However , Liverpool regained the lead in the 113th minute when striker Ian St. John headed in a pass from Ian Callaghan . Liverpool won the match 2 – 1 to win the FA Cup for the first time .
Liverpool manager Bill Shankly was delighted with his team 's victory and hailed it as his greatest moment in management . His Leeds counterpart , Don Revie , conceded Liverpool had been the better team , but was determined to make amends the following season . The national media was critical of the final , labelling it ' boring ' .
= = Route to the final = =
= = = Liverpool = = =
Liverpool entered the competition in the third round , where they were drawn with West Bromwich Albion . Roger Hunt gave Liverpool the lead in the match held at West Bromwich 's home ground , The Hawthorns , in the 44th minute . They extended their lead in the 63rd minute when Ian St. John scored . West Bromwich were awarded a penalty in the 77th minute , after Liverpool defender Ron Yeats handled the ball , thinking the referee had blown for a free @-@ kick . Cram missed the subsequent penalty , but West Bromwich scored three minutes later through Jeff Astle . However , they were unable to score a second and Liverpool won 2 – 1 to progress to the fourth round . Stockport County were the opposition in the fourth round . The match , at Anfield , finished 1 – 1 , Gordon Milne equalised for Liverpool after Len White had given Stockport the lead in the 18th minute . Liverpool won the replay , at Edgeley Park , 2 – 0 courtesy of two goals from Hunt .
Bolton Wanderers were the opposition in the fifth round . The match at Bolton 's home ground , Burnden Park , remained goalless until the 85th minute when Liverpool midfielder Ian Callaghan scored . The goal caused the Liverpool fans behind the goal to surge forward , which resulted in the collapse of a wooden railing . There were no serious injuries and the referee continued with the match , which Liverpool won 1 – 0 , to progress to the sixth round . They faced Leicester City in the sixth round . Despite chances for both teams throughout the match at Filbert Street , neither team scored and the match finished 0 – 0 . The match was replayed at Anfield four days later , which Liverpool won 1 – 0 when Hunt scored in the 72nd minute .
Liverpool opponents in the semi @-@ final at Villa Park were Chelsea . Before the match , Liverpool manager Bill Shankly found a brochure designed for Chelsea 's appearance in the final should they win . He pinned it on the team 's dressing room wall and told his players to " stuff those wee cocky south buggers . " The first half was goalless , but Liverpool opened the scoring in the 63rd minute when Peter Thompson scored . A penalty by Willie Stevenson , secured a 2 – 0 victory for Liverpool and their place in the final .
= = = Leeds United = = =
Leeds entered the competition in the third round and were drawn against Fourth Division team Southport . Jimmy Greenhoff opened the scoring for Leeds in the 26th minute at their home ground , Elland Road . Albert Johanneson added a second in the 81st minute and Terry Cooper scored a third before the end of the match to secure a 3 – 0 win for Leeds . Everton were the opposition in the fourth round . The match finished 1 – 1 at Elland Road , with Jim Storrie scoring Leeds ' goal in the 50th minute . A replay was held at Everton 's home ground , Goodison Park , three days later . Goals from Don Weston and Jack Charlton secured a 2 – 1 victory for Leeds and progression to the fifth round .
Shrewsbury Town were the opposition in the fifth round . Leeds won 2 – 0 at Elland Road , courtesy of goals from Johnny Giles and Albert Johanneson to secure their passage to the sixth round . Their opposition was Crystal Palace , in a match played at their home ground , Selhurst Park . Leeds won 3 – 0 with two goals from Alan Peacock and one from Storrie . Local rivals Manchester United were the opposition in the semi @-@ finals . Neither side was able to score in a fiery match at Hillsborough , which The Guardian referred to as " a sordid shambles that would have been flattered by being played on an ashpit . " The match was replayed a few days later at the City Ground . The match was goalless until the 89th minute when Bremner headed in a free @-@ kick by Giles to secure a 1 – 0 victory for Leeds . The replay was not without incident , following the end of the match , hundreds of fans ran onto the pitch . A 16 @-@ year @-@ old Manchester United supporter knocked the referee Dick Windle unconscious , he was subsequently caught and handed into the police .
= = Background = =
The match was Liverpool 's third appearance in the final . They had reached the final in 1914 , when they lost 1 – 0 to Burnley and in 1950 , when they were beaten 2 – 0 by Arsenal . Leeds were appearing in their first final , the furthest they had reached before was the quarter @-@ finals of the 1949 – 50 FA Cup , when they lost to Arsenal . The two previous meetings between the teams during the season resulted in a win each . Leeds won the first match 4 – 2 in August , at Elland Road . The return fixture at Anfield was won 2 – 1 by Liverpool .
Liverpool played Wolverhampton Wanderers a week before the final in their last match of the 1964 – 65 Football League First Division . Shankly rested most of the first @-@ choice players , but Liverpool still won the match 3 – 1 , with goals from Geoff Strong , John Sealey and Alf Arrowsmith , the victory meant they finished the season in seventh place . Leeds went into their final match of the league season with a chance of winning the championship . However , they drew their match with Birmingham City 3 – 3 , which meant they were level on points with Manchester United , who had a match remaining . As United had a superior goal average only a defeat of 17 – 0 or greater would result in Leeds being champions . United lost 2 – 1 to Aston Villa in their final match and won the title by a goal average of 0 @.@ 686 .
Liverpool manager Bill Shankly was complimentary of Leeds United in the build @-@ up to the final , stating : " Our opponents , Leeds United , have proved themselves beyond doubt to be a great team , clearly the whole set up at Leeds is one of the finest . But the better the opposition , the better we play . " Liverpool 's coach was caught in heavy traffic on the way to Wembley Stadium and there was a possibility that the start of the final would have to be delayed . However , they managed to organise an escort when a police motorcycle was spotted and arrived in time for the kick @-@ off . Midfielder Gordon Milne was injured in the days before the final and would miss the match , he was expected to be replaced by Geoff Strong .
Leeds midfielder Albert Johanneson would become the first black player to play in an FA Cup final . However , before walking out onto the pitch Johanneson suffered racial abuse : “ When we walked out , all I could hear was a cacophony of Zulu @-@ like noises coming from the terraces . It was dreadful , I could barely hear myself think for those screams . I wanted to run back down the tunnel . "
= = Match = =
= = = First half = = =
Both teams started with a 4 – 4 – 2 formation and it was Liverpool that kicked the final off . Five minutes into the match , Liverpool defender Gerry Byrne and Leeds captain Bobby Collins collided , which resulted in Bryne breaking his collarbone . As substitutions were not allowed , Byrne decided to continue playing . He was unaware of the extent of his injury , as manager Shankly decided against telling him . The first action of the match was from a Liverpool free @-@ kick , which Willie Stevenson played into the Leeds penalty area . Leeds goalkeeper Gary Sprake and defender Jack Charlton did not deal with it and it went out of play for a Liverpool corner . Liverpool captain Ron Yeats headed the ball on from the corner and striker Ian St. John was close to reaching it , before it was gathered by Sprake . Leeds were trying to get winger Albert Johanneson into the match , but a pass to him from Johnny Giles was intercepted by Liverpool defender Tommy Smith . He passed to Ian Callaghan , who advanced before passing to Stevenson , he and Smith exchanged passes before Stevenson passed to Callaghan , whose shot was saved by Sprake .
Liverpool had another attack in the early minutes , but Strong 's shot from distance deflected off Charlton for a corner . The opening sixteen minutes saw three Leeds players , Billy Bremner , Charlton and Jim Storrie require treatment as they struggled to impose themselves on the match . Liverpool continued to press forward and an attack was thwarted when St. John was dispossessed by Collins , who passed the ball back to Sprake . Leeds striker Alan Peacock fouled Smith following Sprake 's clearance and Liverpool were able to build another attack , but St. John 's subsequent shot went wide of the Leeds goal . Leeds had an attack in the eighteenth minute , but Bremner 's pass to Paul Reaney was intercepted by Liverpool goalkeeper Tommy Lawrence . Leeds began to grow in confidence and minutes later , Collins had a chance , but his shot from 35 yards ( 32 m ) went wide of the Liverpool goal . Minutes later , Leeds had another chance to score . Callaghan nullified an attack from Willie Bell and the ball went out for a Leeds corner . However , Peacock 's header from the corner went wide .
Liverpool had another chance on 25 minutes . A pass from Callaghan into the Leeds Penalty area was missed by Sprake , but Giles managed to clear the ball before Liverpool striker Roger Hunt could reach it . The game started to become scrappy , both sides struggled to find a way through their opposition defences and were misplacing passes . Three minutes before the end of the half , Liverpool had an attack . Strong passed to Smith , whose first touch caused the ball to bounce upwards , his subsequent shot went over the Leeds goal . A minute before the end of the half , Liverpool another chance , but Hunt 's shot from 25 yards ( 23 m ) was saved by Sprake .
= = = Second half = = =
Early in the second half , Liverpool had a chance to score . Callaghan took a throw @-@ in , which he threw to Lawler , his cross into the Leeds penalty area was met by Hunt , but his header went wide of the goal . Liverpool continued to pressure and only an interception from Bremner , before Stevenson could reach the ball , prevented a Liverpool goal . Leeds had a free @-@ kick a few minutes later , but Giles ' effort was saved by Lawrence . A few minutes later , St. John found Peter Thompson , who ran past Bremner and shot , but it was diverted wide by Sprake . The ball found dropped to hunt , but his cross was gathered by the Leeds goalkeeper .
Charlton received treatment midway throughout the second half after he ran into a photographer chasing an over @-@ hit pass . Leeds had an attack soon after , but after Storrie received the ball from Bremner , his pass went behind the Liverpool goal . Liverpool had more chances , but St. John slipped at the back post when a Callaghan cross was diverted towards him . Then Thompson saw a shot saved by Sprake . Leeds reacted to the increased pressure , by moving Bremner to centre @-@ forward and Giles reverting to midfield . Johanneson switched positions with Storrie , moving from the right to the left . Liverpool continued to press for a winner as the half drew to a close , but Thompson and Strong saw shots saved by Sprake . Neither team managed to score before full @-@ time and the match went to extra time , the first time this happened since the 1947 final .
= = = Extra time = = =
It only took three minutes of extra time for the first goal to be scored . Thompson passed to Bryne , who cross was headed into the Leeds goal by Hunt . Liverpool 's lead was short @-@ lived as Leeds equalised eight minutes later . Norman Hunter crossed the ball into the Liverpool penalty area from the left @-@ hand side of the pitch . Charlton headed the ball down to Bremner , whose shot beat Lawrence in the Liverpool goal to level the score at 1 – 1 .
Liverpool pressed and Thompson forced Sprake into a number of saves . Leeds had another chance as Bremner had a shot saved by Lawrence after receiving the ball from Reaney . A few minutes later , Strong forced Sprake into a save , which resulted in a corner . St. John came close to scoring from the subsequent corner , but his shot went over the Leeds goal . However , with three minutes of extra time remaining , St. John scored . Smith found Callaghan , who ran past two Leeds defenders , his cross into the Leeds penalty area was headed into the goal by St. John to give Liverpool a 2 – 1 lead .
= = = Details = = =
= = Post @-@ match = =
Liverpool captain Yeats collected the trophy from Queen Elizabeth II in the Royal box at Wembley Stadium . The victory was the club 's first in the competition . Liverpool manager Shankly was delighted with the result and hailed the achievement : " To think a team like Liverpool had never won the FA up was unbelievable , so many had prayed for it to happen over all the years , but it had never come to pass . So when we beat Leeds , the emotion was unforgettable . " Despite breaking his collarbone in the opening minutes , Liverpool defender Gerry Byrne completed the whole match . Shankly was full of praise for the defender stating : " Byrne was absolutely fantastic . He played the best game of his life . " Bryne was concerned about collecting his medal , stating : " I was worried about going up to collect my medal , so many of our fans wanted to slap me on the back . I had to keep twisting and turning to avoid the congratulations . "
The final was criticised by the media , with both teams receiving flak . Ken Jones of The Mirror wrote , " Discipline was destroyed by tiredness , determination blunted by the pain of having to run some more . Behind the boredom was the failure of individuals like Leeds left winger Albert Johanneson and Liverpool left winger Peter Thompson , men who could and should have lifted the game with their talent . " The Times was slightly less critical of the match : " In spite of much lateral ' method ' play it was a tense battle of human qualities . The opening half , in particular , was a quiet prelude . This was the careful shadow boxing that led up to a pulsating finish . Indeed , there was a certain hypnotic element about the whole thing . The fascination lay in trying to assess which side would first break the stalemate . "
Liverpool manager Bill Shankly was asked after the match whether Leeds United had failed during the season : " Failed ? Second in the championship . Cup finalists . Ninety percent of managers would pray for ' failures ' like that . " Leeds manager Don Revie was disappointed to lose , but praised his players efforts in defeat : " There 's no doubt about it , the better side won , but , at least the lads played their guts out for me . He admitted it was disappointing to finish second in both the League and FA Cup : " It 's a bit disappointing to finish second in both Cup and League , but we have had a wonderful first season back in Division One , and I am very pleased with the team . " Captain Collins echoed his manager 's sentiments : " We have had a great season , but lost both honours . We shall be having a go again next season . "
The Liverpool team were welcomed back to the city by approximately half a million people , as the open @-@ top bus drove through the city to the town hall . Three days after the final , Liverpool faced Italian team Internazionale in the first leg of the semi @-@ finals of the 1964 – 65 European Cup . Before the match kicked off , Bryne and Gordon Milne paraded the FA Cup around the stadium . Liverpool won the match 3 – 1 , but they perform as well in the second leg at the San Siro , as they lost 3 – 0 to exit the competition 4 – 3 on aggregate .
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= Homestead Extension of Florida 's Turnpike =
The Homestead Extension of Florida 's Turnpike ( HEFT ) , designated as the Ronald Reagan Turnpike and originally known as the West Dade Expressway , is a north – south free @-@ flow toll road southern extension of the similarly tolled Florida 's Turnpike . The 48 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 77 km ) expressway runs around the west and north sides of the Greater Miami area , extending from U.S. Route 1 in Florida City ( near Homestead ) to the Turnpike mainline four miles north of the Golden Glades Interchange . The road carries the hidden designation of State Road 821 ( SR 821 ) . It was opened in stages between 1973 and 1974 , after the main line of the Turnpike was completed , and is used by both commuters and travelers to the Florida Keys and Everglades National Park . Due to its path , it acts as a de facto outer beltway for Miami . Unlike other Florida 's Turnpike Enterprise highways , it is treated as if it were part of Florida 's Turnpike mainline by highway signs and exit numbers , despite its separate state road number .
= = Route description = =
The road begins at a partial interchange with US 1 in Florida City next to the Florida Keys Outlet Center , where the road heads northeast as a four lane expressway . Travelers to here from the northern parts of the Turnpike Extension can continue south along US 1 to the Florida Keys or the Everglades National Park ( via SR 9336 ) . This point also marks the beginning of the HEFT 's hidden designation of State Road 821 .
Between Florida City and Cutler Bay , the HEFT acts as a bypass for the communities along US 1 . The first 16 miles of the tollway are located within mostly new residential developments that were constructed after Hurricane Andrew , which destroyed most of the area in 1992 . Some farms line the rest of this stretch . The first interchange northbound is Campbell Drive / Southwest 312th Street in Homestead , which allows travelers to access the Homestead Hospital and the Homestead @-@ Miami Speedway . The Turnpike then has an exit with Southwest 288th Street at mile 5 , providing a connection to the Homestead Air Reserve Base , before leaving Homestead and entering parts of unincorporated Miami @-@ Dade County . At mile 6 , the tollway has a southbound exit and northbound entry for Southwest 137th Avenue , with the HEFT heading east @-@ northeast until the exit with SR 989 ( Allapattah Road / Southwest 112th Avenue ) at mile 9 . The road then curves to a northerly direction towards the Homestead Toll Gantry , the first of four on the route , at mile 10 . It then enters Cutler Bay , where the highway is also known as the John F. Cosgrove Highway for the next five miles . The first exit in Cutler Bay is with Southwest 216th Street / Cutler Ridge Blvd at mile 11 , followed by another at Caribbean Blvd at mile 12 . Following exit 11 , the turnpike widens to six lanes . The tollway then crosses back over US 1 at the Southland Mall and leaves Cutler Bay . Continuing north , the HEFT serves SR 994 ( Quail Roost Drive ) at exit 13 and gains another lane in each direction . This is followed by SR 992 ( Coral Reef Drive ( Southwest 152nd Street ) ) at exit 16 , which marks the northern terminus of the John F. Cosgrove Highway .
The tollway passes through older , predominantly residential areas for the next ten miles . Between exits 16 and 17 , the Turnpike Extension swells to ten lanes ; this section of the tollway also has the highest traffic count at 172 @,@ 000 vehicles per day ( as of 2014 ) . Past exit 17 , where SR 874 ( Don Shula Expressway ) leaves the HEFT to connect to SR 826 ( Palmetto Expressway ) , the tollway drops back to six lanes and soon reaches an interchange with Southwest 120th Street at mile 19 . Just north of the Southwest 120th Street exit , still at mile 19 , lies the Snapper Creek Service plaza , which is located on the center median with access from both directions and is the only plaza on the extension ; unlike the more robust services along the mainline , it only offers a convenience store inside the gas station . The next exit is with SR 94 ( Kendall Drive ) , followed by the Bird Road Toll Gantry at mile 23 ; from here , the HEFT takes a beeline path north for the next ten miles . The next exit is with SR 976 ( Southwest 40th Street ) , after which the HEFT gains two extra lanes in preparation for the next two exits . After the tollway forms the western end of the Florida International University campus , it meets the Tamiami Trail ( US 41 ) at exit 25 , and then SR 836 ( Dolphin Expressway ) at exit 26 in Fontainebleau , which provides access to Miami International Airport eastbound .
North of this interchange , the Turnpike Extension enters a stretch where it forms the border between undeveloped Miami @-@ Dade County to the west and residential developments to the east for the rest of its journey in the county , its width varying between six and eight lanes , with exits at Northwest 12th Street at mile 26 , Northwest 41st Street at mile 29 , and at Northwest 74th Street at mile 31 . Half a mile north of Northwest 74th Street lies the Okeechobee Toll gantry , with the HEFT then intersecting Northwest 106th Street / Beacon Station Boulevard at mile 34 . The tollway starts to curve in a north @-@ easterly direction and comes to exit 35 with US 27 . Afterwards , the expressway fully enters an undeveloped portion of Miami @-@ Dade County until the next exit at I @-@ 75 northbound at exit 39 , which is a northbound only exit , with the southbound direction of the Turnpike Extension receiving some traffic from I @-@ 75 south . North of the I @-@ 75 interchange , the HEFT becomes a four @-@ laned highway again . It crosses the Broward County line , entering the suburban community of Miramar , and then curves eastward . The expressway has an interchange with SR 823 ( Red Road ) at exit 43 , after which the Turnpike Extension is just one block north of the Miami @-@ Dade County line for the remainder of the tollway 's length . Residential and commercial developments line both sides of the HEFT through here . The next exit is with SR 817 ( University Drive ) at exit 46 , allowing access to Sun Life Stadium and the Calder Race Course . The Miramar Toll gantry then follows the interchange before the Turnpike Extension ends four miles north of the Golden Glades Interchange at the mainline of Florida 's Turnpike .
= = Tolls = =
The HEFT is an all @-@ electronic toll road that only accepts tolls via SunPass transponders or billing by the toll @-@ by @-@ plate at a higher cost . The toll road does not accept cash . The toll gantries are located at the former toll plazas , which closed on February 19 , 2011 . As of July 1 , 2015 , the total cost for a two @-@ axled vehicle to drive the whole length of the Turnpike Extension is $ 4 @.@ 24 with SunPass and $ 5 @.@ 28 via the toll @-@ by @-@ plate system . The HEFT has a toll gantry approximately every 12 miles ( 19 km ) , compared to toll plazas every 45 miles ( 72 km ) on average on the mainline . In addition to the mainline toll gantries , most interchanges have individual toll gantries for entering or exiting vehicles ; typically , these can be found either on the northbound entry and southbound exit , or the southbound entry and northern exit . Most of these gantries charge $ 0 @.@ 53 via SunPass or $ 0 @.@ 79 via toll @-@ by @-@ plate per entry or exit , but the Allapattah Road , Northwest 74th Street and Northwest 27th Avenue interchanges charge $ 0 @.@ 79 via SunPass or $ 1 @.@ 06 via toll @-@ by @-@ plate .
= = Services = =
The Snapper Creek service plaza is the lone service plaza on the HEFT , located at mile 19 in the median of the expressway . It is accessible from both directions . The service plaza is open 24 hours a day , featuring a gas station and a convenience store .
= = History = =
After the Turnpike mainline was completed in 1964 , the Turnpike Authority ( precursor to Florida 's Turnpike Enterprise ) explored several extensions to the Turnpike system , including an expressway in western Dade County from Florida City to the Turnpike mainline at the Dade / Broward county line . Construction on the tollway began in July 1971 . The northernmost thirteen miles of the tollway between US 27 and the Turnpike mainline was open to traffic on May 1 , 1973 , at a cost of $ 22 million and a $ 0 @.@ 40 toll to motorists . During the first half of 1974 , the expressway between Campbell Drive ( SW 312th Street ) and US 27 was opened in five stages , with the road running uninterrupted from the Turnpike in Miramar to Homestead on May 20 , 1974 , with the last section to Florida City connecting to US 1 completed later in 1974 . The total toll of the expressway was $ 0 @.@ 80 .
The HEFT has used mile @-@ based exit numbers and an open toll collection system since its opening ; both concepts that were implemented on the Turnpike mainline in the late 1980s and early 1990s .
On April 27 , 1986 , the Okeechobee toll plaza opened with a $ .25 toll , with the toll plaza at the US 27 exit being removed , and tolls at the Miramar plaza being lowered from $ .40 to $ .25 . On February 2 , 1989 , tolls on the Expressway doubled from $ 1 @.@ 00 to $ 2 @.@ 00 , with $ .50 being charged at each toll plaza . Toll hikes , raising the cost of travelling the expressway from $ 2 to $ 3 were supposed to take effect on the Homestead Extension in 1993 to match the rest of the Turnpike , but Hurricane Andrew 's impact in the area in 1992 had the state delay toll hikes on the highway until July 9 , 1995 . In 1997 , the Bird Road toll plaza was reconfigured to its current two part form to accommodate the then @-@ bottleneck section of the expressway . The SunPass electronic toll collection system was implemented during 1999 , with the toll plazas being reconfigured to allow lanes dedicated to transponder users . A toll hike took effect on March 7 , 2004 , increasing the toll rate for non SunPass users to $ 4 for a full length trip , with SunPass users still using the 1995 toll rates .
The portion of the HEFT between Exits 11 ( Cutler Ridge Boulevard ) and 16 ( State Road 992 ) was designated the " John F. Cosgrove Highway " in 2008 by the Florida Legislature , following his death in 2006 . A lawyer and former legislator , Cosgrove was also the first mayor of Cutler Bay , a city along the HEFT . He was instrumental in passing legislation to keep insurers from leaving the state following Hurricane Andrew .
On February 19 , 2011 , the HEFT ceased cash toll collections , becoming an exclusively electronic toll road , a move that was announced in November 2009 . The manned toll plazas were converted into all electronic toll gantries , and the only ways to pay are either by SunPass transponders or billing by the toll @-@ by @-@ plate program .
In 2007 , legislation was passed in Florida to index toll rates across the state to the national Consumer price index ( CPI ) , to be enacted by the end of June , 2012 . As a result , the toll rates on the HEFT were raised on June 24 , 2012 , an increase of 11 @.@ 7 % to reflect the previous five years . In keeping with the legislation , SunPass and toll @-@ by @-@ plate rates were then raised again on July 1 , 2013 by 2 @.@ 1 % . Since the indexing of tolls to the national CPI , the entry and exit toll rates have risen by approximately 30 cents , in some cases more than double their pre @-@ 2012 rates .
= = Exit list = =
Despite being designated by the Florida Department of Transportation as a separate route ( SR 821 ) from the main portion of Florida 's Turnpike ( SR 91 ) , the HEFT 's exit numbers are regarded to be a continuation of the Turnpike 's mainline .
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= What 's Cooking ? with Jamie Oliver =
What 's Cooking ? with Jamie Oliver is a cooking video game for the Nintendo DS narrated by celebrity chef Jamie Oliver . It was developed and published by Atari , Inc . ( Atari , SA subsidiary ) and released in North America on October 21 , 2008 , and in Europe on October 24 .
The game features several recipes , each listing preparation times , ingredients and courses . In addition , What 's Cooking ? can be used as a shopping list to remind players what items to purchase , and it can act as a timer to count down from a specified time and make an audible sound when it is done .
The game was first revealed by Atari at the Games Convention 2008 . The game was poorly received after its release ; video game critics gave it an aggregated score of 49 % at Metacritic . Reviewers generally agreed that presenting a cooking guide as a video game was a good idea , but they found that the game was poorly executed and mediocre as a result .
= = Gameplay = =
What 's Cooking ? is an interactive cookbook and food preparation video game with recipes that each list preparation times , ingredients and courses . Recipes can be sorted by criteria such as dishes that take less than 20 minutes to prepare , or vegetarian @-@ only meals . After opening a recipe , an ingredient list is presented . Items on the list can be earmarked and added to a shopping list as a reminder to purchase in the future . A timer option is also available , which counts down from a specified time and makes an audible sound when it is done . Before doing any real cooking , a virtual representation of each step in the recipe is given on the screen that must be performed by the player . The Nintendo DS touchscreen and stylus are used to perform tasks such as whisking eggs , pouring sauces and cutting vegetables . Tutorials are also available to teach the player how to perform simple cooking preparation tasks . While cooking , the Nintendo DS responds to audible commands ; saying " next " into the device 's microphone will move the recipe on to the next step . One hundred recipes are included in the game , and players can create their own dishes in the game . Afterward , they can share them with others via Wi @-@ Fi . In addition to the game 's cooking aspects , What 's Cooking ? features challenges in which the player uses the stylus to chop , stir , and serve as quickly as possible .
= = Development = =
What 's Cooking ? was first revealed by Atari at the Games Convention 2008 . The game is narrated by Jamie Oliver . In an interview with Official Nintendo Magazine , Oliver noted that he tries to make his games as " three dimensional as possible " , and he wanted to " make it relevant " to the player . The developers also wanted to make the game as interactive as possible .
= = Reception = =
What 's Cooking ? was generally poorly received by video game critics , receiving a 49 % aggregated score on Metacritic . IGN 's Daemon Hatfield called disguising a cooking tutorial as a video game a " pretty brilliant idea " , but only as long as it was done well . He stated that both the cookbook and food preparation halves of the game were not strong enough to make the game worth purchasing . Hatfield commented that the game 's controls are " terribly unintuitive , and the cookbook doesn 't offer anything its physical counterpart can 't for cheaper " . He was also disappointed that there were no pictures to illustrate each step , and not every cooking process is explained . Eurogamer 's Ellie Gibson was satisfied with the number of recipes available , most of which were " pretty easy to follow " . Gibson , however , preferred to see instructional videos to observe how a recipe was made before making it .
In their review of the game , Official Nintendo Magazine commented that the stylus @-@ controlled cooking tutorials are not user @-@ friendly , and the recipe sharing is as good as it could be since players can only use ingredients and methods from recipes that they have unlocked through playing the game . They felt that the game attempts to appeal to gamers rather than aspiring chefs , concluding , " [ The game has ] some great recipes but the experience is marred by some fiddly cooking games . "
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= Star Wars Battlefront : Renegade Squadron =
Star Wars Battlefront : Renegade Squadron is the third entry in the Star Wars : Battlefront series of video games , first released on October 9 , 2007 in North America and later in Australia and Europe . The game was designed as a PlayStation Portable ( PSP ) exclusive and features the eponymous Rebel Alliance covert ops unit Renegade Squadron , previously unmentioned in Star Wars canon . Renegade Squadron was one of the first games available in a bundle pack with the newly released PSP redesign .
The single @-@ player campaign follows the exploits of Renegade Squadron from its inception by Han Solo throughout its operational history , until its dissolution after the Battle of Endor . During play the Renegades participate in several battles , including those of Yavin and Hoth . The game also features several types of multiplayer modes . In contrast with previous titles in the series that require characters to have a set class , players in Renegade Squadron are able to build their character as they see fit .
Renegade Squadron received a mixed reaction from the video gaming community . The game was considered superior to its predecessor ( the PSP version of Star Wars : Battlefront II ) and it was praised for its customization options and online play , but the single @-@ player campaign was criticized for being brief and shallow . Opinions on the graphics were mixed , and the controls were generally described as inadequate .
= = Gameplay = =
The overall structure of Renegade Squadron is similar to other games in the Battlefront series in that it is a war game played primarily from a third @-@ person view . Battles take place on the ground and in space and require the player to capture command posts , specific areas of territory represented by floating icons on the playing field and colored dots on the player 's heads @-@ up display . Each map has a set number of command posts , and it is beneficial for the player to occupy as many as possible ( space battles use a modified command post system ) . Each side has a set number of reinforcement tickets at the beginning of the battle — any time a soldier dies , that team loses one ticket when that soldier respawns . To win a match , a player must capture every command post or reduce their opponent 's ticket count to zero .
At the ending of each mission , every time the character respawns , and when at a command post , it is possible for the player to adjust their character ’ s weapons , appearance , and other traits to their liking . The player gets 100 credits to purchase weapons and equipment for their character . In previous games in the series , players chose a character 's class before battle from a list of pre @-@ made options , such as pilot or other regular infantry units . Each class had a specific combination of weapons and equipment . Before Renegade Squadron 's release , LucasArts stated that the customization engine would allow millions of different character combinations . Another new feature allows players to enter asteroid bases on some space maps . In addition , players can earn medals by achieving set objectives , such as destroying a certain number of spaceships .
= = = Single @-@ player = = =
There are three options for single play : the campaign , instant action , and galactic conquest . During the story campaign , the player takes control of Renegade Squadron , under the command of Col Serra and occasionally Han Solo . Serra describes the formation of the unit in the beginning cutscene of the campaign ; the player then starts a series of missions with a range of different objectives , with voiced cutscenes in a static , comic book style between the missions to provide background information and move the story along . The final mission features the Battle of Endor , where the objectives are similar to the corresponding footage in Return of the Jedi .
With instant action , players are able to take part in battles against computer @-@ controlled opponents . There are four types of missions . Conquest is the Battlefront standard and pits two opposing forces against each other on a space or ground map , with the objective of controlling all of the command posts on the map , or defeating every member of the opposing force . There are also three variants of capture the flag , including a new mode called Hero flag , whereby players are permitted to control famous Star Wars characters during standard flag battles by physically carrying their team 's flag . These heroes span the Clone Wars and Civil War periods and include Asajj Ventress , Jango Fett , and Kit Fisto .
A holdover from previous Battlefront games , galactic conquest is played as a type of turn @-@ based board game with segmented turns , similar to Risk . The board is a simplified representation of the Star Wars galaxy , with four quadrants containing several planets each . The player and the AI opponent each start with several planets ( including a headquarters planet which has more reinforcements ) , which generate revenue each turn in the form of galactic credits . Credits are used to purchase reinforcements and hire special commanders , who are leaders like Admiral Ackbar and Tarkin . During each turn , a player is allowed to move reinforcements around their controlled planets and attack opponent @-@ controlled planets . Attacking a planet initiates either a ground or space battle , which can be fought manually or automatically . The player wins by conquering all of their opponent 's planets .
= = = Multiplayer = = =
In addition to the single @-@ player story missions , Renegade Squadron allows up to 16 players to compete via the PSP 's infrastructure mode , which is a wi @-@ fi internet connection . It can also support eight @-@ person matches with ad @-@ hoc , which is a local connectivity option for players in close physical proximity . The multiplayer game types are limited to conquest and capture the flag . A GameSpy network account is required to play using infrastructure , and offers players a rankings system so they can track their performance .
= = Plot = =
Renegade Squadron takes place during the second chronological trilogy of the Star Wars films , mostly during and in @-@ between The Empire Strikes Back and Return of the Jedi . Some time after the events of the Galactic Civil War as portrayed in Return of the Jedi , the New Jedi Order is formed by Luke Skywalker . The game begins with Tionne Solusar , the New Jedi Order 's chief historian , researching the forces of the Rebel Alliance during the Galactic Civil War . Tionne finds several vague references to a " Renegade Squadron " and its commander , Col Serra , who were apparently involved in covert ops missions during the war . Tionne manages to contact Serra and he candidly relates the entire history of the unit . The single @-@ player campaign follows the major exploits of Renegade Squadron throughout the war , as told in flashbacks by Serra to Tionne .
Renegade Squadron was formed shortly before the Battle of Yavin at the request of Han Solo and General Jan Dodonna , who were looking for experienced warriors that required no additional training . Solo contacted one of his former smuggling associates , Col Serra , and asked him to help . Serra agreed to Solo 's request and put together a unit of mercenaries , bounty hunters , smugglers , and other Fringe types that would work behind @-@ the @-@ scenes to further the goals of the Alliance . All of the members of the aptly named Renegade Squadron were wanted by the Empire and generally harbored an intense hatred for it , ensuring that they would remain loyal to the Alliance .
Under Serra 's command , the unit was responsible for several operations undertaken for the Alliance throughout the war . The unit operated in secrecy and was able to work anonymously at several major incidents , including the battles of Yavin , Hoth , and Endor . The unit was made up of skilled pilots in addition to ground operatives , and so was able to assist in missions both in @-@ space and planetside . The unit was considered elite by the Alliance , and despite its anonymity , took part in several high @-@ profile battles against Imperial luminaries , including IG @-@ 88 and Darth Vader . After the Battle of Endor , the squadron was disbanded , its purpose fulfilled . Its surviving members disappeared , many of them returning to their former criminal roots .
= = Development = =
LucasArts announced Renegade Squadron in May 2007 . The announcement stated that the game would be the only original Battlefront game of 2007 , and it was to be developed by British @-@ based independent game design company Rebellion Developments . Despite having never worked on a Star Wars game , Rebellion had prior development experience with other PlayStation Portable titles , such as a port of the third @-@ person shooter game Gun .
The game 's developers made it clear that it was being designed specifically for the PSP . LucasArts made this decision after Rebellion convinced them that the PSP 's multiplayer capabilities were well @-@ suited to another Battlefront game , in addition to the strong sales of Battlefront II on the PSP . The game 's lead designer , Mike Hosser , stated that the development team tried to retain some aspects of Battlefront II , specifically its " fast and furious action " . Other elements borrowed from Battlefront II included the controls — LucasArts solicited feedback from players of the previous game and subsequently decided to make Renegade Squadron 's controls more " arcadey " so players could learn them faster . After screenshots of the game were released , several forum posts from fans complained about the game 's visuals compared to its predecessor . In response , Hosser claimed that Renegade Squadron " boasts a longer view distance , higher resolution textures and better lighting " .
The design team stated repeatedly that the focus of Renegade Squadron was its customization system . There were initially concerns in Rebellion that the feature would lead to unbalanced gameplay ; lead programmer Richard May stated he was " worried it might lead to uber @-@ classes and be a balancing nightmare , losing some of the trade @-@ off structure that the old class system provided . " Prolific testing of the game eventually assured LucasArts that the system had been implemented appropriately .
The game 's setting was based primarily on the Clone Wars and Civil War eras of Star Wars history . Rebellion took inspiration for several missions from comments made in passing from the Star Wars films . Hosser stated in an interview , " For instance , a diversionary attack on Sullust is mentioned during a conversation between Vader and the Emperor in Return of the Jedi . In Renegade Squadron , you 'll get to take part in that attack . " The planet of Boz Pity was similarly mentioned in Star Wars : Episode III – Revenge of the Sith but wasn 't portrayed in the movie , so Renegade Squadron 's artists took the opportunity to create the planet based on ancient Cambodian architecture like Angkor Wat . Concept art for the game was provided by Rebellion 's comic artists , and the cutscenes were based on the company 's comic properties like 2000 AD . While storyboarding the in @-@ game cinematics , Rebellion assistant producer James Valls was careful to ensure that Renegade Squadron was in accordance with established Star Wars canon .
= = = Release = = =
Renegade Squadron was featured at the LucasArts booth at Comic @-@ Con 2007 as part of the " 25 Years of LucasArts Games " display , along with other upcoming games like Lego Indiana Jones : The Original Adventures and The Force Unleashed . The game was released on October 9 , 2007 in North America , and on October 10 and 12 in Australia and Europe respectively . LucasArt 's official launch event was at the Sony PlayStation Store in the Metreon shopping center in San Francisco . Star Wars fans attended in costume , including the 501st Squadron , a large Star Wars cosplaying fanclub . Attendees were eligible to win several prizes . In addition , the first 200 customers to purchase Sony 's new Star Wars PSP bundle were given a Han Solo @-@ in @-@ carbonite case for their PSP . The bundle was announced in July 2007 as the second available PSP @-@ 2000 bundle ( after Daxter ) and titled the Star Wars Battlefront PSP Entertainment Pack . Bundled PSPs were presented in a white case with a black silkscreen of Darth Vader on the battery cover , in addition to the copy of Renegade Squadron .
LucasArts and Rebellion have discussed downloadable content for Renegade Squadron , but were not strongly invested in exploring the prospect during the game 's development . LucasArts has also stated that issues with Sony have hindered its implementation . Rebellion has considered the possibility of a comic book or novel based on Renegade Squadron .
= = Reception = =
Critical reception of the game was mixed , and as of March 2009 it holds a score of 73 % on media aggregator site Metacritic , which indicates " mixed or average reviews . " Reviewers praised the game 's customization options and multiplayer , and it was accepted as marginally superior to Battlefront II on PSP , though one reviewer stated " it 's not a true sequel . " The game won the Reader 's PSP Game of the Month Award from IGN for October 2007 , with one fan stating that the game was more " Star Wars @-@ like " than its predecessor . It was the second best @-@ selling PSP game in the US the week of its release and was still among the list of GameFly 's most @-@ rented PSP games in December 2007 . It continued to be a top seller in the US and UK several months after its release . The game was later re @-@ released as a Greatest Hits title , indicating that it had sold at least 250 @,@ 000 copies .
Comments about Renegade Squadron 's controls were mostly negative , and they were typically described as clumsy or sluggish . GameZone referred to the space dogfights as " unplayable " and Eurogamer called the lock @-@ on feature " a waste of time " . One reviewer complained about the PSP 's lack of a second analog nub . Despite the criticism , a few reviewers were more favorable towards the controls , with GameSpot noting that they were an improvement over Battlefront II .
Reviewers were polarized on the game 's graphics . The cutscenes during the single @-@ player campaign were accepted positively , but reception of the in @-@ game visuals was less glowing . GamePro stated that the " character and vehicle models look great " , but the visuals were also described as " blah " and " substandard . " GameDaily said " the graphics look good but there 's a lack of polish . "
Though the single @-@ player campaign was criticized for being short , Renegade Squadron 's multiplayer was widely praised . GameSpot noted that the game included an infrastructure mode , a feature which Battlefront II did not have , and GameZone commented that the game ran smoothly in multiplayer even when handling the maximum number of players . GameSpy described the multiplayer as " fantastic , " and GamesRadar said that it promised hours of satisfaction . Many reviewers said that the multiplayer was the most important part of the game , with some of the less positive reviews advising players to play the game primarily for the multiplayer experience .
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= Ewelina Hańska =
Eveline Hańska ( Ewelina , née Rzewuska , 6 January c . 1805 – 11 April 1882 ) was a Polish noblewoman best known for her marriage to French novelist Honoré de Balzac . Born at the Wierzchownia estate in Volhynia , ( now Ukraine ) Hańska married landowner Wacław Hański ( Wenceslas Hanski ) when she was a teenager . Hański , who was about 20 years her senior , suffered from depression . They had five children , but only a daughter , Anna , survived .
In the late 1820s , Hańska began reading Balzac 's novels , and in 1832 , she sent him an anonymous letter . This began a decades @-@ long correspondence in which Hańska and Balzac expressed a deep mutual affection . In 1832 , they met for the first time , in Switzerland . Soon afterward he began writing the novel Séraphîta , which includes a character based on Hańska .
After her husband died in 1841 , a series of complications obstructed Hańska 's marriage to Balzac . Chief of these was the estate and her daughter Anna 's inheritance , both of which might be threatened if she married him . Anna married a Polish count , easing some of the pressure . About the same time , Hańska gave Balzac the idea for his 1844 novel Modeste Mignon . In 1850 they married and moved to Paris , but he died five months later . Though she never remarried , she took several lovers , and died in 1882 .
= = Biography = =
= = = Family and early life = = =
Hańska was the fourth of seven children born to Adam Wawrzyniec Rzewuski and his wife , Justyna Rzewuska ( née Rdułtowska ) . Their family was established as Polish nobility , known for wealth and military prowess . One ancestor had imprisoned his own mother in a tower to extract his part of an inheritance . Hańska 's great @-@ grandfather , Wacław Rzewuski , was a famous writer and Grand Crown Hetman . When the Russian Empire gained control of lands owned by the family through the Partitions of Poland at the end of the 18th century , Rzewuski swore his allegiance to Catherine II . He was rewarded with a comfortable position in the ranks of the empire . Moving between assignments in Kiev , St. Petersburg , and elsewhere , he chose as his primary residence the village of Pohrebyszcze in the region of Volhynia .
She was born in the Pohrebyszcze castle , in the Kiev Governorate of Russian partition of Poland . Although scholars agree that Hańska was born on 6 January , the year is disputed . Her biographers and those of her Balzac offer conflicting evidence of her age , taken from correspondence , family records , and testimonies from descendants . Most estimates range between 1801 and 1806 . Balzac 's biographer Graham Robb writes : " Balzac chose 1806 as her date of birth and he was probably right . " Roger Pierrot 's 1999 biography of Hańska , however , contends that she was born in 1804 . Polish Biographical Dictionary gives 24 December 1805 ( Georgian ) which converts to 5 January 1805 ( Julian ) .
Like her brothers and sisters , Hańska was educated by her parents about family lineage and religion . Her mother was a devout Catholic , but her father also taught the children about Voltairian rationality . The family was secluded in Pohrebyszcze , with only occasional trips away . Once a year , the family visited Kiev for a market gathering , during which Rzewuski sold grain and her mother purchased clothing and supplies for the estate .
Ewelina had three bothers : Adam , Ernest and Henryk , and three sisters : Alina , Karolina ( better known as Karolina Sobańska ) and Paulina . Hańska was closest to her brother Henryk , who later became famous for his work in the genre of Polish folk literature known as gawęda . They shared a passion for philosophical discussions , especially related to love and religion . Hańska 's other brothers , Adam and Ernest , both pursued military careers . Hańska 's eldest sister , Karolina , was admired as a child for her beauty , intellect , and musical talent . She later married a man 34 years her senior , a landowner from Podolie named Hieronim Sobański . They separated after two years , and she began a series of passionate affairs with some of her many suitors . These included the Russian general Ivan Ossipovitch Witt , the Polish poet Adam Mickiewicz , and the Russian writer Alexander Pushkin . The Tsar considered her behavior scandalous and declared her dangerously disloyal . As a result , Hańska and the other Rzewuski women were watched carefully by police when they visited the Russian capital of St Petersburg . Hańska 's younger sisters , Alina and Paulina , married early into comfortable upper @-@ class families . Alina married a wealthy landowner from Smilavichy , whose father had gained his fortune by managing property for the Ogiński family . Her nephew Stanisław Moniuszko became a renowned composer . Paulina married a banker from Odessa named Jan Riznič .
= = = Marriage to Hański = = =
In 1819 Eveline married Wacław Hański , a noble who lived nearby at Verhivnya ( Wierzchownia ) . Their marriage was a union of wealthy families , not of passion . His estate covered 21 @,@ 000 acres ( 85 km2 ) and employed over 3 @,@ 000 serfs , including 300 domestic servants . The manor had been designed by a French architect , and its owner filled it with luxuries from around the world : paintings from galleries in Milan and London , dinnerware from China , and a library of 25 @,@ 000 books in a variety of languages . Hański boasted that none of the furniture was Russian .
Hański was more than twenty years older than Ewelina , who was a teenager at the time of their wedding , and his personality clashed with her youthful vigor . He spent most of the day supervising the grounds , by some accounts with an iron fist . After dinner he was usually too fatigued to spend time with his wife , and retired early . He was generally dour , and lived with a depressed condition that Hańska referred to as " blue devils " . Although she was surrounded by opulence , Hańska found herself dissatisfied with her new life and with her husband 's emotional distance in particular . As one biographer put it : " He loved Eve but he was not deeply in love with her . "
In the first five years of their marriage , Hańska gave birth to five children , four of whom died as infants . The surviving daughter , Anna , was a welcome joy to Hańska , and she trusted her care to a young governess named Henriette Borel who had moved to Wierzchownia from the Swiss town of Neuchâtel .
The estate at Wierzchownia was isolated . Hańska was bored by visits to the court at St. Petersburg , and even more bored by noble guests in her own home . She found nothing in common with the ladies of high society , and longed for the stimulating discussions she had enjoyed with her brother Henryk . She spent her time reading the books her husband imported from faraway lands .
= = = Becoming " The Stranger " = = =
One of the writers who most enchanted Hańska was the French novelist Honoré de Balzac . After laboring in pseudonymous obscurity for ten years , Balzac published Les Chouans ( The Chouans ) in 1829 . A tale of star @-@ crossed love amidst a royalist uprising in Brittany , it was the first work to which he signed his own name . Hańska was intrigued by the glowing portrayal of the female protagonist , driven by true love to protect the object of her desire . She also enjoyed Balzac 's Physiologie du mariage ( The Physiology of Marriage ) , also published in 1829 , which heaps satirical scorn on husbands and celebrates the virtue of married women .
When she read his 1831 novel La Peau de chagrin ( The Magic Skin ) , however , Hańska was appalled by the coarse depiction of Foedora , the so @-@ called " femme sans cœur " ( " woman without a heart " ) . She felt that Balzac had lost the reverence shown in his earlier works , and worried that he had based Foedora on a real woman from his life . Motivated partly by concern , partly by boredom , and partly by a desire to influence the life of a great writer ( as her sister Karolina had done ) , she wrote to Balzac .
On 28 February 1832 Hańska posted a letter from Odessa with no return address . In it , she praised Balzac for his work , but scolded him for the negative portrayal of women in La Peau de chagrin . She urged a return to the glowing representations in his earlier novels , and signed enigmatically : " L 'Étrangère " ( " The Stranger " or " The Foreigner " ) . Balzac was intrigued by the letter ; he took out a personal advertisement in the Gazette de France indicating his receipt of an anonymous letter and expressing regret for being unable to reply . She probably never saw this notice .
Hańska wrote to Balzac several times during 1832 . On 7 November she posted a seven @-@ page letter filled with praise and flattery :
Your soul embraces centuries , Monsieur ; its philosophical concepts appear to be the fruit of long study matured by time ; yet I am told that you are still young . I would like to know you , but feel that I have no need to do so . I know you through my own spiritual instinct ; I picture you in my own way and feel that were I to set eyes upon you I should exclaim , ' That is he ! ' Your outward semblance probably does not reveal your brilliant imagination ; you have to be moved , the sacred fire of genius has to be lit , if you are to show yourself as you really are , and you are what I feel you to be — a man superior in his knowledge of the human heart .
She insisted , however , that they could never meet , and indeed that he should never know her name : ( " For you I am The Stranger , and shall remain so all my life . " ) Still , she wished for him to write back , so she advised him to place a notice in La Quotidienne to " L 'É " from " H.B. " . He purchased a notice similar to the earlier one in the Gazette , and signed it according to her instructions .
In her next letter Hańska made arrangements for a trusted courier to collect letters from Balzac , and thereby allow for a direct correspondence . Before long she sent him the news that she and her husband would be traveling Europe , and visiting Vienna , Hanski 's childhood home . They would also travel to the Swiss village of Neuchâtel , to visit the family of her daughter 's governess . Contradicting her vow of eternal anonymity , she suggested a meeting . Balzac agreed immediately , and began to make preparations for the journey . Also , sometime in 1833 , Balzac wrote his first confession of love to her , despite being at that time in another relationship .
= = = Meeting Balzac = = =
In September 1833 , after traveling to the French village of Besançon to find cheap paper for a publishing enterprise , Balzac crossed into Switzerland and registered at the Hôtel du Faucon under the name Marquis d 'Entragues . He sent word to Hańska that he would visit the garden of the Maison Andrié , where she and her family were staying . He looked up and saw her face at the window , then – as he described it later – he " lost all bodily sensation " . They met later that day ( September 25 ) at a spot overlooking Lake Neuchâtel ; according to legend , he noticed a woman reading one of his books . He was overwhelmed with her beauty , and she wrote soon afterwards to her brother , describing Balzac as " cheerful and lovable just like you " .
Hańska and Balzac met several times over the next five days , and her husband became enchanted with Balzac as well , inviting him to meals with the family . During a trip to Lake Biel , Hański went to arrange lunch , leaving his wife and Balzac alone . In the shade of a large oak tree , they kissed and exchanged vows of patience and fidelity . She told him of the family 's plan to visit Geneva for Christmas ; Balzac agreed to visit before the end of the year . Before he left Nauchâtel , she sent a passionate letter to his hotel : " Villain ! Did you not see in my eyes all that I longed for ? But have no fear , I felt all the desire that a woman in love seeks to provoke " .
Arriving in Geneva on December 26 , the Christmas Eve , Balzac stayed at the Auberge de l 'Arc , near the Maison Mirabaud where the Hański family had settled for the season . She left a ring for him at the hotel , with a note asking for a new promise of love . He gave it , and described how he began wearing the ring on his left hand , " with which I hold my paper , so that the thought of you clasps me tight . " At this time he began working on a philosophical novel , Séraphîta , about a hermaphroditic angel united by the love of a mortal man for a compassionate and sensual woman . Balzac explained that she was his model for the latter . It was clear to all that Hański was in ill health , and Hańska began to think about her future with the French author . In the meantime , she asked Balzac to begin collecting for her autographs of the famous people he spent time with in Paris and elsewhere .
After leaving Geneva on 8 February , the Hański family spent several months visiting the major cities of Italy . In Florence the sculptor Lorenzo Bartolini started work on a bust of Hańska . In the summer of 1834 they returned to Vienna , where they would stay for another year . During this time Balzac continued writing to Hańska , and by accident two especially amorous letters fell into the hands of her husband . He wrote to the French author , furious , and demanded an explanation . Balzac wrote to Hański claiming that it was nothing more than a game : " One evening , in jest , she said to me that she would like to know what a love @-@ letter was . This was said wholly without meaning .... I wrote those two unfortunate letters to Vienna , supposing that she remembered our joke .... " Hański apparently accepted the explanation , and invited Balzac to visit them in Vienna , which he did in May 1835 .
Balzac 's biographers agree that , despite his vows of loyalty to Hańska , he conducted affairs with several women during the 1830s , and may have fathered children with two of them . One was an Englishwoman named Sarah who had married the Count Emilio Guidoboni @-@ Visconti . Hańska wrote to Balzac about these rumors in 1836 , and he flatly denied them . Her suspicion was raised again , however , when he later dedicated his novel Béatrix to " Sarah " . Balzac also corresponded with Hański ; while most of their family disapproved of Balzac , Hański respected him , and the two exchanged letters on literature and agronomy . Meanwhile , Hańska was experiencing a renewal of religious interest , partly because her daughter 's governess , Henriette Borel , left to join a nunnery in Paris . Hańska taught her daughter Anna from the works of Christian scholars including Jean Baptiste Massillon and St. François de Sales . Her religious interest was more towards mysticism than mainstream religions ; she corresponded with Baroness Barbara von Krüdener , and read on Rosicrucianism , Martinism and Swedenborgianism . Balzac treated this attack of devotion with the sharpest disapproval . When Balzac sent her works in progress , her only replies were moral queries , rather than the stylistic criticism for which he hoped .
= = = Hański 's death = = =
Hański died in November 1841 . She sent Balzac a letter , sealed in black , with the news . He instantly wrote back : " je n 'en aurais peut @-@ être pas voulu recevoir d 'autre de vous , malgré ce que vous me dites de triste sur vous et votre santé " ( " I could not perhaps wish to have received any other [ news ] from you , in spite of the sad things you tell me about yourself and your health " ) . He made plans to visit Dresden in May , and obtain a visa to visit her in Russia .
The future , however , was not as simple as Balzac wanted to believe . Hańska 's family did not approve of the French author ; her Aunt Rozalia was especially disdainful . To make matters worse , her late husband 's uncle protested the Hański 's will in which she had inherited Hański 's estate . Horrified that her daughter would be robbed of everything , Hańska insisted that she must end her relationship with Balzac . " You are free " , she wrote to him . As she made plans to protest the uncle 's interference in St. Petersburg , Balzac wrote back to offer his help . He suggested that he could become a Russian citizen and " go to the Czar myself and ask him to sanction our marriage " . She asked for his patience , which he offered anew .
Soon after she arrived in the Russian capital of St. Petersburg , in order to resolve some of the litigation issues surrounding her inheritance , she took Anna to a recital by the Hungarian composer and pianist Franz Liszt . Although she did not succumb to Lisztomania , she was impressed by his musical talent and his good looks . " He is an extraordinary mixture " , she wrote in her diary , " and I enjoy studying him . " They saw one another on several occasions , but she ultimately rejected his advances . One biographer says that their last meeting " gives striking evidence of her loyalty to Balzac " .
In late July 1843 Balzac visited her in St. Petersburg , the first time they had seen one another in eight years . He was struck by Hańska 's resilient beauty , but his condition had deteriorated over the years . Biographers agree that she was much less physically attracted to him at this time . Still they renewed their vows of love and planned to marry as soon as she won her lawsuit . In early October he returned to Paris . Soon afterwards , she wrote a story based on her own experience writing to Balzac for the first time . Unhappy with it , she threw it into the fire , but the French author begged her to rewrite it so he could adapt it . He assured her that she would " know something of the joys of authorship when you see how much of your elegant and delightful writing I have preserved " . Her story became Modeste Mignon , Balzac 's 1844 novel about a young woman who writes to her favorite poet .
