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= − 5 % / 5 % =
− 1 . The only classes of goods which have a PED of greater than 0 are Veblen and Giffen goods . Although the PED is negative for the vast majority of goods and services , economists often refer to price elasticity of demand as a positive value ( i.e. , in absolute value terms ) .
This measure of elasticity is sometimes referred to as the own @-@ price elasticity of demand for a good , i.e. , the elasticity of demand with respect to the good 's own price , in order to distinguish it from the elasticity of demand for that good with respect to the change in the price of some other good , i.e. , a complementary or substitute good . The latter type of elasticity measure is called a cross @-@ price elasticity of demand .
As the difference between the two prices or quantities increases , the accuracy of the PED given by the formula above decreases for a combination of two reasons . First , the PED for a good is not necessarily constant ; as explained below , PED can vary at different points along the demand curve , due to its percentage nature . Elasticity is not the same thing as the slope of the demand curve , which is dependent on the units used for both price and quantity . Second , percentage changes are not symmetric ; instead , the percentage change between any two values depends on which one is chosen as the starting value and which as the ending value . For example , if quantity demanded increases from 10 units to 15 units , the percentage change is 50 % , i.e. , ( 15 − 10 ) ÷ 10 ( converted to a percentage ) . But if quantity demanded decreases from 15 units to 10 units , the percentage change is − 33 @.@ 3 % , i.e. , ( 10 − 15 ) ÷ 15 .
Two alternative elasticity measures avoid or minimise these shortcomings of the basic elasticity formula : point @-@ price elasticity and arc elasticity .
= = = Point @-@ price elasticity of demand = = =
Point elasticity of demand method is used to determine change in demand within same demand curve , basically a very small amount of change in demand is measured through point elasticity . ( Maharjan , R. ) One way to avoid the accuracy problem described above is to minimise the difference between the starting and ending prices and quantities . This is the approach taken in the definition of point @-@ price elasticity , which uses differential calculus to calculate the elasticity for an infinitesimal change in price and quantity at any given point on the demand curve :
<formula>
In other words , it is equal to the absolute value of the first derivative of quantity with respect to price ( dQd / dP ) multiplied by the point 's price ( P ) divided by its quantity ( Qd ) .
In terms of partial @-@ differential calculus , point @-@ price elasticity of demand can be defined as follows : let <formula> be the demand of goods <formula> as a function of parameters price and wealth , and let <formula> be the demand for good <formula> . The elasticity of demand for good <formula> with respect to price <formula> is
<formula>
However , the point @-@ price elasticity can be computed only if the formula for the demand function , <formula> , is known so its derivative with respect to price , <formula> , can be determined .
= = = Arc elasticity = = =
A second solution to the asymmetry problem of having a PED dependent on which of the two given points on a demand curve is chosen as the " original " point and which as the " new " one is to compute the percentage change in P and Q relative to the average of the two prices and the average of the two quantities , rather than just the change relative to one point or the other . Loosely speaking , this gives an " average " elasticity for the section of the actual demand curve — i.e. , the arc of the curve — between the two points . As a result , this measure is known as the arc elasticity , in this case with respect to the price of the good . The arc elasticity is defined mathematically as :
<formula>
This method for computing the price elasticity is also known as the " midpoints formula " , because the average price and average quantity are the coordinates of the midpoint of the straight line between the two given points . This formula is an application of the midpoint method . However , because this formula implicitly assumes the section of the demand curve between those points is linear , the greater the curvature of the actual demand curve is over that range , the worse this approximation of its elasticity will be .
= = History = =
Together with the concept of an economic " elasticity " coefficient , Alfred Marshall is credited with defining PED ( " elasticity of demand " ) in his book Principles of Economics , published in 1890 . He described it thus : " And we may say generally : — the elasticity ( or responsiveness ) of demand in a market is great or small according as the amount demanded increases much or little for a given fall in price , and diminishes much or little for a given rise in price " . He reasons this since " the only universal law as to a person 's desire for a commodity is that it diminishes ... but this diminution may be slow or rapid . If it is slow ... a small fall in price will cause a comparatively large increase in his purchases . But if it is rapid , a small fall in price will cause only a very small increase in his purchases . In the former case ... the elasticity of his wants , we may say , is great . In the latter case ... the elasticity of his demand is small . " Mathematically , the Marshallian PED was based on a point @-@ price definition , using differential calculus to calculate elasticities .
= = Determinants = =
The overriding factor in determining PED is the willingness and ability of consumers after a price change to postpone immediate consumption decisions concerning the good and to search for substitutes ( " wait and look " ) . A number of factors can thus affect the elasticity of demand for a good :
Availability of substitute goods
The more and closer the substitutes available , the higher the elasticity is likely to be , as people can easily switch from one good to another if an even minor price change is made ; There is a strong substitution effect . If no close substitutes are available , the substitution effect will be small and the demand inelastic .
Breadth of definition of a good
The broader the definition of a good ( or service ) , the lower the elasticity . For example , Company X 's fish and chips would tend to have a relatively high elasticity of demand if a significant number of substitutes are available , whereas food in general would have an extremely low elasticity of demand because no substitutes exist .
Percentage of income
The higher the percentage of the consumer 's income that the product 's price represents , the higher the elasticity tends to be , as people will pay more attention when purchasing the good because of its cost ; The income effect is substantial . When the goods represent only a negligible portion of the budget the income effect will be insignificant and demand inelastic ,
Necessity
The more necessary a good is , the lower the elasticity , as people will attempt to buy it no matter the price , such as the case of insulin for those who need it .
Duration
For most goods , the longer a price change holds , the higher the elasticity is likely to be , as more and more consumers find they have the time and inclination to search for substitutes . When fuel prices increase suddenly , for instance , consumers may still fill up their empty tanks in the short run , but when prices remain high over several years , more consumers will reduce their demand for fuel by switching to carpooling or public transportation , investing in vehicles with greater fuel economy or taking other measures . This does not hold for consumer durables such as the cars themselves , however ; eventually , it may become necessary for consumers to replace their present cars , so one would expect demand to be less elastic .
Brand loyalty
An attachment to a certain brand — either out of tradition or because of proprietary barriers — can override sensitivity to price changes , resulting in more inelastic demand .
Who pays
Where the purchaser does not directly pay for the good they consume , such as with corporate expense accounts , demand is likely to be more inelastic .
= = Interpreting values of price elasticity coefficients = =
Elasticities of demand are interpreted as follows :
A decrease in the price of a good normally results in an increase in the quantity demanded by consumers because of the law of demand , and conversely , quantity demanded decreases when price rises . As summarized in the table above , the PED for a good or service is referred to by different descriptive terms depending on whether the elasticity coefficient is greater than , equal to , or less than − 1 . That is , the demand for a good is called :
relatively inelastic when the percentage change in quantity demanded is less than the percentage change in price ( so that Ed > - 1 ) ;
unit elastic , unit elasticity , unitary elasticity , or unitarily elastic demand when the percentage change in quantity demanded is equal to the percentage change in price ( so that Ed = - 1 ) ; and
relatively elastic when the percentage change in quantity demanded is greater than the percentage change in price ( so that Ed < - 1 ) .
As the two accompanying diagrams show , perfectly elastic demand is represented graphically as a horizontal line , and perfectly inelastic demand as a vertical line . These are the only cases in which the PED and the slope of the demand curve ( ∆ P / ∆ Q ) are both constant , as well as the only cases in which the PED is determined solely by the slope of the demand curve ( or more precisely , by the inverse of that slope ) .
= = Relation to marginal revenue = =
The following equation holds :
<formula>
where
R ' is the marginal revenue
P is the price
Proof :
TR = Total Revenue <formula> <formula> <formula>
On a graph with both a demand curve and a marginal revenue curve , demand will be elastic at all quantities where marginal revenue is positive . Demand is unit elastic at the quantity where marginal revenue is zero . Demand is inelastic at every quantity where marginal revenue is negative .
= = Effect on total revenue = =
A firm considering a price change must know what effect the change in price will have on total revenue . Revenue is simply the product of unit price times quantity :
<formula>
Generally any change in price will have two effects :
The price effect
For inelastic goods , an increase in unit price will tend to increase revenue , while a decrease in price will tend to decrease revenue . ( The effect is reversed for elastic goods . )
The quantity effect
An increase in unit price will tend to lead to fewer units sold , while a decrease in unit price will tend to lead to more units sold .
For inelastic goods , because of the inverse nature of the relationship between price and quantity demanded ( i.e. , the law of demand ) , the two effects affect total revenue in opposite directions . But in determining whether to increase or decrease prices , a firm needs to know what the net effect will be . Elasticity provides the answer : The percentage change in total revenue is approximately equal to the percentage change in quantity demanded plus the percentage change in price . ( One change will be positive , the other negative . ) The percentage change in quantity is related to the percentage change in price by elasticity : hence the percentage change in revenue can be calculated by knowing the elasticity and the percentage change in price alone .
As a result , the relationship between PED and total revenue can be described for any good :
When the price elasticity of demand for a good is perfectly inelastic ( Ed
= 0 ) , changes in the price do not affect the quantity demanded for the good ; raising prices will always cause total revenue to increase . Goods necessary to survival can be classified here ; a rational person will be willing to pay anything for a good if the alternative is death . For example , a person in the desert weak and dying of thirst would easily give all the money in his wallet , no matter how much , for a bottle of water if he would otherwise die . His demand is not contingent on the price .
When the price elasticity of demand for a good is relatively inelastic ( -1 < Ed < 0 ) , the percentage change in quantity demanded is smaller than that in price . Hence , when the price is raised , the total revenue increases , and vice versa .
When the price elasticity of demand for a good is unit ( or unitary ) elastic ( Ed =
-1 ) , the percentage change in quantity demanded is equal to that in price , so a change in price will not affect total revenue .
When the price elasticity of demand for a good is relatively elastic ( - ∞ < Ed < -1 ) , the percentage change in quantity demanded is greater than that in price . Hence , when the price is raised , the total revenue falls , and vice versa .
When the price elasticity of demand for a good is perfectly elastic ( Ed is − ∞ ) , any increase in the price , no matter how small , will cause the quantity demanded for the good to drop to zero . Hence , when the price is raised , the total revenue falls to zero . This situation is typical for goods that have their value defined by law ( such as fiat currency ) ; if a 5 dollar bill were sold for anything more than 5 dollars , nobody would buy it , so demand is zero .
Hence , as the accompanying diagram shows , total revenue is maximized at the combination of price and quantity demanded where the elasticity of demand is unitary .
It is important to realize that price @-@ elasticity of demand is not necessarily constant over all price ranges . The linear demand curve in the accompanying diagram illustrates that changes in price also change the elasticity : the price elasticity is different at every point on the curve .
= = Effect on tax incidence = =
PEDs , in combination with price elasticity of supply ( PES ) , can be used to assess where the incidence ( or " burden " ) of a per @-@ unit tax is falling or to predict where it will fall if the tax is imposed . For example , when demand is perfectly inelastic , by definition consumers have no alternative to purchasing the good or service if the price increases , so the quantity demanded would remain constant . Hence , suppliers can increase the price by the full amount of the tax , and the consumer would end up paying the entirety . In the opposite case , when demand is perfectly elastic , by definition consumers have an infinite ability to switch to alternatives if the price increases , so they would stop buying the good or service in question completely — quantity demanded would fall to zero . As a result , firms cannot pass on any part of the tax by raising prices , so they would be forced to pay all of it themselves .
In practice , demand is likely to be only relatively elastic or relatively inelastic , that is , somewhere between the extreme cases of perfect elasticity or inelasticity . More generally , then , the higher the elasticity of demand compared to PES , the heavier the burden on producers ; conversely , the more inelastic the demand compared to PES , the heavier the burden on consumers . The general principle is that the party ( i.e. , consumers or producers ) that has fewer opportunities to avoid the tax by switching to alternatives will bear the greater proportion of the tax burden . In the end the whole tax burden is carried by individual households since they are the ultimate owners of the means of production that the firm utilises ( see Circular flow of income ) .
PED and PES can also have an effect on the deadweight loss associated with a tax regime . When PED , PES or both are inelastic , the deadweight loss is lower than a comparable scenario with higher elasticity .
= = Optimal pricing = =
Among the most common applications of price elasticity is to determine prices that maximize revenue or profit .
= = = Constant elasticity and optimal pricing = = =
If one point elasticity is used to model demand changes over a finite range of prices , elasticity is implicitly assumed constant with respect to price over the finite price range . The equation defining price elasticity for one product can be rewritten ( omitting secondary variables ) as a linear equation .
<formula>
where
<formula> is the elasticity , and <formula> is a constant .
Similarly , the equations for cross elasticity for <formula> products can be written as a set of <formula> simultaneous linear equations .
<formula>
where
<formula> and <formula> , and <formula> are constants ; and appearance of a letter index as both an upper index and a lower index in the same term implies summation over that index .
This form of the equations shows that point elasticities assumed constant over a price range cannot determine what prices generate maximum values of <formula> ; similarly they cannot predict prices that generate maximum <formula> or maximum revenue .
Constant elasticities can predict optimal pricing only by computing point elasticities at several points , to determine the price at which point elasticity equals -1 ( or , for multiple products , the set of prices at which the point elasticity matrix is the negative identity matrix ) .
= = = Non @-@ constant elasticity and optimal pricing = = =
If the definition of price elasticity is extended to yield a quadratic relationship between demand units ( <formula> ) and price , then it is possible to compute prices that maximize <formula> , <formula> , and revenue . The fundamental equation for one product becomes
<formula>
and the corresponding equation for several products becomes
<formula>
Excel models are available that compute constant elasticity , and use non @-@ constant elasticity to estimate prices that optimize revenue or profit for one product or several products .
= = = Limitations of revenue @-@ maximizing and profit @-@ maximizing pricing strategies = = =
In most situations , revenue @-@ maximizing prices are not profit @-@ maximizing prices . For example , if variable costs per unit are nonzero ( which they almost always are ) , then a more complex computation of a similar kind yields prices that generate optimal profits .
In some situations , profit @-@ maximizing prices are not an optimal strategy . For example , where scale economies are large ( as they often are ) , capturing market share may be the key to long @-@ term dominance of a market , so maximizing revenue or profit may not be the optimal strategy .
= = Selected price elasticities = =
Various research methods are used to calculate price elasticities in real life , including analysis of historic sales data , both public and private , and use of present @-@ day surveys of customers ' preferences to build up test markets capable of modelling such changes . Alternatively , conjoint analysis ( a ranking of users ' preferences which can then be statistically analysed ) may be used .
Though PEDs for most demand schedules vary depending on price , they can be modeled assuming constant elasticity . Using this method , the PEDs for various goods — intended to act as examples of the theory described above — are as follows . For suggestions on why these goods and services may have the PED shown , see the above section on determinants of price elasticity .
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= Mamucium =
Mamucium , also known as Mancunium , was a fort in the Roman province of Britannia . The remains of the fort , protected as a Scheduled Ancient Monument , are in the Castlefield area of Manchester in North West England ( grid reference SJ833977 ) . Founded c . AD 79 , Mamucium was garrisoned by a cohort of auxiliary soldiers and guarded the road running from Chester to York . A vicus , or civilian settlement made up of traders and the families of the soldiers , grew outside the fort and was an area of industrial activity .
The site lay in ruins until the Industrial Revolution when Manchester expanded and the fort was levelled to make way for new developments . It was damaged by the construction of the Rochdale Canal and the Great Northern Railway . The site is now part of the regenerated area of warehousing alongside the Rochdale Canal , part of the Castlefield Urban Heritage Park . Reconstructed remains of the fort 's gatehouse , granaries , and some buildings from the vicus are on display to the public .
= = Location = =
When the Roman fort in Castlefield was built , it was on a naturally defensible sandstone bluff , guarding a nearby crossing over the River Medlock . The fort was near a junction between at least two Roman roads . It guarded the road between the legionary fortresses of Deva Victrix ( Chester ) and Eboracum ( York ) running east to west , as well as the road between Manchester and Bremetennacum ( Ribchester ) to the north . In addition , Mamucium may also have overlooked a lesser road running north west to Coccium ( Wigan ) . The fort was one of a chain of fortifications along the Eboracum to Deva Victrix road , with Castleshaw Roman fort lying 16 miles ( 26 km ) to the east , and Condate ( Northwich ) 18 miles ( 29 km ) to the west . Stamps on tegulae indicate that Mamucium had administrative links not only with Castleshaw , but also with Ardotalia , the nearest fort ( 12 miles ) , Slack and Ebchester ; all the forts probably got the tegulae from the same place in Grimescar Wood near Huddersfield .
The area around the fort changed greatly in the centuries that followed ; the remains are now surrounded by mills built during Industrial Revolution and were further damaged by the subsequent urbanisation of Manchester . Castlefield is at the south west corner of Manchester city centre and the Rochdale Canal cuts through the southern corner of the fort . Deansgate , which has developed into a busy thoroughfare , passes close to the east of the fort and follows the general line of Roman road to Ribchester and Castlefield .
= = Name = =
The name Mamucium is generally thought to represent a Latinisation of an original Brittonic name , either from mamm- ( " breast " , in reference to a " breast @-@ like hill " ) or from mamma ( " mother " , in reference to a local river goddess ) . Both meanings are preserved in languages derived from Common Brittonic , mam meaning " breast " in Irish and " mother " in Welsh . The neuter suffix -ium is used in Latin placenames , particularly those representing Common Brittonic -ion ( a genitive suffix denoting " place or city of ~ " ) . The Welsh name for Manchester is Manceinion and presumably derives from the original Brittonic form .
= = History = =
= = = Prehistoric = = =
Although there is no evidence of prehistoric settlement , there is evidence of activity in the area . A Neolithic scraper , two Mesolithic flints and a flint flake have been discovered , as well as a shard of late Bronze Age pottery ; however these were mostly not found in situ . Although the area was in the territory of the Celtic tribe Brigantes until the Romans annexed the area , it may have been under the control of the Setantii , a sub @-@ tribe of the Brigantes .
= = = Roman = = =
The fort was built around AD 79 ; it was built as part of the fortifications erected under Gn . Julius Agricola during his campaigns against the Brigantes after the treaty with them failed . Excavations have demonstrated that the fort had three main phases of construction : one around AD 79 , the second around 160 AD , and the third around 200 . The first phase of the fort was built from turf and timber . Mamucium was designed to be garrisoned by a cohort , about 500 infantry . They would have been drawn from an auxiliary , the non @-@ citizen soldiers of the Roman army . A civilian settlement ( called a vicus ) grew around the fort in the late 1st and early 2nd centuries . Around the year 90 , the ramparts surrounding the fort were strengthened . Manchester and the Roman fort at Slack – which neighboured Castleshaw – superseded the fort at Castleshaw in the 120s . Mamucium was demolished some time around 140 . Although the vicus grew rapidly in the early 2nd century , it was abandoned some time between 120 and 160 – broadly coinciding with the demolition of the fort – before it was re @-@ inhabited when the fort was rebuilt .
There is a possible temple to Mithras associated with the civilian settlement in modern Hulme . An altar dedicated to " Fortune the Preserver " was found , probably dating to the early 3rd century . In 2008 an altar dating from the late 1st century was discovered near the Roman settlement . It was dedicated to two minor Germanic gods and described as being in " fantastic " condition . The County Archaeologist said
" It 's the first Roman stone inscription to be found in Manchester for 150 years and records only the second known Roman from Manchester ... The preservation of the stone is remarkable . On top of the stone is a shallow bowl which was used for offerings of wine or blood or perhaps to burn incense . "
As well as Pagan worship , there is also evidence of early Christian worship . In the 1970s , a fragment of 2nd @-@ century " word square " was discovered with an anagram of PATER NOSTER . There has been discussion by academics whether the " word square " , which is carved on a piece of amphora , is actually a Christian artefact , if so , it is one of the earliest examples of Christianity in Britain .
The second phase was built around the year 160 . Although it was again of turf and timber construction , it was larger than the previous fort , measuring 2 hectares ( 4 @.@ 9 acres ) to accommodate extra granaries ( horrea ) . Around 200 , the gatehouses of the fort were rebuilt in stone and the walls surrounding the fort were given a stone facing . The concentration of furnaces in sheds in part of the vicus associated with the fort has been described as an " industrial estate " , which would have been the first in Manchester . Mamucium was included in the Antonine Itinerary , a 3rd @-@ century register of roads throughout the Roman Empire . This and inscriptions on and repairs to buildings indicate that Mamucium was still in use in the first half of the 3rd century . The vicus may have been abandoned by the mid @-@ 3rd century ; this is supported by the excavated remains of some buildings that were demolished and the materials robbed for use elsewhere . Evidence from coins indicates that although the civilian settlement associated with the fort had declined by the mid @-@ 3rd century , a small garrison may have remained at Mamucium into the late 3rd century and early 4th century .
= = = Medieval = = =
After the Roman withdrawal from Britain around 410 , the area of Mamucium was used for agricultural purposes . It has sometimes been identified with the Cair Maunguid listed among the 28 cities of Britain by the History of the Britons traditionally attributed to Nennius . After lying derelict for centuries , the ruins were commented on by antiquarians John Leland in the 16th century , William Camden in the late 16th and early 17th centuries , and William Stukeley and the Manchester historian John Whitaker in the 18th century . In the early 18th century , John Horsley said :
It [ i.e. , the fort ] is about a quarter of a mile out of the town , being south or south @-@ west from it . The station now goes by the name of Giant 's Castle or Tarquin 's Castle , and the field in which it stands is called Castle Field ... the ramparts are still very conspicuous .
Whitaker described what remained of the fort in 1773 :
The eastern side , like the Western , is hundred and forty [ yards ] in length , and for eighty yards from the northern termination , the nearly perpendicular rampart carries a crest of more than two [ yards ] in height . It is then lowered to form the great entrance , the Porta Pretoria of the camp : the earth there running in a ridge , and mounting up to the top of the bank , about ten in breadth . Then , rising gradually as the wall falls away , it carries an height of more than three for as many as the south @-@ eastern angle . And the whole of this wall , bears a broken line of thorns above , shews the mortar peeping here and there under the coat of turf , and near the south @-@ eastern corner has a large buttress of earth continued several yards along it . The southern side , like the Northern , is hundred and seventy five [ yards ] in length ; and the rampart sinking immediately from its elevation at the eastern end , successively declines , till , about fifty yards off , it is reduced to the inconsiderable height of less than one [ yard ] . And about seventeen yards further , there appears to have been a second gateway , the ground rising up to the crest of the bank of a four or five at the point ...
On the south side was particularly requisite ... in order to afford a passage to the river ; but about fifty three yards beyond the gates , the ground betwixt both falling away briskly to the west , the rampart , which continues in a right line along the ridge , necessarily rises till it has a sharp slope of twenty yards in length at the southwestern angle . And all this side of the wall , which was from the beginning probably not much higher than it is at present , as it was sufficiently secured by the river and its banks , before it appears crested at first with a hedge of thorns , a young oak rising from the ridge and rearing its head considerably over the rest , and runs afterwards in a smooth line near the level for several yards with the ground about it , and just perceptible to the eye , in a rounded eminence of turf
As to the south @-@ western point of the camp , the ground slopes away on the west towards the south , as well as on the south towards the West . On the third side still runs from it nearly as at first , having an even crest about seven feet in height , an even slope of turf for its whole extent , and the wall in all its original condition below . About a hundred yards beyond the angle was the Porta Decumana of the station , the ground visibly rising up the ascent of the bank in a large shelve of gravel , and running in a slight but perceivable ridge from it . And beyond a level of forty five yards , that still stretches on for the whole length of the side , it was bounded by the western boundary of the British city , the sharp slope of fifty to the morass below it . On the northern and remaining side are several chasms in the original course of the ramparts . And in one of them about a hundred and seventy five yards from its commencement , was another gateway , opening into the station directly from the road to Ribchester . The rest of the wall still rises above five and four feet in height , planted all the way with thorns above , and exhibiting a curious view of the rampart below . Various parts of it have been fleeced of their facing a turf and stone , and now show the inner structure of the whole , presenting to the eye the undressed stone of the quarry , the angular pieces of rock , and the round boulders of the river , all bedded in the mortar , and compacted into one . And the white and brown patches of mortar and stone on a general view of the wall stands strikingly contrasted with the green turf that entirely conceals the level line , and with the green moss that half reveals the projecting points of the rampart . The great foss of the British city , the Romans preserved along their northern side for more than thirty yards along the eastern end of it , and for the whole beyond the Western . And as the present appearances of the ground intimate , they closed the eastern point of it with a high bank , which was raised upon one part of the ditch and sloped away into the other .
Mamucium was levelled as Manchester expanded in the Industrial Revolution . The construction of the Rochdale Canal through the south western corner of the fort in the late 18th and early 19th centuries , and the building of viaducts for the Great Northern Railway over the site in the late 19th century , damaged the remains and even destroyed some of the southern half of the fort . When the railway viaducts were built , Charles Roeder documented the remains that were uncovered in the process , including parts of the vicus .
The first archaeological investigation of Mamucium was in 1906 . Francis Bruton , who would later work on the Roman fort at Castleshaw , excavated the fort 's western defences . A series of small @-@ scale excavations were undertaken intermittently between 1912 and 1967 , generally exploring the northern defences of the fort . In the mid @-@ 20th century , historian A. J. P. Taylor called the surviving stretch of Roman wall " the least interesting Roman remains in Britain " . The first excavation of the vicus was carried out in the 1970s under Professor Barri Jones . In 1982 the fort , along with the rest of the Castlefield area , became the United Kingdom 's first Urban Heritage Park , and partial reconstructions of the forts walls , including the ramparts and gateways , were opened in 1984 . In 2001 – 05 the University of Manchester Archaeological Unit carried out excavations in the vicus to further investigate the site before the area underwent any more regeneration or reconstruction . The archaeological investigation of Mamucium Roman fort and its associated civilian settlement has , so far , provided approximately 10 @,@ 000 artefacts .
= = Layout = =
The fort measured 160 metres ( 175 yd ) by 130 metres ( 140 yd ) and was surrounded by a double ditch and wooden rampart . Around AD 200 the wooden rampart was replaced by stone ramparts , measuring between 2 @.@ 1 metres ( 7 ft ) and 2 @.@ 7 metres ( 9 ft ) thick . The vicus associated with Mamucium surrounded the site on the west , north , and east sides , with the majority lying to the north . The vicus covered about 26 hectares ( 64 acres ) and the fort about 2 hectares ( 4 @.@ 9 acres ) . Buildings within the vicus would have generally been one storey , timber framed , and of wattle and daub construction . There may have been a cemetery to the south east of the fort .
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= Whiskery shark =
The whiskery shark ( Furgaleus macki ) is a species of houndshark , belonging to the family Triakidae , and the only member of its genus . This common shark inhabits the Australian continental shelf from Western Australia to the Bass Strait , to a depth of 220 m ( 720 ft ) . It is demersal in habits and prefers rocky and vegetated habitats . Stout @-@ bodied and almost " humpbacked " in form , the whiskery shark can be distinguished from all other members of its family by the presence of long nasal barbels . Its two moderately large dorsal fins are roughly equal in size . It is brownish gray above and lighter below , with a pattern of darker saddles and blotches in younger sharks . This species reaches 1 @.@ 6 m ( 5 @.@ 2 ft ) in length .
The diet of the whiskery shark consists almost entirely of octopuses . It is viviparous ; females bear litters of 4 – 28 pups every other year from August to October , after a gestation period of 7 – 9 months . This harmless shark is utilized for its meat , being one of the species marketed as " flake " in Australia . It is mainly caught by a Western Australian commercial gillnet fishery . Its numbers declined significantly from overfishing in the 1970s and early 1980s , leading to the introduction of new management measures in the mid @-@ 1980s . Since then , strict fishery management has kept the whiskery shark population stable or increasing , resulting in its listing under Least Concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) .
= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =
Australian ichthyologist Gilbert Percy Whitley described the whiskery shark as a new genus and species , Fur macki , in a 1943 issue of the scientific journal Australian Zoologist . As the name Fur was already in use for the genus Fur of true flies , in 1951 Whitley replaced it with Furgaleus . The type specimen is a 50 cm ( 20 in ) long immature male caught off Mordialloc in Victoria , Australia . Other common names for the whiskery shark include Mack 's whiskery shark , reef shark , shakey shark , and sundowner . Sharks from the western portion of this species ' range were once thought to be a separate species , F. ventralis , until comparative studies by Leonard Compagno found that they were not significantly different from F. macki .
Based on morphology , Leonard Compagno grouped Furgaleus with Hemitriakis , Iago , and Gogolia as the tribe Iagini within the subfamily Galeorhininae of the family Triakidae . A 2006 phylogenetic study by J. Andrés López and colleagues , based on four protein @-@ coding gene sequences , affirmed that Furgaleus and Hemitriakis are sister taxa ; the study was equivocal regarding the position of Iago and did not include Gogolia .
= = Description = =
The whiskery shark has a moderately stout build , with an almost " humpbacked " appearance . The short snout is rounded or wedge @-@ shaped when viewed from above . This species is the only houndshark in which the flaps of skin preceding the nostrils are elongated into thin barbels . The horizontally oval eyes are placed high on the head and are equipped with rudimentary nictitating membranes ( protective third eyelids ) . Beneath the eye is a prominent ridge , and behind it is a tiny spiracle . The mouth forms a short , wide arch , and bears somewhat long furrows at the corners . There are 24 – 32 upper and 36 – 42 lower tooth rows . Each upper tooth has an angled , knife @-@ like main cusp with smaller cusplets on the trailing side , while each lower tooth has a single upright cusp . There are five pairs of gill slits .
The first dorsal fin is rather large and positioned closer to the pectoral than the pelvic fins , though its origin lies posterior to the pectoral fin rear tips . The second dorsal fin roughly equals the first in size and is positioned slightly ahead of the anal fin , which is much smaller than either dorsal fin . The caudal fin has a short lower lobe and a deep ventral notch near the tip of the upper lobe . Adults are brownish gray above and lighter below ; young sharks are lighter in color and have darker saddles and blotches over the body and fins , which fade and may disappear with age . This species grows up to 1 @.@ 6 m ( 5 @.@ 2 ft ) long and 13 kg ( 29 lb ) in weight .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Endemic to Australia , the whiskery shark inhabits temperate continental shelf waters from the North West Cape in Western Australia to Wynyard in Tasmania . It is most common in the southwestern portion of its range between Kalbarri and Albany , and is rare off Victoria and Tasmania . Its range seems to encompass a single population . This species is found close to the bottom at depths of up to 220 m ( 720 ft ) . It favors rocky areas and kelp beds .
= = Biology and ecology = =
The whiskery shark is an active and highly specialized predator , feeding almost exclusively on octopuses . Other cephalopods , bony fishes , small rock lobsters , spoon worms , and seagrass have also been found amongst its stomach contents . A known parasite of this species is the tapeworm Calliobothrium pritchardae .
Like other houndsharks , the whiskery shark is viviparous ; the developing embryos are sustained by yolk and probably also maternally produced histotroph . Males can mate every year , while females have a biennial reproductive cycle . Mating takes place in August and September ; females store sperm until late January to early April of the following year , when the ova are ready to be ovulated into the uterus . After a 7 – 9 month long gestation period , litters of 4 – 28 ( average 19 ) pups are born between August and October . The litter size increases with the size of the female . The newborns measure 22 – 27 cm ( 8 @.@ 7 – 10 @.@ 6 in ) long .
Juvenile whiskery sharks are rarely caught by commercial fishers , suggesting that nursery areas may be found in deeper water or other unfished habitats . Pups double to triple in size in the first 15 – 17 months of life , and continue to grow rapidly until they are 3 – 4 years old . Sexual maturity is attained at a length of 1 @.@ 1 – 1 @.@ 3 m ( 3 @.@ 6 – 4 @.@ 3 ft ) for both sexes , corresponding to around five years of age for males and seven years of age for females . Mature sharks exhibit negligible growth rates , perhaps due to resources being diverted towards reproduction . The maximum lifespan is estimated to be 15 years .
= = Human interactions = =
Harmless to humans , the whiskery shark is fished commercially for its meat , which is sold fresh . It is one of the shark species marketed as " flake " . Along with the dusky shark ( Carcharhinus obscurus ) and the gummy shark ( Mustelus antarcticus ) , it is targeted by a shark fishery operating off Western Australia , currently managed as the Western Australian Joint Authority Southern Demersal Gillnet and Demersal Longline Fishery ( JASDGDLF ) . The fishery began in the 1940s with a small number of demersal longline vessels , though the whiskery shark was not caught in substantial numbers until the 1970s , with the introduction of monofilament gillnets , hydraulic net haulers , and additional vessels . Catches peaked in the early 1980s , when 400 – 600 tons were taken annually . Overfishing reduced the population to < 30 % of pre @-@ exploitation levels by the mid @-@ 1980s , prompting the Western Australian government to enact a management plan that stabilized the population at 25 – 30 % of pre @-@ exploitation levels .
In 1995 , the management advisory committee for the Western Australian shark fishery recommended that the whiskery shark stock be rebuilt to 40 % of pre @-@ exploitation levels by the 2010 / 11 season , through a series of fishing effort reductions . Although this target was not met because the effort reductions were not completed until 2000 / 01 , preliminary catch per unit effort ( CPUE ) data indicate that the population is increasing . In 2004 / 05 , this species made up 12 % ( 153 tons ) of the fishery by weight . The whiskery shark is also a minor catch of the Southern Shark Fishery ( SSF ) , which does not threaten the species overall . Since its population is stable and regularly monitored , and the fisheries that affect it are well @-@ managed , the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has assessed this species as Least Concern .
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= George H. Steuart ( brigadier general ) =
George Hume Steuart ( August 24 , 1828 – November 22 , 1903 ) was a planter in Maryland and an American military officer ; he served thirteen years in the United States Army before resigning his commission at the start of the American Civil War . He joined the Confederacy and rose to the rank of brigadier general in the Army of Northern Virginia . Nicknamed " Maryland " to avoid verbal confusion with Virginia cavalryman J.E.B. Stuart , Steuart unsuccessfully promoted the secession of Maryland before and during the conflict . He began the war as a captain of the 1st Maryland Infantry , CSA , and was promoted to colonel after the First Battle of Manassas .
In 1862 he became brigadier general . After a brief cavalry command he was reassigned to infantry . Wounded at Cross Keys , Steuart was out of the war for almost a year while recovering from a shoulder injury . He was reassigned to Lee 's army shortly before the Battle of Gettysburg . Steuart was captured at the Battle of Spotsylvania Court House , and exchanged in the summer of 1864 . He held a command in the Army of Northern Virginia for the remainder of the war . Steuart was among the officers with Robert E. Lee when he surrendered to Ulysses S. Grant at Appomattox Court House .
Steuart spent the rest of a long life operating a plantation in Anne Arundel County , Maryland . In the late nineteenth century , he joined the United Confederate Veterans and became commander of the Maryland division .
= = Early life and family = =
George Hume Steuart was born on August 24 , 1828 into a family of Scots ancestry in Baltimore . The eldest of nine children , he was raised at his family 's estate in West Baltimore , known as Maryland Square , located near the present @-@ day intersection of Baltimore and Monroe Streets . The Steuart family were wealthy plantation owners and strong supporters of slavery , which they depended on for labor .
The Steuarts shared a long tradition of military service . He was the son of Major General George H. Steuart , of Anne Arundel County , Maryland , who served in the War of 1812 , and with whom he is often confused . Baltimore residents referred to the father and son as " The Old General " and " The Young General . " The elder Steuart inherited approximately 2 @,@ 000 acres ( 8 @.@ 1 km2 ) of land in around 1842 , including a farm at Mount Steuart , and around 150 slaves , a high number in the Upper South .
Steuart was the grandson of Dr. James Steuart , a physician who served in the American Revolutionary War , and the great @-@ grandson of Dr. George H. Steuart , a physician who emigrated to Maryland from Perthshire , Scotland , in 1721 , and was lieutenant colonel of the Horse Militia under Governor Horatio Sharpe .
= = Early military career = =
Steuart attended the United States Military Academy between July 1 , 1844 and July 1 , 1848 , graduating 37th in the class of 1848 , aged nineteen . Steuart was assigned as 2nd lieutenant to the 2nd Dragoons , a regiment of cavalry that served in the frontier fighting Indians . He served in the Jefferson Barracks , Missouri , in 1848 , carried out frontier duty at Fort Leavenworth , Kansas , in 1849 , and participated in an expedition to the Rocky Mountains in 1849 . He actively participated in the US Army 's Cheyenne expedition of 1856 , the Utah War against the Mormons in 1857 – 1858 , and the Comanche expedition of 1860 .
He married Maria H. Kinzie on January 14 , 1858 . The couple had met in Kansas and , once married , lived at Fort Leavenworth , although they were separated for long periods while Steuart was on campaign duty and stationed at distant frontier posts . They had two daughters , Marie ( born 1860 ) and Ann ( born 1864 ) .
= = Civil War = =
Even though Maryland did not secede from the Union , Steuart 's loyalty lay with the South , as did that of his father . He commanded one of the Baltimore city militias during the riot of April 1861 , following which Federal troops occupied Baltimore , an incident which was arguably the first armed confrontation of the Civil War .
Steuart resigned his captain 's commission on April 16 , 1861 and soon entered the service of the Confederate army as a cavalry captain . He and his father were determined to do their utmost to prevent Union soldiers from occupying Maryland . On April 22 Steuart wrote to Charles Howard , President of the Board of Baltimore Police :
" If the Massachusetts troops are on the march [ to Annapolis ] I shall be in motion very early tomorrow morning to pay my respects to them " .
However , events did not move in their favor and , in a letter to his father , Steuart wrote :
" I found nothing but disgust in my observations along the route and in the place I came to – a large majority of the population are insane on the one idea of loyalty to the Union and the legislature is so diminished and unreliable that I rejoiced to hear that they intended to adjourn ... it seems that we are doomed to be trodden on by these troops who have taken military possession of our State , and seem determined to commit all the outrages of an invading army . "
Steuart 's efforts to persuade Maryland to secede from the Union were in vain . On April 29 , the Maryland Legislature voted 53 – 13 against secession. and the state was swiftly occupied by Union soldiers to prevent any reconsideration . Steuart 's decision to resign his commission and join the rebels would soon cost his family dear . The Steuart mansion at Maryland Square was confiscated by the Union Army and Jarvis Hospital was erected on the estate , to care for Federal wounded . However , Steuart was welcomed by the Confederacy as " one of Maryland 's most gifted sons " , and it was hoped by Southerners that other Marylanders would follow his example .
= = = First Bull Run = = =
Steuart soon became lieutenant colonel of the newly formed 1st Maryland Infantry , serving under Colonel Arnold Elzey , and fought with distinction at the First Battle of Bull Run , taking part in the charge that routed the Union army . Very soon after he was promoted to colonel , and assumed command of the regiment , succeeding Elzey , who was promoted to brigadier general . He soon began to acquire a reputation as a strict disciplinarian and gained the admiration of his men , though he was initially unpopular as a result . Steuart was said to have ordered his men to sweep the bare dirt inside their bivouacs and , rather more eccentrically , was prone to sneaking through the lines past unwitting sentries , in order to test their vigilance . On one occasion this plan backfired , as Steuart was pummeled and beaten by a sentry who later claimed not to have recognized the general . Eventually however , Steuart 's " rigid system of discipline quietly and quickly conduced to the health and morale of this splendid command . " According to Major W W Goldsborough , who served in Steuart 's Maryland Infantry at Gettysburg : " ... it was not only his love for a clean camp , but a desire to promote the health and comfort of his men that made him unyielding in the enforcement of sanitary rules . You might influence him in some things , but never in this " . George Wilson Booth , a young officer in Steuart 's command at Harper 's Ferry in 1861 , recalled in his memoirs : " The Regiment , under his master hand , soon gave evidence of the soldierly qualities which made it the pride of the army and placed the fame of Maryland in the very foreground of the Southern States " . Other historians have been less kind , seeing Steuart as a " tough and nasty martinet " and as a " cruel disciplinarian " , suggesting that such " old army " discipline was not the best way to mould and lead what was essentially a citizen army .
= = = Shenandoah Campaign and the First Battle of Winchester = = =
Steuart was promoted to brigadier general on March 6 , 1862 , commanding a brigade in Major General Richard S. Ewell 's division during Stonewall Jackson 's Shenandoah Valley campaign . On May 24 Jackson gave Steuart command of two cavalry regiments , the 2nd and 6th Virginia Cavalry regiments . At the First Battle of Winchester , on May 25 , 1862 , Jackson 's army was victorious , and the defeated Federal infantry retreated in confusion . The conditions were now perfect for the cavalry to complete the victory , but no cavalry units could be found to press home the advantage . Jackson complained : " never was there such a chance for cavalry ! Oh that my cavalry were in place ! " The exhausted infantry were forced forward again , while Lieutenant Sandie Pendleton of Jackson 's staff was sent to find Steuart .
Pendleton eventually found Steuart and gave him the order to pursue Banks ' retreating army but the general delayed , wasting valuable time on a point of military etiquette . He declined to obey the order until it came through General Ewell , his immediate divisional commander . The proper channels had not been followed . A frustrated Pendleton then rode two miles to find Ewell , who duly gave the order , but " seemed surprised that General Steuart had not gone on immediately " .
Steuart eventually gave chase and overtook the advance of the Confederate infantry , picking up many prisoners , but , as a result of the delay , the Confederate cavalry did not overtake the Federal army until it was , in the words of Jackson 's report , " beyond the reach of successful pursuit " . Jackson continued : " There is good reason for believing that had the cavalry played its part in this pursuit , but a small portion of Banks ' army would have made its escape to the Potomac " .
It remains unclear precisely why Steuart was reluctant to pursue Banks ' defeated army more vigorously , and contemporary records shed little light on the matter . It may be that his thirteen years ' training as a cavalry officer led him to obey orders to the letter , with little or no room for personal initiative or variation from strict due process . No charges were brought against him however , despite Jackson 's reputation as a stern disciplinarian . It is possible that Jackson 's leniency had to do with the strong desire of the Confederacy to recruit Marylanders to the Southern cause , and the need to avoid offending Marylanders who might be tempted to join Lee 's army .
Soon after Winchester , on June 2 , Steuart was involved in an unfortunate incident in which the 2nd Virginia Cavalry was mistakenly fired on by the 27th Virginia Infantry . Colonels Thomas Flournoy and Thomas T. Munford went to General Ewell and requested that their regiments , the 6th and 2nd Virginia Cavalry , be transferred to the command of Turner Ashby , recently promoted to Brigadier General . Ewell agreed , and went to Jackson for final approval . Jackson gave his consent , and for the remainder of the war Steuart would serve as an infantry commander .
= = = Battle of Cross Keys = = =
At the Battle of Cross Keys ( June 8 , 1862 ) , Steuart commanded the 1st Maryland Infantry , which was attacked by , and successfully fought off , a much larger Federal force . However , Steuart was severely injured in the shoulder by grape shot , and had to be carried from the battlefield . A ball from a canister shot had struck him in the shoulder and broken his collarbone , causing a " ghastly wound " . The injury did not heal well , and did not begin to improve at all until the ball was removed under surgery in August . It would prevent him from returning to the field for almost an entire year , until May 1863 .
= = = Gettysburg Campaign and the advance into Maryland = = =
Upon his recuperation and return to the army , Steuart was assigned by Gen. Robert E. Lee to command the Third Brigade , a force of around 2 @,@ 200 men , in Major General Edward " Allegheny " Johnson 's division , in the Army of Northern Virginia . The brigade 's former commander , Brigadier General Raleigh Colston , had been relieved of his command by Lee , who was disappointed by his performance at the Battle of Chancellorsville . The brigade consisted of the following regiments : the 2nd Maryland ( successor to the disbanded 1st Maryland ) , the 1st and 3rd North Carolina , and the 10th , 23rd , and 37th Virginia . Rivalries between the various state regiments had been a recurring problem in the brigade and Lee hoped that Steuart , as an " old army " hand , would be able to knit them together effectively . In addition , by this stage in the war Lee was desperately short of experienced senior commanders . However , Steuart had only been in command for a month when the Gettysburg Campaign got under way .
In June 1863 Lee 's army advanced north into Maryland , taking the war into Union territory for the second time . Steuart is said to have jumped down from his horse , kissed his native soil and stood on his head in jubilation . According to one of his aides : " We loved Maryland , we felt that she was in bondage against her will , and we burned with desire to have a part in liberating her " . Quartermaster John Howard recalled that Steuart performed " seventeen double somersaults " all the while whistling Maryland , My Maryland . Such celebrations would prove short lived , as Steuart 's brigade was soon to be severely damaged at the Battle of Gettysburg ( July 1 – 3 , 1863 ) . At first however , Lee 's advance north went well . At the Second Battle of Winchester ( June 13 – 15 , 1863 ) Steuart fought with Johnson 's division , helping to bring about a Confederate victory , during which his brigade took around 1 @,@ 000 prisoners and suffered comparatively small losses of 9 killed , 34 wounded .
= = = Battle of Gettysburg = = =
The Battle of Gettysburg ( July 1 – 3 , 1863 ) was to prove a turning point in the war , and the end of Lee 's advance . Steuart 's men arrived at Gettysburg " exhausted and footsore ... a little before dusk " on the evening of July 1 , following a 130 @-@ mile ( 210 km ) march from Sharpsburg , " many of them barefooted " . Steuart 's men attacked the Union line on the night of July 2 , gaining ground between the lower Culp 's Hill and the stone wall near Spangler 's Spring . But fresh Federal reinforcements blocked his further advance , and no further ground was gained . During the night a large number quantity of Union artillery was wheeled into place , the sound of which caused the optimistic Steuart to hope that the enemy was retreating in its wagons .
The morning of July 3 revealed the full scale of the Union defenses , as enemy artillery opened fire at a distance of 500 yards with a " terrific and galling fire " , followed by a ferocious assault on Steuart 's position . The result was a " terrible slaughter " of the Third Brigade , which fought for many hours without relief , exhausting their ammunition , but successfully holding their position . Then , late on the morning of July 3 , Johnson ordered a bayonet charge against the well @-@ fortified enemy lines , " confident of their ability to sweep him away and take the whole Union line in reverse " . Steuart was appalled , and was strongly critical of the attack , but direct orders could not be disobeyed , and Steuart gave the order to " Left face " and " file right " , sending his men into heavy enfilading fire . Steuart 's Third Brigade advanced against the Union breastworks and attempted several times to wrest control of Culp 's Hill , a vital part of the Union Army defensive line . The result was a " slaughterpen " , as the Second Maryland and the Third North Carolina regiments courageously charged a well @-@ defended position strongly held by three brigades , a few reaching within twenty paces of the enemy lines . So severe were the casualties among his men that Steuart is said to have broken down and wept , wringing his hands and crying " my poor boys " . Overall , the failed attack on Culp 's Hill cost Johnson 's division almost 2 @,@ 000 men , of which 700 were accounted for by Steuart 's brigade alone — far more than any other brigade in the division . At Hagerstown , on the 8th July , out of a pre @-@ battle strength of 2 @,@ 200 , just 1 @,@ 200 men reported for duty . The casualty rate among the Second Maryland and Third North Carolina was between one half and two @-@ thirds , in the space of just ten hours .
Even though Steuart had fought bravely under extremely difficult conditions , neither he nor any other officer was cited by Johnson in his report . Gettysburg marked the high @-@ water mark of the Confederacy ; thereafter Lee 's army would retreat until its final surrender to General Grant at Appomattox Court House .
= = = Battle of Payne 's Farm = = =
During the winter of 1863 Steuart 's Marylanders again saw action , at the Battle of Mine Run , also known as the battle of Payne 's Farm . On November 27 Steuart 's brigade was among the first to be attacked by Union soldiers , and Johnson himself rode to Steuart 's aid , bringing reinforcements . Steuart , bringing up the Confederate rear , halted his brigade and swiftly formed a line of battle in the road , to repel the Union attack . Confused fighting followed during which the Confederates fell back taking heavy losses , but prevented a Union breakthrough . Steuart himself was wounded for the second time , sustaining an injury to his arm . According to a historical marker which commemorates the engagement , Steuart 's " boldness against a vastly superior force ... helped to stall the advance of the entire Union army " .
= = = Battle of the Wilderness = = =
In the summer of 1864 , Steuart saw severe action during the Battle of the Wilderness ( May 5 – 7 , 1864 ) . Steuart led his North Carolina infantry against two New York regiments , causing Union losses of almost 600 men . During the battle his brother , Lieutenant William James Steuart , was severely wounded in the hip , and was sent to Guinea station , a hospital for officers in Richmond , Virginia . There , on 21 May 1864 , he died of his injuries . A friend of the family at the University of Virginia wrote to their bereaved father :
" You will not charge me , I trust , with intruding on the sacredness of your grief , if I cannot help giving expression to my deep , heartfelt sympathy with your great sorrow . You have sacrificed so much for the righteous cause already , that I know you will present this last and most precious offering also with the fortitude of your character and the submission of a Christian . Still , I know how valuable this son of yours had been to your interests , how dear to your heart , and I cannot tell you , with what deep and sincere grief I heard of your terrible loss . "
= = = Disaster at Spotsylvania = = =
Soon afterward , at the Battle of Spotsylvania Court House ( May 8 – 21 , 1864 ) , Steuart was himself captured , along with much of his brigade , during the brutal fighting for the " Mule Shoe " salient . The Mule Shoe salient formed a bulge in the Confederate lines , a strategic portion of vital high ground but one which was vulnerable to attack on three sides . During the night of May 11 , Confederate commanders withdrew most of the artillery pieces from the salient , convinced that Grant 's next attack would fall elsewhere . Steuart , to his credit , was alert to enemy preparations and sent a message to Johnson advising him of an imminent enemy attack and requesting the return of the artillery .
Unfortunately , shortly before dawn on May 12 , Union forces comprising three full divisions ( Major General Winfield S. Hancock 's II Corps ) attacked the Mule Shoe through heavy fog , taking the Confederate forces by surprise . Exhaustion , inadequate food , lack of artillery support , and wet powder from the night 's rain contributed to the collapse of the Confederate position as the Union forces swarmed out of the mist , overwhelming Steuart 's men and effectively putting an end to the Virginia Brigade . Confederate muskets would not fire due to damp powder , and apart from two remaining artillery pieces , the Southerners were effectively without firearms . During the thick of the fierce hand @-@ to @-@ hand fighting that followed , Steuart was forced to surrender to Colonel James A. Beaver of the 148th Pennsylvania Infantry . Beaver asked Steuart " Where is your sword , sir ? " , to which the general replied , with considerable sarcasm , " Well , suh , you all waked us up so early this mawnin ' that I didn 't have time to get it on . " Steuart was brought to General Hancock , who had seen Steuart 's wife Maria in Washington before the battle and wished to give her news of her husband . He extended his hand , asking " how are you , Steuart ? " But Steuart refused to shake Hancock 's hand ; although the two men had been friends before the war , they were now enemies . Steuart said : " Considering the circumstance , General , I refuse to take your hand " , to which Hancock is said to have replied , " And under any other circumstance , General , I would have refused to offer it . " After this episode , an offended Hancock then left Steuart to march to the Union rear with the other prisoners .
After the battle , Steuart was sent as a prisoner of war to Charleston , South Carolina , and was later imprisoned at Hilton Head , where he and other officers were placed under the fire of Confederate artillery . The fighting at Spotsylvania was to prove the end of his brigade . Johnson 's division , 6 @,@ 800 strong at the start of the battle , was now so severely reduced in size that barely one brigade could be formed . On May 14 the brigades of Walker , Jones , and Steuart were consolidated into one small brigade under the command of Colonel Terry of the 4th Virginia Infantry .
= = = Petersburg , Appomattox and the end of the war = = =
Steuart was exchanged later in the summer of 1864 , returning to command a brigade in the Army of Northern Virginia , in the division of Major General George Pickett . Steuart 's brigade consisted of the 9th , 14th , 38th , 53rd and 57th Virginia regiments , and served in the trenches north of the James River during the Siege of Petersburg ( June 9 , 1864 – March 25 , 1865 ) . By this stage of the war , Confederate supplies had dwindled to the point where Lee 's army began to go hungry , and the theft of food became a serious problem . Steuart was forced to send armed guards to the supply depot at Petersburg in order to ensure that his men 's packages were not stolen by looters .
He continued to lead his brigade in Pickett 's division during the Appomattox Campaign ( March 29 – April 9 , 1865 ) , at the Battle of Five Forks ( April 1 , 1865 ) , and at Sayler 's Creek ( April 6 , 1865 ) , the last two battles marking the effective end of Confederate resistance . During Five Forks General Pickett had been distracted by a shad bake , and Steuart was left in command of the infantry , as it bore the brunt of a huge Union assault , with General Sheridan leading around 30 @,@ 000 men against Pickett 's 10 @,@ 000 . The consequences were even more disastrous than at Spotsylvania the previous year , with at least 5 @,@ 000 men falling prisoner to Sheridan 's forces . The end of Confederate resistance was now just days away . At Sayler 's Creek Lee 's starving and exhausted army finally fell apart . Upon seeing the survivors streaming along the road , Lee exclaimed in front of Maj. Gen. William Mahone , " My God , has the army dissolved ? " to which he replied , " No , General , here are troops ready to do their duty . "
Steuart continued fighting until the end , finally surrendering with Lee to General Ulysses S. Grant at Appomattox Court House on April 9 , 1865 , one of 22 brigadiers out of Lee 's original 146 . According to one Maryland veteran , " no @-@ one in the war gave more completely and conscientiously every faculty , every energy that was in him to the Southern cause " .
= = = After the war = = =
After the war 's end , Steuart returned to Maryland , and swore an oath of loyalty to the Union . He farmed at Mount Steuart , a farmhouse on a hillside near the South River , south of Edgewater , . and served as commander of the Maryland division of the United Confederate Veterans . He died on 22 November 1903 at the age of 75 at South River , Maryland , of an ulcer . He is buried in Green Mount Cemetery in Baltimore with his wife Maria , who died three years later , in 1906 . He was survived by his two daughters , Marie and Ann . Perhaps not surprisingly , as Maryland had remained in the Union throughout the war , there is no monument to Steuart in his home state . However , the Steuart Hill area of Baltimore recalls his family 's long association with the city .
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= Dayton Project =
The Dayton Project was a research and development project that was part of the larger Manhattan Project to build the first atomic bombs . Work took place at several sites in and around Dayton , Ohio . Those working on the project were ultimately responsible for creating the polonium @-@ based modulated neutron initiators which were used to begin the chain reactions in the atomic bombs . The Dayton Project ran from 1943 to 1949 , when Mound Laboratories were completed and the work moved there .
The Dayton Project began in 1943 when Monsanto 's Charles Allen Thomas was recruited by the Manhattan Project in the role of coordinating the plutonium purification and production work being carried out at various sites . Scientists at the Los Alamos Laboratory calculated that a plutonium bomb would require an internal neutron initiator . The best @-@ known neutron sources used radioactive polonium and beryllium , so Thomas undertook to produce polonium at Monsanto 's laboratories in Dayton , Ohio .
The Dayton Project developed techniques for extracting polonium @-@ 210 from the lead dioxide ore in which it occurs naturally , and from bismuth targets that had been bombarded by neutrons in a nuclear reactor . Ultimately , polonium @-@ based neutron initiators were used in both the gun @-@ type Little Boy and the implosion @-@ type Fat Man used in the bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki respectively . The fact that polonium was used as an initiator was classified until the 1960s , but George Koval , a technician with the Manhattan Project 's Special Engineering Detachment , penetrated the Dayton Project as a spy for the Soviet Union .
= = Background = =
In December 1942 , during World War II , Charles Allen Thomas , a chemist and director of research at Monsanto in St. Louis , joined the National Defense Research Committee ( NDRC ) as the deputy chief of its Division 8 , which was responsible for propellants , explosives and the like . Early in 1943 , he travelled to the East with Richard Tolman , a member of the NDRC , and James B. Conant , the president of Harvard University and the chairman of the NDRC , to witness a demonstration of a new underwater explosive . Conant and Tolman took the opportunity to quietly investigate Thomas 's background . He was then invited to a meeting in Washington D.C. , with Brigadier General Leslie R. Groves , Jr . , the director of the wartime Manhattan Project responsible for building an atomic bomb . When he got there , Thomas found Conant was also present .
Groves and Conant were hoping to harness Thomas 's industrial expertise for the benefit of the project . They offered him a post as a deputy to Robert Oppenheimer , the director of the Los Alamos Laboratory in New Mexico , but he did not wish to move his family or give up his responsibilities at Monsanto . Instead he accepted the role of coordinating the plutonium purification and production work being carried out at Los Alamos , the Metallurgical Laboratory in Chicago , Radiation laboratory in Berkeley , and Ames Laboratory in Iowa . Chemistry and metallurgy at Los Alamos would be led by the youthful Joseph W. Kennedy .
At Los Alamos , physicist Robert Serber proposed that instead of relying on spontaneous fission , the chain reaction inside the atomic bomb should be triggered by a neutron initiator . The best @-@ known neutron sources were radium @-@ beryllium and polonium @-@ beryllium . The latter was chosen as it had a 140 @-@ day half life , which made it intense enough to be useful but not long @-@ lived enough to be stockpiled . Thomas took charge of the development of techniques to industrially refine polonium for use with beryllium in the " urchin " initiators . This effort became the Dayton Project .
= = Organization = =
Thomas brought in key personnel from Monsanto 's Thomas and Hochwalt Laboratories in Dayton , Ohio , including Caroll Hochwalt , James Lum and Nicholas Samares . Thomas became Director of the Dayton Project , with Hochwalt as Assistant Project Director and Lum as Laboratory Director . They decided that about twelve chemists would be required , and Lum set about recruiting professors , graduate students and industrial chemists from universities and laboratories in the area . The first of these recruits commenced in August 1943 , but few had any experience with radiochemistry . Numbers increased from 46 full @-@ time employees at the end of 1943 to 101 at the end of 1944 , 201 at the end of 1945 , and 334 at the end of 1946 , including members of the Army 's Special Engineer Detachment .
= = Locations = =
Office space was initially found in the Monsanto offices at 1515 Nicholas Rd , which became known as Unit I. A laboratory site was found at 1601 W. First St. that had originally been constructed to house the Bonebrake Seminary . It was a three storey brick building built in 1879 , and owned by the Dayton Board of Education , which used it as a warehouse . Monsanto leased the site on 15 October 1943 , and began converting it into a laboratory known as Unit III . New heating and lighting was installed , windows were replaced , new flooring was laid , and some rooms were re @-@ plastered . A pair of guard houses known as buildings J and K were added , as was a chemical storage shed known as building F , and a wire fence . Laboratory activities were transferred there from Unit I on 25 September . In May 1945 , five additional temporary buildings were constructed on land leased from the Board of Education that housed offices , a cafeteria , locker rooms , a physics laboratory and a laundry . A new guardhouse was also built . To this was added two portable buildings in 1946 .
By 1944 , space was running short , and Monsanto began negotiations to acquire the Runnymede Playhouse in the wealthy residential Dayton suburb of Oakwood . Built in 1927 , the Playhouse was a leisure facility that included an outdoor swimming pool , a ballroom , a squash court , a tennis court with a cork floor and a stage for community theater . It had showers with Italian marble and a one and a half storey garage . The estate was owned by the Talbott Realty Company , which was controlled by Thomas 's wife 's family . The Talbotts were among the heirs of the Delco company , which was by then a part of General Motors . This fortune had come in large part from profits made during World War I on airplanes that never flew .
The Oakwood City Council wanted the Playhouse as a community center . Thomas appeared before the council and assured them that it would not be damaged , although he could not disclose what he was intending to use it for . When Talbott Realty proved reluctant to sell , the United States Army Corps of Engineers condemned the property , which became Unit IV on 15 February 1944 . Remodeling began on 17 March and the Production Group began moving in on 1 June . Three guard houses were added , along with a wire fence . Changes to the site were minimized in order to make it easier to restore later . Because it was located in residential area , efforts were also made to minimize noise and other disruptions .
In May 1945 , Monsanto rented three floors of a warehouse at 601 East Third Street from General Electric . Initially it was used to receive and store equipment used by the Project . Later the fourth floor was used as office space , and a laboratory was established on the fifth floor where studies were carried out on the effects of polonium on laboratory animals . Analysis of bioassay samples was carried out here so as to minimize the danger of polonium contamination of the samples .
= = Research = =
Polonium also occurs naturally in various ores , and the lead dioxide residues from the refinery in Port Hope , Ontario , left over after the removal of uranium and radium from the natural ore were known to contain polonium . It was estimated that this lead dioxide contained 0 @.@ 2 to 0 @.@ 3 milligrams ( 0 @.@ 0031 to 0 @.@ 0046 gr ) of polonium per ton . A curie of polonium weighs 0 @.@ 222473 milligrams ( 0 @.@ 00343328 gr ) . The first 7 @,@ 250 pounds ( 3 @,@ 290 kg ) of radioactive lead dioxide were delivered to the Dayton Project on 10 November 1943 . The first 500 @-@ pound ( 230 kg ) batch was processed by 8 December , which made 30 microcuries ( 1 @.@ 1 MBq ) of polonium available for experiments a week later .
Three processes were investigated for extracting the polonium from the ore . J. H. Dillon of the Firestone Tire and Rubber Company had patented a process in which the lead oxide was dissolved in hydrochloric acid :
PbO
2 + 4 HCl → PbCl
2 + Cl
2 + 2H
2O
The polonium could then be deposited on copper or nickel sheets . This required large @-@ scale glass lined equipment not available in Dayton , but available at the Monsanto B plant in Monsanto , Illinois . After small @-@ scale tests at Unit III revealed that the process was practical , some three tons of lead dioxide were sent to the B plant , and 2 @.@ 50 curies ( 93 GBq ) were recovered . Getting the polonium off the copper and nickel sheets proved more problematic .
A second method attempted was a kiln process . The idea was to simply roast the lead dioxide and vaporize the polonium . The problem was that lead dioxide slagged at 700 ° C ( 1 @,@ 292 ° F ) , which was too low for the process to work . So the Project tried using lead orthophosphate , which slagged at 900 ° C ( 1 @,@ 650 ° F ) . This was made by mixing the lead dioxide with phosphoric acid . Experiments showed that the polonium vaporized well when the lead orthophosphate was heated to 750 ° C ( 1 @,@ 380 ° F ) for four hours . Unfortunately , the process then ran into problems with dust and other foreign matter , and presented problems of contamination of the personnel and equipment involved .
The third method involved dissolving the lead dioxide in a mixture of concentrated nitric acid and hydrogen peroxide :
PbO
2 + 2HNO
3 + H
2O
2 → Pb ( NO
3 )
2 + O
2 + 2H
2O
This proved to be the best way to separate the polonium from the lead dioxide , although there were problems with the precipitation of various contaminants , including iron and aluminum . Although about 35 tons of lead dioxide were treated with nitric acid , and about 40 curies ( 1 @.@ 5 TBq ) of polonium were produced , the process did not proceed beyond the pilot stage because a better source of polonium became available .
= = Production = =
Polonium could be produced by neutron irradiation of bismuth . In 1943 the only polonium produced in this manner was in cyclotrons , but the Manhattan Project 's development of nuclear reactors offered the prospect of producing large amounts of polonium in this manner :
209
83Bi + n → 210
83Bi → 210
84Po + β
A metric ton of bismuth irradiated in the Manhattan Project 's X @-@ 10 Graphite Reactor in Oak Ridge , Tennessee , contained 32 to 83 curies ( 1 @.@ 2 to 3 @.@ 1 TBq ) of polonium , a vast improvement over the yields from Port Hope 's lead dioxide . Starting in June 1945 , the Dayton Project began receiving bismuth irradiated in the more powerful reactors at the Hanford Site in Washington , which now became the major source of supply , and by the end of 1946 Hanford was shipping material that contained up to 13 @,@ 200 curies ( 0 @.@ 49 PBq ) per metric ton of bismuth . This was much more dangerous to handle , but by then safe handling procedures had been developed .
Bismuth was purchased from the American Smelting and Refining Company of the highest purity that it could produce . It was sent to Hanford , where it was put in aluminum cans , and placed inside a reactor for 100 days . The canned slugs then shipped to Unit IV , where they were bathed in hydrochloric acid , which dissolved the aluminum . This formed an aluminum chloride solution that was disposed of , as it was highly radioactive due to iron and copper in the aluminum alloy . The bismuth slugs were then dissolved in aqua regia . This was too weak for electroplating the polonium , so the nitric acid was removed , and then the polonium deposited on bismuth by adding powdered bismuth . This resulted in a 100 @-@ 1 concentration . This could then be repeated by dissolving in aqua regia again to achieve a 1000 @-@ 1 concentration . This was again dissolved , and the polonium electroplated on platinum foils . The main problem with the process was that it required glass @-@ lined containers due to the aqua regia , and mechanisms for safe handling of the radioactive material . The Dayton Project explored alternative purification methods that were found to be workable , but less efficient or safe .
The first consignment of polonium left for Los Alamos on 15 March 1944 in a lead @-@ lined suitcase carried by a military courier . Regular shipments were made thereafter . Initiator testing at Los Alamos required more polonium than anticipated , and in December 1944 , Oppenheimer was forced to ask Thomas if he could ship 20 curies ( 0 @.@ 74 TBq ) per month . The Dayton Project was able to do so . In February 1945 , Thomas agreed to increase shipments to 100 curies ( 3 @.@ 7 TBq ) per month by June , and 500 per month by December .
= = Assay = =
Dayton Project employees were not allowed to eat or smoke in processing areas , and had to scrub their hands before leaving these areas . They also had to shower at the end of each day 's work , and were subjected to weekly urine tests . Employees with elevated levels of polonium were not allowed in the processing areas . Working with polonium without spreading contamination proved to be almost impossible . Fortunately , it was not a bone @-@ seeker like radium or plutonium , and was readily excreted in urine . Detection methods had already been developed , making it easy to track . One employee at Unit IV contaminated her hair . Combined with a practice of putting bobby pins in her mouth , this resulted in her having the highest urine count at the site .
= = Espionage = =
Zhorzh Abramovich " George " Koval was drafted into the US Army in 1943 , and was inducted into the Manhattan Project 's Special Engineering Detachment . He was initially assigned to Oak Ridge , where his job as a health physics officer gave him access to much of the plant . He began passing secrets relating to the production of polonium at Oak Ridge to his GRU handler codenamed " Clyde " . In 1945 Koval was transferred to Dayton . Again his job as a health physics officer gave him wide access to the secret installation . In 2007 Russian President Vladimir Putin posthumously awarded Koval a gold star making him a hero of the Russian Federation for his work as the GRU spy " Delmar " . Russian officials stated that the initiator for their Joe @-@ 1 bomb had been " prepared to the recipe provided by Delmar " . The fact that polonium was used as an initiator remained classified until the 1960s .
= = Initiators = =
After Leonard Schiff calculated that theoretically an initiator could improve the efficiency of a gun @-@ type nuclear weapon , Oppenheimer gave approval on 15 March 1945 for initiators to be included in the Little Boy design . Testing was carried out to ensure that the initiators were rugged enough to handle being transported in an airplane and being accidentally dropped . Eventually , about forty initiators were despatched to Tinian , where four were inserted into the bomb that was used in the bombing of Hiroshima .