Also in 1844 Hańska won her lawsuit . The wealth of her late husband 's estate would go to Anna , who had become engaged to a Polish Count , Jerzy Mniszech . They planned to marry in 1846 , after which time Hańska would bestow the inheritance . Thus Hańska 's marriage to Balzac would have to wait . In the meantime , two urgent problems began to complicate their plans . One was his health , which had been deteriorating for years . In October 1843 he wrote to her about " horrible suffering which has its seat nowhere ; which cannot be described ; which attacks both heart and brain " . Balzac 's other problem was financial : despite his illness , he could not afford to relax his work schedule , since he owed more than 200 @,@ 000 francs to various creditors .
= = = Second marriage and widowhood = = =
Hańska and Balzac were determined , however , and in 1845 she visited him in Paris with Anna and Jerzy . In April of the following year they visited Italy ; Balzac joined them for a tour of Rome , and they proceeded to Geneva . Soon after he returned to Paris , she wrote with the news that she was pregnant . Balzac was overjoyed , certain that they would have a boy , and insisting on the name Victor @-@ Honoré . The thought of having a son , he wrote , " stirs my heart and makes me write page upon page " . To avoid scandal , he would have to marry Hańska in secret , to hide the fact that their child was conceived out of wedlock . In the meantime , Anna married Jerzy Mniszech on 13 October in Wiesbaden . Balzac served as a witness and wrote an announcement for the Paris newspapers , which offended Hańska 's sister Alina .
Hańska , living for a time in Dresden , was not soothed , either , by Balzac 's disregard for financial stability . For years he had planned to buy a house for them to share , but in August 1846 she sent him a stern admonition . Until his debts were paid , she wrote , " we must postpone buying any property " . One month later he purchased a house on the Rue Fortunée for 50 @,@ 000 francs . Having collected finery from his many travels , he searched across Europe for items to properly complete the furnishings : carpets from Smyrna , embroidered pillowcases from Germany , and a handle for the lavatory chain crafted from Bohemian glass .
In November , Hańska suffered a miscarriage ; she wrote to Balzac with the tragic news . He wanted to visit her , but Anna wrote asking him to remain in Paris . The emotion involved , she wrote , " would be fatal " . Hańska made plans to return to Wierzchownia , but Balzac begged her to visit him , which she did in the spring of 1847 . As soon as she was back in Ukraine , however , a new wrinkle unfolded . Hańska had long been unhappy with the presence of Balzac 's housekeeper , Louise Breugniot , and he promised to break with her before marrying . He wrote with alarm to Hańska explaining that Breugninot had stolen her letters to him and blackmailed the author for 30 @,@ 000 francs . Biographers disagree about truth of this story ; Robb suggests it was " a convincing hysterical performance put on for the benefit of his jealous fiancée " .
Still , Balzac believed that keeping her letters was dangerous and , in a moment of characteristic impulse , threw them into the fire . He described it to her as " the saddest and most frightful day of my life ... I am looking at the ashes as I write to you , and I tremble seeing how little space fifteen years takes up . " On 5 September 1847 he left Paris to join her for the first time in Wierzchownia . They spent several happy months together , but financial obligations required his presence in France . The Revolution of 1848 began one week after his return . Back in Wierzchownia , Hańska lost 80 @,@ 000 francs due to a granary fire , and her time was consumed with three lawsuits . These complications , and Balzac 's constant debt , meant that their finances were unstable , and she hesitated anew at the idea of marriage . In any case , a wedding would be impossible without approval from the Tsar , which he did not grant until spring of 1850 . On 2 July 1849 Russian authorities responding to Balzac request of December 1847 to marry widow Hańska stated that he can do so but she cannot keep her lands .
Balzac returned to Wierzchownia in October , and immediately fell ill , with heart issues . His condition deteriorated throughout 1849 , and doubts persisted in her mind about their union . Biographers generally agree that Hańska was convinced by Balzac 's frail state and endless devotion . One wrote : " It was charity , as much as love or fame , which finally turned the scale . " Robb indicates that the wedding was " surely an act of compassion on her part " . To avoid rumors and suspicion from the Tsar , Hańska transferred ownership of the estate to her daughter . On 14 March 1850 they traveled to Berdychiv and , accompanied by Anna and Jerzy , were married in a small ceremony at the parish church of St. Barbara .
Both Hańska and Balzac took ill after the wedding ; she suffered from a severe attack of gout , for which her doctor prescribed an unusual treatment : " Every other day she has to thrust her feet into the body of a sucking @-@ pig which has only just been slit open , because it is necessary that the entrails should be quivering . " She recovered , but he did not . They returned to Paris in late May , and his health improved slightly at the start of summer . By July , however , he was confined to his bed . Hańska nursed him constantly , as a stream of visitors – including the writers Victor Hugo and Henri Murger – came to pay their respects . When Balzac 's vision started to give out , she began to act as his secretary , helping him with his writing .
In mid @-@ August Balzac succumbed to gangrene and began having fits of delirium . At one point he called out for Horace Bianchon , the fictional doctor he had included in many novels . But he also expressed great worry for Hańska , once telling Hugo : " My wife is more intelligent than I , but who will support her in her solitude ? I have accustomed her to so much love . " He died on 18 August 1850 .
As most of Balzac 's biographers point out , Hańska was not in the room when he died . Robb says she " must have retired for a moment " , while André Maurois notes that she had been by his side for weeks with no way of knowing how long it would continue , and " there was nothing to be done " . Vincent Cronin attributes her absence to the nature of their relationship : " From the first day by the lakeside at Neuchâtel theirs had been a Romantic love and Eve wanted to guard it to the end against that terrible taint of corruption . "
= = = Later years and death = = =
Hańska lived with Balzac 's mother for a time after his death , in the house he had spent so much time and expense furnishing . The elder Mme. Balzac moved in with a friend after several months , and Hańska approached the remains of her late husband 's writing . Several works had been left incomplete , and publishers inquired about releasing a final edition of his grand collection La Comédie humaine . Hańska sponsored new editions of his works and was involved in editing some of them , even adding occasional content . Balzac 's debt , meanwhile , still exceeded 200 @,@ 000 francs , which Hańska paid while also providing for his mother 's living expenses . One of her letters at the time gives voice to her frustrations : " In nursing my husband 's incurable malady I ruined my health , just as I have ruined my private fortune in accepting the inheritance of debts and embarrassments which he left me . " Anna and Jerzy moved into a nearby house in Paris .
Despite her obligations , Hańska was a beautiful unmarried woman of means living in Paris . The writer Jules Amédée Barbey d 'Aurevilly described her this way : " Her beauty was imposing and noble , somewhat massive , a little fleshy , but even in stoutness she retained a very lively charm which was spiced with a delightful foreign accent and a striking hint of sensuality . " As she began sorting through Balzac 's papers , she called on his friend , Champfleury , for assistance . As they worked one evening , he complained of a headache . " I 'll make it go away , " she said , and began massaging his forehead . As he wrote later : " There are certain magnetic effluvia , in such situations , of which the effect is that the matter does not stop there . " Her affair with the man twenty years her junior was brief , but it provided a tremendous release to Hańska , who had spent decades with older men in various states of ill health . She began partaking of the social life around her . " The night before last I laughed as I have never done before , " she wrote in 1851 . " Oh , how wonderful it is not to know anyone or have to worry about anyone , to have one 's independence , liberty on the mountain @-@ tops , and to be in Paris ! "
Champfleury was intimidated by her vitality and jealousy , and removed himself from her life . On his recommendation , she turned creative control of Balzac 's unfinished novels Le Député d 'Arcis and Les Petits Bourgeois to another writer , Charles Rabou . Rabou added extensively to them and published both books in 1854 . To soothe the publisher , Hańska falsely claimed that Balzac had chosen Rabou as his literary successor .
Hańska met the painter Jean Gigoux when she hired him in 1851 to paint Anna 's portrait . They began a relationship that lasted many years , but never married . Over the next thirty years , Hańska and particularly her spend @-@ thrift daughter spent the remainder of their fortune on fine clothing and jewelry . Jerzy , meanwhile , succumbed to mental disorders and died in 1881 , leaving behind a trail of debts . Hańska was forced to sell the house , but was allowed to continue living there . She died on 11 April 1882 and was buried in Balzac 's grave at Père Lachaise Cemetery .
= = Influence on Balzac 's works = =
Eveline was an inspiration for many of Balzac 's characters . She can be seen as the model for La Fosseue , Mme Claes , Modesta Mignon , Ursule Mirouet , Adelina Houlot , and especially Eugenie Grandet and Mme de Mortsauf . There is less agreement among scholars on whether she was also the inspiration for more negative characters such as Fedora and lady Dudley , as Balzac seems to have used her mostly as a model for more positive personas . His works also mention numerous characters named Eve or Eveline , and have several dedications to her .
In addition to Eveline , her daughter Anna , sister Alina , aunt Rozalia , first love ( Tadeusz Wyleżyński ) , and several other figures that she introduced Balzac to or told him about , were also incorporated into his works . After they met , Poland , Polish topics , Polish names , and Polish ( Slavic ) mysticism began to appear much more frequently in his works , as exemplified by such characters as Hoene Wroński , Grabianka and General Chodkiewicz .
= = Defenders and detractors = =
Hańska became a controversial figure among the biographers and researchers of Balzac . As Zygmunt Czerny notes , the " mysterious Pole " was criticized by some ( Henry Bordeaux , Octave Mirbeau ( La Mort de Balzac ) , Adolf Nowaczyński , Józef Ignacy Kraszewski , Charles Léger and Pierre Descaves ) , and praised by others ( Philippe Bertault , Marcel Bouteron , Barbey d 'Aurevilly , Sophie de Korwin @-@ Piotrowska , Tadeusz Boy @-@ Żeleński , Tadeusz Grabowski , Juanita Helm Floyd and André Billy ) . Czerny notes that one of the " greatest experts on Balzac " , Spoelberch de Lovenjoul , referred to her as " one of the best women of the epoch " , and that while there are those who deride her influence on Balzac , and question her feelings and motivations , few deny she had a crucial impact on him , and , for most , the " Great Balzac " emerged only after meeting her in early 1830s . Czerny concludes by saying : " However one could analyze her and their relationship , the impact of her love on Balzac was persistent , all @-@ enveloping and decisive " .
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= William M. Callaghan =
William McCombe Callaghan ( August 8 , 1897 – July 8 , 1991 ) was a United States Navy officer who served as the first captain of the battleship USS Missouri ( BB @-@ 63 ) and the inaugural commander of the Military Sea Transportation Service . Through the course of almost 40 years , he served his country in three wars . His naval career began on a destroyer in the final months of World War I. Following command of the destroyer USS Reuben James ( DD @-@ 245 ) and logistical work prior to World War II , he took command of the Missouri in 1944 .
Callaghan is perhaps best known for ordering , despite disagreement from some of his crew , that an honorable funeral be held for an enemy pilot who died during a suicide attack on the Missouri in 1945 . Following World War II , he directed the US Navy 's transportation service and filled senior command roles in eastern Asia , including leadership of the US Pacific Fleet 's Amphibious Force during the Korean War . He retired from the US Navy at the rank of Vice Admiral in 1957 and worked in civilian maritime transport before retiring to Maryland .
= = Early life = =
Callaghan was born on August 8 , 1897 , the son of businessman Charles William Callaghan and Rose Wheeler Callaghan . The family was devout Roman Catholic . His elder brother , Daniel Callaghan ( 1890 – 1942 ) , would later become a US Navy Rear Admiral and posthumous Medal of Honor recipient . Both brothers studied at Saint Ignatius College Preparatory in San Francisco , the elder graduating in the class of 1911 . He subsequently attended the United States Naval Academy , graduating in 1918 .
= = Military career = =
= = = Early service = = =
Callaghan served on a destroyer during the last six months of World War I. He received a Master of Science degree in electrical engineering from Columbia University in 1925 , and would become a Knight of Malta . In the mid @-@ 1920s , he served as assistant engineering officer on board the light cruiser USS Concord , which was then performing scouting duties . From 1932 to 1933 , he was a Lieutenant aboard the aircraft carrier USS Saratoga .
= = = Ship commands = = =
At the rank of Commander , Callaghan captained the destroyer USS Reuben James from June 1936 to March 1938 , and subsequently joined the staff of the Chief of Naval Operations in 1939 . Before the US entered World War II , he was stationed in London in a logistical role . During the first part of World War II , he served as a logistics officer on the staff of the Commander in Chief , US Pacific Fleet , Admiral Chester Nimitz . He received the Legion of Merit for this work .
On June 11 , 1944 , Callaghan became the first captain of the USS Missouri , the last battleship commissioned by the US Navy . He commanded the Missouri in engagements at Iwo Jima , Okinawa , and Tokyo .
= = = Attack on the USS Missouri = = =
At 2 : 42 PM on April 11 , 1945 , off the coast of Kikaijima Island , a Japanese fighter pilot in an A6M5c Zero launched a kamikaze attack on the USS Missouri . Bill Obitz , a Seaman at the time , recalled that the attacking plane approached at an extreme angle and estimated that it was 20 feet ( 6 m ) above the water . Although struck by intense antiaircraft fire , the plane survived and struck the ship 's starboard side at frame 169 below the main deck . While the impact of one of the plane 's wings started a fire at 5 @-@ inch mount number 3 , its 500 @-@ pound bomb did not detonate , so the damage was minimal . There were no American casualties , but the Japanese pilot died . Parts of the plane 's wreckage and the top half of the pilot 's body landed on board the Missouri . The plane 's wing was turned over to the crew to be cut up for souvenirs .
Despite protests from some of his crew , Callaghan insisted that the young Japanese airman had done his job to the best of his ability , with honor , and deserved a military funeral . Stephen Cromwell , a corpsman at the time , later recalled , " I was able to recover his body and I called up to the bridge to ask if I should throw it overboard ... Captain Callaghan said , ‘ No , when we secure , take it down to the sick bay , and we 'll have a burial for him tomorrow . ’ " Ivan Dexter , another crew member , gave his account of events to Herb Fahr , recalling that the top half of the Japanese pilot 's body was scattered over the deck , while the bottom half fell with the rest of the plane into the sea . What remained of the body was brought to sick bay for examination , and various Missouri crew took souvenirs from the clothing , including the helmet , scarf , and jacket . Following examination , the remains were placed in a canvas bag with dummy shell casings to weigh it down .
The following day , the Japanese pilot received a military funeral at sea . An improvised Japanese flag , sewn by one of the ship 's bosun 's mates , covered the bag holding the man 's remains . The ship 's chaplain committed the body to the sea and the six pallbearers let it slide overboard , accompanied by a volley of rifle fire . Fahr wrote , " There was still much bitterness on the part of many in the crew , but now , the honorable thing was done . " According to Lee Collins , visitor operations director for the Battleship Missouri Memorial , Callaghan said that the ceremony was simply a tribute to " a fellow warrior who had displayed courage and devotion , and who had paid the ultimate sacrifice with his life , fighting for his country . "
On May 14 , 1945 , Callaghan passed command of the Missouri on to Captain Stuart Murray , who had been a classmate of his at the US Naval Academy .
= = = Senior commands = = =
In 1946 , Callaghan held the rank of Rear Admiral , and in that year gave a presentation to the Naval War College on his experience in the Naval Transportation Service before the war . On October 1 , 1949 , he was appointed as the first commander of the Military Sea Transportation Service , which would later become the Military Sealift Command . He was promoted from Rear Admiral to Vice Admiral around this time . From 1953 to 1954 , during the Korean War , he commanded the Amphibious Force of the US Pacific Fleet . From 1954 to 1956 , he served as Commander , US Naval Forces Far East . He then replaced retiring Vice Admiral Francis Low as Commander of the Western Sea Frontier . He retired from the US Navy at the rank of Vice Admiral in 1957 .
= = Later life = =
Following retirement from military service , Callaghan served as Vice President of American Export Lines , and then as Chairman of the Maritime Transportation Research Board under the National Academy of Sciences . He would later have a transport ship named after him : the GTS Admiral W. M. Callaghan ( T @-@ AKR @-@ 1001 ) .
Late in life , Callaghan resided in Chevy Chase , Maryland . Following a stroke , he died on July 8 , 1991 , at Bethesda Naval Hospital . His first wife , Helen Brunett Callaghan ( 1896 – 1970 ) , and second wife , Martha Rawlins Callaghan ( 1905 – 1973 ) , predeceased him . He was survived by his third wife , Sarah Duerson Callaghan ( 1914 – 2011 ) , and two children , William M. Callaghan Jr . ( a retired US Navy Rear Admiral ) and Jane Callaghan Gude ( c . 1925 – 2008 ) , as well as eight grandchildren . Callaghan 's grandchildren include William Callaghan III , Chad Callaghan , and A. Carey Callaghan . His great @-@ grandchildren include Caitlin Callaghan , Larkin Callaghan , and Connor Callaghan , and many others .
= = Legacy = =
Callaghan 's decision on the Japanese pilot 's funeral in 1945 would receive praise years later , although a memorial service aboard the Missouri in April 2001 attracted controversy . Leading up to the service , Callaghan 's son said , " My father believed a burial at sea for the pilot was the right thing to do . He felt it would set a good example for the crew in showing respect for the life of people , even for the people you are opposing . "
Junko Kamata , a niece of one of the Japanese pilots killed in the April 1945 battle , said , " I want to thank Captain Callaghan for his humanitarian consideration for kamikaze soldiers . " Minoru Shibuya , Japanese Consul General , called Callaghan 's actions " a glorious deed , to salute the [ pilot 's ] bravery . " Daniel Inouye , US Senator from Hawaii , reflected that " from the dawn of civilization , warriors respected their adversaries ; it was an unspoken code of honor . When Callaghan saw the broken body of his sworn enemy lying upon his ship , he saw him not as an enemy , but simply as a man . "
At a 1998 reunion of Missouri veterans , many of those present who had served during World War II felt that , on reflection , their captain had acted correctly . Robert Kihune , a retired US Navy Vice Admiral , said , " In wartime , courage is measured as much by one 's actions as their strength of leadership during the heat of battle ... I think the leadership qualities showed by Captain Callaghan illustrate the ideal of what we want our military leaders to follow . "
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= WrestleMania IX =
WrestleMania IX was the ninth annual WrestleMania professional wrestling pay @-@ per @-@ view event produced by the World Wrestling Federation . The event took place at Caesars Palace in Paradise , Nevada on April 4 , 1993 , and was the first WrestleMania event held outdoors . The buildup to the pay @-@ per @-@ view consisted of feuds scripted by the WWF 's writers , and the matches that took place at the event had pre @-@ determined outcomes that had been decided by the promotion .
WrestleMania IX was built around two main storylines . The first was the seemingly unstoppable Yokozuna challenging Bret Hart for the WWF World Heavyweight Championship in the main event , a right he earned by winning the 1993 Royal Rumble . The other major storyline was the return of Hulk Hogan , who had departed the WWF following WrestleMania VIII but returned to team with Brutus Beefcake against the WWF Tag Team Champions , Money Inc . ( Ted DiBiase and Irwin R. Schyster ) . Hogan and Beefcake lost the tag team match , but Hogan later faced Yokozuna for the title in an impromptu , unadvertised 22 @-@ second match after Yokozuna defeated Hart to win the championship . In addition , Shawn Michaels retained the Intercontinental Championship , though he lost his match against Tatanka .
Several reviewers have been critical of the event . The most frequent criticism has been related to the match between The Undertaker and Giant Gonzalez , Hulk Hogan 's title win , and the Roman togas worn by announcers . Both the pay @-@ per @-@ view buyrate and the attendance for the event dropped from the previous year 's WrestleMania .
= = Background = =
One of the staged feuds heading into the event was between Tatanka andIntercontinental Champion Shawn Michaels . Tatanka was in the midst of an undefeated streak and had wrestled Michaels twice in the months leading up to WrestleMania IX . Tatanka pinned Michaels in a singles match on the February 13 , 1993 episode of WWF Superstars of Wrestling and later teamed with The Nasty Boys in a six @-@ man match against Michaels and the Beverly Brothers ; Tatanka pinned Michaels to win this match as well . Michaels was also feuding with Sensational Sherri , who stood in Tatanka 's corner during the match . Sherri had been Michaels ' valet . When Marty Jannetty tried to hit Michaels with a mirror , however , Michaels pulled Sherri in front of him to protect himself . Sherri 's anger at getting hit over the head with a mirror caused her to turn on him at Royal Rumble 1993 .
The match between The Steiner Brothers ( Rick and Scott ) and The Headshrinkers ( Samu and Fatu ) had little background , although Afa , who managed The Headshrinkers , claimed that his team would " tear [ the Steiners ' ] heads off " . Doink the Clown and Crush had been feuding since the January 2 , 1993 episode of WWF Superstars of Wrestling . After Crush 's match on that show , he confronted Doink , who had thrown a ball at a child in the audience . Crush grabbed Doink by the arm and warned him not to play any more pranks on children . Doink , wearing a cast on the arm that Crush had supposedly injured by grabbing , came to ringside during Crush 's match on the January 18 episode of WWF Monday Night Raw . He apologized to Crush and gave him a flower ; when Crush walked away , Doink removed a prosthetic arm from his cast and attacked Crush , who was later taken away in an ambulance due to kayfabe ( storyline ) injuries . For storyline purposes , Crush was said to be too injured to compete in the 1993 Royal Rumble match . Doink continued his pranks by squirting Crush with a water pistol and recording video messages to Crush , which showed two Doinks on the screen .
The feud between The Mega @-@ Maniacs ( Brutus Beefcake and Hulk Hogan ) and WWF Tag Team Champions Money Inc . ( Ted DiBiase and Irwin R. Schyster ) stemmed from a legitimate parasailing accident in 1990 that forced Beefcake to undergo reconstructive surgery to his face . He was unable to wrestle again until the February 15 , 1993 episode of Raw . He faced DiBiase in his return match , after which DiBiase and Schyster attacked him . DiBiase held Beefcake for Schyster to hit him in the face with a briefcase , but Jimmy Hart , who managed Money Inc . , repeatedly got in the way before Schyster shoved him out of the ring . Schyster then hit Beefcake in the face with the briefcase . Hart later claimed that he felt the need to " step up and do the right thing " and that he " had a change of heart " , and his intervention led to him becoming a babyface , or crowd favorite . Shortly thereafter , Hulk Hogan made his return to the WWF and joined with Beefcake , and manager Jimmy Hart , to form The Mega @-@ Maniacs and challenge Money Inc. for the WWF Tag Team Championship .
Mr. Perfect 's rivalry with Bobby Heenan dated back to Survivor Series ( 1992 ) . Perfect and Ric Flair were managed by Heenan , but Perfect turned on Flair and Heenan by agreeing to face them as part of a tag team match at Survivor Series . Flair feuded briefly with Perfect but left the company to return to World Championship Wrestling . Lex Luger had joined Vince McMahon 's World Bodybuilding Federation , but he signed with McMahon 's WWF when the bodybuilding company failed . He made his debut at Royal Rumble 1993 , where he was unveiled as Heenan 's latest wrestler , Narcissus ( although the ring name was changed to " The Narcissist " Lex Luger ) .
The Undertaker 's feud with Giant Gonzalez was an offshoot of The Undertaker 's feud with manager Harvey Wippleman . The Undertaker defeated Kamala , who was managed by Wippleman , at SummerSlam 1992 . A rematch was held at Survivor Series 1992 , and The Undertaker beat Kamala in a coffin match . Wippleman vowed revenge , and he introduced Gonzalez at Royal Rumble 1993 and instructed him to attack The Undertaker . The Undertaker was eliminated from the Royal Rumble match as a result of the interference , and a match was scheduled between The Undertaker and Giant Gonzalez for WrestleMania IX .
Beginning with his debut with the company in 1992 , Yokozuna was pushed by the WWF as an unstoppable monster heel . Weighing over 500 pounds , he used the Banzai Drop , a move in which he jumped from the second rope and sat on his opponent 's chest , to defeat several of the WWF 's biggest stars . In a notable match on the February 6 , 1993 episode of WWF Superstars of Wrestling , Yokozuna attacked " Hacksaw " Jim Duggan and performed the Banzai Drop four times . Due to the kayfabe injuries from the attack , Duggan was unable to wrestle for over two months . Yokozuna earned a title shot against WWF World Heavyweight Champion Bret Hart by winning the 1993 Royal Rumble match . During the contract signing , Yokozuna attacked Hart and performed the Banzai Drop on him .
= = Event = =
Before the televised broadcast began , Tito Santana defeated Papa Shango in a dark match . In the first match of the pay @-@ per @-@ view event , WWF Intercontinental Champion Shawn Michaels was accompanied to the ring by a new valet , Luna Vachon . Sensational Sherri followed Tatanka to the ring to prevent Vachon from getting involved in the match . During the match , Vachon approached Tatanka twice outside the ring , but Sherri was able to intervene and stop Vachon from interfering . Tatanka spent much of the match trying to injure Michaels with an armbar hold . Michaels gained the advantage and almost pinned Tatanka with a victory roll , but Tatanka escaped the pin attempt and performed a war dance to channel his energy . Michaels threw Tatanka out of the ring and tried to jump at him to attack , but Tatanka moved . Michaels was unable to return to the ring within ten seconds ; he pulled the referee out of the ring . Tatanka was awarded the victory by countout but did not win the championship because titles can only change hands as a result of pinfall or submission . Vachon attacked Sherri after the match , and Tatanka had to help Sherri make it back to the dressing rooms .
In the next match , the Steiner Brothers ( Rick and Scott ) faced The Headshrinkers ( Samu and Fatu ) . The advantage switched back and forth several times , as the Steiners threw The Headshrinkers with several suplex variations and used their aerial abilities to attack their opponents from the ring ropes . The Headshrinkers relied mainly on using their power to wear down the Steiners . At one point , Fatu picked Rick Steiner up on his shoulders so that Samu could attack Rick from the top rope . Rick caught Samu instead and performed a bodyslam on Samu from Fatu 's shoulders . The match ended when Scott Steiner performed a Frankensteiner to pin Samu and win the match .
Crush attacked Doink the Clown outside the ring prior to the next match . After getting Doink inside the ring , Crush used his strength advantage to overpower Doink . Doink gained the advantage but missed two attacks from the top rope . Crush used more power moves to wear down Doink , and Doink tried to crawl under the ring . Crush forced Doink back into the ring and performed the Cranium Crunch , a head vice submission hold , on Doink . Doink pulled himself to the ropes and broke the hold . Doink hit the referee and knocked him unconscious ; as a result of this staged ref bump , a second Doink the Clown ( portrayed by Steve Keirn ) was able to interfere . He hit Crush with a prosthetic arm , which enabled the first Doink to win by pinfall when the referee regained consciousness .
Razor Ramon faced Bob Backlund next . Ramon used his power to dominate the majority of the match , but Backlund used hip tosses to attempt a comeback . Ramon won the match in under four minutes by pinning Backlund with a small package .
In the following match , Money Inc . ( Ted DiBiase and Irwin R. Schyster ) defended their WWF Tag Team Championship against The Mega @-@ Maniacs ( Hulk Hogan and Brutus Beefcake ) . Beefcake wore a protective titanium facemask because of his injured face , and Hulk Hogan came to the ring with a black eye , which led the announcers to speculate about the cause . Money Inc. gained the early advantage , but DiBiase soon injured himself by hitting Beefcake 's mask . Hogan and Beefcake brawled with their enemies and controlled the match until Money Inc. was counted out . Referee Earl Hebner announced , however , that he would strip them of their title if they did not return to the ring and continue the match . DiBiase returned to the ring and rendered Hogan unconscious with the Million Dollar Dream chokehold . Beefcake attacked DiBiase by applying a sleeper hold and then turned his attention to Schyster , but DiBiase hit him in the back with Schyster 's briefcase . Money Inc. attacked Beefcake and removed his facemask , but Beefcake fought back and applied a sleeper hold to Schyster . The referee was accidentally knocked unconscious , and Hogan recovered and attacked both members of Money Inc. with Beefcake 's facemask . He tried to make the cover for a pinfall , but the referee still unconscious . Manager Jimmy Hart turned his jacket inside @-@ out to reveal a striped referee jacket ; he made the three @-@ count and declared The Mega @-@ Maniacs the winners of the match . Referee Danny Davis came to the ring and disqualified Hogan for using the facemask as a weapon . Money Inc. won the match and retained their championship , but The Mega @-@ Maniacs threw them out of the ring and opened Schyster 's briefcase to reveal stacks of cash . They celebrated in the ring and threw the money into the crowd .
Lex Luger was accompanied to the ring by four women with revealing outfits as he prepared to face Mr. Perfect . The match began with technical wrestling , and Perfect tried to injure Luger 's knee while Luger worked on Perfect 's back . Perfect took control of the match with a powerslam and tried to pin Luger after performing a dropkick from the top rope . Luger 's foot was on the ropes , however , so the referee halted the three @-@ count and continued the match . Luger gained momentum and pinned Perfect ; Perfect 's feet were on the rope , but the referee did not see them . Luger continued to attack Perfect after the match and hit him with his forearm , which contains a steel plate as the result of a legitimate motorcycle accident . When Perfect got up , he chased Luger but was attacked by Shawn Michaels backstage .
In the next match , The Undertaker faced Giant Gonzalez . Both men tried to use their size and power to control the match . Gonzalez used a reverse chinlock to wear The Undertaker down and attacked him outside the ring . The Undertaker regained control of the match and knocked Gonzalez onto his knees . Harvey Wippleman threw Gonzalez a rag soaked with chloroform , which Gonzalez used to knock The Undertaker unconscious . The referee disqualified Gonzalez for using a foreign object and awarded the match to The Undertaker . After the match , The Undertaker recovered and attacked Giant Gonzalez .
In the main event and final scheduled match on the card , Bret Hart defended the WWF World Heavyweight Championship against Yokozuna . Hart tried to use his technical wrestling abilities against Yokozuna , while Yokozuna relied on his size advantage in the match . Hart gained control at the beginning , but Yokozuna came back with a clothesline , leg drop , and nerve hold . Hart regained the advantage when Yokozuna missed a running splash . Yokozuna applied another nerve hold but missed a running splash again . He recovered and carried Hart to the middle of the ring , but Hart removed the protective padding on the turnbuckle in the corner of the ring . He threw Yokozuna 's head into the turnbuckle and applied the Sharpshooter , his signature submission hold that stretches the opponent 's legs and back . Mr. Fuji , Yokozuna 's manager , threw salt in Hart 's eyes , which enabled Yokozuna to pin Hart and win the WWF World Heavyweight Championship .
After the match , Hulk Hogan came to ring to check on Hart 's condition . Hogan had stated during an interview earlier in the broadcast that he wanted to face the winner of the match , and Fuji challenged Hogan to face Yokozuna immediately in an impromptu bout . Hogan agreed and entered the ring . Fuji tried to throw salt in Hogan 's eyes , but he missed and the salt hit Yokozuna . Hogan performed a leg drop and pinned Yokozuna to win the title in 22 seconds .
= = Aftermath = =
A feud began between Shawn Michaels and Mr. Perfect after WrestleMania IX as a result of Michaels attacking Perfect . They faced each other at SummerSlam 1993 , and Michaels won by countout after his new bodyguard , Diesel attacked Perfect . Perfect then feuded with Diesel until leaving the WWF .
Money Inc. lost the WWF Tag Team Championship to the Steiner Brothers on June 14 , 1993 . Money Inc. won the belts back in a rematch on June 16 , but the Steiners won them again three days later . Money Inc. received several rematches but were unable to regain the title ; they soon focused on singles wrestling , and DiBiase retired shortly thereafter .
The Undertaker continued to feud with Harvey Wippleman . On the June 12 , 1993 episode of WWF Superstars of Wrestling , Wippleman , Giant Gonzalez , and Mr. Hughes attacked The Undertaker , and his manager Paul Bearer , and stole the urn that was said to be the source of his power . The Undertaker and Giant Gonzalez faced each other one final time at SummerSlam 1993 in a Rest in Peace match , in which neither wrestler could be disqualified . The Undertaker won the match to end the feud . After the match , a frustrated Gonzalez chokeslammed Wippleman to the delight of the fans and turned face in the process .
Bret Hart later claimed that during a conversation with Vince McMahon , he was told that Hulk Hogan refused to drop the WWF World Heavyweight Championship to him . However , Hulk Hogan stated that , during a conversation with Vince McMahon , a deal was made for Hogan to drop the belt to the top heel at the time , Yokozuna , at the following King of The Ring . All three men eventually wound up in a meeting , where McMahon outlined the plan to have Hogan drop the belt to Yokozuna and denied telling Bret that Hogan refused to drop the championship to him .
After regaining the title , Yokozuna challenged any American athlete to bodyslam him on the deck of the USS Intrepid on July 4 , 1993 . After many challengers failed , Lex Luger arrived by helicopter and bodyslammed Yokozuna . Luger became a fan favorite and changed his gimmick to an American patriot . He faced Yokozuna for the WWF World Heavyweight Championship at SummerSlam 1993 ; he won the match by countout but did not win the title . Lex Luger and Bret Hart each earned a title match against Yokozuna the following year at WrestleMania X. Luger was disqualified in his match , but Hart won the championship later that night .
= = Production = =
This was the first WrestleMania held entirely outdoors , a concept the company did not use again until WrestleMania XXIV in 2008 . Because WrestleMania IX was held in Caesars Palace , the WWF promoted the event as the " World 's Largest Toga Party " . The arena was made to look like a Roman coliseum , and the event featured guards , trumpeters , and several live animals . The company built on this theme by having the commentators , including debuting announcer Jim Ross , wear togas . Ring announcer Howard Finkel was also renamed " Finkus Maximus " for the day . Randy Savage came to the broadcast booth accompanied by women throwing flower petals and feeding him grapes while he rode on a couch carried by guards . Bobby Heenan made his entrance wearing a toga and riding a camel backwards .
Hulk Hogan 's visibly damaged eye was explained in the storyline as the result of Ted DiBiase hiring a group of men to attack Hogan before the match . In reality , the cause of injury has been open to debate . One theory is that Randy Savage punched Hogan because he believed that his ex @-@ wife Elizabeth Hulette had an affair with Hogan while Savage and Hulette were married ( the couple divorced in September 1992 ) . WWF officials claimed that the injury was the result of a Jet Ski accident .
A match was scheduled between Bam Bam Bigelow and Kamala , but it was canceled due to time constraints before the event began .
= = = Reception = = =
The event was attended by 16 @,@ 891 fans , who paid a total of $ 1 @,@ 100 @,@ 000 in admission fees . This represents less than one @-@ third of the number of fans at WrestleMania VIII , which had an attendance of 62 @,@ 167 . The pay @-@ per @-@ view drew a 2 @.@ 3 buyrate , which was lower than the previous year 's 2 @.@ 8 buyrate . It was higher , however , than the buyrates for any of the following four WrestleManias .
WrestleMania IX has received criticism for what some reviewers have perceived as a poorly booked event . Writing for SLAM ! Wrestling , John Powell states that , aside from the Intercontinental and Tag Team Championship matches and the scantily @-@ clad women that accompanied Lex Luger to the ring , the rest of the broadcast was poor . He is also critical of some of the outfits worn for the event , notably Jim Ross 's toga and Giant Gonzalez 's spray @-@ painted suit . Reviewing the event for Online Onslaught , Adam Gutschmidt claims that several of the matches flowed poorly and had ill @-@ conceived conclusions . He also claims that the match between Giant Gonzalez and The Undertaker was a " dud " and that Hulk Hogan 's ego made the conclusion the " worst WrestleMania ending ever " . RD Reynolds , owner of the website WrestleCrap , has inducted the event into the site 's list of " the very worst in pro wrestling " . He cites Giant Gonzalez , Papa Shango , Luger 's " narcissist " gimmick , and Jim Ross wearing a toga as his reasons for including the event in the list .
WWE places two events from WrestleMania IX in its top 50 WrestleMania moments : Bobby Heenan 's entrance on the camel , which the company calls " one of the most hilarious moments in WWE history " , and Hulk Hogan 's title victory . Matt Anoa 'i , who wrestled for WWE as Rosey , and is the cousin of Samu and Fatu , has identified The Headshrinkers performing a double splash on Scott Steiner at this event as his favorite moment at WrestleMania .
WrestleMania IX was released on VHS by Coliseum Video . It was then released as part of the WWF 's WrestleMania : The Collection ( 1985 – 1997 ) box set in 1997 . The video was re @-@ released six years later in March 1999 . That month , it was also released as part of the WWF 's WrestleMania : The Legacy box set . It was also released on DVD for WWE 's History of WrestleMania I @-@ IX box set on September 14 , 2004 .
In the United Kingdom , the event was released on VHS on July 5 , 1993 . Packaged together with WrestleMania X , it was released on DVD for the WWE Tagged Classics series on May 8 , 2006 .
= = Results = =
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= 1996 Manchester bombing =
The 1996 Manchester bombing was an attack carried out by the Provisional Irish Republican Army ( IRA ) on Saturday 15 June 1996 . The IRA detonated a powerful 3 @,@ 300 @-@ pound ( 1 @,@ 500 kg ) truck bomb on Corporation Street in the centre of Manchester , England . The biggest bomb detonated in Great Britain since World War II , it targeted the city 's infrastructure and economy - causing devastating damage , estimated by insurers at £ 700 million ( £ 1 @.@ 2 billion as of 2016 ) .
The IRA had sent telephoned warnings about 90 minutes before the bomb detonated . At least 75 @,@ 000 people were evacuated from the area , which has been called one of the most ' extraordinary policing operations ' in the UK , but the bomb squad were unable to defuse the bomb in time . More than 200 people were injured but there were no fatalities , much to the amazement of many , particularly considering the strength of the bomb . At the time , England was hosting the Euro ' 96 football championships and a Russia vs Germany match was to take place in Manchester the following day .
Since 1970 the Provisional IRA had been waging a campaign aimed at forcing the British government to withdraw from Northern Ireland . Although Manchester had been the target of IRA bombs before 1996 , it had not been subjected to an attack on this scale . In February 1996 , the IRA had ended its seventeen @-@ month ceasefire with a large truck bomb attack on London 's Canary Wharf financial district , though the 3 @,@ 300 lbs bomb of Manchester was three times the size of Canary Wharf . The Manchester bombing was condemned by the British and Irish governments and US President Bill Clinton . Five days after the blast , the IRA issued a statement in which it claimed responsibility , but regretted causing injury to civilians .
Several buildings near the explosion were damaged beyond repair and had to be demolished , while many more were closed for months for structural repairs . Most of the rebuilding work was completed by the end of 1999 , at a cost of £ 1 @.@ 2 billion , although redevelopment continued until 2005 . The perpetrators of the attack have not been caught , and Greater Manchester Police have conceded it is unlikely that anyone will be charged in connection with the bombing . The bombing has however been credited for starting the city 's mass regeneration and turning Manchester into a modern British ' powerhouse ' city .
= = Background = =
From 1970 the Provisional Irish Republican Army was carrying out an armed campaign aimed ultimately at bringing about a united Ireland . As well as attacking military and political targets , it also bombed infrastructure and commercial targets in Northern Ireland and England . It believed that by damaging the economy and causing severe disruption , it could pressure the British government to negotiate a withdrawal from Northern Ireland . Manchester had been the target of earlier IRA bombs . Firebombs damaged city centre businesses in 1973 and 1974 , for which a man was later imprisoned . In April 1974 , a bomb exploded at Manchester Magistrates ' Court , injuring twelve . In 1975 , IRA bomb factories were found in Greater Manchester and five men were imprisoned for planning attacks in North West England . On 4 December 1992 , the IRA detonated two small bombs in Manchester city centre , forcing police to evacuate thousands of shoppers . More than 60 were hurt by shattered glass and the blasts cost an estimated £ 10 million in damage and business losses .
The Downing Street Declaration of 1993 allowed Sinn Féin , a political party associated with the IRA , to participate in all @-@ party peace negotiations on condition that the IRA called a ceasefire . The IRA called a ceasefire on 31 August 1994 . John Major 's government , dependent on Ulster Unionist Party votes , then began insisting that the IRA must fully disarm before there could be any all @-@ party negotiations . The IRA saw this as a demand for total surrender and believed the British were unwilling to hold negotiations . It ended its ceasefire on 9 February 1996 when it detonated a powerful truck bomb in Canary Wharf , one of the two financial districts of London . The blast killed two people and caused an estimated £ 150 million worth of damage . The IRA then planted five other devices in London within the space of 10 weeks .
The IRA planned to carry out a similar bombing in Manchester . The city may have been chosen because it was one of the host cities of the Euro ' 96 football tournament , attended by visitors and media organisations from all over Europe , guaranteeing the IRA what Margaret Thatcher called the " oxygen of publicity " . A Russia vs Germany match was to take place at Old Trafford in Manchester a day after the bombing . The year before , Manchester had also won its bid to host the 2002 Commonwealth Games , at the time the biggest multi @-@ sport event ever to be staged in Britain .
On 10 June 1996 , multi @-@ party negotiations began in Belfast . Sinn Féin had been elected to take part but were barred because the IRA had not resumed its ceasefire or agreed to disarm .
= = Details of the bombing = =
The IRA 's South Armagh Brigade was tasked with planning and carrying out the attack . It had also been responsible for the Canary Wharf bombing in February , and the Bishopsgate bombing in 1993 . Its members mixed the explosives in Ireland and shipped them by freight from Dublin to England . In London , the bomb was assembled and loaded into the back of a red and white Ford Cargo box truck . On 14 June it was driven north towards Manchester , accompanied by a Ford Granada which served as a ' scout car ' .
= = = Discovery = = =
At about 9 : 20 am on Saturday 15 June 1996 , the Ford Cargo truck was parked on Corporation Street , outside the Marks & Spencer store , near the Arndale Centre . After setting the bomb 's timer , two men – wearing hooded jackets , baseball caps and sunglasses – left the vehicle and walked to Cathedral Street , where a third man picked them up in the Ford Granada . The truck had been parked on double yellow lines with its hazard lights flashing . Within three minutes a traffic warden had issued the vehicle with a parking ticket and called for its removal . At about 9 : 40 am , Granada Studios on Quay Street received a telephone call claiming that there was a bomb at the corner of Corporation Street and Cannon Street and that it would explode in one hour . The caller had an Irish accent and gave an IRA codeword so that police would know the threat was genuine . Four other telephoned warnings were sent to television / radio stations , newspapers and a hospital .
The first policeman to arrive on the scene noticed wires running from the truck 's dashboard through a hole into the back and reported that he had found the bomb . Forensic experts later estimated that the bomb weighed 3 @,@ 300 to 3 @,@ 500 pounds ( 1 @,@ 500 – 1 @,@ 600 kg ) and was a mixture of semtex , a military @-@ grade plastic explosive , and ammonium nitrate fertiliser , a cheap and easily obtainable explosive used extensively by the IRA . Components of what may have been a tremble trigger were also found later , designed to detonate the bomb if it was tampered with .
= = = Evacuation = = =
At 10 : 00 am , there were an estimated 75 @,@ 000 – 80 @,@ 000 people shopping and working in the vicinity . An evacuation of the area was undertaken by police officers from Bootle Street police station , supplemented by officers drafted into Manchester to control the football crowds . The police were helped by security guards from local shops .
One group worked to move people away from the bomb while another , assisted by firefighters and security guards , established a continuously expanding cordon around the area to prevent entry . By 11 : 10 am the cordon was at the greatest extent that available manpower would permit , about a quarter of a mile ( 400 m ) from the truck and 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) in circumference .
= = = Explosion = = =
The bomb squad arrived from their Liverpool base at 10 : 46 am and attempted to defuse the bomb using a remote @-@ controlled device , but they ran out of time . The bomb exploded at 11 : 17 am , causing an estimated £ 700 million ( £ 1 @.@ 2 billion as of 2016 ) of damage and affecting a third of the city centre 's retail space . Marks & Spencer , the sky bridge connecting it with the Arndale Centre , and neighbouring buildings were destroyed . It was the largest peacetime bomb ever detonated in Great Britain , and the blast created a mushroom cloud which rose 300 metres ( 1 @,@ 000 feet ) from the ground . The explosion could be heard up to 15 miles away and left a crater 15 metres wide . Glass and masonry were thrown into the air , and behind the police cordon – up to 1 ⁄ 2 mi ( 800 m ) away , people were showered by falling debris . There were no fatalities , but 212 people were injured . A search of the area for casualties was confused by mannequins blasted from shop windows , which were sometimes mistaken for bodies . Hospitals across Greater Manchester were made ready to receive those injured in the blast . The police commandeered a Metrolink tram to take 50 of the casualties to North Manchester General Hospital , which treated 79 in total ; a further 80 were cared for at the Manchester Royal Infirmary , and many others were treated in the streets by ambulance crews assisted by doctors and nurses who happened to be in the city centre that morning .
= = Reaction = =
The bombing was condemned by British Prime Minister John Major and his government , by the opposition , and by individual members of parliament ( MPs ) as a " sickening " , " callous " and " barbaric " terrorist attack . Early on , Major stated that , " This explosion looks like the work of the IRA . It is the work of a few fanatics and ... causes absolute revulsion in Ireland as it does here " . Sinn Féin was criticised by Taoiseach John Bruton for being " struck mute " on the attack in the immediate aftermath . Bruton described the bombing as " a slap in the face to people who 've been trying , against perhaps their better instincts , to give Sinn Féin a chance to show that they could persuade the IRA to reinstate the ceasefire " . The President of the United States , Bill Clinton , stated he was " deeply outraged by the bomb explosion " and joined Bruton and Major in " utterly condemning this brutal and cowardly act of terrorism " . Sinn Féin President , Gerry Adams , stated that he was " shocked and saddened " by the bombing . He insisted that his party was committed to achieving a peace settlement and argued " it is sheer folly to return to the old agenda of excluding Sinn Féin and seeking to isolate republicans " . On 20 June 1996 , the IRA claimed responsibility for the bombing , and stated that it " sincerely regretted " causing injury to civilians . The IRA statement continued :
The British Government has spent the last 22 months since August ' 94 trying to force the surrender of IRA weapons and the defeat of the republican struggle . We are still prepared to enhance the democratic peace process [ ... ] but if there is to be a lasting peace [ ... ] then the British Government must put the democratic rights of all of the people of Ireland before its own party political self interest .
The bombing came five days after the beginning of the peace talks in Belfast , and represented the IRA 's opposition to talks which excluded republicans . The attack was part of a political strategy by the IRA to be included in negotiations on the IRA 's own terms . According to historian Richard English : " What they were doing with their return to bombings like the Manchester bomb was saying , ' We can still return to war if we want to . We can still put off a huge bomb in your cities and devastate them and therefore you have to deal with us ' " .
In an effort to allay fears that Manchester 's considerable Irish community might be subjected to reprisal attacks , Councillors Richard Leese and Martin Pagel – leader and deputy leader of Manchester City Council respectively – made a public visit to the Irish World Heritage Centre in Cheetham Hill . In the event there were only a few incidents , the most serious of which occurred on the evening of the bomb when a gang of ten men rampaged through an Irish @-@ themed bar in the centre of Middleton shouting the Ulster loyalist slogan " No surrender " and smashing furniture and windows . Seven days after the bombing , Manchester Council held a ' family fun day ' in front of the Town Hall in Albert Square to encourage shoppers and visitors back into the city centre , the first of a " series of events and entertainments " . The Euro ' 96 football match between Russia and Germany at Old Trafford went ahead as planned the day following the bombing , after the stadium had been heavily guarded overnight and carefully searched ; the game , which Germany won 3 – 0 , was watched by a capacity crowd of 50 @,@ 700 .
= = Investigation = =
In an effort to trace the route of the Ford Cargo truck , police examined CCTV footage from every major road and motorway taken in England within two days of the bombing . Footage revealed that the truck was driven south along the M1 motorway into London on the Friday afternoon before the attack . It was seen again heading north along the motorway at 7 : 40 pm , accompanied by the Ford Granada . Detectives surmised that the truck had been loaded with explosives in London and that the Granada was intended to be the getaway vehicle . The truck was last recorded travelling east along the M62 motorway towards Manchester at 8 : 31 am on the morning of the explosion .
Police in Manchester were aware that their Metropolitan Police colleagues in London were investigating a suspected IRA unit based in the capital , and wondered whether the London unit was responsible for the Manchester bombing . On 15 July , Metropolitan police arrested six men suspected of IRA membership : Donal Gannon , John Crawley , Gerard Hanratty , Robert Morrow , Patrick Martin , and Francis Rafferty . Each was tried and convicted of " conspiracy to cause explosions at National Grid electricity stations " , and sentenced to 35 years in jail . Police in Manchester meanwhile worked to establish if the men were also responsible for the Manchester bomb .
Their investigation was led by Detective Chief Inspector Gordon Mutch of the Greater Manchester Police ( GMP ) , " astonishingly ... the only person ever charged with a criminal offence in connection with the Manchester bomb " . The truck 's last registered owner told police that he had sold it to a dealer in Peterborough , who had in turn sold the truck on to a man calling himself Tom Fox , two weeks before the bombing . After the purchase price was delivered in cash by a taxi driver , the dealer was instructed to take the truck to a nearby lorry park , and leave it there with the keys and documents hidden inside .
On checking records of telephone calls made to the dealer , the police found that some had been made from a mobile phone registered in Ireland , and on further checking the records of that phone it appeared that the calls were made from locations consistent with the known whereabouts of the Ford truck . One call was to a known IRA member . The phone was last used at 9 : 23 am on the morning of the bombing , just three minutes after the bombers had parked their truck in Corporation Street . On 27 June , the phone 's registered owner reported that it had been stolen 17 days earlier , but the police felt they had gathered enough evidence to bring a prosecution against the six IRA men held in London .
At a meeting attended by the commander of Special Branch in Manchester , a GMP assistant chief constable and a " senior officer " from the Royal Ulster Constabulary , it was decided , for reasons never made public , not to present the findings of the investigation to the Crown Prosecution Service ( CPS ) ; the body responsible for undertaking criminal prosecutions in England . The three may have felt that as the IRA suspects were already in police custody they were no longer a threat , or that to pursue the case against them may have jeopardised ongoing undercover operations . It was not until 1998 that the police finally sent their file to the CPS , who decided not to prosecute .
= = Leak = =
Early in 1999 , Steve Panter , chief crime reporter for the Manchester Evening News , was leaked classified Special Branch documents naming those suspected of the bombing . The documents also revealed that the man suspected of organising the attack had visited Manchester shortly after the bombing and been under covert police surveillance as he toured the devastated city centre before returning to his home in South Armagh . Suspicion fell on Mutch as the source of the leaked documents after an analysis of mobile phone records placed both him and Panter at the same hotel in Skipton , North Yorkshire , about 40 miles ( 64 km ) from Manchester on the same evening .
On 21 April 1999 , the Manchester Evening News named a man it described as " a prime suspect in the 1996 Manchester bomb plot " . The newspaper reported that the file sent by Greater Manchester Police to the Crown Prosecution Service contained the sentence : " It is the opinion of the investigating officers of GMP that there is sufficient evidence to charge [ him ] with being a party in a conspiracy to cause explosions in the United Kingdom . " The man denied any involvement . The Attorney General wrote in a letter to a local MP that the advice given to the CPS by an independent lawyer was that " there was not a case to answer on the evidence available ... a judge would stop the case " : the Attorney General further wrote that the decision not to prosecute was not influenced by the government . The newspaper also identified the six men arrested in London on 15 July as having planned the attack . By July 2000 all six had been released under the terms of the 1998 Belfast Agreement .
As of 2016 , Panter and Mutch are the only people to have been arrested in connection with the bombing . Mutch was tried for " misconduct in a public office " during an 11 @-@ day trial held in January 2002 , but was acquitted . During the trial Panter was found in contempt of court for refusing to reveal his source , an offence punishable by a term of imprisonment without the right of appeal . Greater Manchester Police announced in 2006 that there was no realistic chance of convicting those responsible for the bombing .
= = Reconstruction = =
About twelve buildings in the immediate vicinity of the explosion were severely damaged . Overall , 530 @,@ 000 square feet ( 49 @,@ 000 m2 ) of retail space and 610 @,@ 000 square feet ( 57 @,@ 000 m2 ) of office space were put out of use . Insurers paid out £ 411 million ( £ 700 million as of 2016 ) in damages for what was at the time one of the most expensive man @-@ made disasters ever , and there was considerable under @-@ insurance . Victims of the bombing received a total of £ 1 @,@ 145 @,@ 971 in compensation from the Criminal Injuries Compensation Authority ; one individual received £ 146 @,@ 524 , the largest amount awarded as a result of this incident .
According to Home Office statistics , an estimated 400 businesses within half a mile ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) of the blast were affected , 40 % of which did not recover . The heaviest damage was sustained by the three buildings nearest the bomb : Michael House , comprising a Marks & Spencer store and a six @-@ storey office block ; Longridge House , offices for Royal and Sun Alliance , an insurance company ; and the Arndale Centre , a shopping mall . Michael House was deemed beyond economic repair and demolished . Marks & Spencer took the opportunity to acquire and demolish the adjacent Longridge House , using the enlarged site for the world 's biggest branch of the store . The company 's fortunes changed during construction , and Selfridges subsequently co @-@ occupied the building ; Marks & Spencer leased part of the Lewis 's store in the interim . The frontage of the Arndale was badly damaged and was removed in a remodelling of that part of the city centre .
The glass domes of the Corn Exchange and the Royal Exchange were blown in . The landlord of the Corn Exchange invoked a force majeure condition in the lease to evict all tenants , and the building was converted into a shopping centre . The dome of the Royal Exchange shifted in the blast ; its reconstruction took two and a half years and cost £ 32 million , paid for by the National Lottery .