The initiator used in the implosion design of the Fat Man bomb that was dropped on Nagasaki was coded named " urchin " . In order to increase the efficiency of the explosion , the initiator had to emit a large number of neutrons in a few microseconds while the plutonium core was fully compressed . At the heart of the urchin was a solid beryllium sphere 0 @.@ 4 centimetres ( 0 @.@ 16 in ) in diameter . This was gold plated and coated with 20 curies ( 0 @.@ 74 TBq ) of polonium . The gold kept the alpha particles from the polonium from striking the beryllium . This fitted inside two beryllium hemispheres with 15 parallel grooves cut into its inner surface . These grooves converted the shock wave of the implosion into jets that shattered the spheres and caused the beryllium and polonium to mix and emit neutrons . The hemispheres were nickel @-@ plated and the outer surface was coated in gold and 30 curies ( 1 @.@ 1 TBq ) of polonium . The 2 @.@ 0 @-@ centimetre ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) initiator , which was hot to touch , fitted neatly inside the 0 @.@ 8 @-@ inch ( 20 mm ) hole in the center of the plutonium pit .
= = Cost = =
The total cost of the Dayton Project up to the end of 1946 was $ 3 @,@ 666 @,@ 507 ( $ 44 @.@ 5 million in today 's dollars ) .
= = Post war = =
= = = Mound Laboratories = = =
By 1945 , the Dayton Project has assumed such importance that the Manhattan Project decided to make it into a permanent facility . The original intention was to move operations to Oak Ridge , but it was decided that a site near Dayton was preferable . Few of the scientific and technical staff wanted to move to Tennessee , and there were concerns about the dangers of polonium contamination at a plutonium processing site . A search for a suitable site began in early 1946 , and one was found in Miamisburg , Ohio , about 12 miles ( 19 km ) from Dayton . The 178 @-@ acre ( 72 ha ) site was adjacent to a state park containing a large prehistoric Indian burial mound , which gave the Mound Laboratories its name .
Monsanto commenced construction of what was referred to as Unit V in May 1946 , using the firm of Giffels and Vallet of Detroit as architects , while the plant was built by the Maxon Construction of Dayton . The design called for an underground complex that could withstand a direct hit from a 2 @,@ 000 pounds ( 910 kg ) bomb , with protection against biological and chemical weapons , at a cost of $ 17 @,@ 900 @,@ 000 .
Responsibility for nuclear weapons production was transferred from the Manhattan Project to the Atomic Energy Commission in 1947 , but work continued on the Mound Laboratories . The first building was completed in May 1948 , and polonium processing commenced at the Mound Laboratories in February 1949 . Altogether , 14 major buildings were constructed with a total floor space of 366 @,@ 000 square feet ( 34 @,@ 000 m2 ) at a cost of $ 25 @.@ 5 million . Due to fear of attack or sabotage , the former Scioto Laboratory Complex in Marion , Ohio , was acquired by the Atomic Energy Commission in 1948 . It was maintained as a cold standby site until 1953 , when it was decided that it was no longer needed , and was closed .
= = = Site cleanup = = =
Unit I continued to be used by Monsanto as an administrative facility until the 1980s , when it was demolished , and the land was sold in 1992 . Unit III , the former Bonebrake Theological Seminary , was decontaminated in 1950 and returned to the Dayton Board of Education . The original seminary building was subsequently demolished , but several structures remain from the Dayton Project . The site was listed on the National Register of Historical Places on 10 May 2006 . Unit IV , the former Runnymede Playhouse , was deemed too contaminated , so the building was demolished in February 1950 . Even the cobblestones in the driveway were ripped up and taken away , along with 7 feet ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) of earth from under the house . The excavation was filled in , and the site was returned to the Talbott family , who were paid $ 138 @,@ 000 in compensation . The Dayton Warehouse was decontaminated in 1950 and returned to its owners .
In 1996 , the Department of Energy , which had succeeded the Atomic Energy Commission , decided that since the Dayton sites already had been decontaminated , they did not warrant inclusion in the Army Corps of Engineers ' Formerly Utilized Sites Remedial Action Program ( FUSRAP ) . However , the local community in Dayton were concerned that the cleanup did not meet 21st century environmental standards . The state of Ohio therefore asked United States Congress to have the Army Corps of Engineers conduct a review . This was carried out in 2004 and 2005 . The review concluded that no radioactive contaminants were found that would warrant inclusion in FUSRAP .
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= Coexist ( album ) =
Coexist is the second studio album by English indie pop band the xx . After a break from touring for their 2009 debut album xx , the band members began to write songs individually before they recorded Coexist from November 2011 to May 2012 . For the album , the xx drew on personal experiences for their songwriting , while their music was influenced by the electronic dance scene that occurred when they had been away on tour . The album was produced by the band 's Jamie xx , who had pursued electronic dance on other projects and developed as a DJ prior to the album .
Coexist features a minimalist musical style with spatial arrangements , loose song structure , little dynamism , and experimentation with tension . Its songs are characterised by sparse elements such as simple chord progression , keyboard ostinatos , and fading motifs , while Jamie xx 's production incorporates both programmed beats and live percussion instruments . Coexist touches on themes of heartbreak , loneliness , and intimacy . The lyrics , written by guitarist Romy Madley Croft and bassist Oliver Sim , address a failing relationship and changes in a romance with inner monologues and simple metaphors .
When Coexist was released on 5 September 2012 by Young Turks , it received generally positive reviews from critics and debuted at number one on the United Kingdom 's Official Albums Chart , selling 58 @,@ 266 copies in its first week there . It also charted in the top 10 in several other countries and was promoted with four singles , including " Angels " and " Chained " . During June to December 2012 , the xx toured in support of the album throughout Europe and North America .
= = Background = =
In 2009 , the xx released their debut album xx to critical acclaim . It was certified platinum in the United Kingdom and also sold 350 @,@ 000 copies in the United States . It showcased their characteristically moody , R & B and post @-@ dubstep @-@ influenced indie pop style and lyrical themes of loneliness , lust , and love . After the departure of group member Baria Qureshi , the xx exclusively played live concerts throughout 2010 , including several high @-@ profile summer music festivals , and garnered a growing fanbase . The band 's popularity grew further when their songs featured in television shows and commercials , and they were also covered and sampled by well @-@ known recording artists . In 2010 , xx won the Mercury Prize , an annual music prize awarded for the best album from the UK and Ireland .
Following an exhausting tour , the xx went on a break . The band 's producer and percussionist Jamie xx pursued electronic dance styles on other musical projects , creating remixes for Radiohead , Adele , and Florence and the Machine . He also collaborated on Gil Scott @-@ Heron 's 2011 album We 're New Here , and produced Drake 's 2012 song " Take Care " . The latter exemplified and helped popularise the xx 's sound as well . A novice to DJing when starting out with the xx , he subsequently learned its technical aspects and developed a grasp on controlling the crowd through unexpected silences and drops during his live sets .
= = Writing and recording = =
In 2011 , the xx opened their own recording studio in London and began writing songs for Coexist during the summer . Each member — guitarist Romy Madley Croft , bassist Oliver Sim , and Jamie xx — wrote music individually and recorded snippets using GarageBand or their phones . Both Croft and Sim drew on personal experiences and wrote more direct lyrics than on xx to express complex emotions . Sim said of his songwriting for Coexist , " I found myself being a lot less ' moons and stars ' and being a lot more literal . " Croft felt more expectations from listeners than when the band debuted and consequently turned to more personal songwriting for Coexist :
They wrote , recorded , and emailed music back and forth to each other before working together in a rehearsal space in East London . When he first read them , Jamie xx found Croft and Sim 's lyrics to be " purposely ambiguous so people can relate to them " , saying in an interview for Uncut , " I mean … if I listen carefully , I do know about their lives intimately so I can guess what they ’ re about . But they don ’ t even tell each other what they ’ re singing about . "
The xx started recording Coexist in November 2011 , and used a photography studio in North London to record the songs they had put together . They later used the rehearsal space in East London to practice playing the songs live . They recorded for six months in London and intended to finish before their scheduled music festival appearances for 2012 . The xx 's direction for the album was partly inspired by the electronic dance scene that occurred while they toured for xx , as well as the live DJ sets of Jamie xx , who was mostly listening to dark Chicago house music at the time . According to him , " We left [ to tour ] when we were 17 and we missed out on that chunk of our lives when everyone else was partying . " However , he insisted that " we 're not looking to make people dance . " They were also influenced by pop @-@ reggae band UB40 , folk act White Hinterland , and neo soul artist Van Hunt , all of whom they listened to while recording Coexist . Croft viewed the music as a continuation of their debut , " developed , but [ not ] like completely a world away " .
Rather than expand on their debut 's sound , the xx wanted to minimise the songs they recorded for Coexist and mute certain elements during its production . Croft felt that this would help make the music more playable live instead of having to reproduce multiple vocal or guitar elements that were tracked onto a song . Jamie xx , who produced and mixed Coexist , wanted to keep his production simple and create an emotive , electronic sound . He used Logic Pro recording software , a Space Echo effects unit , preamplifiers , and Casiotones on occasion , as well as both synthesised steelpan sounds and live percussion instruments . To engineer the album , he put together a mixing desk from pieces of other desks and left doors open during the recording to let sounds from outside the studio bleed into the mix . The xx finished recording Coexist in May 2012 .
= = Music and production = =
The songs on Coexist , which Edna Gundersen of USA Today categorized as indie pop , eschew melodic structure for minimalist dynamics and sparse sounds . John Calvert of Fact asserts that it is " a far more meditative album " for deviating from its predecessor 's " tight , brisk pop songs " , " nuanced [ guitar ] interplay " , and " light dynamics " . Jon Caramanica of The New York Times comments that songs " unfold ... beginning as pointillist sketches and ending up as huge , blurry color blocks . " Reflecting the band 's electronic dance influences , Coexist features atmospheric , dance @-@ orientated song structures , deemphasises traditional verse @-@ chorus form , and incorporates influences from dubstep and rave music . Drowned in Sound 's Hayden Woolley writes that the music features " watercolour textures and rhythms that seem to lock @-@ in to the ebbing pulse and cadences of the body . " Rory Gibb of The Quietus believes that Coexist is neither a " pop " nor " downtempo dance record " , but occupies " a hazy space between the two " and is an attempt at " post @-@ Burial pop " . Simon Price of The Independent asserts that " rather than clubland , Coexist owes a debt to comedown / chillout culture " .
The songs are characterized by droning harmonies , simple chord progression , keyboard ostinatos , ringing guitar , resounding reverb , slight bass grooves , and programmed beats . Sim plays counterpoint melodies on his bass , while Croft plays angular figures , sketchy musical patterns , and melodies developed from two @-@ note intervals ; Price likens Croft 's use of the guitar to playing a harp . Jamie xx 's production is largely responsible for the music 's lowest frequency sounds and incorporates both four on the floor and 2 @-@ step beats , subtle BPM changes , heartbeat @-@ like drum machine rhythms , strings , and live percussion such as timpani , snare drums , and steelpans . The latter instrument is played in arpeggio and exhibits Jamaican music influences . Critic Will Hermes views Jamie xx as a more prominent contributor on Coexist than on xx and comments that " the beats and musical backdrops are more varied and command more attention . "
The songs are also spatially arranged and experiment with tension , including listeners ' expectations for a hook to unfold , a dance beat to develop , and a time signature to change . Elements such as drum beats , vocals , and guitar motifs fade to silence throughout the songs . Kitty Empire of The Observer comments that " no pattern here hangs around for more than a couple of bars , and rarely in multiples of four . " Stephen Thompson of NPR comments on the music 's lack of dynamism , writing that the band " lets its songs billow out softly and quietly , with only achingly pretty guitar lines to lessen the tension . " Michael Hann of The Guardian writes that the album refines the band 's " already skeletal frame " and that most of its songs are " defined as much by space as by sound " , adding that the music 's " gaps bring greater emphasis " to guitar , piano , and vocal elements . Melissa Locker of Time comments that " each sound , be it instrument or voice , is given ample room to exist and to soar . "
= = Lyrics and themes = =
Coexist deals with themes of heartbreak , loneliness , and intimacy . Croft and Sim share lead vocals , which occasionally overlap in call and response interplay and slow crescendos . Sim , who cites Sade as an influence , has more assured vocals , while Croft sings in a shyer style and exhibits catches in her voice . The lyrics focus on a failing relationship and changes in a romance . Will Ryan of Beats Per Minute writes that they follow " the back @-@ and @-@ forth complexities of a fractured relationship that ... explores a wilderness of residual feelings left over after said relationship has collapsed . " Garry Mulholland of Uncut interprets the album to be " the story of a relationship broken by the protagonists ' tendency to love too much while being unable to express their need to each other . " Eric Sundermann of The A.V. Club views that the album 's songs " all focus on different stages of romantic love , from infatuation to frustration to all the other stuff that falls in between . " Kevin Liedel of Slant Magazine felt that the songs follow @-@ up on the " lovebirds " from the xx 's debut album , " now separated and devastated ... mus [ ing ] on what went wrong " . Puja Patel of Spin remarks that the band 's " fantastical , elemental star @-@ crossed @-@ lover talk has been replaced by evocations of a harder , more aggressively worked @-@ at love " . Most of the songs have single @-@ word titles that evoke long sentiments .
The xx 's lyrics on Coexist feature broader diction than on xx and employ simple metaphors of light and darkness , and distance and time . They often express emotional stress , yearning , and passive @-@ aggressive attitudes . Some songs feature a lyrical conceit of an emotionally elusive lover as an apparition or an illusion . Croft and Sim avoid traditional duet lyrics about declarations of love , instead employing inner monologues to depict the same situation from two different perspectives . Eric Sundermann asserts that , rather than " simply " being " declarations " , the songs serve as " the thought process of how to deal with interpersonal struggles . " Neil McCormick of The Daily Telegraph perceives " intimate conversations between forlorn lovers " and an " almost sacred eroticism in Croft and Sim 's whispery vocals . " Drowned in Sound 's Hayden Woolley views that the album shares xx 's " fragility " , " quiet gravitas " , and " heavy words " , but is " an intensely wind @-@ torn and wounded album that cuts even deeper than its predecessor . " Music journalist Luke Turner calls its subject matter more " turbulent , sensual and fun " than on xx and states , " of course not necessarily a sexual or romantic one , the feel of this second record is far more earthy , sticky , complicated , like the tension of the second or third encounters after a one night stand . "
= = Songs = =
" Angels " opens Coexist with a restrained style and soft @-@ spoken verses about the idea of being in love . Croft 's lyrics compare the premature end of an relationship to " dreaming of angels , and leaving without them " , and touch on the private knowledge that is acquired through intimacy . " Chained " experiments with musical buildup and subtle flourishes , and muffled 2 @-@ step beats . Its lyrics lament a couple 's distance from each other . On " Fiction " , Sim 's emotive lyrics recount romantic illusions such as " last night the world was beneath us " , but eventually lead to a catharsis . " Try " has oscillating guitar lines , sluggish snare drums , and looped synthesizers . Jamie xx experimented with unconventional electronic elements when producing the song . John Calvert of Fact asserts that it is a stark " conflation of urban and indie music " , noting its " portomento [ sic ] synths and rumble @-@ bass ( think ' Drop It Like It 's Hot ' ) passing under tremolo guitar . " On " Try " , the narrators attempt to evoke feelings of hope and functionality to each other .
" Reunion " is a noirish ballad that features reactive emotions by the narrators . Jamie xx approached its recording as he would remixing a song , working with a demo of bass , guitar , and vocal parts at his own studio and incorporating house and techno elements . Midway , " Reunion " develops a refrain of " did I ... see you ... see me ... in a new light ? " , and pulsating steel drums lead to a somber , rhythmic dance section . Its pulsating beat transitions into " Sunset " , a song about the pain shared by estranged ex @-@ lovers . The song 's muted beat adds tension to the narrative , which Calvert interprets to be " the couple 's final farewell – the beat serves to denote the passing of time . " " Sunset " also has a subtle UK garage beat , funky house elements , and was inspired by the music from Jamie xx 's DJing gigs ; Croft cited it as " an example of the idea of a kind of song we 're all really into , which is heartbreaking dance music " . Consequence of Sound 's Harley Brown views that " Reunion " and " Sunset " make up a congruous mix at " the heart of the album " , as " Jamie xx indie @-@ streams these house varieties ... slowing down and alienating beats from their context so they ’ re even more universal , unobscured by their dance floor origins .
" Missing " features a melancholic mood and experiments with echoing vocal effects . The song 's lyrics express inner turmoil and deal with themes of separation and isolation . Sim sings lead over Croft 's echoed background wails , and vice versa , amid solemn keyboard flourishes . Sim originally wrote the song on the band 's tour bus near the end of their tour , but underwent several changes before being one of the last songs recorded for the album . " Tides " opens solely with Croft and Sim 's vocals , and features fading musical elements , including lock @-@ step percussion , minor strings , an isolated guitar line , and a wavy bassline . Croft and Sim trade lines expressing resignation as their respective partner " leav [ es ] with the tide " , comparing the ebb and flow of a relationship to that of tides .
The album 's subsequent songs focus on separation , with lyrics written in past tense . " Unfold " comprises individual notes and pauses , and incorporates tension in its off @-@ beat composition , while its percussion increases in tempo before the accompanying instrumentation follows suit . It features deep house beats , resounding guitar harmonics , rhythmic hi @-@ hat , and a dominant breakbeat . Croft describes " Unfold " as a " gentle reverie " and " quite an emotional one . " On " Swept Away " , she and Sim express fragile declarations of love . They originally wrote the song as a ballad before Jamie xx reworked it with a Roland TR @-@ 909 drum machine . " Our Song " features a rewinding guitar sample , looped feedback , and pulsating percussion buildup . It is about the love shared in a friendship ; Croft and Sim wrote it to address each other and the band itself : " We 've never done that before ; we 're always addressing the songs outward . It 's about the function of love and the love of friends . It 's important . "
= = Title and packaging = =
The album 's title was inspired by their idea for the cover artwork , which depicts an iridescent oil spill in the shape of an " X " , a variation on the band 's white @-@ on @-@ black " X " logo . Croft compared the mixture of oil and water to her holistic view of the band , saying in an interview for Grantland :
When they informed them of the title , their record label 's American office e @-@ mailed them about there being a " Coexist " bumper sticker . Croft said that " I know it has that connection , but it felt like the right word . It 's cool , I guess ? It 's a nice message ? Everybody getting along ? "
= = Release and promotion = =
Coexist was released worldwide by Young Turks . In May 2012 , the xx played three intimate shows in London , where they previewed material from the album . They also performed on the Mini Stage of the San Miguel Primavera Sound festival in Barcelona , Spain , on 31 May . On 17 July , " Angels " was released as the album 's lead single . It charted at number 46 in Australia and at number 38 in Belgium . The second single , " Chained " , was released on 7 August . On 28 September , the xx performed the song , along with " Sunset " , on Later ... with Jools Holland . A remix of the song was released as a single to iTunes on 11 March 2013 . " Sunset " was later serviced to American modern rock radio on 28 January 2013 .
To test if the xx could replicate their debut album 's viral success , Young Turks ' parent label XL Recordings approached technology companies and agreed to a deal with Microsoft to create a visualisation that could track sharing of the album 's stream . The xx collaborated with designers from Internet Explorer and 9elements on the project . It was designed to show lines on a global map as Coexist is shared and was inspired by media artist Aaron Koblin 's visualisation of flight patterns in the US . The album 's stream was posted on a host site upon its release and shared with a fan in London through Facebook . The stream 's host site crashed within 24 hours after the stream had been shared with millions of users . It subsequently reached social news site Reddit , where fans campaigned to share the album to every country possible . Label executive Adam Farrell of Beggars Group , Young Turks ' distributor , cited it as " one of the most significant album premieres we 've ever done " .
Coexist debuted at number one on the Official Albums Chart with first @-@ week sales of 58 @,@ 266 copies in the United Kingdom , becoming the band 's first number @-@ one album on the chart . The album fell to number four in its second week , selling 22 @,@ 005 copies . On 14 September 2012 , the album was certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry , denoting shipments in excess of 100 @,@ 000 copies in the UK . Coexist also debuted at number one on record charts in Belgium , New Zealand , Portugal , and Switzerland . In the United States , it debuted at number five on the Billboard 200 with 73 @,@ 000 copies sold in its first week . The album debuted at number two on the Canadian Albums Chart , selling 10 @,@ 000 copies in its first week .
In June 2012 , the xx embarked on a 25 @-@ date , international summer tour . The tour lasted into September and featured performances at several music festivals , including Primavera Sound , Rock Werchter , Sziget Festival , Lowlands , Bestival , and Electric Picnic . On 23 July , they debuted " Swept Away " , " Sunset " , and " Reunion " at the Music Box in Los Angeles . Unlike the band 's last tour , Jamie xx added live percussion instruments to his repertoire . In December , the xx played a five @-@ date tour in the United Kingdom — Brighton Dome on 6 December , O2 Academy Newcastle on 11 December , Wolverhampton Civic Hall on 12 December , Colston Hall on 14 December , and Brixton Academy on 16 December .
= = Critical reception = =
Coexist received generally positive reviews from music critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalised rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the album received an average score of 79 , based on 46 reviews . Garry Mulholland of Uncut dubbed it a " masterpiece " , while Rolling Stone magazine 's Jody Rosen hailed the xx as " masters of restraint " . In his review for the Chicago Tribune , Greg Kot felt that the album " functions as a near @-@ perfect mood piece " and , " because there are so few elements in each song , " each sound " makes a bigger impact . " Neil McComick of The Daily Telegraph praised Jamie xx for " somehow widening and deepening the sound without intruding " , while Puja Patel of Spin magazine credited him for " both stretching and magnifying the gritty beauty of his vocalists " . Simon Price gave Coexist five stars in his review for The Independent and found their take on the duet concept highly engaging and emotional . In his review for MSN Music , Robert Christgau complimented their preoccupation with " young love " and stated , " these scrupulously abstract verses capture its obsessive doubts and fragile exaltations with delicacy and tenderness . " Michael Alan Goldberg of The Village Voice called the album " gorgeous " and said that the music is like a " haiku instead of sonnet ; Hemingway rather than Fitzgerald , with meaning and emotion lurking beneath the surface . "
In a less enthusiastic review for The New York Times , Jon Caramanica said that Coexist suffers from a difficult second half on what is otherwise " as insular and micro as ambitious pop music can be ... a wonderful experiment in the power of absence . " Kevin Liedel from Slant Magazine was more critical and called it " a collection of richly crafted but idling songs in desperate need of some muscle . " Arnold Pan from PopMatters found it monotonous and " an exercise in delayed gratification . " Randall Roberts of the Los Angeles Times panned the band 's lyrics as " one @-@ dimensional planes floating through the group 's oft @-@ glorious 3 @-@ D spaces . " Pitchfork Media 's Mark Richardson felt that it is occasionally " a little rickety " and remarked that , " if generally successful on its own terms , Coexist also serves to remind us why exactly the debut was so brilliant . "
Several critics and publications ranked Coexist as one of 2012 's best albums in their year @-@ end , top @-@ ten lists , including Kitty Empire of The Observer , The Austin Chronicle , Les Inrockuptibles , State magazine , and The Guardian , whose staff voted it eighth . It was named the 14th best album of the year by both NME magazine and Robert Christgau in his list for The Barnes & Noble Review . However , the magazine XLR8R ranked the album number seven on their list of the most overrated releases of the year , feeling that the trio 's dark and minimal sound on the record was not as exciting as on their debut LP .
= = Track listing = =
All lyrics written by Romy Madley Croft and Oliver Sim , except where noted . All music composed by Croft , Sim and Jamie Smith .
" Chained " contains a sample of " Lilies of the Nile " as performed by The Crusaders .
= = Personnel = =
Credits are adapted from the album 's liner notes .
The xx
Romy Madley Croft – guitar , vocals , keyboards ( track 2 ) ; art direction
Oliver Sim – bass , vocals , synthesiser ( track 3 )
Jamie xx – beats , engineering , mixing , MPC , production , piano ( tracks 3 , 10 ) ; organ ( tracks 4 , 5 ) ; steelpans ( track 5 )
The xx – design
Additional personnel
Sarah Chapman – strings ( track 8 )
Charlotte Eksteen – strings ( track 8 )
David Evans – photography
Phil Lee – art direction , design
Rodaidh McDonald – mixing
Mandy Parnell – mastering
Ivo Stankov – strings ( track 8 )
James Underwood – strings ( track 8 )
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
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= Ajax 5 – 1 Liverpool ( 1966 ) =
Ajax 5 – 1 Liverpool was a football match between Ajax and Liverpool on 7 December 1966 at the Olympic Stadium in Amsterdam , Netherlands . It was the first leg of a second round tie in the 1966 – 67 European Cup . The match was given the Dutch title " De Mistwedstrijd " ( Dutch pronunciation : [ də mɪst ˈʋɛt.strɛi ̯ t ] ; " The Fog Match " ) as it was played in dense fog .
Ajax were competing in the European Cup for the third time , they had qualified as winners of the 1965 – 66 Eredivisie . They were drawn against Turkish team Beşiktaş in the first round , who they beat 4 – 1 over two @-@ legs . This was Liverpool 's second appearance in the European Cup , they had reached the semi @-@ finals during the 1964 – 65 season losing to eventual winners Internazionale in the semi @-@ finals . Their opponents in the first round were Petrolul Ploiești of Romania , whom they beat 2 – 0 in a play @-@ off match after the two @-@ leg tie resulted in a 3 – 3 scoreline .
Watched by a crowd of 55 @,@ 722 , Ajax took the lead in the third minute when Cees de Wolf scored . They extended their lead in the 17th minute courtesy of a Johan Cruyff goal . Two more goals scored by forward Klaas Nuninga meant Ajax had a 4 – 0 lead at half @-@ time . Liverpool responded late in the game when defender Chris Lawler scored in the 89th minute ; however , Ajax scored a minute later through Henk Groot to win the match 5 – 1 . The spectators could not really see much of the match due to the fog 's density and at times could only tell by the celebration of the team when a goal was scored .
A 2 – 2 draw in the second leg meant that Ajax progressed to the quarter @-@ finals courtesy of a 7 – 3 aggregate victory . They would lose to Czech side Dukla Prague 3 – 2 over two legs . The match marked the emergence of Ajax in European football , two seasons later they reached the final , but lost 4 – 1 to Milan . They would go on to win the European Cup three consecutive times in the early 1970s . The match represents Liverpool 's record defeat in European competition .
= = Background = =
Both teams had qualified for the European Cup by winning their respective national league championships . Ajax won the 1965 – 66 Eredivisie , finishing seven points ahead of second @-@ placed Feyenoord . Liverpool qualified by winning the 1965 – 66 Football League First Division , six points ahead of second @-@ placed Leeds United .
Ajax faced Turkish team Beşiktaş in the first round of the European Cup . They won the first leg 2 – 0 at the Olympic Stadium , courtesy of goals from Piet Keizer and Bennie Muller . The second leg in Turkey finished 2 – 1 to Ajax , with goals from Keizer and Sjaak Swart . Ajax won the tie 4 – 1 on aggregate to progress to the second round . Liverpool were drawn against Romanian team Petrolul Ploiești in the first round , and won the first leg at their home ground Anfield , courtesy of goals from Ian St. John and Ian Callaghan . Petrolul Ploiești won the second leg 3 – 1 in Romania to level the tie at 3 – 3 after the two matches . The tie would be decided by a play @-@ off match , which Liverpool 2 – 0 to progress to the second round .
Ajax had little success in European competition prior to their meeting with Liverpool . They had qualified for the European Cup Winners ' Cup twice during the 1960 – 61 and 1961 – 62 seasons , but did not progress past the first round either time . Liverpool had only participated in European competition during the previous two season , but they had more success than Ajax . Their first season of competition in 1964 – 65 they reached the semi @-@ finals of the European Cup , losing to eventual winners Internazionale . The following season they reached the final of the European Cup Winners ' Cup , however , they lost 2 – 1 against German team Borussia Dortmund .
Liverpool were among the favourites to win the competition while Ajax were virtually unknown outside of the Netherlands . Liverpool manager Bill Shankly had made a scouting trip to watch Ajax before the match and witnessing them lose to lowly opposition returned confident Liverpool would progress . A few of Liverpool 's players , including striker Roger Hunt , were part of England 's victorious World Cup campaign in 1966 . Ajax were coming out of a poor period , after they had finished in 13th place in the 1964 – 65 Eredivisie , while the Netherlands national team had yet to make an impression on the international stage . The board of Ajax decided to hire Rinus Michels . He changed the team 's formation to a 4 – 2 – 4 , with an emphasis on passing and possession of the ball . The team showed improvement , winning the Eredivisie in his first season in charge .
= = Match = =
Ajax normally played their home matches at the De Meer Stadion . However , as demand for tickets to watch the match was high , it was switched to the higher @-@ capacity Olympic Stadium . Amsterdam suffered from heavy fog in the 24 hours before the match was due to start , and with the fog not abating before kick @-@ off , it was debated whether to go ahead with the match . One option was to postpone the match , which Liverpool manager Bill Shankly favoured . He was less keen on the match being replayed the next day as Liverpool were scheduled to face Manchester United in the next few days . The referee Antonio Sbardella decided to go ahead with the match , despite visibility reportedly being down to 50 yards ( 46 m ) .
= = = First half = = =
Ajax opened the scoring in the third minute when Cees de Wolf , who was making his debut for Ajax , scored . A throw @-@ in by Cruyff was headed into the air , Liverpool goalkeeper Tommy Lawrence came to collect the ball . Realising he could not reach it , he moved back towards his goal , but de Wolf outjumped defender Chris Lawler to head the ball into the Liverpool goal . The conditions were so poor , that the crowd celebrated in stages . Those closest to the goal celebrated immediately , while those at the other end of the stadium reacted to these celebrations . Liverpool striker Hunt had a chance to score in the 12th minute , but his shot was saved by Ajax goalkeeper Gerrit Bals . Following the goal Ajax continued to attack , midfielder Sjaak Swart ran past three Liverpool players before passing the ball to Klaas Nuninga , whose shot was saved by Liverpool goalkeeper Lawrence . However , Lawrence dropped the ball near Johan Cruyff , who scored to give Ajax a 2 – 0 lead .
The conditions were so bad that when Liverpool coach Bob Paisley came onto the pitch to attend to an injured player , Shankly entered as well . He managed to give instructions to his players before he was spotted by the officials and ordered off the field . Ajax player Wim Suurbier was carried off with a damaged ankle midway through the first half . He returned to the pitch , but suffered from a limp . Ajax extended their lead in the 39th minute . Liverpool defender Tommy Smith fouled Cruyff outside the Liverpool penalty area . The subsequent free @-@ kick taken by Frits Soetekouw was not cleared by the Liverpool defence and the ball rebounded to Nuninga , who scored to give Ajax a 3 – 0 lead . The conditions did not only affect the Liverpool players . Towards the end of the first half , the referee blew his whistle . Swart , assuming that he had signalled half @-@ time began to walk off the pitch , was stopped by a steward who pointed out that the match was still ongoing . He re @-@ entered the pitch , received the ball and crossed the ball for Nuninga , who scored to make it 4 – 0 .
= = = Second half = = =
Liverpool came out in the second half determined to atone for their first @-@ half performance . They forced Ajax into their own half of the pitch for majority of the second half but were unable to make their advantage count . Smith had a chance to score 25 yards ( 23 m ) from the Ajax goal , but his shot was saved by Bals . Defender Ron Yeats also had achance to score in the 61st minute , but his header was stopped by Bals . A minute later Smith was cautioned for a foul on Nuninga and Ajax 's Bennie Muller was also booked in the 70th minute .
Liverpool had another chance to score in the 73rd minute , but Geoff Strong 's shot following a corner went over the crossbar . Ajax extended their lead towards the end of the half when they counter @-@ attacked and scored courtesy of Groot . Liverpool managed to score in the last minute through Lawler , but they were unable to score any further goals and lost the match 5 – 1 .
= = = Details = = =
= = Aftermath = =
Following the first leg , Shankly was adamant that Liverpool would still progress : " This tie is by no means over yet . We will win easily . We will smash in at least seven goals . This was ridiculous . Ajax played defensive football on their own ground . We never play well against defensive teams . " Such was the shock at the result that Shankly 's claim was taken seriously . The defeat convinced Shankly that adopting Ajax 's patient , passing style was the key to success in Europe . The defeat is still Liverpool 's record defeat in European competition . Michels was worried that Liverpool might adopt aggressive tactics in the second leg : " Our fear is that Liverpool may try to eliminate us through rough play . They showed some of this rough play in the first leg and they will play even harder in front of their own supporters " . He also admitted that his side had some luck in the first leg but was adamant they would progress : " There are not many great players in this Liverpool side , but they are all fighters . I agree we had some luck in Amsterdam , but I am sure we will go through . "
Liverpool had early chances in the second leg with midfielder Peter Thompson and defender Geoff Strong hitting the frame of the goal . The first half finished goalless , but Ajax opened the scoring in the 49th minute when Cruyff scored . Liverpool striker Hunt equalised a few minutes later , but Liverpool conceded again when Cruyff scored a second goal . Hunt scored towards the end of the match , but they were unable to beat Ajax and the match finished 2 – 2 . They progressed to the quarter @-@ finals courtesy of a 7 – 3 aggregate victory . During the early stages of the match , there was a crush on the Spion Kop . As fans struggled to see the match due to a low @-@ hanging haze , people at the back pressed forward for a better view . This resulted in supporters at the front being swept off their feet and spilling onto the pitch . Over 200 people were injured , with 31 taken to hospital .
Michels stated that the victory was proof that Ajax could match teams in Europe : " The Liverpool game was for me an important moment to be acknowledged and recognised internationally . Not only the first game , because that could have been an accident – with the weather conditions etc . No , the performance we achieved in Liverpool under bad circumstances – I 've never seen such a hectic situation . We drew that game 2 – 2 and never really had problems . For me , it was the proof that we were at the international level . "
Ajax were drawn against Dukla Prague of Czechoslovakia in the quarter @-@ finals . The first leg finished 1 – 1 in the Netherlands , but Ajax lost the second leg 2 – 1 at the Stadion Juliska in Prague . Thus , they lost the tie 3 – 2 on aggregate . Following the match , Michels decided to reshape his team . He moved defender Tommy Pronk into midfield and sold his captain Frits Soetekouw , who had scored an own goal in the second leg , to rivals PSV Eindhoven , signing Velibor Vasović from Partizan Belgrade as his replacement . The changes had the desired effect as Ajax won the Eredivisie four times between 1966 and 1970 . They also reached the final of the 1968 – 69 European Cup , but lost 4 – 1 to Italian team Milan . The team 's style , known as Total Football , would come to fruition in the 1970s as Ajax won three consecutive European Cups from 1971 to 1973 . Total Football was also implemented by the Netherlands national football team , who reached the final of the FIFA World Cup in 1974 and 1978 , losing on both occasions .
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= Hey You ! =
" Hey You ! " is a song recorded by American rock band No Doubt . It was released as the seventh and final single from their third studio album Tragic Kingdom ( 1995 ) . The single was released as a CD single in the Netherlands on February 23 , 1998 . It is the final single to feature content from original keyboardist Eric Stefani , who left the group in 1995 due to creative issues .
Musically , it incorporates several genres , including ska punk and psychedelic rock , with its lyrics portraying " a cynical view of marriage " . The track received mixed to positive reviews from music critics , with one calling it a " filler " and others naming it a " standout track " . Since the song was only released in the Netherlands , it only charted there , peaking at number fifty @-@ one on the Single Top 100 . A music video using footage from a live performance was directed by Sophie Muller and released alongside the CD single .
= = Background and release = =
Studio sessions for " Hey You ! " took place during the production process of its parent album , Tragic Kingdom ( 1995 ) . Unlike their previous two studio albums , Tragic Kingdom 's production was handled by outsider Matthew Wilder , to which member Eric Stefani disliked . Although seven of the album 's fourteen tracks were written by Eric , he left the band shortly before its release , leaving the rest of the band to finish the songs .
The CD single was released exclusively in the Netherlands and included two tracks : the album version of " Hey You ! " , plus a live version that was recorded on June 1 , 1997 , at The Pond in Anaheim , California . The artwork of the release is the same used for the fifth single from Tragic Kingdom , " Happy Now ? " .
= = Composition and promotion = =
" Hey You ! " was written by Gwen Stefani and Kanal , with its production being handled by Matthew Wilder . The single is produced in D major , with Stefani 's vocals ranging from A3 – C5 , layered with the use of a piano and guitars . It is a psychedelic rock and alternative rock track , with a genre similar to No Doubt 's signature ska punk style . Its lyrics detail a " cynical " female protagonist hoping to get married . Kenneth Partridge , who wrote for both Billboard and The A.V. Club , stated that it has " a neo @-@ psychedelic ' 60s vibe that wouldn 't have sounded out of place on a Bangles record " . He went on to discuss the lyrics as " a jaded Gwen gives some tough love to a girl dreaming of a white wedding " in the lines " You 're just like my Ken and Barbie doll / Your name will never change " . Mike Boehm , writing for the Los Angeles Times , stated that the " canny arangement of Stefani 's multitracked voice provide a poppy lift " while Dumont , Kanal , and Young " keep slickness at bay " .
An accompanying music video for " Hey You ! " was never created , but a video using footage from Live in the Tragic Kingdom ( 1997 ) was released alongside the CD single . In the entirety of the video and performance , Stefani " dances and bounces and sings " .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
" Hey You ! " received mixed to positive reviews upon its release . A critic from The Diamondback enjoyed the single , calling it " dreamy " , stating that " songs such as these showcase the band 's versatility and Stefani 's sensuality as a performer " . Mike Boehm of the Los Angeles Times cited the song as an " example of the band 's improved craft " and claimed that it " help [ s ] carry the album 's thematic current " of " enthusiastic music " . Kenneth Partridge of Billboard panned the track , calling it " a candidate for most skippable " on the album .
= = = Commercial performance = = =
Since " Hey You ! " was only released in the Netherlands , it was only eligible to chart there . On March 21 , 1998 , the single debuted at number eighty on the Single Top 100 chart , before peaking at number fifty @-@ one . For the week ending May 2 , 1998 , the song dropped off from its previous position of sixty @-@ five , lasting a total of six weeks on the chart .
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits and personnel adapted from the Tragic Kingdom liner notes .
Personnel
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
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= Delaware Route 8 =
Delaware Route 8 ( DE 8 ) is a state highway located in Kent County in the U.S. state of Delaware . It runs from Maryland Route 454 ( MD 454 ) at the Maryland border in Marydel east to an intersection with DE 9 north of Little Creek . The route passes through rural areas of western Kent County before heading through Delaware 's capital , Dover , on Forrest Avenue and Division Street . East of Dover , the road passes through more rural areas . DE 8 intersects DE 44 in Pearsons Corner , DE 15 , U.S. Route 13 Alternate ( US 13 Alt . ) , US 13 in Dover , and DE 1 at a partial interchange east of Dover . The road was built as a state highway west of Dover by 1924 and east of Dover by 1931 . The DE 8 designation was given to the road by 1936 .
= = Route description = =
DE 8 begins at the Maryland border in Marydel , where the road continues into Marydel , Maryland as MD 454 . From the state line , the route heads southeast on two @-@ lane undivided Halltown Road , passing a few homes and businesses . The road leaves Marydel and curves northeast through a mix of farmland and woodland with some homes . In Pearsons Corner , DE 8 intersects the eastern terminus of DE 44 , where the name changes to Forrest Avenue and it turns to the east . This area of Kent County is home to many Amish families and businesses .
DE 8 crosses into Dover , where it passes to the north of Dover High School before it widens from a two @-@ lane country road to a five @-@ lane road with a center left @-@ turn lane . The road runs past homes and businesses in the western part of Dover , intersecting DE 15 . The name changes to Forest Street and the route continues east onto Division Street at the point Forest Street splits to the southeast to lead to Loockerman Street and downtown Dover , narrowing to a two @-@ lane road . DE 8 crosses Norfolk Southern 's Delmarva Secondary railroad line and continues past a mix of homes and businesses to the north of downtown area . The road crosses US 13 Alt. and passes to the south of Wesley College before intersecting State Street . The road crosses the St. Jones River and heads between industrial areas to the north and residential neighborhoods to the south .
DE 8 intersects US 13 in a commercial area and the name changes to North Little Creek Road as it continues through the residential eastern part of Dover . The route heads through less dense areas of homes with some farmland and at the eastern edge of the city , it features a partial interchange with the DE 1 freeway , providing access to and from the north . After this interchange , the road leaves Dover and continues east through open agricultural areas . DE 8 reaches its eastern terminus at an intersection with DE 9 just north of the town of Little Creek .
The section of the route between DE 1 east of Dover and DE 9 north of Little Creek is designated as a spur of the Delaware 's Bayshore Byway , a Delaware Byway . DE 8 has an annual average daily traffic count ranging from a high of 19 @,@ 408 vehicles at the intersection with Forest Street to a low of 894 vehicles at the Little Creek border near the eastern terminus . The portion of DE 8 between DE 44 and DE 15 is part of the National Highway System .
= = History = =
By 1920 , what is now DE 8 existed as an unimproved county road . The route was completed as a state highway between the Maryland border in Marydel and Dover by 1924 . By 1925 , the road was proposed as a state highway between Dover and Little Creek . This state highway was completed by 1931 . DE 8 was assigned to its current alignment between the Maryland border in Marydel and DE 9 north of Little Creek by 1936 .
On September 5 , 2002 , a partial interchange opened at the DE 1 toll road in Dover , utilizing existing emergency vehicle ramps . This interchange was included in the initial plans for the highway but was dropped due to low traffic volumes . As part of building the interchange , DelDOT purchased development rights to adjacent land parcels in order to prevent additional development in the area of the interchange . In 2012 , the Interdenominational Ministerial Alliance pushed for the city of Dover to rename the Division Street portion of DE 8 to Martin Luther King , Jr . Boulevard after civil rights leader Martin Luther King , Jr . However , local merchants opposed the renaming . The Dover city council instead voted to rename Court Street , Duke of York Street , and William Penn Street near Delaware Legislative Hall to Martin Luther King , Jr . Boulevard .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Kent County .
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= Spacewar ( video game ) =
Spacewar ( stylized Spacewar ! ) is a space combat video game developed in 1962 as one of the first games created in the early history of video games . It was initially designed by Steve Russell , in collaboration with Martin Graetz and Wayne Wiitanen , and programmed by Russell with assistance from others including Bob Saunders and Steve Piner for the newly installed Digital Equipment Corporation PDP @-@ 1 minicomputer at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology . After its initial creation , Spacewar was expanded further by other students and employees of universities in the area , including Dan Edwards and Peter Samson . It was also spread to many of the few dozen , primarily academic , installations of the PDP @-@ 1 computer , making Spacewar the first known video game to be played at multiple computer installations .
The monochrome game features two spaceships , " the needle " and " the wedge " , engaged in a dogfight while maneuvering in the gravity well of a star . Both ships are controlled by human players . Each ship has limited fuel for maneuvering and a limited number of torpedoes , and the ships follow Newtonian physics , remaining in motion even when the player is not accelerating . Ships are destroyed when hit with a torpedo or colliding with the star , though flying near the star can provide a gravity assist to the player . At any time , the player can engage a hyperspace feature to move to a new , random location on the screen , though each use has an increasing chance of destroying the ship instead . The game was initially controlled with switches on the PDP @-@ 1 , though Alan Kotok and Bob Saunders built an early gamepad to reduce the difficulty and awkwardness of controlling the game .
Spacewar was extremely popular in the small programming community in the 1960s and was widely ported to other computer systems at the time . It has also been recreated in more modern programming languages for PDP @-@ 1 emulators . It directly inspired many other electronic games , such as the first commercial arcade games Galaxy Game and Computer Space ( 1971 ) , and later games such as Asteroids ( 1979 ) . In 2007 , Spacewar was named to a list of the ten most important video games of all time , which formed the start of the game canon at the Library of Congress .
= = Background = =
During the 1950s , various computer games were created in the context of academic computer and programming research and for demonstrations of computing power , especially after the introduction later in the decade of smaller and faster computers on which programs could be created and run in real time as opposed to being executed in batches . A few programs , however , while used to showcase the power of the computer they ran on were also intended as entertainment products ; these were generally created by undergraduate and graduate students and university employees , such as at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology ( MIT ) where they were allowed on occasion to develop programs for the TX @-@ 0 experimental computer . These interactive graphical games were created by a community of programmers , many of them students and university employees affiliated with the Tech Model Railroad Club ( TMRC ) led by Alan Kotok , Peter Samson , and Bob Saunders . The games included Tic @-@ Tac @-@ Toe , which used a light pen to play a simple game of noughts and crosses against the computer , and Mouse in the Maze , which used a light pen to set up a maze of walls for a virtual mouse to traverse .
In the fall of 1961 , a Digital Equipment Corporation ( DEC ) PDP @-@ 1 minicomputer was installed in the " kludge room " of the MIT Electrical Engineering Department to complement the older TX @-@ 0 , and even before its arrival a group of students and university employees had been brainstorming ideas for programs that would demonstrate the new computer 's capabilities in a compelling way . Three of them — Steve Russell , then an employee at Harvard University and a former research assistant at MIT ; Martin Graetz , a research assistant and former student at MIT ; and Wayne Wiitanen , a research assistant at Harvard and former employee and student at MIT — referring to their collaboration as the " Hingham Institute " as Graetz and Wiitanen were living in a tenement building on Hingham Street in Cambridge , Massachusetts , came up with the idea for Spacewar . " We had this brand new PDP @-@ 1 " , Steve Russell told Rolling Stone in a 1972 interview . " Somebody had built some little pattern @-@ generating programs which made interesting patterns like a kaleidoscope . Not a very good demonstration . Here was this display that could do all sorts of good things ! So we started talking about it , figuring what would be interesting displays . We decided that probably you could make a two @-@ dimensional maneuvering sort of thing , and decided that naturally the obvious thing to do was spaceships . "
= = Gameplay = =
The gameplay of Spacewar involves two monochrome spaceships called " the needle " and " the wedge " , each controlled by a player , attempting to shoot one another while maneuvering on a two @-@ dimensional plane in the gravity well of a star , set against the backdrop of a starfield . The ships fire torpedoes , which are not affected by the gravitational pull of the star . The ships have a limited number of torpedoes and a limited supply of fuel , which is used when the player fires his thrusters . Torpedoes are fired one at a time by flipping a toggle switch on the computer or pressing a button on the control pad , and there is a cooldown period between launches . The ships follow Newtonian physics , remaining in motion even when the player is not accelerating , though the ships can rotate at a constant rate without inertia .
Each player controls one of the ships and must attempt to shoot down the other ship while avoiding a collision with the star . Flying near the star can provide a gravity assist to the player at the risk of misjudging the trajectory and falling into the star . If a ship moves past one edge of the screen , it reappears on the other side in a wraparound effect . A hyperspace feature , or " panic button " , can be used as a last @-@ ditch means to evade enemy torpedoes by moving the player 's ship to another location on the screen after disappearing for a few seconds , but the reentry from hyperspace occurs at a random location , and there is an increasing probability of the ship exploding with each use .
Player controls include clockwise and counterclockwise rotation , forward thrust , firing torpedoes , and hyperspace . Initially these were controlled using the front @-@ panel test switches on the PDP @-@ 1 minicomputer , with four switches for each player , but these proved to be awkward to use and wore out quickly under normal gameplay , as well as causing players to accidentally flip the computer 's control and power switches . The location of the switches also left one player off to one side of the CRT display due to the limited space in front of the computer , which left them at a disadvantage . To alleviate these problems , Kotok and Saunders created a detached control device , essentially an early gamepad . The gamepad had a switch for turning left or right , another for forward thrust or hyperspace , and a torpedo launch button . The button was silent , so that the opposing player would not have a warning that the player was attempting to fire a torpedo during a cooldown period .
= = Development = =
In the fall of 1961 while brainstorming ideas for a program for the PDP @-@ 1 , Russell had just finished reading the Lensman series by E. E. " Doc " Smith and thought the stories would make a good basis for the program . " His heroes had a strong tendency to get pursued by the villain across the galaxy and have to invent their way out of their problem while they were being pursued . That sort of action was the thing that suggested Spacewar . He had some very glowing descriptions of spaceship encounters and space fleet maneuvers . " Other influences cited by fellow programmer Martin Graetz include E.E. Smith 's Skylark novels and Japanese pulp fiction tokusatsu movies .
For the first few months after its installation , the PDP @-@ 1 programming community at MIT focused on simpler programs to work out how to create software for the computer . The community had heard of the Spacewar concept , however , and understood that Russell would spearhead the development of it . When members of the community began to feel the time was right to start work on the game , Russell , nicknamed " Slug " because of his tendency to procrastinate , began providing various excuses as to why he could not start programming the game . One of these was the lack of a trigonometric function routine needed to calculate the trajectories of the spacecraft . This prompted Alan Kotok of TMRC to call DEC , who informed him that they had such a routine already written . Kotok drove to DEC to pick up a tape containing the code , slammed it down in front of Russell , and asked what other excuses he had . Russell , later explaining that " I looked around and I didn 't find an excuse , so I had to settle down and do some figuring , " started writing the code in December 1961 . The game was developed to meet three precepts Russell , Graetz , and Wiitanen had developed for creating a program that functioned equally well as an entertainment experience for the players and as a demonstration for spectators : to use as much of the computer 's resources as possible , to be consistently interesting and therefore have every run be different , and to be entertaining and therefore a game . It took Russell , with assistance from the other programmers — including Bob Saunders and Steve Piner , but not including Wiitanen , who had been called up by the United States Army Reserve — about 200 man @-@ hours to write the first version of Spacewar , around six weeks to develop the basic game .
Russell had a program with a movable dot by January 1962 , and an early operational game with rotatable spaceships by February . The two spaceships were designed to evoke the curvy spaceship from Buck Rogers stories and the PGM @-@ 11 Redstone rocket . That early version also contained a randomly generated background starfield , initially added by Russell because a blank background made it difficult to tell the relative motion of the two spaceships at slow speeds . The programming community in the area , including the Hingham Institute and the TMRC , had developed what was later termed the " hacker ethic " , whereby all programs were freely shared and modified by other programmers in a collaborative environment without concern for ownership or copyright , which led to a group effort to elaborate on Russell 's initial Spacewar game . Consequently , since the inaccuracy and lack of realism in the starfield annoyed TMRC member Peter Samson , he wrote a program based on real star charts that scrolled slowly through the night sky , including every star in a band between 22 @.@ 5 ° N and 22 @.@ 5 ° S down to the fifth magnitude , displayed at their relative brightness . The program was called " Expensive Planetarium " — referring to the high price of the PDP @-@ 1 computer compared to an analog planetarium , as part of the series of " expensive " programs like Expensive Typewriter — and was quickly incorporated into the game in March by Russell , who served as the collator of the primary version of the game .
The initial version of the game also did not include the central star gravity well or the hyperspace feature ; they were written by MIT graduate student and TMRC member Dan Edwards and Graetz respectively to add elements of strategy to what initially was a shooter game of pure reflexes . The initial version of the hyperspace function was limited to three jumps , but carried no risk save possibly re @-@ entering the game in a dangerous position ; later versions removed the limit but added the increasing risk of destroying the ship instead of moving it . Additionally during this development period , Kotok and Saunders created the gamepads for the game . The game was a multiplayer @-@ only game because the computer had no resources left over to handle controlling the other ship . Similarly , other proposed additions to the game such as a more refined explosion display upon the destruction of a spaceship and having the torpedoes also be affected by gravity had to be abandoned as there were not enough computer resources to handle them while smoothly running the game . With the added features and changes , Spacewar was essentially complete by late April 1962 , and Russell and the other programmers shifted focus from developing the game to preparing to show it off to others such as at the MIT Science Open House in May . The group added a time limit , as well as a larger , second screen for viewers at the demonstration , and that same month Graetz presented a paper about the game , " SPACEWAR ! Real @-@ Time Capability of the PDP @-@ 1 " , at the first meeting of the Digital Equipment Computer Users ' Society . The demonstration was a success , and the game proved very popular at MIT ; the laboratory that hosted the PDP @-@ 1 soon banned play except during lunch and after working hours .
Beginning in the summer of 1962 and continuing over the next few years , members of the PDP @-@ 1 programming community at MIT , including Russell and the other Hingham Institute members , began to spread out to other schools and employers such as Stanford University and DEC , and as they did they spread the game to other universities and institutions with a PDP @-@ 1 computer . As a result , Spacewar was perhaps the first video game to be available outside a single research institute . Over the next decade , programmers at these other institutions began coding their own variants , including features such as allowing more ships and players at once , replacing the hyperspace feature with a cloaking device , space mines , and even a first @-@ person perspective version played on two screens that simulates each pilot 's view out of the cockpit . Some of these Spacewar installations also replicated Kotok and Saunders ' gamepad . According to a second @-@ hand account heard by Russell while working at DEC , Spacewar was reportedly used as a smoke test by DEC technicians on new PDP @-@ 1 systems before shipping because it was the only available program that exercised every aspect of the hardware . Although the game was widespread for the era , it was still very limited in its direct reach : the PDP @-@ 1 was priced at US $ 120 @,@ 000 and only 55 were ever sold , most without a monitor and many of the remainder to secure military locations or research labs with no free computer time , which prevented the original Spacewar from reaching beyond a narrow , academic audience .
= = Legacy = =
Spacewar was extremely popular in the small programming community in the 1960s and was widely recreated on other minicomputer and mainframe computers of the time before migrating to early microcomputer systems in the 1970s . Early computer scientist Alan Kay noted in 1972 that " the game of Spacewar blossoms spontaneously wherever there is a graphics display connected to a computer , " and Graetz recalled in 1981 that as the game initially spread it could be found on " just about any research computer that had a programmable CRT " . The majority of this spread took place several years after the initial development of the game ; while there are early anecdotes of players and game variants at a handful of locations , primarily near MIT and Stanford , it was only after 1967 that computers hooked up to monitors or terminals capable of playing Spacewar began to proliferate , allowing the game began to reach a wider audience and influence later video game designers — by 1971 , it is estimated that there were over 1000 computers with monitors , rather than a few dozen . It is around this time that the majority of the game variants were created for various computer systems , such as later PDP systems , and in 1972 the game was well @-@ known enough in the programming community that Rolling Stone sponsored the " SpaceWar ! Olympics " , possibly the first video game tournament .
In the early 1970s , Spacewar migrated from large computer systems to a commercial setting as it formed the basis for the first two coin @-@ operated video games . While playing Spacewar at Stanford sometime between 1966 and 1969 , college student Hugh Tuck remarked that a coin @-@ operated version of the game would be very successful . While the high price of a minicomputer prevented such a game from being feasible then , in 1971 Tuck and Bill Pitts created a prototype coin @-@ operated computer game , Galaxy Game , with a US $ 20 @,@ 000 PDP @-@ 11 . Around the same time , a second prototype coin @-@ operated game based on Spacewar , Computer Space , was developed by Nolan Bushnell and Ted Dabney , which would become the first commercially @-@ sold arcade video game and the first widely @-@ available video game of any kind . Though Tuck felt that Computer Space was a poor imitation of Spacewar and his game a superior adaptation , many players believed both of the games to be upgraded variants of Spacewar .
Byte magazine published an assembly language version of Spacewar in 1977 that ran on the Altair 8800 and other Intel 8080 @-@ based microcomputers using an oscilloscope as the graphical display and a lookup table for orbits , as well as a three @-@ dimensional variant in 1979 written in Tiny BASIC . More modern recreations of the game for computers have been made as well . An emulated version of the original game , based on the original source code made publicly available by Martin Graetz and running in a JavaScript PDP @-@ 1 emulator , was made available to play on the internet in 2012 . The only working PDP @-@ 1s that are known to exist are kept in the Computer History Museum in Mountain View , California , where demonstrations of the machine are held , which include playing Spacewar .
In addition to Galaxy Game and Computer Space , numerous other games have been directly inspired by Spacewar . These include Orbitwar ( 1974 , PLATO network computers ) , Space Wars ( 1977 , arcade ) , and Space War ( 1978 , Atari 2600 ) . Additionally , in Asteroids ( 1979 ) , designer Ed Logg used elements from Spacewar , namely the hyperspace button and the shape of the player 's ship . Products as late as the 1990 computer game Star Control drew direct inspiration from Spacewar . Russell has been quoted as saying that the aspect of the game that he was most pleased with was the number of other programmers it inspired to write their own games without feeling restricted to using Russell 's own code or design .
On March 12 , 2007 , The New York Times reported that Spacewar was named to a list of the ten most important video games of all time , the so @-@ called game canon , which were proposed to be archived in the Library of Congress . The Library of Congress took up this video game preservation proposal , and began with the games from this list .
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= Victoria Cross ( Canada ) =
The Victoria Cross ( French : Croix de Victoria ) , created in 1993 , is a military decoration and the highest award within the Canadian honours system , taking precedence over all other orders , decorations , and medals . It is awarded by either the Canadian monarch or his or her viceregal representative , the Governor General of Canada , to any member of the Canadian Forces or allies serving under or with Canadian military command for extraordinary valour and devotion to duty while facing hostile forces . Whereas in many other Commonwealth countries the relevant version of the Victoria Cross can only be awarded for actions against the enemy in a wartime setting , the Canadian government has a broader definition of the term enemy , and so the Victoria Cross can be awarded for action against armed mutineers , pirates , or other such hostile forces without war being officially declared . Recipients are entitled to use the post @-@ nominal letters VC ( for both English and French ) and also to receive an annuity of C $ 3 @,@ 000 . The decoration has not been awarded since its inception .
= = Origin = =
The original Victoria Cross was created via a Royal Warrant issued on 29 January 1856 with the royal sign @-@ manual of Queen Victoria , and was intended to recognize demonstrations of gallantry during the Crimean War , regardless of either a man 's social status or his record of service . Initially , the Victoria Cross could not be conferred on colonial troops , until Major Charles Heaphy received the medal for his actions under British command in 1864 , after which the Victoria Cross was made available to all " local forces under imperial command . " The cross could also not be awarded posthumously until the policy was reversed in 1902 .
Until 1972 , 81 members of the Canadian military ( including those from Newfoundland ) and 13 Canadians serving in British units had been awarded the Victoria Cross . After that date , however , the Canadian honours system was overhauled , and the Victoria Cross was eliminated from the official list of honours , instigating a decades @-@ long debate on whether or not to reinstate the decoration . The prime minister at the time , Pierre Trudeau , regularly dodged questions about the Victoria Cross , stating that " only Canadians should receive Canadian decorations . " It was his successor , Brian Mulroney , who set up in 1987 a committee to look into the creation of a Canadian Victoria Cross as part of a new series of military honours . Although the committee did not recommend the Victoria Cross — names such as the Canada Cross and the Cross of Military Valour were put forward — the creation of an Australian Victoria Cross in 1991 and pressure from The Globe and Mail and advocacy groups , such as the Monarchist League of Canada and the Royal Canadian Legion , forced the plans to be amended ; in 1991 , a private member 's bill received all @-@ party support in the House of Commons , following which the Victoria Cross , along with other Canadian military valour decorations , were on 31 December 1992 formally requested by Mulroney . The request was approved with the issue of letters patent by Queen Elizabeth II on 2 February of the following year , thereby ceasing Canadian dependence on the British honours system .
= = Criteria = =
The Victoria Cross is awarded for " the most conspicuous bravery , a daring or pre @-@ eminent act of valour or self @-@ sacrifice or extreme devotion to duty , in the presence of the enemy " at any point after 1 January 1993 , may be presented posthumously , and , like its British counterpart , may be revoked . The main distinction between the Victoria Cross and the Cross of Valour is the specific reference to " the enemy " , which the Canadian government has defined as a force hostile towards the Canadian Crown , including armed mutineers , rebels , rioters , and pirates , meaning that the Queen @-@ in @-@ Council does not officially have to declare war to give acknowledgement of the existence of a hostile force that fits the official description . Thus , a Canadian serving as part of a peacekeeping operation is eligible to be awarded the Victoria Cross if the service member fulfils the above criteria .
In the case of a gallant and daring act having been performed by a squadron , ship 's company , or detached body of individuals ( such as a security detachment ) in which all persons were deemed equally brave and deserving of the Victoria Cross , a ballot is to be drawn ; the commissioned and non @-@ commissioned officers each select one of their own , and the private soldiers or seamen select from amongst themselves two individuals .
= = Conferment = =
The process of awarding the Victoria Cross may take place in two ways : One is through a recommendation by the Decorations and Commendations Advisory Committee , which is a part of the Department of National Defence and has six members , one appointed by the governor general and the rest by the chief of the Defence Staff . Alternatively , a field commander can submit a name for consideration , though permission must be obtained from the governor general before the award can be presented . Recipients are entitled to receive an annuity from the federal Canadian Crown ; per the Canadian gallantry awards order issued in January 2005 , members of the Canadian Forces or those who joined the British forces while domiciled in Canada or Newfoundland prior to 31 March 1949 , after receiving the Victoria Cross , be granted C $ 3 @,@ 000 each year . Previously , Canadians who were posthumously awarded the British Victoria Cross were given special headstones at their burial sites in Commonwealth War Graves and other cemeteries .
To date , no Canadian Victoria Cross has been conferred ; Smokey Smith , who died in 2005 , was the last Canadian recipient of the then pan @-@ Commonwealth Victoria Cross , receiving it from King George VI in 1945 . Prior to Queen Elizabeth II 's re @-@ dedication of the Vimy Memorial on 7 April 2007 , there was speculation she would present a Canadian Victoria Cross to her then @-@ prime minister , Stephen Harper , offering it in recognition of the gallantry of the Unknown Soldier , as representative of all Canadian forces casualties of combat . The proposal was met with a mixed response from members of the Royal Canadian Legion and Canadian Forces , detractors feeling that the Unknown Soldier should not be elevated above his other fallen comrades . It had also been agreed at the time of the Unknown Soldier 's repatriation that no award or decoration would be bestowed on the remains . No decision was taken about the awarding of the Canadian Victoria Cross to the Canadian Unknown Soldier .
Near the end of Canada 's role in the Afghanistan War , concerns were raised about the stringency of the criteria that needed to be met to receive the Victoria Cross . Other countries with a Victoria Cross had awarded it numerous times since the end of the Second World War , some members of the Australian , New Zealand , and British armed forces receiving the decoration for their actions during the Afghan and Iraq wars of the 2000s . Members of the Canadian Armed Forces questioned why some actions by Canadians were deemed worthy only of the Star of Military Valour ; citations for individuals who 'd received the imperial Victoria Cross during the First World War were very similar to those for Canadians who were presented with the Star of Military Valour during the war in Afghanistan . This led then Chief of the Defence Staff , Walter Natynczyk , to create a special committee to review the matter . The Department of National Defence 's Directorate of Honours and Recognition explained concepts of war had changed since the mid @-@ 20th century and Canada had also developed a more elaborate honours system .
= = Appearance and display = =
The design of the Canadian medal is derived from that of the British original , which was the creation of Albert , Prince Consort , royal consort to Queen Victoria . Canada 's Victoria Cross is thus a cross pattée with straight arms , 38 millimetres ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) across in each direction , and made out of bronze coloured alloy , the obverse bearing a lion crowned and statant guardant , similar to that which forms the crest of the Royal Arms of Canada , standing upon a representation of St. Edward 's Crown , which itself rests above a semi @-@ circular scroll . On the reverse is a raised circle for engraving the date of the act of gallantry along with the name , rank , and unit of the recipient . The medal is suspended from a link forming the letter V attached to a bar adorned on the front with laurel leaves , and on the reverse with the name , rank , and unit of the medal 's recipient , all cast in the same metal as the medal , while the ribbon , also 38 mm wide , is solid crimson in colour . Cathy Bursey @-@ Sabourin , Fraser Herald of the Canadian Heraldic Authority , and Bruce W. Beatty , however , made certain modifications for the Canadian Victoria Cross , the most notable being the inclusion of Canadian flora as decoration and the alteration of the inscription on the scroll from FOR VALOUR to the Latin translation , PRO VALORE , so as to accommodate Canada 's two official languages . In 2008 , Citizens for a Canadian Republic 's leader , Tom Freda , publicly objected to the decoration 's name and appearance , with what he saw as its " objectionable colonial symbolism , " royal iconography , and a shape offensive to Muslims and Jews .
With Canada at war for the first time since its version of the Victoria Cross was created , preparations for a physical cast of the medal were initiated in 2006 , when a committee called the Victoria Cross Production Planning Group was formed under the leadership of the Chancellery of Honours at Rideau Hall . It originally consisted of representatives from the Department of National Defence , Veterans Affairs Canada , and the Office of the Secretary to the Governor General of Canada , and the group later expanded to include individuals from the Department of Canadian Heritage , Natural Resources Canada , and the Royal Canadian Mint , with assistance provided by the Queen and the British Ministry of Defence . Following their research and deliberations , the first Victoria Cross decoration was struck in 2007 , as confirmed by Deputy Herald Chancellor Emmanuelle Sajous , and the medal was officially released to the public on 16 May 2008 by Governor General Michaëlle Jean at Rideau Hall . It was one of 20 cast , each of which is composed of three groupings of metals : that of a Russian cannon captured at the siege of Sevastopol ( 1854 – 1855 ) , donated by Queen Elizabeth II ; a Confederation Medal , created to mark Canada 's confederation in 1867 ; and a selection of metals from each of Canada 's regions . These were cast , rather than struck , continuing the tradition started in the United Kingdom when it was found the metal alloy was too brittle for striking , and finished at the Royal Canadian Mint . The first two were sent to Buckingham Palace for addition to the British Royal Collection and other specimens were kept as part of the Crown Collection at Rideau Hall , as well as at the Department of National Defence , Library and Archives Canada , and the Canadian War Museum .
As the apex of the Canadian system of honours , the Victoria Cross is to be worn before all other Canadian decorations and insignia of orders , including the Order of Merit and the Order of Canada . It is worn as a medal , suspended from a medal bar on the left chest , unless protocol calls for a ribbon bar , which consists of a crimson ribbon with a miniature bronze Victoria Cross at its centre . Should an individual receive multiple awards of the Victoria Cross , additional bronze medal bars are added to the ribbon and further miniatures are placed evenly on the ribbon bar , reflecting the number of crosses the wearer has earned .
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= The Tale of Jemima Puddle @-@ Duck =
The Tale of Jemima Puddle @-@ Duck is a children 's book written and illustrated by Beatrix Potter . It was first published by Frederick Warne & Co. in July 1908 . Potter composed the book at Hill Top , a working farm in the Lake District she bought in 1905 . Following the purchase , her works began to focus on country and village life , incorporating large casts of animal characters and sinister villains . Jemima Puddle @-@ Duck was the first of her books set wholly at the farm with background illustrations based on the farm buildings and yard , and nearby locales .
Jemima is a domestic duck of the Aylesbury breed , whose eggs are routinely confiscated by the farmer 's wife because she believes Jemima a poor sitter . Jemima searches for a place away from the farm where she can hatch her eggs without human interference , and naively confides her woes to a suave fox who invites her to nest in a shed at his home . Jemima accepts his invitation , little realising her danger : the fox plans to kill and roast her . Kep , a collie on the farm , discovers Jemima 's whereabouts and rescues her just in time . Potter indicated the tale was a revision of " Little Red Riding Hood " with Jemima , the fox , and the dog parallels to the fairy tale 's heroine , wolf , and woodcutter . Jemima , Kep , the farmer 's wife and her two children were all modelled on real world individuals at Potter 's Hill Top farm .
The book was hugely popular . Spinoff merchandise included a soft Jemima doll in bonnet and shawl , a Jemima painting book in 1925 , and illustrated fabric placemats hand @-@ fashioned by Potter and distributed to friends . Critically , the book is considered one of Potter 's best . In 1971 , the tale became a segment in the Royal Ballet film , The Tales of Beatrix Potter , and , in 1993 , it was telecast as an episode on the animated BBC anthology series , The World of Peter Rabbit and Friends .
= = Plot = =
The tale begins in a farmyard which is home to a duck called Jemima Puddle @-@ duck . She wants to hatch her own eggs , but the farmer 's wife believes ducks make poor sitters and routinely confiscates their eggs to allow the hens to incubate them . Jemima tries to hide her eggs , but they are always found and carried away . She sets off along the road in poke bonnet and shawl to find a safe place away from the farm to lay her eggs .
At the top of a hill , she spies a distant wood , flies to it , and waddles about until she discovers an appropriate nesting place among the foxgloves . However , a charming gentleman with " black prick ears and sandy @-@ coloured whiskers " persuades her to nest in a shed at his home . Jemima is led to his " tumble @-@ down shed " ( which is curiously filled with feathers ) , and makes herself a nest with little ado .
Jemima lays her eggs , and the fox suggests a dinner party to mark the event . He asks her to collect the traditional herbs used in stuffing a duck , telling her the seasonings will be used for an omelette . Jemima sets about her errand , but the farm collie , Kep , meets her as she carries onions from the farm kitchen and asks her what she is doing and where she keeps going . She reveals her errand , Kep sees through the fox 's plan at once , and finds out from Jemima where the fox lives .
With the help of two fox @-@ hound puppies who are out at walk at the farm , Kep rescues Jemima and the " foxy @-@ whiskered gentleman " ( Mr. Tod ) is chased away and seen again in The Tale of Mr. Tod . However , the hungry fox @-@ hounds eat Jemima 's eggs . Jemima is escorted back to the farm in tears over her lost eggs , but , in time , lays more eggs and successfully hatches four ducklings .
= = Scholarly commentaries = =
The Tale of Jemima Puddle @-@ Duck is a tale of pursuit and prey . The theme runs through several of Potter 's tales : Mr. McGregor pursues Peter Rabbit , Simpkin lies in wait for the mice in the tailor 's shop , and the trout attempts to devour Jeremy Fisher . Potter was following the pattern of fairy tales by dwelling on the theme of pursuit and prey , and often pointed out that the tale of Jemima was a retelling of " Little Red Riding Hood " . Perrault 's tale ends with the death of the heroine , but Potter understood children will not tolerate tragedy . The prey in her books survive for better or worse ( Peter returns home for a dose of chamomile tea , for example ) and , though Jemima loses her eggs to her hungry rescuers , she lives to return to the farm to raise a brood of ducklings .
The tale shows Potter at her best in depicting the life of the farm and the village of Near Sawrey , but the tale becomes one of something more than just local color and interest . The archetypical tale upon which Jemima is based – the foolish and naive are rescued from destruction by the loyal and dependable – is transformed in Potter 's hands to one in which self @-@ preservation and shrewdness become admirable virtues . Graham Greene thought the sandy @-@ whiskered gentleman a character of ominous gloom and suggested Potter had suffered some sort of mental breakdown , but it is more likely she was simply coming to terms with life on a farm . Wild animals invade the precincts of the domesticated ones , and death is part of farming .
The victor in the tale is the farmer 's wife : she regains her errant duck and is rid of the predatory fox . Ostensibly , she confiscates Jemima 's eggs believing Jemima will abandon them , but the eggs are not confiscated for the well @-@ being of Jemima and her kin but for the well @-@ being of the farmer 's wife and her family : the eggs ( or the ducks hatched from them ) will end up on their dinner table . In this respect , the farmer 's wife is a predator like the fox , but the fox is condemned for his predation . Human values are at the top of the tale 's hierarchy . Potter argues for the well @-@ ordered home and the practicalities of farm life over the fantasy lives of animals . It was the modus vivendi Potter was to incorporate in her own life as she devoted more of her thoughts and hours to the business of farming and less to tales of fantasy animals .
Like many fairy tales , Jemima Puddle @-@ Duck belongs in a remote , but not @-@ too @-@ distant , past . Jemima 's shawl reflects the typical farm dress of the Lake District at the time of the tale 's composition , but the poke bonnet does not , and the fox 's long tail coat and exquisite manners also suggest another time . Jemima is a more interesting character when humanised with the clothing ; without it , she is just a farmyard duck . As Potter pointed out , the tale is a revision of a fairy tale and belongs in the indefinite period of " once upon a time " .
The story is one of Potter 's more ominous and is fraught with tension . Jemima is a headstrong innocent distracted by her overwhelming desire to nest , and thus unable to penetrate the fox 's designs and comprehend her dangerous situation . The tension rises in increments from the mysterious feather @-@ filled shed ( the place of slaughter ) , to the fox 's plan for an omelette ( of Jemima 's eggs ) , to the ultimate horror and crowning irony , Jemima 's errand to fetch the herbs that will be used to season herself .
The fox is the first male villain in Potter 's work , saving Samuel Whiskers in The Roly Poly Pudding , the companion piece to Jemima , and , like all villains in Potter , the " gentleman with sandy whiskers " presents a false social front that conceals his bestial nature . He dresses and behaves as a country gentleman of leisure , idling with a newspaper and living off the labor of others by luring their fowl to his feather @-@ filled shed . Potter had little tolerance for indolence and lack of industry , but , as a country woman , she knew foxes were clever and managed to escape more times than they were caught . From the first encounter between Jemima and the fox , the reader realises the fox is more clever than Jemima and is forced to extend him a grudging admiration .
= = Background = =
Helen Beatrix Potter was born on July 28 , 1866 to barrister Rupert William Potter and his wife Helen ( Leech ) Potter in London . She was educated by governesses and tutors , and passed a quiet childhood reading , painting , drawing , visiting museums and art exhibitions , and tending a nursery menagerie of small animals . Her interests in the natural world and country life were nurtured with holidays in Scotland , the Lake District , and Camfield Place , the Hertfordshire home of her paternal grandparents .
Potter 's adolescence was as quiet as her childhood . She grew into a spinsterish young woman whose parents groomed her to be a permanent resident and housekeeper in their home . She continued to paint and draw , and experienced her first professional artistic success in 1890 when she sold six designs of humanised animals to a greeting card publisher . She hoped to lead a useful life independent of her parents , and tentatively considered a career in mycology , but the all @-@ male scientific community regarded her as an amateur and she abandoned fungi .
Potter had maintained contact with her last governess Annie Carter Moore and had grown fond of her children . Through the 1890s , she sent illustrated story letters to the children . Mrs. Moore recognised the literary and artistic value of the letters and urged her former charge to publish . Potter liked the suggestion , and , in 1900 , revised a tale she had written for five @-@ year @-@ old Noel Moore in 1893 , and fashioned a dummy book of it in imitation of Helen Bannerman 's 1899 bestseller The Story of Little Black Sambo . Unable to find a buyer for the tale , she published it for family and friends at her own expense in December 1901 .
Frederick Warne & Co. had once rejected the tale but , eager to compete in the booming small format children 's book market , reconsidered and accepted the " bunny book " ( as the firm called it ) following the recommendation of their prominent children 's book artist L. Leslie Brooke . Potter agreed to colour her pen and ink illustrations , chose the then @-@ new Hentschel three @-@ colour process for reproducing her watercolours , and on October 2 , 1902 The Tale of Peter Rabbit was released .
Potter continued to publish with Warnes . Early in July 1905 she bought Hill Top , a working farm of 34 acres ( 14 ha ) at Sawrey in the Lake District with profits from her books and a small legacy from an aunt . On August 25 , 1905 Potter 's editor and fiancé , Norman Warne died suddenly and unexpectedly . Potter became deeply depressed and was ill for many weeks , but rallied to complete the last few tales she had planned and discussed with Warne .
= = Production = =
In 1900 Beatrix Potter revised a tale about a humanised rabbit she had written in 1893 , worked up a dummy book in imitation of the small format bestseller Little Black Sambo ( 1899 ) , and , after multiple rejections from London publishers , privately published her tale in December 1901 . Frederick Warne & Co. was eager to compete in the burgeoning and lucrative small format children 's book market , and accepted the " bunny book " ( as the firm called it ) after their prominent children 's book artist L. Leslie Brooke gave it his enthusiastic endorsement . Potter agreed to colour her pen and ink illustrations , chose the then @-@ new Hentschel three @-@ colour process for reproducing her watercolours , and in October 1902 The Tale of Peter Rabbit was released .
In the next few years , Potter published books similar in concept , style , or format to Peter Rabbit : The Tailor of Gloucester and The Tale of Squirrel Nutkin in 1903 , and the tales of Benjamin Bunny and Two Bad Mice in 1904 . In August 1905 , sales profits and a small legacy from an aunt enabled Potter to buy Hill Top , a working farm of 34 acres and 36 perches ( 13 @.@ 85 ha ) in the Lake District . In the years immediately following its purchase , she produced tales and illustrations inspired by the farm , its woodland surroundings , and nearby villages . Potter worked on sketches for Jemima Puddle @-@ Duck during the winter of 1907 while recuperating from respiratory infections . She accompanied her parents on a holiday to Sidmouth in April 1908 , and continued to work on Jemima Puddle @-@ Duck . Potter 's cousin Caroline Hutton Clark was at Hill Top during the composition of Jemima Puddle @-@ Duck and joined Potter as she searched the farmstead for a suitable place in which to situate Jemima 's nest for the illustrations . Kep was a real dog , and Mrs. Clark was given one of Kep 's sons . She later described the puppy as " the dearest and cleverest dog I ever had . "
Two versions of the opening paragraph were written . The slightly cynical , " What a gratifying thing it is in these days to meet with a female devoted to family life " was revised to read , " What a funny sight it is to see a brood of ducklings with a hen . " The tale is complicated with irony ( the feather @-@ filled shed and the herbs for roasting a duck ) and the co @-@ existence of two time sequences or two different points of view : Kep 's as he seeks the assistance of the fox @-@ hounds in rescuing Jemima , and the sandy @-@ whiskered gentleman 's as he waits nervously for Jemima to return with the herbs .
The " farmyard tale " was dedicated to Betsy and Ralph Cannon , the children of Potter 's farm manager , John Cannon . The children appear in one of the illustrations collecting Jemima 's eggs from the rhubarb patch , and their mother is depicted in the opening picture feeding the barnyard fowl . Jemima was based upon a real world duck at Hill Top Farm who evaded Mrs. Cannon and her children in their attempts to locate her eggs before she mismanaged their incubation . Mrs. Cannon believed ducks made poor sitters , and routinely confiscated the ducks ' eggs to allow the hens to incubate them . Potter may have taken inspiration from a drawing in her father 's 1853 sketchbook of a flying duck wearing a bonnet . Potter almost certainly chose the name " Jemima " in honour of Jemima Blackburn , an ornithological painter and illustrator whose Birds from Nature she had received as a gift on her tenth birthday and whom she met in 1891 .
The illustrations depict the new barn and outbuildings at Hill Top , the wrought @-@ iron gate Potter installed at the kitchen garden , the rhubarb patch , the entrance porch at the farmhouse , the exterior of the Tower Bank Arms in the village , and imagined aerial views of the countryside around Near Sawrey . In 1940 , Potter remarked upon the illustration of Jemima rushing downhill with her bonnet and shawl askew , " That is what I used to look like to the Sawrey people . I rushed about quacking industriously . "
The Tale of Jemima Puddle @-@ Duck was published in July 1908 after heated discussions with publisher Harold Warne about the dialogues and cover illustration . The book was an immediate success .
In later years , Ernest Aris would blatantly plagiarise not only the Peter Rabbit character in his The Treasure Seekers but Jemima in his Mrs. Beak Duck . Potter was restrained when alerted to the imitations : she praised his technical artistry but chastised him for a lack of originality . At the time , her eyesight was deteriorating and her days were heavily invested in operating her farm ; her restraint with Aris may be attributed to her desire to enlist him as a collaborator .
= = Similarities to " Little Red Riding Hood " = =
Potter indicated Jemima was a revision of " Little Red Riding Hood " , and the similarities between the two are numerous : Jemima and her eggs are substitutes for Red Riding Hood and her grandmother ; the farmer 's wife and Jemima 's sister @-@ in @-@ law Rebeccah are substitutes for Red Riding Hood 's mother ; the fox and the wolf both conceal their bestial natures beneath the polite behaviour of gentlemen , and the dogs are substitutes for the woodcutters . Both tales touch upon physical appetite , temptation , and foolish behaviour .
Though the tale has a happy ending , tearful Jemima is led back to the farm in public humiliation after losing her eggs to her hungry rescuers . She is allowed to hatch a brood on the farm , but it only produces four ducklings . Potter 's revision of " Little Red Riding Hood " more nearly resembles Perrault 's tragic tale than the happily @-@ ever @-@ after Grimm version where the heroine is rescued by woodcutters . The author knew her young audience would sympathise with the unhatched ducklings and would not tolerate having Jemima , a mother figure , suffer a bloody end in the fox 's shed . The loss of the eggs is sad for the reader , but Potter ended the tale as happily as possible – not only for her audience but for the sake of the real world children of her farm manager , Ralph and Betsy Cannon , to whom the tale was dedicated . Jemima is punished for her headstrong foolishness and must relinquish her hope of finding a nesting spot away from the farm , but the punishment is mitigated when she is allowed to hatch one brood herself .
= = Merchandising = =
Jemima Puddle @-@ Duck was popular , almost as popular as Peter Rabbit , and became the subject of ancillary merchandise . She is depicted in one of the four well known endpapers of the Potter books , and was featured on a Christmas card for the Invalid Children 's Aid Association . She became the principal character in an unpublished painting book describing the livestock at Hill Top , and appeared in Peter Rabbit 's Painting Book and Tom Kitten 's Painting Book before being given her own painting book , Jemima Puddle @-@ Duck 's Painting Book in 1925 , composed grudgingly in response to public demand for yet another book .
Potter waited for ducklings to hatch at the farm to be used as models for the painting book , but in the end , the eggs were rotten . The instructions in Jemima 's painting book were similar to those in Tom Kitten 's painting book , but the kittens with crayons in Tom 's book accompanying the instructions were replaced by six ducklings splashing about in paint water for the similar page in Jemima 's book . In the original tale , Jemima 's eggs are eaten by her rescuers but in the painting book , a new design was executed for " They took Jemima home " ; in the painting book , Kep and the fox hound puppies lead Jemima away from her broken but uneaten eggs . The same theme was depicted on Crabtree & Evelyn chocolate Easter eggs .
The painting book displays Potter 's willingness to exploit the commercial possibilities of her characters and tales . The purchaser was alerted to the existence of other Potter books on the inside front cover and directed to a list of books on the back cover . Other merchandise included sets of linen or silk placemats painted by Potter for friends with an abridged text and 12 of the illustrations . In 1910 , Potter patented a design for a soft toy duck based on her model of Jemima in a Paisley handkerchief shawl and bonnet . A soft Jemima doll was manufactured by J. I. Farnell of Acton .
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= Awaiting on You All =
" Awaiting on You All " is a song by English musician George Harrison , released on his 1970 triple album , All Things Must Pass . Along with the single " My Sweet Lord " , it is among the more overtly religious compositions on All Things Must Pass , and the recording typifies co @-@ producer Phil Spector 's influence on the album , due to his liberal use of reverberation and other Wall of Sound production techniques . Harrison recorded the track in London backed by musicians such as Eric Clapton , Bobby Whitlock , Klaus Voormann , Jim Gordon and Jim Price – many of whom he had toured with , as Delaney & Bonnie and Friends , in December 1969 , while still officially a member of the Beatles . Musically , the composition reflects Harrison 's embracing of the gospel music genre , following his production of fellow Apple Records artists Billy Preston and Doris Troy .
In his lyrics to " Awaiting on You All " , Harrison espouses a direct relationship with God over adherence to the tenets of organised religion . Influenced by both his association with London @-@ based Hare Krishna devotees , known as the Radha Krishna Temple , and the Vedanta @-@ inspired teachings of Swami Vivekananda , Harrison sings of chanting God 's name as a means to cleanse and liberate oneself from the impurities of the material world . While acknowledging the validity of all faiths , in essence , his song words explicitly criticise the Pope and the perceived materialism of the Catholic Church – a verse that EMI and Capitol Records continue to omit from the album 's lyrics . He also questions the validity of John Lennon and Yoko Ono 's 1969 campaign for world peace , reflecting a divergence of philosophies between Harrison and his former bandmate after their shared interest in Hindu spirituality in 1967 – 68 .
Several commentators have identified " Awaiting on You All " as one of the highlights of All Things Must Pass ; author and critic Richard Williams likens it to the Spector @-@ produced " River Deep – Mountain High " , by Ike & Tina Turner . The track is featured in the books 1001 Songs You Must Hear Before You Die by Robert Dimery and 1001 Songs by Toby Creswell . A similarly well @-@ regarded live version , with backing from a large band including Clapton , Ringo Starr , Preston and Jim Keltner , was released on the 1971 album The Concert for Bangladesh and appeared in the 1972 film of the same name . Harrison 's posthumous compilation Early Takes : Volume 1 ( 2012 ) includes a demo version of the song , recorded early in the 1970 sessions for All Things Must Pass .
= = Background = =
In his book While My Guitar Gently Weeps , Simon Leng describes George Harrison 's musical projects outside the Beatles during 1969 – 70 – such as producing American gospel and soul artists Billy Preston and Doris Troy , and touring with Delaney & Bonnie and Friends – as the completion of " a musical @-@ philosophical circle " , which resulted in his post @-@ Beatles solo album All Things Must Pass ( 1970 ) . Among the songs on that triple album , " My Sweet Lord " and " Awaiting on You All " each reflect Harrison 's immersion in Krishna Consciousness , via his association with the UK branch of the International Society for Krishna Consciousness ( ISKCON ) , known as the Radha Krishna Temple . An ISKCON devotee since 1970 , author Joshua Greene writes of All Things Must Pass providing an " intimately detailed account of a spiritual journey " , which had begun with Harrison 's embracing of Hinduism while in India in September – October 1966 .
Having long disavowed the Catholic faith of his upbringing , from 1966 Harrison was inspired by the teachings of Indian yogi Swami Vivekananda . The latter 's contention that " Each soul is potentially divine , the goal is to manifest that divinity " particularly resonated with Harrison in its contrast to the doctrine of the Catholic Church . By 1967 , Harrison 's religious awakening had progressed to include Gaudiya Vaishnava chanting , a form of meditation that he shared with his Beatles bandmate John Lennon and would go on to espouse in " Awaiting on You All " . Further to Vivekananda 's assertion , chanting the Hare Krishna or other Sanskrit @-@ worded mantras has , author Gary Tillery writes , " the ability to send spiritual energy through the body , leading to the enlightenment of the person chanting " .
Whereas Lennon 's interest in spiritual matters waned following the Beatles ' visit to India in 1968 , Harrison 's involvement with the Radha Krishna Temple led to him producing two hit singles by the devotees over 1969 – 70 , " Hare Krishna Mantra " and " Govinda " . While Lennon and his partner , Yoko Ono , undertook a highly publicised campaign for world peace during 1969 , Harrison believed that all human suffering could be averted if individuals focused on addressing their own imperfections rather than , as he put it , " trying to fix everybody else up like the Lone Ranger " . This divergence in philosophy also formed part of Harrison 's subject matter for " Awaiting on You All " , a song that , Greene writes , " projected his message to the world " .
= = Composition = =
In an October 1974 radio interview with Alan Freeman , Harrison recalled writing " Awaiting on You All " while preparing to go to bed , and mentioned it as a composition that had come easily to him . In his autobiography , I , Me , Mine , Harrison states that his inspiration for the song was " Japa Yoga meditation " , whereby mantras are sung and counted out on prayer beads . Musically , the composition has elements of gospel and rock music ; Leng describes it as " gospel @-@ drenched " and cites Harrison 's production of " Sing One for the Lord " , which Preston recorded with the Edwin Hawkins Singers in early 1970 , as a " catalyst " for the new composition . The song opens with a descending guitar riff , later repeated after each chorus , which ends on the melody 's root chord of B major .
In his lyrics to " Awaiting on You All " , Harrison conveys the importance of experiencing spirituality directly , while rejecting organised religion as well as political and intellectual substitutes . Author Ian Inglis writes that the lyrics recognise the merit in all faiths , as Harrison sings that the key to any religion is to " open up your heart " . The choruses proclaim that individual freedom from the physical or material world can be attained through " chanting the names of the Lord " , implying that there is a single deity who happens to be called by different names depending on the faith .
The song 's three verses provide a list of items or concepts that are unnecessary to this realisation . The opening lines – " You don 't need no love @-@ in / You don 't need no bed pan " – serve as a criticism of Lennon and Ono 's bed @-@ ins and other forms of peace activism during 1969 . While Inglis views these words as indicative of a possible rift in Harrison 's relationship with Lennon , Leng identifies the " tongue @-@ lashing for John and Yoko " as the singer dismissing " all political @-@ cum @-@ intellectual musings " . Harrison then uses what Christian theologian Dale Allison terms " the language of pollution " to describe the problems afflicting the world , and offers a method by which to cleanse oneself spiritually .
In verse two , Harrison sings of the futility of passports and travel for those searching to " see Jesus " , since an open heart will reveal that Christ is " right there " . Allison remarks on the song expressing Harrison 's " syncretistic view of Jesus " , a view he shared with Lennon , and cites comments that Harrison later made to Radha Krishna Temple co @-@ founder Mukunda Goswami , that Christ was " an absolute yogi " yet modern @-@ day Christian teachers misrepresent him and " [ let ] him down very badly " .
In the song 's final verse , Harrison states that churches , temples , religious texts and the rosary beads associated with Catholic worship are no substitute for a direct relationship with God . These symbols of organised religion " meant searching in the wrong places " , Tillery writes , when in keeping with Vivekananda 's philosophy , " the spark of the divine is within us all . Every person is therefore the child of God ... " AllMusic critic Lindsay Planer comments on Harrison 's " observation of [ religious ] repression " in the lines " We 've been kept down so long / Someone 's thinking that we 're all green . "
Harrison 's most scathing criticism is directed at the Pope , in the lines : " While the Pope owns 51 % of General Motors / And the stock exchange is the only thing he 's qualified to quote us . " Contrasting this statement with Harrison 's song @-@ wide message that God " waits on us to wake up and open our hearts " , Allison concludes : " whereas the Lord is about the business of helping human beings to wake up , the Pope is about the business of business . "
In his book No Sympathy for the Devil , Dave Ware Stowe writes of the effect of " Awaiting on You All " on Evangelical Christian sensibilities : " this was dangerous stuff . Harrison 's lyrics exemplified what many in the Jesus Movement considered a lure and snare of the devil . No doubt the song was spiritually resonant , even reverent , but it leaves the all @-@ important object of veneration vague . "
While identifying a similar ISKCON @-@ inspired theme in Harrison 's 1973 song " The Lord Loves the One ( That Loves the Lord ) " , Allison discusses " Awaiting on You All " as a precedent for further statements by Harrison against organised religion , particularly Catholicism . Among these , Harrison parodied the Last Supper in his inner @-@ gatefold artwork for Living in the Material World ( 1973 ) , dressed as a Catholic priest and again mocking the " perceived materialism and violence of the Roman church " , according to Allison . In addition , in his role as film producer , Harrison supported Monty Python 's controversial parodying of the biblical story of Christ in Life of Brian ( 1979 ) , about which he said : " Actually , [ the film ] was upholding Him and knocking all the idiotic stuff that goes on around religion . "
= = Production = =
= = = Phil Spector 's involvement = = =
Harrison and American producer Phil Spector began discussing the possibility of Harrison recording a solo album of songs in early 1970 , after they had worked together on Lennon 's Plastic Ono Band single " Instant Karma ! " Before then , to show his support for Spector 's comeback from self @-@ imposed retirement , Harrison had supplied a written endorsement of the producer 's work on the Ike & Tina Turner album River Deep – Mountain High , when A & M Records issued the three @-@ year @-@ old recordings in 1969 . Long a fan of Spector 's sound , Harrison praised River Deep – Mountain High with the words : " a perfect record from start to finish . You couldn 't improve on it . "
Beatles biographer Peter Doggett suggests that Harrison had intended to make an entire album of devotional songs but , with that not being " an appropriate dish to set before Phil Spector " , Harrison chose to delay starting work on All Things Must Pass and instead continued his activities with the Radha Krishna Temple . It was only after Paul McCartney 's departure from the Beatles , and the band 's break @-@ up , that Harrison finally began sessions for his solo album – in late May 1970 , at Abbey Road Studios in London . Noting Spector 's application of his signature Wall of Sound production on " Awaiting on You All " , Inglis writes that , but for Harrison 's lyrics , the song " could be mistaken for the instrumental track of a song by the Ronettes " , one of Spector 's girl @-@ group protégés during the 1960s .
= = = Recording = = =
The line @-@ up of musicians on the basic track included Harrison and Eric Clapton , on electric guitars ; bassists Klaus Voormann and Carl Radle , one of whom plays six @-@ string bass ; and drummer Jim Gordon , who formed Derek and the Dominos with Clapton and Radle during the sessions . In addition , Bobby Whitlock , the fourth member of the Dominos – all of whom were formerly part of Delaney & Bonnie and Friends – recalls playing Hammond organ on the song . Authors Chip Madinger and Mark Easter note the presence of a piano part on the recording as well .
In his 2010 autobiography , Whitlock writes of Lennon and Ono visiting the studio during the All Things Must Pass sessions , during which Lennon " got his socks blown off " by the music Harrison was recording . The Hare Krishna devotees regularly attended the sessions also ; Spector later cited their presence as an example of how Harrison inspired tolerance in non @-@ believers , since the Temple devotees could be " the biggest pain in the necks in the world " , according to Spector . Among the many unreleased songs from the All Things Must Pass sessions , Harrison recorded his all @-@ Sanskrit composition " Gopala Krishna " , which Leng describes as " a rocking companion to ' Awaiting on You All ' " .
Madinger and Easter view " Awaiting on You All " as one of the more " heavily Spectorized " productions on All Things Must Pass , due to Spector 's liberal use of echo and other Wall of Sound techniques . Among the extensive overdubs on the basic track , Harrison added what Leng terms a " virtual guitar orchestra " of harmonised slide guitar parts , and former Delaney & Bonnie musicians Jim Price and Bobby Keys supplied horns . Whitlock and Clapton sang backing vocals with Harrison , credited on the album as " the George O 'Hara @-@ Smith Singers " .
The recording also features prominent percussion such as tambourine and maracas . While the precise line @-@ up on many of the songs on All Things Must Pass continues to invite conjecture , Badfinger drummer Mike Gibbins has said that Spector nicknamed him " Mr Tambourine Man " due to his role on that instrument throughout the sessions , and that he and future Yes drummer Alan White played most of the percussion parts on the album , " switch [ ing ] on tambourine , sticks , bells , maracas ... whatever was needed " .
= = Release = =
Apple Records released All Things Must Pass on 27 November 1970 , with " Awaiting on You All " sequenced as the penultimate track on side three , in the original LP format , preceding the album 's title song . Of the 23 tracks released on All Things Must Pass , it was one of the few overtly religious songs . Concerned at the potential offensiveness of the lyrics , EMI omitted verse three of " Awaiting on You All " from the lyric sheet . Madinger and Easter write that the lyrical content of this verse " probably shot down any chances of it being the hit single it could otherwise have been " .
Issued during a period when rock music was increasingly reflecting spiritual themes , All This Must Pass was a major commercial success , outselling releases that year by Harrison 's former bandmates , and topping albums charts throughout the world . Describing the impact of the album , with reference to " Awaiting on You All " ' s exhortation to " chant the names of the Lord " , author Nicholas Schaffner wrote of Harrison being " rewarded with a Number One single all over the world " with " My Sweet Lord " .
= = Reception = =
On release , Rolling Stone critic Ben Gerson described " Awaiting on You All " as " a Lesley Gore rave @-@ up in which George manages to rhyme ' visas ' with ' Jesus ' " . While he considered that lyrics such as " You 've been polluted so long " " carry an air of sanctimoniousness and moral superiority which is offensive " , Gerson added : " Remarkably , he vindicates these lapses . " Writing for the same magazine 30 years later , Anthony DeCurtis opined that " the heart of All Things Must Pass resides in its songs of spiritual acceptance " , and grouped " Awaiting on You All " with " My Sweet Lord " and " All Things Must Pass " as Harrison compositions that " capture the sweet satisfactions of faith " . In his 1970 review for the NME , Alan Smith described " Awaiting on You All " as " a rapid fire thumper with good chord progressions " and " one of the better tracks " on the album . AllMusic critic Richie Unterberger views " Awaiting on You All " as a highlight of a collection on which " nearly every song is excellent " , while author and critic Bob Woffinden lists it with " My Sweet Lord " , " Isn 't It a Pity " and " What Is Life " as " all excellent songs " .
In his book Phil Spector : Out of His Head , Richard Williams writes that , unlike Lennon and McCartney on their 1970 solo albums , " Harrison concentrated on pure joyous melodies – the kind of songs that had made the group so loved " , and he says of " Awaiting on You All " : " Spector repaid Harrison for his benediction on the Ike and Tina Turner album cover by turning it into a virtual remake of ' River Deep – Mountain High ' . " Mark Ribowsky , another Spector biographer , writes of the producer 's contribution to this and other songs on All Things Must Pass : " Phil 's rhythmically pounding basses and drum feels sutured George 's sentimentality with cheerful energy and made Indian asceticism into dance music . " Simon Leng describes " Awaiting on You All " as a " hot gospel stomper " and " the most successful example of Spector 's work on the album " . Writing for NME Originals in 2005 , Adrian Thrills named " Awaiting on You All " and " Wah @-@ Wah " as examples of " a tendency to over @-@ egg the mix " on the otherwise " magnificent " All Things Must Pass , adding : " it is hard to think of another big rock album on which the tambourine is shaken quite so relentlessly . "
In his AllMusic article on the song , Lindsay Planer views it as " somewhat of a sacred rocker " with " ample lead guitar " , and comments that Harrison 's lyrics " cleverly [ draw ] upon an array of disparate imagery to convey a conversely simple spiritual revelation " . Harrison biographer Alan Clayson considers the track " more uplifting " than " My Sweet Lord " and remarks on the aptness of Harrison 's subject matter in 1970 – 71 , when religious texts such as the Bible , the Koran and ISKCON 's Chant and Be Happy " now had discreet places on hip bookshelves " . Former Mojo editor Mat Snow describes the song as " glorious white gospel " , in which Harrison " rejects the Catholicism of his Liverpool upbringing " .
" Awaiting on You All " has featured in the music reference books 1001 Songs You Must Hear Before You Die by Robert Dimery and 1001 Songs by Australian critic Toby Creswell . The latter describes the combination of Harrison 's " tasteful " guitar parts and the " galloping " rhythm section as " sublime and divine " . In Dimery 's book , contributor Bruno MacDonald writes of the track : " ' Awaiting on You All ' has a timeless exuberance that even Beatles @-@ haters should experience . "
= = Live version = =
" Awaiting on You All " was one of the songs Harrison played at the Concert for Bangladesh , held at Madison Square Garden , New York , on 1 August 1971 . Featuring backing from a band including Clapton , Voormann , Ringo Starr , Billy Preston , Jim Keltner and Jim Horn , Harrison performed the song at both the afternoon and the evening shows . The latter performance was included on the Concert for Bangladesh live album , which Spector again co @-@ produced , and in the film of the concert . Joshua Greene comments on there being a " logical chronology " to the first three songs in Harrison 's setlist for this second show : " starting with ' Wah Wah , ' which declared his independence from the Beatles ; followed by ' My Sweet Lord , ' which celebrated his internal discovery of God and spirit ; and then ' Awaiting on You All ' " .
Writing in Rolling Stone , Jon Landau compared the less @-@ polished performance of " Awaiting on You All " with the studio version 's " perfect production " and concluded : " it is exhilarating to hear his voice clearly singing the song for the first time , likewise the excellent guitar . " In his album review for Melody Maker , Williams wrote of Harrison 's opening trio of songs : " Unbelievably , they 're as good as the originals , and in some ways even better , because they combine the power of the arrangements for horns and rhythm with a sense of joy that comes only in live performance . The two drummers ( Ringo and Jim Keltner ) are just breathtaking on ' Awaiting ' ... " Planer also compliments what he calls " the tag @-@ team percussion " of Starr and Keltner , which " driv [ es ] through the heart of the performance " .
= = Reissue and other versions = =
In February 2001 , during his extensive promotion for the 30th anniversary reissue of All Things Must Pass , Harrison named " Awaiting on You All " among his three favourite tracks on the album . The electronic press kit accompanying the release included a scene where Harrison plays back the song at his Friar Park studio and isolates certain parts of the recording in turn , such as the backing vocals and slide guitars . In the CD booklet , Harrison 's liner notes conclude with a thank @-@ you to " the amazing Mr. Phil Spector " and the acknowledgement : " He helped me so much to get this record made . In his company I came to realise the true value of the Hare Krishna Mantra . " The Pope @-@ related lyrics in " Awaiting on You All " were again omitted from the booklet ; they similarly do not appear on the lyric sheet supplied with the 2014 Apple Years reissue .
Part of the 2001 playback scene was included in Martin Scorsese 's documentary George Harrison : Living in the Material World , and an early take from the 1970 sessions appeared on the bonus disc accompanying that film 's DVD release in late 2011 . This demo version , which Harrison introduces as " Awaiting for You All " , was included on the compilation Early Takes : Volume 1 ( 2012 ) . Referring to Harrison 's stated regret at the amount of echo Spector used on All Things Must Pass , compilation producer Giles Martin says of the song 's sparse arrangement on Early Takes : " I think this is really cool , it 's got a good basic band groove , I think of it as George breaking down a wall of sound . "
In 1971 , Detroit band Silver Hawk released a cover version of " Awaiting on You All " as a single , which peaked at number 108 on Billboard magazine 's Bubbling Under listings . In Canada , Silver Hawk 's single climbed to number 49 on the RPM Top 100 . A cover " worth mentioning " , according to Planer , is a version recorded by pedal steel guitarist Joe Goldmark , released on the 1997 tribute album Steelin ' the Beatles .
= = Personnel = =
According to authors Simon Leng and Bruce Spizer , the line @-@ up of musicians on " Awaiting on You All " is as follows :
George Harrison – vocals , electric guitar , slide guitars , backing vocals
Eric Clapton – electric guitar , backing vocals
Bobby Whitlock – organ , backing vocals
Klaus Voormann – bass
Carl Radle – bass
Jim Gordon – drums
Jim Price – trumpet , trombone , horn arrangement
Bobby Keys – saxophones
Mike Gibbins – tambourine
uncredited – piano
uncredited – maracas
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= Patio 29 =
Patio 29 is a common grave in Santiago General Cemetery in Chile , where political prisoners , especially those who " disappeared " during the 1973 Chilean coup d 'état , were buried anonymously . The mass grave , the largest of Augusto Pinochet 's military government , was used for unannounced and unmarked burials in the 1970s until an anonymous tip alerted the public to its usage . With the return of democracy to Chile in 1991 , an exhumation effort through 2006 recovered 126 bodies in 105 graves and identified three @-@ quarters of the victims . A 2005 DNA test later reported widespread identification errors and a new identification database began in 2007 . Exhumation authorities report that the site has been fully exhumed , which families of the victims contest .
The burial grounds became Chile 's first cemetery to be designated a protected national monument in 2006 . The site serves as a symbol for the human rights movement and the 1973 coup 's disappeared . As such , Patio 29 became part of the Bachelet government 's " symbolic reparation " program . Annual marches against the coup end at the site .
= = History = =
In 1973 a military coup overthrew the socialist Chilean government and replaced it with a military dictatorship headed by Augusto Pinochet , the Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the Chilean Army . The military rule was characterized by systematic suppression of all political dissidence . The worst violence occurred within the first three months of the coup , with the number of suspected dissidents killed or " disappeared " reaching several thousand .
In 1979 , the Vicariate of Solidarity , the Catholic Church 's human rights office , received information regarding illegal burials of six victims from Paine , Chile in a section of Santiago 's main cemetery , known as Patio 29 ; this led to a court investigation which revealed that Patio 29 had been used to anonymously bury the unmarked bodies of executed political prisoners between 1970 and 1980 , especially those kidnapped during the 1973 coup .
In 1981 , Santiago 's military prosecutor prohibited the unmarked bodies from being incinerated or removed , though Walkowitz and Knauer wrote in Memory and the Impact of Political Transformation in Public Space that the military government dug up and hid hundreds of these bodies in 1982 . Following the end of military rule and return of democracy to Chile in 1990 , investigation of human rights violations became a top priority . Though a 1978 amnesty decree prevented prosecution for pre @-@ 1978 offenses , the new Aylwin government sought disclosure of the truth and recompense for the victim 's families and appointed a National Commission for Truth and Reconciliation . The commission 's February 1991 Rettig Report named victims disappeared shortly after the coup , executed by gunshot , and presumed to be buried in Patio 29 . Patio 29 was the largest of about twelve Pinochet era mass graves identified and searched .
In September 1991 , two judges on cases by the Vicariate and family of disappeared leftist leader Bautista van Schouwen issued court orders to begin research projects to exhume and identify the graves . The majority of the 105 bodies recovered in 1991 appeared to have been shot and beaten . Some were missing limbs or were bound with wire . The victims were as young as 13 years old , and some coffins contained multiple bodies . Pinochet , who remained commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the Chilean army during the 1991 exhumation , explained that bodies were stacked to save space ( " What great economizing ! " ) , and later apologized after public outcry . This comment embarrassed Pinochet 's followers and " reactivated cultural revulsion and human rights sensibilities " . In Reckoning with Pinochet , Stern wrote that the 1991 exhumation led the public to view Pinochet soldiers on trial as criminals . The Santiago Catholic Church 's antemortem records were matched with autopsy records to identify and return the bodily remains to living relatives .
As of 2006 , 126 bodies were found , of which 96 were identified by the Medical Legal Institute in 1998 . Authorities reported that all bodies in Patio 29 had been exhumed by 2006 , though some families of the victims disagreed . More than 1000 of the disappeared from this period have not been found . Skepticism about the matches ' veracity emerged in 2003 , and the institute 's own DNA testing in 2005 revealed a project rife with mistakes and exaggerated certainty : 48 bodies were wrongly identified and 37 more were doubted . The Medical Legal Institute created a new DNA database in May 2007 . Three bodies were positively identified in late 2009 .
Chile 's National Monuments Council declared Patio 29 a National Monument on 13 July 2006 at the request of a group of Chamber of Deputies legislators . The Council chose the site for its proof of the Pinochet military government 's elaborate procedures used to conceal the disappeared 's bodies and their identities . At the ceremony , Patio 29 was described as a symbol of the country 's painful history and an educational place for human rights . As a national monument , the site will be conserved and maintained by government funds unless ordered otherwise by the courts . It is the first cemetery to become a national monument in Chile .
In 2008 , the National Monuments Council ran an architectural contest to revitalize Patio 29 , and chose a project that would create a music plaza with seven copper columns linking Víctor Jara 's tomb with Patio 29 . The memorial is made of 3 @,@ 032 precast concrete bricks .
= = Description = =
Patio 29 is a common grave in Santiago General Cemetery where the victims of mutilation , torture , and execution under the Pinochet military government were buried . Augusto Pinochet came to power in the 1973 Chilean coup d 'état , where he led the army that attacked the presidential palace and overthrew President Salvador Allende . The military junta replaced constitutional rule for 17 years , under which thousands of Chileans were detained and tortured . The Patio 29 cemetery section is bordered by Mexico Avenue to the north , O 'Higgins Avenue to the east , Copihues Street to the south , and Maitenes Street to the west . Though the cemetery changed its section numbering in 1987 , the section is still known as Patio 29 . The section has 105 graves , though many contained more than one person . The plots remain marked by their original rusted iron cross headstones with burial dates and " NN " for " no name " . Most of the dates fall within the last four months of 1973 . The site has not been reused for burials . Folksinger Víctor Jara , a prominent casualty of Pinochet 's 1973 coup d 'état , lies in a crypt across from Patio 29 .
The Memorial for the Disappeared at the cemetery 's metro entrance and Víctor Jara 's tomb near Patio 29 together form a ten @-@ minute " popular route " walk through the cemetery for tourists , as opposed to the " patrimonial route " past the graves of Chilean political leaders . A sign at the Patio 29 memorial describes the site as " an emblematic place of the human rights violations that took place between 1973 and 1990 as it was used to cover up the bodies and identities of the detained disappeared and politically executed during the military regime " . The annual protests against the 11 September 1973 coup start at the then @-@ besieged La Moneda presidential palace and conclude here in the General Cemetery .
= = Cultural influence = =
The exhumations at Patio 29 led to two documentaries : Patio 29 : Histories of Silence , and Fernando ha vuelto , which told the story of recovering Fernando Olivares Mori 's body from the plot , his burial , and an interview with his wife after the DNA @-@ based doubts were posited . In a review of Patio 29 Tras la Cruz de Fierro , Katrien Klep placed the book alongside an international human rights trend towards " memorialization " , Southern Cone writings about " monuments , memorials , and ' lugares de memoria ' [ places of memory ] " , and interest in reconciling their divided societies . In keeping with this symbolism , Patio 29 became part of the Bachelet government 's " symbolic reparation " program .
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= Fire in My Heart =
" Fire in My Heart " is the tenth single by Welsh rock band the Super Furry Animals . It was the second single to be taken from the group 's 1999 album Guerrilla , and reached number 25 in the UK Singles Chart after its release on 9 August 1999 . The track , originally titled " Heartburn " , has been described by the band 's singer Gruff Rhys as a country and western song with lyrics that offer " soul advice " .
Critical reaction to " Fire in My Heart " was generally positive with the NME stating that it confirmed the band 's position as the best British singles band in " ages and ages " and placing the track at number 25 in their singles of the year chart for 1999 . The music video for the song was directed by Jake & Jim and shows Super Furry Animals waiting to leave the planet Mars , having played a concert there .
= = Themes and recording = =
" Fire in My Heart " was originally called " Heartburn " , a name which the group 's singer Gruff Rhys felt was more poignant and gave the song " a twist " , but other members of the band were not happy with the title so the name was changed . Rhys has described the track as a country and western song which was written with absolute sincerity despite featuring clichéd lyrics . The song is " soul advice " and is about " all kinds of people in your life " . The track was recorded in the middle of 1998 at Real World Studios , Box , Wiltshire , along with the rest of Guerrilla , and was produced by the Super Furry Animals . B @-@ side " The Matter of Time " was considered for inclusion on Guerrilla , but the band felt the album would be too self @-@ indulgent if the song were added to the record 's track listing . The group instead opted to include the " stupid " song " The Teacher " , a decision which Rhys has called a decisive moment in the creation of the record .
= = Composition = =
" Fire in My Heart " is 2 minutes and 45 seconds long and is in the key of E major . The song begins with Gruff Rhys singing the first verse backed only by finger picked acoustic guitar . Rhys 's vocals are joined by sparse drums , a synthesizer , organ and harmony backing vocals in the second verse which immediately follows the first at 31 seconds . The drums become louder during the third and final verse which leads into a bridge that begins after 1 minute and 31 seconds . During the bridge Rhys sings the lines " Oh the monkey puzzle tree has some questions for the watchdogs of the profane , and I ask , is it sad that I 'm driving myself mad as this fire in my heart turns blue " . A key change to F ♯ major follows for the final verse , with Rhys repeating the line " I 've got a fire in my heart for you " backed by multiple harmony vocals . The song ends with a coda during which Rhys elongates the word " you " over the chords A ♯ minor , A , G ♯ minor and F ♯ .
= = Release and critical reception = =
" Fire in My Heart " was released on CD , cassette and 7 " on 9 August 1999 , and reached number 25 in the UK Singles Chart . The track was included on the band 's ' greatest hits ' compilation album Songbook : The Singles , Vol . 1 , issued in 2004 .
The Melody Maker called the track a " lovely song , a real scarf @-@ waver " , although the magazine expressed disappointment that " Fire in My Heart " did not see the band " howling at the moon in their more deep @-@ throated manner " . American model Caprice – in the role of guest reviewer for the Melody Maker – likened the song to the music of Carole King and Rickie Lee Jones and said that the track is " just about the words " and is an example of the sort of music that " never goes out of fashion " . The NME described the song as a " bizarre psychedelic @-@ folk @-@ gospel record " and said that it confirmed the band 's position as the best British singles band " in ages and ages " . The magazine later placed the track at number 35 in their singles of the year chart for 1999 . Yahoo ! Music called the track a heartbreaking song of " staggering genius " . Mojo described " Fire in My Heart " as " trad @-@ sounding " four chord folk , while Pitchfork stated that the track was a song of " country endearments " . The BBC called " Fire in My Heart " an " idiosyncratic love song " . The song was placed at number 17 in the 1999 Festive Fifty on John Peel 's BBC Radio 1 show .
= = = Accolades = = =
= = Music video = =
A promotional music video was produced to accompany the release of " Fire in My Heart " as a single . The video was directed by Jake & Jim , who also directed the video for the group 's subsequent single " Do or Die " , and shows the Super Furry Animals waiting to leave Mars having played a concert on the planet . The video begins with Gruff Rhys standing alone on the Martian soil , singing along to the song . A silver , computer generated , spaceship is seen landing behind Rhys . Around one minute into the track the camera pans back to reveal the rest of the Super Furry Animals sitting down to the left of Rhys . Guitarist Huw Bunford is sat on the floor playing an acoustic guitar while the rest of the group are sat on three metal seats which are connected together . Two aliens are seen walking from the spacecraft towards the band while drummer Dafydd Ieuan pours some of the Martian sand through his hands . When the aliens arrive , one of them , with a bald head , sunglasses and pointy ears , places his left hand on Rhys 's right shoulder . Rhys turns around and looks at the other alien who has one eye in the centre of a large round face and is wearing a blue hoodie . The alien smiles at Rhys who then turns around and looks up to see the Earth in the sky above . Ieuan and keyboardist Cian Ciaran are also shown looking at the Earth before the camera moves behind them to reveal hundreds of aliens stood in front of several minaret @-@ like towers , waving at the group . The band are shown picking up a suitcase and guitar before walking towards the spaceship as the song finishes . The aliens were designed by regular Super Furry Animals collaborator Pete Fowler , who acted as " creative advisor " for the video . According to Rhys the aliens were animated by the same special effects team that worked on Star Wars : Episode I – The Phantom Menace . Rhys has stated that he considers his performance in the video to be " wooden " as he was forced to take painkillers during the shoot due to a " stiff neck " .
= = Track listing = =
All songs by Super Furry Animals .
CD ( CRESCD323 ) , MC ( CRECS323 ) , 7 " ( CRE323 )
" Fire in My Heart " – 2 : 45
" The Matter of Time " – 5 : 47
" Mrs Spector " – 3 : 01
= = Personnel = =
The following people contributed to " Fire in my Heart " :
Gruff Rhys – vocals
Huw Bunford – guitar
Guto Pryce – bass guitar
Cian Ciaran – keyboards
Dafydd Ieuan – drums
= = Singles chart positions = =
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= Mississippi Highway 444 =
Mississippi Highway 444 ( MS 444 ) is a short highway in western Mississippi . Its western terminus is at MS 1 , and travels eastward through six miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) of farmland . The route enters Duncan , and ends at U.S. Route 61 ( US 61 ) and US 278 , its eastern terminus . MS 444 was designated in 1958 , and became paved two years later .
= = Route description = =
All of the road is located in northern Bolivar County . In 2012 , Mississippi Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) calculated as many as 750 vehicles traveling west of US 61 / US 278 , and as few as 330 vehicles traveling east of MS 1 . MS 444 is not included as a part of the National Highway System ( NHS ) , a network of highways identified as being most important for the economy , mobility and defense of the nation . MS 444 is legally defined in Mississippi Code § 65 @-@ 3 @-@ 3 . MS 444 is maintained by MDOT .
MS 444 starts at a T @-@ intersection with MS 1 and travels eastward . The route travels through farmland in a straight line . MS 444 intersects Caston Road , a dirt road that also leads to Duncan . MS 444 continues east , intersecting minor dirt roads . East of Yates Road , the road enters a small area of trees , before re @-@ entering to more farmland . The route curves slightly to the southeast about one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) later , at Sandy Ridge Road . MS 444 soon crosses the Hushpuckena River , and enters into Duncan . Near the center of Duncan , the route intersects the old alignment of US 61 . The road continues east and ends at a T @-@ intersection with US 61 .
= = History = =
MS 444 was designated in 1958 , as an unpaved road from MS 1 to US 61 . The route became paved by 1960 . In 1967 , US 61 was rerouted to its east , no longer passing through Duncan . By 1999 , US 278 was designated , concurrent with US 61 through MS 444 's eastern terminus .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Bolivar County .
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= Nordhordland Bridge =
The Nordhordland Bridge ( Norwegian : Nordhordlandsbrua ) is a combined cable @-@ stayed and pontoon bridge which crosses Salhusfjorden between Klauvaneset and Flatøy in Hordaland , Norway . It is 1 @,@ 614 meters ( 5 @,@ 295 ft ) long , of which the pontoon section is 1 @,@ 246 meters ( 4 @,@ 088 ft ) long . The cable @-@ stayed section consists of a single 99 @-@ meter ( 325 ft ) tall H @-@ pylon which has a length of 368 meters ( 1 @,@ 207 ft ) and a main span of 172 meters ( 564 ft ) . This allows for a clearance of 32 meters ( 105 ft ) .
The floating section is a steel box girder bridge with ten pontoons , which because of the fjord 's depth are not laterally anchored . The roadway sits on an orthotropic deck . The pontoons and the cable @-@ stayed bridge are built in concrete , with the main span being supported with 48 cables . The fjord end of the main span is supported by a 30 @-@ meter ( 98 ft ) deep foundation , where the two bridges meet . From there and for 414 meters ( 1 @,@ 358 ft ) , the roadwall has a 5 @.@ 7 percent gradient on a viaduct anchored to the pontoon bridge .
The bridge carries two lanes of European Route E39 , also called the Coastal Highway , and one pedestrian and bicycle path , and connects the district of Nordhordland to Bergen . Plans for a bridge had existed since the 1960s , and after the decision to construct the bridge was passed by the Parliament of Norway in 1989 , construction started in 1991 . Total costs , including auxiliary roads , was NOK 910 million . Part of the contract payment was subject to a court case which the contractors lost . The bridge opened on 22 September 1994 , and remained a toll road until 31 December 2005 . In 2014 , it had an average daily traffic of 16 @,@ 580 vehicles . There are plans to reinstate a toll on the bridge from 2013 to finance other road projects . The bridge is the second @-@ longest in Norway , and the second pontoon bridge in Norway .
= = Specifications = =
The bridge consists of three sections , a cable @-@ stayed bridge , a pontoon bridge and a viaduct which connects the two . The cable @-@ stayed bridge consists of a 99 @.@ 3 @-@ meter ( 326 ft ) tall H @-@ pylon with a foundation at Klauvaneset on the mainland of Bergen . It supports a 172 @-@ meter ( 564 ft ) main span , with the other end being fixed in a foundation 30 @-@ meter ( 98 ft ) below mean sea level , which is anchored in the ridge Klauvaskallen . The whole cable @-@ stayed bridge is 369 meters ( 1 @,@ 211 ft ) long , with a 190 @-@ meter ( 620 ft ) long viaduct , supported by six pairs of pillars . The cable @-@ stayed bridge allows for a sailing channel which is 32 meters ( 105 ft ) tall and 50 meters ( 160 ft ) wide . The main span is built in lightweight LC55 concrete , while the viaduct and pylon is built with conventional C45 concrete . Inside the pylons is a 1 @.@ 6 by 2 @.@ 0 meters ( 5 ft 3 in by 6 ft 7 in ) hollow area .
The bridge has 48 cables , 12 on each side of the pylon on each side of the roadway . The distance between the cables is 12 @.@ 00 meters ( 39 @.@ 37 ft ) on the main span , and 9 @.@ 33 meters ( 30 @.@ 6 ft ) on the viaduct . Combined , the cables are 4 @,@ 432 meters ( 14 @,@ 541 ft ) long ; each cable consists of 67 to 230 twined cables , each with a 7 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 28 in ) diameter . The cables have a weight of between 1 @.@ 5 and 14 @.@ 5 tonnes ( 1 @.@ 5 and 14 @.@ 3 long tons ; 1 @.@ 7 and 16 @.@ 0 short tons ) each , and they have a capacity of between 1 @,@ 960 and 7 @,@ 910 kilonewtons ( 440 @,@ 000 and 1 @,@ 780 @,@ 000 lbf ) . They can be tightened at the connection with the roadwall .
The floating section consists of a steel box girder placed on top of ten floating pontoons . The pontoon section is anchored only at both ends , on the underwater foundation at Kauvaskallen and on Flatøy . It is fastened using flexible plate connections fastened by bolts and cables under tension . These are flexible around the horizontal axis at right angles towards the axis of the bridge , allowing for deformation caused by the tide . The fastening on Flatøy consists of a massive concrete block 22 by 20 meters ( 72 by 66 ft ) long and 14 @.@ 5 meters ( 48 ft ) tall which was poured into a blast @-@ out foundation pit in bedrock . Vertical pretension rock anchors have also been installed , with 12 at Klauvaskallen and 14 at Flatøy , giving 42 and 44 meganewtons ( 9 @,@ 400 @,@ 000 and 9 @,@ 900 @,@ 000 lbf ) of support , although they were only built to increase the safety factor .
There are ten lightweight concrete pontoons , with 113 @.@ 25 @-@ meter ( 371 @.@ 6 ft ) spans between them . The pontoons are between 7 @.@ 0 and 8 @.@ 6 meters ( 23 @.@ 0 and 28 @.@ 2 ft ) in height . The draught varies between 4 @.@ 3 to 5 @.@ 6 meters ( 14 to 18 ft ) . Each pontoon consists of nine watertight cells which are partially filled with ballast for trim . The cells are dimensioned so two adjacent cells can fill with water without endangering the bridge .
The roadway lies on top of an orthotropic deck on a steel box girder , which is 15 @.@ 9 meters ( 52 ft ) wide , 5 @.@ 50 meters ( 18 @.@ 0 ft ) tall and 1 @,@ 246 meters ( 4 @,@ 088 ft ) long . The steel box girder weighs 14 @,@ 150 tonnes ( 13 @,@ 930 long tons ; 15 @,@ 600 short tons ) , of which 3 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 3 @,@ 000 long tons ; 3 @,@ 300 short tons ) is high @-@ strength low @-@ alloy steel . The girder has an octagonal shape and is made with 14 @-@ to @-@ 20 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 55 to 0 @.@ 79 in ) thick steel plates . They are longitudinally stiffened by trapezoidal stiffeners supported by cross frames at most every 4 @.@ 5 meters ( 15 ft ) . Two full bulkheads have been used for every pontoon pilaster , made from welded steel plates 8 to 50 millimeters ( 0 @.@ 31 to 1 @.@ 97 in ) thick . External brackets built into the bulkheads transfer the support forces to the pontoons . The girder was built in sections of 21 , 36 , and 42 meters ( 69 , 118 , and 138 ft ) , which were subsequently welded together into 11 modules with a skew angle of 1 @.@ 2 to 1 @.@ 3 degrees . The girder has a constant cross @-@ section throughout the length , except at the anchoring points to the pontoons . The section from the land anchoring to the first pontoon is subject to the most stress , and is made with steel with a higher yield point . The inside of the girder has two dehumidifiers which ensure that it does not rust . The clearance under the girder is 5 @.@ 5 meters ( 18 ft ) .
The two bridges are connected with a 414 @.@ 5 @-@ meter ( 1 @,@ 360 ft ) long steel viaduct , which runs on top of the floating bridge , bringing the road from 11 @.@ 0 to 34 @.@ 4 meters ( 36 @.@ 1 to 112 @.@ 9 ft ) above mean sea level . The viaduct weighs 1 @,@ 600 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 600 long tons ; 1 @,@ 800 short tons ) and has a gradient of 5 @.@ 7 degrees . It consists of spans between 18 and 33 meters ( 59 and 108 ft ) , with the roadway also built as an orthotropic deck with 12 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 47 in ) thick plates . Overall , the construction of the bridge used 24 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 24 @,@ 000 long tons ; 26 @,@ 000 short tons ) of concrete , of which 10 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 9 @,@ 800 long tons ; 11 @,@ 000 short tons ) in the pontoons . The bridge was coated with 40 @,@ 000 litres ( 8 @,@ 800 imp gal ; 11 @,@ 000 US gal ) of paint .
The bridge is monitored by 132 sensors , including sensors on hatches to the pontoons , on doors to the steel box girder , for corrosion , strain gauges on the girder and on flexible elements , and weather information . On the cable @-@ stayed section , the bridge is marked with navigation lights , as well as the center of the sailing area having a racon . The bridge is the second @-@ longest bridge in Norway , behind the Drammen Bridge .
= = History = =
= = = Planning = = =
Ship services in Nordhordland started in 1866 , and in 1923 the first car was purchased . A car ferry service between Isdalstø in Lindås and Steinestø in Åsane on the mainland was established on 7 July 1936 . A plan was launched whereby all traffic from Nordhordland would be collected in one place and transported across Salhusfjorden to Åsane . By moving the ferry quay from Isdalstø to Knarvik , the length of the ferry service could be reduced . However , the fares would be kept the same and the extra revenue used to finance a bridge from Flatøy to Lindås . This allowed the Alversund Bridge to open in 1958 , and the ferry service from Flatøy and Meland to move to Knarvik . The proposal to cross Salhusfjorden was launched during the planning of the Alversund Bridge . Cost estimates were made based on the Golden Gate Bridge in the United States , but it proved too expensive for a suspension bridge crossing between Frekhaug and Salhus .
In 1962 , the issue was brought up again , this time as a pontoon bridge . The depth and steepness of the fjord would make it impossible to fasten the bridge to the sea bottom . However , a method without lateral anchorage had been developed for the Hobart Bridge in Australia . Another alternative was launched in 1963 , involving a submerged floating tunnel through the fjord . It was estimated to cost between NOK 19 @.@ 5 and 26 million . Norwegian expatriate Leif J. Sverdrup , co @-@ founder of Sverdrup & Parcel of the United States , inspected the fjord in 1965 and was later hired to plan the bridge in cooperation with Oslo @-@ based civil engineering consultants Prosjektering . Municipal engineers started measuring currents in 1966 . Prosjektering and Sverdrup & Parcel recommended a pontoon bridge with a movable section to allow passage of ship traffic . In 1967 , a new proposal was launched , in which a seaway tunnel would be blasted out in the rock on the Bergen side .
The Alversund Bridge was a toll bridge which was paying for the debt accumulated in its construction . By 1968 , the debt would be paid off , but the Norwegian Public Roads Administration launched a plan whereby the tolls would continue to be collected and used to finance a bridge across Salhusfjorden . This was opposed by a group of locals , who brought the issue to the courts , claiming it to be illegal , as a bridge would never be built . Both Oslo District Court and Eidsivating Court of Appeal concluded that the tolls were legal , and the issue was rejected by the Supreme Court . Protests were also raised against the use of a pontoon bridge , as it would limit the vessel size and thus the commercial development in the inner parts of the fjord .
In the 1970s , National Road 1 ( today part of E39 ) was established through Knarvik towards Sognefjorden , resulting in upgrades to the roads in Nordhordland , and making the crossing one of the main routes from the north . At the same time , it was decided to establish a refinery at Mongstad in Lindås . In 1971 , details about the suspension bridge were again discussed , with three different proposals with the main span of between 1 @,@ 090 and 1 @,@ 210 meters ( 3 @,@ 580 and 3 @,@ 970 ft ) with 160 @-@ meter ( 520 ft ) tall pylons . There were protests from the Salhus area , as the suspension bridge would have resulted in the demolishing of part of the residential area .
In 1972 , discussion started with the plans to connect Meland , Flatøy and Lindøy with bridges . This was passed by the Parliament of Norway in May 1975 , and consisted of the Krossnessundet Bridge between Flatøy and Meland , which opened in November 1978 . The Hagelsund Bridge opened on 1 April 1982 and connected Flatøy to Lindås and Knarvik , thus also connecting Meland and Lindås . Both bridges were partially financed with tolls . The plans for a pontoon bridge were presented to the Standing Committee on Transport and Communications on 31 March 1981 . They supported the choice of a pontoon bridge . The decision to construct the bridge was taken by parliament on 9 December 1987 , but they demanded that a larger ship channel be constructed .
Detailed planning started in March 1990 , and at first two technical methods for constructing the pontoon bridge were considered : a continuous concrete floating caisson between the abutments , and a steel version incorporating a truss bridge carrying concrete pontoons . However , they were both rejected in favor of a concrete or steel box section borne on concrete pontoons .
= = = Construction = = =
Design of the bridge was awarded to Aas @-@ Jakobsen and Det Norske Veritas , the former who also performed dynamic analysis and structural engineering . Architects were Hindhammer – Sundt – Thomassen , Lund & Løvseth , and Lund & Slaatto . An H pylon was chosen instead of an A pylon both because it was more functional , and would be more aesthetic in conjunction with the other bridges in the area , particularly three suspension bridges .
The technology for the bridge was based on recent technology for pontoon bridges combined with Norwegian offshore technology . Among the technologies initially considered , but later ruled out , was that used in the Homer M. Hadley Memorial Bridge and the Hood Canal Bridge in the United States . Instead , an orthotropic deck was chosen , such as the Bergsøysund Bridge had used . The choice of a box girder bridge and the orthotropic deck were chosen because it gave the lower material use . Conventional pontoon bridges have lateral anchorage systems which fasten the bridge to the seabed . The technique had previously been used down to 140 meters ( 460 ft ) , but Salhusfjorden is 500 meters ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) deep , making the method prohibitively expensive . The choice of a cable @-@ stayed section allowed reduced traffic hazards in storms , a reduction in corrosion on the bridge deck , and improved passage of water beneath the bridge in support of wildlife .
The contract for construction of the pontoon bridge was awarded in August 1991 to a consortium , Arbeidsfellesskapet Salhus Bru , which consisted of Norwegian Contractors , Aker Entreprenør , Veidekke and Kværner Eureka . The components were built in Moss and Fredrikstad and then shipped to Lonevågen , a branch of Osterfjorden which was suitable to connect the parts . There were problems welding the high @-@ strength low @-@ alloy steel , which resulted in the work being halted for several days before an agreement was reached between the contractor and the Public Roads Administration . On 26 January 1994 , the steel frame which would be used to fasten the pontoon bridge to the cable @-@ stayed bridge , came adrift during transport in Skagerrak , and was severely damaged , causing a delay in the project . As the bridge had the longest laterally unsupported span in the world , the construction was watched by many international delegations .
The construction of the tunnel also involved other investments in road infrastructure . This included 5 @.@ 7 kilometers ( 3 @.@ 5 mi ) of new highways , 4 @.@ 2 kilometers ( 2 @.@ 6 mi ) of local roads , and the 785 @-@ meter ( 2 @,@ 575 ft ) long Hordvik Tunnel just south of the bridge . A grade @-@ separated crossing was built on both sides of the bridge . The intersection on Flatøy was also built as a bus interchange , and became the terminus of many bus routes in Nordhordland . Express buses would from there run directly to the city center of Bergen .
The bridge project cost NOK 910 million , of which NOK 513 was for the pontoon bridge , NOK 81 million was for the cable @-@ stayed bridge , NOK 25 million was used for the waterway , NOK 115 million was used on planning , and NOK 176 million was used on auxiliary roads and the tunnel . The bridge was financed with NOK 41 million in state grants , NOK 139 million from tolls paid in advance , and NOK 730 million in debt which would be repaid by the tolls . Interest during construction cost NOK 138 million . The construction involved 1 @,@ 150 @,@ 000 man @-@ hours .
= = = Aftermath = = =
The use of high @-@ strength steel caused problems as it was necessary to heat the steel to 150 ° C ( 302 ° F ) before and after welding , and Kværner had problems finding an adequate process during late 1992 . In January 1993 , an appropriate process had been found , although experimentation with various methods continued for another six months . Kværner felt that the Public Roads Administration should bear the extra costs , demanding NOK 108 million in compensation , but the administration denied this , resulting in a lawsuit . On 26 January 1996 , Nordhordland District Court supported the administration , but gave the plaintiff partial support , claiming the administration should take part of the costs through improper choice of material . The Public Roads Administration was sentenced to pay NOK 34 million to Kværner . Both sides appealed to Gulating Court of Appeal , which on 18 February 1998 refuted all of Kværner 's claim regarding the steel boxes , and sentenced the administration to pay NOK 7 @.@ 5 million . In addition , Kværner had to pay the administration NOK 19 @.@ 5 million in penalties for overrunning the contract date . However , the court 's decision was not unanimous . The plaintiff appealed to case to the Supreme Court , who unanimously confirmed the ruling of Gulating Court of Appeal . In addition , the plaintiff was sentenced to pay the defendants legal costs of NOK 910 @,@ 000 .
The bridge was officially opened by King Harald V on 22 September 1994 . It was the second pontoon bridge in Norway , after the Bergsøysund Bridge which opened in 1992 . The last tolls were collected on 31 December 2005 . In 2008 , there were 19 @,@ 700 travelers on the bridge each day , 14 percent of which used public transport . In 2009 , the bridge had an average daily traffic ( ADT ) of 14 @,@ 698 vehicles , up from 7975 in 2000 . Following the removal of the tolls , the ADT increased from 9912 in 2005 to 12249 in 2006 . In 2010 , the bridge was one of twelve finalists in Teknisk Ukeblad 's competition for the most beautiful bridge in Norway . In December 2010 , Bergen City Council approved the Nordhordland Package , which would result in NOK 3 @.@ 8 billion being used on road investments in Åsane and Nordhordland . Two @-@ thirds of the financing is to come from tolls , which will involve reinstalling a toll plaza on the bridge . The tolls will first be set to NOK 20 for five years , and then after the completion of the first stage , the toll will be NOK 40 for fifteen years . The toll plaza is scheduled to reopen in 2013 . Among the projects is a new four @-@ lane Nyborg Tunnel which will shorten the distance of E39 from the bridge with the motorway at Nyborg in Bergen .