The possibility of rebuilding parts of the city centre was raised within days of the bomb . On 26 June 1996 , Michael Heseltine , the Deputy Prime Minister , announced an international competition for designs of the redevelopment of the bomb @-@ affected area . Bids were received from 27 entrants , five of whom were invited to submit designs in a second round . It was announced on 5 November 1996 that the winning design was one by a consortium headed by EDAW .
= = Redevelopment = =
Much of the 1960s redevelopment of Manchester 's city centre was unpopular with residents . Market Street , near the explosion and at that time the second @-@ busiest shopping street in the UK , was considered by some commentators a " fearful " place , to be " avoided like the plague " . Until Margaret Thatcher 's third consecutive election victory in 1987 , the staunchly Labour @-@ controlled Manchester Council believed that Manchester 's regeneration should be funded solely by public money , despite the government 's insistence on only funding schemes with a significant element of private investment . Graham Stringer , leader of Manchester City Council , later admitted that after the 1987 General Election result " there was no get out of jail card . We had gambled on Labour winning the General Election and we lost . " Thatcher 's victory effectively put paid to Manchester 's " socialist experiment " , and Stringer shortly afterwards wrote a letter of capitulation to Nicholas Ridley , then Secretary of State for the Environment , saying , " in a nutshell ; OK , you win , we 'd like to work together with you " .
Efforts at improvement before the bombing had in some respects made matters worse , cutting off the area north of the Arndale Centre – the exterior of which was widely unloved – from the rest of the city centre . A large building nearby , now redeveloped as The Printworks and formerly occupied by the Daily Mirror newspaper , had been unoccupied since 1987 . Many locals therefore considered that " the bomb was the best thing that ever happened to Manchester " , as it cleared the way for redevelopment of the dysfunctional city centre , a view also expressed in 2007 by Terry Rooney , MP for Bradford North . The leader of the Liberal Democrat opposition on Manchester City Council , Simon Ashley , responded that " I take exception to his [ Rooney 's ] comments about the IRA bomb . No one who was in the city on that day , who lost their jobs or was scared witless or injured by the blast , would say the bomb was the best thing to happen to Manchester " . Sir Gerald Kaufman , MP for Manchester Gorton , stated that the bomb provided the opportunity for redeveloping Manchester city centre , although it was not fully exploited . " The bomb was obviously bad but from a redevelopment point of view , it was a lost opportunity . While the area around St Ann 's Square and Deansgate is not disagreeable , if you compare it with Birmingham and its exciting development , we 've got nothing to touch that in Manchester " . Howard Bernstein , chief executive of Manchester City Council , has been quoted as saying " people say the bomb turned out to be a great thing for Manchester . That 's rubbish . " There was already substantial regeneration and redevelopment taking place in the city centre before the bombing , in support of the Manchester bid for the 2000 Summer Olympics , its second Olympic bid . Tom Bloxham , chairman of property development group Urban Splash and of the Arts Council England ( North West ) , agreed with Bernstein that the bomb attack was not the trigger for the large @-@ scale redevelopment that has taken place in Manchester since the early 1990s :
For me the turning point for Manchester came before the bomb ... it was the second Olympic Games bid [ in 1992 ] when we lost but the city suddenly had a realisation . There was a huge party in Castlefield and people grasped the idea that Manchester should no longer consider itself in competition with the likes of Barnsley and Stockport . It was now up against Barcelona , Los Angeles and Sydney and its aspirations increased accordingly .
= = Memorials = =
A pillar box that survived the blast , despite being yards from the explosion , now carries a small brass plaque recording the bombing . It was removed during construction and redevelopment work , and returned to its original spot when Corporation Street reopened . The plaque reads :
This postbox remained standing almost undamaged on June 15th 1996 when this area was devastated by a bomb . The box was removed during the rebuilding of the city centre and was returned to its original site on
November 22nd 1999
A Thanksgiving service for the " Miracle of Manchester " was held at Manchester Cathedral on 24 July 2002 , to coincide with the arrival of the Commonwealth Games baton , attended by Queen Elizabeth II and The Duke of Edinburgh . At 11 : 17 am on 15 June 2006 , a candle was lit at a memorial held at Manchester Cathedral to mark the tenth anniversary of the bombing .
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= HMS Drake ( 1901 ) =
HMS Drake was the lead ship of her class of armoured cruisers built for the Royal Navy around 1900 . She was assigned to several different cruiser squadrons in home waters upon completion , sometimes as flagship , until 1911 when she became the flagship of the Australia Station . Upon her return home , she was assigned to the 6th Cruiser Squadron of the 2nd Fleet and became the squadron 's flagship when the fleet was incorporated into the Grand Fleet upon the outbreak of the First World War .
She remained with the Grand Fleet until refitted in late 1915 , when she was transferred to the North America and West Indies Station for convoy escort duties . In 1916 she participated in the unsuccessful search for the German commerce raider SMS Möwe . In late 1917 Drake was torpedoed by a German submarine off Northern Ireland and sank in shallow water with the loss of eighteen lives . The wreck was partly salvaged , beginning in 1920 ; a fishing trawler collided with the remainder of the wreck in 1962 and sank the next day . The wrecks of the two ships were demolished during the 1970s , but their remnants remain a popular dive site .
= = Design and description = =
The Drake @-@ class ships were designed as faster and larger versions of the preceding Cressy class with a slightly more powerful armament . They displaced 14 @,@ 100 long tons ( 14 @,@ 300 t ) , over 2 @,@ 000 long tons ( 2 @,@ 032 t ) more than the earlier ships . The Drakes had an overall length of 553 feet 6 inches ( 168 @.@ 7 m ) , a beam of 71 feet 4 inches ( 21 @.@ 7 m ) and a deep draught of 26 feet 9 inches ( 8 @.@ 2 m ) . They was powered by two 4 @-@ cylinder triple @-@ expansion steam engines , each driving one shaft , which produced a total of 30 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 22 @,@ 000 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 23 knots ( 43 km / h ; 26 mph ) using steam provided by 43 Belleville boilers . On her sea trials , Drake reached a speed of 24 @.@ 11 knots ( 44 @.@ 65 km / h ; 27 @.@ 75 mph ) . She carried a maximum of 2 @,@ 500 long tons ( 2 @,@ 500 t ) of coal and her complement consisted of 900 officers and ratings .
The main armament of the Drake class consisted of two breech @-@ loading ( BL ) 9 @.@ 2 @-@ inch ( 234 mm ) Mk X guns in single turrets , one each fore and aft of the superstructure . Her secondary armament of sixteen BL 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) Mk VII guns was arranged in casemates amidships . Eight of these were mounted on the lower deck and were only usable in calm weather . A dozen quick @-@ firing ( QF ) 12 @-@ pounder ( 76 mm ) 12 @-@ cwt guns were fitted for defence against torpedo boats . Two additional 12 @-@ pounder 8 @-@ cwt guns could be dismounted for service ashore . The ships also carried three 3 @-@ pounder ( 47 mm ) Hotchkiss guns and two submerged 18 @-@ inch ( 450 mm ) torpedo tubes .
By February 1916 , all of the lower casemates for her six @-@ inch guns had been plated over and six of them had been remounted on the upper deck so they could be used in heavy weather . Several twelve @-@ pounders had to be removed to make room for the six @-@ inch guns .
The ship 's waterline armour belt had a maximum thickness of 6 inches and was closed off by 5 @-@ inch ( 127 mm ) transverse bulkheads . The armour of the gun turrets and their barbettes was 6 inches thick while that of the casemates was 5 inches thick . The protective deck armour ranged in thickness from 1 – 2 @.@ 5 inches ( 25 – 64 mm ) and the conning tower was protected by 12 inches ( 305 mm ) of armour .
= = Construction and service = =
HMS Drake , named after the Elizabethan adventurer Sir Francis Drake , was laid down at Pembroke Dock on 24 April 1899 , and launched on 5 March 1901 , when she was christened by Mrs. Lort Phillips , wife of local landowner F. Lort Phillips , of Lawrenny . She was completed on 13 January 1903 and assigned to the Cruiser Squadron of the Channel Fleet , under the command of the future First Sea Lord , Captain Francis Bridgeman .
John Jellicoe , also a future First Sea Lord and commander of the Grand Fleet , was her next captain in 1903 – 04 . In 1907 the ship was commanded by Captain Arthur Hayes @-@ Sadler and serving as the flagship of the 2nd Cruiser Squadron under the command of Rear Admiral Charles Henry Adair . The following year , Drake became the flagship of 1st Cruiser Squadron of the Channel Fleet ( attending the Hudson @-@ Fulton Celebration during this time ) and then was assigned to the 5th Cruiser Squadron of the Atlantic Fleet of the Channel Fleet from 1910 – 11 . She served as the flagship of the Australia Station from 1911 – 13 before returning home and joined the 6th Cruiser Squadron of the 2nd Fleet in reserve .
That fleet was merged into the Grand Fleet upon mobilization in mid @-@ 1914 and Drake became flagship of Rear Admiral William Grant , commander of the squadron . The squadron was briefly deployed at the beginning of the war to blockade the northern exit from the North Sea . In October 1914 , under the command of Aubrey Smith , the ship was used to carry Russian bullion worth eight million pounds to Britain ; on arrival , Drake lay thirty miles off Archangel , and the gold was brought to her at night . The ship was refitted in October 1915 and then transferred to the North America and West Indies Station for convoy escort duties . She participated in the unsuccessful search in the West Indies for the German commerce raider SMS Möwe in December 1916 .
Drake was torpedoed by the German submarine U @-@ 79 , commanded by Kapitänleutnant Otto Rohrbeck , on 2 October 1917 after her Convoy HH24 had dispersed for its several destinations . The ship was about 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) off Rathlin Island at the tip of Northern Ireland when she was hit . The torpedo struck the No. 2 Boiler Room and caused two of her engine rooms and the boiler room to flood , killing 18 crewmen . These gave her a list and knocked out her steam @-@ powered steering . Her captain decided to steam for Church Bay on Rathlin Island and accidentally collided with the merchant ship SS Mendip Range before she dropped anchor . The collision did not damage Drake much , but Mendip Range was forced to beach herself lest she sink . Drake 's crew was taken off before she capsized later that afternoon .
Her wreck at 55 ° 17 @.@ 1084 ′ N 06 ° 12 @.@ 5136 ′ W in Church Bay is a favourite site for divers because the wreck is only at a depth between 15 – 19 metres ( 49 – 62 ft ) and generally has good visibility . Salvage of the wreck began in 1920 and continued for several years . On the night of 3 November 1962 , the steam trawler Ella Hewett struck the wreck and subsequently sank almost atop Drake . Ammunition and ordnance was salvaged during the 1970s and the wrecks were demolished with depth charges to reduce the chance of any other ships coming to grief on the wrecks . In 1978 , the remaining fuel oil was salvaged to reduce pollution from leaking oil .
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= Neil Druckmann =
Neil Druckmann ( born December 5 , 1978 ) is an Israeli @-@ American writer , creative director and programmer for the video game developer Naughty Dog , known for his work in the video games The Last of Us and Uncharted 4 : A Thief 's End . He was born and raised until the age of 10 in Israel , where his experiences with entertainment would later influence his storytelling techniques . He studied computer science at Carnegie Mellon University , before searching for work in the video game industry .
Druckmann 's first video game work was as an intern at Naughty Dog . In 2004 , he became a programmer on Jak 3 and Jak X : Combat Racing , before becoming game designer for Uncharted : Drake 's Fortune and Uncharted 2 : Among Thieves . He was later chosen to lead development on The Last of Us as creative director , a role he continued during the development of Uncharted 4 : A Thief 's End . In addition , Druckmann has also written comic books . He worked on the motion comic Uncharted : Eye of Indra , prior to the creation of his own graphic novel A Second Chance at Sarah . He later co @-@ wrote The Last of Us : American Dreams with artist Faith Erin Hicks .
Druckmann has received high praise for his work on The Last of Us , receiving several awards and nominations for his contributions , including two BAFTA Awards , a DICE Award , and two Writers Guild of America Awards . His work on Uncharted 4 was also praised .
= = Early life = =
Druckmann was born in Israel on December 5 , 1978 , to Judy and Jerry Druckmann . At a young age , Druckmann 's older brother Emanuel showed him comic books , video games , and movies . These forms of entertainment , particularly video games by Sierra Entertainment and LucasArts , helped Druckmann to learn English . Druckmann became particularly interested in story @-@ telling , and wrote his own comic books . He moved to the United States with his family in 1989 . He attended middle school and high school in Miami , Florida , then studied criminology at the University of Florida .
Druckmann soon became a research assistant at Florida State University , while living in Tallahassee , Florida . He spent a year at the university working at the Visualization Lab within the School of Computational Science and Information Technology , beginning in July 2002 . During this time , he began developing the game Pink @-@ Bullet , for Linux and Microsoft Windows , with some friends . At one point , he wanted to be an animator , which required enlisting in art classes , but his parents forbade him from doing so . After taking a programming class , Druckmann realized that it was his preference , and began a Bachelor of Computer Science in December 2002 , which he completed the following year . Druckmann moved to Pittsburgh , where he attended Carnegie Mellon University ; in August 2003 , he began his Master 's degree in Entertainment Technology , which he earned in 2005 from the Entertainment Technology Center . In April 2004 , Druckmann developed the game Dikki Painguin in : TKO for the Third Reich for the Nintendo Entertainment System as a student at Carnegie Mellon , in collaboration with fellow student Allan Blomquist .
= = Career = =
At the Game Developers Conference , Druckmann met Naughty Dog co @-@ founder Jason Rubin . After Druckmann " bugged " Rubin , the latter gave him his business card . In 2004 , Druckmann joined Naughty Dog as a programming intern , before being promoted to a full @-@ time position as a gameplay programmer a few months later . During the development of Jak 3 ( 2004 ) and Jak X : Combat Racing ( 2005 ) , Druckmann continued to ask co @-@ president Evan Wells about joining the design team . Wells restrained from moving him to the design team , as he was originally employed as a programmer , but agreed to review Druckmann 's design work if he completed them after working hours . Following the development of Jak X , Wells concluded that Druckmann was skilled in the field of design , and gave him the role of game designer for Uncharted : Drake 's Fortune ( 2007 ) . In this position , he worked closely with Amy Hennig to construct the story of Uncharted , before working on Uncharted 2 : Among Thieves ( 2009 ) as a lead game designer , becoming more involved with the core writing of the game . Druckmann also worked on the original design and story of Jak and Daxter : The Lost Frontier ( 2009 ) , prior to Naughty Dog 's abandonment of the game ; High Impact Games completed development .
In 2009 , Druckmann worked on the motion comic Uncharted : Eye of Indra , as writer and director . A prequel to Drake 's Fortune , Eye of Indra tells the story of Nathan Drake prior to the events of the first game . Druckmann 's first graphic novel , A Second Chance at Sarah , was published by Ape Entertainment in February 2010 . With illustrations by artist Joysuke Wong , the novel relates Druckmann 's interest in traveling back in time to meet his wife at a younger age . " There 's something cute and poetic about that idea , " Druckmann explained . He felt that he shares many similarities with the novel 's protagonist Johnny , and that " a lot of Johnny 's flaws and fears are based on [ his ] own shortcomings " . The comic was originally released on February 24 , 2010 ; critics particularly praised Wong 's illustrations , as well as Druckmann 's writing and character development .
Following the development of Uncharted 2 , Naughty Dog split into two teams to work on projects concurrently . With one team working on Uncharted 3 : Drake 's Deception ( 2011 ) , co @-@ presidents Evan Wells and Christophe Balestra chose Druckmann and Bruce Straley to lead development on a new game ; Druckmann was chosen for his determination and talent for design . Though they were originally set to develop a new game in the Jak and Daxter series , the team felt that they " weren 't doing service to the fans of [ the ] franchise " , and decided to create a new game , titled The Last of Us .
When conceiving ideas for The Last of Us , Druckmann used a concept that he created as a student at Carnegie Mellon University . His idea was to merge the gameplay of Ico ( 2001 ) in a story set during a zombie apocalypse , like that of Night of the Living Dead ( 1968 ) , with a lead character similar to John Hartigan from Sin City ( 1991 – 2000 ) . The lead character , a police officer , would be tasked with protecting a young girl ; however , due to the lead character 's heart condition , players would often assume control of the young girl , reversing the roles . He based The Last of Us on this concept , replacing the police officer with Joel , and naming the young girl Ellie . Prior to directing the game , Druckmann took acting classes in order to " talk to [ the actors ] in the same language " . The game was released on June 14 , 2013 to critical acclaim , with particular praise directed towards Druckmann 's work on the story . He earned numerous awards for his work on the game , including a BAFTA , a DICE Award , a Game Developers Choice Award , a Golden Joystick Award , and a Writers Guild of America Award .
Druckmann later worked on the downloadable expansion pack The Last of Us : Left Behind , a prequel focusing on Ellie 's relationship with her friend Riley , which received critical acclaim . He earned additional accolades for his work on Left Behind , including a second BAFTA and Writers Guild of America Award . In particular , he was praised for writing a scene involving a kiss between two female characters , which was named a " breakthrough moment " for video games . He also co @-@ wrote the four @-@ issue comic book miniseries The Last of Us : American Dreams , with writer and artist Faith Erin Hicks . It was published by Dark Horse Comics , with the first issue released in April 2013 , and was lauded for Druckmann 's writing and character development , as well as Hicks ' simplistic illustrations .
Following Hennig 's departure from Naughty Dog in March 2014 , it was announced that Druckmann and Straley were working on Uncharted 4 : A Thief 's End ( 2016 ) as creative director and game director , respectively . Initial reports claimed that Hennig was " forced out " of Naughty Dog by Druckmann and Straley , though co @-@ presidents Evan Wells and Christophe Balestra later denied this . Druckmann co @-@ wrote the story alongside Josh Scherr . The game was released on May 10 , 2016 to critical acclaim , with continued praise directed towards the story .
= = Personal life = =
Druckmann currently resides in Los Angeles , California with his wife Maya and daughter . He became a father during the development of The Last of Us ; his daughter was a " huge inspiration " to him when writing the game . He found that the birth of his daughter reinforced his ideas about family , realizing he would " do anything " for her . Druckmann is Jewish , although found he regularly writes about " white , straight , Christian male " characters , encouraging him to instead create more diverse characters . Druckmann 's favorite video games include Monkey Island 2 : LeChuck 's Revenge ( 1991 ) , Ico , and Resident Evil 4 ( 2005 ) , and he is often inspired by character @-@ focused comics such as Preacher ( 1995 – 2000 ) , and Y : The Last Man ( 2002 – 2008 ) .
= = Works = =
= = = Video games = = =
= = = Literature = = =
= = = Film and television = = =
= = Awards and nominations = =
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= Phedina =
Phedina is a small genus of passerine birds in the swallow family . It has two members , the Mascarene martin , Phedina borbonica , which has two subspecies in Madagascar and the Mascarene Islands respectively , and Brazza 's martin , P. brazzae , which breeds in the Democratic Republic of the Congo ( DRC ) , the Republic of the Congo , and northern Angola . The nearest relative of the Phedina martins is the banded martin , Riparia cincta , which resembles Brazza 's martin in nesting habits and vocalisations . Both Phedina martins have grey @-@ brown upperparts and paler , heavily streaked underparts . Adult Mascarene martins are 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) in length , and Brazza 's martin is smaller at 12 cm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) long . Both species have brown wings , dark brown eyes and a black bill and legs . Juvenile birds have more diffuse breast streaking and pale edges to the feathers of the back and wings than the adults . Both species can be distinguished from most other swallows in their breeding or wintering ranges by the streaking on the underparts and lack of a deeply forked tail . The Mascarene martin has a warbled siri @-@ liri siri @-@ liri song given in flight , but Brazza 's martin has quite different vocalisations , its song consisting of a series of short notes followed by a complex buzz and sometimes some final clicks .
Both species typically breed in small groups : the Mascarene martin builds a shallow cup nest of twigs and coarse plant material with a soft inner lining , whereas Brazza 's martin makes a small heap of soft material such as feathers or dry grass at the end of a typically 50 @-@ cm ( 20 @-@ in ) tunnel in a riverbank . The normal clutch is three eggs for Brazza 's martin , two for Mascarene martins on Madagascar and Mauritius , and two or three for those on Réunion . As with other swallows , both martins feed on flying insects , hunting in single @-@ species groups or with other swallows and swifts .
Brazza 's martin may be hunted by humans , and both species may be infected with a variety of parasites . These swallows may be affected by poor weather when breeding , but neither appears to be under serious threat . The small islands which are the home of the Mascarene martin subspecies P. b. borbonica may be devastated by cyclones , which have the potential to cause severe temporary losses to the populations on Mauritius and Réunion . The legal protection afforded to the Phedina martins varies with jurisdiction , and ranges from none for Mascarene martins on Réunion to special protection for the same species on Madagascar . The Brazza 's martin is not a protected species anywhere in its range .
= = Taxonomy = =
The French biologist Charles Lucien Bonaparte created the genus Phedina in 1855 to accommodate the Mascarene martin , previously Hirundo borbonica , which he considered to be sufficiently different from other Hirundo species to merit its own genus . The only other member of the genus is the Brazza 's martin , P. brazzae , first described by French zoologist Émile Oustalet in 1886 . The genus name is derived from the Greek phaios ( φαιός ) " brown " and the Italian rondine " swallow " . The species name for the Mascarene martin refers to the Île de Bourbon ( Réunion ) , and that for Brazza 's martin commemorates Italian @-@ born French explorer Pierre Savorgnan de Brazza , later to become governor @-@ general of the French Congo , who collected the type specimen .
The Phedina species are members of the swallow family of birds , and are classed as members of the Hirundininae subfamily , which comprises all swallows and martins except the very distinctive river martins . DNA sequence studies suggest that there are three major groupings within the Hirundininae , broadly correlating with the type of nest built . These groups are the " core martins " , including burrowing species like the sand martin ; the " nest @-@ adopters " , which are birds like the tree swallow that utilise natural cavities ; and the " mud nest builders " , such as the barn swallow , which build a nest from mud . Based on the DNA analysis , the Phedina species are placed in the " core martins " .
The genus Phedina is thought to be an early offshoot from the main swallow lineage , although their striped plumage suggests a distant relationship with several streaked African Hirundo species . In the past it has sometimes been suggested that Brazza 's martin should be moved to its own genus Phedinopsis due to the significant differences in vocalisations and nest type from its relative . The nearest relative of the Phedina martins is the banded martin , Riparia cincta , which appears not to be closely related to the other members of its current genus and resembles Brazza 's martin in nesting habits and vocalisations . The current Association of European Rarities Committees ( AERC ) -recommended practice is to move the banded martin to its own genus as Neophedina cincta , rather than to merge it into Phedina , since the banded martin 's larger size , different bill and nostril shape and non @-@ colonial nesting are differences from the other Phedina species .
= = Description = =
Both Phedina martins have grey @-@ brown upperparts and paler , heavily streaked underparts . Adult Mascarene martins of the nominate subspecies are 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) long with wings averaging 116 @.@ 6 mm ( 4 @.@ 59 in ) and weigh 23 @.@ 9 g ( 0 @.@ 84 oz ) . The tail is slightly forked and the wings are blackish @-@ brown . The Madagascan subspecies is overall paler and larger @-@ billed than the nominate form . It has denser streaking on the breast , but only very fine lines on the lower abdomen and on the white undertail . It is distinctly smaller than the nominate subspecies , 12 – 14 cm ( 4 @.@ 7 – 5 @.@ 5 in ) in length with an average weight of 20 @.@ 6 g ( 0 @.@ 73 oz ) . The Brazza 's martin is 12 cm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) long with dark brown wings averaging 100 @.@ 5 mm ( 3 @.@ 96 in ) . It has a brownish tint to the breast plumage and a square tail . Both species have dark brown eyes and a black bill and legs . Juvenile birds have more diffuse breast streaking , and white tips or buff edges to the feathers of the back and wings .
Both species can be distinguished from most other swallows in their breeding or wintering ranges by the streaking on the underparts . Although the lesser striped swallow has white underparts with dark streaking , it is larger , has a deeply forked tail and a very different plumage , with dark blue upperparts , a red rump and a chestnut head .
The vocalisations of the two martins are quite different . Mascarene martin has a warbled siri @-@ liri siri @-@ liri song given in flight or when perched ; some calls given by perched birds end in a glissando . Other vocalisations may be used during mating or displays of aggression . There is a chip contact call , and the young birds produce a fast twittering sound when begging for food . Birds wintering in mainland Africa are usually silent . The song of Brazza 's martin consists of a series of short notes increasing in frequency which are followed by a complex buzz and sometimes completed by a number of clicks . The song becomes increasingly loud , although the final clicks are quite soft . The song is similar to that of the banded martin , and does not resemble that of the Mascarene martin , suggesting unresolved taxonomic problems .
The flight of both species is heavy , with slow wingbeats interspersed with glides .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Both species occur in sub @-@ Saharan Africa . The Mascarene martin 's breeding range is restricted to Madagascar and the Mascarene Islands . The nominate subspecies breeds on Mauritius and Réunion and P. b. madagascariensis occurs in Madagascar . It may also nest on Pemba where it has been seen in the breeding season . Breeding habitat can be anywhere with suitable sites for constructing a nest , such as ledges , buildings , tunnels , caves or amongst rocks . The martin is found on the east side of Réunion between 200 – 500 m ( 660 – 1 @,@ 640 ft ) , and on the south and west coasts of Mauritius . It also occurs on inland cliffs on Mauritius . P. b. borbonica is resident on Mauritius and Réunion , although there are local seasonal movements on these island , but the Madagascan subspecies is migratory , with the martins moving to lower ground or to the African mainland outside the breeding season . It is normally uncommon and local in coastal Mozambique , Zambia , Malawi and Pemba Island , and very rare in Kenya and mainland Tanzania , although large numbers sometimes winter in Mozambique or Malawi . It has also been recorded from Comoros and other Indian Ocean locations including at least four islands in the Seychelles . Some of these records may be due to vagrant birds carried by cyclones . There are unsubstantiated claims of occurrences in the Transvaal .
The distribution of the Brazza 's martin was initially poorly studied , although it is now known to breed in the south of the Democratic Republic of the Congo ( DRC ) , the Republic of the Congo , and in northern Angola . There is one probable sighting from southeast Gabon . In the breeding season this martin is found near rivers with the steep banks that are needed for the nest burrows . Suitable habitat occurs along lowland tropical rivers like the Congo or rivers with sandbanks in the highlands of Angola . The highland locations have wide grassy riverways running through miombo woodlands , whereas the Congo Basin is tropical forest with over 200 cm ( 79 in ) of rain a year . The lowland habitats are a patchwork of dry , seasonally flooded and permanently wet woodland , and seasonally flooded savanna . This martin seems to be able to adapt to open savanna habitats containing Hymenocardia acida , in which it will roost overnight when not breeding , and is therefore not heavily dependent on the neighbouring forests as long as the riverine breeding sites survive .
= = Behaviour = =
= = = Breeding = = =
The Mascarene martin nests in the wet season , August to November in Madagascar , and September to early January on Mauritius and Réunion . Brazza 's martin breeds from July to October . Both species typically breed in small groups , but their nesting habits are quite different . The Mascarene martin builds a shallow cup nest of twigs and coarse plant material such as grass and Casuarina with a softer lining of feathers and finer vegetation . It may be constructed anywhere suitably flat and inaccessible to predators , including locations 3 – 5 m ( 9 @.@ 8 – 16 @.@ 4 ft ) over water , on slate ledges , or in underground passageways , whereas Brazza 's martin makes a small heap of soft material such as feathers or dry grass at the end of a typically 50 @-@ cm ( 20 @-@ in ) tunnel in a riverbank . The normal clutch is three eggs for Brazza 's martin , two for Mascarene martins on Madagascar and Mauritius , but two or three for those on Réunion .
The Mascarene martin eggs are white with brown spots and average 21 @.@ 6 mm × 15 mm ( 0 @.@ 85 in × 0 @.@ 59 in ) with a weight of 2 @.@ 5 g ( 0 @.@ 088 oz ) and are incubated by the female alone . The white eggs of Brazza 's martin measure 18 @.@ 5 mm × 112 @.@ 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 73 in × 4 @.@ 43 in ) and weigh 1 @.@ 5 g ( 0 @.@ 053 oz ) . The incubation and fledging times are unknown for both species , although as with all hirundines the chicks are altricial , hatching naked and blind .
= = = Feeding = = =
As with other swallows , both martins feed on flying insects , hunting in single @-@ species groups or with other swallows and swifts . They feed low over a variety of open habitats or woodland . Prey items recorded for the Mascarene martin include scarab , click and other beetles , Hemiptera and flying ants , and Brazza 's martins will take termites . In eastern Africa , areas deforested by logging or conversion to agriculture are used for hunting by Brazza 's martins .
= = Predators and parasites = =
No predators or parasites are recorded for Brazza 's martin , but Mascarene martins will mob the Mauritius kestrel , suggesting that it is perceived as a potential predator . Mascarene martins may host a variety of parasites . On Mauritius they may be infected by an endemic trypanosome , Trypanosoma phedinae , although the pathogenicity is unknown . Protozoan blood parasites of the genus Haemoproteus have also been found in the Mascarene martin on Mauritius , although no blood parasites were found in a Madagascan specimen . A new species of louse fly , Ornithomya cecropis , was first found on a martin in Madagascar , and another bird from that island carried the feather mite Mesalges hirsutus , more commonly found in parrots .
= = Status = =
Until 2008 the Brazza 's martin was classified as Data Deficient because there had been so little ornithological research in this part of Africa , but a 2007 paper presented evidence that extended its known range by 500 km ( 310 mi ) to the north and 175 km ( 109 mi ) southwards , a quadrupling of the area . It has a large range of 402 @,@ 000 km2 ( 155 @,@ 000 sq mi ) although the total population is unknown . Its extensive range and apparently stable population means this bird is classed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List . It is likely that this species is dug out for food by humans , but its small , dispersed colonies in firm soil suggests that it is a less rewarding target than the densely packed sandbank nests of species such as the African river martin and rosy bee @-@ eater .
The breeding range of the Mascarene martin is restricted to three islands . Madagascar has an area of 592 @,@ 800 km2 ( 228 @,@ 900 sq mi ) , but the next largest island , Réunion , is just 2 @,@ 512 km2 ( 790 km2 ) . Although this bird has a limited range , it is abundant on Mauritius and Réunion , and locally common in Madagascar . The population is unknown , but exceeds the vulnerability threshold of 10 @,@ 000 mature individuals and is believed to be stable . This martin is therefore also classed as a species of Least Concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature .
Both species may be affected by poor weather . Breeding colonies of Brazza 's martins in river sandbars are liable to flooding , but this does not appear to be having a serious impact , and this species appears to be under no immediate threat . Its ability to use degraded habitats also aids its survival . Tropical cyclones present a threat to the Mascarene martin , particularly on the small islands inhabited by the nominate subspecies . The populations on Mauritius and Réunion were badly affected by a six @-@ day cyclone in February 1861 , taking many years to recover , but by about 1900 it was reported to be common but local , and in 1973 – 74 there were 200 – 400 pairs on Réunion and 70 – 75 pairs in Mauritius . More recent cyclones , like one in 1980 , seem to have had less damaging effects than the 1861 storm . Several species have been lost from the Mascarene islands since human colonisation in the seventeenth century , but the martin and the Mascarene swiftlet occur on all the main islands , and are less vulnerable to the effects of human activities , especially since they can utilise houses for nest sites .
The Brazza 's martin is not a protected species in Angola , the DRC , or the Republic of Congo . In Mauritius , the Mascarene martin is legally protected as a " Species of wildlife in respect of which more severe penalties are provided " , although Madagascar and the African mainland countries have no special measures for this species beyond general bird protection legislation . Réunion is an overseas department of France , but the Birds Directive does not apply outside Europe , so there is no bird protection legislation effective on the island , despite the possibility that EU agricultural and other funding may be adversely affecting birds and vulnerable habitats .
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= Battle of Gettysburg =
The Battle of Gettysburg ( local / ˈɡɛtᵻsbɜːrɡ / , with an / s / sound ) was fought July 1 – 3 , 1863 , in and around the town of Gettysburg , Pennsylvania , by Union and Confederate forces during the American Civil War . The battle involved the largest number of casualties of the entire war and is often described as the war 's turning point . Union Maj. Gen. George Meade 's Army of the Potomac defeated attacks by Confederate Gen. Robert E. Lee 's Army of Northern Virginia , ending Lee 's attempt to invade the North .
After his success at Chancellorsville in Virginia in May 1863 , Lee led his army through the Shenandoah Valley to begin his second invasion of the North — the Gettysburg Campaign . With his army in high spirits , Lee intended to shift the focus of the summer campaign from war @-@ ravaged northern Virginia and hoped to influence Northern politicians to give up their prosecution of the war by penetrating as far as Harrisburg , Pennsylvania , or even Philadelphia . Prodded by President Abraham Lincoln , Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker moved his army in pursuit , but was relieved of command just three days before the battle and replaced by Meade .
Elements of the two armies initially collided at Gettysburg on July 1 , 1863 , as Lee urgently concentrated his forces there , his objective being to engage the Union army and destroy it . Low ridges to the northwest of town were defended initially by a Union cavalry division under Brig. Gen. John Buford , and soon reinforced with two corps of Union infantry . However , two large Confederate corps assaulted them from the northwest and north , collapsing the hastily developed Union lines , sending the defenders retreating through the streets of town to the hills just to the south .
On the second day of battle , most of both armies had assembled . The Union line was laid out in a defensive formation resembling a fishhook . In the late afternoon of July 2 , Lee launched a heavy assault on the Union left flank , and fierce fighting raged at Little Round Top , the Wheatfield , Devil 's Den , and the Peach Orchard . On the Union right , Confederate demonstrations escalated into full @-@ scale assaults on Culp 's Hill and Cemetery Hill . All across the battlefield , despite significant losses , the Union defenders held their lines .
On the third day of battle , fighting resumed on Culp 's Hill , and cavalry battles raged to the east and south , but the main event was a dramatic infantry assault by 12 @,@ 500 Confederates against the center of the Union line on Cemetery Ridge , known as Pickett 's Charge . The charge was repulsed by Union rifle and artillery fire , at great loss to the Confederate army .
Lee led his army on a torturous retreat back to Virginia . Between 46 @,@ 000 and 51 @,@ 000 soldiers from both armies were casualties in the three @-@ day battle , the most costly in US history .
On November 19 , President Lincoln used the dedication ceremony for the Gettysburg National Cemetery to honor the fallen Union soldiers and redefine the purpose of the war in his historic Gettysburg Address .
= = Background = =
= = = Military situation = = =
Shortly after the Army of Northern Virginia won a major victory over the Army of the Potomac at the Battle of Chancellorsville ( April 30 – May 6 , 1863 ) , Robert E. Lee decided upon a second invasion of the North ( the first was the unsuccessful Maryland Campaign of September 1862 , which ended in the bloody Battle of Antietam ) . Such a move would upset U.S. plans for the summer campaigning season and possibly reduce the pressure on the besieged Confederate garrison at Vicksburg . The invasion would allow the Confederates to live off the bounty of the rich Northern farms while giving war @-@ ravaged Virginia a much @-@ needed rest . In addition , Lee 's 72 @,@ 000 @-@ man army could threaten Philadelphia , Baltimore , and Washington , and possibly strengthen the growing peace movement in the North .
= = = Initial movements to battle = = =
Thus , on June 3 , Lee 's army began to shift northward from Fredericksburg , Virginia . Following the death of Thomas J. " Stonewall " Jackson , Lee reorganized his two large corps into three new corps , commanded by Lt. Gen. James Longstreet ( First Corps ) , Lt. Gen. Richard S. Ewell ( Second ) , and Lt. Gen. A.P. Hill ( Third ) ; both Ewell and Hill , who had formerly reported to Jackson as division commanders , were new to this level of responsibility . The Cavalry Division remained under the command of Maj. Gen. J.E.B. Stuart .
The Union Army of the Potomac , under Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker , consisted of seven infantry corps , a cavalry corps , and an Artillery Reserve , for a combined strength of more than 100 @,@ 000 men .
The first major action of the campaign took place on June 9 between cavalry forces at Brandy Station , near Culpeper , Virginia . The 9 @,@ 500 Confederate cavalrymen under Stuart were surprised by Maj. Gen. Alfred Pleasonton 's combined arms force of two cavalry divisions ( 8 @,@ 000 troopers ) and 3 @,@ 000 infantry , but Stuart eventually repulsed the Union attack . The inconclusive battle , the largest predominantly cavalry engagement of the war , proved for the first time that the Union horse soldier was equal to his Southern counterpart .
By mid @-@ June , the Army of Northern Virginia was poised to cross the Potomac River and enter Maryland . After defeating the U.S. garrisons at Winchester and Martinsburg , Ewell 's Second Corps began crossing the river on June 15 . Hill 's and Longstreet 's corps followed on June 24 and 25 . Hooker 's army pursued , keeping between the U.S. capital and Lee 's army . The U.S. crossed the Potomac from June 25 to 27 .
Lee gave strict orders for his army to minimize any negative impacts on the civilian population . Food , horses , and other supplies were generally not seized outright , although quartermasters reimbursing Northern farmers and merchants with Confederate money were not well received . Various towns , most notably York , Pennsylvania , were required to pay indemnities in lieu of supplies , under threat of destruction . During the invasion , the Confederates seized some 40 northern African Americans . A few of them were escaped fugitive slaves , but most were freemen ; all were sent south into slavery under guard .
On June 26 , elements of Maj. Gen. Jubal Early 's division of Ewell 's Corps occupied the town of Gettysburg after chasing off newly raised Pennsylvania militia in a series of minor skirmishes . Early laid the borough under tribute but did not collect any significant supplies . Soldiers burned several railroad cars and a covered bridge , and destroyed nearby rails and telegraph lines . The following morning , Early departed for adjacent York County .
Meanwhile , in a controversial move , Lee allowed Jeb Stuart to take a portion of the army 's cavalry and ride around the east flank of the Union army . Lee 's orders gave Stuart much latitude , and both generals share the blame for the long absence of Stuart 's cavalry , as well as for the failure to assign a more active role to the cavalry left with the army . Stuart and his three best brigades were absent from the army during the crucial phase of the approach to Gettysburg and the first two days of battle . By June 29 , Lee 's army was strung out in an arc from Chambersburg ( 28 miles ( 45 km ) northwest of Gettysburg ) to Carlisle ( 30 miles ( 48 km ) north of Gettysburg ) to near Harrisburg and Wrightsville on the Susquehanna River .
In a dispute over the use of the forces defending the Harpers Ferry garrison , Hooker offered his resignation , and Abraham Lincoln and General @-@ in @-@ Chief Henry W. Halleck , who were looking for an excuse to get rid of him , immediately accepted . They replaced Hooker early on the morning of June 28 with Maj. Gen. George Gordon Meade , then commander of the V Corps .
On June 29 , when Lee learned that the Army of the Potomac had crossed the Potomac River , he ordered a concentration of his forces around Cashtown , located at the eastern base of South Mountain and eight miles ( 13 km ) west of Gettysburg . On June 30 , while part of Hill 's Corps was in Cashtown , one of Hill 's brigades , North Carolinians under Brig. Gen. J. Johnston Pettigrew , ventured toward Gettysburg . In his memoirs , Maj. Gen. Henry Heth , Pettigrew 's division commander , claimed that he sent Pettigrew to search for supplies in town — especially shoes .
When Pettigrew 's troops approached Gettysburg on June 30 , they noticed Union cavalry under Brig. Gen. John Buford arriving south of town , and Pettigrew returned to Cashtown without engaging them . When Pettigrew told Hill and Heth what he had seen , neither general believed that there was a substantial U.S. force in or near the town , suspecting that it had been only Pennsylvania militia . Despite General Lee 's order to avoid a general engagement until his entire army was concentrated , Hill decided to mount a significant reconnaissance in force the following morning to determine the size and strength of the enemy force in his front . Around 5 a.m. on Wednesday , July 1 , two brigades of Heth 's division advanced to Gettysburg .
= = Opposing forces = =
= = = Union = = =
The Army of the Potomac , initially under Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker ( Maj. Gen. George G. Meade replaced Hooker in command on June 28 ) , consisted of more than 100 @,@ 000 men in the following organization :
I Corps , commanded by Maj. Gen. John F. Reynolds , with divisions commanded by Brig. Gen. James S. Wadsworth , Brig. Gen. John C. Robinson , and Maj. Gen. Abner Doubleday .
II Corps , commanded by Maj. Gen. Winfield S. Hancock , with divisions commanded by Brig. Gens . John C. Caldwell , John Gibbon , and Alexander Hays .
III Corps , commanded by Maj. Gen. Daniel E. Sickles , with divisions commanded by Maj. Gen. David B. Birney and Maj. Gen. Andrew A. Humphreys .
V Corps , commanded by Maj. Gen. George Sykes ( George G. Meade until June 28 ) , with divisions commanded by Brig. Gens . James Barnes , Romeyn B. Ayres , and Samuel W. Crawford .
VI Corps , commanded by Maj. Gen. John Sedgwick , with divisions commanded by Brig. Gen. Horatio G. Wright , Brig. Gen. Albion P. Howe , and Maj. Gen. John Newton .
XI Corps , commanded by Maj. Gen. Oliver O. Howard , with divisions commanded by Brig. Gen. Francis C. Barlow , Brig. Gen. Adolph von Steinwehr , and Maj. Gen. Carl Schurz .
XII Corps , commanded by Maj. Gen. Henry W. Slocum , with divisions commanded by Brig. Gens . Alpheus S. Williams and John W. Geary .
Cavalry Corps , commanded by Maj. Gen. Alfred Pleasonton , with divisions commanded by Brig. Gens . John Buford , David McM . Gregg , and H. Judson Kilpatrick .
Artillery Reserve , commanded by Brig. Gen. Robert O. Tyler . ( The preeminent artillery officer at Gettysburg was Brig. Gen. Henry J. Hunt , chief of artillery on Meade 's staff . )
During the advance on Gettysburg , Maj. Gen. Reynolds was in operational command of the left , or advanced , wing of the Army , consisting of the I , III , and XI Corps . Note that many other Union units ( not part of the Army of the Potomac ) were actively involved in the Gettysburg Campaign , but not directly involved in the Battle of Gettysburg . These included portions of the Union IV Corps , the militia and state troops of the Department of the Susquehanna , and various garrisons , including that at Harpers Ferry .
= = = Confederate = = =
In reaction to the death of Lt. Gen. Thomas J. " Stonewall " Jackson after Chancellorsville , Lee reorganized his Army of Northern Virginia ( 75 @,@ 000 men ) from two infantry corps into three .
First Corps , commanded by Lt. Gen. James Longstreet , with divisions commanded by Maj. Gens . Lafayette McLaws , George E. Pickett , and John Bell Hood .
Second Corps , commanded by Lt. Gen. Richard S. Ewell , with divisions commanded by Maj. Gens . Jubal A. Early , Edward " Allegheny " Johnson , and Robert E. Rodes .
Third Corps , commanded by Lt. Gen. A.P. Hill , with divisions commanded by Maj. Gens . Richard H. Anderson , Henry Heth , and W. Dorsey Pender .
Cavalry division , commanded by Maj. Gen. J.E.B. Stuart , with brigades commanded by Brig. Gens . Wade Hampton , Fitzhugh Lee , Beverly H. Robertson , Albert G. Jenkins , William E. " Grumble " Jones , and John D. Imboden , and Col. John R. Chambliss .
= = First day of battle = =
= = = Herr Ridge , McPherson Ridge and Seminary Ridge = = =
Anticipating that the Confederates would march on Gettysburg from the west on the morning of July 1 , Buford laid out his defenses on three ridges west of the town : Herr Ridge , McPherson Ridge and Seminary Ridge . These were appropriate terrain for a delaying action by his small cavalry division against superior Confederate infantry forces , meant to buy time awaiting the arrival of Union infantrymen who could occupy the strong defensive positions south of town at Cemetery Hill , Cemetery Ridge , and Culp 's Hill . Buford understood that if the Confederates could gain control of these heights , Meade 's army would have difficulty dislodging them .
Heth 's division advanced with two brigades forward , commanded by Brig. Gens . James J. Archer and Joseph R. Davis . They proceeded easterly in columns along the Chambersburg Pike . Three miles ( 5 km ) west of town , about 7 : 30 a.m. on July 1 , the two brigades met light resistance from vedettes of Union cavalry , and deployed into line . According to lore , the Union soldier to fire the first shot of the battle was Lt. Marcellus Jones . In 1886 Lt. Jones returned to Gettysburg to mark the spot where he fired the first shot with a monument . Eventually , Heth 's men reached dismounted troopers of Col. William Gamble 's cavalry brigade , who raised determined resistance and delaying tactics from behind fence posts with fire from their breechloading carbines . Still , by 10 : 20 a.m. , the Confederates had pushed the Union cavalrymen east to McPherson Ridge , when the vanguard of the I Corps ( Maj. Gen. John F. Reynolds ) finally arrived .
North of the pike , Davis gained a temporary success against Brig. Gen. Lysander Cutler 's brigade but was repulsed with heavy losses in an action around an unfinished railroad bed cut in the ridge . South of the pike , Archer 's brigade assaulted through Herbst ( also known as McPherson 's ) Woods . The U.S. Iron Brigade under Brig. Gen. Solomon Meredith enjoyed initial success against Archer , capturing several hundred men , including Archer himself .
General Reynolds was shot and killed early in the fighting while directing troop and artillery placements just to the east of the woods . Shelby Foote wrote that the Union cause lost a man considered by many to be " the best general in the army . " Maj. Gen. Abner Doubleday assumed command . Fighting in the Chambersburg Pike area lasted until about 12 : 30 p.m. It resumed around 2 : 30 p.m. , when Heth 's entire division engaged , adding the brigades of Pettigrew and Col. John M. Brockenbrough .
As Pettigrew 's North Carolina Brigade came on line , they flanked the 19th Indiana and drove the Iron Brigade back . The 26th North Carolina ( the largest regiment in the army with 839 men ) lost heavily , leaving the first day 's fight with around 212 men . By the end of the three @-@ day battle , they had about 152 men standing , the highest casualty percentage for one battle of any regiment , North or South . Slowly the Iron Brigade was pushed out of the woods toward Seminary Ridge . Hill added Maj. Gen. William Dorsey Pender 's division to the assault , and the I Corps was driven back through the grounds of the Lutheran Seminary and Gettysburg streets .
As the fighting to the west proceeded , two divisions of Ewell 's Second Corps , marching west toward Cashtown in accordance with Lee 's order for the army to concentrate in that vicinity , turned south on the Carlisle and Harrisburg roads toward Gettysburg , while the Union XI Corps ( Maj. Gen. Oliver O. Howard ) raced north on the Baltimore Pike and Taneytown Road . By early afternoon , the U.S. line ran in a semicircle west , north , and northeast of Gettysburg .
However , the U.S. did not have enough troops ; Cutler , who was deployed north of the Chambersburg Pike , had his right flank in the air . The leftmost division of the XI Corps was unable to deploy in time to strengthen the line , so Doubleday was forced to throw in reserve brigades to salvage his line .
Around 2 p.m. , the Confederate Second Corps divisions of Maj. Gens . Robert E. Rodes and Jubal Early assaulted and out @-@ flanked the Union I and XI Corps positions north and northwest of town . The Confederate brigades of Col. Edward A. O 'Neal and Brig. Gen. Alfred Iverson suffered severe losses assaulting the I Corps division of Brig. Gen. John C. Robinson south of Oak Hill . Early 's division profited from a blunder by Brig. Gen. Francis C. Barlow , when he advanced his XI Corps division to Blocher 's Knoll ( directly north of town and now known as Barlow 's Knoll ) ; this represented a salient in the corps line , susceptible to attack from multiple sides , and Early 's troops overran Barlow 's division , which constituted the right flank of the Union Army 's position . Barlow was wounded and captured in the attack .
As U.S. positions collapsed both north and west of town , Gen. Howard ordered a retreat to the high ground south of town at Cemetery Hill , where he had left the division of Brig. Gen. Adolph von Steinwehr in reserve . Maj. Gen. Winfield S. Hancock assumed command of the battlefield , sent by Meade when he heard that Reynolds had been killed . Hancock , commander of the II Corps and Meade 's most trusted subordinate , was ordered to take command of the field and to determine whether Gettysburg was an appropriate place for a major battle . Hancock told Howard , " I think this the strongest position by nature upon which to fight a battle that I ever saw . " When Howard agreed , Hancock concluded the discussion : " Very well , sir , I select this as the battle @-@ field . " Hancock 's determination had a morale @-@ boosting effect on the retreating Union soldiers , but he played no direct tactical role on the first day .
General Lee understood the defensive potential to the Union if they held this high ground . He sent orders to Ewell that Cemetery Hill be taken " if practicable . " Ewell , who had previously served under Stonewall Jackson , a general well known for issuing peremptory orders , determined such an assault was not practicable and , thus , did not attempt it ; this decision is considered by historians to be a great missed opportunity .
The first day at Gettysburg , more significant than simply a prelude to the bloody second and third days , ranks as the 23rd biggest battle of the war by number of troops engaged . About one quarter of Meade 's army ( 22 @,@ 000 men ) and one third of Lee 's army ( 27 @,@ 000 ) were engaged .
= = Second day of battle = =
= = = Plans and movement to battle = = =
Throughout the evening of July 1 and morning of July 2 , most of the remaining infantry of both armies arrived on the field , including the Union II , III , V , VI , and XII Corps . Longstreet 's third division , commanded by Maj. Gen. George Pickett , had begun the march from Chambersburg early in the morning ; it did not arrive until late on July 2 .
The Union line ran from Culp 's Hill southeast of the town , northwest to Cemetery Hill just south of town , then south for nearly two miles ( 3 km ) along Cemetery Ridge , terminating just north of Little Round Top . Most of the XII Corps was on Culp 's Hill ; the remnants of I and XI Corps defended Cemetery Hill ; II Corps covered most of the northern half of Cemetery Ridge ; and III Corps was ordered to take up a position to its flank . The shape of the Union line is popularly described as a " fishhook " formation . The Confederate line paralleled the Union line about a mile ( 1 @,@ 600 m ) to the west on Seminary Ridge , ran east through the town , then curved southeast to a point opposite Culp 's Hill . Thus , the Union army had interior lines , while the Confederate line was nearly five miles ( 8 km ) long .
Lee 's battle plan for July 2 called for Longstreet 's First Corps to position itself stealthily to attack the Union left flank , facing northeast astraddle the Emmitsburg Road , and to roll up the U.S.line. The attack sequence was to begin with Maj. Gens . John Bell Hood 's and Lafayette McLaws 's divisions , followed by Maj. Gen. Richard H. Anderson 's division of Hill 's Third Corps . The progressive en echelon sequence of this attack would prevent Meade from shifting troops from his center to bolster his left . At the same time , Maj. Gen. Edward " Allegheny " Johnson 's and Jubal Early 's Second Corps divisions were to make a demonstration against Culp 's and Cemetery Hills ( again , to prevent the shifting of U.S. troops ) , and to turn the demonstration into a full @-@ scale attack if a favorable opportunity presented itself .
Lee 's plan , however , was based on faulty intelligence , exacerbated by Stuart 's continued absence from the battlefield . Instead of moving beyond the U.S. left and attacking their flank , Longstreet 's left division , under McLaws , would face Maj. Gen. Daniel Sickles 's III Corps directly in their path . Sickles had been dissatisfied with the position assigned him on the southern end of Cemetery Ridge . Seeing higher ground more favorable to artillery positions a half mile ( 800 m ) to the west , he advanced his corps — without orders — to the slightly higher ground along the Emmitsburg Road . The new line ran from Devil 's Den , northwest to the Sherfy farm 's Peach Orchard , then northeast along the Emmitsburg Road to south of the Codori farm . This created an untenable salient at the Peach Orchard ; Brig. Gen. Andrew A. Humphreys 's division ( in position along the Emmitsburg Road ) and Maj. Gen. David B. Birney 's division ( to the south ) were subject to attacks from two sides and were spread out over a longer front than their small corps could defend effectively .
Longstreet 's attack was to be made as early as practicable ; however , Longstreet got permission from Lee to await the arrival of one of his brigades , and while marching to the assigned position , his men came within sight of a Union signal station on Little Round Top . Countermarching to avoid detection wasted much time , and Hood 's and McLaws 's divisions did not launch their attacks until just after 4 p.m. and 5 p.m. , respectively .
= = = Attacks on the Union left flank = = =
As Longstreet 's divisions slammed into the Union III Corps , Meade was forced to send 20 @,@ 000 reinforcements in the form of the entire V Corps , Brig. Gen. John C. Caldwell 's division of the II Corps , most of the XII Corps , and small portions of the newly arrived VI Corps . The Confederate assault deviated from Lee 's plan since Hood 's division moved more to the east than intended , losing its alignment with the Emmitsburg Road , attacking Devil 's Den and Little Round Top . McLaws , coming in on Hood 's left , drove multiple attacks into the thinly stretched III Corps in the Wheatfield and overwhelmed them in Sherfy 's Peach Orchard . McLaws 's attack eventually reached Plum Run Valley ( the " Valley of Death " ) before being beaten back by the Pennsylvania Reserves division of the V Corps , moving down from Little Round Top . The III Corps was virtually destroyed as a combat unit in this battle , and Sickles 's leg was amputated after it was shattered by a cannonball . Caldwell 's division was destroyed piecemeal in the Wheatfield . Anderson 's division , coming from McLaws 's left and starting forward around 6 p.m. , reached the crest of Cemetery Ridge , but it could not hold the position in the face of counterattacks from the II Corps , including an almost suicidal bayonet charge by the small 1st Minnesota regiment against a Confederate brigade , ordered in desperation by Hancock to buy time for reinforcements to arrive .