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= Ode to Psyche =
" Ode to Psyche " is a poem by John Keats written in spring 1819 . The poem is the first of his 1819 odes , which include " Ode on a Grecian Urn " and " Ode to a Nightingale " . " Ode to Psyche " is an experiment in the ode genre , and Keats 's attempt at an expanded version of the sonnet format that describes a dramatic scene . The poem serves as an important departure from Keats 's early poems , which frequently describe an escape into the pleasant realms of one 's imagination . Keats uses the imagination to show the narrator 's intent to resurrect Psyche and reincarnate himself into Eros ( love ) . Keats attempts this by dedicating an " untrodden region " of his mind to the worship of the neglected goddess .
= = Background = =
Keats was never a professional writer . Instead , he supported himself with a small income that he earned as a surgeon for Guy 's Hospital . At the age of 23 , Keats left the hospital , losing his source of income , in order to devote himself to writing poetry . He lived with Charles Brown , a friend who collected Keats 's poetry while supporting him , during spring 1819 and composed poetry . The early products of this effort included La Belle Dame sans Merci and " Ode to Psyche " , the first of a series of odes that he would write that year . It is uncertain as to when the poem was actually completed , but Keats sent the poem to his brother on 3 May 1819 with an attached letter saying , " The following poem , the last I have written , is the first and only one with which I have taken even moderate pains ; I have , for the most part , dashed off my lines in a hurry ; this one I have done leisurely ; I think it reads the more richly for it , and it will I hope encourage me to write other things in even a more peaceable and healthy spirit . "
Keats was exposed to a few sources of the Psyche myth . His contemporary sources for the myth included Lempriere 's Classical Dictionary and Mary Tighe 's Psyche , an 1805 work that Keats read as a child and returned to in 1818 . Keats wrote to his brother George , just a few months before writing " Ode to Psyche " , to say that he was no longer delighted by Tighe 's writing . Dissatisfied , he turned to Apuleius 's Golden Ass , translated by William Adlington in 1566 , and read through the earlier version of the Cupid and Psyche myth . After reading the work and realizing that the myth was established during the twilight of Roman mythology , Keats wrote to George : " You must recollect that Psyche was not embodied as a goddess before the time of Apuleius the Platonist who lived after the Augustan age , and consequently the Goddess was never worshipped or sacrificed to with any of the ancient fervour — and perhaps never thought of in the old religion — I am more orthodox than to let a heathen Goddess be so neglected . "
= = Structure = =
" Ode to Psyche " , Keats 's 67 line ode , was the first of his major odes of 1819 . As such , the poem is an experiment in the ode structure that he was to then rely on for his next five odes . Although Keats spent time considering the language of the poem , the choice of wording and phrasing is below that found within his later works , including Hyperion or the odes that followed . " Ode to Psyche " is important because it is Keats 's first attempt at an altered sonnet form that would include longer more lines and would end with a message or truth . Also , he did not want the poem to be based simply around that message , so he incorporated narrative elements , such as plot and characters , along with a preface to the poem . Of these additions , the use of a preface was discontinued in his next odes along with the removal of details that describe setting within the poems ; they would only be implied within later odes .
H. W. Garrod , in his analysis of Keats 's sonnet form , believes that Keats took various aspects of sonnet forms and incorporated only those that he thought would benefit his poetry . In particular , Keats relies on Petrarch 's sonnet structure and the " pouncing rhymes " that are found within Petrarch 's octave stanzas . However , M. R. Ridley disputes that Keats favours Petrarch and claims that the odes incorporate a Shakespearean rhyme scheme . Regardless of which sonnet structure was favoured over the other , Keats wanted to avoid the downsides of both forms . " Ode to Psyche " begins with an altered Shakespearean rhyme scheme of ababcdcdeffeef . The use of rhyme does not continue throughout the poem , and the lines that follow are divided into different groups : a quatrain , couplets , and a line on its own . These are then followed by a series of twelve lines that are modelled after the Shakespearean sonnet form , but lack the final couplet . The next lines are of two quatrains , with cddc rhyme , followed by two lines that repeat the previous rhymes , and then a final quatrain , with efef rhyme .
= = Poem = =
The poem does not describe the plot of the original Cupid and Psyche myth : according to Harold Bloom , the poem " has little to do with the accepted myth " . In the original myth , Aphrodite punishes Psyche , a well admired girl , by having Cupid use his power to make her fall in love . Cupid , instead , falls in love with her , but he could only be with her in the cover of darkness in order to disguise his identity . Curious , she uses a light to reveal Cupid 's identity , but he flees from her presence . Psyche begins to search after Cupid , and Aphrodite forces her to perform various tasks before she could be united with her love . After nearly dying from one of the tasks , Cupid asks Zeus to transform Psyche into a goddess so the two can be together .
The action of " Ode to Psyche " begins with a narrator witnessing two individuals embracing . The narrator immediately recognizes Cupid and is astonished when he recognizes Psyche :
I wandered in a forest thoughtlessly ,
And , on the sudden , fainting with surprise ,
Saw two fair creatures , couched side by side
In deepest grass , beneath the whisp 'ring roof
Of leaves and trembled blossoms , where there ran
A brooklet , scarce espied :
* * * * *
The winged boy I knew ;
But who wast thou , O happy , happy dove ?
His Psyche true ! ( lines 7 – 12 , 21 – 23 )
The third stanza describes how Psyche , though a newer Goddess , is better than the other deities . However , she is neglected while the others were worshipped :
O latest born and loveliest vision far
Of all Olympus ' faded hierarchy !
Fairer than Phoebe 's sapphire @-@ regioned star ,
Or Vesper , amorous glow @-@ worm of the sky ;
Fairer than these , though temple thou hast none ,
Nor altar heaped with flowers ;
Nor virgin @-@ choir to make delicious moan
Upon the midnight hours ; ( lines 24 – 31 )
The previous list of what Psyche lacks in terms of religious worship only describes external symbols of worship . In the fourth stanza , the narrator emphasizes the internal when he describes how he is inspired by Psyche :
O brightest ! though too late for antique vows ,
Too , too late for the fond believing lyre ,
When holy were the haunted forest boughs ,
Holy the air , the water , and the fire ;
Yet even in these days so far retired
From happy pieties , thy lucent fans ,
Fluttering among the faint Olympians ,
I see , and sing , by my own eyes inspired . ( lines 36 – 43 )
The narrator , inspired by young goddess , becomes her priest . His imagination allows him to join with both the natural and supernatural elements of Psyche , and his form of worship is within himself while " Ode to Psyche " the poem serves as a song in praise of the goddess . The narrator becomes the prophet for Psyche and says in the final stanza :
Yes , I will be thy priest , and build a fane
In some untrodden region of my mind ,
Where branched thoughts , new grown with pleasant pain ,
Instead of pines shall murmur in the wind : ( lines 50 – 53 )
In the conclusion of the poem , the narrator metaphorically says that he will expand his consciousness , which would allow him to better understand both the good and the bad of the world . This will allow the narrator to attain a new sense of inspiration while providing Psyche with a sanctuary :
And in the midst of this wide quietness
A rosy sanctuary will I dress
With the wreathed trellis of a working brain ,
With buds , and bells , and stars without a name ,
With all the gardener Fancy e 'er could feign ,
Who breeding flowers , will never breed the same :
And there shall be for thee all soft delight
That shadowy thought can win ,
A bright torch , and a casement ope at night ,
To let the warm Love in ! ( lines 58 – 67 )
= = Theme = =
The moment that Cupid and Psyche are revealed is an example of " Keatsian intensity " as they are neither in a state of separation nor are they united ; they exist in a state somewhere in between in a similar manner to the figures depicted in Keats 's " Ode on a Grecian Urn " . The narrator 's ability to witness the union is unique to Keats 's version of the Psyche myth because the lovers in the original story were covered in darkness . However , the narrator questions if he was able to see them at all or if he was dreaming . This inability of the narrator to know if he was awake is a theme that appears in many of Keats 's odes that followed , including " Ode on Indolence " , " Ode on a Grecian Urn " , and " Ode to a Nightingale " . Regardless of the narrator 's state of consciousness , he is able to relate himself to Cupid as he believes himself to be in love with Psyche , representing the mind .
Part of the problem within " Ode to Psyche " is in the narrator 's claim that Psyche was neglected since she became a goddess later than the other Greco @-@ Roman deities . As such , the narrator serves as a prophetic figure who is devoted to the soul . Worship towards the soul is through use of the imagination , an idea that shows the influence of William Wordsworth upon the poem 's themes . In particular , the lines are reminiscent of the description of inspiration and the muse within Wordsworth 's " The Recluse . " To serve Psyche , the narrator of " Ode to Psyche " seeks to worship her by thoroughly exploring the regions of his mind . However , the temple dedicated to the goddess within his mind does not yet exist .
This reveals that there is a struggle between the acceptance of imaginative experience that exists only within a small part of the mind . This struggle , according to Walter Evert , has " no relevance to the world of external action and perhaps no truth to offer even the visionary dreamer himself . " However Anthony Hecht looks at the problem in a different way and believes that there must be a connection between the external and internal worlds for the narrator to even face the problem . Regardless , the narrator never states that this worship of Psyche or embracing the imagination would aid mankind , but the poem does rejoice in exercising the imagination .
In addition to the theme of dedicating one 's self to the mind , the theme of reception plays heavily upon the poem 's presentation ; Andrew Bennett states that the poem , like all poems , is " ' heard ' both by itself ( and therefore not heard ) and by an audience that reads the poem and ' hears ' it differently " . Bennett implies that the word " wrung " in line one contains a double entendre as it also alludes to the " ringing in the ears " involved with active listening . The poem 's treatment of the reader as a third @-@ party to the conversation between the narrator and the goddess exemplifies the narrative question common among many of Keats 's odes and leads Bennett to question how exactly the reader should regard his place within the poem , or outside of it .
= = Critical reception = =
Responding to the poem , Keats 's friend Leigh Hunt declared that " When Mr Keats errs in his poetry , it is from the ill management of the good things , --exuberance of ideas . Once or twice , he does so in a taste positively bad , like Marino or Cowley , as in a line in his ' Ode to Psyche ' ... but it is once or twice only , in his present volume . "
Robert Bridges , turn of the 19th @-@ century literary critic , wrote " for the sake of the last section ( l . 50 to end ) , tho ' this is open to the objection that the imagery is work 'd up to outface the idea — which is characteristic of Keats ' manner . Yet the extreme beauty quenches every dissatisfaction . The beginning of this ode is not so good , and the middle part is midway in excellence . " Later , T. S. Eliot thought very highly of Keats 's work and wrote " The Odes — especially perhaps the Ode to Psyche — are enough for his reputation . "
Kennet Allott , in defending against any possible harsh criticism of " Ode to Psyche " , argues that the poem " is the Cinderella of Keats 's great odes , but it is hard to see why it should be so neglected , and at least two poets imply that the conventional treatment of the poem is shabby and undeserved " . Allott then cites Bridges and Eliot as views that he sympathizes with , and he believes that the poem " is neither unflawed nor the best of odes , but to me it illustrates better than any other Keats 's possession of poetic power in conjunction with what was for him an unusual artistic detachment , besides being a remarkable poem in its own right . This may be another way of saying that it is the most architectural of the odes , as it is certainly the one that culminates most dramatically . "
Walter Jackson Bate states that the poem has " always puzzled readers [ ... ] But finding the poem so elusive , we return to it only after we know the others far better . If we had hope to use them as keys , we discover they do not quite fit the lock . Meanwhile they have given us a standard hard to equal . Hence we either feel a disappointment about the ' Ode to Psyche ' or else , remembering the care Keats supposedly gave it , we once more put the poem aside for future consideration . " However , he also states that " The modern , respectful attitude toward this ode is deserved . But the itch for novelty has encouraged a few critics to suggest that the poem , in some dark but fundamental way , has more to it as a whole than do the later odes . "
To Harold Bloom , the last lines of Keats 's ode " rivals any as an epitome of the myth @-@ making faculty " . He elaborates further on this when he writes , " The poem Ode to Psyche is unique , and also central , for its art is a natural growth out of nature , based as it is upon a very particular act of consciousness , which Keats arrests in all its concreteness . "
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= Local Ad =
" Local Ad " is the ninth episode of the fourth season of the American comedy television series The Office , and the show 's sixty @-@ second episode overall . The episode was written by B. J. Novak , who also acts in the show as Ryan Howard , and directed by Jason Reitman . It originally aired in the United States on October 25 , 2007 on NBC .
After a video team is brought to the office to create a commercial for the company , Michael decides that the employees of the Scranton branch of Dunder Mifflin can create a better commercial . While the majority of the staff work on the commercial , Dwight , still depressed from his break @-@ up with Angela , instead chooses to play a computer game .
= = Plot = =
When Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) learns that the Scranton branch 's participation in a Dunder Mifflin television commercial is limited to five seconds of the staff waving at the camera , he dismisses the advertising consultants sent to the branch , and convinces the company 's corporate headquarters to consider an alternative version that he will produce himself .
Michael asks Pam Beesly ( Jenna Fischer ) to design an animated logo , and she works all night on it . Phyllis Vance 's ( Phyllis Smith ) mission to enlist visiting author Sue Grafton to appear in the ad is unsuccessful . Headed by Darryl Philbin ( Craig Robinson ) , a group of employees write and perform a jingle for the commercial , which Michael ultimately rejects . Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) , meanwhile , struggles throughout the day to recall the product name from an advertising jingle that contains the lyrics " Gimme a break . Gimme a break . Break me off a piece of that ... "
Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) has largely removed himself to the online virtual world of Second Life . Dwight has created an avatar named Dwight Shelford , also a paper salesman , patterned after his once @-@ perfect real life . He now uses Second Life as an escape from his real @-@ life troubles , even going as far as creating a virtual Second Life , called Second Second Life . Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) , on the other hand , has created an avatar named Jim Samtanko , a guitar @-@ playing Philadelphia sportswriter , and enters Second Life in order to spy on Dwight .
Dwight has also reluctantly become Andy 's confidante regarding his relationship with Angela Martin ( Angela Kinsey ) , Dwight 's former girlfriend . Dwight 's spirits are lifted when he learns that , during a makeout session with Andy , Angela cried , " Oh , D ! " . Though , Andy is oblivious to the fact that Angela was referring to Dwight .
After the corporate headquarters rejects Michael 's ad , the office employees gather at Poor Richard 's Pub to watch the professionally filmed commercial , which Michael refers to as " the world premiere of corporate crapfest . " After the commercial , Jim plays Michael 's version of the ad on the bar 's television set . Over the theme from Chariots of Fire , as Michael narrates " trite catchphrases " , a sheet of paper is depicted making a journey around the world , carrying a variety of messages meaningful to the recipients ; as Pam 's animated whirling sheets of paper coalesce into the company logo to end the ad , the employees as well as the other patrons of the bar show their approval .
The episode ends with Andy doing an interview , still trying to recall the product name from the jingle . On the basis that it has to rhyme , he incorrectly concludes that it promotes Fancy Feast cat food .
= = Production = =
" Local Ad " was the seventh episode of the series written by B. J. Novak , who also acts in the show as Ryan Howard , and the first episode of the series directed by Jason Reitman , who directed the films Juno and Thank You for Smoking . When speaking about his directorial experience with The Office , Reitman stated that " Anyhow , the whole experience was awesome . They ’ re all geniuses over there . I didn ’ t have to contribute much at the end of the day because they ’ re all so on their game . " He also stated that " Weird moment of production design surprise - There 's a three ring binder on Creed 's desk with the logo from the Academy of Tobacco Studies that we created for [ Thank You For ] Smoking . I have no idea how it got there and neither does he . " B.J. Novak 's brother Jesse , a musician , contributed in writing the song that some of the characters sing in the episode .
The Second Life scenes in " Local Ad " were produced by Clear Ink of Berkeley , CA , using existing locations within Second Life as well as virtual sets created for the episode . In a study made by IAG Research , the appearance of Second Life in " Local Ad " was rated eighth in the top ten most effective product placements of 2007 . The Office was the only non @-@ reality show to make the list , and Second Life was the only product on the list that did not pay for its placement . In a deleted scene , Toby has an idea for the ad : film it in slow @-@ motion so that it will stand out when the viewer uses his TiVo or other DVR to speed past it . The staff loves the idea , but Michael hates it and won 't consider it , even though Toby reveals he formerly worked in advertising for three years .
= = Reception = =
" Local Ad " received a 5 @.@ 2 Nielsen rating and an 8 % Share . The episode was watched by an estimate audience of 8 @.@ 98 million viewers and achieved a 4 @.@ 7 / 11 in the key adults 18 – 49 demographic . This means that 4 @.@ 1 percent of all people aged 18 – 49 viewed the episode , and eleven percent of all people watching television at the time viewed the episode .
" Local Ad " received generally favorable reviews from critics . Travis Fickett of IGN gave the episode a favorable review , saying " This episode is a prime example of how The Office is able to do broad comedy while at the same time treating its characters as real people . " Fickett went on to praise the acting of Rainn Wilson as a depressed Dwight , as well as the story 's twist . Fickett stated that " A great twist here is that we think we 're watching Michael pilot a sinking ship as usual , but in fact - the ad is quite good . There 's some clever stuff in there , albeit some of it not exactly professional in its production , but Michael doesn 't do such a bad job . " Like Fickett , Christine Fenno of Entertainment Weekly gave the episode a favorable review . Fenno said that " The premise of this episode , ' Local Ad ' — the Scranton staffers shoot a commercial — was strong , and allowed almost every ensemble member to shine . " Fenno also praised the acting work of Ed Helms as Andy , as well as Steve Carell as Michael . Oscar Dahl , a Senior Writer for BuddyTV , praised the episode , but also felt that the episode 's thirty @-@ minute length created a stark contrast to the previous four episodes ' hour @-@ long run , saying " tonight 's episode felt short . Really short . "
For his work on this episode , B. J. Novak was nominated for a Writers Guild of America Award for Best Screenplay – Episodic Comedy , but ultimately failed to win , losing to another episode of The Office , " The Job . "
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= Edward III of England =
Edward III ( 13 November 1312 – 21 June 1377 ) was King of England from 25 January 1327 until his death ; he is noted for his military success and for restoring royal authority after the disastrous and unorthodox reign of his father , Edward II . Edward III transformed the Kingdom of England into one of the most formidable military powers in Europe . His long reign of fifty years was the second longest in medieval England and saw vital developments in legislation and government — in particular the evolution of the English parliament — as well as the ravages of the Black Death .
Edward was crowned at age fourteen after his father was deposed by his mother and her lover Roger Mortimer . At age seventeen he led a successful coup against Mortimer , the de facto ruler of the country , and began his personal reign . After a successful campaign in Scotland he declared himself rightful heir to the French throne in 1337 but his claim was denied due to the Salic law . This started what would become known as the Hundred Years ' War . Following some initial setbacks the war went exceptionally well for England ; victories at Crécy and Poitiers led to the highly favourable Treaty of Brétigny . Edward 's later years , however , were marked by international failure and domestic strife , largely as a result of his inactivity and poor health .
Edward III was a temperamental man but capable of unusual clemency . He was in many ways a conventional king whose main interest was warfare . Admired in his own time and for centuries after , Edward was denounced as an irresponsible adventurer by later Whig historians such as William Stubbs . This view has been challenged recently and modern historians credit him with some significant achievements .
= = Early life = =
Edward was born at Windsor Castle on 13 November 1312 , and was often referred to as Edward of Windsor in his early years . The reign of his father , Edward II , was a particularly problematic period of English history . One source of contention was the king 's inactivity , and repeated failure , in the ongoing war with Scotland . Another controversial issue was the king 's exclusive patronage of a small group of royal favourites . The birth of a male heir in 1312 temporarily improved Edward II 's position in relation to the baronial opposition . To bolster further the independent prestige of the young prince , the king had him created Earl of Chester at only twelve days of age .
In 1325 , Edward II was faced with a demand from the French king , Charles IV , to perform homage for the English Duchy of Aquitaine . Edward was reluctant to leave the country , as discontent was once again brewing domestically , particularly over his relationship with the favourite Hugh Despenser the Younger . Instead , he had his son Edward created Duke of Aquitaine in his place and sent him to France to perform the homage . The young Edward was accompanied by his mother Isabella , who was the sister of King Charles , and was meant to negotiate a peace treaty with the French . While in France , however , Isabella conspired with the exiled Roger Mortimer to have the king Edward deposed . To build up diplomatic and military support for the venture , Isabella had Prince Edward engaged to the twelve @-@ year @-@ old Philippa of Hainault . An invasion of England was launched and Edward II 's forces deserted him completely . The king was forced to relinquish the throne to his son on 25 January 1327 . The new king was crowned as Edward III on 1 February 1327 .
It was not long before the new reign also met with other problems caused by the central position at court of Roger Mortimer , who was now the de facto ruler of England . Mortimer used his power to acquire noble estates and titles , and his unpopularity grew with the humiliating defeat by the Scots at the Battle of Stanhope Park and the ensuing Treaty of Edinburgh – Northampton , signed with the Scots in 1328 . Also the young king came into conflict with his guardian . Mortimer knew his position in relation to the king was precarious and subjected Edward to disrespect . The tension increased after Edward and Philippa , who had married at York Minster on 24 January 1328 , had a son on 15 June 1330 . Eventually , Edward decided to take direct action against Mortimer . Aided by his close companion William Montagu and a small number of other trusted men , Edward took Mortimer by surprise at Nottingham Castle on 19 October 1330 . Mortimer was executed and Edward III 's personal reign began .
= = Early reign = =
Edward III was not content with the peace agreement made in his name , but the renewal of the war with Scotland originated in private , rather than royal initiative . A group of English magnates known as The Disinherited , who had lost land in Scotland by the peace accord , staged an invasion of Scotland and won a great victory at the Battle of Dupplin Moor in 1332 . They attempted to install Edward Balliol as king of Scotland in David II 's place , but Balliol was soon expelled and was forced to seek the help of Edward III . The English king responded by laying siege to the important border town of Berwick and defeated a large relieving army at the Battle of Halidon Hill . Edward reinstated Balliol on the throne and received a substantial amount of land in southern Scotland . These victories proved hard to sustain , however , as forces loyal to David II gradually regained control of the country . In 1338 , Edward was forced to agree to a truce with the Scots .
One reason for the change of strategy towards Scotland was a growing concern for the relationship between England and France . As long as Scotland and France were in an alliance , the English were faced with the prospect of fighting a war on two fronts . The French carried out raids on English coastal towns , leading to rumours in England of a full @-@ scale French invasion . In 1337 , Philip VI confiscated the English king 's duchy of Aquitaine and the county of Ponthieu . Instead of seeking a peaceful resolution to the conflict by paying homage to the French king , the way his father had done , Edward responded by laying claim to the French crown as the grandson of Philip IV . The French , however , invoked the Salic law of succession and rejected his claim . Instead , they upheld the rights of Philip IV 's nephew , King Philip VI ( an agnatic descendant of the House of France ) , thereby setting the stage for the Hundred Years ' War ( see family tree below ) . In the early stages of the war , Edward 's strategy was to build alliances with other Continental princes . In 1338 , Louis IV named Edward vicar @-@ general of the Holy Roman Empire and promised his support . As late as 1373 , the Anglo @-@ Portuguese Treaty of 1373 established an Anglo @-@ Portuguese Alliance . These measures , however , produced few results ; the only major military victory in this phase of the war was the English naval victory at Sluys on 24 June 1340 , which secured English control of the Channel .
Meanwhile , the fiscal pressure on the kingdom caused by Edward 's expensive alliances led to discontent at home . The regency council at home was frustrated by the mounting national debt , while the king and his commanders on the Continent were angered by the failure of the government in England to provide sufficient funds . To deal with the situation , Edward himself returned to England , arriving in London unannounced on 30 November 1340 . Finding the affairs of the realm in disorder , he purged the royal administration of a great number of ministers and judges . These measures did not bring domestic stability , however , and a stand @-@ off ensued between the king and John de Stratford , Archbishop of Canterbury , during which Stratford 's relatives Robert Stratford Bishop of Chichester and Henry de Stratford were temporarily stripped of title and imprisoned respectively . Stratford claimed that Edward had violated the laws of the land by arresting royal officers . A certain level of conciliation was reached at the parliament of April 1341 . Here Edward was forced to accept severe limitations to his financial and administrative freedom , in return for a grant of taxation . Yet in October the same year , the king repudiated this statute and Archbishop Stratford was politically ostracised . The extraordinary circumstances of the April parliament had forced the king into submission , but under normal circumstances the powers of the king in medieval England were virtually unlimited , a fact that Edward was able to exploit .
Historian Nicholas Rodger called Edward III 's claim to be the " Sovereign of the Seas " into question , arguing there was hardly any Royal Navy before the reign of Henry V ( 1413 – 22 ) . Although Rodger may have made this claim , the reality was that King John had already developed a royal fleet of galleys and had attempted to establish an administration for these ships and ones which were arrested ( privately owned ships pulled into royal / national service ) . Henry III , his successor , continued this work . Notwithstanding the fact that he , along with his predecessor , had hoped to develop a strong and efficient naval administration , their endeavours produced one that was informal and mostly ad hoc . A formal naval administration emerged during Edward 's reign which was composed of lay administrators and headed by William de Clewre , Matthew de Torksey , and John de Haytfield successively with them being titled , Clerk of the King 's Ships . Sir Robert de Crull was the last to fill this position during Edward III 's reign and would have the longest tenure in this position . It was during his tenure that Edward 's naval administration would become a base for what evolved during the reigns of successors such as Henry VIII of England 's Council of Marine and Navy Board and Charles I of England 's Board of Admiralty . Rodger also argues that for much of the fourteenth century , the French had the upper hand , apart from Sluys in 1340 and , perhaps , off Winchelsea in 1350 . Yet , the French never invaded England and France 's King John II died in captivity in England . There was a need for an English navy to play a role in this and to handle other matters , such as the insurrection of the Anglo @-@ Irish lords and acts of piracy .
= = Fortunes of war = =
By the early 1340s , it was clear that Edward 's policy of alliances was too costly , and yielded too few results . The following years saw more direct involvement by English armies , including in the Breton War of Succession , but these interventions also proved fruitless at first . A major change came in July 1346 , when Edward staged a major offensive , sailing for Normandy with a force of 15 @,@ 000 men . His army sacked the city of Caen , and marched across northern France , to meet up with English forces in Flanders . It was not Edward 's initial intention to engage the French army , but at Crécy , just north of the Somme , he found favourable terrain and decided to fight an army led by Philip VI . On 26 August , the English army defeated a far larger French army in the Battle of Crécy . Shortly after this , on 17 October , an English army defeated and captured King David II of Scotland at the Battle of Neville 's Cross . With his northern borders secured , Edward felt free to continue his major offensive against France , laying siege to the town of Calais . The operation was the greatest English venture of the Hundred Years ' War , involving an army of 35 @,@ 000 men . The siege started on 4 September 1346 , and lasted until the town surrendered on 3 August 1347 .
After the fall of Calais , factors outside of Edward 's control forced him to wind down the war effort . In 1348 , the Black Death struck England with full force , killing a third or more of the country 's population . This loss of manpower led to a shortage of farm labour , and a corresponding rise in wages . The great landowners struggled with the shortage of manpower and the resulting inflation in labour cost . To curb the rise in wages , the king and parliament responded with the Ordinance of Labourers in 1349 , followed by the Statute of Labourers in 1351 . These attempts to regulate wages could not succeed in the long run , but in the short term they were enforced with great vigour . All in all , the plague did not lead to a full @-@ scale breakdown of government and society , and recovery was remarkably swift . This was to a large extent thanks to the competent leadership of royal administrators such as Treasurer William Edington and Chief Justice William de Shareshull .
It was not until the mid @-@ 1350s that military operations on the Continent were resumed on a large scale . In 1356 , Edward 's eldest son , Edward , the Black Prince , won an important victory in the Battle of Poitiers . The greatly outnumbered English forces not only routed the French , but captured the French king , John II and his youngest son , Philip . After a succession of victories , the English held great possessions in France , the French king was in English custody , and the French central government had almost totally collapsed . There has been a historical debate as to whether Edward 's claim to the French crown originally was genuine , or if it was simply a political ploy meant to put pressure on the French government . Regardless of the original intent , the stated claim now seemed to be within reach . Yet a campaign in 1359 , meant to complete the undertaking , was inconclusive . In 1360 , therefore , Edward accepted the Treaty of Brétigny , whereby he renounced his claims to the French throne , but secured his extended French possessions in full sovereignty .
= = Later reign = =
While Edward 's early reign had been energetic and successful , his later years were marked by inertia , military failure and political strife . The day @-@ to @-@ day affairs of the state had less appeal to Edward than military campaigning , so during the 1360s Edward increasingly relied on the help of his subordinates , in particular William Wykeham . A relative upstart , Wykeham was made Keeper of the Privy Seal in 1363 and Chancellor in 1367 , though due to political difficulties connected with his inexperience , the Parliament forced him to resign the chancellorship in 1371 . Compounding Edward 's difficulties were the deaths of his most trusted men , some from the 1361 – 62 recurrence of the plague . William Montague , Earl of Salisbury , Edward 's companion in the 1330 coup , died as early as 1344 . William de Clinton , who had also been with the king at Nottingham , died in 1354 . One of the earls created in 1337 , William de Bohun , Earl of Northampton , died in 1360 , and the next year Henry of Grosmont , perhaps the greatest of Edward 's captains , succumbed to what was probably plague . Their deaths left the majority of the magnates younger and more naturally aligned to the princes than to the king himself .
Increasingly , Edward began to rely on his sons for the leadership of military operations . The king 's second son , Lionel of Antwerp , attempted to subdue by force the largely autonomous Anglo @-@ Irish lords in Ireland . The venture failed , and the only lasting mark he left were the suppressive Statutes of Kilkenny in 1366 . In France , meanwhile , the decade following the Treaty of Brétigny was one of relative tranquillity , but on 8 April 1364 John II died in captivity in England , after unsuccessfully trying to raise his own ransom at home . He was followed by the vigorous Charles V , who enlisted the help of the capable Constable Bertrand du Guesclin . In 1369 , the French war started anew , and Edward 's younger son John of Gaunt was given the responsibility of a military campaign . The effort failed , and with the Treaty of Bruges in 1375 , the great English possessions in France were reduced to only the coastal towns of Calais , Bordeaux , and Bayonne .
Military failure abroad , and the associated fiscal pressure of constant campaigns , led to political discontent at home . The problems came to a head in the parliament of 1376 , the so @-@ called Good Parliament . The parliament was called to grant taxation , but the House of Commons took the opportunity to address specific grievances . In particular , criticism was directed at some of the king 's closest advisors . Chamberlain William Latimer and Steward of the Household John Neville were dismissed from their positions . Edward 's mistress , Alice Perrers , who was seen to hold far too much power over the ageing king , was banished from court . Yet the real adversary of the Commons , supported by powerful men such as Wykeham and Edmund de Mortimer , Earl of March , was John of Gaunt . Both the king and the Black Prince were by this time incapacitated by illness , leaving Gaunt in virtual control of government . Gaunt was forced to give in to the demands of parliament , but at its next convocation , in 1377 , most of the achievements of the Good Parliament were reversed .
Edward himself , however , did not have much to do with any of this ; after around 1375 he played a limited role in the government of the realm . Around 29 September 1376 he fell ill with a large abscess . After a brief period of recovery in February 1377 , the king died of a stroke at Sheen on 21 June . He was succeeded by his ten @-@ year @-@ old grandson , King Richard II , son of the Black Prince , since the Black Prince himself had died on 8 June 1376 .
= = Achievements of the reign = =
= = = Legislation = = =
The middle years of Edward 's reign were a period of significant legislative activity . Perhaps the best @-@ known piece of legislation was the Statute of Labourers of 1351 , which addressed the labour shortage problem caused by the Black Death . The statute fixed wages at their pre @-@ plague level and checked peasant mobility by asserting that lords had first claim on their men 's services . In spite of concerted efforts to uphold the statute , it eventually failed due to competition among landowners for labour . The law has been described as an attempt " to legislate against the law of supply and demand " , which made it doomed to fail . Nevertheless , the labour shortage had created a community of interest between the smaller landowners of the House of Commons and the greater landowners of the House of Lords . The resulting measures angered the peasants , leading to the Peasants ' Revolt of 1381 .
The reign of Edward III coincided with the so @-@ called Babylonian Captivity of the papacy at Avignon . During the wars with France , opposition emerged in England against perceived injustices by a papacy largely controlled by the French crown . Papal taxation of the English Church was suspected to be financing the nation 's enemies , while the practice of provisions – the Pope providing benefices for clerics – caused resentment in the English population . The statutes of Provisors and Praemunire , of 1350 and 1353 respectively , aimed to amend this by banning papal benefices , as well as limiting the power of the papal court over English subjects . The statutes did not , however , sever the ties between the king and the Pope , who were equally dependent upon each other .
Other legislation of importance includes the Treason Act of 1351 . It was precisely the harmony of the reign that allowed a consensus on the definition of this controversial crime . Yet the most significant legal reform was probably that concerning the Justices of the Peace . This institution began before the reign of Edward III but , by 1350 , the justices had been given the power not only to investigate crimes and make arrests , but also to try cases , including those of felony . With this , an enduring fixture in the administration of local English justice had been created .
= = = Parliament and taxation = = =
Parliament as a representative institution was already well established by the time of Edward III , but the reign was nevertheless central to its development . During this period , membership in the English baronage , formerly a somewhat indistinct group , became restricted to those who received a personal summons to parliament . This happened as parliament gradually developed into a bicameral institution , composed of a House of Lords and a House of Commons . Yet it was not in the upper , but in the lower house that the greatest changes took place , with the expanding political role of the Commons . Informative is the Good Parliament , where the Commons for the first time – albeit with noble support – were responsible for precipitating a political crisis . In the process , both the procedure of impeachment and the office of the Speaker were created . Even though the political gains were of only temporary duration , this parliament represented a watershed in English political history .
The political influence of the Commons originally lay in their right to grant taxes . The financial demands of the Hundred Years ' War were enormous , and the king and his ministers tried different methods of covering the expenses . The king had a steady income from crown lands , and could also take up substantial loans from Italian and domestic financiers . To finance warfare on Edward III 's scale , however , the king had to resort to taxation of his subjects . Taxation took two primary forms : levy and customs . The levy was a grant of a proportion of all moveable property , normally a tenth for towns and a fifteenth for farmland . This could produce large sums of money , but each such levy had to be approved by parliament , and the king had to prove the necessity . The customs therefore provided a welcome supplement , as a steady and reliable source of income . An " ancient duty " on the export of wool had existed since 1275 . Edward I had tried to introduce an additional duty on wool , but this unpopular maltolt , or " unjust exaction " , was soon abandoned . Then , from 1336 onwards , a series of schemes aimed at increasing royal revenues from wool export were introduced . After some initial problems and discontent , it was agreed through the Ordinance of the Staple of 1353 that the new customs should be approved by parliament , though in reality they became permanent .
Through the steady taxation of Edward III 's reign , parliament – and in particular the Commons – gained political influence . A consensus emerged that in order for a tax to be just , the king had to prove its necessity , it had to be granted by the community of the realm , and it had to be to the benefit of that community . In addition to imposing taxes , parliament would also present petitions for redress of grievances to the king , most often concerning misgovernment by royal officials . This way the system was beneficial for both parties . Through this process the commons , and the community they represented , became increasingly politically aware , and the foundation was laid for the particular English brand of constitutional monarchy .
= = = Chivalry and national identity = = =
Central to Edward III 's policy was reliance on the higher nobility for purposes of war and administration . While his father had regularly been in conflict with a great portion of his peerage , Edward III successfully created a spirit of camaraderie between himself and his greatest subjects . Both Edward I and Edward II had been limited in their policy towards the nobility , allowing the creation of few new peerages during the sixty years preceding Edward III 's reign . The young king reversed this trend when , in 1337 , as a preparation for the imminent war , he created six new earls on the same day . At the same time , Edward expanded the ranks of the peerage upwards , by introducing the new title of duke for close relatives of the king . Furthermore , Edward bolstered the sense of community within this group by the creation of the Order of the Garter , probably in 1348 . A plan from 1344 to revive the Round Table of King Arthur never came to fruition , but the new order carried connotations from this legend by the circular shape of the garter . Polydore Vergil tells of how the young Joan of Kent , Countess of Salisbury – allegedly the king 's favourite at the time – accidentally dropped her garter at a ball at Calais . King Edward responded to the ensuing ridicule of the crowd by tying the garter around his own knee with the words honi soit qui mal y pense – shame on him who thinks ill of it .
This reinforcement of the aristocracy must be seen in conjunction with the war in France , as must the emerging sense of national identity . Just as the war with Scotland had done , the fear of a French invasion helped strengthen a sense of national unity , and nationalise the aristocracy that had been largely Anglo @-@ Norman since the Norman conquest . Since the time of Edward I , popular myth suggested that the French planned to extinguish the English language , and as his grandfather had done , Edward III made the most of this scare . As a result , the English language experienced a strong revival ; in 1362 , a Statute of Pleading ordered the English language to be used in law courts , and the year after , Parliament was for the first time opened in English . At the same time , the vernacular saw a revival as a literary language , through the works of William Langland , John Gower and especially The Canterbury Tales by Geoffrey Chaucer . Yet the extent of this Anglicisation must not be exaggerated . The statute of 1362 was in fact written in the French language and had little immediate effect , and parliament was opened in that language as late as 1377 . The Order of the Garter , though a distinctly English institution , included also foreign members such as John IV , Duke of Brittany and Sir Robert of Namur . Edward III – himself bilingual – viewed himself as legitimate king of both England and France , and could not show preferential treatment for one part of his domains over another .
= = Assessment and character = =
Edward III enjoyed unprecedented popularity in his own lifetime , and even the troubles of his later reign were never blamed directly on the king himself . Edward 's contemporary Jean Froissart wrote in his Chronicles that " His like had not been seen since the days of King Arthur " . This view persisted for a while but , with time , the image of the king changed . The Whig historians of a later age preferred constitutional reform to foreign conquest and discredited Edward for ignoring his responsibilities to his own nation . In the words of Bishop Stubbs :
Edward III was not a statesman , though he possessed some qualifications which might have made him a successful one . He was a warrior ; ambitious , unscrupulous , selfish , extravagant and ostentatious . His obligations as a king sat very lightly on him . He felt himself bound by no special duty , either to maintain the theory of royal supremacy or to follow a policy which would benefit his people . Like Richard I , he valued England primarily as a source of supplies .
— William Stubbs , The Constitutional History of England
Influential as Stubbs was , it was long before this view was challenged . In a 1960 article , titled " Edward III and the Historians " , May McKisack pointed out the teleological nature of Stubbs ' judgement . A medieval king could not be expected to work towards the future ideal of a parliamentary monarchy ; rather his role was a pragmatic one — to maintain order and solve problems as they arose . At this , Edward III excelled . Edward had also been accused of endowing his younger sons too liberally and thereby promoting dynastic strife culminating in the Wars of the Roses . This claim was rejected by K.B. McFarlane , who argued that this was not only the common policy of the age , but also the best . Later biographers of the king such as Mark Ormrod and Ian Mortimer have followed this historiographical trend . However , the older negative view has not completely disappeared ; as recently as 2001 , Norman Cantor described Edward III as an " avaricious and sadistic thug " and a " destructive and merciless force . "
From what is known of Edward 's character , he could be impulsive and temperamental , as was seen by his actions against Stratford and the ministers in 1340 / 41 . At the same time , he was well known for his clemency ; Mortimer 's grandson was not only absolved , but came to play an important part in the French wars , and was eventually made a Knight of the Garter . Both in his religious views and his interests , Edward was a conventional man . His favourite pursuit was the art of war and , in this , he conformed to the medieval notion of good kingship . As a warrior he was so successful that one modern military historian has described him as the greatest general in English history . He seems to have been unusually devoted to his wife , Queen Philippa . Much has been made of Edward 's sexual licentiousness , but there is no evidence of any infidelity on the king 's part before Alice Perrers became his lover , and by that time the queen was already terminally ill . This devotion extended to the rest of the family as well ; in contrast to so many of his predecessors , Edward never experienced opposition from any of his five adult sons .
= = Issue = =
= = Ancestry = =
= = = Relationship to French monarchs = = =
Edward 's claim on the French throne was based on his descent from King Philip IV of France , through his mother Isabella .
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= Peter Martyr Vermigli =
Peter Martyr Vermigli ( 8 September 1499 – 12 November 1562 ) was an Italian @-@ born Reformed theologian . His early work as a reformer in Catholic Italy and decision to flee for Protestant northern Europe influenced many other Italians to convert and flee as well . In England , he influenced the Edwardian Reformation , including the Eucharistic service of the 1552 Book of Common Prayer . He was considered an authority on the Eucharist among the Reformed churches , and engaged in controversies on the subject by writing treatises . Vermigli 's Loci Communes , a compilation of excerpts from his biblical commentaries organized by the topics of systematic theology , became a standard Reformed theological textbook .
Born in Florence , Vermigli entered a religious order and was appointed to influential posts as abbot and prior . He came in contact with leaders of the Italian spirituali reform movement and read Protestant theologians such as Martin Bucer and Ulrich Zwingli . Through reading these works and studying the Bible and the church fathers , he came to accept Protestant beliefs about salvation and the Eucharist . To satisfy his conscience and avoid persecution by the Roman Inquisition , he fled Italy for Protestant northern Europe . He ultimately arrived in Strasbourg where he taught on the Old Testament of the Bible under Bucer . English reformer Thomas Cranmer invited him to take an influential post at Oxford University where he continued to teach on the Bible . He also defended his Eucharistic beliefs against Catholic proponents of transubstantiation in a public disputation . Vermigli was forced to leave England on the accession of the Catholic Queen Mary . As a Marian exile he returned to Strasbourg and his former teaching position . Vermigli 's beliefs regarding the Eucharist and predestination clashed with those of leading Lutherans in Strasbourg , so he transferred to Reformed Zürich where he taught until his death in 1562 .
Vermigli 's best @-@ known theological contribution was defending the Reformed doctrine of the Eucharist against Catholics and Lutherans . Contrary to the Catholic doctrine of transubstantiation , Vermigli did not believe that the bread and wine are changed into Christ 's body and blood . He also disagreed with the Lutheran view that Christ 's body is ubiquitous and so physically present at the Eucharist . Instead , Vermigli taught that Christ remains in Heaven even though he is offered to those who partake of the Eucharist and received by believers . Vermigli is also notable for developing a strong doctrine of double predestination independently of John Calvin . Vermigli believed that God 's will includes his choice to condemn all who are not chosen for salvation . His belief is similar but not identical to Calvin 's . Vermigli 's political theology was important in the Elizabethan religious settlement ; he provided theological justification for Royal Supremacy , the doctrine that the king of a territory , rather than any ecclesiastical authority , rules the church .
= = Life = =
= = = Early life ( 1499 – 1525 ) = = =
Vermigli was born in Florence , Italy , on 8 September 1499 to Stefano di Antonio Vermigli , a wealthy shoemaker , and Maria Fumantina . He was christened Piero Mariano the following day . He was the eldest of three children ; his sister Felicita Antonio was born in 1501 and his brother Antonio Lorenzo Romulo was born in 1504 . His mother taught him Latin before enrolling him in a school for children of noble Florentines . She died in 1511 , when Piero was twelve . Vermigli was attracted to the Catholic priesthood from an early age . In 1514 he became a novice at the Badia Fiesolana , a monastery of the Canons Regular of the Lateran . The Lateran Canons were one of several institutions born out of a fifteenth @-@ century religious reform movement . They emphasized strict discipline and moved from house to house rather than remaining in one place . They also sought to provide leadership in urban areas . Peter 's sister followed him into the monastic life , becoming a nun the same year .
On completing his novitiate in 1518 , Vermigli took the name Peter Martyr after the thirteenth @-@ century Dominican Saint Peter of Verona . The Lateran Congregation had recently decided that promising young ordinands should be sent to the monastery of Saint John of Verdara in Padua to study Aristotle , so Vermigli was sent there . The University of Padua , with which Saint John of Verdera was loosely affiliated , was a very prestigious institution at the time . At Padua , Vermigli received a thorough training in Thomistic scholasticism and an appreciation for Augustine and Christian humanism . Vermigli was determined to read Aristotle in his original language despite the lack of Greek teachers , so he taught himself . He also made the acquaintance of prominent reform @-@ minded theologians Pietro Bembo , Reginald Pole , and Marcantonio Flaminio .
= = = Early Italian ministry ( 1525 – 36 ) = = =
Vermigli was ordained in 1525 and probably received his Doctor of Divinity around that time . The chapter @-@ general of the Congregation elected him to the office of public preacher in 1526 . His first series of sermons was in Brescia later that year . He then preached for three years , travelling around northern and central Italy . Unlike the practice of other preaching orders which usually only preached at Lent and Advent , the Augustinians preached year @-@ round . He also gave lectures on the Bible as well as Homer in Lateran Congregation houses .
In 1530 Vermigli was appointed vicar of the monastery at San Giovanni in Monte , Bologna . There he learned Hebrew from a local Jewish doctor so he could read the Old Testament scriptures in their original language . It was uncommon but not unheard of for clergy to learn Hebrew , even among those who sought deeper biblical study . In 1533 the chapter @-@ general elected Vermigli abbot of the two Lateran monasteries in Spoleto . At this post he was also responsible for two convents . The discipline in the monastic houses in Vermigli 's care had been lax before his arrival , and they had become a source of scandal in Spoleto . There was also a history of power struggle between the Bishop of Spoleto , Francesco Eroli , and the Spoletan abbacy , to the point that the bishop had excommunicated Vermigli 's predecessor , only to be overturned by Rome . Vermigli brought order to his houses and mended the relationship with the bishop .
The chapter @-@ general re @-@ elected Vermigli to the Spoletan abbacy in 1534 and again in 1535 , but he was not elected to lead any house the following year . He may have been identified as a promising reformer who could help with reform efforts in higher places . Vermigli was in contact with the Catholic leaders working on the Consilium de emendanda ecclesia , an internal report on potential reforms of the Church commissioned by Pope Paul III . He may have even travelled to Rome to assist in writing it .
= = = First controversial preaching and ministry in Lucca ( 1537 – 41 ) = = =
The Congregation elected Vermigli abbot of the monastery at San Pietro ad Aram , Naples in 1537 . There he became acquainted with Juan de Valdés , a leader of the spirituali movement . Valdés introduced Vermigli to the writings of Protestant reformers . Toward the end of his time in Naples , he read Martin Bucer 's commentaries on the Gospels and the Psalms , and Zwingli 's De vera et falsa religione . Reading these works was an act of ecclesiastical defiance , but not an uncommon one in reformist circles . Vermigli seems to have slowly moved in a Protestant direction primarily through study of the Bible and the Church fathers , especially Augustine . He probably read Protestant literature critically ; it was common for those in reform @-@ minded circles to do so while remaining in the Catholic Church . Vermigli embraced the Protestant doctrine of justification by faith alone during this time , and he had probably rejected the traditional Catholic view of the sacraments . Vermigli also seems to have influenced Valdés . Scholars believe that Valdés 's strong doctrine of double predestination , that God has chosen some people for salvation and others for damnation , was learned from Vermigli . Vermigli in turn had acquired it from his study of Gregory of Rimini at Padua .
Vermigli 's move away from orthodox Catholic belief became apparent in 1539 when he preached on 1 Corinthians 3 : 9 – 17 , a passage commonly used as proof of the doctrine of purgatory . Vermigli did not take this view in his preaching , though he did not openly deny the existence of purgatory . Gaetano da Thiene , an opponent of the spirituali , reported his suspicions of Vermigli to the Spanish viceroy of Naples Don Pedro de Toledo , who prohibited Vermigli 's preaching . The prohibition was removed on Vermigli 's appeal to Rome , with which he received some help from powerful friends he had made in Padua , such as Cardinals Pole and Bembo . Despite this controversy , Vermigli continued to rise in the Lateran Congregation . He was made one of four visitors by the chapter @-@ general in 1540 . The visitors assisted the rector general by inspecting the Congregation 's religious houses .
In 1541 the Congregation elected Vermigli to the important post of prior of Basilica of San Frediano in Lucca . The prior at San Frediano exercised some episcopal authority over half the city , as well as control of the Lateran 's religious houses . As at his earlier post in Spoleto , the monks of the San Frediano monastery as well as the clergy of Lucca were known for moral laxity , which led to an openness to the new Lutheran religion there . Vermigli saw his task as one of education as well as moral correction . He set up a college based on humanist principles of education and modeled on the newly founded St John 's College , Cambridge , and Corpus Christi College , Oxford . Instruction was in Greek , Latin , and Hebrew . Among the professors were the humanists Immanuel Tremellius , Paolo Lacizi , Celio Secondo Curione , and Girolamo Zanchi , all of whom would later convert to Protestantism . The Congregation recognized Vermigli 's work by appointing him to a disciplinary commission of seven canons in May 1542 .
= = = Flight from Italy and first Strasbourg professorship ( 1542 – 47 ) = = =
Vermigli was widely respected and very cautious . He was able to continue his reform efforts in Lucca without any suspicion of unorthodox views despite a papal meeting there with the Emperor in 1541 . His eventual downfall was caused by two of his followers , one of whom openly questioned papal authority and another who celebrated a Protestant form of the Eucharist . The reconstitution of the Roman Inquisition in 1542 may have been in part a response to fear that Lucca and other cities would defect from the Catholic Church . The authorities of the Republic of Lucca began to fear that their political independence from the Holy Roman Empire was at stake if their city continued to be viewed as a Protestant haven . Bans on Protestant books heretofore ignored were enforced , religious feasts which had been dropped were reinstated , and religious processions were scheduled to assure Rome of Lucca 's loyalty .
Vermigli was summoned to a Chapter Extraordinary of the Lateran Congregation , and his friends warned him that he had powerful adversaries . These increasingly foreboding events contributed to his decision to ignore the summons and flee , but he was finally persuaded by his conscience against the Masses he was bound to perform . Vermigli fled Lucca for Pisa on 12 August 1542 by horse with three of his canons . There he celebrated a Protestant form of the Eucharist for the first time . When he stopped in Florence , staying in Badia Fiesolana where he had entered religious life , Vermigli learned that Bernardino Ochino had arrived there . Vermigli convinced Ochino , a popular preacher with Protestant leanings , to flee Italy as well . On 25 August Vermigli travelled to Zürich by way of Ferrara and Verona .
Once Vermigli arrived in Zürich he was questioned regarding his theological views by several Protestant leaders including Heinrich Bullinger , Konrad Pellikan , and Rudolph Gualther . They eventually determined that he could be allowed to teach Protestant theology , but there was no position vacant for him to fill there or in Basel , where he went next . In a letter to his former congregation in Lucca , he explained his motives for leaving and also expressed discouragement at not being able to find a post . Basler humanist Bonifacius Amerbach assisted him with money , and reformer Oswald Myconius recommended him to Martin Bucer in Strasbourg , with whose writings Vermigli was already familiar . Vermigli moved to Strasbourg and became a close personal friend and ally of Bucer , who granted him the chair of Old Testament at the Senior School , succeeding Wolfgang Capito . He began by lecturing on the minor prophets , followed by Lamentations , Genesis , Exodus , and Leviticus . Vermigli was delighted to be able to teach from the original @-@ language text of the Old Testament , as many of his students could read Hebrew . He was well @-@ liked by his students and fellow scholars . Vermigli was known for precision , simplicity , and clarity of speech in contrast to Bucer 's propensity for digressions which sometimes left his students lost .
Two of Vermigli 's former colleagues in Lucca — Lacizi and Tremellius — would join him in Strasbourg . In 1544 he was elected canon of St. Thomas Church , Strasbourg . In 1545 Vermigli married his first wife , Catherine Dammartin , a former nun from Metz . Catherine knew no Italian , and Peter very little German , so it is assumed that they conversed in Latin .
= = = England ( 1547 – 53 ) = = =
Edward VI acceded to the English throne in 1547 and the Protestant reformers there hoped to take the opportunity to more thoroughly reform the Church of England . Archbishop Thomas Cranmer invited Vermigli and Ochino to assist in the effort . In addition , the victory of Catholic Holy Roman Emperor Charles V in the Schmalkaldic War and the resulting Augsburg Interim led to a hostile environment for Protestants in Germany . Vermigli accepted the invitation in November and sailed with Ochino to England . In 1548 , he replaced Richard Smyth , becoming the second Regius Professor of Divinity at Oxford . This was a very influential post at a university which had been slow to accept reform .
On arriving in Oxford , Vermigli began lecturing on 1 Corinthians , denouncing Catholic doctrines of purgatory , clerical celibacy , and lenten fasting . He then spoke against the Catholic doctrine of the Eucharist , the most sensitive area of disagreement between Protestants and Catholics in England at the time . Conservative faculty , led by Smyth , challenged Vermigli to defend his views in a formal disputation . Smyth fled to St Andrews and finally to Leuven before the disputation could be held , so three Catholic divines , William Tresham , William Chedsey and Morgan Phillips , stepped forward to take his place . The disputation was held in 1549 before Richard Cox , the University Chancellor and a firm Protestant . It focused on the doctrine of transubstantiation , with Vermigli 's opponents arguing for it and him against . Chancellor Cox made it obvious that he considered Vermigli to have the better argument , but did not formally declare a winner . The disputation put Vermigli at the forefront of debates over the nature of the Eucharist .
In 1549 , a series of uprisings known as the Prayer Book Rebellion forced Vermigli to leave Oxford and take up residence at Lambeth Palace with Cranmer . The rebellion involved conservative opposition to a vernacular liturgy , which was imposed with the Book of Common Prayer at Pentecost in 1549 . Rioters in the streets of Oxford threatened Vermigli with death . At Lambeth , Vermigli assisted Cranmer by helping write sermons against the rebellion . After some time he returned to Oxford , where he was made first canon of Christ Church in January 1551 . Vermigli , the first married priest at Oxford , caused controversy by bringing his wife into his rooms overlooking Fish Street at the Great Quadrangle . His windows were smashed several times until he moved to a location in the cloisters , where he built a fortified stone study .
Vermigli became deeply involved in English church politics . In 1550 , he and Martin Bucer provided recommendations to Cranmer for additional changes to the Book of Common Prayer 's Eucharistic liturgy . Vermigli supported the church 's position in the vestarian controversy , over whether bishop John Hooper should be forced to wear a surplice . Vermigli agreed with Hooper 's desire to rid the church of elaborate garments , but he did not believe they were strictly prohibited . He advised Hooper to respect the authority of his superiors . Vermigli was probably instrumental in convincing Hooper to drop his opposition in February 1551 . In October 1551 he participated in a commission to rewrite the canon law of England . In the Winter he assisted in the writing of a draft set of such laws , which was published by John Foxe as Reformatio legum ecclesiasticarum in 1552 .
King Edward died in 1553 , followed by the accession of Mary I of England , who opposed the Protestant reformers . Vermigli was placed under house arrest for six months , and his Catholic opponents at Oxford would likely have had him executed , as Cranmer eventually was in 1556 . Despite this risk , he agreed to a public disputation with Cranmer against the new Catholic establishment , but this never came to fruition because Cranmer was imprisoned . Vermigli was able to receive permission from the Privy Council to leave England , and was advised by Cranmer to do so .
Vermigli 's wife , Catherine , had become well known in Oxford for her piety and ministry to expectant mothers . She also enjoyed carving faces into plum stones . She had died childless in the February before Vermigli left . Soon after Vermigli 's departure , Cardinal Pole had her disinterred and thrown on a dungheap . Following the accession of Protestant Queen Elizabeth in 1558 , she was re @-@ interred with the relics of Saint Frithuswith in Christ Church Cathedral .
= = = Strasbourg and Zürich ( 1553 – 62 ) = = =
Vermigli arrived in Strasbourg in October 1553 , where he was restored to his position at the Senior School and began lecturing on Judges as well as Aristotle 's Nicomachean Ethics . Vermigli often gathered with other Marian exiles for study and prayer in his home . His lectures on Judges often addressed the political issues relevant for the exiles , such as the right to resist a tyrant . Since Vermigli 's departure and the death of Bucer in 1551 , Lutheranism had gained influence in Strasbourg under the leadership of Johann Marbach . Vermigli had been asked to sign both the Augsburg Confession and the Wittenberg Concord as a condition of being reinstalled as professor . He was willing to sign the Augsburg Confession , but not the Concordat , which affirmed a bodily presence of Christ in the Eucharist . He was retained and reappointed anyway , but controversy over the Eucharist as well as Vermigli 's strong doctrine of double predestination continued with the Lutherans . Another professor in Strasbourg , Girolamo Zanchi , who had converted to Protestantism while under Vermigli in Lucca , shared Vermigli 's convictions regarding the Eucharist and predestination . Zanchi and Vermigli became friends and allies . Vermigli 's increasing alienation from the Lutheran establishment led him in 1556 to accept an offer from Heinrich Bullinger to teach at the Carolinum school in Zürich . John Jewel , a fellow Marian exile , came along with him .
In Zürich , Vermigli succeeded Konrad Pellikan as the chair of Hebrew , a position he would hold until his death . He married his second wife , Catarina Merenda of Brescia , Italy , in 1559 . Vermigli was able to share his teaching duties with fellow Hebraist Theodore Bibliander , allowing him time to study and prepare the notes from his previous lectures for publication . He began lecturing on the books of Samuel and Kings . While in Zürich , Vermigli declined invitations to desirable positions in Geneva , Heidelberg , and England .
Vermigli 's Eucharistic views were accepted in Zürich , but he ran into controversy over his doctrine of double predestination . Similarly to John Calvin , Vermigli believed that in some way God wills the damnation of those not chosen for salvation . Vermigli attempted to avoid confrontation over the issue , but Bibliander began to openly attack him in 1557 , at one point allegedly challenging him to a duel with a double @-@ edged axe . Bibliander held the Erasmian view that God only predestines that those who believe in him will be saved , not the salvation of any individual . Reformed theologians during this time held a variety of beliefs about predestination , and Bullinger 's position is ambiguous , but they agreed that God sovereignly and unconditionally chooses whom to save . They believed salvation is not based on any characteristic of a person , including their faith . Bullinger and the Zürich church did not necessarily agree with Vermigli 's double predestinarian view , but Bibliander 's view was deemed unallowable . He was dismissed in 1560 , in part to assure other Reformed churches of the Zürich church 's orthodoxy . Vermigli was involved in predestinarian controversy again when Zanchi , who had remained in Strasbourg when Vermigli left for Zürich , was accused of heretical teachings on the Eucharist and predestination by the Lutheran Johann Marbach . Vermigli was selected to write the official judgement of the Zürich church on the matter in a statement signed by Bullinger and other leaders December 1561 . His affirmation of a strong doctrine of predestination represented the opinion of the Zürich church as a whole .
Vermigli attended the abortive Colloquy at Poissy in the Summer of 1561 with Theodore Beza , a conference held in France with the intention of reconciling Catholics and Protestants . He was able to converse with queen mother of France Catherine de 'Medici in her native Italian . He contributed a speech on the Eucharist , arguing that Jesus ' words " this is my body " at the Last Supper were figurative rather than literal . Vermigli 's health was already declining when he succumbed to an epidemic fever in 1562 . He died 12 November 1562 in his Zürich home , attended by physician Conrad Gesner . He was buried in the Grossmunster cathedral , where his successor Josias Simler gave a funeral oration , which was published and is an important source for Vermigli 's later biographies . Vermigli had had two children by his second wife , Caterina , while he was alive , but they did not survive infancy . Four months after his death she bore him a daughter , Maria .
= = Works = =
Vermigli is best known for the Loci Communes ( Latin for " commonplaces " ) , a collection of the topical discussions scattered throughout his biblical commentaries . The Loci Communes was compiled by Huguenot minister Robert Masson and first published in 1576 , fourteen years after Vermigli 's death . Vermigli had apparently expressed a desire to have such a book published , and it was urged along by the suggestion of Theodore Beza . Masson followed the pattern of John Calvin 's Institutes of the Christian Religion to organize it . Fifteen editions of the Loci Communes between 1576 and 1656 spread Vermigli 's influence among Reformed Protestants . Anthony Marten translated the Loci Communes into English in 1583 , adding to it considerably .
Vermigli published commentaries on I Corinthians ( 1551 ) , Romans ( 1558 ) , and Judges ( 1561 ) during his lifetime . He was criticized by his colleagues in Strasbourg for withholding his lectures on books of the Bible for years rather than sending them to be published . Calling his lecture notes on Genesis , Exodus , Leviticus and the Minor Prophets " brief and hasty annotations " , he found it difficult to find time to prepare them for publication . His colleagues edited and published some of his remaining works on the Bible after his death : prayers on the Psalms ( 1564 ) and commentaries on Kings ( 1566 ) , Genesis ( 1569 ) , and Lamentations ( 1629 ) . Vermigli followed the humanist emphasis on seeking the original meaning of scripture , as opposed to the often fanciful and arbitrary allegorical readings of the medieval exegetical tradition . He occasionally adopted an allegorical reading to interpret the Old Testament as having to do with Christ typologically , but he did not utilize the quadriga method of medieval biblical interpretation , where each passage has four levels of meaning . Vermigli 's command of Hebrew , as well as his knowledge of rabbinic literature , surpassed that of most of his contemporaries , including Calvin , Luther , and Zwingli .
Vermigli published an account of his disputation with Oxford Catholics over the Eucharist in 1549 , along with a treatise further explaining his position . The disputation largely dealt with the doctrine of transubstantiation , which Vermigli strongly opposed , but the treatise was able to put forward Vermigli 's own Eucharistic theology . Vermigli 's Eucharistic views , as expressed in the disputation and treatise , were influential in the changes to the Book of Common Prayer of 1552 . Vermigli weighed in again on Eucharistic controversy in England in 1559 . His Defense Against Gardiner was in reply to Stephen Gardiner 's 1552 and 1554 Confutatio Cavillationum , itself a reply to the late Thomas Cranmer 's work . At 821 folio pages , it was the longest work on the subject published during the Reformation period .
Vermigli 's Eucharistic polemical writing was initially directed against Catholics , but beginning in 1557 he began to involve himself in debates with Lutherans . Many Lutherans during this time argued that Christ 's body and blood were physically present in the Eucharist because they are ubiquitous , or everywhere . In 1561 , Johannes Brenz published a work defending such a view , and Vermigli 's friends convinced him to write a response . The result , the Dialogue on the Two Natures in Christ , was a written in the form of a dialogue between Orothetes ( " Boundary Setter " ) , a defender of the Reformed doctrine that Christ 's body is physically located in Heaven , and Pantachus ( " Everywhere " ) , whose speeches are largely taken directly from Brenz 's work . Brenz published a response in 1562 , to which Vermingli began to prepare a rebuttal , but he died before he was able to complete it .
= = Theology = =
Vermigli was primarily a teacher of scripture rather than a systematic theologian , but his lasting influence is mostly associated with his doctrine of the Eucharist . This can be explained by the close relationship he saw between exegesis of scripture and theological reflection . Vermigli 's method of biblical commentary , similar to that of Martin Bucer , was to include extended discussions of doctrinal topics treated by the biblical texts . Like other Protestants , he believed scripture alone held supreme authority in establishing truth . Nevertheless , he was familiar with the church fathers to a higher degree than many of his contemporaries , and he constantly referred to them . He saw value in the fathers because they had discovered insights into the scriptures that he might not have found , and because many of his Catholic opponents placed great weight on arguments from patristic authority . Often , though , he used the fathers as support for interpretations he had already reached on his own and was not concerned when his interpretation had no patristic precedent .
Vermigli is best known for his polemics against the Catholic doctrine of transubstantiation and for the Reformed doctrine of " sacramental presence " . He argued that transubstantiation , the belief that the substance of bread and wine are changed into Christ 's body and blood , was not based on any argument from scripture . He also argued on the basis of Chalcedonian Christology , that because Christ retained his divine nature when he became man ( the divine nature was added to the human nature rather than his human nature being changed ) , the substance of the bread and wine remain the same rather than being changed into the substance of Christ 's body and blood . Finally , he used the analogy of the believer 's union with Christ against the idea of transubstantiation . Because the believer retains their human nature even though God has joined them with Christ , it follows that the Eucharistic elements do not need to be transformed to be Christ 's body . Instead of the substance of the elements changing into Christ 's flesh , Vermigli emphasized the action of the sacrament as an instrument through which Christ is offered to the partaker . He also disagreed with the Anabaptist belief that the Eucharist is simply symbolic or figurative , a view called memorialism or tropism .
Vermigli did not see predestination as central to his theological system , but it became associated with him because of controversies in which he became entangled . Vermigli developed his doctrine independently of John Calvin , and before Calvin published it in his 1559 Institutes of the Christian Religion . Vermigli saw God as sovereign over every event , and believed that all things , including evil , were used by him to accomplish his will . Nevertheless , Vermigli did not hold that humans are compelled to good or evil actions . Vermigli held that God had chosen some people for salvation on the basis of grace or unmerited favor alone , with no consideration for any good or evil characteristics , a view referred to as " unconditional election " . Vermigli also believed that God passed over the reprobate , those who were not elected to salvation . He saw this as included in the will of God , but different in character from the decision to choose the elect for salvation . Because all people have fallen into sin , the reprobating will of God treats them as by @-@ nature fallen and deserving of damnation . Vermigli 's formulation of reprobation as within God 's decree while distinct from his saving election was slightly different from Calvin 's . Calvin saw predestination to salvation and reprobation as two sides of a single decree . Vermigli 's doctrine was to prove more influential in the Reformed confessions .
Vermigli 's biblical writings frequently address political matters . He followed the Aristotelian view that political authority is instituted to promote virtue , and that this includes religion as the chief virtue . Vermigli defended the standard English Protestant doctrine of Royal Supremacy , that kings , so long as they obey God , have the right to rule the church in their land , while Christ is the only head of the universal church . He denied the idea that the pope or any other ecclesiastical authority could exercise authority over a civil ruler such as the king , an important issue at the time given the conflicts between the pope and Henry VIII at the beginning of the English Reformation . While Vermigli charged the civil magistrate with enforcing religious duties , he followed Augustine 's distinction in the City of God between the spiritual sphere ( in Vermigli 's words the " inward motions of the mind " ) and the " outward discipline " of society . The civil magistrate 's authority is only on external matters rather than inward and spiritual religious devotion . Vermigli 's theological justification for Royal Supremacy was used by the framers of the 1559 Elizabethan Settlement , the imposition of Protestant worship based on the Book of Common Prayer as the state religion .
= = Legacy = =
Vermigli 's leadership in Lucca left it arguably the most thoroughly Protestant city in Italy . The Inquisition led many of these Protestants to flee , creating a significant population of Protestant refugees in Geneva . Several important leaders in the Reformation can also be tied to Vermigli 's work in Lucca , including Girolamo Zanchi and Bernardino Ochino .
Scholars have increasingly recognized the importance of figures other than John Calvin and Huldrych Zwingli in the early formation of the Reformed tradition . Richard Muller , a chief authority on the development of this movement , has argued that Vermigli , Wolfgang Musculus , and Heinrich Bullinger were as influential if not more influential than Calvin on the development of Reformed theology in the sixteenth century . Vermigli was a transitional figure between the Reformation period of and the period known as Reformed orthodoxy . In the Reformed orthodox period , the theology first articulated by Reformation figures was codified and systematized . Theologians increasingly resorted to the methods of scholastic theology and the tradition of Aristotelianism . Vermigli was the first of the Reformed scholastic theologians , and he influenced later scholastics Theodore Beza and Girolamo Zanchi .
Vermigli had a profound influence on the English Reformation through his relationship with Thomas Cranmer . Before his contact with Vermigli , Cranmer held Lutheran Eucharistic views . Vermigli seems to have convinced Cranmer to adopt a Reformed view , which changed the course of the English Reformation since Cranmer was primarily responsible for revisions to the Book of Common Prayer and writing the Forty @-@ two Articles . Vermigli had a direct role in the modifications of the Book of Common Prayer of 1552 . He is also believed to have contributed to , if not written , the article on predestination found in the Forty @-@ two Articles of Religion of 1553 . In Elizabethan Oxford and Cambridge , Vermigli 's theology was arguably more influential than that of Calvin . His political theology in particular shaped the Elizabethan religious settlement and his authority was constantly invoked in the controversies of this period .
Various of Vermigli 's writings were printed about 110 times between 1550 and 1650 . The 1562 Loci Communes became a standard textbook in Reformed theological education . He was popular especially with English readers of theology in the seventeenth century . John Milton probably consulted his commentary on Genesis when writing Paradise Lost . The English edition of the Loci Communes was brought to the Massachusetts Bay Colony where it was an important textbook at Harvard College . More of Vermigli 's works were found in the libraries of seventeenth @-@ century Harvard divinity students than those of Calvin . Vermigli 's works were highly regarded by New England Puritan theologians such as John Cotton and Cotton Mather .
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= Northallerton =
Northallerton / ˌnɔːrˈθælətən / is a market town and civil parish in the Hambleton district of North Yorkshire , England . It lies in the Vale of Mowbray and at the northern end of the Vale of York . It has a population of 15 @,@ 741 according to the 2001 census . It has served as the county town of the North Riding of Yorkshire and since 1974 , of North Yorkshire . The population of Northallerton was 16 @,@ 832 in 2011 .
There has been a settlement at Northallerton since Roman times , however its growth in importance began in the 11th century when King William II gifted land to the Bishop of Durham . Under the Bishop 's authority Northallerton became an important centre for religious affairs . It was also a focus for much conflict in subsequent years between the English and the Scots , most notably the Battle of the Standard , nearby in 1138 , which saw losses of as many as 12 @,@ 000 men .
In later years trade and transport became more important . The surrounding area was discovered to have large phosphorus reserves which brought industry to Northallerton due to the easy trade routes . Lying on the main route between Edinburgh and London it became an important stopping point for coaches travelling the route , eventually superseded by the growth of the railways in the 19th century . Lying in the centre of a large rural area Northallerton was established as a market town in 1200 by Royal Charter , and there is still a market in the town today .
It continues to be a major retail centre for the local area today . As the administrative centre for Hambleton district and the county of North Yorkshire , the councils , and several other associated public sector organisations have their headquarters in the town .
= = History = =
= = = Origins and early history = = =
Due to the proximity of the Roman road , entrenchments and relics it seems that the earliest settlement at Northallerton was some form of Roman military station . There is evidence that the Romans had a signal station on Castle Hills just to the west of the town as part of the imperial Roman postal system and a path connecting Hadrian 's Wall with Eboracum ( York ) ran through what is now the neighbouring village of Brompton .
The first church was set up by St Paulinus of York on the site of the present All Saints Parish Church sometime in the early 7th century . It was made from wood and nothing survives of it . In 855 a stone church was built on the same site , fragments of stone have been found during restoration work which provide strong evidence of this Saxon church .
It was then believed that a Saxon town known as Alvertune developed . In Pierre de Langtoft 's history of King Alfred he writes that in 865 it was the site of a number of battles between King Elfrid and his brother Alfred and five Danish kings and a similar number of earls . Later , in the 10th century , Danes settled at Romanby and Brompton . A fine example of English stonecarving from the period , the Brompton Hogbacks , can be found in Brompton Parish Church .
In the Domesday Survey , Norman scribes named the settlement Alvertune , Aluertune and Alretone and there is a reference to the Alvertune wapentac , an area almost identical to the Allertonshire wapentake of the North Riding , which was named after the town .
The origin of the town 's name is uncertain , though it is believed that the name derives from a derivation of the name Aelfere , Aelfereton translates as the farm belonging to Aelfere or even of King Alfred . Alternatively it may be referring to the Alder trees which grew nearby . The prefix of North was added in the 12th century to differentiate from the parish of Allerton Mauleverer , 25 miles ( 40 kilometres ) to the south .
Its position on a major route way brought death and destruction to the town on many occasions . In 1069 , in an attempt to quell rebellion in the north , the area between the Ouse and the Tyne was laid to waste by the armies of William the Conqueror . The town of Northallerton was almost totally destroyed or depopulated . Just a few years later it is described in the Domesday Book as ' modo est in manu regis et wastum est ( put down as waste ) . In 1318 , the town was destroyed again by the Scots , under Sir James Douglas following the Capture of Berwick upon Tweed .
= = = Battle of the Standard = = =
On 22 August 1138 , English forces repelled a Scottish army on Cowton Moor in Brompton parish , around 2 mi ( 3 km ) north of the town . This was the first major battle between the Scots and the English since the Norman conquest and one of the two major battles in the civil war between King Stephen and Empress Matilda . The English forces were summoned by Archbishop Thurstan of York , who had gathered local militia and baronial armies from Yorkshire and the North Midlands . They arrayed themselves round a chariot with a ship 's mast carrying the consecrated banners of St Peter of York , St John of Beverley , St Wilfrid of Ripon and St Cuthbert of Durham , it was this standard @-@ bearing chariot that gave the battle its name . The Scottish army was led by King David I of Scotland .
King David had entered England in support of his niece , Empress Matilda , who was viewed as the rightful heiress to the English throne usurped by King Stephen . With Stephen fighting rebel barons in the south , the Scottish armies had already taken Cumberland and Northumberland , the city of Carlisle and the royal castle at Bamburgh . Finding the English in a defensive position on a hill , David elected to force a battle counting on his superior numbers , 16 @,@ 000 Scots against 10 @,@ 000 Englishmen . Repeated attacks by native Scots failed against the onslaught from the English archers , with losses of up to 12 @,@ 000 Scots . A subsequent attack by mounted knights met initial success but fell back due to lack of infantry support . The battle ended when David 's reserve deserted , forcing him to retreat . The English elected not to pursue , and despite their great losses the Scots were able to regroup in sufficient number to besiege and capture Wark Castle .
The victory by the English ensured the safety of Northern England .
= = = Religious importance = = =
Shortly after his accession William Rufus gave the town , with the lands adjacent , to the see of Durham , and , under the patronage of the bishops of that diocese , it grew in importance , and became an episcopal residence . In 1130 a castle was built on the west side of the town adjacent to North Beck by Bishop Rufus and was expanded in 1142 after William Cumin seized the Bishopric of Durham in 1141 . The castle was further expanded in 1173 by Hugh Pudsey and garrisoned by a group of Flemish soldiers , an act which enraged King Henry II who ordered that it be razed to the ground in 1177 . A more substantial fortified palace surrounded by a moat was built on the same site in 1199 replacing the traditional motte @-@ and @-@ bailey castle . The palace became an important administrative centre for the bishops ' lands in Yorkshire and served as a major residence for the bishops and their staff . The palace lay on the main road from York to Durham and was a regular stopping place for royalty and other dignitaries . The palace fell into ruin by 1658 and the site is now a cemetery .
A Carmelite priory was founded in 1354 , but was demolished soon after the Dissolution of the Monasteries in 1538 . The site passed to various people and was used for arable farming before a workhouse was built on the site in 1857 , subsequently the Friarage Hospital which takes its name from the friary was built . Following development of the site in 2006 , archaeologists uncovered the remains of eight monks along with other artefacts .
= = = A centre for trade and transport = = =
It became the market centre for the area and also drew traders from further afield to its four annual fairs ( now reduced to two ) . Cattle drovers bringing cattle , horses and sheep from Northumbria and Scotland regularly came to the town . The original cattle market was by the church , but sheep were sold on High Street until the early part of the 20th century . With the arrival of the railway the mart was built close to the station , but this later closed and today the cattle market is held in Applegarth Court .
In the golden age of coaching , Northallerton had four coaching inns along High Street serving passengers and horses using several routes to the north . With the arrival of the railway in 1841 the town maintained its importance as a communications centre . The line from London to Edinburgh via York and Newcastle passed through the town ( as indeed it still does ) , as did the line linking the industrial West Riding with the port and steel town of Middlesbrough . It is now served by Northallerton railway station .
= = = Ripon Railway = = =
The line from Northallerton railway station along Ripon Line was closed to passengers on 6 March 1967 and to goods on 5 September 1969 as part of the wider Beeching Axe , despite a vigorous campaign by local campaigners , including the ( nearby city of Ripon ) city 's MP . Today much of the route of the line through the city ( Ripon ) is now a relief road and although the former station still stands , it is now surrounded by a new housing development . The issue remains a significant one in local politics and there are movements wanting to restore the line . Reports suggest the reopening of a line between Ripon and Harrogate railway station would be economically viable , costing £ 40 million and could initially attract 1 @,@ 200 passengers a day , rising to 2 @,@ 700 . Campaigners call on MPs to restore Ripon railway link .
= = = Legal history = = =
A house of correction opened in 1783 on East Road - it became HM Prison Northallerton , which served ( at different times ) as an adult prison , a Young Offender Institution , and a military prison . The prison closed 2013 .
The Quarter Sessions for the area were held in the town from the 17th century in various buildings including the Tollbooth , the Guild Hall and Vine House , but eventually a courthouse was built in East Road in 1875 as part of the prison complex . This later moved to the town 's Racecourse Lane , and remains the area 's magistrates ' court .
When the Poor Law union system was introduced , a workhouse was established in the town to serve the three parishes in the area . This building is now part of the Friarage Hospital . When in 1856 the North Riding Constabulary was founded , one of the last county forces to be formed , Northallerton was selected as its headquarters , operating initially from premises in East Road .
The earliest records pertaining to Northallerton School ( formerly Northallerton Grammar School ) date from 1323 . Parts of the old school building can be seen adjacent to All Saints ' Church near the north end of High Street . A famous old boy of the school was John Radcliffe ( 1652 – 1714 ) , founder of Oxford 's John Radcliffe Hospital and physician to William of Orange .
= = = Present day = = =
Today Northallerton 's main commercial function is a mixture of light industry , commerce and agricultural services , such as the regular livestock auction market and the production of high @-@ grade manure .
The headquarters of North Yorkshire County Council ( County Hall ) and Hambleton District Council ( the Civic Centre ) are both located in Northallerton ; these serve many parishes in the area . The RPA ( Rural Payments Agency ) was based here until 2014 . The nearby base at RAF Leeming is a major source of employment and income in the area . Northallerton Prison , which used to house young offenders and adults from the North Yorkshire area , closed in 2014 . It once had the world 's largest treadmill .
= = Governance = =
= = = Parish = = =
The ancient parish of Northallerton covered a wide area . It included the townships and chapelries of Romanby , Brompton and Deighton , and the detached part of High Worsall on the River Tees . All of these places became separate civil parishes in the 19th century .
The parish council of Northallerton has exercised its right to be known as the town council . There are 12 town councillors , elected in four wards .
= = = Local government = = =
In 1889 the County of York , North Riding administrative county was formed . In 1894 it was divided into municipal boroughs , urban districts and rural districts . Following a review of local government in 1974 , the North Riding was abolished as an administrative county . The district council of Hambleton was then formed from the merger of the Northallerton Urban District with Bedale Rural District , Easingwold Rural District , Northallerton Rural District , Thirsk Rural District and Croft Rural District . This became part of the non @-@ metropolitan county of North Yorkshire .
Policing in the town remains the responsibility of North Yorkshire Police and firefighting the responsibility of North Yorkshire Fire and Rescue Service . The fire station at Northallerton is a " Day Crewed " station which operates from 08 : 00 to 18 : 00 each day and on call outside these hours .
The town has been twinned with Ormesson @-@ sur @-@ Marne , a suburb of Paris , France since 1994 .
= = = Parliamentary representation = = =
Northallerton was formerly a parliamentary borough . Its first representatives were John le Clerk and Stephen Maunsell , who were elected to the parliament of King Edward I in 1298 , but for some reason or other no subsequent return was made until 1640 , when the privilege was again resumed by order of the House of Commons . From 1640 to 1885 The town formed the parliamentary borough of Northallerton , returning two Members of Parliament until 1832 , and one thereafter . Following the Great Reform Act of 1832 , boundaries were extended to include neighbouring Brompton and Romanby and its representation was reduced to a single member . In 1885 the constituency was abolished and was absorbed into the Richmond division of the North Riding . The serving member for Richmond constituency is the Conservative , Rishi Sunak , who has held the seat since 2015 when he succeeded former party leader and Foreign Secretary William Hague . In modern times it has been an ultra @-@ safe seat for the Conservative Party with them having held it continually since 1929 . Richmond is included in the Yorkshire and the Humber constituency for elections to the European Parliament . It currently elects six members using the d 'Hondt method of party @-@ list proportional representation .
= = Geography = =
= = = Topography = = =
Northallerton lies north of the Vale of York , just south of County Durham and in the Vale of Mowbray . To the west lie the Pennines , a range of hills which rises to around 2 @,@ 000 ft ( 610 m ) and to the east lie the North York Moors which rise to around 1 @,@ 500 ft ( 460 m ) . The proximity of these hills is significant in the climatology of the area . To the west of the town runs the River Wiske which services the River Swale , in turn it is serviced by Brompton Beck , Turker Beck , Willow Beck and North Beck which run through the town . Although small in nature these have been the focus of flash flooding in the town and in Brompton village in recent years .
= = = Climate = = =
According to the Köppen classification the British Isles experience a maritime climate characterised by relatively cool summers and mild winters . Compared with other parts of the country , The Vale of York is slightly warmer and sunnier in the summer and colder and frostier in the winter . Owing to its inland position , and sheltered by the Pennines to the west , North Yorkshire is one of the driest counties in the UK , receiving , on average , around 600 mm ( 24 in ) of rain per year . The mean annual daily duration of bright sunshine is three hours and 42 minutes .
There are two distinct local weather phenomena , marked downslope lee winds caused by the proximity of the Pennines , leading to super geostrophic winds which can reach in excess of 60 KT ( 70 mph ) , most commonly in winter and spring . In the winter the presence of a subsidence inversion between the Pennines and the North York Moors can allow dense , persistent fog to form which can last for several days .
The nearest official Met Office weather station to Northallerton is Leeming , about 6 mi ( 10 km ) to the west . Temperature extremes have ranged from 33 @.@ 5 ° C ( 92 @.@ 3 ° F ) during August 1990 , down to − 17 @.@ 9 ° C ( − 0 @.@ 2 ° F ) during December 2010 .
The new 1981 @-@ 2010 ( as apposed to 1971 @-@ 2000 ) averages from the Met Office show how the climate of Leeming has changed dramatically compared with most places in the UK . The average April maximum temperature is only 12 @.@ 3 ° C , compared with 14 @.@ 1 ° C previously . The average yearly temperature has decreased to 9 @.@ 45 ° C compared to 9 @.@ 55 ° C previously and in contrast most places of the UK have become warmer . The days have become cooler and the nights warmer . Winters have become much milder , summers cooler . Leeming now gets an additional 44 @.@ 7 mm of rain per year , although also 62 @.@ 3 more hours of sunshine . The climate of Leeming has generally lost its characteristics of being drier and with more seasonal variation , compared with the rest of the UK . Leeming recorded its warmest December temperature on record in 2015 .
= = Demography = =
According to the United Kingdom Census 2001 , the town of Northallerton had a total resident population of 15 @,@ 741 or 18 @.@ 5 % of the total of Hambleton District . This figure , combined with an area of 23 @.@ 1 square kilometres ( 8 @.@ 9 sq mi ) , provides Northallerton with a population density figure of 674 inhabitants per square kilometre ( 1 @,@ 750 / sq mi ) . This is higher than the average population density of England ( at 380 / km2 or 984 / sq mi ) .
There are 8 @,@ 203 females and 7 @,@ 538 males , which works out for every 100 females there are 91 @.@ 9 males .
The place of birth of the town 's residents was 98 @.@ 5 % United Kingdom , 0 @.@ 35 % Republic of Ireland , 0 @.@ 37 % from other European Union countries , and 0 @.@ 75 % from elsewhere in the world .
Compared with the average demography of England , Northallerton has low proportions of people born outside the United Kingdom and ethnic minorities and above average numbers of people over 65 years of age .
The following is a table outlining the population change of the town since 1801 , which demonstrates a trend of slow population growth in the 19th century and more rapid growth in the 20th century . In particular over the past 40 years , in which the population of Northallerton has more than doubled . The fall in population between 1851 and 1871 has been attributed to the collapse in coaching as the railways became popular .
= = Education = =
There are six primary schools in Northallerton , a secondary school and a Technology College . After completing primary education children move on to the Northallerton School , a secondary school and sixth form . In addition further adult learning courses are run at the college through the learndirect and Nextstep schemes . The College also runs courses through a Learn Direct centre at the Young Offender 's Institute which is close to the College .
In addition there a number of privately run infant and day care nursery schools in Northallerton .
= = = Northallerton School = = =
Northallerton School 's roots can be traced as far back as 1322 . Originally sited near the Parish Church , its initial role was to train boys in grammar and song . The school flourished in the 17th century under the mastership of Thomas Smelt , and notable alumni of that period include theologian George Hickes , historiographer royal Thomas Rymer , John Radcliffe , doctor to King William of Orange and theologian Thomas Burnet . The school struggled in the 19th century and almost closed at the start of the 20th century with the number of pupils in single figures . However following the 1902 Education Act the North Riding Education Committee resolved to build and restructure the grammar school . To that end a new school was built near the Thirsk Road , which opened in 1909 with 104 pupils , half of whom were girls , the first time that they had been admitted . The school expanded throughout the 20th century . Following the 1944 Education Act , the school entry was based on the Eleven plus exam with all fees and charges being abolished . In 1973 the grammar school merged with the Secondary Modern Allertonshire School , which opened in 1941 , with the Allertonshire taking pupils aged 11 – 14 and the grammar school ages 14 – 18 . By 1976 the comprehensive system was adopted and in 1994 the grammar school was renamed Northallerton College to better reflect the school 's role in the community . In 2015 Northallerton College merged with Allertonshire School to become a full secondary school , and continues to operate over both former school sites .
= = Economy = =
As the county town of North Yorkshire , Northallerton has County Hall , the administrative headquarters for North Yorkshire County Council . The headquarters of Hambleton District Council at Stonecross and North Yorkshire Fire and Rescue Service on East Road , are also based in Northallerton . Other major employers include the Friarage Hospital which employs around 1 @,@ 400 staff and the Rural Payments Agency has an office here too .
Being the centre of a large rural area it is the focus of agriculture with several businesses servicing the needs of farming . The auction mart regularly holds livestock auctions .
The economic activity of residents aged 16 – 74 was 44 @.@ 3 % in full @-@ time employment , 15 % in part @-@ time employment , 6 @.@ 8 % self @-@ employed , 2 @.@ 5 % unemployed , 2 @.@ 6 % students with jobs , 4 @.@ 7 % students without jobs , 15 @.@ 8 % retired , 6 @.@ 5 % looking after home or family , 5 @.@ 3 % permanently sick or disabled , and 3 @.@ 1 % economically inactive for other reasons .
The average price of a house in Northallerton for the 12 @-@ month period ending July 2008 was £ 209 @,@ 082 compared to £ 200 @,@ 433 for North Yorkshire and the national average of £ 178 @,@ 364 .
Europe 's third largest ice cream manufacturer , Richmond Foods , is headquartered in nearby Leeming Bar . It manufactures the popular Fab and Rowntree 's Fruit Pastilles ice lollies .
= = Transport = =
Northallerton was a major stopping point on the coach routes between Scotland and London as it lay on the old Roman road which ran between Scotland and London .
Coaching operations declined in the mid 19th century after the railway was introduced to the town in 1841 . Northallerton railway station which is run by TransPennine Express lies on the East Coast Main Line between Scotland , Newcastle and London .
In addition the railway also serves Cleveland and Durham with routes going on to Middlesbrough and Sunderland .
The Wensleydale Railway is reached by a bus service , operated by Dales & District , which runs from Northallerton to the current terminus of the railway at Leeming Bar , from where trains run to Redmire . It is hoped that eventually passenger trains will connect with the Settle @-@ Carlisle Railway at Garsdale , and that the section of line near Northallerton known as the South Curve can be upgraded to allow trains from Wensleydale to run into Northallerton railway station without reversing onto the main line . At the moment there are some limited goods , engineering and excursion trains using the North Curve .
Two main A roads pass through the town : the A684 runs approximately east @-@ west through the town and acts as a link between the A1 trunk road at Leeming Bar and the A19 at Osmotherley ; the A167 runs approximately north @-@ south between the A1 ( M ) at Darlington and the A1 at Topcliffe . In addition the A168 runs from Wetherby via Thirsk to Northallerton .
The nearest major airport is Durham Tees Valley Airport approximately 15 mi ( 24 km ) north of the town , lying just to the east of Darlington .
= = Sport and culture = =
= = = Sport = = =
= = = = Football = = = =
Northallerton Town FC play in the Northern League , the second oldest football league in the world . Formed sometime before 1895 they have been known as both Northallerton and Northallerton Alliance before settling on their current name . They are the most southerly based team in the league . The team played in many minor leagues before joining the Northern League Division Two on its formation in 1982 . In 1994 the club was declared financially insolvent and closed down , but were rescued by local businessmen in time for the 1994 – 95 season .
The club has never actually played in Northallerton , playing at the Bluestone Ground near County Hall in Romanby until 1974 , then moving to its current location at the Regency Stadium on the outskirts of Romanby . The brothers Michael Dawson ( Tottenham Hotspur defender ) , Andy Dawson ( Hull City defender ) and Kevin Dawson ( Worksop Town defender ) all started their football career at Northallerton Town .
= = = = Rugby = = = =
Northallerton Rugby Union Football Club play at Brompton Lodge on the outskirts of Brompton . The team play in the 3rd division of the Yorkshire League .
The recently formed rugby league club Northallerton Stallions has reached agreement with the rugby union club to play at their Brompton Lodge facilities .
= = = = Cricket = = = =
Cricket in Northallerton dates back to 1812 , although the first recorded match played by Northallerton Cricket Club was in the early 1860s . The club was one of the six founder member teams of the North Yorkshire Cricket League which was formed in 1893 . They later went on to join the Thirsk & District Senior League in 1911 , winning their first title in 1914 . Subsequently known as the York Senior League , Northallerton won the championship a further 8 times .
In 1949 , the club moved from its ground adjacent to County Hall to its current location at the end of Farndale Avenue in Romanby . In 1965 a two tier pavilion was built at a cost of £ 6 @,@ 500 and was opened with match against a Yorkshire XI which included Geoffrey Boycott .
The team currently plays in the North Yorkshire & South Durham Cricket League and fields three teams . The first 11 is currently captained by Liam Botham . A fourth team ( the Wolves ) plays in the Nidderdale League Division 7 .
= = = = Aquatic sports = = = =
Northallerton has a leisure centre which is home to NASC ( Northallerton Amateur Swimming Club ) and Hambleton Seals Water Polo , who both play in competitive galas and matches . NASC recently came third in their moors league division which is an achievement for the club as they have not finished that high for a very long time . Hambleton Seals Water Polo are a newly formed team which aims to attract local children to a quite small , yet fun sport .
= = = Media = = =
There is a major television and radio transmitter at Bilsdale Moor , 8 mi ( 13 km ) east of the town , which broadcasts BBC National Radio ( Radio 1 – 4 ) , BBC Tees , commercial radio stations Classic FM , Heart North East , TFM and Capital North East and other local radio stations . It also transmits various digital television channels .
On 11 June 2007 Northallerton finally got its own radio station . Minster Northallerton , which is owned by the Local Radio Company . It broadcasts on the frequencies 103 @.@ 5 MHz and 102 @.@ 3 MHz .
The town is served by three local newspapers , North Yorkshire editions of the daily Northern Echo and the weekly Darlington & Stockton Times both published by Newsquest and the Northallerton , Thirsk & Bedale Times published by Johnston Press . Both publishers have local offices in the town .
= = = Arts = = =
The landscape photographer Joe Cornish has a gallery in the town which displays his and other photographers work and runs workshops on landscape photography .
= = = Cinema and theatre = = =
There was cinema in Northallerton from 1939 until 1995 . The Lyric , in the High Street , opened in October 1939 and also served as a theatre , with a capacity of 1 @,@ 000 seats . It fell into disrepair and eventually closed in June 1995 . The building was then bought by the New Life Baptist Church and converted to a place of worship .
More recently the Forum , a multi @-@ use arts and community centre , has staged a number of theatre productions and concerts . Having been built and run by Hambleton District Council , the Forum was taken over by a new registered charity in August 2012 . Since mid 2011 , with support from Cine Yorkshire , a project run by the National Media Museum , the Forum has been host to the latest digital cinema projection equipment and is showing films on a weekly basis .
= = = Retail and future developments = = =
Within the town , the four major UK supermarkets can be found - Tesco , Sainsbury 's , Morrisons and a small Asda near the town centre . There is also an M & S Simply Food on the high street . The northern part of Northallerton is a developing area in retail with a B & Q , Carpet Right and the town 's industrial estate and business parks . Both Homebase and Halfords ceased trading in May 2015 due to being unprofitable . It was also announced that B & Q will cease trading in 2016 at the end of the current lease on the site , also due to not being profitable . The long High Street provides a wide variety of shops , restaurants , pubs and cafes . There are national retailers such as Costa Coffee ( who also have another outlet in Tesco ) , Pizza Express , New Look , Fat Face , Wilkinson 's ( who occupy the former Woolworth 's premises ) , Waterstones , Vodafone and Claire 's alongside local independent or regional retailers ; Betty 's tearooms , Lewis & Cooper , Barker 's Department Store and Boyes . Caffè Nero opened a new store in Northallerton on 30 January 2011 . There are at least 7 pubs along the road . Also off the High Street is the quaintly cobbled Garthway Arcade with an array of independent stores such as [ Cover to Cover ] the only independent book shop in town and [ Country Originals ] where you will find quality furniture , home interiors & bespoke gifts .
The longest serving Indian restaurant in the town is the Lion of Asia , which is located on the High Street . The Lion of Asia Indian restaurant has been in business in Northallerton for over 30 years and is still in business today . In the early 1990s Javaid , the current owner , was the pioneer into fusing traditional Pakistani and Indian cuisine together and to bring it to the area .
Hambleton District Council have plans to build lots of new housing as part of a north Northallerton development scheme . This also involves creating a link road between the A167 and the A684 meaning a bridge over the Middlesbrough railway will need to be built . Yuill Homes and Taylor Wimpey UK Ltd have already submitted a planning application for the construction of 283 dwellings on the former York Trailers site ( on Yafforth Road ) .
= = Public services = =
= = = Health service = = =
North Yorkshire and York Primary Care Trust guides primary care services ( general practitioners , dentists , opticians and pharmacists ) in the town , directly provides adult social care and services in the community such as health visiting and physiotherapy and also funds hospital care and other specialist treatments . The town is served by two GP surgeries : Mayford House Surgery and Mowbray House Surgery . The Friarage Hospital serves the local community , employing 1 @,@ 400 staff and providing 281 beds . In 2007 it underwent a £ 21 million programme of refurbishment and new development . It has close ties with the Ministry of Defence and acts in partnership with the MoD to provide medical care to military personnel . A number of military doctors , nurses and support staff are employed at the Friarage .
The Rutson Rehabilitation Centre , run by the North Yorkshire and York Primary Care Trust provides specialist support for stroke victims . It was due to close in spring 2008 , as the building which opened in 1877 is not up to modern standards . However , the move has been delayed due to lack of space at the Friarage . Following merger of Tees East and North Yorkshire Ambulance Service NHS Trust with the South Yorkshire Ambulance Service NHS Trust and the West Yorkshire metropolitan Ambulance Service NHS Trust in July 2006 the Yorkshire Ambulance Service NHS Trust is responsible for the provision of statutory emergency medical services in the town .
= = = Public utilities = = =
The main source of non @-@ school funding is the formula grant , which is paid by government to local authorities based on the services they provide . The remainder , to which the police and fire authorities set a precept , is raised from council tax and business rates . Mains water and sewerage services are provided by Yorkshire Water .
Following deregulation , the consumer has a choice of energy supplier . Electricity is provided by CE Electric UK , trading as NEDL . Natural gas was ( and still is ) supplied by British Gas . Distribution and , as with electricity , transmission , is the responsibility of the National Grid , having been demerged as Transco in 1997 . These industries are regulated by OFGEM .
BT provides fixed ADSL enabled ( 50 Mbit / s ) telephone lines . The subscriber trunk dialling code for Northallerton is 01609 . TalkTalk and EE are other LLU Operators in the town as of July 2009 . These businesses are regulated by Ofcom .
= = Location grid = =
= = Notable people = =
John Fisher ( 1469 – 1535 ) , vicar of Northallerton between 1491 and 1494 . Later Chancellor of the University of Cambridge and Bishop of Rochester . Executed by King Henry VIII for refusing to accept him as Head of the Church of England .
Edmund Gheast ( 1513 – 1577 ) , Bishop of Rochester from 1560 to 1572 .
Thomas Burnet ( 1635 – 1715 ) , theologian and writer on cosmogony .
George Hickes ( 1642 – 1715 ) , religious scholar and Dean of Worcester from 1683 to 1688 .
Thomas Rymer ( 1643 – 1714 ) , writer and historiographer royal .
John Radcliffe ( 1652 – 1714 ) , founder of Oxford 's John Radcliffe Hospital and physician to William of Orange .
Sidney Weighell ( 1923 – 2002 ) , former general secretary of the NUR .
Mountaineer Alan Hinkes ( born 26 April 1954 ) , who was the first Briton to reach the summit of the world 's 14 highest peaks . He is widely recognised as one of the UK 's best climbers .
Composer , conductor and author Malcolm Riley ( born 1960 ) .
Hull City and former England defender Michael Dawson ( born 18 November 1983 ) , and his brother , Scunthorpe United defender Andy Dawson ( born 20 October 1978 ) , were born in Northallerton and started their football careers at Northallerton Town .
Swimmer Joanne Jackson ( born 12 September 1986 ) .
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= Washington : A Life =
Washington : A Life is a 2010 biography of George Washington , the first President of the United States , written by American historian and biographer Ron Chernow . The book is a " one @-@ volume , cradle @-@ to @-@ grave narrative " that attempts to provide a fresh portrait of Washington as " real , credible , and charismatic in the same way he was perceived by his contemporaries " .
Chernow , a former business journalist , was inspired to write the book while researching another biography on Washington 's long @-@ time aide Alexander Hamilton . Washington : A Life took six years to complete and makes extensive use of archival evidence . The book was released to wide acclaim from critics , several of whom called it the best biography of Washington ever written . In 2011 , the book won the Pulitzer Prize for Biography or Autobiography , as well as the New @-@ York Historical Society 's American History Book Prize .
= = Background = =
The book 's author , Ron Chernow , is a former freelance business journalist who later became a self @-@ described " self @-@ made historian " . His 1990 history of financier J.P. Morgan 's family , The House of Morgan , won the National Book Award for Nonfiction . In 2004 , he published a biography of American Founding Father Alexander Hamilton , for which he won the inaugural $ 50 @,@ 000 George Washington Book Prize .
Chernow conceived the idea of a book on Washington while researching Hamilton 's life ; the two men had worked together closely , and Chernow had come to believe that " Hamilton is the protagonist of the book but Washington is the hero of the book " . On discovering a letter about a quarrel between Hamilton and Washington , Chernow concluded that there was a more temperamental side to the president than had previously been portrayed . In a later C @-@ SPAN interview , he said that he came to see Washington as " a man of many moods , of many passions , of fiery opinions . But because it was all covered by this immense self @-@ control , people didn 't see it . " Despite what he estimated to be more than nine hundred books written on Washington , Chernow decided to write another , with the goal of providing a fresh portrait .
In writing the book that would become Washington : A Life , Chernow made extensive use of the archival evidence left by Washington 's meticulous record @-@ keeping . These documents included recently discovered written correspondence , maps , and images from the Papers of George Washington , made available by a University of Virginia research project , which began in 1968 . Washington : A Life took six years to complete , the first four years of which were spent purely on research . In June 2009 , near the end of his work on the book , Chernow slipped on a stair and broke his ankle in the three places . He was unable to do anything but read for the following months , and later attributed the injury with allowing him to return to the book with a fresh perspective and improve the manuscript .
= = Summary = =
The prelude of Washington : A Life draws a parallel between Gilbert Stuart 's portraits of George Washington and Chernow 's attempts to give a fresh portrait of his character in a biography . Stuart , Chernow argues , was not deceived by Washington 's " aura of cool command " , but painted him as " a sensitive , complex figure , full of pent @-@ up passion " ; Chernow states his intention to do the same , presenting Washington as " real , credible , and charismatic in the same way he was perceived by his contemporaries " .
Chernow presents Washington as " a man capable of constant self @-@ improvement " , rising from a provincial childhood to the presidency of the United States . Beginning with his boyhood , the biography discusses the major events of Washington 's in largely chronological order : his early life and service in the British Army during the French and Indian War ; his career as a planter and his growing dissatisfaction with British rule of the American colonies ; his service in the Continental Congress and as commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the Continental Army in the American Revolution ; his resignation and brief retirement following the revolution 's successful conclusion ; his return to public life at the Constitutional Convention ; his two terms as the first president of the United States , in which he set a number of important precedents for the office ; and the final years of his life . Chernow describes Washington 's accomplishments as president as " simply breathtaking " :
He had restored American credit and assumed state debt ; created a bank , a mint , a coast guard , a customs service , and a diplomatic corps ; introduced the first accounting , tax , and budgetary procedures ; maintained peace at home and abroad ; inaugurated a navy , bolstered the army , and shored up coastal defenses and infrastructure ; proved that the country could regulate commerce and negotiate binding treaties ; protected frontier settlers , subdued Indian uprisings , and established law and order amid rebellion , scrupulously adhering all the while to the letter of the Constitution ... Most of all he had shown a disbelieving world that republican government could prosper without being spineless or disorderly or reverting to authoritarian rule .
Several chapters also detail Washington 's complex feelings about slavery , an institution on which he relied but which he also despised ; he left provisions for his slaves to be freed after his death , the only slave @-@ owning founding father to do so . The personal aspects of Washington 's life covered by Chernow include the design , creation , and management of Mount Vernon ; his leisure activities and hobbies ; his difficult relationship with his mother ; his personal relationship with the married Sally Cary Fairfax , with whom Washington fell in love just before his marriage to Martha Dandridge Custis ; and his relationships with his adopted children , stepchildren , and grandchildren . Chernow also describes the relationships between the childless Washington and a succession of " surrogate sons " such as Alexander Hamilton , the Marquis de Lafayette , and Tobias Lear .
= = Critical response = =
In 2011 , Washington : A Life won the Pulitzer Prize for Biography , which included a cash prize of $ 10 @,@ 000 . The three jury members for the biography award were Elizabeth Frank , who won the 1986 Pulitzer Prize for Biography , and historians Arthur L. Herman and Geoffrey Ward . The book was also honored by the New @-@ York Historical Society as the 2011 recipient of the American History Book Prize , which included an award of $ 50 @,@ 000 and the title of American Historian Laureate for Chernow .
The book received positive reviews from Andrew Cayton and Janet Maslin of The New York Times . Both felt that Chernow had been able to show an intimate side of Washington that had previously been unrecognized in biographies of the man . Maslin stated that Chernow presented Washington as a " more human and accessible " individual , and Cayton wrote that " [ m ] ost readers will finish this book feeling as if they have actually spent time with human beings . "
Aram Bakshian of The Washington Times and T. J. Stiles of the Washington Post gave opposing reviews of the book . Bakshian felt that Washington : A Life " does full justice to the one truly indispensable man in our nation 's history " . Stiles was less enthusiastic , stating that while the book offered a purposeful presentation of the life of Washington , he felt that the book was too long . He also criticized Chernow 's writing style , which he considered to contain uneven prose and too many cliches .
Simon Sebag Montefiore of the The Daily Telegraph and historian W. Ralph Eubanks both commented that Chernow 's access to the recently unearthed Papers of George Washington brought a " fresh analysis " and perspective of Washington . Eubanks stated in a review for National Public Radio that " few [ books ] have given as complete a picture of our first president as Ron Chernow 's compelling new biography , Washington : A Life " . Gordon S. Wood , recipient of the 1993 Pulitzer Prize for History , wrote in a review for The New York Review of Books that the book was :
" [ t ] he best , most comprehensive , and most balanced single @-@ volume biography of Washington ever written ... One comes away from the book feeling that Washington has finally become comprehensible ... [ Chernow 's ] understanding of human nature is extraordinary and that is what makes his biography so powerful . "
Max Byrd , writing for Salon , also called it the " best biography of George Washington yet " , concluding , " Chernow 's narrative is so rich , its scale so massive and epic , that what is new fits seamlessly into the wider picture ... Chernow has gone into Washington 's world , almost into his mind , and inhabited it . "
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= Northern Command ( RAAF ) =
Northern Command was one of several geographically based commands raised by the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) during World War II . Established in April 1944 , it evolved from No. 9 Operational Group , which had been the RAAF 's primary mobile formation in the South West Pacific theatre since September 1942 , but had lately become a garrison force in New Guinea . Northern Command was headquartered initially at Milne Bay and then , from August 1944 , in Madang . It conducted operations in New Guinea , New Britain , and Bougainville until the end of the war . Re @-@ designated Northern Area in December 1945 , it was headquartered in Port Moresby from March 1946 and disbanded in February 1947 .
= = History = =
Prior to World War II , the Royal Australian Air Force was small enough for all its elements to be directly controlled by RAAF Headquarters in Melbourne . When war broke out , the RAAF began to decentralise its command structure , commensurate with expected increases in manpower and units . Between March 1940 and May 1941 , Australia and Papua were divided into four geographically based command @-@ and @-@ control zones : Central Area , Southern Area , Western Area , and Northern Area . The roles of the area commands were air defence , protection of adjacent sea lanes , and aerial reconnaissance . Each was led by an Air Officer Commanding ( AOC ) who controlled the administration and operations of air bases and units within his boundary . By mid @-@ 1942 , Central Area had been dissolved , Northern Area had been split into North @-@ Eastern Area and North @-@ Western Area , and Eastern Area was created , making a total of five commands .
The static area command system was well suited to defence , but less so for an offensive posture . In September 1942 , therefore , the Air Force created a large mobile formation known as No. 9 Operational Group , to act as a self @-@ contained tactical air force that would be able to keep pace with Allied advances through the South West Pacific theatre . By September 1943 , however , No. 9 Group had become a static garrison force in New Guinea , similar to the area commands on mainland Australia , and a new mobile group was required to support the advance north towards the Philippines and Japan . This was formed in November 1943 as No. 10 Operational Group ( later the Australian First Tactical Air Force ) , which initially came under No. 9 Group 's control . To better reflect No. 9 Group 's new status , the head of RAAF Command , Air Vice Marshal William Bostock , recommended renaming it Northern Area . RAAF Headquarters did not agree to this at first , but on 11 April 1944 settled on calling it Northern Command , under the same AOC who commanded No. 9 Group , Air Commodore Frank Lukis . On its formation the command was headquartered at Milne Bay .
By July 1944 , No. 10 Group 's position in western New Guinea was complicating Northern Command 's efforts to supply it , and the group was made independent of the command . The next month , Northern Command headquarters transferred to Madang . In September , No. 71 Wing was detached from No. 10 Group to Northern Command , which had been given the task of supporting the Australian 6th Division in the Aitape – Wewak campaign . Headquartered at Tadji in northern New Guinea , No. 71 Wing comprised Nos. 7 , 8 and 100 Bristol Beaufort Squadrons , augmented by a flight of CAC Boomerangs from No. 4 ( Army Cooperation ) Squadron . No. 74 ( Composite ) Wing , which had been formed in August 1943 and was headquartered at Port Moresby , also came under the aegis of Northern Command . The command 's other major operational formation was No. 84 ( Army Cooperation ) Wing , which began moving from Australia to Torokina on Bougainville in October 1944 . By this time , Northern Command controlled six squadrons in the New Guinea area . No. 79 Wing , equipped with B @-@ 25 Mitchells , was earmarked for transfer from North @-@ Western Area to Northern Command , to undertake operations in New Britain , but its proposed airfield was not ready and it was instead transferred to the First Tactical Air Force at Labuan the following year .
Air Commodore Allan Walters took over Northern Command from Lukis in February 1945 . Walters directed operations in New Guinea , New Britain and Bougainville until the end of hostilities . Group Captain Val Hancock assumed command of No. 71 Wing in April . To maximize support to Australian ground troops in the lead @-@ up to the final assault on Wewak , the wing 's three extant Beaufort squadrons were joined by two more , Nos. 6 and 15 . Approximately sixty Beauforts and Boomerangs struck Japanese positions behind Dove Bay prior to amphibious landings on 11 May to cut off retreating enemy troops . Over the entire month , the wing dropped more than 1 @,@ 200 tons of bombs and flew in excess of 1 @,@ 400 sorties . The wing suffered fuel and ordnance shortages ; at one stage its squadrons had to load their Beauforts with captured Japanese bombs . No. 84 Wing , commanded by Group Captain Bill Hely and comprising No. 5 ( Tactical Reconnaissance ) Squadron , flying mainly Boomerangs , and two reconnaissance and transport units , also suffered shortages of equipment , as well as pilots . Augmented by a detachment of No. 36 Squadron , flying C @-@ 47 Dakotas , its aircraft flew slightly over 4 @,@ 000 sorties during the Bougainville campaign up to the end of June 1945 . That month , Northern Command was tasked with acting in reserve for Operation Oboe Six , the invasion of Labuan . In July , No. 11 Group was formed as a " static command " headquartered on Morotai in the Dutch East Indies , using elements of Northern Command and the First Tactical Air Force ; this freed the latter from garrison duties while its combat units advanced towards Borneo .
No. 71 Wing continued operations until the last day of the Pacific War , flying its final mission involving thirty Beauforts only hours before news arrived of the Allied victory on 15 August 1945 . No. 74 Wing was disbanded in Port Moresby the same day . No. 71 Wing squadrons subsequently dropped leaflets to remaining pockets of Japanese resistance , making them aware of the surrender ; the wing was disbanded at Tadji in January 1946 . No. 84 Wing suffered morale problems following the end of the war owing to inactivity and the uncertainties of demobilisation ; as a result , the wing 's commanding officer sent Northern Command headquarters a frank report , its tone earning a rebuke from Walters . No. 84 Wing left Bougainville in February 1946 and disbanded in Melbourne the next month .
Northern Command was redesignated Northern Area on 1 December 1945 , and its headquarters transferred to Port Moresby in March the following year . Walters handed over command in June 1946 . The area headquarters was disbanded at Port Moresby on 27 February 1947 .
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= Battle of Wisconsin Heights =
The Battle of Wisconsin Heights was the penultimate engagement of the 1832 Black Hawk War , fought between the United States state militia and allies , and the Sauk and Fox tribes , led by Black Hawk . The battle took place in what is now Dane County , near present @-@ day Sauk City , Wisconsin . Despite being vastly outnumbered and sustaining heavy casualties , Black Hawk 's warriors managed to delay the combined government forces long enough to allow the majority of the Sauk and Fox civilians in the group to escape across the Wisconsin River . This reprieve was temporary ; when the militia finally caught up with the fleeing band it resulted in the Bad Axe massacre at the mouth of the Bad Axe River .
= = Background = =
As a consequence of an 1804 treaty between the Governor of Indiana Territory and a group of Sauk and Fox leaders regarding land settlement , the Sauk and Fox tribes vacated their lands in Illinois and moved west of the Mississippi in 1828 . However , Sauk Black Hawk and others disputed the treaty , claiming that the full tribal councils had not been consulted , nor did those representing the tribes have authorization to cede lands . Angered by the loss of his birthplace , between 1830 – 1831 Black Hawk led a number of incursions across the Mississippi River , but was persuaded to return west each time without bloodshed . In April 1832 , encouraged by promises of alliance with other tribes and the British , he again moved his so @-@ called " British Band " of around 1000 warriors and non @-@ combatants into Illinois . Finding no allies , he attempted to return to Iowa but events overtook him and led to the Battle of Stillman 's Run . A number of other engagements followed , and the militias of Michigan Territory and Illinois were mobilized to hunt down Black Hawk 's band .
After an inconclusive skirmish in late June at Kellogg 's Grove , Black Hawk and his band fled the approaching militia through Wisconsin . They had passed through what are now Beloit and Janesville , then followed the Rock River toward Horicon Marsh , where they headed west toward the Four Lakes region ( near modern @-@ day Madison ) . The band camped for the night near Pheasant Branch .
= = Prelude = =
The U.S. force of 600 @-@ 750 militia men had picked up Black Hawk 's trail following the Battle of Pecatonica . Colonel Henry Dodge and James D. Henry pursued the band up the Rock River , engaging in minor skirmishes along the way . The militia marched 25 miles ( 40 km ) from Four Lakes the day of the battle , discovering the body of a dead Native American along the way , in whose pouch they found the watch of George Force , a lieutenant who was killed in an attack at Fort Blue Mounds on June 20 . Ahead of the main party of militia , a small band of U.S. allied Ho @-@ Chunk warriors had been sent ahead to scout the area with Pierre Pauquette , a trader from Portage , Wisconsin . Rumors that Black Hawk 's band was at Lake Koshkonong persisted and Dodge and his men attempted to intercept Black Hawk there . Although Black Hawk 's band had already moved on by the time the militia arrived at the lake , they found evidence of his presence and picked up his trail again , continuing their pursuit toward the Wisconsin River .
Unable to remain in one place long enough to receive provisions , Black Hawk 's group were in poor health and some of them starved to death on the road . Black Hawk stated in his account of the battle that at this point in the war he had every intention of escaping with his people back across the Mississippi River , but on encountering the large U.S. force at Wisconsin Heights he was left with no choice but to fight . His intention was to allow the non @-@ combatants in his band to escape across the Wisconsin River .
= = Battle = =
On July 21 , 1832 , the militia caught up with Black Hawk 's band as they attempted to cross the Wisconsin River , near present @-@ day Roxbury , in Dane County , near Sauk City , Wisconsin . As the militia approached the battleground , warriors appeared on the surrounding hillsides , attempting to divert their attention . According to Dodge 's account , before the militia met the main body of Black Hawk 's band , three U.S. scouts crossed a small band of Sauk or Fox warriors and pursued them to within a mile of their camp . Scouts also killed two Sauk warriors before the real battle began .
The scouts who had pursued the three Sauk back toward their camp returned when warriors from the camp pursued them on horseback . Dodge dismounted his troops and ordered his men to advance to higher ground . The band of warriors , under Black Hawk , moved toward the militia ; when they were within 30 yards ( 27 m ) the militia and its allies opened fire . Black Hawk ordered his men to " stand their ground , and never yield it to the enemy . " Black Hawk 's resolve saved the lives of the bulk of Sauk and Fox present that day at Wisconsin Heights ; the warriors fought with the militia while the majority of the civilians escaped , via rafts , across the Wisconsin River .
In the first volley of the battle , one of Black Hawk 's warriors was killed instantly and one or two others wounded . Black hawk 's warriors returned fire as they withdrew @-@ straight into the charging militia . Dodge and a Major Ewing came upon the battlefield at Wisconsin Heights first and captured an elevated area that later acquired the name " Militia Ridge " . The militia occupied a solid position as General Henry arrived , accompanied by three regiments of mounted Illinois Militia . Henry formed his men into a right angle firing line and exchanged gunfire with Black Hawk 's men for around 30 minutes . A Dodge @-@ led bayonet charge ended the battle , sending the remaining warriors scattering @-@ to be pursued by militia - several of whom were killed . The troops did not pursue Black Hawk , Dodge stated , " after consulting with Genl . Henry it was agreed to defer a further attack on the enemy until the next morning . "
Dodge noted the number of Sauk dead at 40 , possibly more ; he reported that Ho @-@ Chunk scouts and militia men took at least that number of scalps after the battle . U.S. allied Ho @-@ Chunk , during the night following the battle , scalped another 11 Sauk who had been killed by the militia , and Dodge had seen Sauk wounded being carried from the battlefield during the fighting . Dodge 's forces suffered one dead and 8 wounded , of whom one was injured during the march to Wisconsin Heights , before the battle .
= = Aftermath = =
The U.S. militia decided to wait until the following day to pursue Black Hawk . To their surprise , when morning arrived , their enemy had disappeared . Shortly before dawn one of the leaders accompanying Black Hawk , a Sauk chieftain named Neapope , had attempted from the knoll on which the band had taken refuge to explain to the militia officers that his group wanted only to end the fighting and go back across the Mississippi River . In a " loud shrill voice " he delivered a conciliatory speech in his native Ho @-@ Chunk language , assuming Pauquette and his band of Ho @-@ Chunk guides were still with the militia . However , the U.S. troops did not understand him , because their Ho @-@ Chunk allies had already departed the battlefield .
The one militia man killed in battle , Thomas Jefferson Short , was later buried somewhere on the site where the battle occurred . The battle was devastating for Black Hawk and his band , despite the fact that much of his band escaped across the Wisconsin River ; casualty estimates were as high as 70 dead Sauk and Fox , including those killed in action and those drowned . Even so , at least one source called the battle , along with Stillman 's Run , one of Black Hawk 's major military triumphs .
The early 20th @-@ century book Wisconsin in Three Centuries was already calling the battle a " massacre " in 1906 . Specifically , it cited an incident in which captured warriors and civilians from Black Hawk 's band were slaughtered by a group of 300 Menominee , who had aligned with the white militia . In addition , as many were drowned trying to cross the Wisconsin as were killed and captured during the battle .
The militia regrouped at Blue Mounds Fort and picked up Black Hawk 's trail again on July 28 near Spring Green , Wisconsin . When they finally caught up with Black Hawk 's " British Band " it would lead to the decisive clash of the war at Bad Axe . At the mouth of the Bad Axe River , hundreds of men , women and children would be killed by pursuing soldiers , their Indian allies , and a U.S. gunboat .
The site of the Battle of Wisconsin Heights is preserved in northwestern Dane County , two miles ( 3 km ) southeast of present @-@ day Sauk City on State Highway 78 , is owned by the Department of Natural Resources , and is open to the public . It is the only intact battle site from the American Indian Wars found in the U.S. Midwest . The Wisconsin Heights Battlefield was listed on the U.S. National Register of Historic Places on January 31 , 2002 .
The location of the battle is confirmed in the Township ( Exterior ) Notes of US Deputy Surveyor John H. Mullet . The line ( between Roxbury ( Section 19 of T9N , R7E ) and Mazomanie ( Section 24 of T9N , R6E ) was run north right through the battle site on October 23 , 1832 , just 3 months after the battle . Because of this coincidence , only happening every 6 miles , there is contemporary and sworn proof of the battle site 's location .
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= 1995 – 96 South Pacific cyclone season =
The 1995 – 96 South Pacific cyclone season was one of the least active South Pacific tropical cyclone season 's on record , with only four tropical cyclones occurring within the South Pacific Ocean to the east of 160 ° E. The season officially ran from November 1 , 1995 until April 30 , 1996 . The first storm developed on January 12 , while the last one dissipated on April 2 . During the season the most intense tropical cyclone was Severe Tropical Cyclone Beti , which reached a minimum pressure of 935 hPa ( 27 @.@ 61 inHg ) as it affected New Caledonia . After the season ended Beti 's name was the only name to be retired from the tropical cyclone naming lists and was replaced with Bune , after it inflicted over 5 @.@ 6 million ( USD ) worth of damage to Australia , Vanuatu , New Caledonia and New Zealand .
During the season , tropical cyclones were officially monitored by the Regional Specialized Meteorological Center ( RSMC ) in Nadi , Fiji , and the Tropical Cyclone Warning Centers ( TCWC ) in Brisbane , Australia and Wellington , New Zealand . Throughout the season the United States Navy also monitored the basin and issued unofficial warnings , through its Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) and Naval Pacific Meteorology and Oceanography Center ( NPMOC ) . Tropical cyclones that were located between 160 ° E and 120 ° W as well as the Equator and 25 ° S were monitored by RSMC Nadi while any that were located to the south of 25 ° S between 160 ° E and 120 ° W were monitored by TCWC Wellington . During the season the JTWC issued warnings on any tropical cyclone that was located between 160 ° E and 180 ° while the NPMOC issued warnings for tropical cyclones forming between the 180 ° and the American coast . RSMC Nadi and TCWC Wellington both used the Australian Tropical Cyclone Intensity Scale , and measured windspeeds over a 10 @-@ minute period during the season , while the JTWC and the NPMOC measured sustained windspeeds over a 1 @-@ minute period .
= = Seasonal summary = =
Because of a weak – moderate La Niña episode , most tropical cyclones that developed within the season occurred within the Coral Sea . The weak La Nina also affected the amount of tropical cyclones that occurred during the year with only 4 tropical cyclones occurring the season as a whole became one of the most inactive tropical cyclone seasons since 1969 @-@ 70 . The first tropical cyclone of the season , Yasi , developed on January 12 as a tropical depression before it was named on January 16 . As a tropical cyclone , Yasi brought significant rain to both Fiji and Tonga before it dissipated on January 19 to the south of Papette in French Polynesia . After Yasi dissipated , no tropical cyclones were recorded in the basin until March 9 ; however on February 12 , a tropical low developed to the west of New Caledonia . Over the next 24 hours the low deepened to about 1002 hPa before it crossed 160 ° E and moved into the Australian region where it became known as the Queen Elizabeth II storm . On February 22 and 23 , a shallow tropical depression moved around the Fijian archipelago and caused some flooding of low @-@ lying areas in Vanua Levu . On March 9 and 10 , Tropical Cyclones Zaka and Atu both developed near New Caledonia , about 1 @,@ 000 km ( 620 mi ) apart and took similar tracks towards the southeast before becoming extratropical . On March 21 , the final tropical cyclone of the season developed to the northeast of Vanuatu . Over the next couple of days the depression gradually developed further and was named as Beti , before it passed over Vanuatu and New Caledonia . On March 29 , after it had passed over New Caledonia , Beti degenerated into an extratropical cyclone , before dissipating on April 2 . After the season ended the name Beti was retired from the tropical cyclone naming lists .
= = Storms = =
= = = Tropical Cyclone Yasi = = =
On January 12 , RSMC Nadi reported that a tropical depression had developed over the Fijian island of Vanua Levu , about 430 km ( 270 mi ) to the south of Labasa . Over the next few days , the depression moved towards the southeast before it started to affect Tonga on January 15 . During the following day , the depression rapidly developed further as it interacted with the South Pacific Convergence Zone , before the NPMOC initiated warnings on the system and designated it as 08P . At 0000 UTC on January 17 , the NPMOC reported that the depression had reached its peak 1 @-@ minute sustained windspeeds of 85 km / h ( 50 mph ) while RSMC Nadi reported that the depression had intensified into a tropical cyclone while it was located about 510 km ( 320 mi ) to the southeast of Nukualofa , Tonga . However RSMC Nadi did not name it Yasi for another 12 hours , while the system reached its peak 10 @-@ minute sustained windspeeds of 85 km / h ( 50 mph ) . After it was named on January 17 , Yasi accelerated towards the southeast , before it moved out of RSMC Nadi 's area of responsibility . During January 18 , the NPMOC issued their final warning because Yasi had degenerated into an extratropical cyclone . TCWC Wellington monitored Yasi 's remnants for another day , before they dissipated about 1520 km ( 940 mi ) to the south of Papette , French Polynesia . Although no major damage was reported from any of the islands affected some minor damage was reported in Tonga , after Yasi caused heavy rainfall there .
= = = Tropical Cyclone Zaka = = =
On March 9 , RSMC Nadi started to monitor a tropical depression had developed within an active convergence zone , about 150 km ( 95 mi ) to the northwest of Noumea , New Caledonia . During that day an upper level trough moved over New Zealand which brought the jet stream over New Caledonia . As a result , this made the depression hard to locate with satellite imagery . However , later that day despite the system being poorly organized , RSMC Nadi reported that the depression had intensified into a tropical cyclone and named it Zaka . As they named it RSMC Nadi reported that the system had reached its peak 10 @-@ minute sustained windspeeds of 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) with further development of the system restricted by strong vertical wind shear . Early on March 10 , the JTWC designated Zaka as Tropical Cyclone 20P , while it had its peak 1 @-@ minute windspeeds of 75 km / h ( 45 mph ) . RSMC Nadi then issued their final advisory at 0600 UTC , as Zaka had weakened into a tropical depression and was moving into TCWC Wellingtons area of responsibility . TCWC Wellington and the JTWC monitored Zaka for another day before it was last noted during March 11 as it became an extratropical cyclone . Zaka dumped 376 mm ( 14 @.@ 8 in ) of rain on Vanuatu in just 24 hours .
= = = Tropical Cyclone Atu = = =
On March 4 , the JTWC started to monitor an area of disturbed weather that had developed within the Australian region about 900 km ( 560 mi ) , to the southeast of Port Moresby in Papua New Guinea . Over the next few days , the system remained weak and gradually moved southeast before it crossed 160 ° E and moved into the basin on March 9 . During the next day , both the JTWC and RSMC Nadi started to monitor the system as a tropical depression as it moved through the Loyalty Islands . On March 11 , the depression intensified into a tropical cyclone as it moved southeastward , prompting RSMC Nadi to name it Atu at 1800 UTC . Early on March 12 , the JTWC reported that Atu had reached its peak 1 @-@ minute windspeeds of 100 km / h ( 65 mph ) . Later that morning RSMC Nadi reported that Atu had reached its peak 10 @-@ minute sustained windspeeds of 85 km / h ( 50 mph ) . After it had peaked in intensity , Atu weakened under the influence of strong vertical windshear before the JTWC and RSMC Nadi issued their final advisories during March 13 as Atu had become extratropical . Atu 's remnants were then monitored by RSMC Nadi and TCWC Wellington until they dissipated on March 18 .
= = = Severe Tropical Cyclone Beti = = =
On March 19 , the JTWC started to monitor a tropical disturbance that was located about 1145 km ( 710 mi ) to the northwest of Suva , Fiji . Over the next couple of days the system moved towards the south and gradually developed further in an area of low vertical windshear , before the system was designated as Tropical Depression 23P by the JTWC and RSMC Nadi on March 21 . Over the next couple of days , 23P moved further towards the south , before the depression started to move towards the southwest as a ridge of high pressure strengthened on March 23 . Later that day , RSMC Nadi reported that the depression had intensified into a category 1 tropical cyclone and named it as Beti . During that day , Beti continued to develop further before the system moved into the Coral Sea on March 24 , after passing over the Vanuatuan islands of Pentecost and Malekula . As Beti moved into the Coral Sea , the system quickly intensified further , with RSMC Nadi reporting on March 25 that Beti had intensified into a category 3 severe tropical cyclone . As Beti intensified into a severe tropical cyclone , the ridge of high pressure weakened as it interacted with an upper level trough of low pressure . As a result , the system started to move towards the south @-@ southeast .
Over the next couple of days Beti continued to intensify as it moved towards New Caledonia , before the JTWC reported at 1800 UTC on March 26 , that Beti had reached its peak 1 @-@ minute sustained windspeeds of 195 km / h ( 120 mph ) . Six hours later , RSMC Nadi reported that the system had peaked as a category 4 severe tropical cyclone with 10 @-@ minute sustained windspeeds of 165 km / h ( 105 mph ) . Later on March 27 , Severe Tropical Cyclone Beti made landfall on the Grande Terre island of New Caledonia near its peak intensity and quickly weakened into a category 2 tropical cyclone . During the next day , Beti moved towards the southeast under the influence of the trough , reemerging into the Coral Sea as a weakening tropical cyclone that had started to transition into an extratropical cyclone . Later on March 28 , RSMC Nadi passed the primary warning responsibility of the cyclone to TCWC Wellington , before the JTWC issued their final advisory on Beti as it had become extratropical . Over the next few days , TCWC Wellington continued to monitor Beti 's remnants , as they came under the influence of a high pressure area and moved around New Zealand 's East Coast , before they were last noted on April 2 while located about 1400 km ( 870 mi ) to the southeast of Wellington .
While it was active , Cyclone Beti was responsible for 2 deaths and caused damage in Australia , New Caledonia , New Zealand , and Vanuatu . The most significant damage occurred in New Caledonia where wind and flooding destroyed crops , gardens and caused disruption to the electricity network , water supply , road and telephone communications . Many homes and roads were also badly damaged , with over 50 % of lower standard housing on the outskirts of Noumea damaged after rivers and creeks burst their banks . Press reports indicated that Beti inflicted between FF 22 @-@ 27 million ( US $ 4 @.@ 3 - 5 @.@ 3 million ) in damage to New Caledonia and that only a few injuries had occurred . Within Vanuatu , Beti caused about VUV4.5 million , ( US $ 41 thousand ) in damage to food gardens and shelters . As an extratropical cyclone , Beti generated a high surf and long period swells that hit both eastern Australia and New Zealand . Within Australia , the high surf left several competitors in the Australian life surfing championships injured , while another competitor was killed after his boat was swamped by large waves . Within New Zealand , Beti 's remnants caused flooding and mud @-@ slips , which led to several roads being closed . A helicopter and its pilot were lost at the height of the storm , while they were travelling from Napier to Gisborne .
= = Seasonal effects = =
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= Reg Pollard ( general ) =
Lieutenant General Sir Reginald George Pollard , KCVO , KBE , CB , DSO ( 20 January 1903 – 9 March 1978 ) was a senior commander in the Australian Army , serving as Chief of the General Staff from 1960 to 1963 . Born in Bathurst , New South Wales , Pollard graduated from the Royal Military College , Duntroon , in 1924 . A regular officer , he served as adjutant / quartermaster in several battalions of the Citizens Military Forces ( CMF ) during the 1920s and 1930s . In 1938 he was posted to England to undertake staff training , which was cut short by the outbreak of the Second World War . Pollard joined the Second Australian Imperial Force in 1940 , and the following year saw action with the 7th Division in the Middle East , where he was mentioned in despatches . Promoted to colonel in 1942 , he became senior staff officer of the 7th Division in New Guinea , and was awarded the Distinguished Service Order for his actions . He spent much of the remainder of the war in staff and training positions in Australia .
Pollard 's early post @-@ war roles involved recruit training , land / air warfare , administration , and planning . In 1953 , he was promoted to brigadier and took command of the Australian Army Component of the British Commonwealth Forces Korea . He joined the Military Board as a major general in 1954 , and was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire the following year . In 1957 he was promoted to lieutenant general and took charge of Eastern Command in Sydney ; two years later he was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath . Knighted in 1961 , as Chief of the General Staff he presided over the Army 's reorganisation as a pentropic structure , and worked towards making Duntroon a degree @-@ granting institution . In 1962 , he oversaw deployment of the first team of Australian military advisors to South Vietnam . After retiring from the military in 1963 , Pollard became Honorary Colonel of the Royal Australian Regiment ; he served as Australian Secretary to Queen Elizabeth II during the Royal Visit in 1970 and was appointed a Knight Commander of the Royal Victorian Order the same year . He died at Wyrallah , New South Wales , in 1978 .
= = Early life = =
Reginald George Pollard was born on 20 January 1903 in Bathurst , New South Wales , the third son of Albert Edgar Pollard , an English accountant , and his Australian wife Thalia Rebecca , née McLean . Schooled in Bathurst , Reg entered the Royal Military College , Duntroon , in 1921 , and graduated with the Sword of Honour for " exemplary conduct and performance " in 1924 . Pollard and fellow graduate Frederick Scherger , winner of the King 's Medal and future air chief marshal , applied to transfer to the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) under a scheme designed to augment the RAAF 's officer corps , but only Scherger was accepted . The previous year , Pollard and Scherger had inaugurated a Duntroon tradition when they found a horse 's jawbone during a field exercise . Inspired by the Biblical tale in which Samson slays the Philistines with the jawbone of an ass , they declared their find a lucky charm and brought it back to the college as a mascot ; it became known as " Enobesra " ( reportedly because " jawbone seemed so commonplace , an arsebone sounded much more interesting and spelt backwards sounded both mysterious and respectable " ) .
Ranked lieutenant in the Permanent Military Force ( PMF ) , Pollard was appointed adjutant / quartermaster of the 17th Battalion ( Citizens Military Forces ) , headquartered at North Sydney , in July 1925 . He married Daisy Ethel Potter , a typist , at St Andrew 's Anglican Church , Strathfield , on 31 October ; The Bathurst Times reported that Daisy cut the cake with her husband 's Sword of Honour . Pollard departed for India on attachment to the British Army in September 1927 , serving with the Royal Fusiliers and the York and Lancaster Regiment . He returned to Sydney in November the following year and was posted as adjutant / quartermaster to , successively , the 18th Battalion ( CMF ) and , in September 1932 , the 44th Battalion ( CMF ) . In December 1932 , while serving with the 44th in Western Australia , he was promoted to captain . Pollard was camp commandant of the National Rifle Association of Western Australia from 1934 to 1936 . He was transferred to Army Headquarters , Melbourne , in October 1936 . His next posting , in July 1938 , was as General Staff Officer Grade 3 , Training and General Duties , at the 2nd District Base , Sydney . In November 1938 , Pollard travelled to England to attend Staff College , Camberley ; he graduated in September 1939 , the planned two @-@ year course having been curtailed owing to the outbreak of the Second World War .
= = Second World War = =
Following the declaration of war , Pollard served as Assistant Military Liaison Officer at the Australian High Commission , London ; during this posting he spent two weeks attached to the British Expeditionary Force in France . Promoted major , he joined the Second Australian Imperial Force ( AIF ) in June 1940 . The provisions of the Defence Act ( 1903 ) prohibited members of the PMF ( or the CMF ) fighting outside Australian territory except as volunteers in the AIF . Pollard was appointed brigade major of the 25th Brigade , an Australian infantry formation raised in England mostly from logistics personnel to help combat a possible invasion by Nazi Germany . The brigade became part of the Australian 9th Division , and in January 1941 sailed for the Middle East ; it was transferred to the 7th Division on arrival . In March , Pollard was assigned to the 7th Division 's headquarters staff in Libya under Lieutenant General John Lavarack . On 24 April , towards the end of the campaign in Cyrenaica , Pollard led a raiding party on Giarabub , Libya , to remove Senussi civilians and destroy wells and ammunition . He took command of the 2 / 31st Battalion at the end of June 1941 , during the Syrian campaign , after the battalion 's commanding officer , Lieutenant Colonel Selwyn Porter , was wounded . A cease @-@ fire on 12 July ended the campaign in Syria , and Pollard was mentioned in despatches for his service ; the award was gazetted on 30 December 1941 .