As fighting raged in the Wheatfield and Devil 's Den , Col. Strong Vincent of V Corps had a precarious hold on Little Round Top , an important hill at the extreme left of the Union line . His brigade of four relatively small regiments was able to resist repeated assaults by Brig. Gen. Evander M. Law 's brigade of Hood 's division . Meade 's chief engineer , Brig. Gen. Gouverneur K. Warren , had realized the importance of this position , and dispatched Vincent 's brigade , an artillery battery , and the 140th New York to occupy Little Round Top mere minutes before Hood 's troops arrived . The defense of Little Round Top with a bayonet charge by the 20th Maine , initiated by Lt. Holman S. Melcher , was one of the most fabled episodes in the Civil War and propelled Col. Joshua L. Chamberlain into prominence after the war .
= = = Attacks on the Union right flank = = =
About 7 : 00 p.m. , the Second Corps ' attack by Johnson 's division on Culp 's Hill got off to a late start . Most of the hill 's defenders , the Union XII Corps , had been sent to the left to defend against Longstreet 's attacks , and the only portion of the corps remaining on the hill was a brigade of New Yorkers under Brig. Gen. George S. Greene . Because of Greene 's insistence on constructing strong defensive works , and with reinforcements from the I and XI Corps , Greene 's men held off the Confederate attackers , although the Southerners did capture a portion of the abandoned U.S. works on the lower part of Culp 's Hill .
Just at dark , two of Jubal Early 's brigades attacked the Union XI Corps positions on East Cemetery Hill where Col. Andrew L. Harris of the 2nd Brigade , 1st Division , came under a withering attack , losing half his men ; however , Early failed to support his brigades in their attack , and Ewell 's remaining division , that of Maj. Gen. Robert E. Rodes , failed to aid Early 's attack by moving against Cemetery Hill from the west . The Union army 's interior lines enabled its commanders to shift troops quickly to critical areas , and with reinforcements from II Corps , the U.S. troops retained possession of East Cemetery Hill , and Early 's brigades were forced to withdraw .
Jeb Stuart and his three cavalry brigades arrived in Gettysburg around noon but had no role in the second day 's battle . Brig. Gen. Wade Hampton 's brigade fought a minor engagement with newly promoted 23 @-@ year @-@ old Brig. Gen. George Armstrong Custer 's Michigan cavalry near Hunterstown to the northeast of Gettysburg .
= = Third day of battle = =
= = = Lee 's plan = = =
General Lee wished to renew the attack on Friday , July 3 , using the same basic plan as the previous day : Longstreet would attack the U.S. left , while Ewell attacked Culp 's Hill . However , before Longstreet was ready , Union XII Corps troops started a dawn artillery bombardment against the Confederates on Culp 's Hill in an effort to regain a portion of their lost works . The Confederates attacked , and the second fight for Culp 's Hill ended around 11 a.m. Harry Pfanz judged that , after some seven hours of bitter combat , " the Union line was intact and held more strongly than before . "
Lee was forced to change his plans . Longstreet would command Pickett 's Virginia division of his own First Corps , plus six brigades from Hill 's Corps , in an attack on the U.S. II Corps position at the right center of the Union line on Cemetery Ridge . Prior to the attack , all the artillery the Confederacy could bring to bear on the U.S. positions would bombard and weaken the enemy 's line .
= = = The largest artillery bombardment of the war = = =
Around 1 p.m. , from 150 to 170 Confederate guns began an artillery bombardment that was probably the largest of the war . In order to save valuable ammunition for the infantry attack that they knew would follow , the Army of the Potomac 's artillery , under the command of Brig. Gen. Henry Jackson Hunt , at first did not return the enemy 's fire . After waiting about 15 minutes , about 80 U.S. cannons added to the din . The Army of Northern Virginia was critically low on artillery ammunition , and the cannonade did not significantly affect the Union position .
= = = Pickett 's Charge = = =
Around 3 p.m. , the cannon fire subsided , and 12 @,@ 500 Southern soldiers stepped from the ridgeline and advanced the three @-@ quarters of a mile ( 1 @,@ 200 m ) to Cemetery Ridge in what is known to history as " Pickett 's Charge " . As the Confederates approached , there was fierce flanking artillery fire from Union positions on Cemetery Hill and north of Little Round Top , and musket and canister fire from Hancock 's II Corps . In the Union center , the commander of artillery had held fire during the Confederate bombardment ( in order to save it for the infantry assault , which Meade had correctly predicted the day before ) , leading Southern commanders to believe the Northern cannon batteries had been knocked out . However , they opened fire on the Confederate infantry during their approach with devastating results . Nearly one half of the attackers did not return to their own lines . Although the U.S. line wavered and broke temporarily at a jog called the " Angle " in a low stone fence , just north of a patch of vegetation called the Copse of Trees , reinforcements rushed into the breach , and the Confederate attack was repulsed . The farthest advance of Brig. Gen. Lewis A. Armistead 's brigade of Maj. Gen. George Pickett 's division at the Angle is referred to as the " High @-@ water mark of the Confederacy " , arguably representing the closest the South ever came to its goal of achieving independence from the Union via military victory . Union and Confederate soldiers locked in hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat , attacking with their rifles , bayonets , rocks and even their bare hands . Armistead ordered his Confederates to turn two captured cannons against Union troops , but discovered that there was no ammunition left , the last double canister shots having been used against the charging Confederates . Armistead was shortly after wounded three times .
There were two significant cavalry engagements on July 3 . Stuart was sent to guard the Confederate left flank and was to be prepared to exploit any success the infantry might achieve on Cemetery Hill by flanking the U.S. right and hitting their trains and lines of communications . Three miles ( 5 km ) east of Gettysburg , in what is now called " East Cavalry Field " ( not shown on the accompanying map , but between the York and Hanover Roads ) , Stuart 's forces collided with U.S. cavalry : Brig. Gen. David McMurtrie Gregg 's division and Brig. Gen. Custer 's brigade . A lengthy mounted battle , including hand @-@ to @-@ hand sabre combat , ensued . Custer 's charge , leading the 1st Michigan Cavalry , blunted the attack by Wade Hampton 's brigade , blocking Stuart from achieving his objectives in the U.S. rear . Meanwhile , after hearing news of the day 's victory , Brig. Gen. Judson Kilpatrick launched a cavalry attack against the infantry positions of Longstreet 's Corps southwest of Big Round Top . Brig. Gen. Elon J. Farnsworth protested against the futility of such a move , but obeyed orders . Farnsworth was killed in the attack , and his brigade suffered significant losses .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Casualties = = =
The two armies suffered between 46 @,@ 000 and 51 @,@ 000 casualties . Union casualties were 23 @,@ 055 ( 3 @,@ 155 killed , 14 @,@ 531 wounded , 5 @,@ 369 captured or missing ) , while Confederate casualties are more difficult to estimate . Many authors have referred to as many as 28 @,@ 000 Confederate casualties , and Busey and Martin 's more recent 2005 work , Regimental Strengths and Losses at Gettysburg , documents 23 @,@ 231 ( 4 @,@ 708 killed , 12 @,@ 693 wounded , 5 @,@ 830 captured or missing ) . Nearly a third of Lee 's general officers were killed , wounded , or captured . The casualties for both sides during the entire campaign were 57 @,@ 225 .
The following tables summarize casualties by corps for the Union and Confederate forces during the three @-@ day battle .
Bruce Catton wrote , " The town of Gettysburg looked as if some universal moving day had been interrupted by catastrophe . " But there was only one documented civilian death during the battle : Ginnie Wade ( also widely known as Jennie ) , 20 years old , was hit by a stray bullet that passed through her kitchen in town while she was making bread . Nearly 8 @,@ 000 had been killed outright ; these bodies , lying in the hot summer sun , needed to be buried quickly . Over 3 @,@ 000 horse carcasses were burned in a series of piles south of town ; townsfolk became violently ill from the stench .
= = = Confederate retreat = = =
The armies stared at one another in a heavy rain across the bloody fields on July 4 , the same day that the Vicksburg garrison surrendered to Maj. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant . Lee had reformed his lines into a defensive position on Seminary Ridge the night of July 3 , evacuating the town of Gettysburg . The Confederates remained on the battlefield , hoping that Meade would attack , but the cautious Union commander decided against the risk , a decision for which he would later be criticized . Both armies began to collect their remaining wounded and bury some of the dead . A proposal by Lee for a prisoner exchange was rejected by Meade .
Lee started his Army of Northern Virginia in motion late the evening of July 4 towards Fairfield and Chambersburg . Cavalry under Brig. Gen. John D. Imboden was entrusted to escort the miles @-@ long wagon train of supplies and wounded men that Lee wanted to take back to Virginia with him , using the route through Cashtown and Hagerstown to Williamsport , Maryland . Meade 's army followed , although the pursuit was half @-@ spirited . The recently rain @-@ swollen Potomac trapped Lee 's army on the north bank of the river for a time , but when the Union troops finally caught up , the Confederates had forded the river . The rear @-@ guard action at Falling Waters on July 14 added some more names to the long casualty lists , including General Pettigrew , who was mortally wounded .
In a brief letter to Maj. Gen. Henry W. Halleck written on July 7 , Lincoln remarked on the two major Union victories at Gettysburg and Vicksburg . He continued :
Now , if Gen. Meade can complete his work so gloriously prosecuted thus far , by the literal or substantial destruction of Lee 's army , the rebellion will be over .
Halleck then relayed the contents of Lincoln 's letter to Meade in a telegram . Despite repeated pleas from Lincoln and Halleck , which continued over the next week , Meade did not pursue Lee 's army aggressively enough to destroy it before it crossed back over the Potomac River to safety in the South . The campaign continued into Virginia with light engagements until July 23 , in the minor Battle of Manassas Gap , after which Meade abandoned any attempts at pursuit and the two armies took up positions across from each other on the Rappahannock River .
= = = Union reaction to the news of the victory = = =
The news of the Union victory electrified the North . A headline in The Philadelphia Inquirer proclaimed " VICTORY ! WATERLOO ECLIPSED ! " New York diarist George Templeton Strong wrote :
The results of this victory are priceless . ... The charm of Robert E. Lee 's invincibility is broken . The Army of the Potomac has at last found a general that can handle it , and has stood nobly up to its terrible work in spite of its long disheartening list of hard @-@ fought failures . ... Copperheads are palsied and dumb for the moment at least . ... Government is strengthened four @-@ fold at home and abroad .
However , the Union enthusiasm soon dissipated as the public realized that Lee 's army had escaped destruction and the war would continue . Lincoln complained to Secretary of the Navy Gideon Welles that " Our army held the war in the hollow of their hand and they would not close it ! " Brig. Gen. Alexander S. Webb wrote to his father on July 17 , stating that such Washington politicians as " Chase , Seward and others , " disgusted with Meade , " write to me that Lee really won that Battle ! "
= = = Effect on the Confederacy = = =
In fact , the Confederates had lost militarily and also politically . During the final hours of the battle , Confederate Vice President Alexander Stephens was approaching the Union lines at Norfolk , Virginia , under a flag of truce . Although his formal instructions from Confederate President Jefferson Davis had limited his powers to negotiate on prisoner exchanges and other procedural matters , historian James M. McPherson speculates that he had informal goals of presenting peace overtures . Davis had hoped that Stephens would reach Washington from the south while Lee 's victorious army was marching toward it from the north . President Lincoln , upon hearing of the Gettysburg results , refused Stephens 's request to pass through the lines . Furthermore , when the news reached London , any lingering hopes of European recognition of the Confederacy were finally abandoned . Henry Adams wrote , " The disasters of the rebels are unredeemed by even any hope of success . It is now conceded that all idea of intervention is at an end . "
The immediate reaction of the Southern military and public sectors was that Gettysburg was a setback , not a disaster . The sentiment was that Lee had been successful on July 1 and had fought a valiant battle on July 2 – 3 , but could not dislodge the Union Army from the strong defensive position to which it fled . The Confederates successfully stood their ground on July 4 and withdrew only after they realized Meade would not attack them . The withdrawal to the Potomac that could have been a disaster was handled masterfully . Furthermore , the Army of the Potomac had been kept away from Virginia farmlands for the summer and all predicted that Meade would be too timid to threaten them for the rest of the year . Lee himself had a positive view of the campaign , writing to his wife that the army had returned " rather sooner than I had originally contemplated , but having accomplished what I proposed on leaving the Rappahannock , viz . , relieving the Valley of the presence of the enemy and drawing his Army north of the Potomac . " He was quoted as saying to Maj. John Seddon , brother of the Confederate secretary of war , " Sir , we did whip them at Gettysburg , and it will be seen for the next six months that that army will be as quiet as a sucking dove . " Some Southern publications , such as the Charleston Mercury , criticized Lee 's actions in the campaign and on August 8 he offered his resignation to President Davis , who quickly rejected it .
Gettysburg became a postbellum focus of the " Lost Cause " , a movement by writers such as Edward A. Pollard and Jubal Early to explain the reasons for the Confederate defeat in the war . A fundamental premise of their argument was that the South was doomed because of the overwhelming advantage in manpower and industrial might possessed by the North . However , they claim it also suffered because Robert E. Lee , who up until this time had been almost invincible , was betrayed by the failures of some of his key subordinates at Gettysburg : Ewell , for failing to seize Cemetery Hill on July 1 ; Stuart , for depriving the army of cavalry intelligence for a key part of the campaign ; and especially Longstreet , for failing to attack on July 2 as early and as forcefully as Lee had originally intended . In this view , Gettysburg was seen as a great lost opportunity , in which a decisive victory by Lee could have meant the end of the war in the Confederacy 's favor .
= = = Gettysburg Address = = =
The ravages of war were still evident in Gettysburg more than four months later when , on November 19 , the Soldiers ' National Cemetery was dedicated . During this ceremony , President Abraham Lincoln honored the fallen and redefined the purpose of the war in his historic Gettysburg Address .
= = Historical assessment = =
= = = Decisive victory controversies = = =
The nature of the result of the Battle of Gettysburg has been the subject of controversy for years . Although not seen as overwhelmingly significant at the time , particularly since the war continued for almost two years , in retrospect it has often been cited as the " turning point " , usually in combination with the fall of Vicksburg the following day . This is based on the observation that after Gettysburg Lee 's army conducted no more strategic offensives — his army merely reacted to the initiative of Ulysses S. Grant in 1864 and 1865 — and by the speculative viewpoint of the Lost Cause writers that a Confederate victory at Gettysburg might have resulted in the end of the war .
It is currently a widely held view that Gettysburg was a decisive victory for the Union , but the term is considered imprecise . It is inarguable that Lee 's offensive on July 3 was turned back decisively and his campaign in Pennsylvania was terminated prematurely ( although the Confederates at the time argued that this was a temporary setback and that the goals of the campaign were largely met ) . However , when the more common definition of " decisive victory " is intended — an indisputable military victory of a battle that determines or significantly influences the ultimate result of a conflict — historians are divided . For example , David J. Eicher called Gettysburg a " strategic loss for the Confederacy " and James M. McPherson wrote that " Lee and his men would go on to earn further laurels . But they never again possessed the power and reputation they carried into Pennsylvania those palmy summer days of 1863 . "
However , Herman Hattaway and Archer Jones wrote that the " strategic impact of the Battle of Gettysburg was ... fairly limited . " Steven E. Woodworth wrote that " Gettysburg proved only the near impossibility of decisive action in the Eastern theater . " Edwin Coddington pointed out the heavy toll on the Army of the Potomac and that " after the battle Meade no longer possessed a truly effective instrument for the accomplishments of his task . The army needed a thorough reorganization with new commanders and fresh troops , but these changes were not made until Grant appeared on the scene in March 1864 . " Joseph T. Glatthaar wrote that " Lost opportunities and near successes plagued the Army of Northern Virginia during its Northern invasion , " yet after Gettysburg , " without the distractions of duty as an invading force , without the breakdown of discipline , the Army of Northern Virginia [ remained ] an extremely formidable force . " Ed Bearss wrote , " Lee 's invasion of the North had been a costly failure . Nevertheless , at best the Army of the Potomac had simply preserved the strategic stalemate in the Eastern Theater ... "
Peter Carmichael refers to the military context for the armies , the " horrendous losses at Chancellorsville and Gettysburg , which effectively destroyed Lee 's offensive capacity , " implying that these cumulative losses were not the result of a single battle . Thomas Goss , writing in the U.S. Army 's Military Review journal on the definition of " decisive " and the application of that description to Gettysburg , concludes : " For all that was decided and accomplished , the Battle of Gettysburg fails to earn the label ' decisive battle ' . " The military historian John Keegan agrees . Gettysburg was a landmark battle , the largest of the war and it would not be surpassed . The Union had restored to it the belief in certain victory , and the loss dispirited the Confederacy . If " not exactly a decisive battle " , Gettysburg was the end of Confederate use of Northern Virginia as a military buffer zone , the setting for Grant 's Overland Campaign .
= = = Lee vs. Meade = = =
Prior to Gettysburg , Robert E. Lee had established a reputation as an almost invincible general , achieving stunning victories against superior numbers — although usually at the cost of high casualties to his army — during the Seven Days , the Northern Virginia Campaign ( including the Second Battle of Bull Run ) , Fredericksburg , and Chancellorsville . Only the Maryland Campaign , with its tactically inconclusive Battle of Antietam , had been less than successful . Therefore , historians have attempted to explain how Lee 's winning streak was interrupted so dramatically at Gettysburg . Although the issue is tainted by attempts to portray history and Lee 's reputation in a manner supporting different partisan goals , the major factors in Lee 's loss arguably can be attributed to : ( 1 ) his overconfidence in the invincibility of his men ; ( 2 ) the performance of his subordinates , and his management thereof ; ( 3 ) his failing health , and ( 4 ) the performance of his opponent , George G. Meade , and the Army of the Potomac .
Throughout the campaign , Lee was influenced by the belief that his men were invincible ; most of Lee 's experiences with the Army of Northern Virginia had convinced him of this , including the great victory at Chancellorsville in early May and the rout of the Union troops at Gettysburg on July 1 . Since morale plays an important role in military victory when other factors are equal , Lee did not want to dampen his army 's desire to fight and resisted suggestions , principally by Longstreet , to withdraw from the recently captured Gettysburg to select a ground more favorable to his army . War correspondent Peter W. Alexander wrote that Lee " acted , probably , under the impression that his troops were able to carry any position however formidable . If such was the case , he committed an error , such however as the ablest commanders will sometimes fall into . " Lee himself concurred with this judgment , writing to President Davis , " No blame can be attached to the army for its failure to accomplish what was projected by me , nor should it be censured for the unreasonable expectations of the public — I am alone to blame , in perhaps expecting too much of its prowess and valor . "
The most controversial assessments of the battle involve the performance of Lee 's subordinates . The dominant theme of the Lost Cause writers and many other historians is that Lee 's senior generals failed him in crucial ways , directly causing the loss of the battle ; the alternative viewpoint is that Lee did not manage his subordinates adequately , and did not thereby compensate for their shortcomings . Two of his corps commanders — Richard S. Ewell and A.P. Hill — had only recently been promoted and were not fully accustomed to Lee 's style of command , in which he provided only general objectives and guidance to their former commander , Stonewall Jackson ; Jackson translated these into detailed , specific orders to his division commanders . All four of Lee 's principal commanders received criticism during the campaign and battle :
James Longstreet suffered most severely from the wrath of the Lost Cause authors , not the least because he directly criticized Lee in postbellum writings and became a Republican after the war . His critics accuse him of attacking much later than Lee intended on July 2 , squandering a chance to hit the Union Army before its defensive positions had firmed up . They also question his lack of motivation to attack strongly on July 2 and 3 because he had argued that the army should have maneuvered to a place where it would force Meade to attack them . The alternative view is that Lee was in close contact with Longstreet during the battle , agreed to delays on the morning of July 2 , and never criticized Longstreet 's performance . ( There is also considerable speculation about what an attack might have looked like before Dan Sickles moved the III Corps toward the Peach Orchard . )
J.E.B. Stuart deprived Lee of cavalry intelligence during a good part of the campaign by taking his three best brigades on a path away from the army 's . This arguably led to Lee 's surprise at Hooker 's vigorous pursuit ; the meeting engagement on July 1 that escalated into the full battle prematurely ; and it also prevented Lee from understanding the full disposition of the enemy on July 2 . The disagreements regarding Stuart 's culpability for the situation originate in the relatively vague orders issued by Lee , but most modern historians agree that both generals were responsible to some extent for the failure of the cavalry 's mission early in the campaign .
Richard S. Ewell has been universally criticized for failing to seize the high ground on the afternoon of July 1 . Once again the disagreement centers on Lee 's orders , which provided general guidance for Ewell to act " if practicable . " Many historians speculate that Stonewall Jackson , if he had survived Chancellorsville , would have aggressively seized Culp 's Hill , rendering Cemetery Hill indefensible , and changing the entire complexion of the battle . A differently worded order from Lee might have made the difference with this subordinate .
A.P. Hill has received some criticism for his ineffective performance . His actions caused the battle to begin and then escalate on July 1 , despite Lee 's orders not to bring on a general engagement ( although historians point out that Hill kept Lee well informed of his actions during the day ) . However , Hill 's illness minimized his personal involvement in the remainder of the battle , and Lee took the explicit step of removing troops from Hill 's corps and giving them to Longstreet for Pickett 's Charge .
In addition to Hill 's illness , Lee 's performance was affected by heart troubles , which would eventually lead to his death in 1870 ; he had been diagnosed with pericarditis by his staff physicians in March 1863 , though modern doctors believe he had in fact suffered a heart attack . He wrote to Jefferson Davis that his physical condition prevented him from offering full supervision in the field , and said , " I am so dull that in making use of the eyes of others I am frequently misled . "
As a final factor , Lee faced a new and formidable opponent in George G. Meade , and the Army of the Potomac fought well on its home territory . Although new to his army command , Meade deployed his forces relatively effectively ; relied on strong subordinates such as Winfield S. Hancock to make decisions where and when they were needed ; took great advantage of defensive positions ; nimbly shifted defensive resources on interior lines to parry strong threats ; and , unlike some of his predecessors , stood his ground throughout the battle in the face of fierce Confederate attacks . Lee was quoted before the battle as saying Meade " would commit no blunders on my front and if I make one ... will make haste to take advantage of it . " That prediction proved to be correct at Gettysburg . Stephen Sears wrote , " The fact of the matter is that George G. Meade , unexpectedly and against all odds , thoroughly outgeneraled Robert E. Lee at Gettysburg . " Edwin B. Coddington wrote that the soldiers of the Army of the Potomac received a " sense of triumph which grew into an imperishable faith in [ themselves ] . The men knew what they could do under an extremely competent general ; one of lesser ability and courage could well have lost the battle . "
Meade had his own detractors as well . Similar to the situation with Lee , Meade suffered partisan attacks about his performance at Gettysburg , but he had the misfortune of experiencing them in person . Supporters of his predecessor , Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker , lambasted Meade before the U.S. Congress 's Joint Committee on the Conduct of the War , where Radical Republicans suspected that Meade was a Copperhead and tried in vain to relieve him from command . Daniel E. Sickles and Daniel Butterfield accused Meade of planning to retreat from Gettysburg during the battle . Most politicians , including Lincoln , criticized Meade for what they considered to be his half @-@ hearted pursuit of Lee after the battle . A number of Meade 's most competent subordinates — Winfield S. Hancock , John Gibbon , Gouverneur K. Warren , and Henry J. Hunt , all heroes of the battle — defended Meade in print , but Meade was embittered by the overall experience .
= = Battlefield preservation = =
Today , the Gettysburg National Cemetery and Gettysburg National Military Park are maintained by the U.S. National Park Service as two of the nation 's most revered historical landmarks . Although Gettysburg is one of the best known of all Civil War battlefields , it too faces threats to its preservation and interpretation . Many historically significant locations on the battlefield lie outside the boundaries of Gettysburg National Military Park and are vulnerable to residential or commercial development .
On July 20 , 2009 , a Comfort Inn and Suites opened on Cemetery Hill , adjacent to Evergreen Cemetery , just one of many modern edifices infringing on the historic field . The Baltimore Pike corridor attracts development that concerns preservationists .
Some preservation successes have emerged in recent years . Two proposals to open a casino at Gettysburg were defeated in 2006 and most recently in 2011 , when public pressure forced the Pennsylvania Gaming Control Board to reject the proposed gambling hub at the intersection of Routes 15 and 30 , near East Cavalry Field . The Civil War Trust also successfully purchased and transferred 95 acres at the former site of the Gettysburg Country Club to the control of the U.S. Department of the Interior in 2011 .
Less than half of the over 11 @,@ 500 acres on the old Gettysburg Battlefield have been preserved for posterity thus far . The Civil War Trust has preserved 815 acres around the site , some of which is now part of the 4 @,@ 998 acres of Gettysburg National Military Park .
= = Commemoration in U.S. postage and coinage = =
During the Civil War Centennial , the U.S. Post Office issued five postage stamps commemorating the 100th anniversaries of famous battles , as they occurred over a four @-@ year period , beginning with the Battle of Fort Sumter Centennial issue of 1961 . The Battle of Shiloh commemorative stamp was issued in 1962 , the Battle of Gettysburg in 1963 , the Battle of the Wilderness in 1964 , and the Appomattox Centennial commemorative stamp in 1965 .
A commemorative half dollar for the battle was produced in 1936 . As was typical for the period , mintage was very low , just 26 @,@ 928 . On January 24 , 2011 , the America the Beautiful quarters released a 25 @-@ cent coin commemorating Gettysburg National Military Park and the Battle of Gettysburg . The reverse side of the coin depicts the monument on Cemetery Ridge to the 72nd Pennsylvania Infantry .
= = In popular culture = =
Film records survive of two Gettysburg reunions , held on the battlefield . At the 50th anniversary ( 1913 ) , veterans re @-@ enacted Pickett 's Charge in a spirit of reconciliation , a meeting that carried great emotional force for both sides . At the 75th anniversary ( 1938 ) , 2500 veterans attended , and there was a ceremonial mass hand @-@ shake across a stone wall . This was recorded on sound film , and some Confederates can be heard giving the Rebel Yell .
Iced Earth 's three @-@ part song cycle " Gettysburg " , published in 2004 , dramatizes the battle .
The Battle of Gettysburg was depicted in the 1993 film Gettysburg , based on Michael Shaara 's 1974 novel The Killer Angels . The film and novel focused primarily on the actions of Joshua Lawrence Chamberlain , John Buford , Robert E. Lee , and James Longstreet during the battle . The first day focused on Buford 's cavalry defense , the second day on Chamberlain 's defense at Little Round Top , and the third day on Pickett 's Charge .
The south winning the Battle of Gettysburg is a popular premise for a point of divergence in American Civil War alternate histories . Here are some examples which either depict or make significant reference to an alternate Battle of Gettysburg ( sometimes simply inserting fantasy or sci @-@ fi elements in an account of the battle ) :
Novels : Bring the Jubilee by Ward Moore ; If the South Had Won the Civil War by Mackinlay Kantor ; Civil War Trilogy ( Gettysburg , Grant Comes East , Never Call Retreat ) by Newt Gingrich , William R. Forstchen , and Albert S. Hanser ; Stonewall Jackson at Gettysburg by Douglas Lee Gibboney ; By Force of Arms by Billy Bennett . Also : Harry Turtledove 's Southern Victory series has an analogous battle taking place at Camp Hill , another southeast Pennsylvania town .
Short fiction : " If Lee Had NOT Won the Battle of Gettysburg " by Winston Churchill in If It Had Happened Otherwise and If , or History Rewritten , " Sidewise in Time " by Murray Leinster in various collections , " A Hard Day for Mother " by William R. Forstchen in Alternate Generals 1 , " An Old Man 's Summer " by Esther Friesner also in AG 1 , " If the Lost Order Hadn 't Been Lost " by James M. McPherson in What If ? and What Ifs ? of American History , " East of Appomattox " by Lee Allred in Alternate Generals 3 . Also : In " Maureen Birnbaum on the Art of War " ( tribute to Horseclans ) within George Alec Effinger 's sword and sorcery spoof Maureen Birnbaum , Barbarian Swordsperson , two armies in a post @-@ apocalyptic world fight a battle at the Gettysburg site sometime in our distant future .
Film and television : The Time Tunnel episode 25 " The Death Merchant , " Twin Peaks Season 2 ( as a play within a play acted out by characters in the 1990s ) , C.S.A. : The Confederate States of America , Abraham Lincoln : Vampire Hunter .
Ultimate General : Gettysburg is a tactical battle simulator video game released in October 2014 that allows the user to lead thousands of soldiers in the Battle of Gettysburg . It was developed by Game Labs and designed by the creator of " DarthMod " ( a series of mods that improve AI in the Total War games ) and one of the most celebrated modders in the Total War modding community .
= = = Memoirs and primary sources = = =
Paris , Louis @-@ Philippe @-@ Albert d 'Orléans . The Battle of Gettysburg : A History of the Civil War in America . Digital Scanning , Inc . , 1999 . ISBN 1 @-@ 58218 @-@ 066 @-@ 0 . First published 1869 by Germer Baillière .
New York ( State ) , William F. Fox , and Daniel Edgar Sickles . New York at Gettysburg : Final Report on the Battlefield of Gettysburg . Albany , NY : J.B. Lyon Company , Printers , 1900 . OCLC 607395975 .
U.S. War Department , The War of the Rebellion : a Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies . Washington , DC : U.S. Government Printing Office , 1880 – 1901 .
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= Bryce Dallas Howard =
Bryce Dallas Howard ( born March 2 , 1981 ) is an American actress , filmmaker , and writer . She made her acting debut as an extra in her father Ron Howard 's film Parenthood ( 1989 ) and went on to have small roles in films and make stage appearances for the next several years . During this time , Howard also attended New York University 's Tisch School of the Arts , later receiving a BFA and moving on to professional drama schools . After she came to the attention of M. Night Shyamalan , he cast her in what would be her breakout film , the psychological thriller The Village ( 2004 ) and then in the fantasy thriller Lady in the Water ( 2006 ) . Her performance in As You Like It ( 2006 ) , directed by Kenneth Branagh and based on the play of the same name by William Shakespeare , earned her a Golden Globe Award nomination . In 2006 , she co @-@ wrote and directed the short film Orchids .
Howard became more recognizable to audiences as Victoria in The Twilight Saga : Eclipse ( 2010 ) . This project , as well as Terminator Salvation ( 2009 ) , was financially successful , but both films garnered mixed reviews from the press . In 2011 , she had supporting roles in 50 / 50 and The Help . She also played a lead role , Claire Dearing , in the science fiction adventure film Jurassic World ( 2015 ) , the fourth installment in the Jurassic Park film series and her most financially successful film to date . She has signed on to reprise her role in the sequel to Jurassic World .
= = Early life = =
Howard was born in Los Angeles , California , to writer Cheryl Howard Crew ( née Alley ) and actor @-@ director Ron Howard , on March 2 , 1981 . Through her father , she is a granddaughter of actors Rance Howard ( born Harold Rance Beckenholdt ) and Jean Speegle Howard and a niece of actor Clint Howard . Her godfather is actor Henry Winkler , who co @-@ starred on Happy Days with her father .
She has two younger sisters , twins Jocelyn and Paige ( born 1985 ) , and a younger brother named Reed ( born 1987 ) . All of the Howard children were raised away from the world of show business . Their parents did not allow them access to television and instead encouraged outdoor activities and hobbies . At the age of 7 , however , she was allowed to be an extra in her father 's movies . In an appearance on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno , she mentioned that she and her siblings were babysat by family friend Tom Cruise on several occasions . She was raised in Westchester County , New York and on a farm in Greenwich , Connecticut .
Howard attended Stagedoor Manor , a performing arts camp in upstate New York , with actress Natalie Portman . After attending Greenwich Country Day School until 1996 and then graduating from Byram Hills High School in 1999 , Howard studied at New York University 's ( NYU ) Tisch School of the Arts for three years , during which time she also attended the Stella Adler Conservatory , The Experimental Wing , and International Theatre Wing in Amsterdam . During her schooling , she took part in the concept recording of the Broadway @-@ bound musical A Tale of Two Cities . She graduated with her BFA in Drama in 2003 . Howard is also an alumna of the Steppenwolf Theatre Company 's School at Steppenwolf in Chicago , and of The Actors Center in New York City . During her time in New York , Howard was also a member of downtown theater company Theater Mitu , in residence at New York Theatre Workshop , who are known for their exploration of theatrical forms . When she had applied to drama schools she dropped her last name to avoid special treatment because of her father . She later had second thoughts because she felt her first and middle name combined made her sound like a porn star .
= = Career = =
= = = 1989 – 2006 = = =
After her film debut , Parenthood , as an uncredited extra , Howard played an extra in her father 's critically lauded Apollo 13 ( 1995 ) and the 2000 holiday live action Universal Studios film How the Grinch Stole Christmas . While on her father 's film sets , she would often socialize with the crew rather than the actors . For the next several years , Howard appeared in New York plays . Among these were House and Garden , a 2002 Alan Ayckbourn production held at the Manhattan Theatre Club , in which she portrayed a disdainful , flirtatious teen . While performing as Rosalind in the critically acclaimed 2003 William Shakespeare comedy production As You Like It , Howard caught the eye of director M. Night Shyamalan . Howard was not familiar with the play and was cast just one day before it started . She then starred in the Alan Brown @-@ directed 2004 drama Book of Love , about a young woman having an affair with a lonely teenage boy , destroying her marriage . It was generally ignored by critics and movie goers alike .
Her breakthrough role came in Shyamalan 's fantasy thriller The Village ( 2004 ) . When Kirsten Dunst could not commit to the schedule , Howard was cast without having to audition two weeks after Shyamalan first saw her onstage . Its story is about a " turn @-@ of @-@ the @-@ 20th @-@ century " village whose residents live in fear of the creatures inhabiting the woods beyond it . She plays the female lead , the chief 's blind daughter and love interest to Joaquin Phoenix 's part . Her performance was applauded by critics and Howard was nominated for several awards , mostly in the category of " Best Breakthrough Performance " . The Village did well commercially , but had a mixed reception . Following that , Howard was cast by Lars Von Trier to replace Nicole Kidman as Grace Mulligan in Manderlay , the 2005 sequel to Dogville ( 2003 ) . The director said that it is " quite clear " his movie , set in a plantation , can be seen as an allusion to the Iraq War . Manderlay was a box office bomb , making only $ 674 @,@ 000 of its $ 14 @.@ 2 million production budget .
Howard reunited with Shyamalan for Lady in the Water , in which she acts as Story , a type of water nymph called a narf . The 2006 fantasy film release also stars Paul Giamatti as the co @-@ lead . Shyamalan 's project follows the story of Giamatti 's character rescuing what he thinks is a young woman ( Howard ) from his pool . Once he discovers that she is actually a character from a bedtime story who is trying to get back home , he teams up with his tenants to protect her from creatures that try to keep her in their world . It underperformed at the box office , falling short of its $ 75 million budget , and got largely negative reviews from critics . Next , she once again played Rosalind in Kenneth Branagh 's 2006 film version of Shakespeare 's As You Like It . It played in theatres in Europe before going directly to cable in the United States , premiering on HBO . Howard was nominated for a Golden Globe Award at the 2008 ceremony . The project got soundly negative reviews from the British media , while American reviewers gave it more favorable notice . Writing in USA Today , Robert Bianco observed : " As Rosalind , the show 's leading lady , Bryce Dallas Howard is a bit uncontrolled , particularly compared with such more precise co @-@ stars as Alfred Molina , David Oyelowo and Brian Blessed . But she 's incredibly appealing , and that in itself sells the love story . " That year , she wrote and directed a short film , Orchids , as part of Glamour magazine 's " Reel Moments " series funded by Cartier and FilmAid International .
= = = 2007 – present = = =
In 2007 , Howard starred in her first blockbuster , Spider @-@ Man 3 as Peter Parker 's classmate Gwen Stacy , a fan favorite . A challenge that came with playing Gwen was reminding fans of the good @-@ intentioned character who was Peter 's first love in the comics , yet came off as " the other woman " in the movie . Howard dyed her naturally red hair blonde for the role and performed many of her own stunts , unaware that she was several months pregnant . Grossing $ 890 million.Terminator Salvation was her next project . Cast in June 2008 , she replaced Claire Danes as Kate Connor . Howard was already a fan of the series . It grossed a total of $ 370 million , but was not well received critically .
Howard starred as the lead character in The Loss of a Teardrop Diamond in 2009 . Based on a 1957 screenplay by Tennessee Williams , it did not play at many theaters . She played the role of Victoria , a vampire seeking revenge , in the Twilight series ' third installment The Twilight Saga : Eclipse . She landed the part after Rachelle Lefevre was dropped due to a scheduling conflict and filming started in August 2009 . Howard had already been a huge fan of the books and considered Victoria to be an " incredible character " . Released on June 30 , 2010 the film made nearly $ 700 million and although reviews were mixed , Critics gave very positive reviews for Howard in the role .
In December 2009 , Howard was cast in Clint Eastwood 's Hereafter ( 2010 ) , as a burgeoning love interest of Matt Damon 's character . When Howard first read the script to Hereafter , she was hooked on it , having been attracted to its central character ( Damon ) – a reclusive man with the ability to speak to the deceased . " It 's personal for me because a lot of my family members actually have that ability . It 's kind of wild , " Howard said .
In early January 2011 , Howard became the first celebrity ambassador for purse designer Kate Spade . Her first film of 2011 was The Help , a movie adaption of Kathryn Stockett 's 2009 best @-@ selling novel of the same name . She received critical acclaim for her performance in the film , and was nominated for many Best Supporting Actress Awards , along with winning awards shared with the rest of the cast . Howard then teamed up with her father to help produce Gus Van Sant 's Restless , a dark coming of age movie about a teenage boy and girl who are engrossed with death . She had a supporting role opposite Joseph Gordon @-@ Levitt in the cancer dramedy 50 / 50 , which was based on a true story . " It 's viewing that experience through a very truthful lens of humour " , she stated of 50 / 50 's take on its heavy subject matter . Both films had September releases . Also in 2011 , she announced that she would be directing a film called The Originals . She co @-@ wrote the screenplay with her brother @-@ in @-@ law Dane Charbonneau and described it as " a Breakfast Club for my generation " . This would mark her feature directorial debut .
Howard has recently finished directorial duties for the short film When You Find Me , a social film developed through a collaboration with Canon . The film was developed under the premise of gathering inspiration through images selected from a photography contest . 96 @,@ 362 entries were accepted , while only eight final images were selected to be utilized for the production of the film .
In 2015 , Howard appeared in the lead role , alongside Chris Pratt , in Jurassic World as the park 's operations manager Claire Dearing . In 2016 , she is set to appear in two films , Gold and the remake of the 1977 film Pete 's Dragon .
= = Personal life = =
Howard became a devoted vegan when Joaquin Phoenix , a co @-@ star in The Village , showed her a documentary on animal cruelty called Earthlings . However , in August 2006 , Howard announced that she had switched her diet from vegan to vegetarian in order to help boost her amino acid levels in preparation for her pregnancy . Due to a rare medical condition she developed after her pregnancy , she began eating meat .
During her senior year of high school , Howard learned of existentialism . " I was like , ' This is it ! This is my religion . ' I had never felt a connection to any sort of spirituality before that . It was very basic – you 're responsible for the choices that you make – but it was mind @-@ blowing at the time . " Her hobby is writing and she is good friends with Kirsten Dunst , Natalie Portman and Jake Gyllenhaal . Howard has said that she gets " freaked out " by " the Hollywood scene " and has never had a sip of alcohol in her entire life . She credits seeing the negative effects of alcoholism in her family as the reason behind the decision . " When I was in high school , I would never go to parties because I would be embarrassed to say no . Consequently , I had almost no social group , " Howard recalled .
= = = Marriage and family = = =
Howard met actor Seth Gabel at New York University and the two dated for five years before marrying on June 17 , 2006 . She had only one previous boyfriend and claims to have pursued Gabel vigorously after first meeting him . They had planned to start a family together in their 30s ; however , seven days after their wedding , she learned that she was expecting their first child . Howard gave birth to their child , a son named Theodore , nicknamed Theo , in February 2007 . Theo 's godfather is actor Josh Gad . Howard openly discussed having experienced post @-@ partum depression . Howard had difficulty breast @-@ feeding , which she found to be more painful than experiencing natural child birth and would often cry in the shower . She was often disgusted when she saw her son ; rather than refer to him by name , she would call him " it " . Feeling overwhelmed and unable to make decisions , Howard also felt not only disconnected from her husband and baby , but herself as well . With the help of a physician and a therapist she recovered from the depression , which lasted for about 18 months . Howard said of the depression in 2010 @,@
Do I wish I had never endured post @-@ partum depression ? Absolutely . But to deny the experience is to deny who I am . I still mourn the loss of what could have been , but I also feel deep gratitude for those who stood by me , for the lesson that we must never be afraid to ask for help , and for the feeling of summer that still remains .
Howard gave birth to the couple 's second child , daughter Beatrice , in January 2012 .
= = Filmography = =
= = Awards and nominations = =
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= Sd.Kfz. 9 =
The Sd.Kfz. 9 ( also known as " Famo " ) was a German half @-@ track that saw widespread use in World War II , and the heaviest half @-@ track vehicle of any type built in quantity in Nazi Germany during the war years . Its main roles were as a prime mover for very heavy towed guns such as the 24 cm Kanone 3 and as a tank recovery vehicle . Approximately 2 @,@ 500 were produced between 1938 and 1945 .
= = Description = =
The Sd.Kfz. 9 had a ladder frame chassis . Power was provided by a Maybach 12 @-@ cylinder , water @-@ cooled , 10 @.@ 838 litres ( 661 @.@ 4 cu in ) HL 108 gasoline engine of 270 horsepower ( 270 PS ) . It had a syncromesh ZF G 65 VL 230 transmission with four forward and one reverse gears . It had two fuel tanks , one of 90 litres ( 24 US gal ) and the other of 230 litres ( 61 US gal ) capacity .
Both tracks and wheels were used for steering . The steering system was set up so that shallow turns used only the wheels , but brakes would be applied to the tracks the further the steering wheel was turned . The drive sprocket , like all German halftracks , had rollers rather than the more common teeth . The rear suspension consisted of six double sets of overlapping , interleaved Schachtellaufwerk layout roadwheels mounted on swing arms sprung by torsion bars . An idler wheel , mounted at the rear of the vehicle , was used to control track tension . The front wheels had leaf springs and shock absorbers .
The upper body had a crew compartment common to all versions . This had bench seats , one for the driver and his assistant , and another for the crew . The rear portion of the upper body was adapted for the vehicle 's intended role . The artillery model had two extra bench seats for the gun 's crew and space for its ammunition . The cargo version had just two storage compartments mounted in the front of the cargo compartment , one on each side , that opened to the outside . The windshield could fold forward and was also removable . A convertible canvas top was mounted at the upper part of the rear body . It fastened to the windshield when erected .
The Sd.Kfz. 9 was designed to have a towing capacity of 28 tonnes ( 28 long tons ; 31 short tons ) . This was adequate for medium tanks like the Panzer IV , but two or even three or four were necessary for heavier vehicles like the Tiger I , Panther or King Tiger . It towed Sd.Anh 116 low @-@ loader trailers to carry disabled vehicles .
All were equipped with a winch , mounted at the middle of the vehicle , just under the cargo platform .
= = Design and development = =
Preliminary design of all the German half @-@ tracks of the early part of the war was done by Dipl.Ing. Ernst Kniepkamp of the Military Automotive Department ( Wa Prüf 6 ) before the Nazis took power in 1933 . His designs were then turned over to commercial firms for development and testing . Fahrzeug- und Motorenbau GmbH ( FAMO ) of Breslau received the contract for the 18 t ( 18 long tons ; 20 short tons ) heavy towing tracked vehicle . Their first prototype , the FM gr 1 , was completed in 1936 . It had a 200 horsepower ( 200 PS ) Maybach HL 98 TUK engine and was only 7 @.@ 7 metres ( 25 ft ) long . The F 2 prototype appeared in 1938 , but differed only in detail from its predecessor .
The F 3 appeared in 1939 and was the production version . The design was simplified over the course of the war to reduce costs and the use of strategic metals . Some vehicles produced by Tatra had its 12 @-@ cylinder , air @-@ cooled Type 103 diesel engine fitted . Large spades were added at the rear of the chassis during the war to improve the vehicle 's ability to recover tanks and other heavy vehicles .
= = = Variants = = =
A new upper body was used for the Sd.Kfz. 9 / 1 which mounted a 6 t ( 5 @.@ 9 long tons ; 6 @.@ 6 short tons ) capacity crane in lieu of the crew 's bench seat and the cargo compartment . It was issued to tank maintenance units beginning in September 1941 . A larger , gasoline @-@ electric , 10 t ( 9 @.@ 8 long tons ; 11 short tons ) crane was fitted on the later Sd.Kfz. 9 / 2 , but this required outriggers to stabilize the vehicle before operations could begin . There was also a tank recovery version with a giant spade @-@ like metal plate connected to the rear of the frame . The spade holding frame could be lifted straight up for transport . It was meant to stabilize the vehicle while winching a heavy object on soft ground .
8 @.@ 8 cm Flak 18 anti @-@ aircraft guns were mounted on fifteen Sd.Kfz. 9s in 1940 as the 8 @.@ 8 cm Flak 18 ( Sfl . ) auf Zugkraftwagen 18t ( Sd.Kfz. 9 ) for anti @-@ tank duties . The crew and engine compartments were lightly ( 14 @.@ 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 57 in ) ) , but completely , armored , which limited the gun 's ability to fire directly ahead . A platform with drop @-@ down sides was fitted for the gun . Outriggers were necessary to brace the platform sides to support the weight of the gun crew . The vehicle weighed 25 tonnes ( 25 long tons ; 28 short tons ) , was 9 @.@ 32 metres ( 30 @.@ 6 ft ) long , 3 @.@ 67 metres ( 12 @.@ 0 ft ) tall and 2 @.@ 65 metres ( 8 @.@ 7 ft ) wide . One source claims that these vehicles were produced as prototypes in 1943 .
= = Production = =
Vomag of Plauen began producing the Sd.Kfz. 9 in 1940 and Tatra joined in the last years of the war . 855 were on hand on 20 December 1942 . 643 were built in 1943 and 834 in 1944 . Approximately 2 @,@ 500 were built in total .
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= New Jersey Route 324 =
Route 324 is an isolated state highway in Logan Township in the U.S. state of New Jersey . The two @-@ lane concrete route runs along the 1 @.@ 51 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 2 @.@ 43 km ) alignment of Old Ferry Road from the shore of the Delaware River to a cul @-@ de @-@ sac near the interchange between U.S. Route 322 and U.S. Route 130 in Logan Township . The route does not intersect with any state routes or county routes along its entire alignment .
Route 324 was a former alignment of U.S. Route 322 that served the Bridgeport @-@ Chester ferry between Bridgeport , New Jersey , and Chester , Pennsylvania . The ferry first ran on July 1 , 1930 , with Route 322 being designated along the ferry and its access road in 1936 from Pennsylvania . The highway and ferry also shared the co @-@ designation of State Highway Route S @-@ 44 , a spur off State Highway Route 44 in Bridgeport . Route S @-@ 44 was decommissioned in the state highway renumbering while Route 322 remained intact until the opening of the Commodore Barry Bridge in February 1974 . The ferry made its last run at 8 p.m. on February 1 , and closed down for good . Route 322 was realigned onto the Commodore Barry Bridge while the former ferry alignment became Route 324 .
= = Route description = =
Route 324 begins at a dead @-@ end along the shoreline of the Delaware River and the wreckage of the old ferry dock in Logan Township . Route 324 heads eastward along Old Ferry Road , a two @-@ lane concrete roadway surrounded by trees and fields . The two @-@ lane concrete highway remains such for a distance , paralleling U.S. Route 322 to the south , passing a business . The route heads to the east , crossing south of a pond and intersecting with Springer Lane and a dirt road in Logan Township .
At Springer Lane , which is a former alignment of Route 44 , the highway comes into the open , crossing under power lines and intersecting with former alignments of roadway , overgrown with grass . A short distance from Springers Lane , the highway continues to the only other intersection along the route , which is for Island Road , a connector to U.S. Route 130 . The highway , however , continues through the desolate portions of Logan Township along a power line . A short distance later , the route passes to the south of the only development along the highway , a boat marina and two homes . Route 324 continues as a two @-@ lane concrete road eastward until reaching a cul @-@ de @-@ sac just short of the U.S. Route 130 / U.S. Route 322 interchange in Logan Township , where the designation ends .
= = History = =
The ferry route that Route 324 serviced first made its crossings of the Delaware River on July 1 , 1930 , from Chester , Pennsylvania , to Bridgeport , New Jersey . The ferry service was run with two boats , Chester , a large boat with a capacity of 60 motor vehicles , and Bridgeport , a smaller boat with a capacity of 48 . The ferry system was seen as an advantage across the Delaware , providing drivers a backup from the few bridges that existed along the river . In 1936 , the Bridgeport – Chester Ferry was granted the alignment for the extension of U.S. Route 322 from Pennsylvania and into New Jersey . Along with the U.S. Route 322 designation , the New Jersey State Highway Department designated the alignment of Route 322 from the ferry to U.S. Route 130 , then designated as State Highway Route 44 , as State Highway Route S @-@ 44 .
Route 322 survived the state highway renumbering because of the fact that it was a U.S. Route . However , the co @-@ designation on the ferry stretch , State Highway Route S @-@ 44 was decommissioned in favor of just one designation . U.S. Route 322 remained on the ferry route for several years , and plans arose during the 1960s to construct a new bridge between the Delaware Memorial and Walt Whitman bridges . Construction began that year , and on February 1 , 1974 , the newly named Commodore Barry Bridge opened for traffic . At 8 p.m. that evening , the Bridgeport – Chester Ferry ran its final 1 @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) boat ride across the Delaware , and the service was closed down for good . The alignment of U.S. Route 322 was moved onto the Commodore Barry Bridge , while the former alignment was redesignated Route 324 . The route has remained virtually intact since then .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Logan Township , Gloucester County .
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= Daddy ( Beyoncé song ) =
" Daddy " is a song recorded by American singer Beyoncé for her debut studio album , Dangerously in Love ( 2003 ) . It was composed by Beyoncé as well as Mark Batson . The song was not originally intended to be featured on the final track listing of the album . Beyoncé was able to record the song as the release date of her debut album had been postponed . " Daddy " was released to US iTunes Store as a digital single on June 3 , 2003 , through Columbia Records .
Beyoncé explained that the song 's development was motivated by the devotion and the loyalty her father / manager , Mathew Knowles has towards his family members . Many of the songs on the album examine aspects of relationships . However , " Daddy " was considered to be an element analyzing the kinship ties between a father and his offspring from a different and more powerful perspective . Music critics , who generally received the song with positive reception , commented that the song was a way for Beyoncé to pay tribute to her father .
= = Background and development = =
" Daddy " was written by Beyoncé as well as Mark Batson . It is the final song on Dangerously in Love , and is a hidden track on some copies . Beyoncé initially was not going to include the song on the album , however after undergoing multiple push @-@ backs , she was able to work on extra material for the album which included " Daddy " . Over forty @-@ three songs were recorded for Dangerously in Love , all of which were overseen by father Mathew , however Beyoncé secretly planted the song on the album as a hidden track which left Mathew speechless out of shock and appreciation . He later revealed during an interview with Billboard magazine in 2009 : " My favorite songs is ... ' Daddy ' ... It basically says ' Thank you for all you 've given me and when I marry a man , it will be like my daddy ' " . Preceding the album 's release , the song was released to iTunes Store exclusively in the United States on June 23 , 2003 , through Columbia Records . It is also featured on the soundtrack of Tyler Perry 's Daddy 's Little Girls ( 2007 ) .
Concerning the conception of " Daddy " , Beyoncé told MTV News :
= = Composition = =
" Daddy " is a nearly five @-@ minute long R & B song . The first verse of the song begins with Beyoncé reminiscing about the times she and her father / manager , Mathew Knowles shared as a child and through her adolescence . She sings about wanting to be with a man and a child who has similar qualities as her father . This is illustrated in the lyrics : " I treasure every irreplaceable memory and that 's why I want my unborn son to be like my daddy , I want my husband to be like my daddy , there is no one else like my daddy . " According to Marc Anthony Neal of the PopMatters , Beyoncé also confidently embraces her womanhood in the song . In a way , Beyoncé pays tribute to her father through this song .
= = Critical reception = =
Mark Edward Nero of About.com stated that " Daddy " was probably written specifically for the soundtrack album of Daddy 's Little Girls and that it may even " play a part in a pivotal scene . " Making reference to Beyoncé long @-@ time relationship with Jay @-@ Z and then recent rumors about them possibly getting married , Nero added that the song might leave several numerous fans wondering what could happen next . Marc Anthony Neal of the international webzine PopMatters considered " Daddy " to be the " most affecting song on Dangerously in Love . " He went on writing that the song is an extraordinary tribute to her father Mathew Knowles , stating that Beyoncé " embraces [ ... ] the man that has helped take the kind of artistic leap that Dangerously in Love represents . " He ended up by adding that " By the time listeners get to the fifteenth and final track , they will have been so pleasantly surprised and impressed by Beyoncé 's performance throughout , that ' Daddy ' seems less corny " but it is in this song that she finally accepts the state of being a woman , rather than a girl . Erika Ramirez of Billboard magazine described the song as an ode dedicated to the man that " instilled perseverance " .
Anthony DeCurtis of Rolling Stone commented that the album , which starts with " [ a ] cauldron of energy " on " Crazy in Love " ( 2003 ) , ends by contrast with " Daddy " which he described as a five @-@ minute tribute to her manager @-@ father , and considered to be " an anthology of vocal and lyrical cliches . " MTV News wrote that " Daddy " is different from the other relationship songs on Dangerously in Love , and added that it has a powerful message . By contrast , Allison Stewart of The Washington Post and Kelefa Sanneh of The New York Times both called " Daddy " a " creepy bonus track " . Similarly , Spence D. , writing for IGN Music stated that " Daddy " is not really worth uncovering , as it follows suit in terms of being " a by @-@ the @-@ books contempo R & B rendition " , and he commented that " there is something oddly eerie about an attractive woman such as Beyoncé crooning the words ' I want my husband to be like my Daddy . ' " Mike Wass of the website Idolator called the song one of the " duds " on the album and added that it was a " best forgotten ode to the superstar 's father complete with stomach @-@ churning lyrics like ' I want my husband to be like my daddy ' " . In 2014 , Louis Virtel of the website HitFix reviewed the song negatively , calling it the worst on Dangerously in Love and describing its lyrics as " seriously simplistic " . " Daddy " peaked at number 26 on the Billboard Hot RingMasters charts in the United States in 2014 .
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= Oil tanker =
An oil tanker , also known as a petroleum tanker , is a merchant ship designed for the bulk transport of oil . There are two basic types of oil tankers : the crude tanker and the product tanker . Crude tankers move large quantities of unrefined crude oil from its point of extraction to refineries . Product tankers , generally much smaller , are designed to move refined products from refineries to points near consuming markets .
Oil tankers are often classified by their size as well as their occupation . The size classes range from inland or coastal tankers of a few thousand metric tons of deadweight ( DWT ) to the mammoth ultra large crude carriers ( ULCCs ) of 550 @,@ 000 DWT . Tankers move approximately 2 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 metric tons ( 2 @.@ 2 × 109 short tons ) of oil every year . Second only to pipelines in terms of efficiency , the average cost of oil transport by tanker amounts to only two or three United States cents per 1 US gallon ( 3 @.@ 8 L ) .
Some specialized types of oil tankers have evolved . One of these is the naval replenishment oiler , a tanker which can fuel a moving vessel . Combination ore @-@ bulk @-@ oil carriers and permanently moored floating storage units are two other variations on the standard oil tanker design . Oil tankers have been involved in a number of damaging and high @-@ profile oil spills . As a result , they are subject to stringent design and operational regulations .
= = History = =
The technology of oil transportation has evolved alongside the oil industry . Although anthropogenic use of oil reaches to prehistory , the first modern commercial exploitation dates back to James Young 's manufacture of paraffin in 1850 . In the early 1850s , oil began to be exported from Upper Burma , then a British colony . The oil was moved in earthenware vessels to the river bank where it was then poured into boat holds for transportation to Britain .
In the 1860s , Pennsylvania oil fields became a major supplier of oil , and a center of innovation after Edwin Drake had struck oil near Titusville , Pennsylvania . Break @-@ bulk boats and barges were originally used to transport Pennsylvania oil in 40 @-@ US @-@ gallon ( 150 l ) wooden barrels . But transport by barrel had several problems . The first problem was weight : the standard empty barrel weighed 64 pounds ( 29 kg ) , representing 20 % of the total weight of a full barrel . Other problems with barrels were their expense , their tendency to leak , and the fact that they were generally used only once . The expense was significant : for example , in the early years of the Russian oil industry , barrels accounted for half the cost of petroleum production .
= = = Early designs = = =
In 1863 , two sail @-@ driven tankers were built on England 's River Tyne . These were followed in 1873 by the first oil @-@ tank steamer , the Vaderland , which was built by Palmers Shipbuilding and Iron Company for Belgian owners . The vessel 's use was curtailed by U.S. and Belgian authorities citing safety concerns . By 1871 , the Pennsylvania oil fields were making limited use of oil tank barges and cylindrical railroad tank @-@ cars similar to those in use today .
= = = Modern oil tankers = = =
The modern oil tanker was developed in the period from 1877 to 1885 . In 1876 , Ludvig and Robert Nobel , brothers of Alfred Nobel , founded Branobel ( short for Brothers Nobel ) in Baku , Azerbaijan . It was , during the late 19th century , one of the largest oil companies in the world .
Ludvig was a pioneer in the development of early oil tankers . He first experimented with carrying oil in bulk on single @-@ hulled barges . Turning his attention to self @-@ propelled tankships , he faced a number of challenges . A primary concern was to keep the cargo and fumes well away from the engine room to avoid fires . Other challenges included allowing for the cargo to expand and contract due to temperature changes , and providing a method to ventilate the tanks .
The first successful oil tanker was the Zoroaster , which carried its 242 long tons of kerosene cargo in two iron tanks joined by pipes . One tank was forward of the midships engine room and the other was aft . The ship also featured a set of 21 vertical watertight compartments for extra buoyancy . The ship had a length overall of 184 feet ( 56 m ) , a beam of 27 feet ( 8 @.@ 2 m ) , and a draft of 9 feet ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) . Unlike later Nobel tankers , the Zoroaster design was built small enough to sail from Sweden to the Caspian by way of the Baltic Sea , Lake Ladoga , Lake Onega , the Rybinsk and Mariinsk Canals and the Volga River .
In 1883 , oil tanker design took a large step forward . Working for the Nobel company , British engineer Colonel Henry F. Swan designed a set of three Nobel tankers . Instead of one or two large holds , Swan 's design used several holds which spanned the width , or beam , of the ship . These holds were further subdivided into port and starboard sections by a longitudinal bulkhead . Earlier designs suffered from stability problems caused by the free surface effect , where oil sloshing from side to side could cause a ship to capsize . But this approach of dividing the ship 's storage space into smaller tanks virtually eliminated free @-@ surface problems . This approach , almost universal today , was first used by Swan in the Nobel tankers Blesk , Lumen , and Lux .
Others point to the Glückauf , another design of Colonel Swan , as being the first modern oil tanker . It adopted the best practices from previous oil tanker designs to create the prototype for all subsequent vessels of the type . It was the first dedicated steam @-@ driven ocean @-@ going tanker in the world and was the first ship in which oil could be pumped directly into the vessel hull instead of being loaded in barrels or drums . It was also the first tanker with a horizontal bulkhead ; its features included cargo valves operable from the deck , cargo main piping , a vapor line , cofferdams for added safety , and the ability to fill a ballast tank with seawater when empty of cargo . The ship was built in Britain. and was purchased by Wilhelm Anton Riedemann , an agent for the Standard Oil Company along with several of her sister ships . After the Glückauf was lost in 1893 after being grounded in fog , Standard Oil purchased the sister ships .
= = = Asian trade = = =
The 1880s also saw the beginnings of the Asian oil trade . The idea that led to moving Russian oil to the Far East via the Suez Canal was the brainchild of two men : importer Marcus Samuel and shipowner / broker Fred Lane . Prior bids to move oil through the canal had been rejected by the Suez Canal Company as being too risky . Samuel approached the problem a different way : asking the company for the specifications of a tanker it would allow through the canal .
Armed with the canal company 's specifications , Samuel ordered three tankers from William Gray & Company in northern England . Named the Murex , the Conch and the Clam , each had a capacity of 5 @,@ 010 long tons of deadweight . These three ships were the first tankers of the Tank Syndicate , forerunner of today 's Royal Dutch Shell company .
With facilities prepared in Jakarta , Singapore , Bangkok , Saigon , Hong Kong , Shanghai , and Kobe , the fledgling Shell company was ready to become Standard Oil 's first challenger in the Asian market . On August 24 , 1892 , the Murex became the first tanker to pass through the Suez Canal . By the time Shell merged with Royal Dutch Petroleum in 1907 , the company had 34 steam @-@ driven oil tankers , compared to Standard Oil 's four case @-@ oil steamers and 16 sailing tankers .
= = = The supertanker era = = =
Until 1956 , tankers were designed to be able to navigate the Suez Canal . This size restriction became much less of a priority after the closing of the canal during the Suez Crisis of 1956 . Forced to move oil around the Cape of Good Hope , shipowners realized that bigger tankers were the key to more efficient transport . While a typical T2 tanker of the World War II era was 532 feet ( 162 m ) long and had a capacity of 16 @,@ 500 DWT , the ultra @-@ large crude carriers ( ULCC ) built in the 1970s were over 1 @,@ 300 feet ( 400 m ) long and had a capacity of 500 @,@ 000 DWT . Several factors encouraged this growth . Hostilities in the Middle East which interrupted traffic through the Suez Canal contributed , as did nationalization of Middle East oil refineries . Fierce competition among shipowners also played a part . But apart from these considerations is a simple economic advantage : the larger an oil tanker is , the more cheaply it can move crude oil , and the better it can help meet growing demands for oil .
In 1955 the world 's largest supertanker was 30 @,@ 708 GRT and 47 @,@ 500 LT DWT : the SS Spyros Niarchos launched that year by Vickers Armstrongs Shipbuilders Ltd in England for Stavros Niarchos .
In 1958 United States shipping magnate Daniel K. Ludwig broke the record of 100 @,@ 000 long tons of heavy displacement . His Universe Apollo displaced 104 @,@ 500 long tons , a 23 % increase from the previous record @-@ holder , Universe Leader which also belonged to Ludwig .
The world 's largest supertanker was built in 1979 at the Oppama shipyard by Sumitomo Heavy Industries , Ltd. as the Seawise Giant . This ship was built with a capacity of 564 @,@ 763 DWT , a length overall of 458 @.@ 45 metres ( 1 @,@ 504 @.@ 1 ft ) and a draft of 24 @.@ 611 metres ( 80 @.@ 74 ft ) . She had 46 tanks , 31 @,@ 541 square metres ( 339 @,@ 500 sq ft ) of deck , and at her full load draft , could not navigate the English Channel .
Seawise Giant was renamed Happy Giant in 1989 , Jahre Viking in 1991 , and Knock Nevis in 2004 ( when she was converted into a permanently moored storage tanker ) . In 2009 she was sold for the last time , renamed Mont , and scrapped .
As of 2011 , the world 's two largest working supertankers are the TI class supertankers TI Europe and TI Oceania . These ships were built in 2002 and 2003 as the Hellespont Alhambra and Hellespont Tara for the Greek Hellespont Steamship Corporation . Hellespont sold these ships to Overseas Shipholding Group and Euronav in 2004 . Each of the sister ships has a capacity of over 441 @,@ 500 DWT , a length overall of 380 @.@ 0 metres ( 1 @,@ 246 @.@ 7 ft ) and a cargo capacity of 3 @,@ 166 @,@ 353 barrels ( 503 @,@ 409 @,@ 900 l ) . They were the first ULCCs to be double @-@ hulled . To differentiate them from smaller ULCCs , these ships are sometimes given the V @-@ Plus size designation .
With the exception of the pipeline , the tanker is the most cost @-@ effective way to move oil today . Worldwide , tankers carry some 2 billion barrels ( 3 @.@ 2 × 1011 l ) annually , and the cost of transportation by tanker amounts to only US $ 0 @.@ 02 per gallon at the pump .
= = Size categories = =
In 1954 Shell Oil developed the average freight rate assessment ( AFRA ) system which classifies tankers of different sizes . To make it an independent instrument , Shell consulted the London Tanker Brokers ’ Panel ( LTBP ) . At first , they divided the groups as General Purpose for tankers under 25 @,@ 000 tons deadweight ( DWT ) ; Medium Range for ships between 25 @,@ 000 and 45 @,@ 000 DWT and Large Range for the then @-@ enormous ships that were larger than 45 @,@ 000 DWT . The ships became larger during the 1970s , which prompted rescaling .
The system was developed for tax reasons as the tax authorities wanted evidence that the internal billing records were correct . Before the New York Mercantile Exchange started trading crude oil futures in 1983 , it was difficult to determine the exact price of oil , which could change with every contract . Shell and BP , the first companies to use the system , abandoned the AFRA system in 1983 , later followed by the US oil companies . However , the system is still used today . Besides that , there is the flexible market scale , which takes typical routes and lots of 500 @,@ 000 barrels ( 79 @,@ 000 m3 ) .
Merchant oil tankers carry a wide range of hydrocarbon liquids ranging from crude oil to refined petroleum products . Their size is measured in deadweight metric tons ( DWT ) . Crude carriers are among the largest , ranging from 55 @,@ 000 DWT Panamax @-@ sized vessels to ultra @-@ large crude carriers ( ULCCs ) of over 440 @,@ 000 DWT .
Smaller tankers , ranging from well under 10 @,@ 000 DWT to 80 @,@ 000 DWT Panamax vessels , generally carry refined petroleum products , and are known as product tankers . The smallest tankers , with capacities under 10 @,@ 000 DWT generally work near @-@ coastal and inland waterways . Although they were in the past , ships of the smaller Aframax and Suezmax classes are no longer regarded as supertankers .
= = = Supertankers ( VLCC and ULCC ) = = =
" Supertankers " are the largest tankers , including very large crude carriers ( VLCC ) and ULCCs with capacities over 250 @,@ 000 DWT . These ships can transport 2 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 barrels ( 320 @,@ 000 m3 ) of oil / 318 @,@ 000 metric tons . By way of comparison , the United Kingdom consumed about 1 @.@ 6 million barrels ( 250 @,@ 000 m3 ) of oil per day in 2009 . ULCCs , commissioned in the 1970s , were the largest vessels ever built , but the longest ones have already been scrapped . By 2013 only a few ULCCs remain in service , none of which are more than 400 meters long .
Because of their great size , supertankers often cannot enter port fully loaded . These ships can take on their cargo at off @-@ shore platforms and single @-@ point moorings . On the other end of the journey , they often pump their cargo off to smaller tankers at designated lightering points off @-@ coast . A supertanker 's routes are generally long , requiring it to stay at sea for extended periods , up to and beyond seventy days at a time .
= = Chartering = =
The act of hiring a ship to carry cargo is called chartering . Tankers are hired by four types of charter agreements : the voyage charter , the time charter , the bareboat charter , and contract of affreightment . In a voyage charter the charterer rents the vessel from the loading port to the discharge port . In a time charter the vessel is hired for a set period of time , to perform voyages as the charterer directs . In a bareboat charter the charterer acts as the ship 's operator and manager , taking on responsibilities such as providing the crew and maintaining the vessel . Finally , in a contract of affreightment or COA , the charterer specifies a total volume of cargo to be carried in a specific time period and in specific sizes , for example a COA could be specified as 1 million barrels ( 160 @,@ 000 m3 ) of JP @-@ 5 in a year 's time in 25 @,@ 000 @-@ barrel ( 4 @,@ 000 m3 ) shipments . A completed chartering contract is known as a charter party .
One of the key aspects of any charter party is the freight rate , or the price specified for carriage of cargo . The freight rate of a tanker charter party is specified in one of four ways : by a lump sum rate , by rate per ton , by a time charter equivalent rate , or by Worldscale rate . In a lump sum rate arrangement , a fixed price is negotiated for the delivery of a specified cargo , and the ship 's owner / operator is responsible to pay for all port costs and other voyage expenses . Rate per ton arrangements are used mostly in chemical tanker chartering , and differ from lump sum rates in that port costs and voyage expenses are generally paid by the charterer . Time charter arrangements specify a daily rate , and port costs and voyage expenses are also generally paid by the charterer .
The Worldwide Tanker Normal Freight Scale , often referred to as Worldscale , is established and governed jointly by the Worldscale Associations of London and New York . Worldscale establishes a baseline price for carrying a metric ton of product between any two ports in the world . In Worldscale negotiations , operators and charterers will determine a price based on a percentage of the Worldscale rate . The baseline rate is expressed as WS 100 . If a given charter party settled on 85 % of the Worldscale rate , it would be expressed as WS 85 . Similarly , a charter party set at 125 % of the Worldscale rate would be expressed as WS 125 .
= = = Recent markets = = =
As of 2007 , the chartering market is persistently volatile across all tanker sectors . The market is affected by a wide variety of variables such as the supply and demand of oil as well as the supply and demand of oil tankers . Some particular variables include winter temperatures , excess tanker tonnage , supply fluctuations in the Persian Gulf , and interruptions in refinery services .
In 2006 , the sustained rise in oil prices had only a limited impact on demand . It was a good year across all segments of the tanker market segments , but not as good as 2004 and 2005 . Amidst high oil prices , geopolitical tension , and fears of disruptions to the oil supply , growing demand was the main driving force in the tanker shipping market for the year . As demand grew moderately in the United States and Western Europe , expanding economies such as China fueled exponential growth in demand . Despite these strengths , each of the five tanker freight indices dropped during 2006 . Product tanker demand increased in 2006 due to economic expansion in Asia , especially China and India , however , average time charter equivalent earnings for these ships decreased compared with the two prior years .
In 2006 , time @-@ charters tended towards long term . Of the time charters executed in that year , 58 % were for a period of 24 or more months , 14 % were for periods of 12 to 24 months , 4 % were from 6 to 12 months , and 24 % were for periods of less than 6 months . The average one @-@ year time charter rate for a 5 @-@ year @-@ old tanker of 280 @,@ 000 metric tons of deadweight varied from $ 56 @,@ 500 per day in December 2005 to $ 53 @,@ 000 per day in September 2007 with a high of $ 64 @,@ 500 per day in September 2006 .
The first half of 2007 was relatively strong , but in the second half rates dropped significantly . A sudden rise in oil production , longer transport routes , and slow steaming because of high bunker prices led to a shortage in tonnage towards the end of the year . Overnight , VLCC rates climbed from $ 20 @,@ 000 per day to $ 200 – $ 300 @,@ 000 per day , and even higher numbers were recorded .
From 2003 , the demand for new ships started to grow , resulting in 2007 in a record breaking order backlog for shipyards , exceeding their capacity with rising newbuilding prices as a result . This resulted in a glut of ships when demand dropped due to a weakened global economy and dramatically reduced demand in the United States . The charter rate for very large crude carriers , which carry two million barrels of oil , had peaked at $ 309 @,@ 601 per day in 2007 , and has dropped , as of 2012 , to $ 7 @,@ 085 per day , far below the operating costs of these ships . As a result , several tanker operators laid up their ships .
Owners of large oil tanker fleets include Teekay Corporation , A P Moller Maersk , DS Torm , Frontline , MOL Tankship Management , Overseas Shipholding Group , and Euronav .
= = Fleet characteristics = =
In 2005 , oil tankers made up 36 @.@ 9 % of the world 's fleet in terms of deadweight tonnage . The world 's total oil tankers deadweight tonnage has increased from 326 @.@ 1 million DWT in 1970 to 960 @.@ 0 million DWT in 2005 . The combined deadweight tonnage of oil tankers and bulk carriers , represents 72 @.@ 9 % of the world 's fleet .
= = = Cargo movement = = =
In 2005 , 2 @.@ 42 billion metric tons of oil were shipped by tanker . In 2006 , 76 @.@ 7 % of this was crude oil , and the rest consisted of refined petroleum products . This amounted to 34 @.@ 1 % of all seaborne trade for the year . Combining the amount carried with the distance it was carried , oil tankers moved 11 @,@ 705 billion metric @-@ ton @-@ miles of oil in 2005 .
By comparison , in 1970 1 @.@ 44 billion metric tons of oil were shipped by tanker . This amounted to 34 @.@ 1 % of all seaborne trade for that year . In terms of amount carried and distance carried , oil tankers moved 6 @,@ 487 billion metric @-@ ton @-@ miles of oil in 1970 .
The United Nations also keeps statistics about oil tanker productivity , stated in terms of metric tons carried per metric ton of deadweight as well as metric @-@ ton @-@ miles of carriage per metric ton of deadweight . 2006 In 2005 , for each 1 DWT of oil tankers , 6 @.@ 7 metric tons of cargo was carried . Similarly , each 1 DWT of oil tankers was responsible for 32 @,@ 400 metric @-@ ton miles of carriage .
The main loading ports in 2005 were located in Western Asia , Western Africa , North Africa , and the Caribbean , with 196 @.@ 3 , 196 @.@ 3 , 130 @.@ 2 and 246 @.@ 6 million metric tons of cargo loaded in these regions . The main discharge ports were located in North America , Europe , and Japan with 537 @.@ 7 , 438 @.@ 4 , and 215 @.@ 0 million metric tons of cargo discharged in these regions .
= = = Flag states = = =
International law requires that every merchant ship be registered in a country , called its flag state . A ship 's flag state exercises regulatory control over the vessel and is required to inspect it regularly , certify the ship 's equipment and crew , and issue safety and pollution prevention documents . As of 2007 , the United States Central Intelligence Agency statistics count 4 @,@ 295 oil tankers of 1 @,@ 000 long tons deadweight ( DWT ) or greater worldwide . Panama was the world 's largest flag state for oil tankers , with 528 of the vessels in its registry . Six other flag states had more than 200 registered oil tankers : Liberia ( 464 ) , Singapore ( 355 ) , China ( 252 ) , Russia ( 250 ) , the Marshall Islands ( 234 ) and the Bahamas ( 209 ) . The Panamanian , Liberian , Marshallese and Bahamian flags are open registries and considered by the International Transport Workers ' Federation to be flags of convenience . By comparison , the United States and the United Kingdom only had 59 and 27 registered oil tankers , respectively .
= = = Vessel life cycle = = =
In 2005 , the average age of oil tankers worldwide was 10 years . Of these , 31 @.@ 6 % were under 4 years old and 14 @.@ 3 % were over 20 years old . In 2005 , 475 new oil tankers were built , accounting for 30 @.@ 7 million DWT . The average size for these new tankers was 64 @,@ 632 DWT . Nineteen of these were VLCC size , 19 were suezmax , 51 were aframax , and the rest were smaller designs . By comparison , 8 @.@ 0 million DWT , 8 @.@ 7 million DWT , and 20 @.@ 8 million DWT worth of oil tanker capacity was built in 1980 , 1990 , and 2000 respectively .
Ships are generally removed from the fleet through a process known as scrapping . Ship @-@ owners and buyers negotiate scrap prices based on factors such as the ship 's empty weight ( called light ton displacement or LDT ) and prices in the scrap metal market . In 1998 almost 700 ships went through the scrapping process at shipbreakers in places like Alang , India and Chittagong , Bangladesh . In 2004 and 2005 , 7 @.@ 8 million DWT and 5 @.@ 7 million DWT respectively of oil tankers were scrapped . Between 2000 and 2005 , the capacity of oil tankers scrapped each year has ranged between 5 @.@ 6 million DWT and 18 @.@ 4 million DWT . In this same timeframe , tankers have accounted for between 56 @.@ 5 % and 90 @.@ 5 % of the world 's total scrapped ship tonnage . In this period the average age of scrapped oil tankers has ranged from 26 @.@ 9 to 31 @.@ 5 years .
= = = Vessel pricing = = =
In 2005 , the price for new oil tankers in the 32 @,@ 000 – 45 @,@ 000 DWT , 80 @,@ 000 – 105 @,@ 000 DWT , and 250 @,@ 000 – 280 @,@ 000 DWT ranges were US $ 43 million , $ 58 million , and $ 120 million respectively . In 1985 these vessels would have cost $ 18 million , $ 22 million , and $ 47 million respectively .
Oil tankers are often sold second @-@ hand . In 2005 , 27 @.@ 3 million DWT worth of oil tankers were sold used . Some representative prices for that year include $ 42.5M for a 40 @,@ 000 DWT tanker , $ 60 @.@ 7 million for a 80 @,@ 000 – 95 @,@ 000 DWT , $ 73 million for a 130 @,@ 000 – 150 @,@ 000 DWT , and $ 116 million for 250 @,@ 000 – 280 @,@ 000 DWT tanker . For a concrete example , in 2006 , Bonheur subsidiary First Olsen paid US $ 76 @.@ 5 million for Knock Sheen , a 159 @,@ 899 DWT tanker .
The cost of operating the largest tankers , the Very Large Crude Carriers , is currently between $ 10 @,@ 000 and $ 12 @,@ 000 per day .
= = Current structural design = =
Oil tankers generally have from 8 to 12 tanks . Each tank is split into two or three independent compartments by fore @-@ and @-@ aft bulkheads . The tanks are numbered with tank one being the forwardmost . Individual compartments are referred to by the tank number and the athwartships position , such as " one port " , " three starboard " , or " six center . "
A cofferdam is a small little space left open between two bulkheads , to give protection from heat , fire , or collision . Tankers generally have cofferdams forward and aft of the cargo tanks , and sometimes between individual tanks . A pumpable room houses all the pumps connected to a tanker 's cargo lines . Some larger tankers have two pumprooms . A pumproom generally spans the total breadth of the ship .
= = = Hull designs = = =
A major component of tanker architecture is the design of the hull or outer structure . A tanker with a single outer shell between the product and the ocean is said to be " single @-@ hulled " . Most newer tankers are " double hulled " , with an extra space between the hull and the storage tanks . Hybrid designs such as " double @-@ bottom " and " double @-@ sided " combine aspects of single and double @-@ hull designs . All single @-@ hulled tankers around the world will be phased out by 2026 , in accordance with the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships , 1973 ( MARPOL ) . The United Nations has decided to phase out single hull oil tankers by 2010 .
In 1998 , the Marine Racecar Board of the National Academy of Science conducted a survey of industry experts regarding the pros and cons of double @-@ hull design . Some of the advantages of the double @-@ hull design that were mentioned include ease of ballasting in emergency situations , reduced practice of saltwater ballasting in cargo tanks decreases corrosion , increased environmental protection , cargo discharge is quicker , more complete and easier , tank washing is more efficient , and better protection in low @-@ impact collisions and grounding .
The same report lists the following as some drawbacks to the double @-@ hull design , including higher build costs , greater operating expenses ( e.g. higher canal and port tariffs ) , difficulties in ballast tank ventilation , the fact that ballast tanks need continuous monitoring and maintenance , increased transverse free surface , the greater number of surfaces to maintain , the risk of explosions in double @-@ hull spaces if a vapor detection system not fitted , and that cleaning ballast tanks is more difficult for double hull ships .
In all , double @-@ hull tankers are said to be safer than a single @-@ hull in a grounding incident , especially when the shore is not very rocky . The safety benefits are less clear on larger vessels and in cases of high speed impact .
Although double @-@ hull design is superior in low energy casualties and prevents spillage in small casualties , in high energy casualties where both hulls are breached , oil can spill through the double @-@ hull and into the sea and spills from a double @-@ hull tanker can be significantly higher than designs like the mid @-@ deck tanker , the Coulombi egg tanker and even a pre @-@ MARPOL tanker , as the last one has a lower oil column and reaches hydrostatic balance sooner .
= = = Inert gas system = = =
An oil tanker 's inert gas system is one of the most important parts of its design . Fuel oil itself is very difficult to ignite , but its hydrocarbon vapors are explosive when mixed with air in certain concentrations . The purpose of the system is to create an atmosphere inside tanks in which the hydrocarbon oil vapors cannot burn .
As inert gas is introduced into a mixture of hydrocarbon vapors and air , it increases the lower flammable limit or lowest concentration at which the vapors can be ignited . At the same time it decreases the upper flammable limit or highest concentration at which the vapors can be ignited . When the total concentration of oxygen in the tank reaches about 11 % , the upper and lower flammable limits converge and the flammable range disappears .
Inert gas systems deliver air with an oxygen concentration of less than 5 % by volume . As a tank is pumped out , it is filled with inert gas and kept in this safe state until the next cargo is loaded . The exception is in cases when the tank must be entered . Safely gas @-@ freeing a tank is accomplished by purging hydrocarbon vapors with inert gas until the hydrocarbon concentration inside the tank is under about 1 % . Thus , as air replaces the inert gas , the concentration cannot rise to the lower flammable limit and is safe .
= = Cargo operations = =
Operations aboard oil tankers are governed by an established body of best practices and a large body of international law . Cargo can be moved on or off of an oil tanker in several ways . One method is for the ship to moor alongside a pier , connect with cargo hoses or marine loading arms . Another method involves mooring to offshore buoys , such as a single point mooring , and making a cargo connection via underwater cargo hoses . A third method is by ship @-@ to @-@ ship transfer , also known as lightering . In this method , two ships come alongside in open sea and oil is transferred manifold to manifold via flexible hoses . Lightering is sometimes used where a loaded tanker is too large to enter a specific port .
= = = Pre @-@ transfer preparation = = =
Prior to any transfer of cargo , the chief officer must develop a transfer plan detailing specifics of the operation such as how much cargo will be moved , which tanks will be cleaned , and how the ship 's ballasting will change . The next step before a transfer is the pretransfer conference . The pretransfer conference covers issues such as what products will be moved , the order of movement , names and titles of key people , particulars of shipboard and shore equipment , critical states of the transfer , regulations in effect , emergency and spill @-@ containment procedures , watch and shift arrangements , and shutdown procedures .
After the conference is complete , the person in charge on the ship and the person in charge of the shore installation go over a final inspection checklist . In the United States , the checklist is called a Declaration of Inspection or DOI . Outside the U.S. , the document is called the " Ship / Shore Safety Checklist . " Items on the checklist include proper signals and signs are displayed , secure mooring of the vessel , choice of language for communication , securing of all connections , that emergency equipment is in place , and that no repair work is taking place .
= = = Loading cargo = = =
Loading an oil tanker consists primarily of pumping cargo into the ship 's tanks . As oil enters the tank , the vapors inside the tank must be somehow expelled . Depending on local regulations , the vapors can be expelled into the atmosphere or discharged back to the pumping station by way of a vapor recovery line . It is also common for the ship to move water ballast during the loading of cargo to maintain proper trim .
Loading starts slowly at a low pressure to ensure that equipment is working correctly and that connections are secure . Then a steady pressure is achieved and held until the " topping @-@ off " phase when the tanks are nearly full . Topping off is a very dangerous time in handling oil , and the procedure is handled particularly carefully . Tank @-@ gauging equipment is used to tell the person in charge how much space is left in the tank , and all tankers have at least two independent methods for tank @-@ gauging . As the tanker becomes full , crew members open and close valves to direct the flow of product and maintain close communication with the pumping facility to decrease and finally stop the flow of liquid .
= = = Unloading cargo = = =
The process of moving oil off of a tanker is similar to loading , but has some key differences . The first step in the operation is following the same pretransfer procedures as used in loading . When the transfer begins , it is the ship 's cargo pumps that are used to move the product ashore . As in loading , the transfer starts at low pressure to ensure that equipment is working correctly and that connections are secure . Then a steady pressure is achieved and held during the operation . While pumping , tank levels are carefully watched and key locations , such as the connection at the cargo manifold and the ship 's pumproom are constantly monitored . Under the direction of the person in charge , crew members open and close valves to direct the flow of product and maintain close communication with the receiving facility to decrease and finally stop the flow of liquid .
= = = Tank cleaning = = =
Tanks must be cleaned from time to time for various reasons . One reason is to change the type of product carried inside a tank . Also , when tanks are to be inspected or maintenance must be performed within a tank , it must be not only cleaned , but made gas @-@ free .
On most crude @-@ oil tankers , a special crude oil washing ( COW ) system is part of the cleaning process . The COW system circulates part of the cargo through the fixed tank @-@ cleaning system to remove wax and asphaltic deposits . Tanks that carry less viscous cargoes are washed with water . Fixed and portable automated tank cleaning machines , which clean tanks with high @-@ pressure water jets , are widely used . Some systems use rotating high @-@ pressure water jets to spray hot water on all the internal surfaces of the tank . As the spraying takes place , the liquid is pumped out of the tank .
After a tank is cleaned , provided that it is going to be prepared for entry , it will be purged . Purging is accomplished by pumping inert gas into the tank until hydrocarbons have been sufficiently expelled . Next the tank is gas freed which is usually accomplished by blowing fresh air into the space with portable air powered or water powered air blowers . " Gas freeing " brings the oxygen content of the tank up to 20 @.@ 8 % O2 . The inert gas buffer between fuel and oxygen atmospheres ensures they are never capable of ignition . Specially trained personnel monitor the tank 's atmosphere , often using hand @-@ held gas indicators which measure the percentage of hydrocarbons present . After a tank is gas @-@ free , it may be further hand @-@ cleaned in a manual process known as mucking . Mucking requires protocols for entry into confined spaces , protective clothing , designated safety observers , and possibly the use of airline respirators .
= = Special @-@ use oil tankers = =
Some sub @-@ types of oil tankers have evolved to meet specific military and economic needs . These sub @-@ types include naval replenishment ships , oil @-@ bulk @-@ ore combination carriers , floating storage and offloading units ( FSOs ) and floating production storage and offloading units ( FPSOs ) .
= = = Replenishment ships = = =
Replenishment ships , known as oilers in the United States and fleet tankers in Commonwealth countries , are ships that can provide oil products to naval vessels while on the move . This process , called underway replenishment , extends the length of time a naval vessel can stay at sea , as well as her effective range . Prior to underway replenishment , naval vessels had to enter a port or anchor to take on fuel . In addition to fuel , replenishment ships may also deliver water , ammunition , rations , stores and personnel .
= = = Ore @-@ bulk @-@ oil carriers = = =
An ore @-@ bulk @-@ oil carrier , also known as combination carrier or OBO , is a ship designed to be capable of carrying wet or dry bulk cargoes . This design was intended to provide flexibility in two ways . Firstly , an OBO would be able to switch between the dry and wet bulk trades based on market conditions . Secondly , an OBO could carry oil on one leg of a voyage and return carrying dry bulk , reducing the number of unprofitable ballast voyages it would have to make .
In practice , the flexibility which the OBO design allows has gone largely unused , as these ships tend to specialize in either the liquid or dry bulk trade . Also , these ships have endemic maintenance problems . On one hand , due to a less specialized design , an OBO suffers more from wear and tear during dry cargo onload than a bulker . On the other hand , components of the liquid cargo system , from pumps to valves to piping , tend to develop problems when subjected to periods of disuse . These factors have contributed to a steady reduction in the number of OBO ships worldwide since the 1970s .
One of the more famous OBOs was the MV Derbyshire of 180 @,@ 000 DWT which in September 1980 became the largest British ship ever lost at sea . It sank in a Pacific typhoon while carrying a cargo of iron ore from Canada to Japan .
= = = Floating storage units = = =
Floating storage and offloading units ( FSO ) are used worldwide by the offshore oil industry to receive oil from nearby platforms and store it until it can be offloaded onto oil tankers . A similar system , the floating production storage and offloading unit ( FPSO ) , has the ability to process the product while it is on board . These floating units reduce oil production costs and offer mobility , large storage capacity , and production versatility .
FPSO and FSOs are often created out of old , stripped @-@ down oil tankers , but can be made from new @-@ built hulls Shell España first used a tanker as an FPSO in August 1977 . An example of a FSO that used to be an oil tanker is the Knock Nevis . These units are usually moored to the seabed through a spread mooring system . A turret @-@ style mooring system can be used in areas prone to severe weather . This turret system lets the unit rotate to minimize the effects of sea @-@ swell and wind .
= = Pollution = =
Oil spills have devastating effects on the environment . Crude oil contains polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons ( PAHs ) which are very difficult to clean up , and last for years in the sediment and marine environment . Marine species constantly exposed to PAHs can exhibit developmental problems , susceptibility to disease , and abnormal reproductive cycles .
By the sheer amount of oil carried , modern oil tankers must be considered a threat to the environment . As discussed above , a VLCC tanker can carry 2 million barrels ( 320 @,@ 000 m3 ) of crude oil . This is about eight times the amount spilled in the widely known Exxon Valdez incident . In this spill , the ship ran aground and dumped 10 @,@ 800 @,@ 000 US gallons ( 41 @,@ 000 m3 ) of oil into the ocean in March 1989 . Despite efforts of scientists , managers , and volunteers over 400 @,@ 000 seabirds , about 1 @,@ 000 sea otters , and immense numbers of fish were killed . Considering the volume of oil carried by sea , however , tanker owners ' organisations often argue that the industry 's safety record is excellent , with only a tiny fraction of a percentage of oil cargoes carried ever being spilled . The International Association of Independent Tanker Owners has observed that " accidental oil spills this decade have been at record low levels — one third of the previous decade and one tenth of the 1970s — at a time when oil transported has more than doubled since the mid 1980s . "
Oil tankers are only one source of oil spills . According to the United States Coast Guard , 35 @.@ 7 % of the volume of oil spilled in the United States from 1991 to 2004 came from tank vessels ( ships / barges ) , 27 @.@ 6 % from facilities and other non @-@ vessels , 19 @.@ 9 % from non @-@ tank vessels , and 9 @.@ 3 % from pipelines ; 7 @.@ 4 % from mystery spills . On the other hand , only 5 % of the actual spills came from oil tankers , while 51 @.@ 8 % came from other kinds of vessels . The detailed statistics for 2004 shown in the table below show tank vessels responsible for somewhat less than 5 % of the number of total spills but more than 60 % of the volume . In summary , spills are much more rare but much more serious on tank vessels than on non @-@ tank vessels .
The International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation has tracked 9 @,@ 351 accidental spills that have occurred since 1974 . According to this study , most spills result from routine operations such as loading cargo , discharging cargo , and taking on fuel oil . 91 % of the operational oil spills are small , resulting in less than 7 metric tons per spill . On the other hand , spills resulting from accidents like collisions , groundings , hull failures , and explosions are much larger , with 84 % of these involving losses of over 700 metric tons .
Following the Exxon Valdez spill , the United States passed the Oil Pollution Act of 1990 ( OPA @-@ 90 ) , which excluded single @-@ hull tank vessels of 5 @,@ 000 gross tons or more from US waters from 2010 onward , apart from those with a double bottom or double sides , which may be permitted to trade to the United States through 2015 , depending on their age . Following the sinkings of the Erika ( 1999 ) and Prestige ( 2002 ) , the European Union passed its own stringent anti @-@ pollution packages ( known as Erika I , II , and III ) , which also require all tankers entering its waters to be double @-@ hulled by 2010 . The Erika packages are controversial because they introduced the new legal concept of " serious negligence " .
= = = Air pollution = = =
Air pollution from normal tanker engines operation and from cargo fires is another serious concern . Large ships are often run on low quality fuel oils , such as bunker oil which are highly polluting and have been shown to be a health risk . Ship fires may not only result in the loss of the ship due to lack of specialized firefighting gear and techniques but the fires sometimes burn for days and require evacuations of nearby residents due to the dangerous smoke .
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= National Museum of Beirut =
The National Museum of Beirut ( Arabic : متحف بيروت الوطنيّ ) is the principal museum of archaeology in Lebanon . The collection was begun after World War I , and the museum was officially opened in 1942 . The museum has collections totaling about 100 @,@ 000 objects , most of which are antiquities and medieval finds from excavations undertaken by the Directorate General of Antiquities . About 1300 artifacts are exhibited , ranging in date from prehistoric times to the medieval Mamluk period .
During the 1975 Lebanese Civil War , the museum stood on the front line that separated the warring factions . The museum 's Egyptian Revival building and its collection suffered extensive damage in the war , but most of the artifacts were saved by last @-@ minute preemptive measures .
Today , after a major renovation , the National Museum of Beirut has regained its former position , especially as a leading collector for ancient Phoenician objects .
= = History = =
= = = Origin = = =
In 1919 , a small group of ancient artifacts collected by Raymond Weill , a French officer stationed in Lebanon , was exhibited at a provisional museum in the Kaiserswerth Deaconesses ' building in Georges Picot Street , Beirut . Meanwhile , a forerunner of the Archaeological and Fine Arts Service began to assemble items from the region round Beirut . The initial collection was rapidly expanded under successive antiquity directors with the addition of finds from the excavations led by Dr. Georges Contenau at Saida and Ernest Renan at Saida , Tyre and Byblos . Donations of private collections included those of Henry Seyrig ’ s coin collection , General Weygand in 1925 and Dr George Ford , the Director of the American Mission School of Sidon , in 1930 .
= = = Foundation = = =
In 1923 , the " Friends of the Museum Committee " , headed by Bechara El Khoury , then Prime Minister and minister of education and fine arts , was created to raise funds to build a national museum . The founding committee included : Alfred Sursok , Marios Hanimoglo , Albert Bassoul , Omar Daouk , Kamil Eddeh , Ali Jumblat , Henry Pharaoun , George Faissy , Assad Younes , Hassan Makhzoumi , Joseph Farahi , George Korom , Jean Debs , Wafik Beydoun and Jack Tabet . The committee accepted the plans presented by architects Antoine Nahas and Pierre Leprince @-@ Ringuet . Construction began in 1930 on a plot of land donated by the municipality near the Beirut Hippodrome , and was completed in 1937 . The opening of the museum was scheduled for 1938 , but was postponed because of the political situation in the lead @-@ up to World War II . The National Museum of Beirut was finally opened on May 27 , 1942 by President Alfred Naqqache . Until 1928 , the conservation of the Lebanese National Museum was put in the hands of Charles Virolleaud , the director of the service of antiquities and Philippe de Tarazzi , the Lebanese conservator of the National Library . The collection continued to grow under the direction of Mir Maurice Chehab , head curator for 33 years , until the start of the Lebanese Civil War in 1975 .
= = = Closing and devastation = = =
In 1975 , with the outbreak of the Lebanese war , Beirut was split into two opposing areas . The national museum and the directorate general of antiquities were on the demarcation line known as “ Museum alley ” which separated the warring militias and armies . Conditions in the immediate vicinity of the museum rapidly worsened , as the museum endured shelling and bombing , and was turned into a barracks for combatants . " Museum alley " became a checkpoint controlled by various Lebanese militias , or the Syrian or Israeli armies , who opened and closed the road under short @-@ lived truces . The authorities decided to close the museum . The first protective measures inside the museum were initiated by Mir Maurice Chehab and his wife during alternating fire @-@ fights and moments of truce . The vulnerable small artifacts were removed from their showcases and hidden in storerooms in the basement , which was then walled up , banning any access to the lower floors . On the ground floor , mosaics which had been installed in the floor were covered with a layer of concrete . Statues and sarcophagi were protected by sandbags . When the situation reached its worst in 1982 , the heavier artifacts were encased in wood and concrete .
When the final cease @-@ fire was declared in 1991 , the museum and the Directorate General of Antiquities were in a state of near @-@ destruction . The museum was flooded with rainwater and the outer facade was badly marked by bullets and craters from shells . Militiamen who occupied the premises had covered the internal walls with graffiti . The state of the museum collection was also very serious : the small objects had been left in the storerooms for more than fifteen years in a totally inappropriate environment . The national museum had been built on a high water table , which caused a dangerous increase in humidity , and collection of water inside the storerooms . The large stone artifacts has been left in their emergency casings without any ventilation and traces of corrosion from salts were visible on the lower edges of the stone monuments . The wing adjacent to the Directorate General of Antiquities was devastated by shells which started a fire , destroying documents such as maps , photographs , and records , as well as 45 boxes containing archaeological objects . All of the laboratory equipment was lost . During the war , some items were looted and are now exhibited in Turkish museums , whilst others have been auctioned . Ironically , these had been stolen from external stores , mainly in Byblos and Sidon , in which they were kept to avoid damage and looting .
= = = Reopening and renovation = = =
The first plans to restore the national museum came in 1992 from Michel Edde , then Minister of Culture and Higher Education . The proposal to tear down the concrete walls and cases which protected the national treasures was turned down by the general director of antiquities , Camille Asmar , since the museum still had no doors or windows to prevent further looting . Ghassan Tueni donated the funds for the museum 's massive new main door . Once the doors and windows were put in , the decision was made to pull down the concrete wall that protected the entrance to the basement . Restoration work started in 1995 and focused on the building itself , and the inventorying and restoration of the collection . The museum was officially inaugurated on November 25 , 1997 by then president Elias Hrawi but only parts of the ground floor and basement were made accessible since the remainder of the building was still under repair and important modifications were needed to meet the requirements of modern museology standards . The museum was again closed to the public in July 1998 to achieve restoration works . On October 8 , 1999 , the museum re @-@ opened its doors to the public under the patronage of president Emile Lahoud .
The rehabilitation of the National Museum was undertaken by the Ministry of Culture , the Directorate General of Antiquities and the National Heritage Foundation , to the plans of the French architect , urban planner and designer Jean @-@ Michel Wilmotte . In 1999 the Lebanese government started a massive campaign to recover antiquities that were stolen or traded during the civil war . Many artifacts were recovered from warehouses or private homes since Lebanese law dictates that any item more than 300 years old belongs to the state .
= = = Basement reopening = = =
Opening of the basement floor was scheduled for November 2010 , but as of June 2011 , only the ground and first floors are open to the public .
= = Architecture = =
The museum was designed in a French inspired Egyptian Revival style by the architects Antoine Nahas and Pierre Leprince Ringuet , and built with Lebanese ochre limestone . It comprises a basement , a ground floor , a mezzanine floor and a terrace ; the central block is covered by a glass roof , above the mezzanine , giving natural overhead light .
The whole site is approximately 5 @,@ 500 square metres ( 59 @,@ 000 sq ft ) , and the exhibition floor space totals 6 @,@ 000 square metres ( 65 @,@ 000 sq ft ) . The immediately adjoining museum annexes and administrative offices occupy about 1 @,@ 000 square metres ( 11 @,@ 000 sq ft ) .
= = Collections = =
The National Museum of Beirut currently exhibits 1300 artifacts from its collection of approximately 100 @,@ 000 objects . The museum displays follow a chronological circuit beginning in Prehistory and ending in the Ottoman era . The circuit begins on the ground floor where 83 large objects are displayed , these include sarcophagi , mosaics statues and reliefs . The upper floor displays 1243 small and medium @-@ sized artifacts arranged by chronological order and by theme in modern showcases with soft lighting and magnifying glasses that emphasize the aesthetic aspect of the artifacts .
= = = Prehistory = = =
The collection has prehistoric artifacts from early hunter @-@ gatherer societies ranging from the Lower Paleolithic ( 1M.-150.000 BC ) to the Neolithic ( 9000 – 3200 BC ) , typically spearheads , flints , hooks and pottery . These were found in caves and rock shelters all over Lebanese territory . Around five hundred prehistoric sites have been surveyed in Lebanon as a whole , and around fifty sites in Beirut itself .
= = = Bronze age = = =
The Bronze Age ( 3200 – 1200 BC ) saw the birth of Lebanon 's first fortified villages , the development of commercial and maritime activities and the invention of the world 's first alphabet in Byblos . This collection includes the Museum 's masterpiece : the sarcophagus of Ahiram , which holds the oldest text written in the Phoenician alphabet .
Collection highlights :
Sarcophagus of King Ahiram : limestone , Byblos royal cemetery , 10th century B.C.
Votive statuettes : gilded bronze , Obelisk temple – Byblos , 19 @-@ 18th century B.C.
Decorated knife : gold and ivory , Obelisk temple – Byblos , 19 @-@ 18th century B.C.
Fenestrated axes : gold , Obelisk temple – Byblos , 19 @-@ 18th century B.C.
King Ip Shemu Abi 's crown and scepter : gold and bronze , Royal cemetery , Byblos , 18th century B.C.
King Abi Shemu 's jewelry collection : gold and precious stones , Royal cemetery , Byblos , 18th century B.C.
Statuette of Reshep : gilded bronze , Obelisk temple – Byblos , 19 @-@ 18th century B.C.
Duck shaped cosmetic box : ivory , Sidon , 14th century B.C.
= = = Iron age = = =
The Iron Age ( 1200 – 333 BC ) in Lebanon saw the climax of the Phoenician civilization , which culminated in its maritime expansion and the transmission to other cultures of the alphabet ( which was attributed by the Greek legend to the Tyrian Cadmus ) . During this period , after an era of autonomy , the city @-@ states of the area came under Assyrian , Babylonian and Persian hegemony . The occupying civilizations influenced Phoenician ceramics , jewelry and ivory work , statues , and sarcophagi .
Key highlights of the collections include :
the Ford collection of anthropoid sarcophagi : marble , 4th century B.C.
votive statues from the Eshmun temple : marble , Bustan esh Sheikh , 4th century B.C.
capital with bull protomes , : marble , Sidon , 5th century B.C.
= = = Hellenistic period = = =
The Hellenistic period ( 333 – 64 BC ) In 333 BC , the decisive victory won by Alexander the Great over the Persian king Darius III opened Phoenicia to the Greek conqueror .
After Alexander 's death , Phoenicia first came under Ptolemaic rule from Egypt , then , after the Battle of Panium , under the Seleucids based in modern Iraq . The Seleucids abolished local monarchies , and appointed governors ( bearing Greek names ) to rule the Phoenician cities .
Greek influence , which had made its way to Phoenicia during the Persian period , now became stronger . Figurines found in Kharayeb show Aegean influence on local craftsmen . This spreading Hellenization interacted with the local Semitic population substratum , which remained faithful to its gods and its language . It resulted in an artistic and architectural symbiosis best illustrated in the artifacts of Umm el ' Amed and Bustan esh Sheikh .
Collection highlights :
Sanctuary of Eshmun tribune : marble , Bustan esh Sheikh ( near Sidon ) , ca . 350 B.C.
Statue of Aphrodite : marble , Beirut
Greek gods figurines : terracotta , Kharayeb
= = = Roman period = = =
In 64 BC , the military expedition of the Roman general Pompey put an end to the anarchy prevailing in the Seleucid Empire , and Phoenicia became part of the Roman world . But Roman civil wars continued to disrupt the region until 31 BC , after which , with the reign of Augustus , the pax romana extended over the area . The pax romana favored international trade , and local industries in silversmithing , glass , textiles and ceramics developed .
Roman Period ( 64 BC – 395 AD ) section collection highlights include :
Achilles sarcophagus : marble , Tyre , 2nd century A.D.
drunken Cupids sarcophagus : marble , Tyre , 2nd century A.D.
Abduction of Europe mosaic : Byblos , 3rd century A.D.
statue of Hygieia : marble , Byblos
Calliope and the seven wise men mosaic : Baalbeck , 3rd century A.D.
Dionysus bust : marble , Tyre , 3rd century A.D.
= = = Byzantine period = = =
After the death of Theodosius I in 395 AD , the Roman Empire was divided into a western and an eastern empire . The Lebanese cities were attached to the latter , and converted to Christianity which became the state religion in 392 . The emperor ordered the destruction of pagan temples , but cults like those of Adonis and Jupiter Heliopolitanus were kept alive by the local population and survived in some form for centuries .
Artifacts from the Byzantine period ( 395 – 636 AD ) include :
the " Jealousy " mosaic : Beirut
elements of a church chancel : marble , Beirut
coins and jewelry collection
= = = Arab conquest , Mamluk period = = =
The Arab conquest of Lebanon was completed in 637 AD . The expansion of the coastal cities , which had slowed down after earthquakes in the 6th century , revived during the Umayyad period . Their harbors and shipyards showed renewed activity , and the hinterland saw extensive irrigation work for agriculture .
Lebanon was directly affected by the various dynastic changes which brought to power successively the Umayyads , Abbasids , Fatimids , Seljuks , Ayyubids and Mamluks . During this long period , Islam spread and Arabic became the language of the administration , then progressively replaced local dialects among the population . Artifacts from the Mamluk period ( 636 – 1516 AD ) include coins , gold jewelry , and glazed terracotta bowls .
= = Publications = =
Maurice Chehab initiated in 1936 the museum 's first publication , the Bulletin du Musée de Beyrouth ( " Beirut Museum Bulletin " ) , which reached 36 volumes before publication was stopped in 1986 by the civil war . The journal covered archaeological finds , sites and ancient civilizations . In 1995 the Museum and the Lebanese British Friends of the National Museum foundation resumed publication of a bi @-@ annual journal entitled Archaeology and History in Lebanon ( ISSN 1475 @-@ 5564 ) . BAAL ( " Bulletin d ’ Archéologie et d ’ Architecture Libanaise " – Lebanese Archaeology and Architecture Bulletin ) is an annual journal issued by the Directorate General of Antiquities in cooperation with the Lebanese Ministry of Culture in keeping in the tradition of the Beirut Museum Bulletin . The first volume of BAAL was issued in 1996 ; the journal publishes research papers , excavations and archaeological surveys and reports .
= = Location and facilities = =
The museum is located in Beirut 's Mazra 'a district on the intersection of Abdallah al @-@ Yafi avenue and Damascus road ; it is flanked by the Beirut hippodrome and the Directorate General of Antiquities building . The museum 's ground floor houses a restoration lab , a small theater and a gift shop . < / ref name = " Museum " >
= = Gallery = =
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= You Don 't Know Anything =
" You Don 't Know Anything " is a song recorded by American indie rock band Ivy . It was released by Atlantic Records on April 29 , 1999 as the fourth and final single from their second studio album , Apartment Life ( 1997 ) . The single was made available exclusively in Europe and featured the same two B @-@ sides as previous single , " This Is the Day " , which had been released by 550 Music in Austria . The track was written by Dominique Durand , Adam Schlesinger and Andy Chase while production was handled by the latter two and Peter Nashel .
Released alongside " This Is the Day " , " You Don 't Know Anything " received promotion by Atlantic Records after the former track was included on the soundtrack for the 1998 film , There 's Something About Mary . The recording received generally favorable reviews from music critics who compared the song to the works of Irish rock group My Bloody Valentine .
= = Background and composition = =
" You Don 't Know Anything " was written by Ivy band members Dominique Durand , Adam Schlesinger and Andy Chase . The production of the track was handled by Chase and Schlesinger , with additional production provided by Peter Nashel . Musically , " You Don 't Know Anything " is a pop rock / indie rock song , also incorporating elements of indie pop and guitar accords . Lyrically , the song discusses a lover being " clueless " and " in the wrong " .
The single was heavily compared to My Bloody Valentine ; in their review of the track , Sputnikmusic stated that it " comes off like a My Bloody Valentine song with intelligible vocals , with a sliding , reverb heavy hook and pummeling drums " , while AllMusic writer Jack Rabid drew similar comparisons . Patrick Carmosino of West Net stated that with " You Don 't Know Anything " , Ivy " have an indie @-@ ethic rock side that compliments their pop sensibilities to the tee " .
= = Release = =
The recording was released simultaneously with the release of the single " This Is the Day " ; this occurred after the latter track was featured in the 1998 film , There 's Something About Mary . " You Don 't Know Anything " was released as a CD single exclusively in European countries ; the CD included two B @-@ side tracks , " Sleeping Late " and " Sweet Mary " .