Pollard was promoted to lieutenant colonel in August 1941 , and was responsible for establishing the AIF Junior Staff School in Palestine . He was raised to temporary colonel in March 1942 and posted to the AIF Staff in Ceylon , where the 16th and 17th Brigades had been garrisoned while on their way back to Australia from the Middle East . Returning to Australia in August , Pollard was appointed General Staff Officer Grade 1 of the 6th Division ; he served on its headquarters in Papua from September until mid @-@ November 1942 , when he became Major General George Vasey 's senior staff officer at the 7th Division . Pollard received the Distinguished Service Order for his actions in operations at Gona and Sanananda , during which he " displayed unlimited energy and ascertained vital information for use in future operations " ; the award was promulgated on 21 December 1943 . At the conclusion of the Papuan campaign in January 1943 , Pollard was posted to Queensland with the 6th Division , which was undergoing training and reinforcement . He was Chief Instructor of the Senior Staff School at Duntroon from December 1943 until February 1945 , when he became Deputy Director of Military Operations at General Sir Thomas Blamey 's Allied Land Forces Headquarters , based in Melbourne .
= = Post @-@ war career = =
= = = Rise to Chief of the General Staff = = =
Pollard held command of the Army 's Recruit Training Centre at Greta , New South Wales , from February to May 1946 . He spent the next two months attached to the headquarters staff of Northern Command . In August he was posted to England to undertake a course at the Royal Air Force 's School of Air Support in Old Sarum , and following his return in February 1947 was allotted to instruct at the soon @-@ to @-@ be @-@ opened RAAF School of Air Support at Laverton , Victoria . It was redesignated the School of Land / Air Warfare in March 1948 and relocated to RAAF Station Williamtown , New South Wales . Pollard was appointed Director of Personnel Administration at Army Headquarters in January 1949 . One of his tasks was to prepare the ground for the reintroduction of compulsory national service ; the new scheme was enacted in 1951 and remained in force until 1959 . Pollard 's lieutenant @-@ colonelcy had been made substantive in September 1946 and his colonelcy in July 1949 . He attended the Imperial Defence College , London , throughout 1951 ; he served as aide @-@ de @-@ camp to King George VI from April that year until August 1952 , and in the same capacity for Queen Elizabeth II until April 1954 .
In January 1952 , Pollard succeeded Colonel John Wilton as Director of Military Operations and Plans at Army Headquarters , and became Chairman of the Joint Planning Committee . That August he was one of the Australian delegates joining the Minister for External Affairs , Richard Casey , for the inaugural meeting of the ANZUS Council in Honolulu ; the US and New Zealand delegations were led , respectively , by Secretary of State Dean Acheson and Minister for External Affairs Clifton Webb . Pollard also took part in planning for the atomic test at Montebello , Western Australia , in October 1952 . Promoted to temporary brigadier in March 1953 , Pollard acted as Australian military advisor to Prime Minister Robert Menzies at the Commonwealth Prime Ministers ' Conference in London that June . From July to November he served as commander of the Australian Army Component of the British Commonwealth Forces Korea ; the role was responsible for managing the turnover of Australian troops in the theatre and the upkeep of their personal records . Pollard was later appointed Deputy Adjutant General at Army Headquarters , and his rank of brigadier became substantive in December 1953 .
In September 1954 , Pollard was promoted to temporary major general and appointed Quartermaster General and Third Military Member of the Military Board . At fifty @-@ two , he was the youngest member of the Board . His promotion to major general was made substantive in December 1954 . Inspecting conditions for Australian troops deployed to Malaya in December 1955 , Pollard was quoted as saying that there were " one or two " serious complaints but that he was " amazed how few there were , considering that the average soldier complains considerably all the time " . In August 1957 , he was promoted lieutenant general and succeeded Eric Woodward as General Officer Commanding Eastern Command , upon Woodward 's appointment as Governor of New South Wales . Headquartered in Sydney , Eastern Command covered the state of New South Wales and was the superior headquarters for the 2nd Division ( CMF ) . Pollard was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire in the Queen 's Birthday Honours promulgated on 9 June 1955 , and a Companion of the Order of the Bath in the Birthday Honours promulgated on 13 June 1959 .
= = = Chief of the General Staff = = =
On 1 July 1960 , Pollard succeeded Lieutenant General Sir Ragnar Garrett as Chief of the General Staff ( CGS ) , and was raised to Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire in the Queen 's Birthday Honours promulgated on 2 June 1961 . Although favoured by Garrett , Pollard 's succession had not been a foregone conclusion . The Minister for the Army , John Cramer , attempted to appoint Major General Ivan Dougherty , a retired CMF officer , but the proposal was defeated in cabinet on the advice of the Minister for Defence , Athol Townley , who feared the antagonism it was likely to engender among the senior ranks of the Regular Army .
As CGS , Pollard oversaw a major restructure of the Army . Following the lead of the US military , in 1960 the Australian Army replaced its " triangular " divisional structure of three infantry battalions under brigade headquarters , with a " pentropic " organisation consisting of five larger battalions without a brigade layer between division and battalion headquarters . The reorganisation had been sponsored by Garrett and agreed to by Townley in December 1959 . According to historian Chris Clark , Pollard was " personally ambivalent " about the change , which was intended to rationalise resources and strengthen the battalions for overseas deployments but also resulted in the disbandment of the citizens ' brigades and many other militia units . The US in any case abandoned the pentropic system in June 1961 , and the Australian Army ultimately returned to the triangular formation following a review commissioned by Pollard 's successor as CGS , Lieutenant General Wilton , in October 1964 . Another of Pollard 's focus areas as CGS was the academic qualifications of Army officers . Concerned that Duntroon graduates would begin to fall behind their tertiary @-@ educated peers in the community , he worked to make the college a degree @-@ granting institution , though this did not come to fruition until 1968 .
In December 1961 , Pollard told the Secretary of the Defence Committee that he considered the Army 's strength inadequate to support the government 's policy of " forward defence " , which involved meeting Communist aggression in South East Asia , well away from the Australian mainland . The CMF , he contended , was not properly equipped to provide relief for regular forces deployed overseas , and conscription " would appear to be politically and economically out of the question " . Nevertheless , the government reintroduced conscription in 1964 . As the threat of South Vietnam falling to a Communist takeover became more apparent , the Army began in 1962 to exercise specifically to combat counter @-@ insurgency operations , a type of warfare Pollard characterised as " frustrating groping at an elusive enemy " ; he added that " no purely military solution to a Communist insurgency situation is possible " . In May that year , the Federal government agreed to South Vietnam 's request for military instructors ; Pollard was responsible for laying down guidelines for the thirty advisors deployed in August as part of the Australian Army Training Team Vietnam , led by his friend Colonel Ted Serong .
= = Retirement = =
Upon reaching the mandatory retirement age of sixty , Pollard left the military on 20 January 1963 , having recommended Wilton as his successor . He became a grazier on a farm at Wesburn , Victoria . In July 1965 , he was made Honorary Colonel ( later Colonel Commandant ) of the Royal Australian Regiment , in which capacity he visited Australian troops in South Vietnam . He served as Australian Secretary to Queen Elizabeth II for the Royal Visit in 1970 , and was appointed a Knight Commander of the Royal Victorian Order in recognition of his services ; the honour was promulgated on 29 May 1970 , backdated to 3 May . In 1974 , he moved to a new property , which he christened Duntroon , at Wyrallah , New South Wales . Pollard died suddenly at his Wyrallah home on 9 March 1978 . He was survived by his wife and two sons , and cremated .
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= SMS Friedrich der Grosse ( 1874 ) =
For the battleship of the same name , see SMS Friedrich der Grosse ( 1911 ) .
SMS Friedrich der Grosse ( or Große ) was an armored frigate of the German Kaiserliche Marine . She was the second of three Preussen @-@ class ironclads , in addition to her two sister @-@ ships Preussen and Grosser Kurfürst . Named for Frederick the Great , she was laid down at the Imperial Dockyard in Kiel in 1871 and completed in 1877 . Her main battery of four 26 cm ( 10 in ) guns was mounted pair of twin gun turrets amidships .
Friedrich der Grosse served with the fleet from her commissioning until 1896 , though she was frequently placed in reserve throughout her career . The ship was a regular participant in the annual fleet training maneuvers conducted with the exception of the mid @-@ 1880s , when she was temporarily replaced by newer vessels . She participated in several cruises in the Baltic and Mediterranean Seas , often escorting Kaiser Wilhelm II on official state visits . The ship was removed from active service in 1896 , after which she was used in secondary roles until 1919 , when she was stricken from the naval register and sold to a scrapyard . Friedrich der Grosse was broken up for scrap the following year .
= = Construction = =
Friedrich der Grosse was ordered by the Imperial Navy from the Imperial Dockyard in Kiel ; her keel was laid in 1871 under construction number 1 . The ship was launched on 20 September 1874 and commissioned into the German fleet on 22 November 1877 . Although laid down a year before her sister Preussen , Friedrich der Grosse was not completed until a year after ; this was because she was built at a newly established and inexperienced Imperial Dockyard , while Preussen was built by AG Vulcan , an experienced private shipbuilder . The ship cost the German government 7 @,@ 303 @,@ 000 gold marks .
The ship was 96 @.@ 59 meters ( 316 @.@ 9 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 16 @.@ 30 m ( 53 @.@ 5 ft ) and a draft of 7 @.@ 12 m ( 23 @.@ 4 ft ) forward . Friedrich der Grosse was powered by one 3 @-@ cylinder single expansion steam engine , which was supplied with steam by six coal @-@ fired transverse trunk boilers . The ship 's top speed was 14 knots ( 26 km / h ; 16 mph ) , at 4 @,@ 998 indicated horsepower ( 3 @,@ 727 kW ) . She was also equipped with a full ship rig . Her standard complement consisted of 46 officers and 454 enlisted men .
She was armed with four 26 cm ( 10 @.@ 2 in ) L / 22 guns mounted in a pair of gun turrets placed amidships . As built , the ship was also equipped with two 17 cm ( 6 @.@ 7 in ) L / 25 chase guns . After being rebuilt in 1888 – 1890 , her armament was increased by six and later ten 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) L / 30 quick @-@ firing guns , a pair of machine guns , and five 35 cm ( 14 in ) torpedo tubes , all placed in the ship 's hull below the waterline . Preussen 's armor was made of wrought iron and backed with teak . The armored belt was arrayed in two strakes . The upper strake was 203 mm ( 8 @.@ 0 in ) thick ; the lower strake ranged in thickness from 102 to 229 mm ( 4 @.@ 0 to 9 @.@ 0 in ) . Both were backed with 234 to 260 mm ( 9 @.@ 2 to 10 @.@ 2 in ) of teak . The gun turrets were protected by 203 to 254 mm ( 8 @.@ 0 to 10 @.@ 0 in ) armor on the sides , backed by 260 mm of teak .
= = Service history = =
After her commissioning in November 1877 , Friedrich der Grosse served with the fleet . In April 1878 , Friedrich der Grosse was reactivated to participate in the annual summer fleet maneuvers , under the command of Rear Admiral Carl Ferdinand Batsch . Her newly commissioned sister @-@ ship , Grosser Kurfürst , joined the squadron shortly before maneuvers were scheduled to begin . At the time , Friedrich der Grosse suffered from mechanical problems , and on 22 May , she ran aground off Nyborg while steaming from Kiel to Wilhelmshaven . The ship suffered serious damage to her hull , which , coupled with her chronic engine problems , forced her to miss the fleet maneuvers . While the squadron steamed in the English Channel on 31 May , the armored frigate König Wilhelm accidentally rammed Grosser Kurfürst ; the latter quickly sank with the loss of 276 men .
In the aftermath of the loss of Grosser Kurfürst , the Navy canceled the summer 1878 maneuvers . Apart from the small ironclad Hansa , all armored warships were put in reserve until the following year . In May 1879 , the armored squadron was reactivated , under the command of Rear Admiral Franz Kinderling . Friedrich der Grosse and Preussen were joined by the older ironclads Friedrich Carl and Kronprinz ; the squadron remained in the Baltic for the majority of the training period . Kinderling took his four ships out into the North Sea in June for a visit to Norway . The four ships returned to Kiel in September , when the squadron was disbanded for the winter .
In the spring of 1880 , the squadron was again reestablished . The new armored corvette Sachsen replaced Kronprinz in the squadron that year . Wilhelm von Wickede , a former Austrian naval officer , replaced Kinderling as the squadron commander . In June , the Italian frigate Cristoforo Colombo visited the armored squadron in Kiel . Again , the squadron remained in the Baltic for the summer cruise , with the exception of a short visit to Wilhelmshaven and Cuxhaven in August . The summer cruise in 1881 followed the same pattern as the year previous , though Kronprinz returned in place of Sachsen , which was plagued with engine problems . Wickede again served as the commander . In July , the ships hosted a visit by the British reserve squadron , which by this time included the first British ironclad , HMS Warrior . Preussen and the rest of the squadron visited Danzig in September during a meeting between Kaiser Wilhelm I and the Russian Tsar Alexander III .
The 1882 summer cruise included the same four ironclads from the previous year , and was again commanded by Wickede , who had by then been promoted to Rear Admiral . Friedrich der Grosse was kept in reserve during the annual summer maneuvers starting in 1883 , as new ships , including the rest of the Sachsen @-@ class ironclads entered service . The ship was reactivated in July 1888 to participate in a tour of the Baltic for the newly enthroned Kaiser Wilhelm II . The voyage included visits to St. Petersburg , Stockholm , and Copenhagen . They met Tsar Alexander III and the Swedish King Oscar II , who inspected the German warships and conferred decorations on the senior officers .
In August 1889 , Friedrich der Grosse participated in Kaiser Wilhelm II 's visit to Great Britain . The ship was assigned to the II Division , along with her sister Preussen and the central battery ironclads Kaiser and Deutschland , under command of Rear Admiral Friedrich Hollmann . The fleet then conducted maneuvers in the North Sea before returning to Germany . Friedrich der Grosse and the rest of the II Division became the training squadron for the fleet in 1889 – 1890 , the first year the Kaiserliche Marine maintained a year @-@ round ironclad force . The squadron escorted Wilhelm II 's imperial yacht to the Mediterranean ; the voyage included state visits to Italy and the Ottoman Empire . The squadron remained in the Mediterranean until April 1890 , when it returned to Germany .
Friedrich der Grosse participated in the ceremonial transfer of the island of Helgoland from British to German control in the summer of 1890 . She was present during the fleet maneuvers in September , where the entire eight @-@ ship armored squadron simulated a Russian fleet blockading Kiel . The II Division , including Friedrich der Grosse , served as the training squadron in the winter of 1890 – 1891 . The squadron again cruised the Mediterranean , under the command of Rear Admiral Wilhelm Schröder . Friedrich der Grosse again saw service in the II Division in the winter of 1891 – 1892 and the 1892 maneuvers , under the command of Rear Admiral Hans Koester .
The ship participated in the 1893 maneuvers , which included a simulation of a French naval attack in the North Sea . The following year , Friedrich der Grosse , König Wilhelm , and Deutschland joined the new battleship Brandenburg as re @-@ designated II Division of the Maneuver Squadron , under the command of Rear Admiral Otto von Diederichs . The ships simulated a Russian attack on Germany 's Baltic coast in the 1894 maneuvers . She was reduced to a harbor ship on 16 November 1896 . The ship was stricken from the active register on 21 May 1906 , after which she was used as a coal hulk for torpedo boats . Friedrich der Grosse served in this capacity until after the end of World War I ; she was removed from the naval register on 27 January 1919 . She was sold to shipbreakers and broken up for scrap the following year in Rönnebeck .
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= Brazilian cruiser Bahia =
Bahia was the lead ship of a two @-@ vessel class of cruisers built for Brazil by the British company Armstrong Whitworth . In November 1910 , just six months after her commissioning , crewmen aboard Bahia , Marechal Deodoro , Minas Geraes , and São Paulo mutinied , beginning the Revolta da Chibata ( Revolt of the Lash ) . During the four @-@ day rebellion , Brazil 's capital city of Rio de Janeiro was held hostage by the possibility of a naval bombardment , leading the government to give in to the rebel demands , which included the abolition of flogging in the navy . During the First World War , Bahia and her sister ship Rio Grande do Sul were assigned to the Divisão Naval em Operações de Guerra ( Naval Division in War Operations ) , the Brazilian Navy 's main contribution in that conflict . Based out of Sierra Leone and Dakar , the squadron escorted convoys through an area believed to be heavily patrolled by U @-@ boats .
In the mid @-@ 1920s , Bahia was extensively modernized . She received three new Brown – Curtis turbine engines and six new Thornycroft boilers , and , in the process , was converted from coal @-@ burning to oil . The refit resulted in a striking aesthetic change , with the exhaust being trunked into three funnels instead of two . The armament was also modified ; three 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) Madsen guns , a 7 mm ( 0 @.@ 28 in ) Hotchkiss machine gun , and four 533 mm ( 21 @.@ 0 in ) torpedo tubes were added . In the 1930s , she served with government forces during multiple revolutions .
In the Second World War , Bahia was once again used as a convoy escort , sailing over 100 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 190 @,@ 000 km ; 120 @,@ 000 mi ) in the span of about a year . On 4 July 1945 she was acting as a plane guard for transport aircraft flying from the Atlantic to Pacific theaters of war . While Bahia 's gunners were firing at a kite for anti @-@ aircraft practice , one aimed too low and hit depth charges stored near the stern of the ship , resulting in a massive explosion that incapacitated the ship and sank her within minutes . Only a small portion of the crew survived the blast , and even fewer were still living when their rafts were discovered days later .
= = Construction and commissioning = =
Bahia was part of a large 1904 naval building program by Brazil . Also planned as part of this were the two Minas Geraes @-@ class dreadnoughts , ten Pará @-@ class destroyers , three submarines and a submarine tender . With a design that borrowed heavily from the British Adventure @-@ class scout cruisers , Bahia 's keel was laid on 19 August 1907 in Armstrong Whitworth 's Elswick , Newcastle upon Tyne yard . Construction took about a year and a half , and she was launched on 20 January 1909 . The process of fitting out pushed her completion date to 2 March 1910 , after which she sailed to Brazil , arriving in Recife on 6 May . The new cruiser — the third ship of the Brazilian Navy to honor the state of Bahia — was commissioned into the navy shortly thereafter on 21 May 1910 . As a class , Bahia and Rio Grande do Sul were the fastest cruisers in the world when they were commissioned , and the first in the Brazilian Navy to utilize steam turbines for propulsion .
= = Mutiny = =
Brazil 's economy was suffering from a severe recession at the same time Bahia was commissioned . This economic hardship , along with the racism prevalent in all branches of the Brazilian armed forces , and the severe discipline enforced on all navy ships , spawned a mutiny known as the Revolta da Chibata ( Revolt of the Whip ) among sailors on the most powerful ships .
Unhappy with the violent treatment they were receiving , black sailors on the dreadnought battleship Minas Geraes began planning an uprising early in 1910 , choosing João Cândido Felisberto — an experienced sailor later known as the " Black Admiral " — as their leader . In mid @-@ November , a sailor was sentenced to be flogged in front of his fellow sailors , even though the practice had been banned by law . The punishment was administered and continued even after the sailor fainted , infuriating the nascent mutineers . Although they were not ready and could not revolt immediately , they quickened their preparations and rebelled on 21 November , earlier than originally planned . They killed several officers and the captain of Minas Geraes , while other officers were forced off the ship . The revolt quickly expanded to the battleship São Paulo , the elderly coastal defense ship Marechal Deodoro , and Bahia . While joining the revolt , the crew of the scout cruiser murdered one of their officers . During this time , discipline on the rebelling ships was not relaxed ; daily drills were conducted and Felisberto ordered all liquor to be thrown overboard .
The crews of the torpedo boats remained loyal to the government , and army troops moved to the presidential palace and the coastline , but neither group could stop the mutineers . The fact that many who manned Rio de Janeiro 's harbor defenses were sympathetic to the mutineers ' cause , coupled with chance that the capital might be bombarded by the mutinous ships , forced the National Congress of Brazil to give in to the rebels ' demands . These included the abolition of flogging , improved living conditions , and the granting of amnesty to all mutineers . The government also issued official pardons and a statement of regret ; its submission resulted in the rebellion 's end on 26 November , when control of the four ships was handed back to the navy .
= = First World War = =
In the opening years of the First World War , the Brazilian Navy was sent out to patrol the South Atlantic with French , British and American naval units , although its ships were not supposed to engage any threat outside territorial waters as Brazil was not at war with the Central Powers . The country also tried to ensure that it remained totally neutral ; Bahia and Rio Grande do Sul were sent to Santos in August 1914 to enforce neutrality laws when it was reported that the German raider Bremen was lying in wait off that port for British and American merchant ships . Brazil joined the Entente and declared war on the Central Powers on 26 October 1917 .
On 21 December 1917 , the Brazilian Navy — at the behest of the British — formed a small naval force with the intent of sending it to the other side of the Atlantic . On 30 January 1918 , Bahia was made the flagship of the newly organized Divisão Naval em Operações de Guerra ( Naval Division in War Operations , abbreviated as DNOG ) , under the command of Rear Admiral Pedro Max Fernando Frontin . The other ships assigned to the squadron were Bahia 's sister Rio Grande do Sul , Pará @-@ class destroyers Piauí , Paraíba , Rio Grande do Norte and Santa Catarina , tender Belmonte , and tugboat Laurindo Pita .
The DNOG sailed for the British colony of Sierra Leone on 31 July . Since other allied countries helped with logistics , little was provided by Brazil aside from the ships themselves and the men crewing them . Despite the threat of a U @-@ boat attack , they were forced to stop several times so Belmonte could transfer necessities such as coal and water to the other ships . They reached Freetown safely on 9 August and remained in the port until 23 August when they departed for Dakar . While on this section of the voyage , Bahia , Rio Grande do Sul , Rio Grande do Norte , Belmonte and Laurindo Pita spotted an apparent torpedo heading for Belmonte , but it missed . Rio Grande do Norte then fired several shots and depth @-@ charged what the force believed to be a U @-@ boat . While the official Brazilian history of the ship definitively claims to have sunk a submarine , author Robert Scheina notes that this action was never confirmed , and works published about U @-@ boat losses in the war do not agree .
After arriving in Dakar on 26 August , the DNOG was tasked with patrolling a triangle with corners at Dakar , Cape Verde and Gibraltar ; the Allies believed that this area was rife with U @-@ boats waiting for convoys to pass through . As such , the Brazilian unit 's mission was to patrol for mines laid by German minelaying submarines and to make sure that convoys passing through would be safe . Complications arose when both Bahia and Rio Grande do Sul had problems with their condensers , a matter which was made much worse by the hot , tropical climate in which the ships were serving .
In early September , the squadron was struck by the Spanish flu pandemic . The contagion began aboard Bahia , spread to the other ships of the squadron and remained present for seven weeks . At one point , 95 % of some of the ships ' crews were infected ; 103 died overseas , and 250 died in Brazil after returning there . On 3 November , Bahia , three of the four destroyers , and the tugboat were sent to Gibraltar for operations in the Mediterranean Sea . They arrived on 9 or 10 November , escorted by the American destroyer Israel , but the fighting ceased on the 11th when the Armistice with Germany was signed . Sometime in early 1919 , Bahia , accompanied by four destroyers , voyaged to Portsmouth , England ; they then traveled across the English Channel to Cherbourg , arriving there on 15 February . The commander of the squadron , Admiral Pedro Max Fernando Frontin , met with the Maritime Prefect prior to the commencement of " social events " ; these lasted until 23 February , when the ships moved to Toulon and Frontin journeyed overland to Paris . The DNOG was dissolved on 25 August 1919 .
= = Modernization and inter @-@ war years = =
In 1925 – 26 , Bahia underwent significant modernization . The original five turbines were replaced by three Brown – Curtis turbines , while the original ten boilers were replaced by six Thornycroft oil @-@ burning boilers , which necessitated the addition of a third funnel . The former coal bunkers , along with some of the space freed up by the decrease in boilers , were converted to hold 588 @,@ 120 litres ( 155 @,@ 360 US gal ) of oil . These modifications resulted in Bahia 's top speed increasing to 28 knots ( 52 km / h ) . All of the boats on board were replaced , and three 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) Madsen guns , a 7 mm ( 0 @.@ 28 in ) Hotchkiss machine gun , and four 533 mm ( 21 @.@ 0 in ) torpedo tubes were added to give the ship a defense against aircraft and more power against surface ships , respectively . Still , in 1930 The New York Times labeled Bahia and the other warships in Brazil 's navy as " obsolete " and noted that nearly all were " older than the ages considered effective by powers signatory to the Washington and London Naval Treaties . "
On 28 June 1926 , the Ludington Daily News reported that Bahia would pay a visit to Philadelphia , accepting an invitation from the United States government to participate in the sesquicentennial celebrations . In mid @-@ 1930 , Bahia and Rio Grande do Sul — under the command of Heráclito Belford Gomes — escorted Brazil 's President @-@ elect Júlio Prestes to the United States . Traveling on board the Brazilian @-@ Lloyd ocean liner Almirante Jacequay , Prestes was returning American then @-@ President @-@ elect Herbert Hoover 's visit to Brazil in December 1928 . The cruisers USS Trenton and Marblehead met the three ships about 100 miles ( 160 km ) off of Sandy Hook and honored Prestes with a 21 @-@ gun salute . After spending five hours in the Ambrose Channel due to fog , Prestes traveled on a launch to a pier , during which Bahia rendered one 21 @-@ gun salute and Fort Jay offered two . After arriving ashore , he traveled to City Hall before speeding down to Washington , D.C. He stayed in the United States for eight days before departing for France on the White Star Line 's Olympic . Bahia and Rio Grande do Sul were berthed at the Brooklyn Navy Yard for the visit .
During the Brazilian Revolution of 1930 , Bahia served with Rio Grande do Sul — until that ship defected — and five or six destroyers off the coast of Santa Catarina ; they were once again commanded by Belford Gomes . Two years later , when the state of São Paulo rebelled in the Constitutionalist Revolution , Bahia — under the command of Frigate Captain Lucas Alexandre Boiteux — and other vessels blockaded the rebel @-@ held port of Santos . Bahia was under repair from 1934 into 1935 . In November 1935 , Bahia and Rio Grande do Sul sailed to Natal , the capital of Rio Grande do Norte , to lend support against another rebellion . As part of their mission , they were ordered to sink the steamship Santos on sight , as several escaping leaders of the revolution were on board .
From 17 – 22 May 1935 , Bahia and Rio Grande do Sul — joined at an unknown point by the Argentine battleships Rivadavia and Moreno , the heavy cruisers Almirante Brown and Veinticinco de Mayo , and five destroyers — escorted São Paulo , with Brazilian President Getúlio Dornelles Vargas embarked , up the Río de la Plata ( River Plate ) to Buenos Aires , the capital of Argentina . Vargas was returning visits from the presidents of Argentina and Uruguay , Agustín Pedro Justo and Gabriel Terra . Vargas and Justo planned to be present at the opening session of the Pan @-@ American Commercial Conference on 26 May , and open a Chaco War peace conference , before São Paulo conveyed Vargas to Montevideo , Uruguay for meetings with Terra .
On 2 March 1936 , Bahia escorted Veinticinco de Mayo , which had the Argentine Navy Minister Rear Admiral Eleazar Videla embarked , and Almirante Brown in the last part of their journey to Rio de Janeiro .
= = Second World War = =
After Brazil 's entrance into the Second World War on 21 August 1942 , which took effect on 31 August , Bahia was used extensively at campaign of Atlantic for escorts and patrols ; sources conflict as to the actual number — either 67 and 15 or 62 and 11 . In total , she traveled 101 @,@ 971 nmi ( 188 @,@ 850 km ; 117 @,@ 346 mi ) in 358 days , and played a role in shepherding over 700 merchant ships , though she and Rio Grande do Sull were labeled by the United States Naval Institute 's magazine Proceedings as being " oversized destroyers " that were " relatively slow " .
Bahia was modernized again twice during the war , in both 1942 and 1944 ; these modernizations were not as extensive as those of the 1920s . Two of her 47 mm ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) guns were replaced with 76 mm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) L / 23 AA guns , her Madsen guns were replaced with seven Oerlikon 20 mm cannons in single mounts , and a director for these guns was installed . Two depth charge tracks were added , improved range @-@ finders were added to the 120 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) guns , and sonar and radar were fitted , in addition to other minor modifications . The Brazilian Navy 's official history of the ship reports these modifications , but does not specify which were undertaken in which year .
On 3 June 1943 , while Bahia was escorting the convoy BT 12 , she located an underwater mine and destroyed it with one of her 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) Madsen guns . On 10 July , while at 26 ° 15 ′ S 43 ° 35 ′ W , Bahia received a sonar contact and depth @-@ charged what the Brazilian Navy 's official history of the ship reports might have been the German submarine U @-@ 199 , which was sunk later that month in the same area ( off Rio de Janeiro ) by American and Brazilian aircraft . In November 1944 , Bahia joined the American light cruiser Omaha and destroyer escort Gustafson in the Scort of the General M. C. Meigs troopship , which was carrying the 4th transportantion of BEF 's troops heading to Italy .
= = = Loss = = =
At the end of hostilities in the European theater in May 1945 various warships of the Allied nations , including Brazil 's , were assigned to patrol in the Atlantic as rescue ships , standing by near routes frequented by military transport aircraft carrying personnel from Europe to the continuing war in the Pacific . Bahia was one such ship ; on 4 July 1945 , she was stationed northeast of Brazil around 0 ° N 30 ° W , near the Saint Peter and Saint Paul Archipelago . For anti @-@ aircraft target practice , crewmen were firing the ship 's 20 mm guns at a kite that was being towed behind the ship . One of them shot it down , but also accidentally hit the depth charges on the stern — a direct consequence of the lack of guide rails that would normally prohibit the guns from being aimed at the ship . The resulting explosion knocked out all power on the ship and sank her in about three minutes .
The survivors of the blast endured four or five days of no food , high temperatures and full exposure to the sun on their makeshift rafts . The New York Times reported that some were driven mad by these conditions and simply jumped into the water , where they were devoured by sharks . From this point on , sources vary greatly . According to an article in Time , Bahia 's loss was not discovered until 8 July , when 22 survivors were picked up by a freighter , Balfe . Naval historian Robert Scheina , however , says that the disaster was revealed when Rio Grande do Sul arrived on station four days after the sinking to take Bahia 's place and could not find her .
Sources also disagree on the number rescued and final death toll . The official history of the ship gives 36 rescued and 336 dead , and the Navios de Guerra Brasileiros gives 36 and 339 . Contemporary news articles also published varying numbers ; in an article published a day after the accident became known , The Evening Independent stated that the ship carried 383 men , though it did not give any more information . The New York Times gave figures of 28 saved and 347 lost , while the St. Petersburg Times gave 32 and 395 . Sources do agree , however , that four American sound technicians were killed .
Rescued crewmen believed that they had hit a mine that detonated one of the ship 's magazines . Vice Admiral Jorge Dodsworth Martins — Brazil 's chief of naval intelligence — thought that Bahia could have been mined or torpedoed by U @-@ 530 , which surrendered under strange circumstances in Mar del Plata , Argentina , on 10 July ( some two months after Germany 's surrender ) , but the Argentine Naval Ministry stated that it would have been impossible for the submarine to travel from the site of the sinking to Mar del Plata in six days ( 4 – 10 July ) . The U @-@ 977 , which crew was also heading to Argentina seeking for asylum , was also accused of sinking Bahia . However , Military investigations carried out by both US and Brazilian Navies , concluded that the cruiser had been indeed sunk due to the above described gunnery accident .
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= The Hills ( TV series ) =
The Hills was an American reality television series that aired for six seasons on MTV from May 31 , 2006 , until July 13 , 2010 . Developed as a spin @-@ off of Laguna Beach : The Real Orange County , the series aired six seasons and focused on the personal and professional lives of several young women residing in Los Angeles , California . Its premise was conceived by Adam DiVello , while Liz Gateley and Sean Travis served as executive producers .
The series originally focused on Lauren Conrad , who appeared in its predecessor , as she pursued a career in the fashion industry . It additionally placed emphasis on her housemate Heidi Montag and their friends Audrina Patridge and Whitney Port . Conrad 's friend Lo Bosworth and Montag 's boyfriend Spencer Pratt developed major positions as part of the supporting cast in the second season , while his sister Stephanie Pratt was added in the third . Port left the series at the conclusion of the fourth season , moving to New York City and starring in her own spin @-@ off , The City , which aired for two seasons .
Looking to pursue other career opportunities , Conrad left the series halfway through the fifth season , and was subsequently replaced by fellow Laguna Beach : The Real Orange County cast member Kristin Cavallari . Bosworth and Stephanie Pratt joined Cavallari and Patridge as primary cast members in the sixth and final season , while Montag and her husband Pratt were removed from the series after displaying erratic behavior . Conrad briefly returned to the series during an alternate ending for its finale .
The Hills received moderately favorable reviews from critics , and has been recognized as a " guilty pleasure " by several media outlets . However , the series was often criticized for tending towards a narrative format more commonly seen in scripted genres including soap operas , and appearing to fabricate much of its storyline . The show has produced several spin @-@ offs , as well as distributed all seasons to DVD .
In June 2016 , it was announced that The Hills would return for a reunion special , entitled The Hills : That Was Then , This Is Now . Lauren Conrad will star in the special , and it is scheduled to air on MTV on August 2 , 2016 .
= = Conception = =
In 2004 , the reality television series Laguna Beach : The Real Orange County premiered on MTV . The program was created by Liz Gateley and documented the lives of several students attending Laguna Beach High School as they completed secondary education . The series proved among the network 's most successful programming , though the entire original cast left after the second season and were replaced by another group of teenagers for the following season .
Television producer Adam DiVello developed the spin @-@ off program The Hills to follow one of its predecessor 's original cast members , Lauren Conrad , as she moved to Los Angeles to pursue a career in the fashion industry .
= = Series synopsis = =
= = = Overview and casting = = =
The Hills chronicles the lives of several young women living in Los Angeles , California . Every installment commences with a voice @-@ over narrative from series leads Lauren Conrad ( seasons 1 – 5 ) or Kristin Cavallari ( seasons 5 – 6 ) , foreshadowing the theme of the episode . Each season concludes with a finale , typically involving a major event such as a progressing relationship or a personnel departure . Most installments revolve around the women 's everyday lives , with the intention of balancing coverage of their personal and professional endeavors .
Throughout its run , the series was led by three ( season 5 ) and four ( seasons 1 – 4 , 6 ) primary cast members , who were credited by their first names . Its original main cast members were Conrad , Heidi Montag , Audrina Patridge , and Whitney Port . Upon the conclusion of the fourth season , Port moved to New York City after receiving employment with Diane von Fürstenberg and was commissioned to star in the spin @-@ off The City .
During this time , Conrad wished to leave the series to pursue other career opportunities , though she filmed ten episodes in the following season to close her storylines . After departing halfway through the fifth season , she was replaced by Cavallari , a fellow former Laguna Beach : The Real Orange County cast member . The sixth and final season saw Conrad 's friends Lo Bosworth and Stephanie Pratt , who were respectively featured as supporting roles since the second and third seasons , become primary cast members . Halfway through the season , Montag left the series after the cast looked to disassociate themselves from her uncharacteristic antics .
The aforementioned women 's storylines were largely developed by a number of supporting cast members . Spencer Pratt , originally credited as " Heidi 's boyfriend " and later " Heidi 's husband " , was added in the second season . Also that season , Brody Jenner was introduced as " Spencer 's friend " . After establishing a friendship with Conrad , he became known as " Lauren 's friend " . Jenner was later credited as " Kristin 's ex @-@ boyfriend " when Cavallari assumed Conrad 's position in the fifth season .
In the third season , Frankie Delgado was established as " Brody 's friend " . His title was adjusted as " Lauren 's friend " the following season , and was eventually reverted to " Brody 's friend " during the fifth season . Since the third season , Justin " Justin @-@ Bobby " Brescia was recognized as " Audrina 's ex " , " Audrina 's boyfriend " , or " Audrina 's ex @-@ boyfriend " Holly Montag , credited as " Heidi 's sister " , was added to the series in the fourth season .
In the fifth season , Stacie Hall was introduced to the series as " bartender " when working at The Dime , and later became " the bartender " after the conflict between herself , Montag , and Pratt came to fruition . After the conflict settled , Hall remained on the series as " Kristin 's friend " .
= = = Timeline of cast members = = =
= = = Storylines = = =
In its series premiere , The Hills first introduced Lauren Conrad , who moved from Laguna Beach , California to Los Angeles to pursue a career in the fashion industry . She and her housemate Heidi Montag originally planned to attend the Fashion Institute of Design & Merchandising , though the latter left the college after receiving employment with Bolthouse Productions . Montag befriended their neighbor Audrina Patridge , while Conrad bonded with her fellow Teen Vogue intern Whitney Port . The remainder of the first season highlighted romantic relationships , including Montag 's and Patridge 's brief relationships with Jordan Eubanks and Brian Drolet respectively . The season concluded with Conrad 's rejection of a summertime internship in Paris to reunite with her former boyfriend Jason Wahler . Consequentially , Port was offered and accepted the position in Conrad 's place .
By the beginning of the second season , Conrad and Wahler had ended their relationship , while Montag began dating Spencer Pratt . Montag increasingly spent more time with Pratt and neglected her friendship with Conrad , which placed a strain on the pair 's friendship . Consequentially , Conrad strengthened her relationship with her friend Lo Bosworth and took a romantic interest in Pratt 's friend Brody Jenner . Montag and Pratt moved into an apartment together in the season finale , at which point Patridge became Conrad 's new housemate .
In the third season , Conrad ended her friendship with Montag after suspecting that she and Pratt fabricated rumors of a sex tape involving herself and Wahler . The ensuing feud between the women became a central focus of the series , and was carried through each subsequent season in which Conrad appeared . Montag and Pratt became engaged , while Patridge resumed a turbulent romantic relationship with her friend Justin " Justin Bobby " Brescia . After Conrad established companionships with Jenner and his friend Frankie Delgado , Pratt severed ties with both men .
In light of the building feud , Spencer 's sister Stephanie Pratt initially took a disliking to Conrad . However , she later apologized to Conrad for an earlier confrontation , and the pair became friends . Their relationship put a burden on Pratt 's relationship with her brother and Montag , who reacted by beginning to alienate her . Conrad and Port eventually left their positions at Teen Vogue after receiving employment from Kelly Cutrone 's PR firm People 's Revolution . By the end of the season , Conrad and Patridge had moved out of their apartment and purchased a home , with new housemate Bosworth becoming a distancing factor between the former two .
The fourth season saw Patridge reconcile with Bosworth and repair her relationship with Conrad before moving into a separate residence . Holly Montag moved from her hometown of Crested Butte , Colorado into her sister and Pratt 's apartment , which created tension between the sisters and Pratt . Montag was later fired from her job with Bolthouse after becoming drunk during a company event . While vacationing in Mexico , an intoxicated Montag and Pratt elope . In the season finale , Conrad and Montag appear to have reconciled , though Conrad 's suspicions regarding the rumors continued to inhibit a reconciliation . Port eventually relocated to New York City to accept a position with Diane von Fürstenberg .
As the fifth season began , Spencer Pratt developed a flirtatious bond with a local bartender Stacie Hall , to the dismay of Montag . Per Montag 's request to salvage their relationship , Pratt agreed to attend couples ' therapy . As they became re @-@ engaged and decided to officially marry , Conrad initially declined an invitation to the wedding . In an attempt to change her mind , Pratt called Conrad and apologized for spreading the rumors . After much additional deliberation , Conrad made her final appearance on the series during the mid @-@ season finale , where she attended the nuptials and reconciled with Montag .
Kristin Cavallari caught the bouquet at the wedding , and assumed the series ' lead beginning in the second half of the season . She began a casual relationship with Brescia , at which point Patridge severed ties with him . Afterwards , the women developed a feud that continued through the remainder of the season . Meanwhile , Montag and Pratt purchased a new house and clashed over the decision to begin a family ; Montag wished to have children , while Pratt opposed the thought .
Before filming for the sixth season commenced , Montag garnered significant criticism after undergoing ten cosmetic surgery procedures in one day . In the premiere , she traveled to her hometown Crested Butte to unveil the results to her family . After unexpectedly receiving much disapproval , she and her husband Pratt alienated themselves from their relatives . Having later displayed additional instances of erratic and unusual behavior , their respective sisters decided to exclude them from their lives . Having dated several years prior , Cavallari and Jenner become flirtatious once more , though the former was taken aback after the latter started seeing another woman .
Meanwhile , Stephanie Pratt struggled to begin dating after being arrested for driving under the influence , but later became involved in a relationship . Patridge became involved in a brief relationship with singer Ryan Cabrera and settled as friends with Brescia , while Bosworth moved in with her boyfriend Scott .
During the final episode of the series , Cavallari decides to move to Europe . In the final scene , Jenner is shown to be watching the limousine bringing Cavallari to the airport travel down her street . With the camera on Jenner , the Hollywood Hills backdrop is pulled away , while the camera pans back to reveal that the entire scene was filmed on a backlot . In reality , the vehicle had not driven off and Cavallari stepped out of the vehicle to hug Jenner .
An alternate ending to the series was broadcast in August 2013 . The scene depicts Jenner returning to his apartment after seeing Cavallari 's limousine off to Europe . Conrad is revealed to be sitting on his couch , and comforts him that " it 's hard to say goodbye " to a " friend of [ his ] " , before the camera focuses on a smiling Conrad .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
The Hills was moderately well received among critics . The series ' first season holds a score of 52 out of 100 on Metacritic , indicating " mixed or average reviews " , based on eight reviews . Robert Abele of LA Weekly complimented the program for being " insanely watchable " , while Variety 's Brian Lowry criticized the storylines as being " as old as they come " . The second season garnered more favorable feedback , with Virginia Heffnernan of The New York Times opining that Conrad " now registers as charm " . After the falling @-@ out between Conrad and Montag in the third season , Heffernan also commented that The Hills " is more convincing than Friends and just about any other comedy about female relationships because — as anyone who has ever been a young woman knows — undying friendships die " .
The decision to replace the departing Conrad with Cavallari halfway through the fifth season was met with a mixed response . Tim Stack of Entertainment Weekly expressed interest in the route the series would take , writing that the latter would " be fully prepared to stir things up " . After the premiere of the first episode under her lead , a writer from PopSugar criticized Cavallari 's " sassy , bad @-@ girl attitude " for lacking originality and preferred Conrad for " [ keeping ] it real " . In contrast , Amy Kaufman from Los Angeles Times opined that Cavallari was more intriguing than Conrad , whose storylines she felt had been overshadowed as the series progressed .
The original series finale during the sixth season garnered a generally negative critical response . Emily Exton from Entertainment Weekly described it as " probably a bit confusing " for the series ' earlier viewers , in light of the casting adjustments in later seasons . A writer for Gawker criticized that " as the camera zooms out into the South California nothingness , nothing has changed , and neither audience nor cast is for the better " . However , a writer from People was more positive , feeling that the conclusion was a " surprise twist " .
Similarly , critics were ambivalent towards the alternate finale . Jenna Mullins from E ! praised Conrad 's return as being " shocking and glorious at the same time " , and felt that " clearly [ viewers ] should all prefer the ending with Lauren Conrad " . Kaitlin Reilly from Bustle described the suggestion of another love triangle involving Conrad and Cavallari to " [ feel ] vaguely like the ending to a horror movie " in that " it 's starting again " , but nonetheless appreciated the ending as " a wink to loyal fans " . Billy Niles from Zap2It noted that there was " no winking nod to a soundstage " , and opined that " nothing that freaking awesome happened " . Sonya Sorich of the Ledger @-@ Enquirer preferred the original conclusion , commenting that the revised clip was not as " startling " as the first . Lindsey Weber from Vulture suggested that the footage felt like a " total soap opera " in that it seemingly acknowledged that portions of the series were fabricated .
During its run , The Hills received several accolades from media outlets . It was recognized at number 82 on Entertainment Weekly 's list of the 100 New TV Classics . The series has been labeled as a guilty pleasure by writers for The Huffington Post , MSN , and BuzzSugar .
= = = Scripting allegations = = =
The Hills was often criticized for appearing to fabricate much of its storyline . In one instance , the president of entertainment for MTV , Brian Graden , commented that the series benefits from the media coverage it receives in between seasons , which he described as a " six @-@ month commercial for the show that doesn 't give away the narrative in full . " He elaborated that MTV wants " viewers to watch Lauren and the girls as the characters we know instead of in a show about being the stars of The Hills " ; the sex tape rumors were consequently presented like a personal conflict between the women , and was intentionally not addressed as a highly publicized controversy .
In 2008 , Patridge noted that a producer offered her a position on the series to become friends with Conrad and Montag . She later appeared on an episode of Chelsea Lately , where Chelsea Handler suggested the program was improvised . When pressed further , Patridge replied , " We 're put in situations where however we 'd react and that 's what comes up [ on TV ] " , and additionally stated that the series was unscripted . In 2008 , Montag and Pratt acknowledged that their Mexican elopement was " entirely symbolic " , while their civil ceremony was filmed after office hours without a county court judge present . Additionally , the Associated Press noted that neither person had filed for a marriage record at the time . An additional source of suspicion arose during the fifth season , where Conrad was shown to be moving out of her house the day prior to Montag and Pratt 's nuptials . However , Conrad and Bosworth had actually left the property several months prior in January , leading to speculation that addressing the wedding as " the next day " was pre @-@ planned .
After leaving The Hills , Conrad appeared on The View in June 2009 , where she was asked how she felt about her apology from Pratt involving the sex tape rumors . She replied , " To be perfectly honest , I wasn 't on the other line of that call [ ... ] I didn 't even know about it until [ afterwards ] , so no , I didn 't get an apology , he 's lying " . At Montag and Pratt 's wedding , it was depicted on the series as if Conrad and Cavallari were displeased with each other 's presence , though the latter commented that they gave each other " a big hug , and that 's it " . She also stated that when she joined The Hills , " It 's work ! And drama sells . I think that 's why they 're bringing me in , because I know what works " .
In February 2011 , Cavallari told Access Hollywood that the cast followed a " schedule " of events to be filmed on a given day , adding , " We only filmed The Hills three days a week , and we did three different scenes each day and a change of clothes to film a specific scene [ ... ] They were pushing it as far as they could go without an actual script ... They give you a schedule like , ' You have lunch with Heidi [ Montag ] at 3 to talk about the party coming up ' or whatever the situation may be " . She had earlier commented that she felt viewers " need to understand it 's all entertainment " and she " would never put [ her ] close friends or a real relationship on a show " .
Cavallari later told Ryan Seacrest that her relationships with Jenner and Brescia were fabricated , and make a point of saying that it was very difficult for her to pretend to be romantically interested in the unattractive and unlikable Brescia . In October 2012 , in an interview with Allure , Conrad stated that while " the story told wasn 't a dishonest one , the way [ the producers ] did it sometimes was " . She elaborated that scenes would be reenacted if cameras were not present for a significant occurrence between cast members , and commented that her relationship with Jenner was " pretty brief " and " definitely [ edited ] to drag it out " . In July 2013 , when discussing the filming of several alternate finale endings , MTV acknowledged that " maybe the term ' reality TV ' didn 't perfectly apply to The Hills " .
= = = U.S. television ratings = = =
The first season of The Hills maintained a steady viewership of about two million viewers for each weekly episode . During the third season , the series achieved its most @-@ viewed episode , " Paris Changes Everything " , on March 17 , 2008 ; it had attracted 4 @.@ 8 million viewers in its original airing . However , the fourth season premiere experienced a 25 @-@ percent ratings decline , attracting 2 @.@ 6 million viewers , compared to the 3 @.@ 8 million viewers of the third season finale . The second half of the fifth season , also Cavallari 's first episode as the lead , premiered to 2 @.@ 1 million viewers , suffering a 30 @-@ percent drop from the premiere of the first half . The series finale in July 2010 aired to three million viewers , becoming the peak viewership of the season .
= = Broadcast history = =
The Hills ' first season commenced airing on May 31 , 2006 . The series continued to air on Wednesday evenings until its conclusion on August 2 , 2006 , at which point it had aired ten episodes . The second season was expanded to twelve episodes and premiered on January 15 , 2007 , in its new timeslot on Mondays . The finale aired on April 2 , 2007 . The third season began airing on August 13 , 2007 , where it remained in the timeslot of the previous season . It is the longest season in the series ' history , having broadcast twenty @-@ eight episodes by its finale on May 12 , 2008 . The fourth season premiered on August 18 , 2008 , during the Monday schedule . It consisted of twenty episodes , and concluded on December 22 , 2008 .
Airing of the fifth season was divided into two sections , Part I under Conrad 's lead , and Part II after Cavallari was confirmed to join the series . Part I premiered on April 6 , 2009 in the same timeslot , and concluded after ten episodes on May 31 , 2009 . Part II premiered on September 29 , 2009 and continued to air on Tuesday evenings . The season aired a total of twenty episodes , split into two equal halves , before finishing on December 1 , 2009 . The sixth season also aired on Tuesdays and premiered on April 27 , 2010 . Twelve episodes later , the series ended its run after a total of 102 episodes on July 13 , 2010 . In July 2012 , MTV aired a month @-@ long morning marathon of The Hills , titled " Retro Mania " . The following year , the marathon was renamed " RetroMTV Brunch " , and culminated with the airing of an alternate series finale in August 2013 .
= = = The City = = =
Beginning in 2008 , cast member Whitney Port starred in her own spin @-@ off series The City . The program premiered on December 28 , 2009 , four weeks after the fifth season finale of The Hills . When she appeared on the original series ' earlier seasons , she limited the exposure of her personal life , commenting that focusing on her career would make people " take [ her ] seriously " .
However , during production of The City , Port wanted to feature her private life to emphasize that " [ her ] head is still screwed on straight " . During the first half of the debut season , the program highlighted her transition to New York City after receiving employment from Diane von Fürstenberg . However , Port later left her position and returned to People 's Revolution with Kelly Cutrone .
The series underwent several casting adjustments for the second half of the first season . Port and Olivia Palermo remained , and the program saw the addition of Port 's friend Roxy Olin and Palermo 's co @-@ worker Erin Kaplan . The revamped cast remained for the second season , which premiered after the sixth season of The Hills on April 27 , 2010 . The season documented the deterioration of Port and Olin 's friendship , which culminated with the latter moving out of their shared apartment . The season concluded on July 13 , 2010 , the same evening as the series finale of The Hills .
In October 2010 , Port confirmed that The City would not be renewed by MTV .
= = = Other spin @-@ offs = = =
Aside from The City , The Hills spawned two additional related series and one proposed program . Cutrone received her own spin @-@ off program Kell on Earth , which premiered on February 1 , 2010 on Bravo . It chronicled the daily operations at People 's Revolution as well as her private life , and was canceled after airing one season .
That September , Conrad filmed a pilot episode for a program that would have focused on her professional endeavors , though MTV passed on the project after Conrad preferred not to feature her personal life . Patridge was commissioned the VH1 program Audrina in 2011 , which focused on herself and her family . However , the series was canceled after its debut season due to underwhelming ratings .
= = Distribution = =
The Hills episodes aired regularly on MTV in the United States . Most episodes are approximately thirty minutes , and were broadcast in standard definition . The series ' episodes are also available for download at the iTunes Store . Episodes were previously available for viewing through the official MTV website , though they have since become unavailable since the series ' conclusion . The series , in addition to Laguna Beach : The Real Orange County , were premiered in syndication in fall 2009 .
Since its debut , Paramount Pictures has released all six seasons of The Hills onto DVD , across seven installments . The first , second , fourth , and sixth seasons ' sets each have three discs , while that of the third season includes four . The fifth season 's release was divided into Part I and Part II , and are packaged with two discs apiece .
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= Fortress of Mimoyecques =
The Fortress of Mimoyecques is the modern name for a Second World War underground military complex built by the forces of Nazi Germany between 1943 and 1944 . It was intended to house a battery of V @-@ 3 cannons aimed at London , 165 kilometres ( 103 mi ) away . Originally codenamed Wiese ( " Meadow " ) or Bauvorhaben 711 ( " Construction Project 711 " ) , it is located in the commune of Landrethun @-@ le @-@ Nord in the Pas @-@ de @-@ Calais region of northern France , near the hamlet of Mimoyecques about 20 kilometres ( 12 mi ) from Boulogne @-@ sur @-@ Mer . It was constructed by a mostly German workforce recruited from major engineering and mining concerns , augmented by prisoner @-@ of @-@ war slave labour .
The complex consists of a network of tunnels dug under a chalk hill , linked to five inclined shafts in which 25 V @-@ 3 guns would have been installed , all targeted on London . The guns would have been able to fire ten dart @-@ like explosive projectiles a minute – 600 rounds every hour – into the British capital , which Winston Churchill later commented would have constituted " the most devastating attack of all " . The Allies knew nothing about the V @-@ 3 but identified the site as a possible launching base for V @-@ 2 ballistic missiles , based on reconnaissance photographs and fragmentary intelligence from French sources .
Mimoyecques was targeted for intensive bombardment by the Allied air forces from late 1943 onwards . Construction work was seriously disrupted , forcing the Germans to abandon work on part of the complex . The rest was partly destroyed on 6 July 1944 by No. 617 Squadron RAF , which used ground @-@ penetrating 5 @,@ 400 @-@ kilogram ( 11 @,@ 900 lb ) " Tallboy " earthquake bombs to collapse tunnels and shafts , entombing hundreds of slave workers underground .
The Germans halted construction work at Mimoyecques as the Allies advanced up the coast following the Normandy landings . It fell to the Canadian 3rd Infantry Division on 5 September 1944 without resistance , a few days after the Germans withdrew from the area .
The complex was partly demolished just after the war on Churchill 's direct orders ( and to the great annoyance of the French , who were not consulted ) , as it was still seen as a threat to the United Kingdom . It was later reopened by private owners , first in 1969 to serve as a mushroom farm and subsequently as a museum in 1984 . A nature conservation organisation acquired the Fortress of Mimoyecques in 2010 and La Coupole , a former V @-@ 2 rocket base turned museum near Saint @-@ Omer , took over its management . It continues to be open to the public as a vast underground museum complex .
= = Background = =
In May 1943 Albert Speer , the Reich 's Minister of Armaments and War Production , informed Adolf Hitler of work that was being carried out to produce a supergun capable of firing hundreds of shells an hour over long distances . The newly designed gun , codenamed the Hochdruckpumpe ( " High Pressure Pump " , HDP for short ) and later designated as the V @-@ 3 , was one of the V @-@ weapons – Vergeltungswaffen ( " retaliation weapons " ) – developed by Nazi Germany in the later stages of the war to attack Allied targets . Long @-@ range guns were not a new development , but the high @-@ pressure detonations used to fire shells from previous such weapons , including the Paris gun , rapidly wore out their barrels .
In 1942 , August Coenders , inspired by previous designs of multi @-@ chamber guns , suggested that the gradual acceleration of the shell by a series of small charges spread over the length of the barrel might be the solution to the problem of designing very long @-@ range guns . Coenders proposed the use of electrically activated charges to eliminate the problem of the premature ignition of the subsidiary charges experienced by previous multi @-@ chamber guns . The HDP would have a smooth barrel over 100 metres ( 330 ft ) long , along which a 97 @-@ kilogram ( 214 lb ) finned shell ( known as the Sprenggranate 4481 ) would be accelerated by numerous small low @-@ pressure detonations from charges in branches off the barrel , each fired electrically in sequence . Each barrel would be 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) in diameter .
The gun was still in its prototype stages , but Hitler was an enthusiastic supporter of the idea and ordered that maximum support be given to its development and deployment . In August 1943 he approved the construction of a battery of HDP guns in France to supplement the planned V @-@ 1 and V @-@ 2 missile campaigns against London and the south @-@ east of England . Speer noted afterwards :
On my suggestion , the Führer has decided that the risk must be stood to award contracts at once for the " high @-@ pressure pump , " without waiting for the results of firing trials . Maximum support is to be accorded to the experimental ranges at Hillersleben and Misdroy , and especially to the completion of the actual battery .
To reach England , the weapon needed barrels 127 metres ( 417 ft ) long , so it could not be moved ; it would have to be deployed from a fixed site . A study carried out in early 1943 had shown that the optimal location for its deployment would be within a hill with a rock core into which inclined drifts could be tunneled to support the barrels .
The site was identified by a fortification expert , Major Bock of the Festungs @-@ Pionier @-@ Stab 27 of the Fifteenth Army LVII Corps based in the Dieppe area . A limestone hill near the hamlet of Mimoyecques , 158 metres ( 518 ft ) high and 165 kilometres ( 103 mi ) from London , was chosen to house the gun . It had been selected with care ; the hill in which the facility was built is primarily chalk with very little topsoil cover , and the chalk layer extends several hundred metres below the surface , providing a deep but easily tunnelled rock layer . The chalk is easy to excavate and strong enough to dig tunnels without using timber supports . Although the site 's road links were poor , it was only a few kilometres west of the main railway line between Calais and Boulogne @-@ sur @-@ Mer .
The area was already heavily militarised ; as well as the fortifications of the Atlantic Wall on the cliffs of Cap Gris Nez to the northwest , there was a firing base for at least one conventional Krupp K5 railway gun about 5 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) to the south in the nearby quarries of Hidrequent @-@ Rinxent .
= = Design and construction = =
Construction began in September 1943 with the building of railway lines to support the work , and excavation of the gun shafts began in October . The initial layout comprised two parallel complexes approximately 1 @,@ 000 metres ( 3 @,@ 300 ft ) apart , each with five drifts which were to hold a stacked cluster of five HDP gun tubes , for a total of 25 guns . The smoothbore design of the HDP would enable a much higher rate of fire than was possible with conventional guns . The entire battery would be able to fire up to 10 shots a minute , capable in theory of hitting London with 600 projectiles every hour . Both facilities were to be served by an underground railway tunnel of standard gauge , connected to the Calais @-@ Boulogne main line , and underground ammunition storage galleries which were tunneled at a depth of about 33 m ( 108 ft ) . The western site was abandoned at an early stage after being disrupted by Allied bombing , and only the eastern complex was built .
The drifts were angled at 50 degrees , reaching a depth of 105 m ( 344 ft ) . Owing to technical problems with the gun prototype , the scope of the project was reduced ; drifts I and II were abandoned at an early date and only III , IV and V were taken forward . They came to the surface at a concrete slab or Platte 30 m ( 98 ft ) wide and 5 @.@ 5 m ( 18 ft ) thick , in which there were narrow openings to allow the projectiles to pass through . The openings in the slab were protected by large steel plates , and the railway tunnel entrances were further protected by armoured steel doors . Each drift was oriented on a bearing of 299 ° , to the nearest degree – a direct line on Westminster Bridge . Although the elevation and direction of the guns could not be changed , it would have been possible to alter the range by varying the amount of propellant used in each shot . This would have brought much of London within range .
The railway tunnel ran in a straight line for a distance of about 630 m ( 2 @,@ 070 ft ) . Along its west side was an unloading platform which gave access to ten cross galleries ( numbered 3 – 13 by the Germans ) , driven at right angles to the main tunnel at intervals of 24 metres ( 79 ft ) . Each gallery was fitted with a 600 mm ( 1 ft 11 5 ⁄ 8 in ) gauge railway track . On the east side of the tunnel were chambers intended to be used as store rooms , offices and quarters for the garrison . Trains would have entered the facility and unloaded shells and propellant for the guns .
Galleries 6 – 10 , the central group , gave access to the guns , while galleries 3 – 5 and 11 – 13 were intended for use as access tunnels and perhaps also storage areas . They were all connected by Gallery No. 2 , which ran parallel to the main railway tunnel at a distance of 100 metres ( 330 ft ) . Galleries 6 – 10 were additionally connected by a second passageway , designated Gallery No. 1 , running parallel to the main tunnel at a distance of 24 @.@ 5 metres ( 80 ft ) . Further workings existed at depths of 62 m ( 203 ft ) , 47 m ( 154 ft ) and 30 m ( 98 ft ) , each serving different purposes associated with the drifts and the guns . The 62 m workings were constructed to facilitate the removal of spoil from the drifts , while those at 47 m were connected with the handling of exhaust gases from the guns and those at 30 m gave access to the breeches of the guns . The lower levels of the workings were accessed via lift shafts , and mining cages were used during construction .
The construction work was carried out by over 5 @,@ 000 workers , mostly German engineers drafted in from several companies including Mannesmann , Gute Hoffnungshütte , Krupp and the Vereinigte Stahlwerke , supplemented by 430 miners recruited from the Ruhr and Soviet prisoners of war who were used as slave labourers . The intensive Allied bombing campaign caused delays , but construction work continued nonetheless at a high pace underground . The original plans had envisaged having the first battery of five guns ready by March 1944 and the full complement of 25 guns by 1 October 1944 , but these target dates were not met .
= = Discovery and destruction = =
In 1943 French agents reported that the Germans were planning to mount an offensive against the United Kingdom that would involve the use of secret weapons resembling giant mortars sunk in the ground and served by rail links . The first signs of abnormal activity at Mimoyecques were spotted by analysts at the Allied Central Interpretation Unit in September 1943 , when aerial reconnaissance revealed that the Germans were building railway loops leading to the tunnels into the eastern and western sites . Further reconnaissance flights in October 1943 photographed large @-@ scale activity around the tunnels .
An analyst named André Kenny discovered a series of shafts when he saw from a reconnaissance photograph that a haystack concealing one of them had disintegrated , perhaps through the effects of a gale , revealing the entrance , a windlass and pulley . The purpose of the site was unclear , but it was thought to be some kind of shelter for launching rockets or flying bombs . An MI6 agent reported that " a concrete chamber was to be built near one of the tunnels for the installation of a tube , 40 to 50 metres long , which he referred to as a ' rocket launching cannon ' " . The shafts were interpreted as " air holes to allow for the expansion of the gases released by the explosion of the launching charge . "
The Allies were unaware of the HDP gun and therefore of the Mimoyecques site 's true purpose . Allied intelligence believed at the time that the V @-@ 2 rocket had to be launched from tubes or " projectors " , so it was assumed that the inclined shafts at Mimoyecques were intended to house such devices .
The lack of intelligence on Mimoyecques was frustrating for those involved in Operation Crossbow , the Allied effort to counter the V @-@ weapons . On 21 March 1944 the British Chiefs of Staff discussed the shortage of intelligence but were told by Reginald Victor Jones , one of the " Crossbow Committee " members , that little information was leaking out because the workforce was predominantly German . The Committee 's head , Duncan Sandys , pressed for greater efforts and proposed that the Special Operations Executive be tasked to kidnap a German technician who could be interrogated for information . The suggestion was approved , but was never put into effect .
In the end the Chiefs of Staff instructed General Eisenhower to begin intensive attacks on the so @-@ called " Heavy Crossbow " sites , including Mimoyecques , which was still believed to be intended for use as a rocket @-@ launching site .
The Allied air forces carried out several bombing raids on Mimoyecques between November 1943 and June 1944 but caused little damage . The bombing disrupted the construction project and the initial raids of 5 and 8 November 1943 caused work to be delayed for about a month . The Germans subsequently decided to abandon the western site , where work had not progressed very far , and concentrated on the eastern site . On 6 July 1944 the Royal Air Force began bombing the site with ground @-@ penetrating Tallboy bombs . One Tallboy hit the concrete slab on top of Drift IV , collapsing the drift . Three others penetrated the tunnels below and substantially damaged the facility , causing several of the galleries to collapse in places .
Around 300 Germans and forced labourers were buried alive by the collapses . Adding to the Germans ' difficulties , major technical problems were discovered with the HDP gun projectiles . They had been designed to exit the barrels at a speed of about 1 @,@ 500 m ( 4 @,@ 900 ft ) per second , but the Germans found that a design fault caused the projectiles to begin " tumbling " in flight at speeds above 1 @,@ 000 m ( 3 @,@ 300 ft ) per second , causing them to fall well short of the target . This was not discovered until over 20 @,@ 000 projectiles had already been manufactured .
After the devastating raid of 6 July , the Germans held a high @-@ level meeting on the site 's future at which Hitler ordered major changes to the site 's development . On 12 July 1944 he signed an order instructing that only five HDP guns were to be installed in a single drift . The two others were to be reused to house a pair of Krupp K5 artillery pieces , reamed out to a smooth bore with a diameter of 310 millimetres ( 12 in ) , which were to use a new type of long @-@ range rocket @-@ propelled shell . A pair of Rheinbote missile launchers were to be installed at the tunnel entrances . These plans were soon abandoned as Allied ground forces advanced towards Mimoyecques , and on 30 July the Organisation Todt engineers were ordered to end construction work .
The Allies were unaware of this and mounted further attacks on the site as part of the United States Army Air Forces experimental Operation Aphrodite , involving radio @-@ controlled B @-@ 24 Liberators packed with explosives . Two such attacks were mounted but failed ; in the second such attack , on 12 August , Lt Joseph P. Kennedy , Jr . – the elder brother of future US President John F. Kennedy – was killed when the drone aircraft exploded prematurely . By the end of the bombing campaign , over 4 @,@ 100 tons of bombs had been dropped on Mimoyecques , more than on any other V @-@ weapons site .
The Mimoyecques site was never formally abandoned , but German forces left it at the start of September 1944 as the Allies advanced northeast from Normandy towards the Pas de Calais . It was captured on 5 September by the Canadian 3rd Infantry Division .
= = Subsequent investigations and attempted demolition = =
In September 1944 , Duncan Sandys ordered the constitution of a Technical Inter @-@ Services Mission under Colonel T.R.B. Sanders . It was given the task of investigating the V @-@ weapons sites at Mimoyecques , Siracourt , Watten , and Wizernes , collectively known to the Allies as the " Heavy Crossbow " sites . Sanders ' report was submitted to the War Cabinet on 19 March 1945 .
Even at this stage the true purpose of the site was unclear . Claims that it had been intended to be used for " electro @-@ magnetic projectors " ( railguns ) , firing huge shells at London , were debunked by Lord Cherwell , Winston Churchill 's scientific adviser , who calculated that it would take sixty times the output of Battersea Power Station to fire a one @-@ ton shell . Sanders ' investigation brought to light the V @-@ 3 project for the first time , to the alarm of the British government . He concluded that although the site had been damaged it " could be completed or adapted for offensive action against this country at some future date , and [ its ] destruction is a matter of importance . " Sandys brought the matter to the attention of Churchill and advised : " Since this installation constitutes a potential threat to London , it would be wise to ensure that it is demolished whilst our forces are still in France . " Churchill later commented that the V @-@ 3 installation at Mimoyecques " might well have launched the most devastating attack of all on London . "
The discovery of the site 's true purpose produced some recriminations in London , as – unlike the V @-@ 1 and V @-@ 2 projects – the V @-@ 3 had not been uncovered by Allied intelligence before the war 's end . The British scientist and military intelligence expert Reginald Victor Jones later commented that " techniques that had been used against the flying bomb and the rocket appeared to have failed against HDP [ V @-@ 3 ] , and there had to be a reason . Basically it was that with our limited effort we had to concentrate on the most urgent problem , and thus on catching weapons not so much at the research stage ( although we sometimes achieved this ) as in the development stage – which usually meant when trials were showing promise . " He concluded at the time , in April 1945 , that the intelligence failure had not made much practical difference given the fact that the Germans had failed to develop the HDP into an effective weapon : " there was little warning ; [ but ] there was little danger . "
Following the recommendation that the site should be destroyed , the Royal Engineers stacked ten tons of British 500 lb ( 230 kg ) bombs and captured German plastic explosive in the tunnels at Mimoyecques and detonated them on 9 May . This failed to achieve the desired effect , and on 14 May , a further 25 tons of explosives were used to bring down the north and south entrances to the railway tunnel into the site . A subsequent investigation by the British Bombing Research Mission concluded that the entrances had been heavily blocked and that it would be a very difficult and lengthy engineering task to reinstate them . The British action was taken without informing the French beforehand and infuriated Charles de Gaulle , who considered it a violation of France 's national sovereignty .
= = Reopening as a museum = =
After the war , the Mimoyecques site lay abandoned . Much of the equipment left by the Germans was disposed of as scrap metal . A complete set of four steel plates , weighing 60 tons , that were intended to protect the entrances to the drifts were bought by the manager of the Hidrequent @-@ Rixent quarries to be cut up for use in rock @-@ crushing machinery . Rediscovered by local historians in the 1990s , they remained at the quarries until 2010 , when the surviving plates were returned to Mimoyecques , where they are now on display .
Despite the closure of the railway tunnel entrances it was still possible for many years to get into the complex by climbing down one of the inclined drifts . In 1969 , Marie @-@ Madeleine Vasseur , a farmer from Landrethun , had the southern entrance excavated so that the tunnels could be used as a mushroom farm . 30 metres ( 98 ft ) of the southern tunnel had to be removed to clear the blockage ; the entrance now visible is not the original one built by the Germans . The southern entrance had been bricked up again by the 1970s . Moved to discover this forgotten construction , Vasseur , helped by family and friends , cleared the tunnels and installed an electricity supply . The société à responsabilité limitée " La Forteresse de Mimoyecques " was constituted in 1984 to operate the site as a museum under the name of Forteresse de Mimoyecques — Un Mémorial International .
The museum closed at the end of the 2008 season when the owner retired . Subsequently , the nonprofit organisation Conservatoire d 'espaces naturels du Nord et Pas @-@ de @-@ Calais ( Conservatory of natural sites of the Nord and Pas @-@ de @-@ Calais ) purchased it at a cost of € 330 @,@ 000 , with funding provided by the Nord @-@ Pas @-@ de @-@ Calais regional council , the European Union and a private benefactor . The Conservatory 's interest was due to the presence on the site of a large bat colony that included rare species , such as the Greater Horseshoe Bat , Geoffroy 's Bat and the Pond Bat .
The intercommunality of the Terre des Deux Caps and the authorities in nearly Landrethun set up a partnership to operate the site under the management of the existing museum of La Coupole near Saint @-@ Omer . The director of the latter , historian Yves le Maner , designed the contents of a new museum that was constructed at a cost of € 360 @,@ 000 .
The site reopened to the public on 1 July 2010 . As well as presenting a history of the V @-@ weapons and of the site , the museum enables visitors to see some of the tunnels and a mock @-@ up of the HDP gun . The tunnels also house memorials to Joseph Kennedy , the other bomber crew members killed during raids on the site , and the forced labourers who lost their lives during construction . In 2011 , the museum had about 11 @,@ 000 visitors , of whom 53 % were French , 18 % Belgian and 16 % British .
= = Air raids on the Mimoyecques site = =
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= Milwaukee @-@ class monitor =
The Milwaukee @-@ class monitors were a class of four riverine ironclad monitors built during the American Civil War . Several supported Union forces along the Mississippi River in mid @-@ 1864 before participating in the Battle of Mobile Bay in August . Chickasaw and Winnebago bombarded Confederate coastal fortifications during the battle and during subsequent operations as well as engaging the ironclad Tennessee II . The other two ships arrived at Mobile Bay after the battle and all four supported the land attacks on Mobile in March – April 1865 . Milwaukee struck a torpedo during this time and sank . The surviving three ships were sold in 1874 ; Chickasaw was converted into a ferry and survived until 1944 when she was scuttled . Her wreck was discovered in 2004 .
= = Design and description = =
The Milwaukee @-@ class monitors had their origin in an order from Gideon Welles , Secretary of the Navy , to Commodore Joseph Smith , Chief of the Bureau of Yards and Docks , on 16 April 1863 to recommend four more river ironclads that could mount four 11 @-@ inch ( 279 mm ) Dahlgren guns on a draft no more than 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) . James Eads received the contract to build four iron @-@ hulled , twin @-@ turreted ironclads , partly due to the influence of Missouri Congressman Frank P. Blair , Jr . Eads retained two of the ships , but subcontracted the other two to other builders .
The Milwaukee @-@ class ships were 229 feet ( 69 @.@ 8 m ) long overall and had a beam of 56 feet ( 17 @.@ 1 m ) . They had a depth of hold of 8 feet 6 inches ( 2 @.@ 6 m ) and a draft of six feet . The ships were 970 tons burthen and displaced 1 @,@ 300 long tons ( 1 @,@ 300 t ) .
They were powered by two 2 @-@ cylinder horizontal non @-@ condensing steam engines , each driving two 7 @-@ foot @-@ 6 @-@ inch ( 2 @.@ 3 m ) propellers , using steam generated by seven tubular boilers . The engines were designed to reach a top speed of 9 knots ( 17 km / h ; 10 mph ) . They had a bore of 26 inches ( 660 mm ) and a stroke of 24 inches ( 610 mm ) . They carried 156 long tons ( 159 t ) of coal .
The ships ' main armament consisted of four smoothbore , muzzle @-@ loading 11 @-@ inch Dahlgren guns mounted in two twin @-@ gun turrets . The fore turret in each ship , except Chickasaw , was designed by Eads while the aft turret was the standard Ericsson design used in most Union monitors . Unlike the latter , which rested its entire weight on a central spindle that had to be elevated in order for the turret to rotate , Eads ' design better distributed its weight because it rested on a number of ball bearings underneath the outer edge of the turret . The structure of the Eads turret extended down to be bottom of the ship and the entire structure rotated . The guns in the Eads turret were mounted on a steam @-@ powered platform that moved up and down , so that the guns could be reloaded below deck , safe from enemy interference . Both turrets used steam engines to rotate , but the Eads design also used it to power virtually every function in the turret , including running out the guns , absorbing the recoil from firing , and opening the gun ports to allow the guns to fire . The ability to adjust the level of the turret floor doubled the elevation of the guns to + 20 ° compared to the + 10 ° allowed in an Ericsson turret . Another advantage was that the Eads turret only required a crew of six men , far fewer than the Ericsson design . Each gun weighed approximately 16 @,@ 000 pounds ( 7 @,@ 300 kg ) . They could fire a 136 @-@ pound ( 61 @.@ 7 kg ) shell up to a range of 3 @,@ 650 yards ( 3 @,@ 340 m ) at an elevation of + 15 ° .
The cylindrical turrets were protected by eight layers of wrought iron 1 @-@ inch ( 25 mm ) plates above the deck . Below the deck the side of the Eads turret was only a single layer thick and had holes through which the guns were loaded . The sides of the hull consisted of three layers of one @-@ inch plates , backed by 15 inches ( 380 mm ) of pine . The deck was heavily cambered to allow headroom for the crew on such a shallow draft and it consisted of iron plates .75 inches ( 19 mm ) thick . Milwaukee and Winnebago had an additional layer of armor to give them a total of 1 @.@ 5 inches ( 38 mm ) . The pilothouse , positioned behind and above the fore turret , was protected by 3 inches ( 76 mm ) of armor .
= = Ships = =
= = Careers = =
Chickasaw and Winnebago , the first two ship to be commissioned , spent some time patrolling the Mississippi River and supporting Union forces operating along its length before they were transferred to the West Gulf Blockading Squadron in early July 1864 to support the impending attack on the defenses of Mobile , Alabama Rear Admiral David Farragut organized the four monitors present into a separate column leading his wooden ships to engage Fort Morgan while the other ships proceeded into the Bay itself . Winnebago and Chickasaw were the third and fourth monitors in line , respectively , as the two more heavily armored Canonicus @-@ class monitors , Tecumseh and Manhattan , preceded them . Tecumseh struck a torpedo in front of the fort and a small boat from the gunboat Metacomet rescued 10 survivors and delivered them to Winnebago . The latter 's aft turret had jammed during her bombardment of Fort Morgan while Chickasaw 's funnel had been riddled with holes , significantly reducing her speed .
The Confederate ironclad Tennessee attacked Farragut 's wooden ships without much effect after they had passed the Confederate forts and she was engaged by Winnebago before she disengaged and briefly took shelter under Fort Morgan 's guns . About a half @-@ hour later , the ironclad attacked Farragut 's ships again . The monitors were not initially engaged , but Chickasaw managed to assume a position by the Tennessee 's stern and fired repeatedly at point @-@ blank range . Her shots failed to penetrate the Tennessee 's armor , but they did jam the armored shutter for the stern gun port and cut her exposed steering chains , rendering her unable to steer . When the crew attempted to unjam the shutter , one shell struck the edge of the shutter , creating fragments that killed the machinist attempting to knock out the shutter 's retaining pin and broke Admiral Franklin Buchanan 's leg . This damage , together with damage inflicted by the other Union ships , persuaded Commander James D. Johnston to surrender his ship . The two monitors remained in Mobile Bay and subsequently bombarded Fort Morgan and Fort Gaines until they surrendered less than three weeks later .
The other two monitors were commissioned too late to participate in the battle . After supporting forces near the mouth of the Red River during the summer , Kickapoo was transferred to the West Gulf Blockading Squadron in October for operations against Mobile itself ; Milwaukee was also transferred to the West Gulf Blockading Squadron that same month .
Union forces were too weak to attack the city itself until March 1865 . The monitors moved up the Blakeley River at the end of the month to cut off Confederate communications with Spanish Fort while Union troops besieged the fort . Milwaukee and Winnebago sortied upriver on 28 March to attack a Confederate transport and Milwaukee struck a torpedo while returning from the sortie . Her entire crew survived and was rescued by Kickapoo . The following day Kickapoo rescued the crew of the monitor Osage which had also struck a torpedo and sunk . After the occupation of Selma , Alabama in early April , Winnebago escorted a troop convoy to Selma and Montgomery , Alabama and then blockaded the Tombigbee River to prevent the ironclad Nashville and other Confederate ships from interfering with Union forces .
After the war , the three surviving ships were decommissioned and later sold on 12 September 1874 . Chickasaw 's new owners converted her to sidewheel propulsion and she became a coal and railroad ferry until 1944 when she was scuttled . Her wreck was discovered in 2004 . Milwaukee 's wreck was salvaged after the war and some of her iron was used in building the Eads Bridge over the Mississippi at St. Louis .
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= Emeco 1006 =
The Emeco 1006 ( pronounced ten @-@ oh @-@ six ) , also known as the Navy chair is an aluminum chair manufactured by Emeco . The 1006 was originally built for Navy warships during World War II , but later became a designer chair used in high @-@ end restaurants and by interior designers . In the 1990s , the company began creating designer versions of the 1006 chair , such as the stackable Hudson chair and the 111 Navy Chair made from recycled plastic . Emeco also makes stools , tables , and other furniture . As of 2012 , more than one million Emeco 1006 chairs have been produced .
= = History = =
Emeco founder Wilton C. Dinges developed the Emeco 1006 chair in 1944 in collaboration with the Aluminum Company of America ( ALCOA ) . It was originally designed for the US Navy , which needed a chair for the deck of battleships that could survive sea air and a torpedo blast to the side of the ship . The chairs had eye bolts under the seat , so they could be attached to a ship @-@ deck using cables .
After the war , Emeco started selling 1006 chairs to prisons , hospitals and government offices . The chair was sold to restaurants in the 1980s and 1990s , under Jay Buchbinder 's leadership , then as a designer chair in the 2000s after Emeco was acquired by his son , Gregg . French designer Philippe Starck designed a total of 14 chairs and 4 tables for Emeco .
In 2006 Coca @-@ Cola began a collaboration with Emeco to create a 1006 @-@ based chair made out of recycled Coca @-@ Cola bottles , which was released in 2010 . Metropolis Magazine said it was a public relations effort by Coke to make a durable product out of their bottles ; they also hoped to encourage other manufacturers to do the same .
In 2005 , Target started selling an Emeco 1006 imitation product supplied by Euro Style . The supplier said it planned to modify the chair 's style to avoid a legal dispute over alleged trademark infringement . In October 2012 , Emeco filed a lawsuit against Restoration Hardware for allegedly making unauthorized reproductions of the 1006 Navy chair . Restoration Hardware removed the chair from its website , stopped selling the chair , and reached an undisclosed settlement with Emeco .
The Emeco 1006 chair is featured regularly in design magazines and movies , such as The Matrix , Law & Order and CSI . In Europe the original 1006 chair is sometimes referred to as " the prison chair " due to its use in government prisons and in prison @-@ related movie scenes .
= = Description = =
The original Emeco 1006 chair has a curved back with three vertical struts and a slight curve on the back legs . It weighs about seven pounds and is guaranteed to last 150 years . Most of the original chairs from the 1940s are still in use . The traditional aluminum chairs are made mostly out of recycled aluminum , but also silicon , iron , copper , magnesium , chromium , titanium and zinc . Emeco 111 chairs are made out of 60 percent recycled plastic and 30 percent glass fiber . The Emeco 111 chair was named based on it being made of at least 111 recycled Coca Cola bottles .
As of 2014 , there are approximately 88 Emeco chair models . The first designer version of the 1006 chair in the " Emeco by Starck " line was the Hudson chair , named after the Hudson Hotel that put a Hudson chair in every room . It has a similar silhouette as the original 1006 , but has a reflective or brushed aluminum surface , a solid backrest and is stackable . It also came in swivel and upholstered versions . The reflective glossy versions of the 1006 chair are polished for eight hours , substantially increasing their cost . There are also Emeco @-@ brand barstools , swivel chairs , rocking chairs and armchairs .
Emeco 's chairs are manufactured by hand in Hanover , Pennsylvania through a two @-@ week , 77 @-@ step process . Eames Demetrios , the grandson of designer Charles Eames , published a documentary film on the manufacturing process called " 77 Steps . " Many believe the chair is cast from a single form , but it is actually welded together from 12 pieces . Sheets of aluminum are rolled into tubes , cut to length , and bent into shapes on large hydraulic machines . Various notches and punchouts are made so pieces can fit together before welding . Workers grind down the welding joints to give it a smooth finish , creating the appearance of being cast from a single piece . The chair goes through a repeated heating and cooling cycle that increases the strength of the aluminum . The chairs are also anodized . Originally swivel chair bases and other parts were purchased from a supplier , but in the 1950s , Emeco began purchasing manufacturing equipment to manufacture them in @-@ house .
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= Quiero ( Ricardo Arjona song ) =
" Quiero " ( English : " I Want " ) is a latin pop song by Guatemalan recording artist Ricardo Arjona . It was released as the second single from his compilation album Quién Dijo Ayer ( 2007 ) . Written by Arjona , the song was produced by Dan Warner , Lee Levin and Puerto Rican singer @-@ songwriter Tommy Torres , who also worked with Arjona on Adentro . " Quiero " was recorded between several studios in Miami and Mexico City , and mixed and mastered in New York City . The song was called " bohemian " and " hippie " by website ADN Mundo , stating that it was " a love story that doesn 't speak about love " .
" Quiero " became a moderate commercial success , reaching number 12 on the US Billboard Top Latin Songs chart , and number eight at the Latin Pop Songs chart . It also managed to appear at number 11 on the Latin Tropical Airplay chart , and received an American Society of Composers , Authors and Publishers for Pop / Ballad Song of the year in 2009 . Its accompanying music video , directed by Ricardo Calderón and featuring Dominican model and former Miss Dominican Republic Massiel Taveras , was filmed in the Dominican Republic and premiered in November 2007 .
= = Background = =
In a press conference , Arjona stated that " yesterday is the cumulus of this that put us here , which raised us and made us what we are , for good or bad . " He also said that Quién Dijo Ayer was more than a compilation , and that " it 's an album with all the features of the typical greatest hits disc . " He further stated that , at first , it was " an album that began as an experiment , with a dose of informality " but later became " very complicated " thanks to the work done by the producers . After spending the majority of his career signed to Sony , and later , Sony BMG , Arjona signed a long @-@ term recording deal with Warner Music Latina in September 2008 . This departure made Quien Dijo Ayer the last album the artist directly released on his former label , although Sony later released another album named Simplemente Lo Mejor .
= = Composition = =
" Quiero " is a latin pop song written and performed by Arjona . It was produced by Tommy Torres , Dan Warner and Lee Levin . The song was recorded between five studios in Miami : The Tiki Room , Picks & Hammers , Jet Wash Studio , The Hit Factory Criteria and Hit Masters ; and on Jocoteco Studios in Mexico City . " Quién " was mixed in Barking Doctor Studios in New York City by Mick Guzauski , and mastered by Vlado Meller at the Sony Music Studios on that city . Website ADN Mundo called the song " bohemian " and " hippie " , saying it was " a love story that doesn 't speak about love , but instead about the recent events on the world we live and finally comes to the search of an indidivual who challenges nostalgia finding entertainment on the impossible . " In 2009 , " Quiero " was awarded , along with other selected songs , the Pop / Ballad Songs of the year award by the American Society of Composers , Authors and Publishers .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Quiero " was filmed in the Dominican Republic . It premiered in November 2007 . Directed by Mexican filmmaker Ricardo Calderón , it was protagonized by Dominican model and former Miss Dominican Republic titleholder Massiel Taveras . During the shooting of the video , Arjona commented that the Dominican Republic was " an incredible country , filled with very helpful and wonderful people . " He also stated that he felt compromise of promoting the island . The clip , filmed in black @-@ and @-@ white , shows Arjona singing and playing the piano close to the beach edge . Arjona 's scenes are interpolated with aereal takes of the beach , as well as scenes of Taveras before several people start submerging into the water . Then , Arjona submerges himself , and the video ends .
= = Charts = =
= = Personnel = =
Taken from the album 's booklet .
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= AJ 's Infinite Summer =
AJ 's Infinite Summer is an animated television pilot created by Toby Jones for Cartoon Network . The pilot follows AJ , whose new job during the summer drives him crazy with power . It is loosely based on Jones ' 2006 film , AJ Goes to France . Both the film and the pilot star AJ Thompson as the eponymous character . Jones additionally sought inspiration from his hometown of Fargo , North Dakota , and the comics he drew featuring Thompson and his other friends . The pilot was released on the official website of Cartoon Network on May 16 , 2014 .
= = Plot = =
Summer vacation starts for AJ and his friends Danny and Morgan , who live in the city of Downer . When AJ wants to be spontaneous for his plans to spend the vacation , he impulsively decides to get a job . The trio comes across a corporate office . AJ wants to apply for the corporation that owns it , but Danny and Morgan suggest that he prepares for the interview . AJ turns to his father , Peter , for advice . He equips AJ with an oversized business suit , and afterward the trio enter the office to help AJ apply . AJ shows his resume , and immediately he is hired by the Instructor of First Impressions . Workers of the office welcome AJ , who wears the same style of business suit as they do . When he sees that each worker has their own assistant , AJ hires Morgan as his " secretary " and tells her to fetch papers . Meanwhile , he asks " towel boy " Danny to wipe the sweat off his brow .
After this demonstration of power , AJ is promoted by his manager . A montage of AJ being promoted for doing absurd tasks follows . Soon , AJ is promoted to a rank with a private office . Danny and Morgan refuse to work for AJ further , finding him corrupt with power . AJ throws them out , and afterward he is promoted to CEO by a former officer — a decrepit man within a robotic business suit . AJ floats to the top of the suit , from which he spots a beach ball @-@ destroying machine to the side . He hallucinates the beach balls as the heads of Morgan and Danny , who say that he has destroyed the spirit of summer . Realizing his mistake , AJ rejects the promotion . He returns to his friends outside , and together they plan the rest of their summer .
= = Production = =
AJ 's Infinite Summer was created by Toby Jones . Produced by Nate Funaro at Cartoon Network Studios , the pilot had Robert Alvarez as timing director , Sue Mondt as art director , and Phil Rynda as creative director . AJ Thompson provided the voice for the eponymous character , Wallace Langham for Danny , Mae Whitman for Morgan , Chris Parnell for Peter , and David Hill for various characters .
Jones had previously codirected AJ Goes to France , a 2006 live @-@ action independent film that also has Thompson as the leading actor . It was produced as an assignment for Concordia College in Moorhead , Minnesota , where Jones majored in film . Jones had moved from his hometown of Fargo , North Dakota , to Minneapolis in 2005 , after he graduated from Fargo South High School . For AJ 's Infinite Summer , Jones was inspired by his hometown , as well as the comics he drew that featured AJ and his other friends , Danny Davy and Morgan . Additionally , the character of Peter is based on Greg Carlson , Jones ' professor from Concordia and also a film director and a critic for the High Plains Reader . Secret Cities , a Fargo @-@ based band in which Jones ' friends play , provided the score for the pilot . Jones found it excellent that both his friends and his friend 's band were allowed by the network to do work for the pilot .
Jones moved to Los Angeles in 2011 to work for Cartoon Network . He has written and storyboarded for Regular Show , another production on the network . His work on it gave Jones the foresight to pitch another show he knew the network would want . Initially unsure if he was ready to pitch AJ 's Infinite Summer , the network rejected the pilot the first time he did but approved it on the second , after he had reworked it throughout a few months . Jones contrasted the physical limitations of animating in time and energy to the animation of the pilot itself . He cited having the character of AJ run up a wall in one scene as an example of this .
= = Release and reception = =
AJ 's Infinite Summer was released without announcement on May 16 , 2014 , on the official website of Cartoon Network . Long Live the Royals , another pilot , was released on the same day . This pilot was created by Sean Szeles , who has also worked on Regular Show . Jason Krell of io9 found that the plot for AJ 's Infinite Summer was simple yet flexible . He described its take on life during summer vacation as " charming " and comparable with an " aged @-@ up Phineas and Ferb " . He said that he was amazed by both and that his viewership will be granted for both , should they be picked up as full series . John Lamb of The Forum of Fargo @-@ Moorhead recognized features of Fargo in the pilot , namely the high school , which he found analogous to Fargo South where Jones attended . Meanwhile , Amid Amidi of Cartoon Brew expected that the pilot would not have continuity from AJ Goes to France .
After the pilot was released , Jones found that people back in Fargo were amused to spot the differences in landmarks between their city and Downer . Jones told Lamb that since he worked in animation , he has been " surrounded by these people that I 've looked up to for years as a fan , and having them tell me they enjoyed it is the greatest thing ever " . As of June 2014 , Jones is still mainly working on Regular Show but said that he would like it very much to have the network commission it as a series . He expressed interest in submitting it at the Fargo Film Festival . The pilot was listed in the ballot for " Outstanding Short @-@ Format Animated Program " at the 66th Primetime Emmy Awards , although it did not win . The Long Live the Royals pilot did win in this category , however , and the network later commissioned it as a miniseries of the same name .
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= HMS Audacious ( 1869 ) =
HMS Audacious was the lead ship of the Audacious @-@ class ironclads built for the Royal Navy in the late 1860s . They were designed as second @-@ class ironclads suitable for use on foreign stations and the ship spent the bulk of her career on the China Station . She was decommissioned in 1894 and hulked in 1902 for use as a training ship . The ship was towed to Scapa Flow after the beginning of the First World War to be used as a receiving ship and then to Rosyth after the war ended . Audacious was sold for scrap in 1929 .
= = Design and description = =
The Audacious @-@ class ironclads were laid out as central battery ironclads with the armament concentrated amidships . They were the first British ironclads to have a two @-@ deck battery with the upper deck guns sponsoned out over the sides of the hull . The ships were fitted with a short , plough @-@ shaped ram and their crew numbered 450 officers and men .
HMS Audacious was 280 feet ( 85 @.@ 3 m ) long between perpendiculars . She had a beam of 54 feet ( 16 @.@ 5 m ) and a draught of 23 feet ( 7 @.@ 0 m ) . The ship was first British ironclad to be completed below her designed displacement ; this meant that she was top heavy and required 360 long tons ( 370 t ) of cement ballast to raise her metacentric height . Audacious , and her sisters , were the steadiest gun platforms among the large British ironclads of their era . Audacious was given an experimental zinc sheath for her hull in an attempt to reduce biofouling that proved unsuccessful .
= = = Propulsion = = =
Audacious had two 2 @-@ cylinder horizontal return connecting rod steam engines made by Ravenhill , each driving a single 16 @-@ foot @-@ 2 @-@ inch ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) propeller . The bronze four @-@ bladed Mangin propellers were not arranged in the usual radial cross shape , but rather in two pairs , one behind the other , on an elongated boss in an attempt to reduce their drag when the ship used her sails . They were later replaced by two @-@ bladed Griffiths propellers . Six rectangular boilers provided steam to the engine at a working pressure of 31 psi ( 214 kPa ; 2 kgf / cm2 ) . The engines produced a total of 4 @,@ 021 indicated horsepower ( 2 @,@ 998 kW ) during sea trials on 21 October 1870 and Audacious reached a maximum speed of 12 @.@ 83 knots ( 23 @.@ 76 km / h ; 14 @.@ 76 mph ) . The ship carried 460 long tons ( 470 t ) of coal , enough to steam 1 @,@ 260 nautical miles ( 2 @,@ 330 km ; 1 @,@ 450 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
The Audacious @-@ class ironclads were initially ship rigged and had a sail area of 25 @,@ 054 square feet ( 2 @,@ 328 m2 ) . After the loss of HMS Captain in a storm in 1870 , the ships were modified with a barque rig which reduced their sail area to 23 @,@ 700 square feet ( 2 @,@ 202 m2 ) . They were slow under sail , only 6 @.@ 5 knots ( 12 @.@ 0 km / h ; 7 @.@ 5 mph ) , partly due to the drag of the twin screws , and their shallow draft and flat bottom meant that they were leewardly when close @-@ hauled . The three ships , Audacious , Vanguard , and Invincible , with balanced rudders were described as unmanageable under sail alone .
= = = Armament = = =
HMS Audacious was armed with ten 9 @-@ inch and four 64 @-@ pounder rifled muzzle @-@ loading guns . Six of the 9 @-@ inch ( 229 mm ) guns were mounted on the main deck , three on each side , while the other four guns were fitted above them on the upper deck . Their gun ports were in each corner of the upper battery and could be worked in all weathers , unlike like the guns on the main deck below them . The 64 @-@ pounder guns were mounted on the upper deck , outside the battery , as chase guns . The ship also had six 20 @-@ pounder Armstrong guns for use as saluting guns .
The shell of the 14 @-@ calibre 9 @-@ inch gun weighed 254 pounds ( 115 @.@ 2 kg ) while the gun itself weighed 12 long tons ( 12 t ) . It had a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 420 ft / s ( 430 m / s ) and was credited with the ability to penetrate a nominal 11 @.@ 3 inches ( 287 mm ) of wrought iron armour at the muzzle . The 16 @-@ calibre 64 @-@ pounder gun weighed 3 @.@ 2 long tons ( 3 @.@ 3 t ) and fired a 6 @.@ 3 @-@ inch ( 160 mm ) , 64 @-@ pound ( 29 @.@ 0 kg ) shell that had a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 125 ft / s ( 343 m / s ) .
In 1878 Audacious received four 14 @-@ inch ( 356 mm ) torpedo launchers that were carried on the main deck , outside the armoured battery . When the ship was refitted in 1889 – 90 she received eight 4 @-@ inch breech @-@ loading guns as well as four quick @-@ firing 6 @-@ pounder Hotchkiss and six 3 @-@ pounder Hotchkiss guns for defence against torpedo boats .
= = = Armour = = =
Audacious had a complete waterline belt of wrought iron that was 8 inches ( 203 mm ) thick amidships and tapered to 6 inches ( 152 mm ) thick at the bow and stern . It only protected the main deck and reached 3 feet ( 1 m ) above the waterline at full load and 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) below . The guns were protected by a section of 8 @-@ inch armour , 59 feet ( 18 @.@ 0 m ) long , with a 5 @-@ inch ( 127 mm ) transverse bulkhead forward and a 8 @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) bulkhead to the rear . The armour was backed by 8 – 10 inches ( 200 – 250 mm ) of teak . The total weight of her armour was 924 long tons ( 939 t ) .
= = Service = =
HMS Audacious was ordered on 29 April 1867 from Robert Napier in Govan , Glasgow . She was laid down on 26 June 1867 and launched on 27 February 1869 in a gale . The winds caught the rear of the ship as she was about halfway down the slipway and twisted her enough that some plates and frames of her bottom were damaged . The ship was completed on 10 September 1870 and commissioned the following month . She cost £ 256 @,@ 291 to build .
Upon completion she became guard ship of the First Reserve at Kingstown , Ireland ( modern Dún Laoghaire ) , but was transferred the following year to Hull where she remained until 1874 . The ship was ordered to the Far East that year to serve as the flagship for the China Station under the flag of Vice @-@ Admiral Sir Alfred Phillips Ryder . Despite the presence of escorting tugs , Audacious grounded twice while she was transiting through the Suez Canal . She relieved her sister Iron Duke in Singapore , and later collided with a merchant ship during a typhoon in Yokohama . Iron Duke relieved her in turn in 1878 . Audacious returned to her previous post in Hull in 1879 , relieving HMS Endymion . She served there until she began a lengthy refit which included new boilers and the addition of a poop deck .
The ship 's refit was complete in March 1883 and she again relieved Iron Duke as flagship of the China Station later that year . Audacious remained there until 1889 when she returned to Chatham where she was refitted , rearmed and replaced her masts and rigging with simple pole masts fitted with fighting tops . Upon the completion of her refit in 1890 she returned to Hull for the third time until the ship was decommissioned in 1894 . Audacious was relegated to 4th class reserve until her engines were removed and she was converted to an unpropelled depot ship in 1902 / 3 . She then acted as depot ship for destroyers at Felixstowe until 1905 , when she paid off ; in April 1904 she had been renamed Fisgard ( after the French translation of the Welsh town Fishguard ) . In 1906 , she was recomissioned as part of the four @-@ ship Fisgard boy artificers training establishment at Portsmouth . The ship was towed to Scapa Flow in 1914 after the start of the First World War to be used as a receiving ship and was renamed Imperieuse . In 1919 she was to be renamed Victorious , but the renaming was cancelled . She was towed from Scapa to Rosyth on 31 March 1920 , where she remained as storeship until 15 March 1927 , when sold to Ward of Inverkeithing for scrap .
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= Shay Given =
Séamus John James " Shay " Given ( born 20 April 1976 ) is an Irish professional footballer who plays as a goalkeeper for Premier League club Stoke City and the Republic of Ireland national team .
Having surpassed the total of 100 caps required for membership , he is part of the FIFA Century Club . Given gained his first international cap in 1996 and played in goal during every match for his country during the 2002 FIFA World Cup campaign , helping them reach the knockout stage . He was later on the pitch in Paris when the Republic of Ireland were knocked out of the play @-@ offs for a spot in the 2010 FIFA World Cup by France before helping his team qualify for UEFA Euro 2012 . He was selected in Martin O 'Neill 's 23 @-@ man squad for UEFA Euro 2016 but didn 't appear in any of Ireland 's four matches at the tournament . Given is the second most capped Republic of Ireland player ( after Robbie Keane ) . He holds 134 caps and has kept 52 clean sheets as of June 2016 .
Given started his career at Celtic , however he never made a first @-@ team appearance and he was released and signed by Blackburn Rovers on a free transfer in 1994 . Given was part of both the Sunderland team who won the Football League First Division title in 1995 – 96 and the Swindon Town team who won the Football League Second Division title that same season , while on loan from Blackburn Rovers . He was signed by Newcastle United in 1997 for a fee of £ 1 @.@ 5 million , and it was there that he began competing to be a first @-@ choice Premier League goalkeeper . Given was part of the teams who came runners @-@ up in the 1998 and 1999 FA Cup campaigns , and was named in the Premier League Team of the Season for 2001 – 02 and 2005 – 06 . He played in the UEFA Champions League and UEFA Cup with Newcastle , and was involved in the club 's title challenge in 2001 – 02 . Although he submitted a transfer request during the 2000 – 01 campaign after losing his position in the starting line @-@ up , it was denied , and Given went on to regain his place .
On 1 February 2009 , Given transferred to Manchester City for £ 6 million on a four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ year contract . While Given was at Manchester City , the club qualified for the UEFA Champions League for the first time in its history after finishing third in the Premier League , as well as winning the FA Cup , though he did not appear in the league in the campaign that City reached the Champions League , nor did he play in the FA Cup . On 18 July 2011 , he joined Aston Villa for a fee believed to be around £ 3 @.@ 5 million , signing a five @-@ year contract . Four years later , Given joined Stoke City in July 2015 .
= = Club career = =
= = = Early career = = =
Born in Lifford , County Donegal , Given 's footballing career began at local amateur side Lifford Celtic where he shot to notoriety for conceding seven goals on his debut . He was propelled into the limelight when he played in the Football Association of Ireland 's Junior Cup for Lifford Celtic in the semi @-@ final in Dundalk . At 14 , his performances for the club attracted attention from Celtic , and he was invited to train with their youth side during a pre @-@ season tour of Ireland in 1991 . Given signed for the club a year later . Despite being named to the substitutes bench for the Old Firm derby against Rangers on 1 January 1994 , Given never made a first @-@ team appearance .
His performances for Celtic 's youth team did bring him to the attention of Blackburn Rovers manager Kenny Dalglish , and he signed for the English side on a free transfer in the summer of 1994 .
= = = Blackburn Rovers = = =
The season after Given 's arrival saw Blackburn win the Premier League title and Given was unable to oust first @-@ choice goalkeeper and England international Tim Flowers from the team . He made two loan moves to Swindon Town . Given acted as understudy during his first spell at the Wiltshire club but helped them start their Championship winning Division Two campaign during the 1995 – 96 season . He played in five games for the Swindon before returning to Blackburn at the end of 1995 . Given was sent on loan again in January 1996 , this time to Division One side Sunderland . Given kept 12 clean sheets during his 17 games for the club , and formed part of the team who won promotion to the Premier League as champions . His performances on loan impressed Kenny Dalglish , who had recently been appointed manager of Newcastle United , and prompted him to sign Given again . Given signed for the North @-@ East club in the summer of 1997 for a fee of £ 1 @.@ 5 million .
= = = Newcastle United = = =
Given was one of the first signings of then @-@ newly appointed manager Dalglish . Given made his debut in Newcastle 's 2 – 1 home victory over Sheffield Wednesday on 9 August 1997 and immediately established himself in the first team , beating fellow goalkeepers Pavel Srníček , Shaka Hislop and Steve Harper to the position . Newcastle advanced to the final of the FA Cup , and Given played the whole match as the team were defeated 2 – 0 by league champions Arsenal . The club also progressed to the final the following year , but Given was replaced by Steve Harper as Newcastle lost 2 – 0 in the final , this time to Manchester United .
In November 1997 , Given conceded a strange goal against Coventry City when , after collecting a cross , he rolled the ball out in preparation to make a long clearance . However , he had forgotten that Coventry striker Dion Dublin was still behind him , and Dublin quickly took advantage of the situation by rolling the ball into the empty net . The coincidence of the goalscorer 's name quickly led to the popular word game among football fans that Given " is the only Irishman who doesn 't know where Dublin is " and the goal itself is still regularly featured on lists compiled of bizarre goals .
Given submitted a written transfer request in December 2000 , after failing to regain his place in the first @-@ team from Steve Harper after a thigh injury had ruled him out of a match against Leeds United . Manager Sir Bobby Robson stated at the time : " A lot of clubs have a very good goalkeeper and one who stands by . I think we have two keepers — and Harper is proving that — who can play in the Premiership " . The club rejected Given 's request , which was then withdrawn by the goalkeeper , who later stated that his " intention was simply to express [ his ] frustration at being left out of the team , " and that he " never had any intention of actually leaving the club . " An injury to Harper led to Given being recalled to the first team , and he kept his place for the rest of the season .
In the 2001 – 02 season , Given played in every Premier League match as Newcastle 's previously unexpected title challenge ended in a fourth @-@ place finish in the league . Given was selected in the PFA Team of the Year and Newcastle 's league position meant that they would enter the qualifying stages of the UEFA Champions League the following season .
During the summer he competed in the 2002 FIFA World Cup , but could not prevent the Republic of Ireland being eliminated by Spain after a penalty shoot @-@ out .
Given again found himself competing with Steve Harper during the following season . After a 5 – 0 qualifying round win , Newcastle progressed to the group stages of the Champions League . He played in the first three group matches , all of which Newcastle lost . Given found himself out of the team for the next two games , as Harper replaced him in goal . Given returned for the final group match against Feyenoord in the Netherlands , and Newcastle 's 3 – 2 win meant that they qualified for the second round . Internazionale scored four times past Given as Newcastle lost 1 – 4 in their opening match in the second group stage . Newcastle conceded a further three times away to Barcelona , beat Bayer Leverkusen at home and in Germany ( with Given saving an Oliver Neuville penalty in the home tie ) , and drew with Inter at San Siro , however a 2 – 0 loss at home against Barcelona meant that the club finished third in their group and failed to qualify for the knockout stages . Given played every game in the second round . Given played all 38 league games for the club , as well as his 12 European appearances , as the team finished in third place in the Premier League , meaning the club would enter the Champions League qualifying round in 2003 – 04 .
Having finished third in the league in May 2003 , Given and Newcastle lost 4 – 3 on penalties to Partizan Belgrade early in the 2003 – 04 season , meaning that Newcastle failed to reach the group stages of the Champions League . The club instead qualified for the UEFA Cup , where they reached the semi @-@ finals . A fifth @-@ place finish in the league meant that the club qualified for the following season 's UEFA Cup competition . Given played in every one of the club 's league matches for a third successive season , as well as all 13 European games . The following year saw Graeme Souness replace Sir Bobby Robson as Newcastle manager after an early spell of poor form . Given overtook Alan Shearer as having played in the most European matches for the club on 16 September 2004 in a game against Bnei Sakhnin , and Given 's 12 European and 3 FA Cup appearances helped Newcastle reach the UEFA Cup quarter @-@ final and the FA Cup semi @-@ final . Given missed two Premier League games as the club finished in 14th place .
Although the club entered the Intertoto Cup in 2005 – 06 , a defeat by Spanish club Deportivo de La Coruña meant that they did not qualify for further European competition that season . Given played in all of the club 's league matches as they finished in seventh position and he signed a new five @-@ year contract with the club in the summer . His performances for Newcastle led to Given being named in the Premier League 's Team of the Season . Given played in all of the club 's FA Cup games as they reached the quarter @-@ finals , and captained the team for three games during Alan Shearer 's absence .
On 17 September 2006 , Given suffered a one @-@ centimeter tear in his bowel after a tackle by West Ham United striker Marlon Harewood . Doctors likened the injury to one more likely to happen in a car crash . Then @-@ manager Glenn Roeder signed ex @-@ Newcastle veteran Srníček as cover for Harper , and youth goalkeeper Tim Krul played a full match in Newcastle 's 0 – 1 UEFA Cup win at Palermo on 2 November . Given returned on 18 November for Newcastle 's 1 – 1 Premier League draw at Arsenal , and ended the season with 22 league appearances as the club finished in 13th place , and reached the last 16 of the UEFA Cup . Given did make his 400th appearance for the club during the season , however , in a New Year 's Day match . Given 's 2007 – 08 season was prematurely ended by injury in February when he had an occurrence of an old groin injury in the game with Manchester United .
The opening months of Newcastle 's 2008 – 09 season were blighted by ownership and managerial turmoil , as well as numerous injury problems . This manifested itself on the pitch as the club struggled to direct itself clear of the relegation zone . On 2 January 2009 , following the 5 – 1 defeat at home against Liverpool , the player 's lawyer released a statement saying that his client was " considering his future " at Newcastle , and requested permission to talk to representatives of Manchester City on 28 January after the club made a bid of £ 5 million which was subsequently rejected . Newcastle manager Joe Kinnear had already stated that the club was " not interested at all in selling him " , and described the amount on offer for Given as " insulting " . However , on 30 January , it was reported that Newcastle had given permission for Given to enter talks with his suitors . After a transfer fee initially reported to be around £ 8 million was agreed between the clubs , Given signed for Manchester City on 1 February , with the transfer window set to close the following day . The news was disappointing for Newcastle fans who felt that Given left the club in a poor situation with many thinking that had Given delayed his decision to leave until the summer then Newcastle would have subsequently survived relegation to the Championship because Given was such a fantastic goal keeper who could have stopped many of the goals that the Toon conceded towards the end of the dreadful campaign . Although the fee for Given was expected to be around £ 8 million , in February 2009 Newcastle United Managing Director Derek Llambias revealed at a supporters panel meeting that Given had been sold for an initial £ 5 @.@ 9 million . Given was 34 games away from breaking Newcastle United 's appearance record held by Jimmy Lawrence .
= = = Manchester City = = =
On 1 February 2009 Given signed with Manchester City on a four @-@ half @-@ year @-@ contract for £ 6 million . He was formally paraded as a Manchester City player on 5 February 2009 , and was assigned squad number 37 . In the subsequent press conference , he criticised Newcastle 's management for not trying hard enough to keep him at the club . He also said that " By coming here I thought I could be at a club that is challenging for honours . I didn 't want to finish my career regretting not taking up this offer . " Given kept a clean sheet in a man of the match performance in his debut , a 1 – 0 win against Middlesbrough on 7 February .
With Joe Hart leaving the club on loan , Given was given the squad number 1 for the 2009 – 2010 season . He made his 400th League appearance on 5 October 2009 against Aston Villa . On 5 December 2009 , he made an outstanding penalty save from Frank Lampard to deny Chelsea an equalising goal . City went on to win 2 – 1 . The same month , Daily Telegraph football correspondent Henry Winter named Given as Premier League Goalkeeper of the Noughties . While team captain Kolo Touré was on international duty , Given was given the captain 's armband by manager Roberto Mancini , who described the Donegal @-@ born player as " one of the five best goalkeepers in the world " . He dislocated his shoulder during a match against Arsenal on 24 April , ruling him out for the rest of the season . On 14 August 2010 , Given was dropped from the Manchester City starting XI for their opening league game against Tottenham and replaced by Joe Hart . Hart became City 's permanent first choice keeper , although Given played enough during the season to receive an FA Cup winners ' medal . Given played only one game for City since being put on the bench – a defeat to West Brom in the League Cup . He challenged Hart to the first choice spot , though missed out . He played two Europa League matches that season as well .
= = = Aston Villa = = =
On 18 July 2011 , Given joined Aston Villa for a fee believed to be around £ 3 @.@ 5 million . He signed a five @-@ year contract , meaning that he will be 40 when his contract expires . Given made his Villa debut in a pre @-@ season friendly victory over Walsall on 21 July . He was substituted at half time for Andy Marshall , keeping a clean sheet as the score was 2 – 0 to Villa . Given kept another clean sheet on 27 July 2011 in the 2011 Barclays Asia Trophy in Hong Kong in which Aston Villa beat Blackburn Rovers 1 – 0 . This was his second clean sheet in two appearances for Aston Villa . On 13 August 2011 , Given played his first Premier League match for Aston Villa . They played Fulham in a 0 – 0 draw which means he kept his first clean sheet for Aston Villa in his first start for them . In September 2011 , Given was reunited with Terry Gennoe at Aston Villa . After four years out of the game , Gennoe was named as the new first team goalkeeping coach , replacing Rafa Gonzalez . He had previously coached Given at Blackburn Rovers and Newcastle United . On 3 December , Given suffered a torn hamstring , leaving him out of the team until January .
After a disappointing start to the 2012 – 13 season , Given lost his first team place to Brad Guzan after two league games . However , on 5 January 2013 , he appeared in a 2 – 1 home win against Ipswich Town in the FA Cup third round proper match . Three days later , Given also played for Villa in a 1 – 3 away defeat against Bradford City in the first leg of the League Cup semi @-@ final match . Despite winning the second leg 2 – 1 , Villa were eliminated from the competition .
On 15 April 2014 , Given was appointed temporary assistant to Paul Lambert after the club suspended Ian Culverhouse and Gary Karsa , pending an internal investigation for an undisclosed reason .
Given played in all of Aston Villa 's 2014 – 15 FA Cup fixtures that led to an appearance in the 2015 FA Cup Final at the age of 39 , which Villa lost 4 – 0 to Arsenal . The cup run began with a 1 – 0 victory over Blackpool , and continued with 2 – 1 victories over both Bournemouth and Leicester City , and a 2 – 0 win over derby rivals West Bromwich Albion . In the semi @-@ final , Villa came from a goal down to defeat Liverpool 2 – 1 , putting the club in their first FA Cup final since 2000 .
= = = = Middlesbrough ( loan ) = = = =
Given joined Middlesbrough on a one @-@ month loan deal on 28 November 2013 as cover for the injured Jason Steele . Given 's initial one @-@ month loan deal was extended to the end of February 2014 and ultimately , he made his last appearance for Middlesbrough on 22 February , in a 0 – 0 draw against Leeds United . Whilst at Middlesbrough , Given kept ten clean sheets in 16 league games .
= = = Stoke City = = =
Given signed a two @-@ year contract with Stoke City on 10 July 2015 . Given joined as back @-@ up to first choice ' keeper Jack Butland . He made his debut on 25 August 2015 in a 1 – 1 draw with Luton Town in the League Cup , Stoke winning on penalties . He missed most of Stoke 's 2015 – 16 campaign after needing to undergo knee surgery in October 2015 . Given returned towards the end of the campaign and due to injury to Jack Butland he shared goalkeeping duties with Jakob Haugaard .
= = International career = =
Given represented the Republic of Ireland at youth level before earning five caps for the Republic of Ireland national under @-@ 21 team . Although he did not become a regular first team player for Blackburn Rovers , Given 's performances while on loan at Swindon and Sunderland led to him being called up to the Republic of Ireland squad in 1996 . He made his debut for the national team on 27 March 1996 , in a game against Russia . Although Ireland failed to qualify for the 1998 FIFA World Cup or UEFA Euro 2000 , Given established himself as first @-@ choice goalkeeper . He played in all of his nation 's games at the 2002 FIFA World Cup . With draws against Cameroon and Germany and a 3 – 0 win against Saudi Arabia , the team reached the second round of the competition . Meeting Spain in the knockout round , Ireland forced penalties with the score at 1 – 1 at the end of extra time . Three missed penalties for Ireland ended their participation in the tournament , and Spain progressed to the next round .
Given was part of the team for most of the 2006 FIFA World Cup qualifying campaign ; however a draw with Switzerland meant Ireland failed to qualify for the finals of the competition in Germany . He equalled Packie Bonner 's record of 80 caps against Slovakia on 28 March 2007 . Given obtained his 100th cap against Montenegro at Croke Park , Dublin on 14 October 2009 in a 2010 FIFA World Cup qualifying game . Ireland reached a qualifying play @-@ off against France , but were controversially eliminated by a goal scored after Thierry Henry handled the ball .
Given was part of the team that secured qualification for UEFA Euro 2012 with a play @-@ off victory against Estonia . Given played in the Euro 2012 championship as Ireland were eliminated in the group stage .
He gives all his international playing fees to charity .
= = = Retirement and comeback = = =
On 13 August 2012 , Given announced on Twitter his decision to retire from international football , describing it as an unforgettable experience to play for his country . Given retired holding the record for the most capped Irishman , though Robbie Keane was closing in on the record .
Due to Given 's lack of playing time with his club Aston Villa , there was speculation that he would make himself available for selection as part of Ireland 's 2014 FIFA World Cup qualification campaign . On 14 January 2013 , it was announced that Given was once again available for international selection .
On 30 August 2014 , still not having played a league game with Aston Villa , three games into the 2014 – 15 Premier League season , he was selected by Martin O 'Neill in his 27 @-@ man squad for a friendly against Oman and Ireland 's first Euro 2016 qualifier in Georgia . It came after a two @-@ year international absence , after retiring following the disappointing Euro 2012 , where Ireland failed to progress from the group stages . He was one of four goalkeepers in the squad . On 2 September 2014 , Given made his first start for Ireland since the Euros in a 2 – 0 win against Oman . However , he did not start against Georgia in O 'Neill 's first competitive game with David Forde getting the nod . Ireland won 2 – 1 in Tblisi thanks to an Aiden McGeady brace . On 18 November 2014 , Given started the 4 – 1 win against the United States in Dublin .
On 29 March 2015 , Given regained his place in the starting line @-@ up for the crucial Euro 2016 qualifier against Poland . The game finished 1 – 1 with Shane Long scoring a last minute equaliser . On 8 October 2015 , Given suffered a knee injury and had to be stretchered off after 44 minutes against the 2014 FIFA World Cup winners Germany in what turned out to be a memorable night for Ireland as they prevailed with a 1 – 0 win .
On 31 May 2016 , Given became Ireland 's longest @-@ serving player after appearing in the 2 – 1 home defeat to Belarus . He eclipsed Johnny Giles ' record of 19 years and 202 days and became the first Irishman to play for his country for 20 years or more .
= = Personal life = =
Given married Jane Cunningham in Hexham , England , in a Catholic ceremony in 2001 . They have two children Shayne and Sienna . The couple divorced on 17 June 2014 . Given has been in a relationship with Manchester @-@ based PR executive Becky Gibson since 2013 , who is expecting the couple 's first child .
In 2006 , Given was awarded the Freedom of County Donegal in a ceremony in his home town , Lifford . He follows the Donegal Gaelic football team and witnessed their first All @-@ Ireland success in 1992 .
Given has also helped organise several successful fundraising events , in aid of Macmillan Cancer Support . His mother died of cancer when he was five , so he has continually tried to raise money as it is an issue close to him .
On 27 November 2011 , Given was brought to tears during a minute 's applause for former team @-@ mate and personal friend Gary Speed , following Speed 's suicide earlier that day , before Aston Villa met Swansea City at the Liberty Stadium .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Club = = =
As of match played 15 May 2016
= = = International = = =
As of match played 31 May 2016
= = Honours = =
= = = Club = = =
Sunderland
Football League First Division : 1995 – 96
Newcastle United
UEFA Intertoto Cup : 2006
Manchester City
FA Cup : 2010 – 11
= = = International = = =
Republic of Ireland
Nations Cup : 2011
Individual
FAI Senior International Player of the Year : 2005 , 2006
Newcastle United F.C. Player of the Year : 2005 – 06
PFA Team of the Year : 2001 – 02 , 2005 – 06
|
= Albany Pine Bush =
The Albany Pine Bush , referred to locally as the Pine Bush , is one of the largest of the 20 inland pine barrens in the world . It is centrally located in New York 's Capital District within Albany and Schenectady counties , between the cities of Albany and Schenectady . The Albany Pine Bush was formed thousands of years ago , following the drainage of Glacial Lake Albany .
The Albany Pine Bush is the sole remaining undeveloped portion of a pine barrens that once covered over 40 square miles ( 100 km2 ) , and is " one of the best remaining examples of an inland pine barrens ecosystem in the world . " By 2008 it included all parcels of the Albany Pine Bush Preserve ( a state nature preserve spanning 3 @,@ 200 acres ( 1 @,@ 300 ha ) ) , the properties that connect these protected parcels , and some of the surrounding areas that abut the preserve . The 135 @-@ acre ( 55 ha ) Woodlawn Preserve and surrounding areas in Schenectady County are the western sections of the Pine Bush ; they are separated geographically by other properties from the Albany Pine Bush Preserve in Albany County .
The Pine Bush has been a historical , cultural , and environmental asset to the Capital District and Hudson Valley regions of New York . Pioneers moving west passed through the pine barrens , which later was crossed by the first passenger railroad in the United States . The Pine Bush is home to the Karner Blue butterfly , an endangered species first identified by author Vladimir Nabokov in 1944 using a type specimen from the Pine Bush .
= = History = =
= = = European colonization = = =
Around 10 @,@ 000 years ago Native Americans moved into the Pine Bush area . When Europeans arrived in the early 17th century , two groups lived in the immediate area : the Mohawk nation of the Iroquois to the west along the Mohawk River , and the Mahican to the east , along the Hudson River . The Dutch traded with both native groups from their outpost at Fort Orange ( present @-@ day Albany ) , which was established in 1624 . For the natives the Pine Bush was an important source of firewood and animal pelts to trade with the Dutch . By 1640 the natives were having trouble finding enough animals in the Pine Bush to supply the growing European demand . The Mohawk referred to the settlement at Fort Orange as skahnéhtati , meaning " beyond the pine plains , " referring to the large area of the Pine Bush between the Hudson and Mohawk rivers .
The Dutch granted a patent in 1661 under the name of Schenectady to a settlement on a bend in the Mohawk River to the west of the Pine Bush and about 20 miles from Fort Orange . To the settlers at Fort Orange , the settlement on the Mohawk River started by Arent van Curler was " beyond the pine plains " , and therefore the name Schenectady ( in various spelling connotations ) became associated with the village at that site . In 1664 , the Dutch surrendered their entire colony of New Netherland , including Albany and Schenectady , to the English .
What became known as the King 's Highway were a series of foot paths which the Mohawk had long used to get from west in the valley through the Pine Bush to trade with other tribes at the confluence of the Hudson and Mohawk rivers . This area was later the site of the Dutch Fort Orange . After the founding of Schenectady , the name was used for what became a major route between the two settlements but , until the mid @-@ 18th century , it was not improved beyond a foot path . During the war from 1699 to 1707 , Albany residents collected firewood from the Pine Bush for the large army that was camped at Fort Frederick .
In 1710 , Germans immigrated from Palatine to the Albany area ; some were sent to work camps in the Pine Bush in order to harvest pines for pitch and rosin for the construction of English naval vessels and pay off their passage . Some of these immigrants named the Helderberg Escarpment and settled Schoharie County . Others in 1723 settled further west in the valley , west of Little Falls on the Burnetsfield Patent . ( Most of the latter were from work camps in Dutchess County along the Hudson River .
During the French and Indian Wars , the British military improved the road significantly for use by its forces . After the war it was used by numerous settlers moving west into the Mohawk Valley . During the late @-@ 18th century , taverns and the occasional homesteader began to dot the Pine Bush along the King 's Highway , while development began to encroach on the Pine Bush at the Albany and Schenectady edges as those settlements began to grow . The highway and the Pine Bush was a frontier wilderness and extremely dangerous even after the end of the war . Starting in 1765 , militiamen took turns escorting travelers through the area to protect them from outlaws , bandits , smugglers , and other dangers . During the American Revolutionary War , the Bush was home to Loyalists of the British Crown . Among the taverns established in the 1760s catering to Pine Bush travelers was the Truax Tavern owned by Isaac Truax , a descendant of French Huguenots and a Tory sympathizer ; he said that he was " not a Tory , but a man for the King " . Rumors circulated of several murders / robberies being carried out at the tavern .
Travel became easier in 1793 following the revolution , when a stage coach began carrying passengers between the two cities and through the Pine Bush for three cents per mile .
= = = 19th century = = =
The 19th century saw great improvements in modes of transportation for traveling through the Pine Bush with better roads and soon thereafter railroads . Beginning in 1799 the Great Western Turnpike ( today 's US Route 20 ) and the Albany @-@ Schenectady Turnpike ( New York Route 5 ) were built through the Pine Bush . The Western Turnpike connected Albany west across the state to the American Midwest , while the Albany @-@ Schenectady Turnpike replaced the King 's Highway to Schenectady . In 1826 , in order to reduce travel time between Schenectady and Albany along the Erie Canal , the Mohawk and Hudson Railroad was chartered ; it was the first railroad in the state of New York , and the fourth in the United States . On July 2 , 1830 , the DeWitt Clinton became the first passenger train in the United States , traveling over the 16 @-@ mile ( 26 km ) route through the heart of the Pine Bush .
Over time , the turnpikes and railroad opened up parts of the Pine Bush to settlement , farming , and land speculation . One of the earliest residents was Theophillus Roessle , who owned a large farm and manor in what is now the hamlet of Roessleville , just outside Albany in the town of Colonie . He claimed that the sandy soil of the Pine Bush was " the best land for fruits in the world . " Further west , part of the Pine Bush was carved up in 1858 into 860 plots as part of what is now known as the " Great Land Swindle " and sold to buyers outside the region . When they came to inspect their land , they thought the barrens were useless for agriculture ; they tried to recoup their money by selling the land to other unsuspecting outsiders .
Pressures through direct settlement and roads for passersby were not the only disturbance of the Pine Bush during the 19th century . These changes cut through and disrupted its habitat . As in the colonial period , the Pine Bush continued to be tapped for its natural resources ; whereas in earlier centuries its primary resources were firewood and wildlife , water was now valued the most . The Patroon Creek , roughly where three feeder streams joined in the heart of the Pine Bush along Albany 's northern border , was dammed in 1850 to form Rensselaer Lake .
In 1871 , the northwestern portion of Albany , west from Magazine Street , consisting of mostly undeveloped Pine Bush , was annexed to the neighboring Town of Guilderland after the Town of Watervliet refused annexation of said territory .
When portions of this territory were ceded to Albany in 1910 , the current border was established . The law ( Chapter 375 of the Laws of New York , 1910 ) described the Pine Bush as " being a territory lying to the west of the present boundary line of the city and which is in large part waste and unoccupied land , the ownership of which is uncertain . " This law authorized Albany to lay out the newly annexed territory into lots and to acquire land for a park system to connect the Rensselaer Lake waterworks property to the old city border .
= = = 20th century = = =
As part of the Great Migration of African Americans out of the rural South to industrial cities in the early 20th century , the Reverend Louis W. Parson and his wife migrated in 1927 from Mississippi to Albany , where he founded the First Church of God in Christ . In four trips to Mississippi , Parson encouraged friends and family to move to Albany and join the church , which many did during the 1930s and 1940s . The reverend felt that the mores of Albany 's South End , where they originally settled , was not conducive to religious life . He started a community in the Pine Bush along Rapp Road , purchasing two 14 @-@ acre ( 5 @.@ 7 ha ) undeveloped properties in 1930 and 1933 . It is a rare example of a chain migration community surviving from the Great Migration . This narrow entity is today designated as the Rapp Road Community Historic District , listed on both the state and the National Register of Historic Places .
In 1912 , the city of Albany commissioned a study by notable architect Arnold W. Brunner and landscape architect Charles Downing Lay for beautification of the city ; it was published as Studies for Albany . Brunner and Lay proposed using the Rensselaer Lake waterworks property as the core of a new 1 @,@ 000 @-@ acre ( 400 ha ) natural park , preferably leaving much of the grounds in their natural state ; " [ i ] n fact the less done to it the better . " The city never acquired more land for a park here , and portions of the original waterworks property were sold off piecemeal and developed over the following century .
In the 1950s , the New York State Thruway ( Interstate 90 ) was built through the Pine Bush , disrupting habitat and ecology . Further development took place in the 1950s and 60s with the construction of the W. Averell Harriman State Office Building Campus and the SUNY Albany uptown campus . In the 21st century , the remaining Pine Bush represents only about 10 % of the undeveloped land that existed prior to 1950 .
In the 1960s , longtime Mayor Erastus Corning 2nd pushed forward the Washington Avenue Extension , a four @-@ lane divided highway extending Washington Avenue westward from Fuller Road through the Pine Bush to New Karner Road ( NY Route 155 ) . This opened the heart of the Pine Bush and the western section of the city to development and has been described as " a knife through the heart of the Pine Bush " . Soon afterward , Neil Hellman , a race horse magnate and major developer in the city , proposed a huge " city within a city " on 390 acres ( 160 ha ) that would have apartments , stores , an office park , one or two schools , and fire and police stations . Mayor Corning estimated between 10 @,@ 000 and 15 @,@ 000 persons would live there . Environmentalists and neighborhood groups fought and ultimately defeated this proposal .
Mayor Corning gave archaeologist Don Rittner a $ 500 donation in 1972 to excavate the Truax Tavern along the King 's Highway . Rittner disproved the prevailing historical beliefs concerning the sophistication and structure of the tavern . He discovered several skeletons under the tavern 's floor , which may confirm rumors of murders having taken place at the tavern. ref name = Culture / > As a result of this project , Rittner was appointed as Albany 's first municipal archaeologist , possibly the first of such a position in the nation .
While Mayor Corning supported the largest purchases of Pine Bush land as a city preserve , he also approved placing the Albany landfill in the Pine Bush , the construction of the Washington Avenue Extension , and authorizing much of the development that occurred during his 42 years in office as mayor . These all had adverse effects on the Bush . In 1967 , a portion of Albany 's waterworks / Pine Bush property in the town of Colonie along Central Avenue was sold to developers who built the Northway Mall . Two years later the city moved its dump to the Pine Bush . The Dunes , a single @-@ family housing development in the middle of the Pine Bush off the Washington Avenue Extension , was built in the mid @-@ 1970s . In response to these developments , concerned citizens worried about the future of the habitat formed Save the Pine Bush in 1978 . The organization filed lawsuits for the next several decades to stop further developments in the barrens .
The activist group opposed construction of Crossgates Mall in the town of Guilderland . First proposed in 1978 , it was finished in 1984 . It was expanded to double the original size in 1994 to become the third @-@ largest mall in New York at 1 @.@ 5 million square feet . Widespread regional opposition rose against plans in the late 1990s to increase the size of the Crossgates Mall with over 2 million additional square feet of retail space , plus a 12 @-@ story hotel , and activities such as bowling , ice skating , miniature golf and soccer ; the project was finally dropped in 1999 .
In 1985 , a bill to establish a state @-@ controlled preserve to protect Pine Bush lands never made it out of committee . The bill was proposed the following year by Assemblyman Robert Connor ( D ) -New City . Among the local politicians who opposed the bill was Albany Mayor Thomas Whalen III , who sparred with Assemblyman Connors in a series of letters . Connors stated , " if the mayor allows the final destruction of the Pine Bush , the city of Albany will be an ancient archaeological ruin before the pine barren is replaced . " Assemblyman Arnold Proskin ( R ) -Colonie , whose district included portions of the proposed preserve , opposed on the grounds that the bill was creating another state agency ( like the Adirondack Park Agency ) that would wrest control from local communities over their own development .
The legislature established the Albany Pine Bush Preserve Commission in 1988 . Its members consist of representatives of the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation , the New York State Office of Parks , Recreation and Historic Preservation , The Nature Conservancy , the towns of Colonie and Guilderland , and the city of Albany , Albany County ; and four private citizens appointed by the governor . In 2001 , the State Employees Federal Credit Union ( SEFCU ) bank branch on New Karner Road was taken under eminent domain by the state to be adapted for use as the Albany Pine Bush Discovery Center .
Located since 1969 in the Pine Bush , the Albany landfill has been expanded several times , the latest by 15 acres ( 6 @.@ 1 ha ) in 2010 . As of 2010 , the landfill is expected to have seven years of operating life remaining . Fees paid by other jurisdictions and businesses enable the landfill to generate $ 4 – 5 million annually to the Albany budget ; city residents are provided with free trash collection . The city committed to spending $ 18 million to restore Pine Bush habitat in exchange for gaining approval of the 2010 expansion .
In 1969 , when Albany opened its landfill , the city of Schenectady set aside its only patch of Pine Bush as the Woodlawn Preserve , designating the 135 @-@ acre ( 55 ha ) as a forever wild preserve . Since then , numerous developers have approached the city with proposals for development . In 2009 Schenectady County acted to protect as parkland 24 acres ( 9 @.@ 7 ha ) in the neighboring town of Niskayuna ; this is part of the Woodlawn Pine Barrens – Wetlands Complex which borders the Woodlawn Preserve . The county deeded this property to the town . This action complemented larger plans to connect the Complex to the larger Pine Bush Preserve in Albany County
= = Albany Pine Bush Discovery Center = =
The Albany Pine Bush Discovery Center is a nature center in Albany , New York with exhibits and activities about the Albany Pine Bush Preserve ’ s natural history , geologic and cultural significance . The center offers public programs , programs for school groups , guided hikes , lectures and after school programs . It occupies a former SEFCU credit union bank branch on New Karner Road .
= = Geography = =
The Pine Bush is within the Hudson Valley section of the Appalachian Valley and Ridge Province in the state of New York , and occupies parts of the city of Albany and the towns of Colonie and Guilderland within Albany County . The Pine Bush includes not only pine barrens , but also grasslands of prairie grasses , northern and southern successional forests , and numerous ravines with some wetlands . The Pine Bush ranges in elevation from 260 feet ( 79 m ) to 360 feet ( 110 m ) above sea level .
= = Geology = =
Underlying the Albany Pine Bush is a bedrock consisting of shale and siltstone , laid down 450 million years ago during the Middle Ordovician . The bedrock is covered by glaciolacustrine deposits which make up the sandy topsoils of the barrens .
As the glaciers of the Wisconsin glaciation began to recede from the Hudson Valley area , a glacial lake known today as Lake Albany extended across the mid and upper Hudson Valley and a large delta formed west of Albany where the predecessor of the Mohawk River flowed into the lake . Along the shoreline of the lake , lacustrine sands were deposited between the present @-@ day cities of Hudson and Glens Falls ; this became the Hudson Valley sandplain . Relieved from the weight of the glacier , the land began to rebound , and the lake receded by draining into the Hudson River . The deposits of sand in the delta area were gradually sculpted by wind into sand dunes . Plants later colonized the land and stabilized the dunes . The Pine Bush originally occupied 40 square miles ( 100 km2 ) , or 60 @,@ 000 acres , at which point it was the largest inland pine barrens in North America .
= = Ecology = =
= = = Flora = = =
Less than half of the protected areas of the Albany Pine Bush ( 42 % , or 952 acres ( 385 ha ) ) are currently pitch pine @-@ scrub oak barrens , with an additional 680 acres ( 280 ha ) of disturbed areas with invasive plant growth . As this area is now under protection , it can be restored to the status of pine barrens , especially with the use of controlled burning . The remaining pine barrens are dominated by pitch pine ( Pinus rigida ) , a tall shrub layer consisting of bear oak and dwarf chestnut oak ( Quercus ilicifolia and Quercus prinoides ) , and a low shrub layer composed of lowbush blueberries ( Vaccinium angustifolium and Vaccinium pallidum ) , black huckleberry ( Gaylussacia baccata ) , and sweet fern ( Comptonia peregrina ) . Between areas of pitch pine @-@ scrub oak barrens are small patches of grassland dominated by prairie grasses , including big bluestem ( Andropogon gerardi ) , little bluestem ( Schizachyrium scoparium ) , Indiangrass ( Sorghastrum nutans ) , as well as small trees like the shrubby willows ( Salix humilis and Salix tristis ) . Characteristic flowering plants include bush clover ( Lespedeza capitata ) , goat 's @-@ rue ( Tephrosia virginiana ) , and wild lupine ( Lupinus perennis ) .