= = Critical reception = =
" You Don 't Know Anything " received generally positive reviews from music critics . Stephen Thompson of The A.V. Club praised the track and Apartment Life for " sound [ ing ] slickly pretty and mannered " . A reviewer from Sputnikmusic also enjoyed the recording , calling it a " mid @-@ album stand out " , while AllMusic named the song " a knockout " and praised it for having " the guitars get mean " . Reviewer Scott Floman was more mixed with his review , finding the track to " pass by pleasantly but unremarkably " .
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits and personnel adapted from " You Don 't Know Anything " liner notes and Andy Chase 's discography .
Recording
Recorded at The Place , New York City ; Duotone Studios , New York City ; and Compositions , New York City
Personnel
= = Release history = =
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= Heartbreak Hotel =
" Heartbreak Hotel " is a song recorded by American singer Elvis Presley . It was released as a single on January 27 , 1956 , Presley 's first on his new record label RCA Victor . It was written by Tommy Durden and Mae Boren Axton .
A newspaper article about the suicide of a lonely man who jumped from a hotel window inspired the lyrics . Axton presented the song to Presley in November 1955 at a country music convention in Nashville . Presley agreed to record it , and did so on January 10 , 1956 , in a session with his band , the Blue Moon Boys , the guitarist Chet Atkins , and the pianist Floyd Cramer . " Heartbreak Hotel " comprises an eight @-@ bar blues progression , with heavy reverberation throughout the track , to imitate the character of Presley 's Sun recordings .
The single topped Billboard 's Top 100 chart for seven weeks , Cashbox 's pop singles chart for six weeks , was number one on the Country and Western chart for seventeen weeks and reached number three on the R & B chart , becoming Presley 's first million @-@ seller , and one of the best @-@ selling singles of 1956 . " Heartbreak Hotel " achieved unheard of feats as it reached the top 5 of Country and Western , pop , and Rhythm ' n ' Blues charts simultaneously . It would eventually be certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America . Presley had first performed " Heartbreak Hotel " during a live show in December 1955 during a tour of the Louisiana Hayride , but the song gained strong popularity after his appearance on Stage Show in March 1956 . It became a staple of Presley 's repertoire in live appearances , last performed by him on May 29 , 1977 , at the Civic Center in Baltimore , Maryland .
In 1995 " Heartbreak Hotel " was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame , and in 2004 Rolling Stone magazine named it one of the " 500 Greatest Songs of All Time " . That year it was also included in the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame 's " 500 Songs that Shaped Rock and Roll " . A rock and roll standard , since its original release " Heartbreak Hotel " has been covered by several rock and pop acts , including Willie Nelson and Leon Russell , who recorded a duet version that topped the Country charts in 1979 .
= = Background and writing = =
The song was written in 1955 , by Mae Boren Axton , a high school teacher with a background in musical promotion , and Jacksonville based singer – songwriter Tommy Durden . The lyrics were based on a report supposedly in The Miami Herald about a man who had destroyed all his identity papers and jumped to his death from a hotel window , leaving a suicide note with the single line , " I walk a lonely street " . In 2016 , an article in Rolling Stone magazine suggested that the story in reality originated from a report about a painter and petty criminal , Alvin Krolik , whose marriage had failed and who wrote a partial autobiography including the line " This is the story of a person who walked a lonely street . " Krolik 's story was published in news media , and received further publicity after he was shot and killed in an attempted robbery in El Paso , Texas . On August 25 , 1955 , the El Paso Times reported Krolik 's death under the headline " Story Of Person Who Walked Lonely Street " .
Axton and Durden give different accounts of how the song was written . Durden 's account is that he had already written the song and performed it with his band the Swing Billys before he presented it to Axton . Axton 's account is that Durden had only written a few lines of the song and asked her to help him finish it . She says that the report of the suicide " stunned " her , and she told Durden , " Everybody in the world has someone who cares . Let 's put a Heartbreak Hotel at the end of this lonely street " . They were interrupted by the arrival of Glen Reeves , a local performer who had previously worked with Axton . The duo asked Reeves to help with the song , but after hearing the title he remarked that it was " the silliest thing I 've ever heard " , and left them to finish it themselves . The song was written within an hour , and Durden recorded it onto Axton 's tape recorder . Reeves returned , and after hearing the song he was asked to provide a voice demo for Axton in the style of Elvis Presley . Reeves obliged , but once again turned down the offer of a writing credit for his input .
Axton approached the popular singing duo the Wilburn Brothers , and offered them the chance to record " Heartbreak Hotel " . However , Doyle and Teddy Wilburn declined , describing the song as " strange and almost morbid " . Axton , however , agreed to a publishing deal with Buddy Killen , a young Nashville bass player , who had recently set up his own publishing company called Tree Publishing . With a publishing deal in place , Axton arranged through Presley 's manager Colonel Tom Parker to present the song to Presley at the annual Country Music Disc Jockey Convention in Nashville , Tennessee , where he was to be named the most promising male country star of 1955 . Axton had been hired earlier in the year to publicise the Hank Snow Jamboree concerts at the Gator Bowl Stadium in Jacksonville , Florida , which included Presley in the line up . During one concert Axton observed the reaction of the audience to Presley 's performance , in which a crowd of screaming fans chased him back to his dressing room and ripped his clothes off to take as souvenirs . Axton followed Presley 's career closely after this incident , and met him at a July 28 concert in Jacksonville , this time interviewing him for the local media . According to author Albert Goldman , Axton made writing Presley 's first big hit one of her ambitions .
Rumors had been circulating in the press for several weeks that Presley , who had begun his career at Sun Records , was ready to move to RCA Victor to help launch him nationally . Axton played the demo to him in his room at the Andrew Jackson Hotel on November 10 , 1955 . Upon hearing the demo , Presley exclaimed " Hot dog , Mae , play that again ! " , and listened to it ten times , memorizing the song . After signing with RCA on November 21 , 1955 , Presley accepted Axton 's offer of a third of the royalties if he made the song his first single on his new label . Presley performed the song for the first time in Swifton , Arkansas on December 9 , 1955 , and declared to the audience that it would be his first hit .
= = Recording = =
" Heartbreak Hotel " was the second song Presley recorded at RCA Victor , following " I Got a Woman " , during his debut session at 1525 McGavock Street in Nashville on January 10 , 1956 . Presley arrived at the studio with the song ready to record without seeking RCA 's approval , and although producer Steve Sholes was not sure that it would be a success , he recorded " Heartbreak Hotel " believing that Presley knew what he was doing . Recording at RCA Victor was a different experience for Presley and his band , who were used to a more relaxed atmosphere at Sun Studio . Guitar player Scotty Moore later commented , " It was a larger studio than Sun 's and more regimented - they called everything by a tape number . We would sit around at Sun , eat hamburgers and then somebody would say , ' Let 's try something . ' "
Almost immediately Sholes discovered a problem while recording Presley . RCA Victor had always insisted their performers stay still as they sang so the microphone would pick up the vocals ; even the slightest tilt of the head would result in missing sound . Sholes had told Presley to stand on a painted X on the floor , telling him " Whatever you do , don 't move " . During the recording of " I Got a Woman " , Sholes noticed that Presley 's voice and guitar were not always being picked up by the microphone . Presley explained to Sholes that he had to " jump around to sing it right . It 's something that just happens — just a part of the way I sing " . Sholes arranged for the whole studio to be re @-@ miked so that Presley 's voice and guitar could be picked up from anywhere in the studio , and recording continued .
As well as the Blue Moon Boys , his regular backing band of Moore , bassist Bill Black and drummer D.J. Fontana , Presley was joined by established RCA Victor musicians Chet Atkins ( who also helped Sholes produce the session ) on guitar , and Floyd Cramer on piano . Following a suggestion from Presley , Sholes used a hallway at the studio to get an unusual echo for the single . Sholes was attempting to recapture the Sun Records sound , but he was unaware that Sun founder Sam Phillips had used two tape recorders and a slight time delay to create it on previous Presley recordings . When Phillips first heard " Heartbreak Hotel " , he remarked that it was a " morbid mess " . Most others at RCA agreed , declaring " Heartbreak Hotel " a terrible choice of song , especially after hearing that the finished recording sounded nothing like Presley 's Sun recordings . Internal memos from the time show that every one of RCA 's executive corps disliked it so much that one of them insisted " We certainly can 't release that one " .
In an interview , Durden conceded that he did not recognize his song after Presley had made the changes to it in the studio , including the tempo , phrasing , lyrics , and overall sound . In subsequent recordings , these major modifications to the existing material became a normal procedure for Presley who took over the role of producer , although Sholes was still credited . Speaking of Sholes ' producing credits , Phillips said " he was not a producer . Steve was just at every session " .
Mae Boren Axton was gulled by Elvis ' manager , Colonel Parker , into giving up a third of the song 's royalties to Elvis , as well as adding Elvis ' name to the list of songwriters for the song .
= = Release and reception = =
" Heartbreak Hotel " was released as a single on January 27 , 1956 , with B @-@ side " I Was the One " , a song that was also recorded during Presley 's RCA debut sessions . Billboard magazine praised it as " a strong blues item wrapped up in his usual powerful style and a great beat " . However , " Heartbreak Hotel " was less @-@ than @-@ warmly received by the British music press . The New Musical Express wrote that , " If you appreciate good singing , I don 't suppose you 'll manage to hear this disc all through " . BBC , which held a monopoly on broadcasting in Britain at the time , didn 't consider it fit for general entertainment and placed it on its " restricted play " list .
Presley made his national television debut on January 28 , appearing on CBS ' Stage Show , starring Tommy and Jimmy Dorsey . As Stage Show 's ratings had been slipping , producer Jack Philbin agreed to have Presley on because he was relatively cheap at $ 1 @,@ 250 ; after looking at a photograph of the singer , Philbin exclaimed , " He 's a guitar playing Marlon Brando ! " Despite the single having been released only a day before to coincide with Presley 's national television debut , the Dorsey brothers did not allow Presley to perform it on their show because it didn 't work well in rehearsals . For his second appearance , on February 4 , Presley was again aware that he could not perform " Heartbreak Hotel " . However , at his third appearance on Stage Show a week later , Sholes pressured CBS to give consent . Subsequently , Presley and his band performed " Heartbreak Hotel " with borrowed instruments ( their own were being driven to Florida in preparation for a tour ) with the backing of the Dorsey Brothers ' orchestra .
On February 22 , the song entered the Billboard pop chart at number 68 , and the Country and Western chart at number nine . Within two months , " Heartbreak Hotel " reached number one on both charts . It also made top five on the R & B chart , the first Presley single to chart there . This resulted in " Heartbreak Hotel " becoming only the second single in history to reach all three Billboard charts , after Carl Perkins ' " Blue Suede Shoes " . The song spent a total of twenty @-@ seven weeks in the top 100 . By April , " Heartbreak Hotel " became a million @-@ seller , earning Presley his first RIAA @-@ certified gold record , and going on to be the biggest selling single of 1956 . " Heartbreak Hotel / I Was the One " was certified Platinum by on March 27 , 1992 and 2 × Platinum on July 15 , 1999 by the RIAA . The song made its debut on the UK Singles Chart in May 1956 ; it peaked at the second spot the next month and stayed on the charts for 22 weeks .
= = Personnel = =
Elvis Presley – lead vocals
Scotty Moore – electric guitar
Chet Atkins – acoustic guitar
Bill Black – double bass
D.J. Fontana – drums
Floyd Cramer – piano
Steve Sholes – producer , A & R
Bob Farris – engineer
= = Legacy = =
Presley would perform the song during most of his live shows between 1956 and 1977 , performing it for the last time on May 29 , 1977 , at the Civic Center in Baltimore , Maryland . The song has been released on almost every Presley compilation album since 1956 , and alternative takes have also surfaced on several compilation albums . " Heartbreak Hotel " was awarded by the Broadcast Music Incorporated in its Country music Awards . It was re @-@ released in 1971 for the UK market where it charted at number ten . In 1979 , following Presley 's death , author Robert Matthew @-@ Walker wrote " Heartbreak Hotel became one of the legendary rock performances . For many people it is Elvis Presley , and it continues to excite and fascinate listeners . Heartbreak Hotel is a classic performance , yet when it is analyzed it appears so simple that one cannot recall a time when one did not know it . " In 1995 , the song was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame , and was re @-@ released in 1996 to coincide with the fortieth anniversary of its recording .
In a 1975 interview , John Lennon recalled his friend Don Beatty introducing him to Presley 's music . Lennon said that his family rarely had the radio on , unlike other members of the Beatles who grew up under its influence . Beatty showed Lennon a picture of Presley that appeared along with the charts on the New Musical Express , and Lennon later heard " Heartbreak Hotel " on Radio Luxembourg . Lennon has said :
When I first heard " Heartbreak Hotel " , I could hardly make out what was being said . It was just the experience of hearing it and having my hair stand on end . We 'd never heard American voices singing like that . They always sang like Sinatra or enunciate very well . Suddenly , there 's this hillbilly hiccuping on tape echo and all this bluesy stuff going on . And we didn 't know what Elvis was singing about ... It took us a long time to work what was going on . To us , it just sounded as a noise that was great
George Harrison described " Heartbreak Hotel " as a " rock n roll epiphany " when in 1956 , at age 13 , he overheard it while riding his bike at a neighbor 's house . Some have said that " Heartbreak Hotel " turned that well @-@ mannered schoolboy into a guitar @-@ crazed truant who would audition for John Lennon 's Quarrymen the following year .
The Rolling Stones ' guitarist Keith Richards wrote in his 2010 autobiography that " Heartbreak Hotel " had had a huge effect on him . Beyond Presley 's singing itself , it was the total effect of his sound and his silence that so totally affected Richards :
Then , " Since my baby left me " — it was just the sound ... That was the first rock and roll I heard . It was a totally different way of delivering a song , a totally different sound , stripped down , no bullshit , no violins and ladies ' choruses and schmaltz , totally different . It was bare right to the roots that you had a feeling were there but hadn 't yet heard . I 've got to take my hat off to Elvis . The silence is your canvas , that 's your frame , that 's what you work on ; don 't try and deafen it out . That 's what " Heartbreak Hotel " did to me . It was the first time I 'd heard something so stark .
Led Zeppelin 's lead singer Robert Plant stated that the song " changed his life . " He recalled hearing it for the first time when he was eight years old :
It was so animal , so sexual , the first musical arousal I ever had . You could see a twitch in everybody my age . All we knew about the guy was that he was cool , handsome and looked wild .
Critic Robert Cantwell wrote in his unpublished memoir Twigs of Folly :
The opening strains of " Heartbreak Hotel " , which catapulted Presley 's regional popularity into national hysteria , opened a fissure in the massive mile @-@ thick wall of post @-@ war regimentation , standardization , bureaucratization , and commercialization in American society and let come rushing through the rift a cataract from the immense waters of sheer , human pain and frustration that have been building up for ten decades behind it .
President Bill Clinton performed the song on saxophone during his appearance on The Arsenio Hall Show on June 3 , 1992 . In 2004 it was ranked number forty @-@ five on Rolling Stone 's list of " The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time " , the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame included it in its unranked list 500 Songs that Shaped Rock and Roll and in 2005 , Uncut magazine ranked the first performance of " Heartbreak Hotel " in 1956 by Presley as the second greatest and most important cultural event of the rock and roll era . Paul McCartney , who participated in Uncut 's poll stated , " It 's the way [ Presley ] sings it as if he is singing from the depths of hell . His phrasing , use of echo , it 's all so beautiful . Musically , it 's perfect . "
Heartbreak Hotel , a film based on a mythical incident involving the kidnapping of Presley , was released theatrically in 1988 . It starred David Keith as Elvis Presley , and was directed by Chris Columbus . In 1999 , Elvis Presley Enterprises purchased a Wilson World Hotel branch and after several renovations , opened it and named the hotel after the song , located across the street from Presley 's home , Graceland , in Memphis , Tennessee .
In 2015 , " Heartbreak Hotel " was named as The # 2 Song of the Rock Era in the book The Top 500 Songs of the Rock Era : 1955 @-@ 2015 .
= = Early cover versions = =
Radio humorist Stan Freberg parodied " Heartbreak Hotel " immediately after its release , because the vocals on the original record featured a heavy use of reverb . In the cover , the lead singer repeatedly asks for " more echo on [ his ] voice . " When Presley recorded " Hound Dog " a few months later , he had taken over the role of producer , using what he learned at Sun Records ( although Sholes was still credited ) and decided not to use echo .
Connie Francis recorded the song for her 1959 album Rock ' n ' Roll Million Sellers ; this album also features " Don 't Be Cruel " . Country singer Johnny Cash parodied the song in 1959 on the television show Town Hall Party , imitating Presley 's characteristic crib and hip movements . Before the performance Cash explained that it was " an impersonation of a rock and roll singer impersonating Elvis , is what this really is " .
Beatles historian Mark Lewisohn noted that , at first as The Quarrymen then later as the Beatles , the group performed " Heartbreak Hotel " live from 1957 until 1961 ( in Liverpool then later in Hamburg and elsewhere ) . It is unclear whether the lead vocal was by John Lennon or Paul McCartney or both . A recorded version has not been forthcoming . However , McCartney ( using Bill Black 's upright bass ) did a version for a documentary Elvis - Viva Las Vegas , which also appears on DVD .
= = Later renditions = =
Part of the original personnel of the 1956 recording released their own versions , Chet Atkins recorded it for the 1963 album The Guitar Genius , and also , Presley 's lead guitarist Scotty Moore recorded the song for his 1964 album The Guitar that Changed the world . Willie Nelson and Leon Russell had a number one cover version in 1979 on the country charts , it was Russell 's only number one hit on the charts .
Paul McCartney later also made another cover of the song in Chaos and Creation at Abbey Road , performing it with Bill Black 's bass . Others who have covered the song include Ann @-@ Margret , who would later co @-@ star with Presley in the 1964 motion picture Viva Las Vegas , the Cadets , Delaney Bramlett , Justin Timberlake , Cher , Roger Miller , Bob Dylan , Bruce Springsteen , John Cale , Merle Haggard , Tom Jones , Dax Riggs , Roger McGuinn , Suzi Quatro , Van Halen , Jimi Hendrix , Neil Diamond , Lynyrd Skynyrd , and Guns N ' Roses .
In the 1992 film Honeymoon in Vegas , Billy Joel made a version of " Heartbreak Hotel " and " All Shook Up " , while the same year in True Romance , actor Val Kilmer performed an a cappella version . Nicole Kidman and Hugh Jackman covered the song in a medley with Prince 's " Kiss " , for the 2006 Warner Bros. film Happy Feet . The song was also featured in Alvin and the Chipmunks ' 1990 television special Rockin ' Through the Decades , as part of the fifties medley and its soundtrack and again for the 2007 video game Alvin and the Chipmunks .
= = Charts = =
= = = Elvis Presley = = =
= = = Willie Nelson and Leon Russell = = =
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= St Kilda , South Australia =
St Kilda is a seaside suburb in Adelaide , South Australia . St Kilda has a small number of houses and a 2006 population of 246 . There is a single connecting road to the rest of Adelaide which , where the road enters the suburb 's residential area , is surrounded by salt crystallisation lagoons used in the manufacture of soda ash . The inhabited section of the suburb occupies less than 100 hectares along the seafront , with the remainder used for salt lagoons and also settlement ponds of nearby Bolivar sewage treatment works .
What was originally a seaside town was named by John Harvey , the founder of nearby Salisbury , as it reminded him of St Kilda in the Outer Hebrides of Scotland with its similar abundance of birdlife . St Kilda is an internationally recognised bird watching area with over 100 species of birds feeding in and around the mudflats , salt Lagoons , mangroves and seagrass beds . The suburb is home to a number of tourist attractions , including an adventure playground , tram museum , mangrove forest walk and an abundance of birdlife .
= = History = =
The suburb was originally three low lying islands that were covered in shell grit and saltbush and surrounded by mangrove and samphire swamps . Fishermen had established huts on the islands by 1865 and by 1873 there were 13 huts and a boathouse recorded when the area was surveyed by Thomas Evans . By the 1890s people were visiting the islands attracted to the supposed curative properties of the mangrove mud , using the beach for bathing and fishing for crabs .
St Kilda was proclaimed a town on 31 July 1893 with sales of the first allotments made on the same day . In 1886 it became part of the Munno Para West District Council area , moving to the district of Salisbury on 1 July 1933 along with most of the Munno Para West area . The islands were extensively modified after floods in 1948 and 1957 which cut off St Kilda from the rest of Adelaide . Salisbury council began building up the area , expanding seawalls and reclaiming additional land by dumping of earth spoil .
The St Kilda Hotel , built out of limestone from east of what is now Elizabeth , opened in 1898 with Matthias Lucas as the first publican and remains the suburb 's only hotel . A school opened in October 1902 , where the tram museum is now sited , admitting students in November of the same year . The school was closed from 1917 to 1924 and finally closed permanently in 1949 with students moving to Salisbury North Primary School and the building eventually being used at Virginia Primary School . In 1924 a telegraph office opened in Shell Street and , due to the suburb of St Kilda in Melbourne having the same name , the post office service requested that the name be changed . Over some local objections the name was changed to Moilong ( a Kaurna word for Where the tide comes in ) but this was reversed after local protests . Moilong Telegraph Office opened in 1924 , was upgraded to a post office in 1945 , renamed Saint Kilda in 1965 and closed in 1974 .
St Kilda 's population has never been large with 50 non @-@ permanent residents counted in the 1901 census , 68 ( including 20 permanent ) in 1911 , 30 total residents in 1933 , 80 in 2002 and increasing to 246 by 2006 .
= = Features = =
= = = Adventure Playground = = =
St Kilda 's adventure playground covers 4 hectares along the seafront and is one of South Australia 's best known . The playground has a constructed shipwreck , wooden castle , huge slides , a spiral slide inside a hill , flying foxes and numerous other pieces of play equipment , with South Australian children naming it in 2002 as the best adventure park in the state .
The park was conceived by the Lions club of Salisbury and funded through club fundraising activities , council matching funding and government employment schemes providing free labour . It was opened by Salisbury mayor Ron White on 24 October 1982 and has had recent upgrades to the park , including a shaded set of equipment shaped like a submarine for younger children , and the building of a small maze .
= = = St Kilda Boat Club and marina = = =
St Kilda has an extensive marina with floating moorings for about 50 boats , two boat ramps and a sheltered channel out into the Barker Inlet , part of Gulf St Vincent . Recently expanded the marina now has hard stands for boats and some slipping facilities .
The boat club was founded as the " St Kilda Boatowners Association Incorporated " in 1964 , after permission was gained from the council and landowners to develop St Kilda tidal creek as the area lacked boat launching facilities . The creek was straightened and deepened repeatedly , originally by hand , and a causeway extended out to sea to protect the channel . A new clubhouse was opened by MP Lynn Arnold in 1980 and the latest boat ramp in 2002 by the mayor of Salisbury Tony Zappia .
= = = Saltwater lagoons = = =
Large , constructed saltwater evaporation lagoons surround the only road into the suburb . Imperial Chemical Industries ( ICI ) began construction of the Solar Evaporation Lagoons in 1935 using up to 600 workers to dig out the lagoons by hand and then expanded them mechanically after World War II . The lagoons stretch in a broken chain from Dry Creek to Port Gawler alongside the Barker Inlet , and are approximately 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) north – south by 3 kilometres ( 2 mi ) east – west . The lagoons are filled in spring and salt normally harvested in autumn when it is piped as saturated brine solution to Osborne on the Le Fevre peninsula , and used by Penrice Soda Products in the only soda ash production facility in Australia . The lagoons proliferate with bird life and have been recognised as a bird sanctuary due to their status as an important breeding and feeding area for species from as far away as Alaska . As of 2006 the Lagoons are operated by Cheetham Salt Limited with 600 @,@ 000 tonnes of salt used by Penrice in creating soda ash via the solvay process .
= = = Mangrove trail and interpretative centre = = =
St Kilda is adjacent to the mangrove forest bordering Barker Inlet , part of the largest tidal estuary of Gulf St Vincent . Late in the 19th Century embankments were constructed through the mangroves in an effort to reclaim land for pasturing . With the construction of the banks of the adjacent saltfields maintenance of the embankments ceased and the mangroves began to reclaim them . One of these embankments is used as the beginning of a boardwalk through the mangroves which forms a 1 @.@ 7 km loop through the samphire saltmarsh flats and mangroves reaching the border between the ocean and forest .
The boardwalk was constructed in 1984 by the City of Salisbury to encourage appreciation of the mangrove 's ecological importance . On 29 April 1995 , South Australian Premier Dean Brown and federal MP Chris Schacht opened the St Kilda Interpretative Centre at the entrance to the boardwalk which showcases the flora , fauna and processes within the mangrove forest . Since 1997 the mangrove trail has been privately managed , hosting school visits as well as casual visitors .
The boardwalk is within the barker inlet aquatic reserve , where the taking of crabs shellfish and plants is prohibited and pets are not allowed . The mangroves , saltmarsh and adjacent lagoons form a habitat for over 200 bird species with the mangroves being part of a nursery area for most of the commercial and recreational fish species of Gulf St Vincent . The 2005 Adelaide Dolphin Sanctuary Act established a sanctuary for the Bottlenose dolphins that live in the inlet and adjacent Port River . The sanctuary 's northern extent is the boat channel and dolphins can sometimes be seen at high tide in the tidal creeks passing under the boardwalk .
= = = Tramway museum = = =
Adelaide had an extensive tram system , beginning as horse trams in 1878 , moving to electric trams in 1909 and reduced in 1958 to a single tram line which then ran from Adelaide 's Central Business District to Glenelg . Built on the site of the 1902 school , the Adelaide Tramway Museum at St Kilda showcases trams and trolleybuses that were either used or built in Adelaide . The museum is operated by the Australian Electric Transport Museum ( SA ) Inc , a not @-@ for @-@ profit volunteer organisation accredited with the History Trust of South Australia and dedicated to preserving and restoring Adelaide ’ s former transport vehicles . The museum houses over 30 electric trams , horse trams and electric trolley buses , many of which are restored and operational . Visitors can ride the electric trams along 2 km of purpose @-@ built track that runs between the museum and the adventure playground .
Work commenced in 1958 with the arrival of donated vehicles , the first of which was an old trolley bus from the Municipal Tramways Trust , and the museum was opened in 1967 as a static display . Workshops were built to enable the restoration of the old trams to operating condition and , in 2001 a large additional museum building was completed so as to house the increasing number of donated trams .
ICI , then operator of the salt lagoons , donated land for the tramway to run down the side of the main St Kilda road between the museum and the sea with funding obtained from the State Unemployment Relief Scheme . The tramway opened for trials in 1973 and was officially opened in 1974 by Harry Bowey , mayor of Salisbury , and Frank Kneebone , Minister for Lands , to coincide with St Kilda 's centenary .
The tram used in the opening ceremonies and now housed at the museum was Adelaide 's first electric tram , which had its trial run on 30 November 1908 and first operated in 1909 . The museum 's collection continues to expand with Adelaide tram 104 the latest acquisition . After spending 48 years as a shack on the Yorke Peninsula it will be stored , and possibly restored , at the museum on behalf of the Sydney tramway museum .
= = Flora and fauna = =
Flora
The mangroves found on the coastline of St Kilda consist of a single species , Avicennia marina var resinifera . In the upper intertidal zone mangroves are reduced in size landwards and give way to a variety of samphire species , including beaded glasswort ( Tecticornia flabelliformis ) and blackseed glasswort ( Tecticornia pergranulata ) as well as saltbush on the saltflats of the supratidal zone . Nitre bush grows on the highest parts of the seawall and the abundant summer fruits provide a food source for birds .
Fauna
St Kilda is part of a nursery area for many of the commercially important fish and crustaceans in South Australian including King George whiting , western king prawns and blue swimmer crabs . There are brown snakes and skinks in dense bushes along the top of the embankments .
Each year in late summer thousands of black swans and ducks descend on the area as the inland waterways they inhabit dry up . Waterbirds such as pelicans , cormorants , oyster catchers and terns are common often year round . Egrets , ibis , herons and spoonbills feed on the seagrass and fairy wrens , chats , fantails and thornbills feed on insects and plants amongst the samphire . Each September stints and sandpipers arrive from the Northern Hemisphere in a spectacular display . With the abundance of birdlife the area attracts birds of prey with swamp harriers , collared sparrowhawks , black @-@ shouldered kites , kestrels and little falcons are all seen in the skies over St Kilda .
The salt lagoons , mangroves and samphire wetlands are recognised as important areas for migratory birds by their coverage under the China @-@ Australia and Japan @-@ Australia migratory bird agreements . The agreements are treaties created to for the protection of the birds and their environment .
= = Geography = =
St Kilda is a flat , low lying suburb mostly less than 2 metres ( 6 ft 7 in ) above sea level , dominated by the salt lagoons managed by Cheetham Salt , and the treatment ponds of SA Water 's nearby Bolivar sewage works . The lagoons , ponds and surrounding land are fenced off and generally closed to the public .
Transport
St Kilda road is the only access road and connects to Port Wakefield road at Waterloo Corner . St Kilda can be driven to from Salisbury in approximately 10 minutes and from Adelaide 's CBD in 30 minutes . There are no scheduled bus services with the nearest public transport the Transadelaide 900 bus route which passes along Port Wakefield road , 2 kilometres outside the suburb 's boundary .
Weather
Adelaide has a Mediterranean climate with St Kilda being slightly hotter and dryer than the Adelaide average . Summer daytime temperatures can be expected to exceed 40 ° C on 4 days of the year . Conversely , nighttime temperatures in winter are expected to drop below 0 ° C on 1 day , although generally the season is mild with moderate rainfall .
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= Mercury Hayes =
Mercury Wayne Hayes ( born January 1 , 1973 ) is a former professional American football and Canadian football wide receiver , kickoff returner , and punt returner . He has played in the National Football League ( NFL ) for the New Orleans Saints and Atlanta Falcons , and he has played in the Canadian Football League ( CFL ) for the Montreal Alouettes . Prior to his professional football experience he was a University of Michigan Wolverines football star . He was drafted with the 136th overall pick in the 5th round of the 1996 National Football League draft .
Although he had a modest professional career , he was involved in many of the University of Michigan 's most memorable football moments . He is notable for his game @-@ winning catch in the 1995 Pigskin Classic against the University of Virginia . Hayes also once held the Michigan record for consecutive games with a reception ( 30 ) . Hayes was a member of the 1992 Big Ten Champions who won the 1993 Rose Bowl . He had attended Booker T. Washington High School in Houston , Texas .
= = College career = =
After attending Booker T. Washington High School in Houston , Hayes , son of Richard Hayes , was recruited by several college football programs . He selected the University of Michigan over several elite football programs , including the Colorado Buffaloes , Florida State Seminoles , Arkansas Razorbacks , and USC Trojans . During Hayes ' Michigan Wolverines career , the team 's best finish was as 1992 Big Ten Conference Champions , when coached by Gary Moeller . During that year , the team finished ranked fifth nationally in both the Associated Press college football final poll and the CNN / USA Today college football final poll , and the team beat the Washington Huskies 38 – 31 in the January 1 , 1993 Rose Bowl in a game that is memorable for Tyrone Wheatley 's MVP performance . Hayes had a 10 @-@ yard reception during the game .
Hayes ' 179 @-@ yard performance against the Virginia Cavaliers was the 1995 single @-@ game high by any of the Wolverines wide receivers , tight ends and running backs , which included Amani Toomer , Jay Riemersma , Chris Howard , Jerame Tuman , Tshimanga Biakabutuka , Tai Streets and Chris Floyd . The effort tied Jack Clancy 's 1966 single @-@ game total and Amani Toomer 's 1994 single @-@ game total for fourth on the Michigan all @-@ time single game reception yards list . It is worth noting that Clancy is the Michigan all @-@ time single @-@ game yardage recordholder at 197 yards . Braylon Edwards and Tai Streets have since surpassed 179 yards , in 2004 and 1998 respectively , to move the trio down to sixth . Hayes ' 48 receptions and 923 yards also led all Wolverines in receiving for the 1995 season . At the end of his Michigan career , Hayes ' 923 yards ranked sixth on the single @-@ season yardage list , but it is now fifteenth . His 2144 career yards ranked fifth and now ranks eleventh . The quarterbacks during his 1995 season were Brian Griese and Scott Dreisbach . Other quarterbacks during his collegiate career were Todd Collins and Elvis Grbac .
In 1995 , Hayes established the Michigan football record for most consecutive games with a reception by stringing together thirty such games . His record was broken by Marquise Walker 's 32 games in 2001 and later surpassed by Braylon Edwards 's 38 games and Jason Avant 's 35 games . Hayes ranks tenth in career yards per reception at 17 @.@ 3 and eleventh in career all @-@ purpose yards . He is listed prominently among Michigan 's all @-@ time leaders in kickoff returns and yards as well as total returns ( kickoff , punt , fumble and interception ) and return yards .
Amani Toomer and Hayes were the fourth pair of Michigan receivers to have played together with 2000 career reception yards . With 2 @,@ 144 career yards and 124 receptions he ranks 10th and 12th on the All @-@ time Michigan lists 2 yards behind Desmond Howard and 1 reception behind Derrick Alexander respectively .
= = Notable games = =
Hayes , who wore # 9 for the Michigan Wolverines from 1992 to 1995 , was recruited by University of Colorado , Florida State University , University of Arkansas , and University of Southern California . The University of Colorado was so interested in having him in the 1992 incoming class with Koy Detmer and Rashaan Salaam that they reserved their 25th scholarship for him , hoping he would change his mind after having committed to Michigan .
In the September 24 , 1994 Miracle at Michigan , # 7 @-@ ranked Colorado , with former Michigan coaching staff member Bill McCartney as their coach , exacted their revenge on # 4 @-@ ranked Michigan . Kordell Stewart completed a 64 @-@ yard hail mary pass to Detroit native Michael Westbrook against Ty Law and Chuck Winters as time expired to complete a miracle 27 – 26 comeback . In the game , Hayes had 3 receptions for 62 yards as well as a run for 14 yards . He also returned 3 kickoffs for 54 yards . The ending of this game has been described as one of the two wildest finishes in University of Michigan Football history .
Hayes is notable for his 7 @-@ reception 179 @-@ yard performance culminating in a game @-@ winning , fourth down , time expired 15 @-@ yard touchdown catch on August 26 , 1995 from Scott Dreisbach to seal an 18 – 17 win in Michigan 's greatest comeback , a record that stood for eight years until 2003 , when the Wolverines pulled off a 21 @-@ point comeback against Minnesota . The reception was recorded against University of Virginia Cavaliers defensive backs Ronde Barber and Paul London in the Pigskin Classic to complete what was at the time the largest comeback in Michigan Football history in Lloyd Carr 's coaching debut . The game constituted the other of the two wildest finishes in Michigan Football history .
Hayes is notable as one of the victims of Beaver Stadium attendees ' ice and snowball hurling on November 18 , 1995 . In the game , Hayes caught 6 receptions for 132 yards and had 3 kickoff returns for 48 yards . The game ended as a 27 – 17 loss to the Penn State Nittany Lions .
Hayes also had season highs in reception yards as a freshman and sophomore against his hometown Houston Cougars football team . As a sophomore , he totalled 127 yards on six receptions ; three punt returns for 38 yards ; and two kickoff returns for 54 yards in a 42 – 21 win on September 25 , 1993 . The game included Hayes ' longest punt return as a Wolverine ( 26 yards ) and represented Hayes career high in all @-@ purpose yards . The game was also Hayes ' third highest receiving yards total and the highest total he would have until his senior season . The freshman game , Michigan 's third of the season , marked Hayes ' debut as a kickoff returner .
= = Professional career = =
The 1996 NFL draft was a quality draft for wide receivers . Among the wide receivers drafted that year were first rounders Keyshawn Johnson , Terry Glenn , Eddie Kennison , Marvin Harrison and Eric Moulds . Additionally , Bobby Engram , Terrell Owens , Muhsin Muhammad , Joe Horn and former Michigan teammate Amani Toomer were also drafted that year . Hayes was the first of three 1996 fifth round picks by the Saints . He was drafted just after Pro Bowl wide receiver Joe Horn , the 135th pick . Mercury Hayes ' NFL career longest reception of 50 yards , caught in week 14 of the 1996 National Football League season in a 26 – 10 loss to the St. Louis Rams , was the first NFL pass by Doug Nussmeier ( Nussmeier 's second pass was his only touchdown completion ) . Although Hayes only compiled 4 receptions for 101 yards ; 2 rushes for 7 yards and 2 kickoff returns for 30 yards while appearing in 7 games , he earned nearly $ 39 @,@ 000 in bonus money over the course of his rookie season . Hayes started the 1997 National Football League season on the New Orleans Saints ' roster and appeared in 4 games .
Hayes signed with the Atlanta Falcons on October 27 , 1997 and appeared in two games for the Falcons . He was released by the Falcons in the pre @-@ season of the following year . Hayes was picked up on September 18 , 1998 by the Washington Redskins and added to their practice squad , but was released 19 days later . In February 1999 , he was drafted by the Barcelona Dragons , but he was released from the team five weeks later .
Mercury Hayes was signed by the Montreal Alouettes in June 1999 . They released him in July and re @-@ signed him in August . His 2000 season began productively with an impressive pre @-@ season effort ( including 67 and 77 @-@ yard touchdown runs in the same quarter of one game ) followed by effective 65 @-@ yard and 68 @-@ yard regular season reception totals in early August . However , by the end of August , Hayes was on the sidelines nursing an injury . He failed to accumulate 259 yards receiving on the season , which would have placed him among the top 15 Canadian Football League receivers in yardage for the 2000 Canadian Football League season . In September , he was released from the team . In 2002 , he attempted comeback with the Norfolk Nighthawks of the af2 , and this was his last attempt at professional football .
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= Bømlafjord Tunnel =
The Bømlafjord Tunnel ( Norwegian : Bømlafjordtunnelen ) is a subsea road tunnel under Bømlafjorden which connects the island of Føyno in Stord to the mainland at Dalshovda in Sveio , Norway . The tunnel is 7 @.@ 82 kilometers ( 4 @.@ 86 mi ) long and reaches 260 @.@ 4 m ( 854 ft ) below mean sea level . It carries three lanes of European Road E39 and is part of the Triangle Link , a fixed link which connects Sunnhordland to Haugaland . Plans for the tunnel arose in the 1980s ; construction started in 1997 and the tunnel opened on 27 December 2000 . The tunnel was built using the drilling and blasting method , with two teams building from each end . The tunnel runs through an area composed mostly of gneiss , phyllite and greenstone . The tunnel is the longest subsea tunnel in Norway and was the second @-@ deepest in the world until 2008 . It is still ( 2013 ) the deepest point on the E @-@ road network . The tunnel was a toll road from the opening until 30 . April 2013 . In 2012 the tunnel had an average 4 @,@ 084 vehicles per day .
= = Planning = =
The background for the Triangle Link was the desire to have a fixed link between the islands of Stord and Bømlo . The first documented proposals were made in the 1960s and involved building a pontoon bridge across Stokksundet . Following the 1982 opening of the Vardø Tunnel — the first subsea tunnel in Norway — Engineer Finn Nitter d.e. proposed a fixed link between the two islands . It would have crossed Digernessundet on a suspension bridge and continued along a causeway and low bridge onwards to a 2 @.@ 2 @-@ kilometer @-@ long ( 1 @.@ 4 mi ) subsea tunnel under Spissøysundet and a low bridge over Gassasundet . In addition , a 7 @.@ 5 @-@ kilometer ( 4 @.@ 7 mi ) long tunnel would have been built from Føyno to Ulveråker in Sveio . The company Johannes Sørlie launched an all @-@ tunnel proposal in 1985 , estimated to cost 700 million Norwegian krone ( NOK ) and which would have resulted in 18 kilometers ( 11 mi ) of subsea tunnel connecting Bømlo , Stord and the mainland . An inter @-@ municipal committee was positive to the proposals , while Josef Martinsen , director of Hordaland Public Roads Administration , stated that the project was unrealistic . The limited company Ytre Sunnhordland Bru- og Tunnelselskap AS ( SBT ) was founded in October 1986 by the municipal authorities of Bømlo , Stord , Fitjar and Sveio , Hordaland County Municipality and five banks .
In December 1986 , the Public Roads Administration recommended a bridge . A report published by SBT in 1987 considered detailed plans for a subsea tunnel to the mainland , which was followed up by seismic surveys in the fjord . SBT changed its name to Sunnhordland Bru- og Tunnelselskap , and a majority of the board shifted towards being in favor of a fixed link . The Norwegian Coastal Administration stated that they would not allow a pontoon bridge , as it would interfere with ship traffic . On 26 June 1987 , SBT 's board decided to work towards getting permission to collect advanced tolls on the ferry services . On 16 September , they unanimously supported the triangular proposal , which was estimated to cost NOK 660 million . This was criticized by Hordaland Public Roads Administration , who stated that it would take longer time to plan , and thus complete , the Triangle Link .
From 1988 , environmental groups started opposing the Triangle Link . The most active was the local chapter of the Norwegian Society for the Conservation of Nature , who stated that the road would have a negative impact for local boat traffic to the recreational islands of Føyno and Nautøy . They therefore recommended that the municipalities select a pontoon bridge . Another opponent to the project was the Action Committee Against a Hasty Construction of the Triangle Link , who wanted to delay the decision until after the 1991 municipal elections to ensure that the municipal councils had backing in the public . Also Gisle Tjong , a local citizen , opposed the project , stating that the risk was too large and that it was uncertain how long the tolls would last . He argued that the tolls could just as well last 60 as 15 years . Instead , he wanted to use advanced tolls and fuel fees , place the income in the bank and then pay the whole fixed link with the saved @-@ up funds . Most of the opposition against the project was from Stord , while in Bømlo there was near consensus in favor of the project . The exception was in southern Bømlø , where there was concerns that their ferry service to the mainland would be terminated , which would result in considerably longer driving time to Haugesund . Concerns were also raised regarding people with fear of tunnels and proposals were made to keep a ferry service for such people .
The Triangle Link was passed by the various municipal councils in February and March 1988 . Hordaland Public Roads Administration still supported a pontoon bridge , and stated that two and a half years of work on a master plan had been wasted . A new master plan for the Triangle Link was published in early 1989 . It recommended that the Langevåg – Buavåg Ferry , which connected to southern Bømlo , remain , but that the other four ferry services be terminated . During late 1989 , advance tolls on the ferries was approved by the municipal councils and the county council , who recommended that collection start from 1 July 1990 . However , the start date was not supported by the national government and the issue placed on hold .
In July 1992 , the master plan was passed by the Council of State . On 10 December 1992 , Parliament approved advanced payment of tolls on the ferry , which were made effective from 1 January 1993 . Ticket prices increased with between NOK 10 and 12 . This resulted in protests from the ferry employees who stated that they would have to collect the tolls which would remove their jobs ; Norwegian Seafarers ' Union representatives stated that they considered suing the state . Work on the development plan started in 1992 . It included safety and environmental improvements which increased the project 's cost by NOK 200 million , and it was made subject to consultative statements in May 1994 . A report on the Coastal Highway ( E39 ) was published in 1995 , which recommended that the Skjersholmane – Valevåg Ferry be removed . Following a dispute regarding the impact of the bridge landing on Stord , SBT proposed building a culvert on Digernes as a compromise to avoid a new plan which could have postponed the project several years . On 11 June 1996 , Parliament decided with 144 against 20 votes to build the Triangel Link . The original name proposed for the tunnel was Sunnhordlandsporten ( " The Portal to Sunnhordland " ) , but this was changed to Bømlafjordtunnelen .
= = Construction = =
Geological sampling was undertaken by the Norwegian Geological Survey and Grøner , and included both core samples and reflection seismology . Late core samples showed that the tunnel would have to be located 30 meters ( 98 ft ) further down than originally planned to avoid deposits . The tunnel construction was awarded to two companies : the contract starting from Dalshovda in Sveio and was worked by the Public Roads Administration , while the tunneling from Føyno was worked by NCC . Both used the drilling and blasting method . NCC was awarded the contract after bidding NOK 175 million for the job . Construction from Sveio started on 16 September 1997 and from Føyno on 6 March 1998 . In all , 625 @,@ 000 cubic meters ( 22 @,@ 100 @,@ 000 cu ft ) of earthwork was extracted . The earthwork from the Føyno side was transported by bardge to Austevoll and used to build the Austevoll Bridge . The earthwork from the Sveio side was used to build roads and a golf course in the area . In average , the tunnel was built at a speed of 55 meters ( 180 ft ) per week , with the record being 96 @.@ 7 meters ( 317 ft ) . Between 30 and 40 people worked with the tunneling on each team . The lowest point was reached on 5 May 1999 and the breakthrough took place on 2 September 1999 , five months before schedule . Construction involved injection of 282 tonnes ( 278 long tons ; 311 short tons ) and spraying of 14 @,@ 900 cubic meters ( 530 @,@ 000 cu ft ) of gunite .
The tunnel was budgeted to cost NOK 496 million , but ended up costing NOK 487 million . It opened along with the Stord Bridge on 27 December 2000 . Six hours before the opening , the bottom of the tunnel was used for a wedding . The toll company held a course for people with fear of tunnels to master their fears , with 60 people participating . The official opening took place on 30 April 2001 . When it opened , it was the longest and second @-@ deepest subsea tunnel in Europe and Norway , after the Hitra Tunnel .
= = Specifications = =
The Bømlafjord Tunnel is 7 @,@ 860 meters ( 25 @,@ 790 ft ) long and crosses Bømlafjorden as part of European Route E39 . To the southeast , the tunnel begins at Dalshovda in Sveio . It runs under Bømlafjord , then passes below the island of Otterøya and continues under the fjord again before ending on the island of Føyno . The tunnel is 11 meters ( 36 ft ) wide and has three lanes . As the tunnel has a significant slope , two lanes runs uphill and one runs downhill . It has a height of 4 @.@ 7 meters ( 15 ft ) and has its deepest point at 260 @.@ 4 meters ( 854 ft ) below mean sea level . Safety measures include fire extinguishers , emergency telephones and break @-@ down pullovers every 250 meters ( 820 ft ) . There are turning points for trucks every 1 @,@ 500 meters ( 4 @,@ 900 ft ) and lights and barriers at the entrances to notify drivers if the tunnel is closed . It features radio coverage and a system to register the position and key information about all vehicles in the tunnel . All the emergency equipment is connected to the Public Roads Administrations central in Bergen . The tunnel has mobile telephone coverage . In 2011 , the tunnel had an average 3 @,@ 966 vehicles per day .
The Triangle Link is partially financed with tolls , with toll collection taking place at Føyno . It is constructed as a grade @-@ separated intersection , resulting in that any car passes through the plaza once , with cars driving along E39 drive straight ahead through the plaza , while cars to or from Bømlo need to use the interchange . The toll station uses the Autopass toll collection , which allows passage without stopping , in addition to manual collection . Passengers , pedestrians , bicycles , motorcyclists and mopeds are free . As of 2011 , the fees are NOK 85 for cars and NOK 270 for trucks . Frequent travelers can prepay for at least 40 passings to the toll company , and receive a 40 percent discount . It is estimated that the tunnel will be paid off and the tolls removed in 2012 or 2013 .
The tunnel runs through an area with complex and varied geology . It runs through two rock complexes , the Halsnøy Basement Rock on the Sveio side , and Hardangerfjord Cover Complex on the Stord side . Both were created during the creation of the Caledonian orogeny 500 million years ago . The Halsnøy Basement Rock consists of Precambrian rock with elements of gneiss of both sedimentary and magmatic origin . They range between granite gneiss to mylonite . In the area between the two complexes , there is some amount of gabbro . At the lowest point , the tunnel runs through a section of phyllite , which continues to be the dominant species until the tunnel reaches Otterøya . Below the island the tunnel reaches a section of greenstone , before it higher up again runs through more phyllite .
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= Battle on Snowshoes =
The 1758 Battle on Snowshoes occurred on March 13 , 1758 , during the French and Indian War . It was fought by members of British Ranger companies led by Robert Rogers against French troops and Indians allied to France . The battle took place near Lake George , now in northern New York , but then in the frontier area between the British province of New York and the French province of Canada . The battle was given its name because the British combatants were wearing snowshoes .
Rogers led a band of about 180 rangers and regulars out to scout French positions . The French commander at Fort Carillon had been alerted to their movement , and sent a force consisting mostly of Indians to meet them . In fierce fighting , the British troop was decimated , with more than 120 casualties . The French believed that Rogers was killed in this action , as he was forced to abandon his regimental jacket , which contained his commission papers , during his escape from the scene .
This battle gave rise to the tale that Rogers escaped capture by sliding 400 feet ( 120 m ) down a rockface to the frozen surface of Lake George . That rock is now known as Rogers Rock or Rogers Slide .
= = Background = =
The French and Indian War broke out in 1754 between British and French colonists over territorial disputes along their colonial frontiers , and escalated the following year to include regular troops . By 1756 , the French had enjoyed successes in most of their frontier battles against the British . Their only notable failure occurred when the British stopped their southward advance from Lake Champlain in the 1755 Battle of Lake George . From bases at Fort St. Frédéric ( located at what is now Crown Point , New York ) and Fort Carillon ( known to the British as Fort Ticonderoga ) , the French and their Indian allies continued to scout and probe the British defenses on Lake George and the upper Hudson River . The British , who had fewer Indian allies , resorted to companies of rangers for their scouting and reconnaissance activities . The ranger companies were organized and directed by Robert Rogers , and eventually became known as Rogers ' Rangers .
= = Prelude = =
Captain Rogers was sent on a reconnaissance mission from Fort Edward northwards toward Fort Carillon on March 10 , 1758 . Lieutenant Colonel William Haviland , the fort 's commander , had originally planned on 400 men taking part but reduced the number to 180 , even though he had reason to believe the French knew of the expedition . The French had captured a man from an earlier expedition by Israel Putnam 's Connecticut rangers and it was suspected that he had informed his captors of the British plans . Putnam 's reconnaissance revealed that there were an estimated 600 Indians encamped near Fort Carillon .
The expedition was composed mostly of men from Rogers ' ranger companies , but it also included a few volunteer soldiers from the 27th ( Inniskilling ) Regiment . On March 13 , they wore snowshoes as they marched through snow four feet deep , with a rivulet to their left and a steep mountain separating them from Lake George to their right . They had stopped for a three @-@ hour break when their advance guard spotted what Rogers reported as " ninety @-@ six , chiefly Indians " .
On March 12 , Captain Louis @-@ Philippe Le Dossu d ’ Hébécourt , the French commander at Fort Carillon , heard rumors from the encamped Indians that the British were nearing . He sent Ensign Durantaye with a company of 200 Nipissing Indians and about 20 Canadians in response to these reports , but they found nothing . The next day two Indian scouts reported that they had found tracks of an enemy party . Around noon on March 13 , Durantaye led 100 men ( again a mixed company of Indians and Canadians ) out of the fort . These were followed shortly after by 200 Indians under Ensign de Langy .
Although the two French groups joined forces , Durantaye 's company was about 100 yards ( 91 m ) ahead of Langy 's when they were spotted by Rogers ' men .
= = Battle = =
Rogers ’ men immediately set up an ambush . When Durantaye 's men came within range at 14 : 00 , the British opened fire , killing " above forty Indians " , according to Rogers . Durantaye 's force broke and retreated in disarray . Rogers and about half his men gave chase , critically forgetting to reload their muskets , while the others stopped to collect scalps . Langy 's men , alerted by the gunfire , set up their own ambush . When Rogers ' men arrived , the attack by Langy 's force killed or wounded an estimated 50 men . The Rangers fought bravely , considering they were outnumbered and their numbers were falling quickly . They made several successful attempts to prevent themselves from being flanked , but after an hour and a half of heavy fighting , their numbers were significantly reduced . The remnants of the British force then tried to escape the battle . Rogers and some of his men did get away , but one group of men surrendered , only to be killed and scalped when a scalp was discovered in a pocket of one of the men .
= = Aftermath = =
Rogers and his decimated company returned to Fort Edward on March 15 . Rogers himself was originally reported by the French to have been killed , but had actually survived . The report stemmed from the manner of Rogers ’ escape during which he discarded some of his belongings , including his regimental coat , which contained his military commission . This episode also gave rise to a local legend that Rogers escaped the battle by sliding 400 feet down the side of a hill to the frozen surface of Lake George . While there is no proof of this event , the rockface he supposedly went down very quickly became known as Rogers ' Slide .
Reports of casualties , and of the numbers of forces involved , starkly differed in this battle . Rogers ' report of the event estimated the French @-@ Indian force at 700 , with one to two hundred casualties , and his accounts of the battle were doubted by a variety of commentators , as they were inconsistent with other accounts . A letter by Henry Pringle , written while held in captivity at Carillon , restored his reputation by clarifying the French advantage following the second ambush ; Rogers went on to rebuild his companies and serve in the Battle of Carillon in July 1758 .
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= Galaxy Science Fiction =
Galaxy Science Fiction was an American digest @-@ size science fiction magazine , published from 1950 to 1980 . It was founded by an Italian company , World Editions , which was looking to break into the American market . World Editions hired as editor H. L. Gold , who rapidly made Galaxy the leading science fiction ( sf ) magazine of its time , focusing on stories about social issues rather than technology .
Gold published many notable stories during his tenure , including Ray Bradbury 's " The Fireman " , later expanded as Fahrenheit 451 ; Robert A. Heinlein 's The Puppet Masters ; and Alfred Bester 's The Demolished Man . In 1952 , the magazine was acquired by Robert Guinn , its printer . By the late 1950s , Frederik Pohl was helping Gold with most aspects of the magazine 's production . When Gold 's health worsened , Pohl took over as editor , starting officially at the end of 1961 , though he had been doing the majority of the production work for some time .
Under Pohl Galaxy had continued success , regularly publishing fiction by writers such as Cordwainer Smith , Jack Vance , Harlan Ellison , and Robert Silverberg . However , Pohl never won the annual Hugo Award for his stewardship of Galaxy , winning three Hugos instead for its sister magazine , If . In 1969 Guinn sold Galaxy to Universal Publishing and Distribution Corporation ( UPD ) and Pohl resigned , to be replaced by Ejler Jakobsson . Under Jakobsson the magazine declined in quality . It recovered under James Baen , who took over in mid @-@ 1974 , but when he left at the end of 1977 the deterioration resumed , and there were financial problems — writers were not paid on time and the schedule became erratic . By the end of the 1970s the gaps between issues were lengthening , and the title was finally sold to Galileo publisher Vincent McCaffrey , who brought out only a single issue in 1980 . A brief revival as a semi @-@ professional magazine followed in 1994 , edited by H. L. Gold 's son , E. J. Gold ; this lasted for eight bimonthly issues .
At its peak , Galaxy greatly influenced the science fiction field . It was regarded as one of the leading sf magazines almost from the start , and its influence did not wane until Pohl 's departure in 1969 . Gold brought a " sophisticated intellectual subtlety " to magazine science fiction according to Pohl , who added that " after Galaxy it was impossible to go on being naive . " SF historian David Kyle agrees , commenting that " of all the editors in and out of the post @-@ war scene , the most influential beyond any doubt was H. L. Gold " . Kyle suggests that the new direction Gold set " inevitably " led to the experimental New Wave , the defining science fiction literary movement of the 1960s .
= = Publication history = =
The first science fiction magazine , Amazing Stories , appeared in 1926 . By the end of the 1930s , the genre was flourishing in the United States , but World War II and its attendant paper shortages led to the demise of several magazines . In the late 1940s , the market began to recover . From a low of eight active US magazines in 1946 , the field expanded to 20 just four years later . Galaxy 's appearance in 1950 was part of this boom . According to sf historian and critic Mike Ashley , its success was the main reason for a subsequent flood of new releases : 22 more science fiction magazines appeared by 1954 , when the market dipped again as a side effect of US Senate hearings into the putative connection between comic books and juvenile delinquency .
= = = Origins and 1950s = = =
H. L. Gold , Galaxy 's first editor , had worked at Standard Magazines in the early 1940s as an assistant editor , reading for Standard 's three science fiction pulps : Startling Stories , Thrilling Wonder , and Captain Future . With the advent of the war , Gold left publishing and went into the army , but in late 1949 he was approached by Vera Cerutti , who had once worked for him . Cerutti was now working for an Italian publisher , Edizione Mondiale , that had opened an office in New York as World Editions . She initially asked Gold for guidance on how to produce a magazine , which he provided . World Editions took a heavy loss on Fascination , its first attempt to launch a US magazine , and Cerutti returned to Gold asking for recommendations for new titles . Gold knew about The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction , a digest launched in the fall of 1949 , but felt that there was still room in the market for another serious science fiction magazine . He sent a prospectus to World Editions that included a proposal for a series of paperback sf novels as well as a periodical , and proposed paying three cents a word , an impressively high rate , given that most competing magazines were paying only one cent a word . World Editions agreed , hired Gold as the editor , and the first issue appeared in October 1950 . The novel series subsequently appeared as Galaxy Science Fiction Novels .
Gold initially suggested two titles for the magazine , If and Galaxy . Gold 's art director , Washington Irving van der Poel , mocked up multiple layouts and Gold invited hundreds of writers , editors , artists , and fans to view them and vote for their favorite ; the vote was strongly for Galaxy as the title . For the first issue , Gold obtained stories by several well @-@ known authors , including Isaac Asimov , Fritz Leiber , and Theodore Sturgeon , as well as part one of Time Quarry by Clifford D. Simak ( later published in book form as Time and Again ) . Along with an essay by Gold , Galaxy 's premiere issue introduced a book review column by anthologist Groff Conklin , which ran until 1955 , and a Willy Ley science column . Gold sought to implement high @-@ quality printing techniques , although the quality of the available paper was insufficient for the full benefits to be seen .
While other " new magazines — and many of the old — are dying of literary cirrhosis . The cause ? Poisoning due to decayed fiction " , Gold stated , Galaxy was profitable within five issues ; an " incredible " achievement , in his words . The outbreak of the Korean War led to paper shortages — Gold wrote in a 1951 editorial that " buying paper these days is like being mugged on a dark street " — that forced the magazine to find a new printer , Robert M. Guinn . The new paper was of even lower quality , a disappointment to Gold . That summer , disagreements within World Editions led to attempts to disrupt Galaxy 's distribution . According to Gold , the circulation director and the head of the American office stockpiled many issues instead of distributing them , and made sure that the ones that did get distributed went to areas of the United States , such as the South , where there was little or no audience for the magazine . The head of the French office of World Editions came to the United States to find out what the problem was , and recommended that the magazine be sold to the two Americans , for $ 3 @,@ 000 — a very low price . They tried to recruit Gold , but he contacted the Italian office , which rejected the sale and eventually agreed to sell Galaxy to the printer , Robert M. Guinn . It was only after the sale was complete that the sabotaged distribution came to light ; World Editions wanted to buy back the magazine , but Guinn quoted a price four times as high as he had paid . In Gold 's words , " he , Guinn , knew what he was buying , whereas World Editions hadn 't known what they were selling " .
Guinn 's new company was named Galaxy Publishing Corporation , and it took over beginning with the October 1951 issue . Gold remained as editor , but lost the assistance of staff at World Editions , relying instead on help from Jerome Bixby , Algis Budrys , Theodore Sturgeon , and Gold 's wife , Evelyn Paige . Science fiction author Frederik Pohl , then working as a literary agent , was also helpful in connecting writers with Gold .
By the late 1950s , the science fiction magazine boom was over , and the relatively low circulation of the magazines did not endear them to distributors , the middlemen who transported magazines from the publishers to the newsstands and other outlets . Gold changed the title from Galaxy Science Fiction to Galaxy Magazine with the September 1958 issue , commenting that the term science fiction " scares many people away from buying " . Galaxy 's circulation , at about 90 @,@ 000 , was the highest of the science fiction magazines , but Guinn decided to cut costs , and in 1959 raised the cover price and changed the magazine to a bimonthly schedule , while increasing the page count . Guinn also cut the rates paid to authors from three ( and occasionally four ) cents a word to one and a half cents a word . These changes saved Galaxy over $ 12 @,@ 000 a year . The result was a fall in circulation to about 80 @,@ 000 within two years , but this was sustainable because of the savings from the fiction budget .
In his December 1958 editorial , Gold described the changes as resulting in " a new magazine " with " half again as more [ pages than the 35 ¢ competition ] for only 15 ¢ more " . He explained the bimonthly schedule as necessary to maintain " Galaxy quality " :
We kid you not at all — really good science fiction is , from the editorial side of the desk , harder to come by than perfect diamonds . It has to be mined out of authors with patience and care and tact — and blasting powder , when nothing else will work . We can fill 196 pages every other month with really good science fiction . We can 't do it on a monthly schedule . No one can .
= = = 1960s = = =
Guinn acquired If , another science fiction magazine , in 1959 , and gave it to Gold to edit as well . The July 1959 issue of If was the first under Gold 's editorship . Galaxy 's shift to a bimonthly schedule had been intended to help reduce the workload on Gold , who was not in good health ; he was able to take on If as well because the two magazines alternated months of publication . Towards the end of the 1950s Frederik Pohl began to help Gold , occasionally to the extent of performing all the editorial duties , including writing the editorials and blurbs and working with the printer . Gold , who was agoraphobic , was making efforts at this time to leave his apartment , but in 1960 he was seriously injured in a taxi accident , and proved unable to continue as editor . Pohl took over at some point in early 1961 , though he was not listed on the masthead as editor until the December 1961 issue .
Pohl attempted to persuade Guinn to double the pay rate of one and a half cents a word back to the former level of three . Guinn refused , but Pohl was able to find enough material that he could purchase at a low rate to allow him to offer some authors three cents per word . The strategy was successful in improving circulation , and Guinn eventually acceded to the rate increase .
Pohl also tried hard to persuade Guinn and Sol Cohen , whom Guinn had hired to help with the publishing duties , to switch both Galaxy and If to monthly schedules . In late 1962 , they agreed , but soon changed their minds and decided to start a third science fiction magazine instead . This was Worlds of Tomorrow , which was launched in April 1963 and lasted until mid @-@ 1967 ( it was briefly revived in 1970 – 71 ) . Another companion magazine , International Science Fiction , was tried in late 1967 , but lasted only two issues ; it showcased stories translated from other languages , and sales were very weak . Finally , in 1968 Guinn launched Worlds of Fantasy , edited initially by Lester del Rey , Galaxy 's managing editor ; only four issues appeared . In the middle of 1968 , Galaxy was restored to a monthly schedule .
= = = 1970s and after = = =
In 1969 , Guinn sold Galaxy to Universal Publishing and Distribution Corporation ( UPD ) . Pohl was in Rio de Janeiro at a World Science Fiction Symposium when the sale went through ; he heard the news when he returned to the Galaxy office afterwards and within a few days decided to resign . He remained on the masthead as " editor emeritus " , a post invented to keep Pohl from moving to one of the other sf magazines , and went back to his writing career . His place was taken by Ejler Jakobsson , who was working in UPD 's book department . Lester del Rey stayed on as features editor , and Judy @-@ Lynn Benjamin took his place as managing editor . Jack Gaughan was made art editor .
Galaxy 's circulation had held relatively steady in the mid @-@ 1960s , ranging between 73 @,@ 000 and 78 @,@ 000 , but the UPD acquisition coincided with a precipitous drop — from 75 @,@ 300 for the year ended October 1968 , circulation fell to 51 @,@ 479 just one year later . Difficulties with distribution also cut into income , and Arnold Abramson , UPD 's owner , decided to cut costs and maximize profits . Galaxy went bimonthly in August 1970 , ending a two @-@ year spell of monthly scheduling ( though a couple of months had been missed ) . The page count , which had been cut from 196 to 160 when UPD bought it , was increased again , and the price was raised from 60 cents to 75 cents . A British edition began in May 1972 , published by Tandem Books , which was owned by UPD . The net effect of all these changes was a substantial increase in profitability . Circulation in 1972 also rose by about 6 @,@ 000 issues , though it is possible that this was solely due to the new British edition .
UPD began to have financial difficulties in the early 1970s , and when Judy @-@ Lynn del Rey ( formerly Judy @-@ Lynn Benjamin ) left in May 1973 to work at Ballantine Books , Jakobsson 's workload increased greatly . He resigned less than a year later , citing overwork and other issues , and was replaced by James Baen , who took over with the June 1974 issue after Pohl declined the post . Baen also took over the editorship of If , but rising paper costs forced the closure of If at the end of 1974 , and the title was merged with Galaxy . The magazine had returned to a monthly schedule in September 1973 , but it was only patchily adhered to , with at least a couple of issues missed every year except 1974 . Baen was successful at increasing circulation again , bringing it from 47 @,@ 789 when he took over to 81 @,@ 035 when he left . The magazine was profitable for UPD , but the financial pressure on the parent company took its toll and Baen left in late 1977 to work for Ace Books — the October issue was his last .
Baen was replaced by John J. Pierce , but the situation only worsened . Pierce resigned within a year : the company was in increasing debt , and his office assistant recalls that the office appeared inefficiently run , though he commented that Pierce " clearly loved what he did and knew what he was talking about " . Pierce 's replacement was Hank Stine , who took over in late 1978 , though because of Galaxy 's irregular schedule Pierce 's last issue was March – April 1979 . Stine managed to produce only two more issues , June – July 1979 and September – October 1979 , before UPD 's financial problems spelled the end . Rights to the title were transferred to a new company , Galaxy Magazine , Inc . , owned by Vincent McCaffrey , proprietor of Avenue Victor Hugo , a second @-@ hand book store in Boston ; UPD retained a ten percent interest in order to receive income from future sales to pay off their debts . Stine had compiled two more issues , but neither ever appeared ; McCaffrey , who had also launched a separate magazine , Galileo , had cash @-@ flow problems that prevented him from distributing the magazine as he had planned . One more issue did finally appear from McCaffrey , in July 1980 , in a large format ; it was edited by Floyd Kemske . A subsequent issue , to be dated October 1980 , was assembled , but never distributed .
The last few years of Galaxy 's life were marked by stories of unpaid contributors . John Varley , for example , reported that he was still owed money for his stories five years after they appeared . Submissions from well @-@ known writers fell away , and the lack of financial support from UPD meant that the pay rate was an unattractive one cent per word . Higher postal rates , higher paper costs , and continuing competition from the paperback science fiction market all added to the pressure on Galaxy . These problems were not resolved by the sale to McCaffrey , who did not even have enough money to pay for circulation postage , with the result that not every Galaxy subscriber received a copy of the final issue . Frederik Pohl places the blame for Galaxy 's demise on Arnie Abramson , who , Pohl contends , " simply did not perform [ the ] basic functions of a publisher " : paying the authors , ensuring subscribers received copies , and meeting other obligations .
In 1994 , the magazine reappeared briefly as a semi @-@ professional publication under the editorship of E. J. Gold , son of H. L. Gold . E. J. Gold produced eight issues on a regular bimonthly schedule , starting with the January – February 1994 issue , and ending with March – April 1995 .
= = Contents and reception = =
= = = Early years = = =
Gold intended Galaxy to publish stories of sufficient literary quality to attract readers of the slick magazines , as well as those who came to Galaxy already familiar with genre science fiction . His editorial policy was broader than that of John W. Campbell , the editor of the leading magazine in the field , Astounding Science Fiction : Gold was interested in sociology , psychology , and other " soft " sciences , and was also willing to publish humorous and satirical stories . Gold managed to persuade the publisher to let him offer three to four cents a word , which exceeded the highest rates paid in the field at that time . In addition to the high rates , Galaxy was an attractive market for writers because Gold bought only first magazine rights , unlike the other leading magazines . Galaxy was quickly established as one of the three leading science fiction magazines , along with Campbell 's Astounding and The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction ( usually abbreviated to F & SF ) . Campbell had been enormously influential over the previous decade , but the appearance of Galaxy and F & SF , launched just a year before , marked the end of his dominance of the genre .
Gold believed that " science fiction should present possible developments based on present tendencies or trends , to answer in dramatic terms the unstated question : ' What would happen if — ? ' " An advertisement for the magazine in the first issue compared a science @-@ fiction story and a western . After showing that the latter used the same plot as the former " transplanted to some alien and impossible planet " , the advertisement stated " YOU 'LL NEVER FIND IT IN GALAXY ! " , promising " the finest science fiction . . . authentic , plausible , thoughtful . . . written by authors who do not automatically switch over from crime waves to Earth invasions " . The advertisement drew much attention , though James Blish commented that Galaxy did not always avoid printing the kind of fiction it parodied .
Gold disliked other magazines ' use of covers with what he described as " shapely female endomorphs with bronze bras , embattled male mesomorphs clad in muscle , and frightful alien monsters in search of a human meal " . The cover for the first issue was by David Stone , depicting a scene from Simak 's Time Quarry . The image was muted , in contrast to the sensational art typically found on the covers of the sf pulps ; the intention was that Galaxy should look like an sf magazine , but one " that you were not embarrassed to hold " , in the words of Mike Ashley . The early artwork was generally unremarkable , though Ed Emshwiller 's humorous cover for the June 1951 issue , his first professional sale as an artist , was a positive sign . " Emsh " , as he was known to science fiction readers , soon became a regular contributor . The relatively expensive production processes that Gold had insisted on enabled more sophisticated internal artwork , which could be integrated with type in ways not possible with cheaper letterpress printing .
Gold hoped to print stories that were superior to what he described as " flakes of literary dandruff " about " thinking machines that go insane when asked to solve the problem of man 's survival ... humorless wisecrackers , hard @-@ lipped Space Patrolmen , nymphomaniacal heroines who are snowy pure " that Galaxy usually received . War and apocalyptic disaster was an especially common theme ; Gold reported that " Over 90 % of stories submitted still nag away at [ the subject ] ... If it weren 't so tiresome , it might be funny to see our transitory political rivalries carried into the remotest futures " . He told prospective authors , " To save their time and ours , here is a partial list of overworked ideas that should be strenuously avoided " :
Fictional warnings of nuclear and biological destruction , the post @-@ atomic world , reversion to barbarism , mutant children slain because they have only ten toes and fingers instead of twelve , absurdly planned and preposterously successful revolts against dictatorships , problems of survival wearily turned over to women , war between groups , nations , worlds and solar systems .
Flying Saucers , cops and robbers or cowboys and Indians in space , the duel between the good guy and the bad guy alone on an asteroid , the bright revelation that the characters we have been reading about are Adam and Eve or Jesus , the creation of a miniature universe in a laboratory by a scientist whose name turns out to be an anagram of Jehovah , the alien eater of life force in the Andes whose menu consists exclusively of pretty virgins .
" No day 's mail is free " of such submissions to Galaxy , Gold wrote , but sometimes " a find " like Edgar Pangborn 's " Angel 's Egg " arrived ; Gold advised other authors , " Why not buck up and see the positive trends as well as the harrowing ones ? " and " who said writing is easy ? " He wrote in the 12th issue that the magazine had published about over 750 @,@ 000 words in about 60 stories , chosen from 3 @,@ 000 submissions totaling more than 25 million words , and that more than half of the stories would appear in anthologies . He reported that circulation had risen by 5 % each issue , and claimed that " according to the best available information , GALAXY has several times as many subs as any other science fiction magazine ! "
In the first issue , Gold asked for reader feedback on what should be included in the magazine — letters , editorials , book reviews , or other features . The response was against a letter column , but the readers wanted editorials , and short book reviews with recommendations that would help them identify what books to buy , as opposed to in @-@ depth criticism . Gold was also concerned that harsh critical reviews would scare away new authors who might otherwise submit their work . Groff Conklin began a book review column , called " Galaxy 's Five Star Shelf " , in the first issue ; Floyd Gale took it over with the November 1955 issue — Gale was in fact Gold 's brother , using a slightly modified surname . The inaugural issue also included a competition for readers to explain UFOs in under 200 words , the first of many contests Gold would run .
The first six issues contained stories by well @-@ known authors , including some that became highly regarded such as Fritz Leiber 's " Coming Attraction " , Damon Knight 's " To Serve Man " , and Ray Bradbury 's " The Fireman " , later expanded as Fahrenheit 451 . Gold , however , considered these early issues exploratory , and some of the material by major names was clearly lesser work . With its second volume , beginning in April 1951 , Galaxy achieved consistently high quality , with virtually every issue featuring a story that would have a lasting reputation , including C. M. Kornbluth 's The Marching Morons , Wyman Guin 's Beyond Bedlam , and Robert Heinlein 's The Puppet Masters , whose serialization overlapped volumes 2 and 3 . Early feedback from readers had been opposed to serialized novels , but here Gold did not follow their opinion , and Galaxy is remembered for featuring some very successful serials . A contemporary anthology of science fiction stories , E. F. Bleiler and T. E. Dikty 's The Best Science Fiction Stories : 1951 , commented in an editorial that Gold 's work " will succeed in placing science @-@ fiction on an equal basis with any other field of modern literature " . With a circulation of over 100 @,@ 000 in its second year , Galaxy surpassed Astounding .
= = = Mid- and late 1950s = = =
Gold maintained Galaxy 's high standards for most of the 1950s . Alfred Bester 's The Demolished Man — according to critic Peter Nicholls , " among the few genuine classics of genre sf " — was serialized in early 1952 . Pohl and Kornbluth 's The Space Merchants followed a few months later , serialized as Gravy Planet ; Brian Aldiss , in his critical genre study Trillion Year Spree , calls it " one of the most famous books in SF " . James Blish 's " Surface Tension " and Theodore Sturgeon 's " Baby is Three " , both widely acclaimed , also appeared in 1952 . Readers had expressed support for science articles , and in March 1952 , Willy Ley , who had contributed occasional essays since the first issue , began a column , " For Your Information " , in which he replied to readers ' scientific questions . Running uninterrupted until Ley 's death in 1969 , Frederik Pohl describes it as " the most popular single feature Galaxy ever had " . The Hugo Awards were inaugurated the following year : The Demolished Man won the first Hugo for Best Novel and Galaxy shared the first Hugo for Best Magazine with Astounding .
While Gold published a wide range of material , Galaxy became known in particular for irony and satire ; the work of authors able to adopt the wry style he favored , such as Knight and Robert Sheckley , appeared regularly in the magazine . In 1953 , with McCarthyism at its height , Gold refused to publish " The Liberation of Earth " , a story by William Tenn satirizing both the Russian and American sides in the Korean War . Tenn quotes Gold , an ex @-@ radical , as saying the idea made him " sweat green " , though the year before he had published Isaac Asimov 's " The Martian Way " , a thinly veiled anti @-@ McCarthy story .
L. Sprague de Camp commented that Gold " sets an extremely high standard of literary excellence for his writers " , and observed that he often demanded multiple revisions and rewrites . Gold was also infamous for making sweeping changes to the stories he printed . In meetings and in phone calls he became well known as a difficult editor whose determination to achieve perfection sometimes alienated his writers . He was unapologetic , declaring , " I worked hard with writers , and they didn 't always enjoy it " . The results were often very positive : some successful stories are said to have begun with an idea he provided to one of his authors . In the case of The Demolished Man , his involvement extended almost to the point of collaboration . Gold was agoraphobic , and rarely left his apartment , but writers often visited him , and he held regular parties and weekly poker games ; in addition to the members of the science fiction community , the avant @-@ garde composer John Cage often attended .
In March 1953 Gold announced a novel @-@ writing contest , but it failed to attract any usable submissions . He asked Pohl and Kornbluth if they would be willing to allow him to print Gladiator @-@ at @-@ Law , which they had just completed , under a pseudonym , so he could claim that the contest had found a new talent . They refused , but shortly afterwards Pohl and Lester del Rey agreed to let Gold take their recently completed novel Preferred Risk and publish it as the winner , under the pseudonym Edson McCann . Pohl and del Rey constructed a fake identity for McCann , but the news leaked out and Gold never ran another fiction competition . In July 1953 , he launched a companion magazine , Beyond Fantasy Fiction , dedicated to fantasy material , which Galaxy 's editorial policy did not favor . It lasted for ten bimonthly issues , with the final one appearing in January 1955 . After it failed , Gold opened Galaxy to more fantasy , publishing writers such as Cordwainer Smith .
The ABC radio series Tales of Tomorrow , which began in 1952 as an offshoot of the TV series of the same name , used stories from Galaxy ; the connection was announced at the start of each of its fifteen episodes . On April 24 , 1955 , another radio series , NBC 's X Minus One , started a much longer run of 125 episodes , lasting until January 1958 . From February 1956 onwards the scripts were adapted exclusively from stories in Galaxy , and from the April 1956 issue Galaxy ran advertisements for the series , which included work by Pohl , Sturgeon , and Philip K. Dick .
Through the 1950s , Galaxy 's contributors routinely dominated the Hugo ballots , but neither the magazine nor the fiction it published won many awards , despite what sf historians Marshall Tymn and Mike Ashley describe as its " deserved reputation for excellence " . After several years of being shut out of the Hugos , Galaxy published two works in 1958 that won the honor : Fritz Leiber 's novel The Big Time and Avram Davidson 's short story " Or All the Seas with Oysters " .
= = = 1960s = = =
When Pohl took over as editor in 1961 , he broadened the magazine 's scope , including more fantasy material . Regular contributors in the 1960s included Jack Vance , Larry Niven , Frank Herbert , Robert Silverberg , and Cordwainer Smith . Galaxy stories from this era that won awards include Vance 's The Dragon Masters and " The Last Castle " ; Clifford Simak 's Way Station , serialized as Here Gather the Stars ; Harlan Ellison 's " ' Repent , Harlequin , ' Said the Ticktockman " and " The Beast That Shouted Love at the Heart of the World " ; and Silverberg 's " Nightwings " . Pohl never succeeded in winning a Hugo Award as editor of Galaxy , although he won the award three consecutive times from 1966 to 1968 as editor of If , Galaxy 's sister magazine , and in theory the junior of the two publications .
The quality of fiction in Galaxy had dipped towards the end of Gold 's editorship , and Pohl worked hard to restore the magazine 's high standards . Gold 's difficult editorial personality had driven away some of his contributors , but Pohl , who had worked as an agent in the 1950s , was a central figure in the sf community and was able to attract submissions from the star writers of his day . In the case of one of these stars , he offered an unusual arrangement : Robert Silverberg could write whatever he wished and Pohl promised that he would almost invariably buy it . Silverberg , who had been a high @-@ volume producer of competent but unremarkable science fiction , began writing more ambitious work as a result , much of which was published in Galaxy throughout the 1960s .
In February 1965 , Pohl brought in Algis Budrys as book reviewer , after a year in which no review column had appeared . Budrys 's insightful reviews drew much praise , and editor David Hartwell has ranked him as one of the best sf critics of his generation .
The difference between Pohl 's approach and Gold 's was apparent in the editorials Pohl wrote , which were informal , entertaining , and rooted in his deep familiarity with the genre . With Pohl at the helm , Galaxy moved back toward the knowledgeable science fiction fan , and away from the mainstream market that Gold had targeted .
= = = 1970s = = =
Ejler Jakobsson 's tenure began with a large backlog of stories that Pohl had acquired , but within a year or two substantial changes were apparent . In the early 1970s , Jakobsson attempted to update Galaxy 's image , adding a comic strip , " Sunpot " , by Vaughn Bodé , for example . Theodore Sturgeon took over from Budrys as the regular book reviewer in January 1972 and held the post until mid @-@ 1975 . Jakobsson did not manage to give Galaxy a new and distinctive character : " Sunpot " lasted only four issues , Sturgeon 's reviews were undistinguished , and many of the new authors he published have been , in the words of Mike Ashley , " mercifully unknown ever since " . The paper quality and printing quality also dropped , and early cover designs were very weak . Jakobsson initially printed guest editorials rather than writing his own ; when he took over the editorial page his work was unremarkable . However , he did manage to attract some of the new writers who were just becoming well known in the sf scene , including George R.R. Martin , Joe Haldeman , and Joanna Russ . Three novels published in Jakobsson 's Galaxy won awards : Isaac Asimov 's The Gods Themselves and Arthur C. Clarke 's Rendezvous with Rama each won both the Hugo and Nebula awards , in 1972 and 1973 respectively , and Robert Silverberg 's A Time of Changes won the Nebula in 1971 . Sturgeon 's short story " Slow Sculpture " won both the Hugo and the Nebula in 1970 .
A letter column was added at the end of 1971 ; this was the first time Galaxy had published reader 's letters . Galaxy 's long @-@ time science columnist , Willy Ley , died in 1969 , and was replaced by Donald Menzel . He was replaced in turn by Jerry Pournelle in April 1974 .
Jakobsson 's successor , James Baen , was able to publish some high @-@ quality fiction , including material by Roger Zelazny , John Varley , Larry Niven , and Pohl , whose novel , Gateway , won both the Hugo and Nebula awards . Baen raised the level of the magazine substantially , and Ashley refers to his editorship as Galaxy 's " Indian summer " . Under Baen the review columnist was Spider Robinson , who won a Locus Award in 1977 , primarily for his work in Galaxy . Baen also published a series of essays by authors discussing their own work . Apart from Gateway , Baen published only one award @-@ winning story : Ursula K. Le Guin 's " The Day Before the Revolution " , which appeared in August 1974 and won the Nebula .
Baen 's successors , Pierce , Stine , and Kemske , were unable to maintain his standard . Pohl remained loyal to the magazine , but the serialization of his novel Jem exemplified Galaxy 's growing problems . Due to the magazine 's increasingly erratic schedule , the serialization stretched from the last issue of 1978 into 1980 , well after it had appeared in book form . In November 1977 , Paul Walker took over the book column from Spider Robinson , and Jerry Pournelle left the science column at the end of 1978 . The artwork quality dropped to an amateurish level , and despite the appearance of a few successful stories and novels , such as C. J. Cherryh 's The Faded Sun : Kesrith , the overall quality was dramatically worse than it had been under Baen . Galaxy 's deterioration was largely due to the financial troubles of the publisher , Arnold Abramson , who reduced the pay rate ( at a time of high inflation ) to a penny a word . Even that low rate did not guarantee timely disbursement , and many writers stopped submitting because of Galaxy 's reputation for paying slowly , if at all . Costs were increasing for paper , postage , and production , and the paperback anthology market was booming , adding to the competition that Galaxy faced . Floyd Kemske 's only issue never received newsstand distribution , doomed by the financial troubles of the magazine 's publisher , Vincent McCaffrey .
= = = Cover layout and artwork = = =
Galaxy had a characteristic cover style in the 1950s with an inverted white " L " shape ( Greek gamma ) framing the cover art ; this style was copied by several magazines , including Authentic Science Fiction and Startling Stories . When Astounding followed suit in late 1951 , Gold commented sarcastically in an editorial that Galaxy " would like to know when we may have it [ the format ] back again " . The first variation came with the September 1956 issue , which widened the left hand strip of white to allow room to print story titles and author names . The December 1961 issue was the first to eliminate the strip on the left , and until July 1969 the magazine varied between this layout , the inverted " L " , and a version with no white at all , first used on the August 1965 issue . Another change visible in that issue is the reversal of the title coloring to white lettering on a block of red ; this was used from August 1963 to December 1965 . In August 1969 the title was enlarged to fill the width of the magazine ; this issue had the white inverted " L " , but it was the last one to do so till 1980 . After August 1969 the cover paintings spanned the entire cover , though with some minor variations in layout such as can be seen in the October 1976 issue . Then in September 1978 ( undated on the cover , but numbered vol . 39 no . 7 ) the original typeface for " Galaxy " was abandoned for the last few issues . The final issue , edited by Kemske , returned to the previous layout and typeface , although with a magazine twice the size of the original digest . When E. J. Gold revived Galaxy in 1994 , he restored the inverted " L " and employed a predominantly black @-@ and @-@ white look for the eight issues he published .
Notable artists who contributed regularly to Galaxy included Ed Emshwiller , who won several Hugo Awards for his work , Hugo nominee Wallace Wood , and Jack Gaughan , who won three Hugos in the late 1960s , partly for his work in Galaxy . Gaughan was commissioned by Pohl to provide the cover and interior art for Jack Vance 's The Dragon Masters in 1962 ; the resulting illustrations made Gaughan immediately famous in the science fiction field . In the 1950s and 1960s , Galaxy retained the original artwork sent in by its artists , though Emshwiller , much of whose best color work appeared there , was able to negotiate an exception to this rule , retaining the art for his portfolios . In 1972 much of this artwork — including both interior and cover illustrations — was sold off by Robert Guinn , who had kept it when he sold Galaxy to UPD in 1969 .
= = = Influence on the field = = =
Science fiction historian and critic Mike Ashley regards Galaxy 's success as the main reason for the subsequent boom in science fiction magazines , commenting that it " revolutionized the field overnight " . Under Gold Galaxy provided a market for social science fiction stories that might not have been accepted by Astounding and Fantasy & Science Fiction , the other leading magazines . Pohl regards Galaxy as the place where " the stunning new kinds of science fiction ... flowered , and changed everything in science fiction " . In his opinion , Gold 's innovation was to ask writers to consider not just new technology , but the subsequent impact of that technology on society . He adds , " What Galaxy brought to magazine science fiction was a kind of sophisticated intellectual subtlety . ... After Galaxy it was impossible to go on being naive . " Science fiction author Brian Stableford argues that Galaxy quickly usurped Astounding 's position as " pioneer of hardcore sf 's progress " because it " embraced and gleefully pursued a new series of challenges to moral orthodoxy . " Isaac Asimov , in his memoirs , recalled being deeply impressed by the first issue , adding that many fans , including himself , felt that Galaxy became the field 's leader almost immediately . In critic John Clute 's assessment , Galaxy indeed swiftly supplanted Astounding and remained the leading magazine in the field until Pohl resigned as editor in 1969 .
SF historian David Kyle ascribes Galaxy 's influence specifically to Gold , saying that " of all the editors in and out of the post @-@ war scene , the most influential beyond any doubt was H. L. Gold " and that the new direction he set led , " inevitably " , to the New Wave , the celebrated science fiction literary movement of the 1960s . Kyle 's assessment of Gold is echoed by writer Barry Malzberg , who calls Gold " perhaps the greatest editor in the history of all fields for the first half of his tenure " . SF authors and historians Brian Aldiss and David Wingrove summarize Galaxy 's history by saying that it lasted for " thirty mainly glorious years " : it " brought into the sunlight a number of excellent satirists , comedians and ironists " and , through the influence of its reduced focus on technology , played an important role in attracting women to write science fiction .
= = Publication details = =
= = = Editors = = =
The list below , and the charts above , follow the mastheads in the magazines . However , because of Gold 's poor health , Pohl was acting as editor for some time before he officially took over the role at the end of 1961 .
H. L. Gold ( October 1950 – October 1961 )
Frederik Pohl ( December 1961 – May 1969 )
Ejler Jakobsson ( July 1969 – May 1974 )
James Baen ( June 1974 – October 1977 )
John J. Pierce ( November 1977 – March – April 1979 )
Hank Stine ( June – July 1979 – September – October 1979 )
Floyd Kemske ( Summer 1980 )
= = = Overseas editions = = =
Galaxy had multiple foreign editions . This was in part because the original publisher , World Editions , had a European base , which Gold had planned to take advantage of when the magazine launched . Overseas editions included :
Argentina . Two magazines , Más Allá ( June 1953 – June 1957 ) and Geminis ( July 1965 – August 1965 ) , reprinted stories primarily from Galaxy , though they also published some original material and some stories reprinted from other sources .
Finland . Aikamme tieteislukemisto ( August 1958 – December 1958 ) was a Finnish edition of Galaxy , edited by Mary A. Wuorio and published by Viikkosanomat Oy .
France . There were two separate French editions of Galaxy , both titled Galaxie . The first ran from November 1953 to April 1959 ( a total of 65 issues ) , and was published by Editions OPTA , Paris . The first 11 issues were edited by Irina Orloff , the next 16 by Jacqueline Boissy , and the remainder by Jeannine Courtillet . The stories were badly translated , and printed in shortened form . Poor sales led to the cancellation of this version . The second version ran for 158 issues , from May 1964 to August – September 1977 , and was also published by Editions OPTA . The editor was Alain Dorémieux for the first 67 issues , and Michel Demuth thereafter . This version , which contained original French stories as well as translated material from Galaxy , was much more successful and for a time outsold Fiction , the leading French science fiction magazine . From November 1974 , more French authors were included , but publication ceased three years later when sales fell .
Germany . Fifteen issues of a German version , titled Galaxis , was released from March 1958 to May 1959 by Moewig Verlag , Munich . The editor was Lothar Heinecke . Fourteen numbered paperbacks titled Galaxy appeared between 1965 and 1970 , published by Heyne Verlag , Munich . The editor was Walter Ernsting , with Thomas Schlück as co @-@ editor for the last five issues . The contents were reprints from the American edition .
Italy . An Italian reprint edition titled Galaxy ran from June 1958 to May 1964 ; there were 70 physical issues , with two issues containing double numbers , so that the last issue was numbered 72 . The publisher was Editrice Due Mondi , Milan , for the first ten issues ; the remaining issues were published by Casa Editrice La Tribuna , Piacenza . The editors were R. Valente ( issues 1 – 26 / 27 ) , Mario Vitali ( 28 / 29 – 39 ) , and Lella Pollini Rambelli ( 40 – 72 ) . The magazine included some stories by Italian authors in addition to translated material .
Netherlands . Five issues , titled Galaxis , appeared from October 1966 to February 1967 , from Vector , Dordrecht . The editor was Theo Kemp . The translations were of poor quality .
Norway . The Norwegian magazine Tempo @-@ Magasinet , published by Greens Forlag , printed translations from US science fiction , mostly from Galaxy . It lasted for five issues , from November 1953 to March 1954 . The editor was Arne Ernst .
Sweden . A Swedish edition , titled Galaxy , appeared from September 1958 to June 1960 ( 19 issues ) ; the publisher is unknown , though it is known to be the same company that published the Swedish edition of Mad . This version , which included some original Swedish stories , was edited by Henrik Rabe .
UK . Several British editions of Galaxy were produced . From 1953 to 1962 Strato Publications published 94 numbered issues . The early issues were labeled vol . 3 no . 1 to no . 12 . With the 13th issue the " vol . 3 " was dropped . Until issue 72 ( February 1959 ) they were shortened versions of the US edition , with one or more stories or features being cut . From no . 72 Strato reprinted the full US issue with a different title page , and from issue 80 the US edition was used with a variant cover . In 1967 a British edition appeared from Gold Star Publications ; there were five bimonthly issues , identical to the US edition dated six months previously . The British issues were dated January – February 1967 through September – October 1967 ; the corresponding US issues were June , August , October , and December 1966 , and February 1967 . Universal @-@ Tandem Publishing Co Ltd published 25 issues of Galaxy in the UK ; the original US issues were May – June 1972 to January 1975 . These were re @-@ covered for UK distribution . The numbering was erratic : it ran 1 – 10 , then 11 , 11 , 12 , 12 , 12 , 14 , and finally 17 – 25 .
= = = Other bibliographic details = = =
The following table shows which issues appeared from which publisher .
The title changed multiple times , and was frequently inconsistently given between the cover , spine , indicia , and masthead .
Galaxy remained a digest @-@ sized magazine from the beginning until 1979 ; the very last issue was published in pulp format , as were the semi @-@ professional issues produced by E. J. Gold . The page count began at 160 ; it dropped to 144 in January 1955 , but went up to 192 in February 1959 . In July 1969 the count went back down to 160 ; it returned to 192 pages with the August – September 1970 issue and stayed there till May – June 1971 , when it dropped to 176 . From June 1974 to June – July 1979 it was back at 160 pages , and then went to 128 pages for the final digest issue , September – October 1979 . The single 1980 issue was 72 pages long . The eight issues published in the 1990s all had 96 pages , except the first , January – February 1994 , which had 56 pages . The initial price was 25 cents . Price changes were as follows : 35 cents from May 1958 ; 50 cents from February 1959 ; 60 cents from December 1964 ; 75 cents from August – September 1970 ; $ 1 @.@ 00 from April 1975 ; 79 cents for the August 1975 issue ; 95 cents from September 1975 ; $ 1 @.@ 00 from May 1976 ; $ 1 @.@ 25 from June 1977 , and $ 1 @.@ 50 for the final professional issue in 1980 .
= = = Derivative anthologies = = =
Several anthologies of stories from Galaxy have been published . The following list does not include reprint editions though in some cases these varied in contents , as for example with the UK editions of some of the early volumes .
= = Related publications = =
Two series of companion novels were issued by the publishers . The first series , Galaxy Science Fiction Novels , began in 1950 with Eric Frank Russell 's Sinister Barrier ; seven titles were released by World Editions , and a further twenty @-@ eight by Guinn 's Galaxy Publishing Corporation . The books were initially in digest format but this was changed to a standard paperback format for the last four titles . In 1959 the line was sold to Beacon Books , which produced another 11 volumes . Beacon specialized in softcore pornography , and changed the titles of most of the books they published to be more suggestive . The last title , Sin in Space ( originally Outpost Mars ) , by Cyril Judd ( a pseudonym for Cyril Kornbluth and Judith Merril ) appeared in 1961 . Two years later a second series , Galaxy Magabooks , appeared ; each of these consisted of two short novels , both by the same author , published in a single volume . Only three were released ; the last , And My Fear Is Great / Baby Is Three by Theodore Sturgeon , appeared in 1964 .
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= Howard Adelman =
Howard Adelman ( born January 7 , 1938 ) is a Canadian philosopher and former university professor . He retired as Professor Emeritus of Philosophy at York University in 2003 . Adelman was one of the founders of Rochdale College , as well as the founder and director of York 's Centre for Refugee Studies . He was editor of Refuge for ten years , and since his retirement he has received several honorary university and governmental appointments in Canada and abroad . Adelman was the recipient of numerous awards and grants , and presented the inaugural lecture in a series named in his honor at York University in 2008 .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life and career = = =
Howard Adelman was born January 7 , 1938 , in Toronto , Ontario . He earned a B.A. ( 1960 ) , M.A. ( 1963 ) , and Ph.D. ( 1971 ) in philosophy from the University of Toronto , and was a member of the faculty at York University in Toronto from 1966 until his retirement in 2003 . As a nineteen @-@ year @-@ old philosophy student , Adelman , was hired in 1958 by the Campus Co @-@ operative to meet a growing need for student housing at the University of Toronto . With Adelman 's advice , Campus Co @-@ op acquired additional properties and formed Co @-@ operative College Residences Inc . , a non @-@ profit offshoot . Later , while a Lecturer in Philosophy at the University of Toronto ( 1963 – 1964 ) and Assistant Professor at York University ( 1966 – 1970 ) , Adelman was one of the principal founders of Rochdale College , an experimental " free university " organized on the cooperative principle of its British namesake . After obtaining federal mortgages at well below market rates , Campus Co @-@ op incorporated Rochdale College in 1964 . An energetic and entrepreneurial spirit with boundless imagination and a playful sense of humor , at that time Adelman was prone to saying he " teaches at the University of Toronto and studies at Rochdale . "
Adelman was the founder and director of York 's Centre for Refugee Studies ( 1988 – 1993 ) and for ten years he was editor of Canada 's periodical on refugees , Refuge until 1993 .
= = = Service and recognition = = =
Adelman served in many university positions at York University , including acting dean of Atkinson College , two terms as director of the graduate program in philosophy , and chair of the Department of Philosophy at York University . He served as Vice @-@ Chair , York University Senate ( 1980 – 81 ) , and as its Chair ( 1981 – 82 ) . Adelman served as National Chair of Canadian Professors for Peace in the Middle East ( 1983 – 84 ) , and Director of the Refugee Documentation Project ( 1982 – 86 ) .
In 2008 Adelman was honored as the keynote speaker at the First Annual Howard Adelman Lecture in celebration of the Centre for Refugee Studies ’ 20th anniversary . Held during Refugee Rights Week in Toronto , Adelman reviewed recent research on refugees , suggesting it is probably more beneficial than detrimental to assist refugees .
= = = Post @-@ retirement = = =
After retiring in 2003 , Adelman was appointed visiting professor at the Woodrow Wilson School at Princeton University in 2004 . In 2008 , Adelman is Senior Research Fellow at the Key Centre for Ethics , Law , Justice and Governance at Griffith University in Brisbane , Australia . He serves as the deputy convener of GovNet , a consortium of researchers on governance issues in Australia , and as research director of the International Consortium of Research on Governance of the Health Workforce . He is producer and host of a weekly television program , Israel Today , broadcast in Canada and parts of the United States .
= = Scholarship = =
The author , coauthor or editor of 23 scholarly books and over 100 articles and book chapters , in addition to numerous other papers , addresses , and professional reports , Adelman has written extensively on the Middle East , humanitarian intervention , membership rights , ethics , early warning and conflict management , refugee repatriation , policy and resettlement , including his contribution in 2000 to the Institutional Component of the Early Warning and Conflict Management System set up by IGAD ( Intergovernmental Authority on Development ) for the Horn of Africa .
Perhaps best known for his work in applied philosophy concerning refugees , immigration policy and genocide , Adelman published a major study entitled Early Warning and Conflict Management : Joint Evaluation of Emergency Assistance to Rwanda ( 1996 ) as part of the 5 volume study International Response to Conflict and Genocide : Lessons from the Rwanda Experience . In 1999 , he co @-@ edited The Path of a Genocide : The Rwanda Crisis from Uganda to Zaire , already regarded a classic on the subject . Adelman served as an associate editor for the Macmillan three @-@ volume Encyclopedia of Genocide and Crimes Against Humanity ( 2005 ) . These efforts earned international acclaim .
His earlier works included publications on social criticism and reform of universities , including The University Game , co @-@ edited with Dennis Lee ( 1968 ) , The Beds of Academe ( 1970 ) , and The Holiversity ( 1973 ) .
= = = Selected publications = = =
Military Intervention and Non @-@ Intervention in the Twenty @-@ First Century : An Australian Perspective , with Charles Sampford . 2009 . New York : Routledge .
Rites of Return , with Elazar Barkan . 2009 . Princeton , NJ : Princeton University Press .
Protracted Displacement in Asia : No Place to Call Home . Aldershot , England ; Burlington , VT : Ashgate , 2008 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 7546 @-@ 7238 @-@ 8
“ Blaming the United Nations . ” 2008 . Journal of International Political Theory . 4 ( April ) : 9 – 33
Encyclopedia of Genocide and Crimes Against Humanity . 3 vols . Edited with Dinah Shelton . Detroit : Thomson / Gale , 2005 . ISBN 0 @-@ 02 @-@ 865992 @-@ 9
War and Peace in Zaire @-@ Congo : Analyzing and Evaluating Intervention , 1996 – 1997 . With Govind C. Rao . Trenton , NJ : Africa World Press , 2004 . ISBN 1 @-@ 59221 @-@ 130 @-@ 5
“ From Refugees to Forced Migration : The UNHCR and Human Security . 2001 . International Migration Review 35 ( Spring 2001 ) : 7 – 32 .
“ Rwanda Revisited : In Search for Lessons . ” 2000 . Journal of Genocide Research 2 : 431 – 444 .
" Preventing Genocide : The Case of Rwanda , " In Genocide : Essays Toward Understanding Early @-@ Warning and Prevention , Roger W. Smith , ed . Williamsburg : Virginia : Association of Genocide Scholars , 1999 .
The Path of a Genocide : The Rwanda Crisis from Uganda to Zaire . Edited with Astri Suhrke . New Brunswick , NJ : Transaction Publishers , 1999 .
" The Ethics of Intervention – Rwanda . " In Dilemmas of Intervention : Sovereignty vs. Responsibility . Richard H. Ulman and Michael Keren , eds . London : Frank Cass Publications , 1999 .
" Control and Prevention : Canadian Refugee Policy : The Case of Rwanda . " In Immigration and Refugee Policy : Canada and Europe . Howard Adelman , ed . Toronto : University of Toronto Press , 1998 .
" Difficulties in Early Warning : Networking and Conflict Management . " In Early Warning and Conflict Prevention : Limitations and Opportunities . Alfred van Staden and Klaas van Walraven , eds . The Hague : Kluwer Law International , 1998 .
Early Warning : Theory and Practice . Edited with Susan Schmeidl . New York : Columbia University Press On Line , 1998 .
" Early Warning and Prevention : The Case of Rwanda , " In Refugee Rights and Realities : Evolving International Concepts and Regimes . Frances Nicholson , ed . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press , 1998 .
" Lamentations : The Death and Rebirth of the Civil Society or The Wisdom of the Alien Other in a Global Civilization . " In Devolution and Post @-@ Multiculturalism , Michael Lanphier , ed . Toronto : Artemis , 1998 .
Membership and Dismemberment : The Body Politic and Genocide in Rwanda . New York : Columbia University Press , Columbia International Affairs Online , 1998 .
" Modernity , Globalization , Refugees and Displacement . " In Refugees , Contemporary Perspectives on the Experience of Forced Migration , Alastair Ager , ed . New York : Cassell Publishers , 1998 .
" State Crime and Migration " In Migration and Crime , Alex P. Schmid , ed . Milan : ISPAC , 1998 .
" Why Refugee Warriors Are Threats . " 1998 . Journal of Conflict Studies 18 ( Spring ) : 49 – 69 .
" The Failure to Prevent Genocide : The Case of Rwanda . " 1997 . Mediterranean Social Sciences Review 2 ( Winter ) : 41 – 65 .
" Of Human Bondage : Labour , Bondage and Freedom in the Phenomenology . " In Essays on Hegel 's Phenomenology of Spirit , Jon Stewart , ed . Albany : SUNY Press , 1997 .
" Preventing Massacre : The Case of Kibeho . " In The Rwanda Crisis : Healing and Protection Strategies , Sally Gacharuzi , ed . Kensington , MD : Overview Press , 1997 .
Early Warning and Conflict Management , Volume 2 of The International Response to Conflict and Genocide : Lessons from the Rwanda Experience , edited with Astri Suhrke . Copenhagen : DANIDA , 1996 .
" Early Warning and Response : Why the International Community Failed to Prevent the Genocide , " with Astri Suhrke . 1996 . Disasters : The Journal of Disaster Studies and Management 20 ( December ) .
" Indifference versus Sentiment . " 1996 . New Routes : A Journal of Peace Research and Action 1 : 11 – 30 .
Multiculturalism , Jews , and Identities in Canada . With John H. Simpson . Jerusalem : Magnes Press , 1996 . ISBN 965 @-@ 223 @-@ 920 @-@ 8
" The Right of Repatriation - Canadian Refugee Policy : The Case of Rwanda . " 1996 . International Migration Review 30 ( Spring ) , 289 – 309 .
" Canada , Quebec and Refugee Claimants . " In Is Quebec Nationalism Just : Perspectives from Anglophone Canada . Joseph Carens , ed . McGill @-@ Queens University Press , 1995 .
Legitimate and Illegitimate Discrimination : New Issues in Migration . Geneva : UNESCO ; York Lanes Press , 1995 .
African Refugees : Development Aid and Repatriation . Edited with John Sorenson . Boulder : Westview Press , 1994 . ISBN 0 @-@ 8133 @-@ 8460 @-@ 5
Canadian Immigration and Refugee Policy and Practice . Berlin : Edition Parabolis , 1994 . ISBN 3 @-@ 88402 @-@ 170 @-@ 2
The Genesis of a Domestic Regime : The Case of Hungary . With Endre Sik and Geza Tessenyi . Toronto : York Lanes Press , 1994 . ISBN 1 @-@ 55014 @-@ 237 @-@ 2
" Immigrants and Refugees : Between the Pre @-@ Modern and the Post @-@ Modern World . " 1994 . Jahrbuch für Vergeichende Sozialforschung . Berlin : Edition Parabolis , 133 – 156 .
Immigration and Refugee Policy : Australia and Canada Compared . 2 vols . Toronto : University of Toronto Press , 1994 . ISBN 0 @-@ 8020 @-@ 7608 @-@ 4 ( v. 1 ) 0802076092 ( v. 2 )
" Refugees : A Conceptual View of Current Research and Towards a Research Framework for the 1990s . " In Crossing Borders : Transmigration in Asia Pacific . Ong Jin Hui , Chan Kwok Bun and Chew Soon Beng , eds . Singapore : Prentice Hall ; Simon & Schuster , 1994 .
" What Can Europe Learn from Canada ? " 1994 . Migration : A European Journal of International Migration and Ethnic Relations 1 – 2 : 5 – 14 .
" The Ethics of Humanitarian Intervention : The Case of the Kurdish Refugees . " 1992 . Public Affairs Quarterly 6 : 61 – 88 .
" Humanitarian Intervention : The Case of the Kurds , " 1992 . International Journal of Refugee Law 4 : 4 – 38 .
Refugee Policy : Canada and the United States . Toronto : York University , Centre for Refugee Studies ; Staten Island , NY : Center for Migration Studies of New York , 1991 . ISBN 0 @-@ 934733 @-@ 63 @-@ 5
Refuge or Asylum ? A Choice for Canada . With C. Michael Lanphier . Toronto : York Lanes Press , 1990 . ISBN 1 @-@ 55014 @-@ 114 @-@ 7
The Indochinese Refugee Movement : The Canadian Experience . Toronto : Operation Lifeline , 1980 . ISBN 0 @-@ 9690599 @-@ 0 @-@ 6
“ The physiology of the university . ” Higher Education 7 ( February ) : 87 – 93 , 1978 .
The Holiversity . Toronto : New Press , 1973 . ISBN 0 @-@ 88770 @-@ 694 @-@ 0
Rational Explanation in History . Ph.D. Thesis , University of Toronto . Ottawa : National Library of Canada . Canadian Theses on Microfilm , # 11528 . Public Archives of Canada , Central Microfilm Unit , 1972 .
The Beds of Academe . Toronto : Praxis Press , 1969 .
The University Game , co @-@ edited with Dennis Lee . Toronto : House of Anansi Press , 1968 .
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= Peter Penfold =
Peter Alfred Penfold , CMG , OBE , ( born 27 February 1944 ) is a retired British diplomat . His career began in 1963 , when he joined the Foreign Service as a clerical officer . Two years into his career , he was posted to the British embassy in Bonn , West Germany , and two years after that to Nigeria . From 1970 to 1972 , Penfold served as a " floater " in Latin America , filling in as necessary for staff at British missions in the region . He served in Mexico during the 1970 football world cup , and on St Vincent , where he was responsible for organising an evacuation after a volcanic eruption . After Latin America , Penfold briefly served in Canberra , before returning to London to take a post in the Foreign and Commonwealth Office ( FCO ) . He earned early promotion to second secretary in Addis Ababa , Ethiopia , where he was responsible for reporting on the Organisation of African Unity ( OAU ) and the Eritrean War of Independence and was still in the country during the revolution , in which the pro @-@ Western emperor was overthrown . After completing his tour in Ethiopia , Penfold served as information officer in Port of Spain and then as first secretary in the West Africa Department of the FCO .
Penfold 's next overseas posting was to Kampala , Uganda , as deputy high commissioner . There , he persuaded President Milton Obote to attend the queen 's birthday party for the first time . Two months later , Obote was overthrown in a coup , after which Penfold led an evacuation of foreign citizens to Kenya . The high commission remained open , and Penfold was still present six months later when a second coup took place . In 1987 , he again returned to the FCO , this time serving in the West Indian and Atlantic Department , and four years later , he was appointed Governor of the British Virgin Islands . The main issues of Penfold 's tenure were the establishment of the territory as an offshore financial centre and the smuggling of drugs through its waters until the sudden death of the chief minister . Penfold resolved the subsequent constitutional crisis by appointing the deputy chief minister as an interim replacement . Penfold 's term as governor expired in 1996 , after which he spent a year as a drugs adviser to the Caribbean before being appointed High Commissioner to Sierra Leone in 1997 . Six weeks into Penfold 's term , President Ahmad Tejan Kabbah was overthrown in a military coup and Penfold organised an evacuation of foreign citizens .
After a hotel housing the remaining foreign nationals was attacked , Penfold organised a further evacuation , which was conducted by an American warship . The ship transported the evacuees — including Penfold — to Conakry in neighbouring Guinea . While in Conakry , Penfold advised Kabbah on re @-@ establishing his government in exile , and leased a disused restaurant for the government 's headquarters . Kabbah was restored in February 1998 , but the role of the private military company Sandline International in assisting Kabbah created controversy in the United Kingdom , as its services were alleged to violate an arms embargo on Sierra Leone . After an HM Customs investigation , a parliamentary inquiry , and a select committee investigation , Penfold was reprimanded but allowed to return to his post . Later in the year , violence began to intensify again in Sierra Leone , and Penfold was ordered to evacuate foreign nationals ( the eight evacuation of his career and the second in Sierra Leone ) over Christmas 1998 . He requested an extension to his term as high commissioner , but the request was denied and he left Sierra Leone in April 2000 . He spent the last year of his career working for the Department for International Development and retired in 2001 . In retirement , Penfold has spoken on issues concerning Africa , particularly Sierra Leone , and has been critical of the FCO . His support of Kabbah , and his role in returning him to power in 1998 , earned Penfold folk hero status in Sierra Leone .
= = Early life = =
Penfold was born to Alfred and Florence ( née Green ) in 1944 and educated at Sutton Grammar School for Boys , where he stayed on until 19 . He left school with A @-@ levels in French , German , and geography , and took casual employment to earn money . Having a desire to make use of his language qualifications , he began applying for jobs at multi @-@ national companies . He applied to Her Majesty 's Civil Service and passed the civil service exam , but was keen to join the Foreign Service . He took and passed a second exam to join the Foreign Service , but had to enter at a lower grade than he would have held in the Civil Service .
= = Early career = =
= = = 1963 – 1984 : career beginnings = = =
Penfold 's diplomatic career began as a clerical officer at the Foreign and Commonwealth Office ( FCO ) in London in 1963 . In 1965 , two years into his career , Penfold was posted to the British embassy in Bonn , West Germany , where he served as a clerical officer until 1968 . At the end of his posting , he was sent to Kaduna , Nigeria , where he was one of only six staff . Penfold admitted that — had he been able to choose his posting — he would probably not have chosen Kaduna and may not have considered Africa , but the posting " started [ his ] love affair with Africa " . He spent two years in Kaduna as one of the three junior staff who , unlike the senior staff , had no diplomatic privilege . From 1970 to 1972 , Penfold was a Latin American " floater " — part of a pool of five staff who could be sent to assist diplomatic missions to provide support during busy times or to cover for staff leave .
Penfold 's first assignment as Latin American floater was in Mexico City , where he acted as vice consul during the football world cup while many of the diplomatic staff were in Guadalajara , where the English national team were based . After the conclusion of the world cup , Penfold was sent to Ecuador , where he was responsible for overseeing renovation work to the ambassador 's residence . He was in Ecuador for six months , after which he was sent to Uruguay to assist in the aftermath of the kidnapping of Ambassador Geoffrey Jackson . Six weeks later , he was ordered to Paraguay , where the British mission was staffed by a single diplomat , for whom Penfold would cover while they took leave . Penfold 's final posting as a " floater " was to St Vincent , which at the time relied on the United Kingdom for defence and foreign policy matters . Three weeks after his arrival , the volcano on the island erupted , and Penfold was responsible for co @-@ ordinating an evacuation by the Royal Navy .
Of his term as Latin American floater , Penfold stated that he found the variety of tasks he performed " valuable experience " for his later career . After Latin America , he was immediately sent to Canberra in 1972 , having been told that the passport officer there was dying . He arrived to find that there had been a misunderstanding regarding the passport officer 's health . He stayed to assist for three months before returning to London , where he became a desk officer in the Pacific and Dependent Territories Department of the Foreign and Commonwealth Office ( FCO ) . Working with the Overseas Development Administration , he was responsible for several small territories in the Pacific . During his tenure , Penfold turned down a job inside 10 Downing Street as part of a European Commission secretariat being set up by Prime Minister Ted Heath , believing the position to be inferior to the one he held .
= = = 1975 – 1987 : Ethiopia and Uganda = = =
In 1975 , while serving at the FCO , Penfold volunteered to learn a difficult language in the hope of advancing his career . After passing an aptitude test , he was assigned a professional language tutor and began learning Amharic — the official language of Ethiopia — and after six weeks of tuition , was sent to Gondar to continue learning the language by living in Ethiopia . Shortly after , he was posted to Addis Ababa as second secretary , because the British ambassador to Ethiopia , Sir Willie Morris , was keen to have an Amharic @-@ speaking second secretary . Penfold was responsible for monitoring and reporting on internal Ethiopian affairs and the Organisation of African Unity ( OAU ) , as the latter was based in Addis . As part of the role , Penfold was required to attend and report on meetings of the OAU , which took place all over Africa . On the instruction of Foreign Secretary David Owen , Penfold met with the leaders of the independence movement in Southern Rhodesia ( modern @-@ day Zimbabwe ) at an OAU conference in Gabon in 1977 . There he met separately with Bishop Muzorewa , Joshua Nkomo , and Robert Mugabe . Penfold believed Mugabe to be difficult to work with , but later stated that it should have been obvious that Mugabe would come to power in Zimbabwe and that the British government could have made a greater effort to work with him .
Penfold 's tenure in Ethiopia coincided with the Eritrean War of Independence , which Penfold was responsible for monitoring . To that end , he was required to covertly meet with Eritrean informants , sometimes smuggling them back to the British compound in the boot of his car , to keep up to date on the progress of the war . Penfold was also in the country during the Ethiopian Revolution , in which the pro @-@ Western Emperor Haile Selassie I was overthrown by a faction of the military — which became the Derg — sympathetic to the Soviet Union . He remained in Ethiopia until 1978 , when he was sent to Port of Spain as information officer , with responsibility for editing a magazine aimed at promoting British trade . Penfold returned to London in 1981 , serving as first secretary in the West Africa Department of the FCO . At the time , the FCO had two career " streams " — one for non @-@ graduates and a faster one for university graduates — and during his time in the West Africa Department , Penfold " bridged " into the faster stream .
After " bridging " , Penfold was promoted and posted to Kampala , Uganda , in 1984 as deputy high commissioner . He had attended an OAU conference in Uganda in the 1970s and was pleased to be posted there . Within a few weeks , the high commissioner took leave and Penfold became acting high commissioner . One of his first tasks was the 1985 high commission 's queen 's birthday party , which he postponed to allow President Milton Obote to attend — the first time Obote attended a national day . Two months after the birthday party , Penfold was still acting high commissioner when he was informed of an impending coup . He notified the American , French , and UN representatives , after which he instructed all the British staff to move into the high commissioner 's residence until the fighting was over . As shooting broke out on the outskirts of Kampala , Obote fled the country along with most of his ministers , leaving the country in chaos . The following day , Penfold travelled into the city centre with the American and UN representatives to determine who was in charge of the country and make contact with the new regime . He met a Ugandan Army major , to whom he expressed his concerns about the security situation and explained that foreign citizens would likely be evacuated , which happened three days later when Penfold led an evacuation by road to Kenya . Although most foreign citizens had left , Penfold kept the British High Commission open and all the staff remained . The Ugandan military began forming a government and attempted to include all tribes in the country , to which end Penfold assisted by meeting with Yoweri Museveni , leader of the National Resistance Army . Museveni refused to join the government and six months later led another coup and declared himself president . Penfold was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire ( OBE ) in 1986 .
= = = 1987 – 1997 : FCO and the British Virgin Islands = = =
Penfold returned to the FCO in 1987 , where he was appointed to a position in the West Indian and Atlantic Department , which was responsible for the Caribbean and South Atlantic . The department was divided between British Dependent Territories ( for which Penfold was responsible ) and independent nations . In the years before and during Penfold 's tenure , the British dependencies had been the subject of several diplomatic incidents and were causing problems for the British government , to whom the international community looked to resolve problems with its dependent territories . The FCO had struggled to find new governors for the territories since the winding @-@ up of the Colonial Service — which had historically provided most governors and many civil servants — in the 1960s . Thus , Penfold recommended in a policy paper that the Diplomatic Service be considered as a recruiting pool , and that governors be recruited earlier in their career rather than at the end . He also identified several posts which could be used for training potential governors , including the one he occupied and deputy governor posts such as that in Bermuda .
The government accepted Penfold 's recommendations , to the extent that he was appointed Governor of the British Virgin Islands in 1991 , which , at the age of 48 , made him the youngest serving governor of a British territory . The governor represents the monarch and the British government , as well as presiding over the cabinet , but is also required to swear an oath to the constitution of the territory , which Penfold believed complicated the governor 's role as a representative of the British government . Among Penfold 's duties as governor was the purchase of an aeroplane to assist in combating drug smuggling through the territory and assisting in establishing the British Virgin Islands as an offshore financial centre ; the number of registered companies in the Islands rose to 35 @,@ 000 ( more than double the population ) during Penfold 's tenure . As governor , Penfold became increasingly aware of growing resentment among the citizens of the British dependencies regarding their rights of entry and abode in the UK . He proposed that the territories be renamed " British overseas territories " , and that their citizens be given equal rights of entry and abode — proposals that were eventually accepted . At the end of Penfold 's term , a constitutional crisis arose after Chief Minister Hamilton Lavity Stoutt died suddenly . The constitution of the territory contained no provision for the chief minister dying in office , and the death left the governing party without a majority in the assembly , so Penfold asked Deputy Chief Minister Ralph O 'Neal to become " Chief Minister ad interim " to provide political stability . Penfold was appointed a Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George ( CMG ) for his service in the British Virgin Islands .
After he had completed his term as governor in 1996 , the FCO struggled to find a post for Penfold , so they appointed him to the newly created post of special drugs adviser to the Caribbean , in which he worked as part of a team of advisers from across the European Union assisting Caribbean governments in developing policies to combat the smuggling of illegal drugs .
= = Sierra Leone = =
= = = Military coup and first evacuation = = =
Although he enjoyed the posting as drugs adviser , Penfold was keen to go back to Africa . He applied for a post as high commissioner in Namibia , but the post was downgraded and the application fell through . Penfold was then offered a posting to Sierra Leone . Although it was a lower @-@ ranking post than the British Virgin Islands , Penfold was assured that taking the position would not adversely affect his career , so he accepted and , in March 1997 , was appointed High Commissioner to Sierra Leone . He later stated that he believed his previous experience in Africa , particularly in Uganda , stood him in good stead for the events of his posting to Sierra Leone . The country was in the middle of a bloody civil war in 1997 , and on 25 May — six weeks into Penfold 's tenure — President Ahmad Tejan Kabbah 's government was overthrown in a military coup . Although the coup itself did not come as a surprise , the timing caught the international community off @-@ guard . As in Uganda a decade earlier , Penfold gathered all the high commission staff and their families under one roof .
Kabbah was evacuated to Conakry in neighbouring Guinea almost as soon as fighting broke out , and the coup @-@ makers established the Armed Forces Revolutionary Council ( AFRC ) with Johnny Paul Koroma as its chairman . The following day , Penfold invited Koroma and several of his associates , along with representatives of Nigeria , the United States , and the UN , to a meeting at the British high commissioner 's residence . He found it remarkable that they all attended , but believed it epitomised the esteem in which the office of British high commissioner was held in Sierra Leone . At the meeting , Koroma agreed to open the country 's main airport temporarily the next day , which allowed Penfold to organise the evacuation of several planeloads of foreign nationals . The men agreed to reconvene the following day and the meetings continued throughout the week , though almost all diplomatic missions — including those of the UN and US — closed over the course of the week , leaving just the British and Nigerians in Freetown . In that time , Penfold believed he had persuaded the coup @-@ makers to stand down and allow Kabbah to return but , unbeknownst to the diplomats , the AFRC had invited the Revolutionary United Front ( RUF ) — the main rebel group in the civil war — to form a joint government in Freetown .
Days after the arrival of the RUF , on 2 June , rebels and soldiers attacked the Mammy Yoko hotel — where around 800 foreign citizens had gathered under the protection of Nigerian soldiers — in response to a Nigerian naval bombardment of Freetown . Penfold was able to see the firefight from the high commission building , and telephoned the Sierra Leonean defence headquarters to demand an end to the violence , threatening to request the deployment of US Marines from the USS Kearsarge , which was anchored offshore . The defence headquarters promptly ordered an end to the shooting , and the occupants of the hotel were evacuated to another nearby hotel for the night and then to the USS Kearsarge the next morning ( 3 June ) . In addition , Penfold and the remaining members of his staff ( most of the staff and all their families had already left ) were ordered to evacuate on the Kearsarge , despite Penfold 's objections . The Kearsarge sailed to Conakry , where Kabbah had been staying since the beginning of the coup . No country recognised the military junta , and the international community continued to recognise the exiled Kabbah government as the legitimate government of Sierra Leone . Kabbah re @-@ established his government in Conakry , basing it in a former Chinese restaurant leased by the British government through Penfold . There , Penfold advised Kabbah on keeping up the government 's presence on the international stage , such as by ensuring that a representative was sent to international meetings . He also continued to run the British diplomatic mission in Freetown ; the high commission continued to pay its local staff and began smuggling food and money into Sierra Leone . During the ten months in which the Kabbah government was exiled , Penfold — with funds from the British Department for International Development ( DfID ) — also assisted in the setting up of a covert radio station , which broadcast on behalf of the exiled government .
= = = Sandline affair = = =
From Conakry , Penfold also assisted Kabbah in negotiations with Sandline International — a private military company led by Tim Spicer , a former British Army officer — whom Kabbah intended to hire to lead a counter @-@ coup . Sandline had been contracted to provide assistance to the Nigerian @-@ led forces in Sierra Leone at a time when relations between the UK and Nigeria were poor , so Penfold used Sandline personnel to liaise with the Nigerians to provide intelligence for Kabbah and the British High Commission . In February 1998 , a coalition of Nigerian troops and local militia — assisted by Sandline — restored Kabbah to power , and Penfold was transported back to Freetown by a British warship . The role of Sandline , however , sparked a political controversy in the United Kingdom , as the company was accused of violating an international arms embargo on Sierra Leone . Penfold was ordered back to the UK , where he was investigated by HM Customs and Excise for allegedly assisting Spicer in violating the embargo . Customs dropped their investigation after deciding it was not in the public interest to prosecute anybody , but Foreign Secretary Robin Cook ordered a parliamentary inquiry into what the FCO knew about Sandline 's contract with Kabbah . Penfold received a reprimand for failing to report adequately on his dealings with Sandline , and the inquiry — led by Sir Thomas Legg — recommended better communication between the FCO and the high commissioner .
In Sierra Leone , Penfold was widely considered a hero for his role in restoring Kabbah . While he was giving evidence to the inquiry , 20 @,@ 000 people took part in a demonstration demanding his return to Sierra Leone , and upon his arrival at Lungi airport , he was appointed an honorary Paramount Chief — becoming only the third person to be granted the honour since Sierra Leone 's independence — and was greeted by large crowds . Shortly after his return , Penfold was again summoned back to London to face an investigation by the House of Commons Foreign Affairs Select Committee . He gave evidence in a televised session in which he stated his belief that the Sandline controversy was a peripheral issue and that the FCO should be focusing on supporting the newly restored Kabbah government . The committee 's report expressed concern about Penfold 's role with regard to Sandline , but believed he " acted as he thought was in the best interests of the United Kingdom and of Sierra Leone , and that he did not consider that his actions went beyond government policy " . Penfold stated after his retirement that he felt Sierra Leone became a " political football " in the UK and that , had the FCO 's focus not been distracted by the Sandline issue , later problems in Sierra Leone might have been avoided .
= = = Second evacuation , Lomé Accord , and replacement = = =
Towards the end of 1998 , the RUF began to re @-@ mobilise in northern Sierra Leone . As tensions escalated , the FCO ordered an evacuation of British citizens just before Christmas . Penfold believed the evacuation — the eighth of his career — was unnecessary and argued against it ; his objections were over @-@ ruled and he was ordered to evacuate his staff , though he was allowed to remain in Freetown with his military protection detail . The Royal Air Force evacuated approximately 35 people , but many British people chose to stay . Penfold travelled to Abidjan after Christmas for an international summit on Sierra Leone , but the FCO refused to allow him to return to Sierra Leone , so he again based himself in a hotel in Conakry . The RUF attacked Freetown on 6 January 1999 . After 10 days of fighting , the rebels were pushed back and Penfold was transported back to Sierra Leone by a British warship . He flew to Freetown for daily meetings with Kabbah , but was not allowed to move back into his residence and so temporarily lived on the ship . Later in 1999 , the Sierra Leone government entered into negotiations which resulted in the Lomé Peace Agreement . Penfold opposed power @-@ sharing with the RUF , and believed he was excluded from the talks in Lomé because of his views . The agreement did not hold , and violence again broke out in early 2000 .
Penfold 's term as high commissioner expired in April 2000 . He requested a British military adviser be sent to Sierra Leone , as well as an extension to his own term , both of which were denied . He left the country on 30 April and was succeeded by Alan Jones . After returning to the UK , he applied for multiple posts but was turned down for each . He was asked to take early retirement , but was keen to retire on his own terms . He eventually took a job as a conflict adviser to DfID , having developed what he described as " a very good relationship with ... [ the ] DfID " .
= = Retirement = =
In retirement , Penfold has been critical of the FCO 's attitude towards Africa , and has expressed the view that it does not give high enough priority to the continent . He stated in an interview that he felt the FCO was keen to develop experts in other areas , such as Europe and the Middle East , but " Africa is the place where anybody can do it so long as they have average intelligence " . Since retiring , he has taken on roles with various charities and other organisations focusing on Africa and Sierra Leone , including New Africa Analysis , the UK Association for Schools for the Blind , Sierra Leone ( which supports the Sir Milton Margai School for the Blind in Freetown ) , and the Dorothy Springer Trust . He is considered a folk hero in Sierra Leone , and continues to speak on issues relating to Sierra Leone . He was vocal in his opposition to indictment of Samuel Hinga Norman — a pro @-@ Kabbah militia leader during the civil war — for war crimes by the Special Court for Sierra Leone , and to the special court itself . He described the special court as an " expensive and divisive piece of judicial machinery " which served little purpose following the deaths of most of the prominent defendants , and believed that its continuation " could undermine the fragile peace " in Sierra Leone . Penfold was granted the Freedom of the City of Freetown and given the honorary title of Paramount Chief for his role in Sierra Leone , and has written a book about his experiences in the country , Atrocities , Diamonds and Diplomacy ( ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 84884 @-@ 768 @-@ 2 ) .
= = Personal life = =
Penfold met his first wife @-@ to @-@ be while serving on St Vincent as Latin American floater . He was planning his wedding at the end of his term in Latin America but was persuaded to postpone it due to the urgency with which he was required in Canberra , and the wedding eventually took place later in 1972 . The couple had three children , but his wife did not enjoy the overseas postings . They divorced in 1984 and Penfold travelled to Kampala alone . While in Uganda , Penfold met his second wife @-@ to @-@ be , Celia , who was working for the World Bank . They married while Penfold was Governor of the British Virgin Islands , making Penfold the first British governor to get married in @-@ post . Both Penfold and his wife consider themselves committed Christians , and Penfold has stated that , " as a Christian , I have felt more at home in Africa " .
|
= 0 @.@ 999 ... =
In mathematics , the repeating decimal 0 @.@ 999 … ( sometimes written with more or fewer 9s before the final ellipsis , for example as 0 @.@ 9 … , or in a variety of other variants such as 0 @.@ 9 , 0 . ( 9 ) , or <formula> ) denotes a real number that can be shown to be the number one . In other words , the symbols " 0 @.@ 999 … " and " 1 " represent the same number . Proofs of this equality have been formulated with varying degrees of mathematical rigor , taking into account preferred development of the real numbers , background assumptions , historical context , and target audience .
Every nonzero , terminating decimal ( with infinitely many trailing 0s ) has an equal twin representation with infinitely many trailing 9s ( for example , 8 @.@ 32 and 8 @.@ 31999 … ) . The terminating decimal representation is usually preferred , contributing to the misconception that it is the only representation . The same phenomenon occurs in all other bases ( with a given base 's largest digit ) or in any similar representation of the real numbers .
The equality of 0 @.@ 999 … and 1 is closely related to the absence of nonzero infinitesimals in the real number system , the most commonly used system in mathematical analysis . Some alternative number systems , such as the hyperreals , do contain nonzero infinitesimals . In most such number systems , the standard interpretation of the expression 0 @.@ 999 … makes it equal to 1 , but in some of these number systems , the symbol " 0 @.@ 999 … " admits other interpretations that contain infinitely many 9s while falling infinitesimally short of 1 .
The equality 0 @.@ 999 … = 1 has long been accepted by mathematicians and is part of general mathematical education . Nonetheless , some students find it sufficiently counterintuitive that they question or reject it . Such skepticism is common enough that the difficulty of convincing them of the validity of this identity has been the subject of several studies in mathematics education .
= = Algebraic proofs = =
Algebraic proofs showing that 0 @.@ 999 … represents the number 1 use concepts such as fractions , long division , and digit manipulation to build transformations preserving equality from 0 @.@ 999 … to 1 . However , these proofs are not rigorous as they do not include a careful analytic definition of 0 @.@ 999 … .
= = = Fractions and long division = = =
One reason that infinite decimals are a necessary extension of finite decimals is to represent fractions . Using long division , a simple division of integers like 1 ⁄ 9 becomes a recurring decimal , 0 @.@ 111 … , in which the digits repeat without end . This decimal yields a quick proof for 0 @.@ 999 … |
= 1 . Multiplication of 9 times 1 produces 9 in each digit , so 9 × 0 @.@ 111 … equals 0 @.@ 999 … and 9 × 1 ⁄ 9 equals 1 , so 0 @.@ 999 … =
1 :
<formula>
This result is consistent with other ninth fractions , all of which have repeating decimals , such as 3 ⁄ 9 and 8 ⁄ 9 . If 0 @.@ 999 … is to be consistent , it must equal 9 ⁄ 9 = 1 .
<formula>
= = = Digit manipulation = = =
When a number in decimal notation is multiplied by 10 , the digits do not change but each digit moves one place to the left . Thus 10 × 0 @.@ 999 … equals 9 @.@ 999 … , which is 9 greater than the original number . To see this , consider that in subtracting 0 @.@ 999 … from 9 @.@ 999 … , each of the digits after the decimal separator cancels , i.e. the result is 9 − 9 = 0 for each such digit :
<formula>
= = = Discussion = = =
Although these proofs demonstrate that 0 @.@ 999 … |
= 1 , the extent to which they explain the equation depends on the audience . In introductory arithmetic , such proofs help explain why 0 @.@ 999 … =
1 but 0 @.@ 333 … < 0 @.@ 34 . In introductory algebra , the proofs help explain why the general method of converting between fractions and repeating decimals works . But the proofs shed little light on the fundamental relationship between decimals and the numbers they represent , which underlies the question of how two different decimals can be said to be equal at all .
Once a representation scheme is defined , it can be used to justify the rules of decimal arithmetic used in the above proofs . Moreover , one can directly demonstrate that the decimals 0 @.@ 999 … and 1 @.@ 000 … both represent the same real number ; it is built into the definition . This is done below .
= = Analytic proofs = =
Since the question of 0 @.@ 999 … does not affect the formal development of mathematics , it can be postponed until one proves the standard theorems of real analysis . One requirement is to characterize real numbers that can be written in decimal notation , consisting of an optional sign , a finite sequence of one or more digits forming an integer part , a decimal separator , and a sequence of digits forming a fractional part . For the purpose of discussing 0 @.@ 999 … , the integer part can be summarized as b0 and one can neglect negatives , so a decimal expansion has the form
<formula>
It should be noted that the fraction part , unlike the integer part , is not limited to a finite number of digits . This is a positional notation , so for example the digit 5 in 500 contributes ten times as much as the 5 in 50 , and the 5 in 0 @.@ 05 contributes one tenth as much as the 5 in 0 @.@ 5 .
= = = Infinite series and sequences = = =
Perhaps the most common development of decimal expansions is to define them as sums of infinite series . In general :
<formula>
For 0 @.@ 999 … one can apply the convergence theorem concerning geometric series :
If <formula> then <formula>
Since 0 @.@ 999 … is such a sum with a common ratio r
= 1 ⁄ 10 , the theorem makes short work of the question :
<formula>
This proof ( actually , that 10 equals 9 @.@ 999 … ) appears as early as 1770 in Leonhard Euler 's Elements of Algebra .
The sum of a geometric series is itself a result even older than Euler . A typical 18th @-@ century derivation used a term @-@ by @-@ term manipulation similar to the algebraic proof given above , and as late as 1811 , Bonnycastle 's textbook An Introduction to Algebra uses such an argument for geometric series to justify the same maneuver on 0 @.@ 999 … A 19th @-@ century reaction against such liberal summation methods resulted in the definition that still dominates today : the sum of a series is defined to be the limit of the sequence of its partial sums . A corresponding proof of the theorem explicitly computes that sequence ; it can be found in any proof @-@ based introduction to calculus or analysis .
A sequence ( x0 , x1 , x2 , … ) has a limit x if the distance | x − xn | becomes arbitrarily small as n increases . The statement that 0 @.@ 999 … =
1 can itself be interpreted and proven as a limit :
<formula>
The first two equalities can be interpreted as symbol shorthand definitions . The remaining equalities can be proven . The last step , that 1 ⁄ 10n → 0 as n → ∞ , is often justified by the Archimedean property of the real numbers . This limit @-@ based attitude towards 0 @.@ 999 … is often put in more evocative but less precise terms . For example , the 1846 textbook The University Arithmetic explains , " .999 + , continued to infinity = 1 , because every annexation of a 9 brings the value closer to 1 " ; the 1895 Arithmetic for Schools says , " … when a large number of 9s is taken , the difference between 1 and .99999 … becomes inconceivably small " . Such heuristics are often interpreted by students as implying that 0 @.@ 999 … itself is less than 1 .
= = = Nested intervals and least upper bounds = = =
The series definition above is a simple way to define the real number named by a decimal expansion . A complementary approach is tailored to the opposite process : for a given real number , define the decimal expansion ( s ) to name it .
If a real number x is known to lie in the closed interval [ 0 , 10 ] ( i.e. , it is greater than or equal to 0 and less than or equal to 10 ) , one can imagine dividing that interval into ten pieces that overlap only at their endpoints : [ 0 , 1 ] , [ 1 , 2 ] , [ 2 , 3 ] , and so on up to [ 9 , 10 ] . The number x must belong to one of these ; if it belongs to [ 2 , 3 ] then one records the digit " 2 " and subdivides that interval into [ 2 , 2 @.@ 1 ] , [ 2 @.@ 1 , 2 @.@ 2 ] , … , [ 2 @.@ 8 , 2 @.@ 9 ] , [ 2 @.@ 9 , 3 ] . Continuing this process yields an infinite sequence of nested intervals , labeled by an infinite sequence of digits b0 , b1 , b2 , b3 , … , and one writes
<formula>
In this formalism , the identities 1 |
= 0 @.@ 999 … and 1 =
1 @.@ 000 … reflect , respectively , the fact that 1 lies in both [ 0 , 1 ] and [ 1 , 2 ] , so one can choose either subinterval when finding its digits . To ensure that this notation does not abuse the " = " sign , one needs a way to reconstruct a unique real number for each decimal . This can be done with limits , but other constructions continue with the ordering theme .
One straightforward choice is the nested intervals theorem , which guarantees that given a sequence of nested , closed intervals whose lengths become arbitrarily small , the intervals contain exactly one real number in their intersection . So b0.b1b2b3 … is defined to be the unique number contained within all the intervals [ b0 , b0 + 1 ] , [ b0.b1 , b0.b1 + 0 @.@ 1 ] , and so on . 0 @.@ 999 … is then the unique real number that lies in all of the intervals [ 0 , 1 ] , [ 0 @.@ 9 , 1 ] , [ 0 @.@ 99 , 1 ] , and [ 0 @.@ 99 … 9 , 1 ] for every finite string of 9s . Since 1 is an element of each of these intervals , 0 @.@ 999 …
= 1 .
The Nested Intervals Theorem is usually founded upon a more fundamental characteristic of the real numbers : the existence of least upper bounds or suprema . To directly exploit these objects , one may define b0.b1b2b3 … to be the least upper bound of the set of approximants { b0 , b0.b1 , b0.b1b2 , … } . One can then show that this definition ( or the nested intervals definition ) is consistent with the subdivision procedure , implying 0 @.@ 999 … =
1 again . Tom Apostol concludes ,
The fact that a real number might have two different decimal representations is merely a reflection of the fact that two different sets of real numbers can have the same supremum .
= = Proofs from the construction of the real numbers = =
Some approaches explicitly define real numbers to be certain structures built upon the rational numbers , using axiomatic set theory . The natural numbers – 0 , 1 , 2 , 3 , and so on – begin with 0 and continue upwards , so that every number has a successor . One can extend the natural numbers with their negatives to give all the integers , and to further extend to ratios , giving the rational numbers . These number systems are accompanied by the arithmetic of addition , subtraction , multiplication , and division . More subtly , they include ordering , so that one number can be compared to another and found to be less than , greater than , or equal to another number .
The step from rationals to reals is a major extension . There are at least two popular ways to achieve this step , both published in 1872 : Dedekind cuts and Cauchy sequences . Proofs that 0 @.@ 999 … = 1 which directly use these constructions are not found in textbooks on real analysis , where the modern trend for the last few decades has been to use an axiomatic analysis . Even when a construction is offered , it is usually applied towards proving the axioms of the real numbers , which then support the above proofs . However , several authors express the idea that starting with a construction is more logically appropriate , and the resulting proofs are more self @-@ contained .
= = = Dedekind cuts = = =
In the Dedekind cut approach , each real number x is defined as the infinite set of all rational numbers less than x . In particular , the real number 1 is the set of all rational numbers that are less than 1 . Every positive decimal expansion easily determines a Dedekind cut : the set of rational numbers which are less than some stage of the expansion . So the real number 0 @.@ 999 … is the set of rational numbers r such that r < 0 , or r < 0 @.@ 9 , or r < 0 @.@ 99 , or r is less than some other number of the form
<formula>
Every element of 0 @.@ 999 … is less than 1 , so it is an element of the real number 1 . Conversely , an element of 1 is a rational number
<formula>
which implies
<formula>
Since 0 @.@ 999 … and 1 contain the same rational numbers , they are the same set : 0 @.@ 999 …
= 1 .
The definition of real numbers as Dedekind cuts was first published by Richard Dedekind in 1872 . The above approach to assigning a real number to each decimal expansion is due to an expository paper titled " Is 0 @.@ 999 … =
1 ? " by Fred Richman in Mathematics Magazine , which is targeted at teachers of collegiate mathematics , especially at the junior / senior level , and their students . Richman notes that taking Dedekind cuts in any dense subset of the rational numbers yields the same results ; in particular , he uses decimal fractions , for which the proof is more immediate . He also notes that typically the definitions allow { x : x < 1 } to be a cut but not { x : x ≤ 1 } ( or vice versa ) " Why do that ? Precisely to rule out the existence of distinct numbers 0 @.@ 9 * and 1 . [ … ] So we see that in the traditional definition of the real numbers , the equation 0 @.@ 9 * = 1 is built in at the beginning . " A further modification of the procedure leads to a different structure where the two are not equal . Although it is consistent , many of the common rules of decimal arithmetic no longer hold , for example the fraction 1 ⁄ 3 has no representation ; see " Alternative number systems " below .
= = = Cauchy sequences = = =
Another approach is to define a real number as the limit of a Cauchy sequence of rational numbers . This construction of the real numbers uses the ordering of rationals less directly . First , the distance between x and y is defined as the absolute value | x − y | , where the absolute value | z | is defined as the maximum of z and − z , thus never negative . Then the reals are defined to be the sequences of rationals that have the Cauchy sequence property using this distance . That is , in the sequence ( x0 , x1 , x2 , … ) , a mapping from natural numbers to rationals , for any positive rational δ there is an N such that | xm − xn | ≤ δ for all m , n > N. ( The distance between terms becomes smaller than any positive rational . )
If ( xn ) and ( yn ) are two Cauchy sequences , then they are defined to be equal as real numbers if the sequence ( xn − yn ) has the limit 0 . Truncations of the decimal number b0.b1b2b3 … generate a sequence of rationals which is Cauchy ; this is taken to define the real value of the number . Thus in this formalism the task is to show that the sequence of rational numbers
<formula>
has the limit 0 . Considering the nth term of the sequence , for n ∈ ℕ , it must therefore be shown that
<formula>
This limit is plain if one understands the definition of limit . So again 0 @.@ 999 …
= 1 .
The definition of real numbers as Cauchy sequences was first published separately by Eduard Heine and Georg Cantor , also in 1872 . The above approach to decimal expansions , including the proof that 0 @.@ 999 … =
1 , closely follows Griffiths & Hilton 's 1970 work A comprehensive textbook of classical mathematics : A contemporary interpretation . The book is written specifically to offer a second look at familiar concepts in a contemporary light .
= = = Infinite decimal representation = = =
Commonly in secondary schools ' mathematics education , the real numbers are constructed by defining a number using an integer followed by a radix point and an infinite sequence written out as a string to represent the fractional part of any given real number . In this construction , the set of any combination of integers and digits after the decimal point ( or radix point in non @-@ base 10 systems ) is the set of real numbers . This construction can too be rigorously shown to satisfy all of the real axioms after defining an equivalence relation over the set that defines 1 = eq 0 @.@ 999 … as well as for any other nonzero decimals with only finitely many nonzero terms in the decimal string with its trailing 9s version . With this construction of the reals , all proofs of the statement 1 = 0 @.@ 999 … can be viewed as implicitly assuming the equality when any operations are performed on the real numbers .
= = Generalizations = =
The result that 0 @.@ 999 …
= 1 generalizes readily in two ways . First , every nonzero number with a finite decimal notation ( equivalently , endless trailing 0s ) has a counterpart with trailing 9s . For example , 0 @.@ 24999 … equals 0 @.@ 25 , exactly as in the special case considered . These numbers are exactly the decimal fractions , and they are dense .
Second , a comparable theorem applies in each radix or base . For example , in base 2 ( the binary numeral system ) 0 @.@ 111 … equals 1 , and in base 3 ( the ternary numeral system ) 0 @.@ 222 … equals 1 . In general , any terminating base b expression has a counterpart with repeated trailing digits equal to b − 1 . Textbooks of real analysis are likely to skip the example of 0 @.@ 999 … and present one or both of these generalizations from the start .
Alternative representations of 1 also occur in non @-@ integer bases . For example , in the golden ratio base , the two standard representations are 1 @.@ 000 … and 0 @.@ 101010 … , and there are infinitely many more representations that include adjacent 1s . Generally , for almost all q between 1 and 2 , there are uncountably many base @-@ q expansions of 1 . On the other hand , there are still uncountably many q ( including all natural numbers greater than 1 ) for which there is only one base @-@ q expansion of 1 , other than the trivial 1 @.@ 000 … . This result was first obtained by Paul Erdős , Miklos Horváth , and István Joó around 1990 . In 1998 Vilmos Komornik and Paola Loreti determined the smallest such base , the Komornik – Loreti constant q =
1 @.@ 787231650 … . In this base , 1
= 0 @.@ 11010011001011010010110011010011 … ; the digits are given by the Thue – Morse sequence , which does not repeat .
A more far @-@ reaching generalization addresses the most general positional numeral systems . They too have multiple representations , and in some sense the difficulties are even worse . For example :
In the balanced ternary system , 1 ⁄ 2 =
0 @.@ 111 …
= 1 @.@ 111 … .
In the reverse factorial number system ( using bases 2 ! , 3 ! , 4 ! , … for positions after the decimal point ) , 1 =
1 @.@ 000 … = 0 @.@ 1234 … .
= = = Impossibility of unique representation = = =
That all these different number systems suffer from multiple representations for some real numbers can be attributed to a fundamental difference between the real numbers as an ordered set and collections of infinite strings of symbols , ordered lexicographically . Indeed , the following two properties account for the difficulty :
If an interval of the real numbers is partitioned into two non @-@ empty parts L , R , such that every element of L is ( strictly ) less than every element of R , then either L contains a largest element or R contains a smallest element , but not both .
The collection of infinite strings of symbols taken from any finite " alphabet " , lexicographically ordered , can be partitioned into two non @-@ empty parts L , R , such that every element of L is less than every element of R , while L contains a largest element and R contains a smallest element . Indeed , it suffices to take two finite prefixes ( initial substrings ) p1 , p2 of elements from the collection such that they differ only in their final symbol , for which symbol they have successive values , and take for L the set of all strings in the collection whose corresponding prefix is at most p1 , and for R the remainder , the strings in the collection whose corresponding prefix is at least p2 . Then L has a largest element , starting with p1 and choosing the largest available symbol in all following positions , while R has a smallest element obtained by following p2 by the smallest symbol in all positions .
The first point follows from basic properties of the real numbers : L has a supremum and R has an infimum , which are easily seen to be equal ; being a real number it either lies in R or in L , but not both since L and R are supposed to be disjoint . The second point generalizes the 0 @.@ 999 … / 1 @.@ 000 … pair obtained for p1 |
= " 0 " , p2 =
" 1 " . In fact one need not use the same alphabet for all positions ( so that for instance mixed radix systems can be included ) or consider the full collection of possible strings ; the only important points are that at each position a finite set of symbols ( which may even depend on the previous symbols ) can be chosen from ( this is needed to ensure maximal and minimal choices ) , and that making a valid choice for any position should result in a valid infinite string ( so one should not allow " 9 " in each position while forbidding an infinite succession of " 9 " s ) . Under these assumptions , the above argument shows that an order preserving map from the collection of strings to an interval of the real numbers cannot be a bijection : either some numbers do not correspond to any string , or some of them correspond to more than one string .
Marko Petkovšek has proven that for any positional system that names all the real numbers , the set of reals with multiple representations is always dense . He calls the proof " an instructive exercise in elementary point @-@ set topology " ; it involves viewing sets of positional values as Stone spaces and noticing that their real representations are given by continuous functions .
= = Applications = =
One application of 0 @.@ 999 … as a representation of 1 occurs in elementary number theory . In 1802 , H. Goodwin published an observation on the appearance of 9s in the repeating @-@ decimal representations of fractions whose denominators are certain prime numbers . Examples include :
1 ⁄ 7 |
= 0 @.@ 142857142857 … and 142 + 857 =
999 .
1 ⁄ 73 |
= 0 @.@ 0136986301369863 … and 0136 + 9863 =
9999 .
1 ⁄ 77 |
= 0 @.@ 012987012987 … and 012 + 987 =
999 .
E. Midy proved a general result about such fractions , now called Midy 's theorem , in 1836 . The publication was obscure , and it is unclear if his proof directly involved 0 @.@ 999 … , but at least one modern proof by W. G. Leavitt does . If it can be proved that a decimal of the form 0.b1b2b3 … is a positive integer , then it must be 0 @.@ 999 … , which is then the source of the 9s in the theorem . Investigations in this direction can motivate such concepts as greatest common divisors , modular arithmetic , Fermat primes , order of group elements , and quadratic reciprocity .
Returning to real analysis , the base @-@ 3 analogue 0 @.@ 222 … = 1 plays a key role in a characterization of one of the simplest fractals , the middle @-@ thirds Cantor set :
A point in the unit interval lies in the Cantor set if and only if it can be represented in ternary using only the digits 0 and 2 .
The nth digit of the representation reflects the position of the point in the nth stage of the construction . For example , the point 2 ⁄ 3 is given the usual representation of 0 @.@ 2 or 0 @.@ 2000 … , since it lies to the right of the first deletion and to the left of every deletion thereafter . The point 1 ⁄ 3 is represented not as 0 @.@ 1 but as 0 @.@ 0222 … , since it lies to the left of the first deletion and to the right of every deletion thereafter .
Repeating nines also turn up in yet another of Georg Cantor 's works . They must be taken into account to construct a valid proof , applying his 1891 diagonal argument to decimal expansions , of the uncountability of the unit interval . Such a proof needs to be able to declare certain pairs of real numbers to be different based on their decimal expansions , so one needs to avoid pairs like 0 @.@ 2 and 0 @.@ 1999 … A simple method represents all numbers with nonterminating expansions ; the opposite method rules out repeating nines . A variant that may be closer to Cantor 's original argument actually uses base 2 , and by turning base @-@ 3 expansions into base @-@ 2 expansions , one can prove the uncountability of the Cantor set as well .
= = Skepticism in education = =
Students of mathematics often reject the equality of 0 @.@ 999 … and 1 , for reasons ranging from their disparate appearance to deep misgivings over the limit concept and disagreements over the nature of infinitesimals . There are many common contributing factors to the confusion :
Students are often " mentally committed to the notion that a number can be represented in one and only one way by a decimal . " Seeing two manifestly different decimals representing the same number appears to be a paradox , which is amplified by the appearance of the seemingly well @-@ understood number 1 .
Some students interpret " 0 @.@ 999 … " ( or similar notation ) as a large but finite string of 9s , possibly with a variable , unspecified length . If they accept an infinite string of nines , they may still expect a last 9 " at infinity " .
Intuition and ambiguous teaching lead students to think of the limit of a sequence as a kind of infinite process rather than a fixed value , since a sequence need not reach its limit . Where students accept the difference between a sequence of numbers and its limit , they might read " 0 @.@ 999 … " as meaning the sequence rather than its limit .
These ideas are mistaken in the context of the standard real numbers , although some may be valid in other number systems , either invented for their general mathematical utility or as instructive counterexamples to better understand 0 @.@ 999 …
Many of these explanations were found by David Tall , who has studied characteristics of teaching and cognition that lead to some of the misunderstandings he has encountered in his college students . Interviewing his students to determine why the vast majority initially rejected the equality , he found that " students continued to conceive of 0 @.@ 999 … as a sequence of numbers getting closer and closer to 1 and not a fixed value , because ' you haven 't specified how many places there are ' or ' it is the nearest possible decimal below 1 ' " .
Of the elementary proofs , multiplying 0 @.@ 333 … |
= 1 ⁄ 3 by 3 is apparently a successful strategy for convincing reluctant students that 0 @.@ 999 … =
1 . Still , when confronted with the conflict between their belief of the first equation and their disbelief of the second , some students either begin to disbelieve the first equation or simply become frustrated . Nor are more sophisticated methods foolproof : students who are fully capable of applying rigorous definitions may still fall back on intuitive images when they are surprised by a result in advanced mathematics , including 0 @.@ 999 … . For example , one real analysis student was able to prove that 0 @.@ 333 … |
= 1 ⁄ 3 using a supremum definition , but then insisted that 0 @.@ 999 … < 1 based on her earlier understanding of long division . Others still are able to prove that 1 ⁄ 3 =
0 @.@ 333 … , but , upon being confronted by the fractional proof , insist that " logic " supersedes the mathematical calculations .
Joseph Mazur tells the tale of an otherwise brilliant calculus student of his who " challenged almost everything I said in class but never questioned his calculator , " and who had come to believe that nine digits are all one needs to do mathematics , including calculating the square root of 23 . The student remained uncomfortable with a limiting argument that 9 @.@ 99 … = 10 , calling it a " wildly imagined infinite growing process . "
As part of Ed Dubinsky 's APOS theory of mathematical learning , he and his collaborators ( 2005 ) propose that students who conceive of 0 @.@ 999 … as a finite , indeterminate string with an infinitely small distance from 1 have " not yet constructed a complete process conception of the infinite decimal " . Other students who have a complete process conception of 0 @.@ 999 … may not yet be able to " encapsulate " that process into an " object conception " , like the object conception they have of 1 , and so they view the process 0 @.@ 999 … and the object 1 as incompatible . Dubinsky et al. also link this mental ability of encapsulation to viewing 1 ⁄ 3 as a number in its own right and to dealing with the set of natural numbers as a whole .
= = In popular culture = =
With the rise of the Internet , debates about 0 @.@ 999 … have become commonplace on newsgroups and message boards , including many that nominally have little to do with mathematics . In the newsgroup sci.math , arguing over 0 @.@ 999 … is described as a " popular sport " , and it is one of the questions answered in its FAQ . The FAQ briefly covers 1 ⁄ 3 , multiplication by 10 , and limits , and it alludes to Cauchy sequences as well .
A 2003 edition of the general @-@ interest newspaper column The Straight Dope discusses 0 @.@ 999 … via 1 ⁄ 3 and limits , saying of misconceptions ,
The lower primate in us still resists , saying : .999 ~ doesn 't really represent a number , then , but a process . To find a number we have to halt the process , at which point the .999 ~ = 1 thing falls apart .
Nonsense .
A Slate article reports that the concept of 0 @.@ 999 … is " hotly disputed on websites ranging from World of Warcraft message boards to Ayn Rand forums " . In the same vein , the question of 0 @.@ 999 … proved such a popular topic in the first seven years of Blizzard Entertainment 's Battle.net forums that the company issued a " press release " on April Fools ' Day 2004 that it is 1 :
We are very excited to close the book on this subject once and for all . We 've witnessed the heartache and concern over whether .999 ~ does or does not equal 1 , and we 're proud that the following proof finally and conclusively addresses the issue for our customers .
Two proofs are then offered , based on limits and multiplication by 10 .
0 @.@ 999 … features also in mathematical jokes , such as :
Q : How many mathematicians does it take to screw in a lightbulb ?
A : 0 @.@ 999999 … .
= = In alternative number systems = =
Although the real numbers form an extremely useful number system , the decision to interpret the notation " 0 @.@ 999 … " as naming a real number is ultimately a convention , and Timothy Gowers argues in Mathematics : A Very Short Introduction that the resulting identity 0 @.@ 999 …
= 1 is a convention as well :
However , it is by no means an arbitrary convention , because not adopting it forces one either to invent strange new objects or to abandon some of the familiar rules of arithmetic .
One can define other number systems using different rules or new objects ; in some such number systems , the above proofs would need to be reinterpreted and one might find that , in a given number system , 0 @.@ 999 … and 1 might not be identical . However , many number systems are extensions of — rather than independent alternatives to — the real number system , so 0 @.@ 999 … =
1 continues to hold . Even in such number systems , though , it is worthwhile to examine alternative number systems , not only for how 0 @.@ 999 … behaves ( if , indeed , a number expressed as " 0 @.@ 999 … " is both meaningful and unambiguous ) , but also for the behavior of related phenomena . If such phenomena differ from those in the real number system , then at least one of the assumptions built into the system must break down .
= = = Infinitesimals = = =
Some proofs that 0 @.@ 999 …
= 1 rely on the Archimedean property of the real numbers : that there are no nonzero infinitesimals . Specifically , the difference 1 − 0 @.@ 999 … must be smaller than any positive rational number , so it must be an infinitesimal ; but since the reals do not contain nonzero infinitesimals , the difference is therefore zero , and therefore the two values are the same .
However , there are mathematically coherent ordered algebraic structures , including various alternatives to the real numbers , which are non @-@ Archimedean . Non @-@ standard analysis provides a number system with a full array of infinitesimals ( and their inverses ) . A. H. Lightstone developed a decimal expansion for hyperreal numbers in ( 0 , 1 ) ∗ . Lightstone shows how to associate to each number a sequence of digits ,
<formula>
indexed by the hypernatural numbers . While he does not directly discuss 0 @.@ 999 … , he shows the real number 1 ⁄ 3 is represented by 0 @.@ 333 … ; … 333 … which is a consequence of the transfer principle . As a consequence the number 0 @.@ 999 … ; … 999 … =
1 . With this type of decimal representation , not every expansion represents a number . In particular " 0 @.@ 333 … ; … 000 … " and " 0 @.@ 999 … ; … 000 … " do not correspond to any number .
The standard definition of the number 0 @.@ 999 … is the limit of the sequence 0 @.@ 9 , 0 @.@ 99 , 0 @.@ 999 , … A different definition involves what Terry Tao refers to as ultralimit , i.e. , the equivalence class [ ( 0 @.@ 9 , 0 @.@ 99 , 0 @.@ 999 , … ) ] of this sequence in the ultrapower construction , which is a number that falls short of 1 by an infinitesimal amount . More generally , the hyperreal number uH = 0 @.@ 999 … ; … 999000 … , with last digit 9 at infinite hypernatural rank H , satisfies a strict inequality uH < 1 . Accordingly , an alternative interpretation for " zero followed by infinitely many 9s " could be
<formula>
All such interpretations of " 0 @.@ 999 … " are infinitely close to 1 . Ian Stewart characterizes this interpretation as an " entirely reasonable " way to rigorously justify the intuition that " there 's a little bit missing " from 1 in 0 @.@ 999 … . Along with Katz & Katz , Robert Ely also questions the assumption that students ' ideas about 0 @.@ 999 … < 1 are erroneous intuitions about the real numbers , interpreting them rather as nonstandard intuitions that could be valuable in the learning of calculus . Jose Benardete in his book Infinity : An essay in metaphysics argues that some natural pre @-@ mathematical intuitions cannot be expressed if one is limited to an overly restrictive number system :
The intelligibility of the continuum has been found — many times over — to require that the domain of real numbers be enlarged to include infinitesimals . This enlarged domain may be styled the domain of continuum numbers . It will now be evident that .9999 … does not equal 1 but falls infinitesimally short of it . I think that .9999 … should indeed be admitted as a number … though not as a real number .
= = = Hackenbush = = =
Combinatorial game theory provides alternative reals as well , with infinite Blue @-@ Red Hackenbush as one particularly relevant example . In 1974 , Elwyn Berlekamp described a correspondence between Hackenbush strings and binary expansions of real numbers , motivated by the idea of data compression . For example , the value of the Hackenbush string LRRLRLRL … is 0 @.@ 0101012 …
= 1 ⁄ 3 . However , the value of LRLLL … ( corresponding to 0 @.@ 111 … 2 ) is infinitesimally less than 1 . The difference between the two is the surreal number 1 ⁄ ω , where ω is the first infinite ordinal ; the relevant game is LRRRR … or 0 @.@ 000 … 2 .
This is in fact true of the binary expansions of many rational numbers , where the values of the numbers are equal but the corresponding binary tree paths are different . For example , 0 @.@ 10111 … 2 =
0 @.@ 11000 … 2 , which are both equal to 3 ⁄ 4 , but the first representation corresponds to the binary tree path LRLRLLL … while the second corresponds to the different path LRLLRRR … .
= = = Revisiting subtraction = = =
Another manner in which the proofs might be undermined is if 1 − 0 @.@ 999 … simply does not exist , because subtraction is not always possible . Mathematical structures with an addition operation but not a subtraction operation include commutative semigroups , commutative monoids and semirings . Richman considers two such systems , designed so that 0 @.@ 999 … < 1 .
First , Richman defines a nonnegative decimal number to be a literal decimal expansion . He defines the lexicographical order and an addition operation , noting that 0 @.@ 999 … < 1 simply because 0 < 1 in the ones place , but for any nonterminating x , one has 0 @.@ 999 … + x
= 1 + x . So one peculiarity of the decimal numbers is that addition cannot always be cancelled ; another is that no decimal number corresponds to 1 ⁄ 3 . After defining multiplication , the decimal numbers form a positive , totally ordered , commutative semiring .
In the process of defining multiplication , Richman also defines another system he calls " cut D " , which is the set of Dedekind cuts of decimal fractions . Ordinarily this definition leads to the real numbers , but for a decimal fraction d he allows both the cut ( − ∞ , d ) and the " principal cut " ( − ∞ , d ] . The result is that the real numbers are " living uneasily together with " the decimal fractions . Again 0 @.@ 999 … < 1 . There are no positive infinitesimals in cut D , but there is " a sort of negative infinitesimal , " 0 − , which has no decimal expansion . He concludes that 0 @.@ 999 … =
1 + 0 − , while the equation " 0 @.@ 999 … + x = 1 " has no solution .
= = = p @-@ adic numbers = = =
When asked about 0 @.@ 999 … , novices often believe there should be a " final 9 , " believing 1 − 0 @.@ 999 … to be a positive number which they write as " 0 @.@ 000 … 1 " . Whether or not that makes sense , the intuitive goal is clear : adding a 1 to the final 9 in 0 @.@ 999 … would carry all the 9s into 0s and leave a 1 in the ones place . Among other reasons , this idea fails because there is no " final 9 " in 0 @.@ 999 … . However , there is a system that contains an infinite string of 9s including a last 9 .
The p @-@ adic numbers are an alternative number system of interest in number theory . Like the real numbers , the p @-@ adic numbers can be built from the rational numbers via Cauchy sequences ; the construction uses a different metric in which 0 is closer to p , and much closer to pn , than it is to 1 . The p @-@ adic numbers form a field for prime p and a ring for other p , including 10 . So arithmetic can be performed in the p @-@ adics , and there are no infinitesimals .
In the 10 @-@ adic numbers , the analogues of decimal expansions run to the left . The 10 @-@ adic expansion … 999 does have a last 9 , and it does not have a first 9 . One can add 1 to the ones place , and it leaves behind only 0s after carrying through : 1 + … 999 |
= … 000 =
0 , and so … 999
= − 1 . Another derivation uses a geometric series . The infinite series implied by " … 999 " does not converge in the real numbers , but it converges in the 10 @-@ adics , and so one can re @-@ use the familiar formula :
<formula>
( Compare with the series above . ) A third derivation was invented by a seventh @-@ grader who was doubtful over her teacher 's limiting argument that 0 @.@ 999 … =
1 but was inspired to take the multiply @-@ by @-@ 10 proof above in the opposite direction : if x |
= … 999 then 10x =
… 990 , so 10x |
= x − 9 , hence x =
− 1 again .
As a final extension , since 0 @.@ 999 … |
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