Due to prolonged periods of natural fire suppression , much of the Pine Bush has evolved into northern or southern hardwood forests . These forests , often dominated by invasive species , occupy roughly 500 acres ( 200 ha ) of the Albany Pine Bush Preserve . The southern hardwood forests are dominated by black locust ( Robinia pseudoacacia ) , which is exotic , and black cherry ( Prunus serotina ) ; with lesser numbers of native oaks ( Quercus ) and maples ( Acer ) , and the exotic , invasive tree of heaven ( Ailanthus altissima ) . The shrub layer is dominated by black raspberry ( Rubus occidentalis ) and other brambles ( Rubus sp . ) . In contrast the northern hardwood forests are dominated by aspen ( Populus ) , black cherry , red maple ( Acer rubrum ) , white pine ( Pinus strobus ) , gray birch ( Betula populifolia ) , green ash ( Fraxinus pennsylvanica ) , and oaks .
Ravines within the Pine Bush contain mixed forests of pine @-@ northern hardwoods and Appalachian oak @-@ pine . The pine @-@ hardwood forests are dominated by species such as white pine and yellow birch ( Betula alleghaniensis ) , mixed with scattered red maple , a shrub layer dominated by witch @-@ hazel ( Hamamelis virginiana ) , and a herbaceous layer composed of a variety of herbs , mosses , and lichens . The Appalachian oak @-@ pine forest has a tree canopy of one or more oak species , primarily black oak , white oak , and red oak ( Quercus velutina , Quercus alba , and Quercus rubra ) ; these are mixed with pitch pine and some white pine , and a shrub layer dominated by heath shrubs , typically blueberries and black huckleberry . Marshes and wetlands occur along the northern boundary of the Pine Bush and along the bottoms of ravines . Roughly 35 acres ( 14 ha ) of vernal pools have been mapped , these are ground @-@ water fed ponds that are dominated by grasses , sedges , herbs , and low shrubs .
The Pine Bush is home to bog bluegrass ( Poa paludigena ) , a Federal Species of Concern , as well as the rare red @-@ rooted flatsedge ( Cyperus erythrorhizos ) , Houghton 's umbrella @-@ sedge ( Cyperus houghtonii ) , and Schweinitz 's flatsedge ( Cyperus schweinitzii ) . Bog bluegrass occurs at the bottom of a ravine in the Pine Bush and is the only place in the New York Bight watershed where this plant appears . Bayard 's malaxis ( Malaxis bayardii ) is a rare orchid that occurs in the Pine Bush as well .
= = = Fauna = = =
The Albany Pine Bush is home to hundreds of species of Lepidoptera ( moths ) , including over 40 Noctuidae considered to be pine barrens specialists . The most well @-@ known species in the area is the Karner Blue ( Lycaeides melissa samuelis ) , discovered in the 1940s and named by the author Vladimir Nabokov . The butterfly is now on the Endangered Species List . Once found in large numbers throughout the grassy openings of the pine barrens , it is today extremely rare and found in a handful of sites . Attempts to reintroduce the butterfly focus on the food and host plant for its larvae – the wild blue lupine , which needs frequent forest fires to maintain its habitat . Other regionally rare butterflies include the dusted skipper ( Atrytonopsis hianna ) , Henry 's Elfin ( Incisalia henrici ) , Frosted Elfin ( Incisalia irus ) , and Edward 's Hairstreak ( Satyrium edwardsii ) . The inland barrens buck moth ( Hemileuca maia ) is a state @-@ listed special concern animal ; and other rare moths include the broad @-@ lined catopyrrha ( Catopyrrha coloraria ) , several noctuid moths ( Apharetra purpurea , Chaetaglaea cerata , Chytonix sensilis , Macrochilo bivittata , and Zanclognatha martha ) , bird dropping moth ( Cerma cora ) , and a geometrid moth ( Itame ) . The Albarufan dagger moth was last seen in the Pine Bush in 1983 and is presumed locally extinct .
The Pine Bush is also home to 30 of the 44 species of amphibians and reptiles that are indigenous to Albany County . Seven of these species are generally not seen so far north in the state of New York . Three species of salamander , the Jefferson salamander ( Ambystoma jeffersonium ) , blue @-@ spotted salamander ( Ambystoma laterale ) , and spotted salamander ( Ambystoma maculatum ) , are state @-@ listed special concern animals . Two species of turtle , the spotted turtle ( Clemmys guttata ) and wood turtle ( Clemmys insculpta ) , are also special concern animals . About 45 species of birds breed in the Albany Pine Bush ( according to the 1985 New York State Breeding Bird Atlas ) and are fairly common species for the area . About 32 species of common small mammals have been found in and adjacent to the Pine Bush .
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= Mew ( Pokémon ) =
Mew ( ミュウ , Myū ) is one of the fictional species of creatures from Nintendo 's and Game Freak 's Pokémon media franchise created by Satoshi Tajiri . Mew is a small , pink , Psychic @-@ type Mythical Pokémon . It was added to Pokémon Red and Green by its creator , Game Freak programmer Shigeki Morimoto , as a secret character . As such , its presence has been surrounded by rumors and myths , which contributed to make the Pokémon franchise a success . For years , Mew could not be legitimately obtained in the games except from Pokémon distribution events .
Mew 's first film appearance was in Pokémon : The First Movie as a main character alongside Mewtwo . The movie revealed that a fossilized Mew hair , found in the Guyana jungle by a team of scientists , was used to create Mewtwo , a genetically enhanced Mew clone . Mew later appeared in Pokémon : Lucario and the Mystery of Mew as a main character alongside Lucario ; the backstory of the film revolves around Mew 's mysterious history and how it came to be so powerful . Pokémon : The Mastermind of Mirage Pokémon had a mirage Mew appear as a main character in the movie who helped Ash and friends try to defeat the Mirage Master .
= = Concept and creation = =
Unlike other characters in the Pokémon franchise , Mew 's development was not overseen by Ken Sugimori , but by Game Freak programmer Shigeki Morimoto . Morimoto programmed Mew into the game secretly , as a prank amongst the staff just prior to its release in Japan , intending it to be a Pokémon only Game Freak staff members would know about and be able to obtain . Mew was added at the very end of the development of Pokémon Red and Blue after the removal of debug features , freeing up just enough space to add the character despite being told not to alter the game any further at this point . Though not intended by the developers to be obtainable , due to a glitch , players were able to encounter it .
In the spring of 1996 , Game Freak 's president Satoshi Tajiri used the Japanese manga journal CoroCoro Comic as an experimental exhibition of Mew and distributed the first cards of it for the card game as free giveaways , which surprised many at Game Freak , including Morimoto . Due to the success of the experiment on April 15 , 1996 , Game Freak announced a contest to publicly release Mew to 151 winners . Tajiri described using Mew to create hype around an " invisible character " within the game and to keep interest alive in the title and create rumors and myths about the game passed around by word of mouth , which resulted in increased sales for the game .
= = = Design and characteristics = = =
Like Mewtwo , Mew is a Psychic @-@ type Pokémon with high stats . Morimoto designed it as a pale pink , with large eyes and a long , thin tail that broadens at the end , though blue specimens have been seen in the games . Its skin is covered with a layer of short , fine hair which may only be viewed under a microscope . Its DNA combines the genetic composition of all existing Pokémon species ; the game states that scientists within the game view it as being the single ancestor of all other Pokémon . It is shy and rarely seen by humans . It is a legendary Pokémon from the first generation , along with Articuno , Zapdos , Moltres , and Mewtwo . Mew 's number in the National Pokédex is 151 , the last of the first @-@ generation Pokémon , with 150 being Mewtwo and 152 being Chikorita . In the first generation games and their remakes , the player can find journal entries in the Pokémon Mansion on Cinnabar Island stating that Mew was discovered deep in the jungles of Guyana , South America , on July 5 ( the year is not specified ) , and named on July 10 , and that it " gave birth " to Mewtwo on February 6 . The name Mew is based on the onomatopoeia of a cat 's cry , meow .
In the video games , it is possible for Mew to learn any move that can be taught . Other than Ditto and Smeargle ( through the Sketch technique ) , it is the only Pokémon that can transform into other Pokémon using the " Transform " technique . In the anime , it is capable of flight , teleportation , shapeshifting , summoning giant pink bubbles of psychic energy ( which serve various purposes such as closing itself in for protection , acting as a cushion , or simply for Mew 's amusement of bouncing on ) , and rendering itself invisible .
= = Appearances = =
= = = In the video games = = =
For a time , Mew could only be legitimately obtained in the Pokémon video games via Nintendo promotional event distributions . Mew was first revealed and made available to the public in the April 1996 issue of CoroCoro Comics . This issue offered a promotion called the " Legendary Pokémon Offer " , where 20 randomly selected entrants could send their cartridges in for Nintendo to add Mew to their games . At Nintendo promotional events soon after the release of Pokémon Red and Blue , players could have it downloaded to their games . This period ended with the release of My Pokémon Ranch , where Mew was accessible legitimately without an event distribution . Mew also appears as one of the Pokémon that can be released from the Poké Ball item in the Super Smash Bros. series . When sent out , it flies away from the stage , usually dropping rare items as it does so .
The creature has also long been accessible by the use of glitches or cheating devices . One of the glitches discovered in Pokémon Red , Blue , and Yellow involves exploiting programmed events . Walking into the view of a Trainer , then using a Pokémon 's " Fly " or " Teleport " move ( or " Dig " or the item " Escape Rope " in caves ) to escape the area right before the Trainer notices the player , then battling a Pokémon with the correct Special stat in a different area and immediately returning to the original location starts a battle with a wild Mew .
= = = In the anime = = =
Mew 's first major appearance in the Pokémon anime was in Pokémon : The First Movie , where it served as one of the main characters . It was believed to be long @-@ extinct and " the legendary and rare ' most powerful Pokémon ever ' " . After years of research , scientists use a recombination of Mew 's DNA to create Mewtwo , a genetically enhanced clone of Mew who becomes the film 's main antagonist . The backstory of Pokémon : Lucario and the Mystery of Mew revolves around Mew 's mysterious history and how it came to be so powerful . In the movie , a Pokémon " family tree " is shown ; the first Pokémon on it is Mew , and the last is Ho @-@ Oh .
= = = In the manga = = =
Mew appears in the Pokémon Adventures series of Pokémon manga . Mew , also known as the " Phantom Pokémon " in the manga , appears in the first chapter when the criminal organization Team Rocket tries to capture it . Pokémon Trainer Red also tries to capture it , but he is easily defeated by Mew . In following chapters , it is revealed that Team Rocket wants to have Mew 's DNA to finish the creation of Mewtwo , and Red and Trainer Green join forces to avoid it being captured .
= = Cultural impact = =
= = = Promotion and merchandising = = =
A promotion in the April 1996 issue of CoroCoro Comics called the " Legendary Pokémon Offer " offered the 20 winners the opportunity to send their cartridges in for Nintendo to add Mew to their games . To promote the Pokémon franchise , Mew is one of the Pokémon featured in the 1998 painting on the All Nippon Airways Boeing 747 @-@ 400 .
In September 2006 , in celebration of the release of Lucario and the Mystery of Mew and Pokémon Mystery Dungeon : Blue Rescue Team and Red Rescue Team , players with a copy of Ruby , Sapphire , Emerald , FireRed , or LeafGreen could go to a Toys " R " Us store to download the creature for free . Included in the DVD of Lucario and the Mystery of Mew was a promotional Mew trading card .
= = = Critical reception = = =
The revealing and distribution of Mew through organized events has been noted as a major reason for the series ' success in Japan , with the Japanese " Legendary Pokémon Offer " receiving over 78 @,@ 000 entries , exceeding their initial expectation of 3000 . Nintendo CEO Satoru Iwata attributed the success of the games to the " Legendary Pokémon Offer " ; since then , the weekly sales of Red and Green began to match its previous monthly sales , and then becoming three to four times larger . However , Computer and Video Games magazine criticized the exclusivity of Mew to Nintendo events as one of the worst aspects of Pokémon , noting that through the use of cheat devices such as the Pro Action Replay to access Mew , they were rendered obsolete . Many fans of the game bought cheat devices only to obtain it . UGO.com listed Mew sixth on their list of " The 25 Awesomest Hidden Characters " . Authors Tracey West and Katherine Noll called Mew the best Legendary Pokémon and the fifth best Pokémon overall .
Due to its balanced statistics and ability to learn any move that comes from a Technical or Hidden Machine , Mew is regarded as one of the best Pokémon in Red , Blue , and Yellow . Studies on the impact of fictional characters on children , such as those in Pikachu 's Global Adventure : The Rise and Fall of Pokémon , have noted Mew as popular with younger female children who tend to be drawn to " cute " characters ; Mewtwo in comparison was described as a polar opposite , popular with older male children who tend to be drawn to " tough or scary " characters . The book Media and the Make @-@ believe Worlds of Children noted a similar comparison , describing Mew as " child @-@ like and gentle , combining characteristics of power and cuteness " and emphasizing the importance of the contrast for children between it and Mewtwo , and its role as a source of appeal for the character . IGN listed Mew as one of the best Psychic types , alongside Mewtwo , Alakazam , and Starmie . They called it a good contender to Mewtwo , as well as an unpredictable Pokémon due to its ability to use any TM or HMs , items that teach Pokémon attacks .
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= Þorgerðr Hölgabrúðr and Irpa =
In Norse mythology , Þorgerðr Hǫlgabrúðr and Irpa are divine figures . Þorgerðr and Irpa appear together in Jómsvíkinga saga , Njáls saga and Þorleifs þáttr jarlsskálds . Irpa does not appear outside of these four attestations , but Þorgerðr also appears in the Prose Edda book Skáldskaparmál , Færeyinga saga , and Harðar saga ok Hólmverja and is mentioned in Ketils saga hœngs . Þorgerðr Hǫlgabrúðr is particularly associated with Haakon Sigurdsson ( d . 995 ) , and , in Jómsvíkinga saga and Þorleifs þáttr jarlsskálds , she and Irpa are described as sisters . The roles of the Þorgerðr Hǫlgabrúðr and Irpa in these sources , and the implications of their names , has resulted in an amount of scholarly discourse and theory .
= = Etymology = =
The name Þorgerðr Hǫlgabrúðr is Old Norse and literally means " Þorgerðr , Hǫlgi 's bride . " According to Skáldskaparmál chapter 42 , Hǫlgi ( a traditional eponym of the northernmost Norwegian province Hålogaland ) is also Þorgerðr 's father . The first name Þorgerðr is a compound of two names , the god name Þor ( Thor ) , and gerðr — the latter name meaning " fenced in . "
The figure 's second name sometimes appears in sources featuring -brúðr replaced with -troll , and , in place of Hǫlg- , the prefixes Hǫrða- , Hǫrga- , and Hǫlda- also appear . It has been suggested that name Þorgerðr derives from the name of the jǫtunn Gerðr , as Þorgerðr is also described at times as a troll or giantess . Alternatively , Gerðr may simply be an abbreviated version of the name Þorgerðr . Þorgerðr is referred to as Gerðr in Tindr Hallkelsson ’ s 10th @-@ century drápa on Haakon , quoted in chapter 43 of Óláfs saga Tryggvasonar , found in the Heimskringla .
John McKinnell states that the name of Þorgerðr 's father is probably a later addition used to explain the origins of the name of Hålogaland , and that " Hǫlgabrúðr " probably means " bride of the ( rulers of ) Hålogaland " and that Hǫrðabrúðr , similarly , may mean " bride of the ( rulers of ) Hörðaland . " Hǫrðabrúðr as " bride of the heathen shrines , " and hǫldabrúðr as either " bride of the people of Holde " or " bride of noblemen . " McKinnell says that the variety of stories and names suggest that the tradition of Þorgerðr Hǫlgabrúðr was wide spread , and that she was venerated in more than one area .
The name Irpa may derive from the Old Norse term jarpr " dark brown " , which has led to a number of theories about the goddess . Jarpr is thought to derive from the earlier Proto @-@ Germanic word * erpa- .
= = Attestations = =
Þorgerðr and / or Irpa are attested in the following works :
= = = Jómsvíkinga saga = = =
Irpa appears in chapter 21 of the Jómsvíkinga saga , which focuses on the late 10th century Battle of Hjörungavágr between the fleet of the Jomsvikings under Sigvaldi Strut @-@ Haraldsson and the fleet of Haakon Sigurdsson and Sweyn Haakonsson . Haakon calls a meeting during a lull in the fighting , and says that he feels that the tide of the battle is going against his allies and him . Haakon then goes to an island called Primsigned , north of Hjórunga Bay . On the island , Haakon falls to his knees , and , while looking northward , prays to what is described as his patron goddess , Þorgerðr Hǫlgabrúðr . According to the saga , Þorgerðr repeatedly refuses his offers , but finally accepts the blót of his 7 @-@ year @-@ old son . Haakon 's slave , Skopti , slaughters the boy . Haakon returns to his fleet and presses his men to engage in an attack , and commends his men to ( " Þorgerðr " is here anglicized as " Thorgerd " ) :
Press the attack all the more vigorously , because I have invoked for victory both the sisters , Thorgerd and Irpa .
Haakon enters his ship , the fleet rows forward for the attack , and battle ensues . The weather becomes thick in the north , the clouds cover the sky , daylight becomes sparse , thunder and lightning ring out , and it begins to rain . The Jomvikings fleet fights facing the storm and cold , and they have trouble standing due to the heavy wind . The Jomsvikings throw weapons , missiles , and stones at Haakon 's fleet but the winds turn their projectiles back at them .
Hávard the Hewing , in the fleet of Haakon , first spots Þorgerðr there and then many others see her . The wind wanes and the men witness arrows flying from the fingertips of Þorgerðr , each arrow killing a man of the Jomsviking fleet . The Jomsvikings tell Sigvaldi that although they are no longer fighting men alone , they will still do their best . The storm lessens again and once again Haakon invokes Þorgerðr . The saga describes this attack :
And then it grew dark again with a squall , this time even stronger and worse than before . And right at the beginning of the squall Hávard the Hewing saw that two women were standing on the earl 's ship , and both were doing the same thing that Thorgerd had done before .
Sigvaldi tells his men to retreat , and reasons that this is not what he vowed to fight , especially since there are now two women , whom he refers to as " ogresses " and " trolls . " After the Jomvikings fleet has been defeated , Haakon 's men weigh the hailstones that had fallen during the storm , to detect " what power " Þorgerðr and Irpa had , and they find that the hailstones weigh an ounce each .
= = = Njáls saga = = =
Þorgerðr and Irpa are again mentioned together in chapter 88 of Njáls saga , set in the 10th and 11th centuries . Here , Hrapp breaks into the temple owned by Haakon and Gudbrand while Haakon is at a feast at Gudbrand 's home . Hrapp plunders a seated depiction of Þorgerðr ; he takes a large gold ring from her plus the linen hood she is wearing . Next , Hrapp spots a depiction of Thor and Thor 's wain . He takes a gold ring from the depiction of Thor too , and , thirdly , he takes a ring from a depiction of Irpa there . Hrapp takes all of the images from the temple , strips them of their items , and then burns the temple until leaving at dawn .
= = = Skáldskaparmál = = =
Þorgerðr is mentioned in the Prose Edda book Skáldskaparmál . Here , Hålogaland is described as named after king Hǫlgi , and that he was Þorgerðr 's father . According to Skáldskaparmál , blót were made to them both that included money , and a tumulus was made for Hǫlgi that was built with layers of gold and silver , then covered by a layer of earth and stone . Later in Skáldskaparmál , a list of " troll @-@ wives " is given that includes Hǫlgabrúðr .
= = = Færeyinga Saga = = =
In chapter 23 of Færeyinga Saga , Haakon asks Sigmund where he puts his trust . Sigmund responds that he puts his trust nowhere but with himself . Haakon responds :
" That must not be , " the Earl [ Haakon ] answered , " but thou shalt put thy trust where I have put all my trust , namely , in Thorgerd Shinebright , " said he . " And we will go and see her now and seek luck for thee at her hands . "
The two then follow a small path through the woods until they come to a house with a stake fence around it . The house is described as beautiful , featuring carvings filled with gold and silver . They enter the house with a few men , and find that it is lit from glass windows in the ceiling , so that the daylight illuminates the room and there are no shadows to be seen due to this . There were depictions of many gods there and a woman who is described as well dressed near the door .
The saga relates that Haakon throws himself to the ground before the woman for some time . When he gets up , he tells Sigmund that they should give her an offering , that they ought to lay silver on the stool before her . Haakon says :
And we shall have it as a mark of what she thinks of this , if she will do as I wish and let the ring loose which holds in her hand . For thou , Sigmund , shalt get luck by that ring .
Haakon takes hold of the ring , and , seemingly to Sigmund , she clasps her hand around it . Haakon does not receive the ring . Haakon casts himself down before her a second time , and Sigmund notices that Haakon is weeping . He stands up again , takes hold of the ring , and finds that it has become loose . Haakon gives the ring to Sigmund , and tells him that he must never part with it . Sigmund gives him his word on it and the men part , each returning to their ships . A storm appears and the two ships are swept apart , and many days are described as passing afterwards .
= = = Harðar saga ok Hólmverja = = =
In chapter 19 of the saga Harðar saga ok Hólmverja , Grímkell Bjarnarson , a goði closely related to Haakon , goes to the temple ( Old Norse hof ) of Þorgerðr Hǫrgabrúðr to ask for a successful marriage for his daughter . When he arrives , the gods are preparing to leave . After an angry exchange with Þorgerðr , who tells him he does not have long to live , Grímkell burns down the hof with all the gods in it . Later that evening , Grímkell suddenly falls dead at dinner .
= = = Ketils saga hœngs = = =
In chapter 5 of Ketils saga hœngs , Ketill encounters a troll @-@ woman in the forest . The troll @-@ woman tells him she is traveling to a trolla @-@ þing — an assembly of trolls . Among the major figures who will be present , she continues , are Skelkingr , the king of the trolls , and Þorgerðr Hǫrgatrǫll .
= = = Þorleifs þáttr jarlsskálds = = =
In Þorleifs þáttr jarlsskálds , Þorleifr Ásgeirsson , known as jarlsskáld ( " the Jarl ’ s skald " ) , recites an abusive and magically aggressive poem in Earl Haakon 's hall . In chapter 7 ( chapter 173 of Óláfs saga Tryggvasonar ) , Haakon recovers from his injuries and offers gifts to Þorgerðr Hǫrdabrúðr and her sister Irpa , seeking their counsel on how best to take vengeance on Þorleifr . Following their advice , Haakon has a wooden man ( Old Norse trémaðr ) built out of driftwood and endows it with a human heart . Haakon and the two sisters then bring the trémaðr to life , arm him with a halberd , and send him to Iceland to kill Þorleifr , which he does .
= = Theories = =
A number of theories surround the figures of Þorgerðr and Irpa :
= = = Guardian goddesses = = =
Hilda Ellis Davidson counts Þorgerðr and Irpa as examples of guardian goddesses in Germanic paganism , and compares their roles to that of the dísir and valkyries . Davidson says that if Helgi is the mythical founder of Hålogaland , it would explain Þorgerðr 's last name ( " bride of Helgi " ) and that , subsequently , she would be the wife of each ruler of the kingdom in turn . Substantially the same argument has been advanced by McKinnell . Davidson compares this role to accounts of kings or leaders being granted entry into Valhalla in the Viking Age , that the idea of a guardian goddess welcoming kings was essentially an aristocratic concept , and that a tradition such as this could explain noble valkyries welcoming dead kings into the after life , using the poem Hákonarmál as an example .
= = = Þorgerðr and Freyja = = =
Davidson further theorizes that Þorgerðr 's name may have originally been Gerðr , reasons that this form is what is found in early skaldic verse , and , further , that this is one of the names given for the goddess Freyja . Davidson points out that Haakon may have later turned to the same goddess soon before he met his death , when he hid in the earth beneath a swine in Óláfs saga Tryggvasonar ( collected in Heimskringla ) chapter 48 , and that this could symbolize a mound of Freyja , one of whose names means " sow " ( Old Norse sýr ) . Davidson theorizes that the account of Olaf I of Norway dragging Þorgerðr 's image out of its temple after Haakon 's death , and burning it next to a depiction of Freyr ( Freyja 's male twin ) , further supports this view .
= = = Irpa = = =
Irpa has been proposed as an earth goddess due to the derivation of her name to a word for " dark brown " , but F.R. Schröder has expressed criticism at the notion of concluding that Irpa is an earth goddess based on this evidence . John McKinnell proposes that the Irpa may represent a " dark " aspect of Þorgerðr , in that her name may mean " swarthy , " and that the two were probably of contrasting appearance ; Irpa being unlucky to name and seen as a troll . McKinnell further proposes a connection between Irpa and Hel , stating that the two may have been seen as synonymous .
= = = Miscellaneous theories = = =
Nora Chadwick ( 1950 ) suggested that mythical legends of Þorgerðr and Irpa have become confused and intertwined with historical accounts of Haakon ’ s wife Þóra and her sister , Guðrún ; and that the figure of the shieldmaiden Lagertha in the Gesta may also be an aspect of Þorgerðr . Lotte Motz ( 1993 ) proposed that Þorgerðr was a rare instance of a giantess who was the recipient of cultic worship in her own right in heathen Scandinavia .
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= Arnolfini =
The Arnolfini is an international arts centre and gallery in Bristol , England . It has a programme of contemporary art exhibitions , artist 's performance , music and dance events , poetry and book readings , talks , lectures and cinema . There is also a specialist art bookshop and a café bar . Educational activities are undertaken and experimental digital media work supported by online resources . A number of festivals are regularly hosted by the gallery . Arnolfini is funded by Bristol City Council and Arts Council England , with some corporate and individual supporters .
The gallery was founded in 1961 by Jeremy Rees , and was originally located in Clifton . In the 1970s it moved to Queen Square , before moving to its present location , Bush House on Bristol 's waterfront , in 1975 . The name of the gallery is taken from Jan van Eyck 's 15th @-@ century painting , The Arnolfini Portrait . Arnolfini has since been refurbished and redeveloped in 1989 and 2005 . Artists whose work has been exhibited include Bridget Riley , Rachel Whiteread , Richard Long and Jack Yeats . Performers have included Goat Island Performance Group , the Philip Glass Ensemble , and Shobana Jeyasingh Dance Company . The gallery reached a new audience in April 2010 , when it was chosen to host one of the three 2010 general election debates .
= = History = =
Jeremy Rees started Arnolfini with the assistance of his wife Annabel , and the painter John Orsborn in 1961 . The original location was above a bookshop in the Triangle in Clifton , Bristol . In 1968 , Rees was able to give up his teaching job and with the aid of private funding and Arts Council funding relocated the gallery to Queen Square , then to E Shed , the current home of the Watershed Media Centre . In 1975 , Arnolfini moved to its present home in Bush House , occupying two floors of a 19th @-@ century Grade II * listed tea warehouse situated on the side of the Floating Harbour in Bristol city centre . The remainder of the building was office space leased out by developers JT Group .
The architect of Bush House was Richard Shackleton Pope , who constructed first the south part of the warehouse ( 1831 ) then extended it to the north in 1835 – 1836 . Its original use was as a warehouse for local iron foundry D. , E. & A. Acraman . The building has a Pennant Sandstone exterior with arched ground level entrances and arched windows above . This style of architecture is the first example of the Bristol Byzantine style which became popular in the 1850s . Later conversion to a tea warehouse added interstital floors .
Originally dedicated to exhibiting the work of artists from the West of England , under the directorship of Barry Barker ( 1986 – 1991 ) the gallery moved towards a more general spread of contemporary art . Barker supervised a successful refurbishment of the gallery spaces and café bar by David Chipperfield . Before development work began , the Arnolfini was attracting over 285 @,@ 000 visitors per year . Subsequent Directors have been Tessa Jackson ( 1991 – 1999 ) , Caroline Collier ( 1999 – 2005 ) and Tom Trevor ( 2005 @-@ 2013 ) .
As part of a two @-@ year development project that finished in September 2005 , the old warehouse has been fully redeveloped , adding another attic storey . Arnolfini now occupies the lower three floors and basement , and the upper floors are leased to help pay for the running costs . One tenant is the School of Creative Arts , part of the University of the West of England . Funding for this development was received from the National Lottery and the Barker @-@ Mill Trust , set up by long term Arnolfini patron Peter Barker @-@ Mill . The original committee to support Arnolfini included Peter Barker @-@ Mill , Ann Hewer , and Lawrence Ogilvie .
= = Name = =
The Arnolfini is named after Jan van Eyck 's masterpiece The Arnolfini Portrait ( 1434 ) depicting the merchant and arts patron Giovanni Arnolfini . The Arnolfini Portrait is one of the earliest paintings to assert the presence of the artist within its depiction ( an inscription in the middle of the work and a reflection in a mirror on the back wall ) and one of Arnolfini 's consistent concerns : to explore the role of artist as a witness and recorder of what is around them – contemporary society . The painting is in the National Gallery , London and it was one of the founder 's favourite paintings .
= = Today = =
Arnolfini has three floors of galleries , a specialist arts bookshop , a cinema which can also be used as a performance space for theatre , live art , dance and music , a specialist arts bookshop , a reading room that provides reference material for all past exhibitions and wide range of books and catalogues , and a café bar . Entrance to the galleries is free of charge . Notable exhibitions have included works by Bridget Riley , Richard Long , Rachel Whiteread , Paul McCartney , Angus Fairhurst and Louise Bourgeois . Regular events include poetry and film festivals , live art and dance performances , lectures and jazz and experimental music concerts , including Bodies in Flight , Goat Island Performance Group , Akram Khan , the London Sinfonietta , the Philip Glass Ensemble , Random Dance , and Shobana Jeyasingh Dance Company .
There is an active access and education programme , hosting visits from students , workshops with artists , presenting interpretative information and offering some work experience placements within the gallery. project.ARNOLFINI is an online experimental web site with dumps of digital media related to Arnolfini exhibitions and events , past and present , which may be reorganised by any online user , utilising resources on the web site to create new works and projects under a copyleft license . Arnolfini also hosts events from outside organisations , including the Encounters Short Film Festival ( along with the Watershed Media Centre ) , Mayfest , the first Festival of British Independent Cinema , the biennial Inbetween Time Festival of Live Art and Intrigue and the Bristol Artists Book Events . In April 2010 , British Sky Broadcasting chose Arnolfini to host the second of the three 2010 general election debates .
Arnolfini receives funding from Arts Council England , and Bristol City Council . According to returns lodged with the Charity Commission for the year ending in March 2009 , Arnolfini had 398 @,@ 000 visitors in 2008 / 2009 . Income was £ 2 @.@ 08 million and expenditure was £ 2 @.@ 4 million and the gallery employed 44 people .
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= History of botany =
The history of botany examines the human effort to understand life on Earth by tracing the historical development of the discipline of botany — that part of natural science dealing with organisms traditionally treated as plants .
Rudimentary botanical science began with empirically @-@ based plant lore passed from generation to generation in the oral traditions of paleolithic hunter @-@ gatherers . The first written records of plants were made in the Neolithic Revolution about 10 @,@ 000 years ago as writing was developed in the settled agricultural communities where plants and animals were first domesticated . The first writings that show human curiosity about plants themselves , rather than the uses that could be made of them , appears in the teachings of Aristotle 's student Theophrastus at the Lyceum in ancient Athens in about 350 BC ; this is considered the starting point for modern botany . In Europe , this early botanical science was soon overshadowed by a medieval preoccupation with the medicinal properties of plants that lasted more than 1000 years . During this time , the medicinal works of classical antiquity were reproduced in manuscripts and books called herbals . In China and the Arab world , the Greco @-@ Roman work on medicinal plants was preserved and extended .
In Europe the Renaissance of the 14th – 17th centuries heralded a scientific revival during which botany gradually emerged from natural history as an independent science , distinct from medicine and agriculture . Herbals were replaced by floras : books that described the native plants of local regions . The invention of the microscope stimulated the study of plant anatomy , and the first carefully designed experiments in plant physiology were performed . With the expansion of trade and exploration beyond Europe , the many new plants being discovered were subjected to an increasingly rigorous process of naming , description , and classification .
Progressively more sophisticated scientific technology has aided the development of contemporary botanical offshoots in the plant sciences , ranging from the applied fields of economic botany ( notably agriculture , horticulture and forestry ) , to the detailed examination of the structure and function of plants and their interaction with the environment over many scales from the large @-@ scale global significance of vegetation and plant communities ( biogeography and ecology ) through to the small scale of subjects like cell theory , molecular biology and plant biochemistry .
= = Introduction = =
Botany ( Greek Βοτάνη - grass , fodder ; Medieval Latin botanicus – herb , plant ) and zoology are , historically , the core disciplines of biology whose history is closely associated with the natural sciences chemistry , physics and geology . A distinction can be made between botanical science in a pure sense , as the study of plants themselves , and botany as applied science , which studies the human use of plants . Early natural history divided pure botany into three main streams morphology @-@ classification , anatomy and physiology – that is , external form , internal structure , and functional operation . The most obvious topics in applied botany are horticulture , forestry and agriculture although there are many others like weed science , plant pathology , floristry , pharmacognosy , economic botany and ethnobotany which lie outside modern courses in botany . Since the origin of botanical science there has been a progressive increase in the scope of the subject as technology has opened up new techniques and areas of study . Modern molecular systematics , for example , entails the principles and techniques of taxonomy , molecular biology , computer science and more .
Within botany there are a number of sub @-@ disciplines that focus on particular plant groups , each with their own range of related studies ( anatomy , morphology etc . ) . Included here are : phycology ( algae ) , pteridology ( ferns ) , bryology ( mosses and liverworts ) and palaeobotany ( fossil plants ) and their histories are treated elsewhere ( see side bar ) . To this list can be added mycology , the study of fungi , which were once treated as plants , but are now ranked as a unique kingdom .
= = Ancient knowledge = =
Nomadic hunter @-@ gatherer societies passed on , by oral tradition , what they knew ( their empirical observations ) about the different kinds of plants that they used for food , shelter , poisons , medicines , for ceremonies and rituals etc . The uses of plants by these pre @-@ literate societies influenced the way the plants were named and classified — their uses were embedded in folk @-@ taxonomies , the way they were grouped according to use in everyday communication . The nomadic life @-@ style was drastically changed when settled communities were established in about twelve centres around the world during the Neolithic Revolution which extended from about 10 @,@ 000 to 2500 years ago depending on the region . With these communities came the development of the technology and skills needed for the domestication of plants and animals and the emergence of the written word provided evidence for the passing of systematic knowledge and culture from one generation to the next .
= = = Plant lore and plant selection = = =
During the Neolithic Revolution plant knowledge increased most obviously through the use of plants for food and medicine . All of today 's staple foods were domesticated in prehistoric times as a gradual process of selection of higher @-@ yielding varieties took place , possibly unknowingly , over hundreds to thousands of years . Legumes were cultivated on all continents but cereals made up most of the regular diet : rice in East Asia , wheat and barley in the Middle east , and maize in Central and South America . By Greco @-@ Roman times popular food plants of today , including grapes , apples , figs , and olives , were being listed as named varieties in early manuscripts . Botanical authority William Stearn has observed that " cultivated plants are mankind 's most vital and precious heritage from remote antiquity " .
It is also from the Neolithic , in about 3000 BC , that we glimpse the first known illustrations of plants and read descriptions of impressive gardens in Egypt . However protobotany , the first pre @-@ scientific written record of plants , did not begin with food ; it was born out of the medicinal literature of Egypt , China , Mesopotamia and India . Botanical historian Alan Morton notes that agriculture was the occupation of the poor and uneducated , while medicine was the realm of socially influential shamans , priests , apothecaries , magicians and physicians , who were more likely to record their knowledge for posterity .
= = = Early botany = = =
Ancient India
An early example of ancient Indian plant classification is found in the Rigveda , a collection of Vedic Sanskrit hymns from about 3700 – 3100 BP . Plants are divided into vṛska ( trees ) , osadhi ( herbs useful to humans ) and virudha ( creepers ) , with further subdivisions . The sacred Hindu text Atharvaveda divides plants into eight classes : visakha ( spreading branches ) , manjari ( leaves with long clusters ) , sthambini ( bushy plants ) , prastanavati ( which expands ) ; ekasṛnga ( those with monopodial growth ) , pratanavati ( creeping plants ) , amsumati ( with many stalks ) , and kandini ( plants with knotty joints ) . The Taittiriya Samhita classifies the plant kingdom into vṛksa , vana and druma ( trees ) , visakha ( shrubs with spreading branches ) , sasa ( herbs ) , amsumali ( spreading plant ) , vratati ( climber ) , stambini ( bushy plant ) , pratanavati ( creeper ) , and alasala ( spreading on the ground ) . Other examples of early Indian taxonomy include Manusmriti , the Law book of Hindus , which classifies plants into eight major categories . Elaborate taxonomies also occur in the Charaka Samhitā , Sushruta Samhita and Vaisesika .
Ancient China
In ancient China lists of different plants and herb concoctions for pharmaceutical purposes date back to at least the time of the Warring States ( 481 BC @-@ 221 BC ) . Many Chinese writers over the centuries contributed to the written knowledge of herbal pharmaceutics . The Han Dynasty ( 202 BC @-@ 220 AD ) includes the notable work of the Huangdi Neijing and the famous pharmacologist Zhang Zhongjing . There were also the 11th century scientists and statesmen Su Song and Shen Kuo who compiled learned treatises on natural history , emphasising herbal medicine .
= = = Theophrastus and the origin of botanical science = = =
Ancient Athens , of the 6th century BC , was the busy trade centre at the confluence of Egyptian , Mesopotamian and Minoan cultures at the height of Greek colonisation of the Mediterranean . The philosophical thought of this period ranged freely through many subjects . Empedocles ( 490 – 430 BC ) foreshadowed Darwinian evolutionary theory in a crude formulation of the mutability of species and natural selection . The physician Hippocrates ( 460 – 370 BC ) avoided the prevailing superstition of his day and approached healing by close observation and the test of experience . At this time a genuine non @-@ anthropocentric curiosity about plants emerged . The major works written about plants extended beyond the description of their medicinal uses to the topics of plant geography , morphology , physiology , nutrition , growth and reproduction .
Foremost among the scholars studying botany was Theophrastus of Eressus ( Greek : Θεόφραστος ; c . 371 – 287 BC ) who has been frequently referred to as the " Father of Botany " . He was a student and close friend of Aristotle ( 384 – 322 BC ) and succeeded him as head of the Lyceum ( an educational establishment like a modern university ) in Athens with its tradition of peripatetic philosophy . Aristotle 's special treatise on plants — θεωρία περὶ φυτῶν — is now lost , although there are many botanical observations scattered throughout his other writings ( these have been assembled by Christian Wimmer in Phytologiae Aristotelicae Fragmenta , 1836 ) but they give little insight into his botanical thinking . The Lyceum prided itself in a tradition of systematic observation of causal connections , critical experiment and rational theorizing . Theophrastus challenged the superstitious medicine employed by the physicians of his day , called rhizotomi , and also the control over medicine exerted by priestly authority and tradition . Together with Aristotle he had tutored Alexander the Great whose military conquests were carried out with all the scientific resources of the day , the Lyceum garden probably containing many botanical trophies collected during his campaigns as well as other explorations in distant lands . It was in this garden where he gained much of his plant knowledge .
Theophrastus 's major botanical works were the Enquiry into Plants ( Historia Plantarum ) and Causes of Plants ( Causae Plantarum ) which were his lecture notes for the Lyceum . The opening sentence of the Enquiry reads like a botanical manifesto : " We must consider the distinctive characters and the general nature of plants from the point of view of their morphology , their behaviour under external conditions , their mode of generation and the whole course of their life " . The Enquiry is 9 books of " applied " botany dealing with the forms and classification of plants and economic botany , examining the techniques of agriculture ( relationship of crops to soil , climate , water and habitat ) and horticulture . He described some 500 plants in detail , often including descriptions of habitat and geographic distribution , and he recognised some plant groups that can be recognised as modern @-@ day plant families . Some names he used , like Crataegus , Daucus and Asparagus have persisted until today . His second book Causes of Plants covers plant growth and reproduction ( akin to modern physiology ) . Like Aristotle he grouped plants into " trees " , " undershrubs " , " shrubs " and " herbs " but he also made several other important botanical distinctions and observations . He noted that plants could be annuals , perennials and biennials , they were also either monocotyledons or dicotyledons and he also noticed the difference between determinate and indeterminate growth and details of floral structure including the degree of fusion of the petals , position of the ovary and more . These lecture notes of Theophrastus comprise the first clear exposition of the rudiments of plant anatomy , physiology , morphology and ecology — presented in a way that would not be matched for another eighteen centuries .
Meanwhile , the study of medicinal plants was not being neglected and a full synthesis of ancient Greek pharmacology was compiled in Materia Medica c . 60 AD by Pedanius Dioscorides ( c . 40 @-@ 90 AD ) who was a Greek physician with the Roman army . This work proved to be the definitive text on medicinal herbs , both oriental and occidental , for fifteen hundred years until the dawn of the European Renaissance being slavishly copied again and again throughout this period . Though rich in medicinal information with descriptions of about 600 medicinal herbs , the botanical content of the work was extremely limited .
= = = Ancient Rome = = =
The Romans contributed little to the foundations of botanical science laid by the ancient Greeks , but made a sound contribution to our knowledge of applied botany as agriculture . In works titled De Re Rustica four Roman writers contributed to a compendium Scriptores Rei Rusticae , published from the Renaissance on , which set out the principles and practice of agriculture . These authors were Cato ( 234 – 149 BC ) , Varro ( 116 – 27 BC ) and , in particular , Columella ( 4 – 70 AD ) and Palladius ( 4th century AD ) . Roman encyclopaedist Pliny the Elder ( 23 – 79 AD ) deals with plants in Books 12 to 26 of his 37 @-@ volume highly influential work Naturalis Historia in which he frequently quotes Theophrastus but with a lack of botanical insight although he does , nevertheless , draw a distinction between true botany on the one hand , and farming and medicine on the other .
It is estimated that at the time of the Roman Empire between 1300 and 1400 plants had been recorded in the West .
= = Mediaeval knowledge = =
= = = Medicinal plants of the early Middle Ages = = =
In Western Europe , after Theophrastus , botany passed through a bleak period of 1800 years when little progress was made and , indeed , many of the early insights were lost . As Europe entered the Middle Ages ( 5th to 15th centuries ) , a period of disorganised feudalism and indifference to learning , China , India and the Arab world enjoyed a golden age . Chinese philosophy had followed a similar path to that of the ancient Greeks . The Chinese dictionary @-@ encyclopaedia Erh Ya probably dates from about 300 BC and describes about 334 plants classed as trees or shrubs , each with a common name and illustration . Between 100 and 1700 AD many new works on pharmaceutical botany were produced including encyclopaedic accounts and treatises compiled for the Chinese imperial court . These were free of superstition and myth with carefully researched descriptions and nomenclature ; they included cultivation information and notes on economic and medicinal uses — and even elaborate monographs on ornamental plants . But there was no experimental method and no analysis of the plant sexual system , nutrition , or anatomy .
The 400 @-@ year period from the 9th to 13th centuries AD was the Islamic Renaissance , a time when Islamic culture and science thrived . Greco @-@ Roman texts were preserved , copied and extended although new texts always emphasised the medicinal aspects of plants . Kurdish biologist Ābu Ḥanīfah Āḥmad ibn Dawūd Dīnawarī ( 828 – 896 AD ) is known as the founder of Arabic botany ; his Kitâb al @-@ nabât ( ‘ Book of Plants ’ ) describes 637 species , discussing plant development from germination to senescence and including details of flowers and fruits . The Mutazilite philosopher and physician Ibn Sina ( Avicenna ) ( c . 980 – 1037 AD ) was another influential figure , his The Canon of Medicine being a landmark in the history of medicine treasured until the Enlightenment .
In India simple artificial plant classification systems of the Rigveda , Atharvaveda and Taittiriya Samhita became more botanical with the work of Parashara ( c . 400 – c . 500 AD ) , the author of Vṛksayurveda ( the science of life of trees ) . He made close observations of cells and leaves and divided plants into Dvimatrka ( Dicotyledons ) and Ekamatrka ( Monocotyledons ) . The dicotyledons were further classified into groupings ( ganas ) akin to modern floral families : Samiganiya ( Fabaceae ) , Puplikagalniya ( Rutaceae ) , Svastikaganiya ( Cruciferae ) , Tripuspaganiya ( Cucurbitaceae ) , Mallikaganiya ( Apocynaceae ) , and Kurcapuspaganiya ( Asteraceae ) . Important medieval Indian works of plant physiology include the Prthviniraparyam of Udayana , Nyayavindutika of Dharmottara , Saddarsana @-@ samuccaya of Gunaratna , and Upaskara of Sankaramisra .
= = = The Silk Road = = =
Following the fall of Constantinople ( 1453 ) , the newly expanded Ottoman Empire welcomed European embassies in its capital , which in turn became the sources of plants from those regions to the east which traded with the empire . In the following century twenty times as many plants entered Europe along the Silk Road as had been transported in the previous two thousand years , mainly as bulbs . Others were acquired primarily for their alleged medicinal value . Initially Italy benefited from this new knowledge , especially Venice , which traded extensively with the East . From there these new plants rapidly spread to the rest of Western Europe .
= = = The Age of Herbals = = =
In the European Middle Ages of the 15th and 16th centuries the lives of European citizens were based around agriculture but when printing arrived , with movable type and woodcut illustrations , it was not treatises on agriculture that were published , but lists of medicinal plants with descriptions of their properties or " virtues " . These first plant books , known as herbals showed that botany was still a part of medicine , as it had been for most of ancient history . Authors of herbals were often curators of university gardens , and most herbals were derivative compilations of classic texts , especially De Materia Medica . However , the need for accurate and detailed plant descriptions meant that some herbals were more botanical than medicinal . German Otto Brunfels 's ( 1464 – 1534 ) Herbarum Vivae Icones ( 1530 ) contained descriptions of about 47 species new to science combined with accurate illustrations . His fellow countryman Hieronymus Bock 's ( 1498 – 1554 ) Kreutterbuch of 1539 described plants he found in nearby woods and fields and these were illustrated in the 1546 edition . However , it was Valerius Cordus ( 1515 – 1544 ) who pioneered the formal botanical description that detailed both flowers and fruits , some anatomy including the number of chambers in the ovary , and the type of ovule placentation . He also made observations on pollen and distinguished between inflorescence types . His five @-@ volume Historia Plantarum was published about 18 years after his early death aged 29 in 1561 @-@ 1563 . In Holland Rembert Dodoens ( 1517 – 1585 ) , in Stirpium Historiae ( 1583 ) , included descriptions of many new species from the Netherlands in a scientific arrangement and in England William Turner ( 1515 – 1568 ) in his Libellus De Re Herbaria Novus ( 1538 ) published names , descriptions and localities of many native British plants .
Herbals contributed to botany by setting in train the science of plant description , classification , and botanical illustration . Up to the 17th century botany and medicine were one and the same but those books emphasising medicinal aspects eventually omitted the plant lore to become modern pharmacopoeias ; those that omitted the medicine became more botanical and evolved into the modern compilations of plant descriptions we call Floras . These were often backed by specimens deposited in a herbarium which was a collection of dried plants that verified the plant descriptions given in the Floras . The transition from herbal to Flora marked the final separation of botany from medicine .
= = The Renaissance and Age of Enlightenment ( 1550 – 1800 ) = =
The revival of learning during the European Renaissance renewed interest in plants . The church , feudal aristocracy and an increasingly influential merchant class that supported science and the arts , now jostled in a world of increasing trade . Sea voyages of exploration returned botanical treasures to the large public , private , and newly established botanic gardens , and introduced an eager population to novel crops , drugs and spices from Asia , the East Indies and the New World .
The number of scientific publications increased . In England , for example , scientific communication and causes were facilitated by learned societies like Royal Society ( founded in 1660 ) and the Linnaean Society ( founded in 1788 ) : there was also the support and activities of botanical institutions like the Jardin du Roi in Paris , Chelsea Physic Garden , Royal Botanic Gardens Kew , and the Oxford and Cambridge Botanic Gardens , as well as the influence of renowned private gardens and wealthy entrepreneurial nurserymen . By the early 17th century the number of plants described in Europe had risen to about 6000 . The 18th century Enlightenment values of reason and science coupled with new voyages to distant lands instigating another phase of encyclopaedic plant identification , nomenclature , description and illustration , " flower painting " possibly at its best in this period of history . Plant trophies from distant lands decorated the gardens of Europe 's powerful and wealthy in a period of enthusiasm for natural history , especially botany ( a preoccupation sometimes referred to as " botanophilia " ) that is never likely to recur .
During the 18th century botany was one of the few sciences considered appropriate for genteel educated women . Around 1760 , with the popularization of the Linnaean system , botany became much more widespread among educated women who painted plants , attended classes on plant classification , and collected herbarium specimens although emphasis was on the healing properties of plants rather than plant reproduction which had overtones of sexuality . Women began publishing on botanical topics and children 's books on botany appeared by authors like Charlotte Turner Smith . Cultural authorities argued that education through botany created culturally and scientifically aware citizens , part of the thrust for ' improvement ' that characterised the Enlightenment . However , in the early 19th century with the recognition of botany as an official science women were again excluded from the discipline .
= = = Botanical gardens and herbaria = = =
Public and private gardens have always been strongly associated with the historical unfolding of botanical science . Early botanical gardens were physic gardens , repositories for the medicinal plants described in the herbals . As they were generally associated with universities or other academic institutions the plants were also used for study . The directors of these gardens were eminent physicians with an educational role as " scientific gardeners " and it was staff of these institutions that produced many of the published herbals .
The botanical gardens of the modern tradition were established in northern Italy , the first being at Pisa ( 1544 ) , founded by Luca Ghini ( 1490 – 1556 ) . Although part of a medical faculty , the first chair of materia medica , essentially a chair in botany , was established in Padua in 1533 . Then in 1534 , Ghini became Reader in materia medica at Bologna University , where Aldrovandi established a similar garden in 1568 ( see below ) . Collections of pressed and dried specimens were called a hortus siccus ( garden of dry plants ) and the first accumulation of plants in this way ( including the use of a plant press ) is attributed to Ghini . Buildings called herbaria housed these specimens mounted on card with descriptive labels . Stored in cupboards in systematic order they could be preserved in perpetuity and easily transferred or exchanged with other institutions , a taxonomic procedure that is still used today .
By the 18th century the physic gardens had been transformed into " order beds " that demonstrated the classification systems that were being devised by botanists of the day — but they also had to accommodate the influx of curious , beautiful and new plants pouring in from voyages of exploration that were associated with European colonial expansion .
= = = From Herbal to Flora = = =
Plant classification systems of the 17th and 18th centuries now related plants to one another and not to man , marking a return to the non @-@ anthropocentric botanical science promoted by Theophrastus over 1500 years before . In England , various herbals in either Latin or English were mainly compilations and translations of continental European works , of limited relevance to the British Isles . This included the rather unreliable work of Gerard ( 1597 ) . The first systematic attempt to collect information on British plants was that of Thomas Johnson ( 1629 ) , who was later to issue his own revision of Gerard 's work ( 1633 – 1636 ) .
However Johnson was not the first apothecary or physician to organise botanical expeditions to systematise their local flora . In Italy Ulysse Aldrovandi ( 1522 – 1605 ) organised an expedition to the Sibylline mountains in Umbria in 1557 , and compiled a local Flora . He then began to disseminate his findings amongst other European scholars , forming an early network of knowledge sharing " molti amici in molti luoghi " ( many friends in many places ) , including Charles de l 'Écluse ( Clusius ) ( 1526 – 1609 ) at Montpellier and Jean de Brancion at Malines . Between them they started developing Latin names for plants , in addition to their common names . The exchange of information and specimens between scholars was often associated with the founding of botanical gardens ( above ) , and to this end Aldrovandi founded one of the earliest at his university in Bologna , the Orto Botanico di Bologna in 1568 .
In France , Clusius journeyed throughout most of Western Europe , making discoveries in the vegetable kingdom along the way . He compiled Flora of Spain ( 1576 ) , and Austria and Hungary ( 1583 ) . He was the first to propose dividing plants into classes . Meanwhile , in Switzerland , from 1554 , Conrad Gessner ( 1516 – 1565 ) made regular explorations of the Swiss Alps from his native Zurich and discovered many new plants . He proposed that there were groups or genera of plants . He said that each genus was composed of many species and that these were defined by similar flowers and fruits . This principle of organization laid the groundwork for future botanists . He wrote his important Historia Plantarum shortly before his death . At Malines , in Flanders he established and maintained the botanical gardens of Jean de Brancion from 1568 to 1573 , and first encountered tulips .
This approach coupled with the new Linnaean system of binomial nomenclature resulted in plant encyclopaedias without medicinal information called Floras that meticulously described and illustrated the plants growing in particular regions . The 17th century also marked the beginning of experimental botany and application of a rigorous scientific method , while improvements in the microscope launched the new discipline of plant anatomy whose foundations , laid by the careful observations of Englishman Nehemiah Grew and Italian Marcello Malpighi , would last for 150 years .
= = = Botanical exploration = = =
More new lands were opening up to European colonial powers , the botanical riches being returned to European botanists for description . This was a romantic era of botanical explorers , intrepid plant hunters and gardener @-@ botanists . Significant botanical collections came from : the West Indies ( Hans Sloane ( 1660 – 1753 ) ) ; China ( James Cunningham ) ; the spice islands of the East Indies ( Moluccas , George Rumphius ( 1627 – 1702 ) ) ; China and Mozambique ( João de Loureiro ( 1717 – 1791 ) ) ; West Africa ( Michel Adanson ( 1727 – 1806 ) ) who devised his own classification scheme and forwarded a crude theory of the mutability of species ; Canada , Hebrides , Iceland , New Zealand by Captain James Cook 's chief botanist Joseph Banks ( 1743 – 1820 ) .
= = = Classification and morphology = = =
By the middle of the 18th century the botanical booty resulting from the era of exploration was accumulating in gardens and herbaria – and it needed to be systematically catalogued . This was the task of the taxonomists , the plant classifiers .
Plant classifications have changed over time from " artificial " systems based on general habit and form , to pre @-@ evolutionary " natural " systems expressing similarity using one to many characters , leading to post @-@ evolutionary " natural " systems that use characters to infer evolutionary relationships .
Italian physician Andrea Caesalpino ( 1519 – 1603 ) studied medicine and taught botany at the University of Pisa for about 40 years eventually becoming Director of the Botanic Garden of Pisa from 1554 to 1558 . His sixteen @-@ volume De Plantis ( 1583 ) described 1500 plants and his herbarium of 260 pages and 768 mounted specimens still remains . Caesalpino proposed classes based largely on the detailed structure of the flowers and fruit ; he also applied the concept of the genus . He was the first to try and derive principles of natural classification reflecting the overall similarities between plants and he produced a classification scheme well in advance of its day . Gaspard Bauhin ( 1560 – 1624 ) produced two influential publications Prodromus Theatrici Botanici ( 1620 ) and Pinax ( 1623 ) . These brought order to the 6000 species now described and in the latter he used binomials and synonyms that may well have influenced Linnaeus 's thinking . He also insisted that taxonomy should be based on natural affinities .
To sharpen the precision of description and classification Joachim Jung ( 1587 – 1657 ) compiled a much @-@ needed botanical terminology which has stood the test of time . English botanist John Ray ( 1623 – 1705 ) built on Jung 's work to establish the most elaborate and insightful classification system of the day . His observations started with the local plants of Cambridge where he lived , with the Catalogus Stirpium circa Cantabrigiam Nascentium ( 1860 ) which later expanded to his Synopsis Methodica Stirpium Britannicarum , essentially the first British Flora . Although his Historia Plantarum ( 1682 , 1688 , 1704 ) provided a step towards a world Flora as he included more and more plants from his travels , first on the continent and then beyond . He extended Caesalpino 's natural system with a more precise definition of the higher classification levels , deriving many modern families in the process , and asserted that all parts of plants were important in classification . He recognised that variation arises from both internal ( genotypic ) and external environmental ( phenotypic ) causes and that only the former was of taxonomic significance . He was also among the first experimental physiologists . The Historia Plantarum can be regarded as the first botanical synthesis and textbook for modern botany . According to botanical historian Alan Morton , Ray " influenced both the theory and the practice of botany more decisively than any other single person in the latter half of the seventeenth century " . Ray 's family system was later extended by Pierre Magnol ( 1638 – 1715 ) and Joseph de Tournefort ( 1656 – 1708 ) , a student of Magnol , achieved notoriety for his botanical expeditions , his emphasis on floral characters in classification , and for reviving the idea of the genus as the basic unit of classification .
Above all it was Swedish Carl Linnaeus ( 1707 – 1778 ) who eased the task of plant cataloguing . He adopted a sexual system of classification using stamens and pistils as important characters . Among his most important publications were Systema Naturae ( 1735 ) , Genera Plantarum ( 1737 ) , and Philosophia Botanica ( 1751 ) but it was in his Species Plantarum ( 1753 ) that he gave every species a binomial thus setting the path for the future accepted method of designating the names of all organisms . Linnaean thought and books dominated the world of taxonomy for nearly a century . His sexual system was later elaborated by Bernard de Jussieu ( 1699 – 1777 ) whose nephew Antoine @-@ Laurent de Jussieu ( 1748 – 1836 ) extended it yet again to include about 100 orders ( present @-@ day families ) . Frenchman Michel Adanson ( 1727 – 1806 ) in his Familles des Plantes ( 1763 , 1764 ) , apart from extending the current system of family names , emphasized that a natural classification must be based on a consideration of all characters , even though these may later be given different emphasis according to their diagnostic value for the particular plant group . Adanson 's method has , in essence , been followed to this day .
18th century plant taxonomy bequeathed to the 19th century a precise binomial nomenclature and botanical terminology , a system of classification based on natural affinities , and a clear idea of the ranks of family , genus and species — although the taxa to be placed within these ranks remains , as always , the subject of taxonomic research .
= = = Anatomy = = =
In the first half of the 18th century botany was beginning to move beyond descriptive science into experimental science . Although the microscope was invented in 1590 it was only in the late 17th century that lens grinding by Antony van Leeuwenhoek provided the resolution needed to make major discoveries . Important general biological observations were made by Robert Hooke ( 1635 – 1703 ) but the foundations of plant anatomy were laid by Italian Marcello Malpighi ( 1628 – 1694 ) of the University of Bologna in his Anatome Plantarum ( 1675 ) and Royal Society Englishman Nehemiah Grew ( 1628 – 1711 ) in his The Anatomy of Plants Begun ( 1671 ) and Anatomy of Plants ( 1682 ) . These botanists explored what is now called developmental anatomy and morphology by carefully observing , describing and drawing the developmental transition from seed to mature plant , recording stem and wood formation . This work included the discovery and naming of parenchyma and stomata .
= = = Physiology = = =
In plant physiology research interest was focused on the movement of sap and the absorption of substances through the roots . Jan Helmont ( 1577 – 1644 ) by experimental observation and calculation , noted that the increase in weight of a growing plant cannot be derived purely from the soil , and concluded it must relate to water uptake . Englishman Stephen Hales ( 1677 – 1761 ) established by quantitative experiment that there is uptake of water by plants and a loss of water by transpiration and that this is influenced by environmental conditions : he distinguished " root pressure " , " leaf suction " and " imbibition " and also noted that the major direction of sap flow in woody tissue is upward . His results were published in Vegetable Staticks ( 1727 ) He also noted that " air makes a very considerable part of the substance of vegetables " . English chemist Joseph Priestley ( 1733 – 1804 ) is noted for his discovery of oxygen ( as now called ) and its production by plants . Later Jan Ingenhousz ( 1730 – 1799 ) observed that only in sunlight do the green parts of plants absorb air and release oxygen , this being more rapid in bright sunlight while , at night , the air ( CO2 ) is released from all parts . His results were published in Experiments upon vegetables ( 1779 ) and with this the foundations for 20th century studies of carbon fixation were laid . From his observations he sketched the cycle of carbon in nature even though the composition of carbon dioxide was yet to be resolved . Studies in plant nutrition had also progressed . In 1804 Nicolas @-@ Théodore de Saussure 's ( 1767 – 1845 ) Recherches Chimiques sur la Végétation was an exemplary study of scientific exactitude that demonstrated the similarity of respiration in both plants and animals , that the fixation of carbon dioxide includes water , and that just minute amounts of salts and nutrients ( which he analysed in chemical detail from plant ash ) have a powerful influence on plant growth .
= = = Plant sexuality = = =
It was Rudolf Camerarius ( 1665 – 1721 ) who was the first to establish plant sexuality conclusively by experiment . He declared in a letter to a colleague dated 1694 and titled De Sexu Plantarum Epistola that " no ovules of plants could ever develop into seeds from the female style and ovary without first being prepared by the pollen from the stamens , the male sexual organs of the plant " .
Much was learned about plant sexuality by unravelling the reproductive mechanisms of mosses , liverworts and algae . In his Vergleichende Untersuchungen of 1851 Wilhelm Hofmeister ( 1824 – 1877 ) starting with the ferns and bryophytes demonstrated that the process of sexual reproduction in plants entails an " alternation of generations " between sporophytes and gametophytes . This initiated the new field of comparative morphology which , largely through the combined work of William Farlow ( 1844 – 1919 ) , Nathanael Pringsheim ( 1823 – 1894 ) , Frederick Bower , Eduard Strasburger and others , established that an " alternation of generations " occurs throughout the plant kingdom .
Some time later the German academic and natural historian Joseph Kölreuter ( 1733 – 1806 ) extended this work by noting the function of nectar in attracting pollinators and the role of wind and insects in pollination . He also produced deliberate hybrids , observed the microscopic structure of pollen grains and how the transfer of matter from the pollen to the ovary inducing the formation of the embryo .
One hundred years after Camerarius , in 1793 , Christian Sprengel ( 1750 – 1816 ) broadened the understanding of flowers by describing the role of nectar guides in pollination , the adaptive floral mechanisms used for pollination , and the prevalence of cross @-@ pollination , even though male and female parts are usually together on the same flower .
= = Nineteenth @-@ century foundations of modern botany = =
In about the mid @-@ 19th century scientific communication changed . Until this time ideas were largely exchanged by reading the works of authoritative individuals who dominated in their field : these were often wealthy and influential " gentlemen scientists " . Now research was reported by the publication of " papers " that emanated from research " schools " that promoted the questioning of conventional wisdom . This process had started in the late 18th century when specialist journals began to appear . Even so , botany was greatly stimulated by the appearance of the first " modern " textbook , Matthias Schleiden 's ( 1804 – 1881 ) Grundzüge der Wissenschaftlichen Botanik , published in English in 1849 as Principles of Scientific Botany . By 1850 an invigorated organic chemistry had revealed the structure of many plant constituents . Although the great era of plant classification had now passed the work of description continued . Augustin de Candolle ( 1778 – 1841 ) succeeded Antoine @-@ Laurent de Jussieu in managing the botanical project Prodromus Systematis Naturalis Regni Vegetabilis ( 1824 – 1841 ) which involved 35 authors : it contained all the dicotyledons known in his day , some 58000 species in 161 families , and he doubled the number of recognized plant families , the work being completed by his son Alphonse ( 1806 – 1893 ) in the years from 1841 to 1873 .
= = = Plant geography and ecology = = =
The opening of the 19th century was marked by an increase in interest in the connection between climate and plant distribution . Carl Willdenow ( 1765 – 1812 ) examined the connection between seed dispersal and distribution , the nature of plant associations and the impact of geological history . He noticed the similarities between the floras of N America and N Asia , the Cape and Australia , and he explored the ideas of " centre of diversity " and " centre of origin " . German Alexander von Humboldt ( 1769 – 1859 ) and Frenchman Aime Bonpland ( 1773 – 1858 ) published a massive and highly influential 30 volume work on their travels ; Robert Brown ( 1773 – 1852 ) noted the similarities between the floras of S Africa , Australia and India , while Joakim Schouw ( 1789 – 1852 ) explored more deeply than anyone else the influence on plant distribution of temperature , soil factors , especially soil water , and light , work that was continued by Alphonse de Candolle ( 1806 – 1893 ) . Joseph Hooker ( 1817 – 1911 ) pushed the boundaries of floristic studies with his work on Antarctica , India and the Middle East with special attention to endemism . August Grisebach ( 1814 – 1879 ) in Die Vegetation der Erde ( 1872 ) examined physiognomy in relation to climate and in America geographic studies were pioneered by Asa Gray ( 1810 – 1888 ) .
Physiological plant geography , perhaps more familiarly termed ecology , emerged from floristic biogeography in the late 19th century as environmental influences on plants received greater recognition . Early work in this area was synthesised by Danish professor Eugenius Warming ( 1841 – 1924 ) in his book Plantesamfund ( Ecology of Plants , generally taken to mark the beginning of modern ecology ) including new ideas on plant communities , their adaptations and environmental influences . This was followed by another grand synthesis , the Pflanzengeographie auf Physiologischer Grundlage of Andreas Schimper ( 1856 – 1901 ) in 1898 ( published in English in 1903 as Plant @-@ geography upon a physiological basis translated by W. R. Fischer , Oxford : Clarendon press , 839 pp . )
= = = Anatomy = = =
During the 19th century German scientists led the way towards a unitary theory of the structure and life @-@ cycle of plants . Following improvements in the microscope at the end of the 18th century , Charles Mirbel ( 1776 – 1854 ) in 1802 published his Traité d 'Anatomie et de Physiologie Végétale and Johann Moldenhawer ( 1766 – 1827 ) published Beyträge zur Anatomie der Pflanzen ( 1812 ) in which he describes techniques for separating cells from the middle lamella . He identified vascular and parenchymatous tissues , described vascular bundles , observed the cells in the cambium , and interpreted tree rings . He found that stomata were composed of pairs of cells , rather than a single cell with a hole .
Anatomical studies on the stele were consolidated by Carl Sanio ( 1832 – 1891 ) who described the secondary tissues and meristem including cambium and its action . Hugo von Mohl ( 1805 – 1872 ) summarized work in anatomy leading up to 1850 in Die Vegetabilische Zelle ( 1851 ) but this work was later eclipsed by the encyclopaedic comparative anatomy of Heinrich Anton de Bary in 1877 . An overview of knowledge of the stele in root and stem was completed by Van Tieghem ( 1839 – 1914 ) and of the meristem by Karl Nägeli ( 1817 – 1891 ) . Studies had also begun on the origins of the carpel and flower that continue to the present day .
= = = Water relations = = =
The riddle of water and nutrient transport through the plant remained . Physiologist Von Mohl explored solute transport and the theory of water uptake by the roots using the concepts of cohesion , transpirational pull , capillarity and root pressure . German dominance in the field of physiology was underlined by the publication of the definitive textbook on plant physiology synthesising the work of this period , Sach 's Vorlesungen über Pflanzenphysiologie of 1882 . There were , however , some advances elsewhere such as the early exploration of geotropism ( the effect of gravity on growth ) by Englishman Thomas Knight , and the discovery and naming of osmosis by Frenchman Henri Dutrochet ( 1776 – 1847 ) .
= = = Cytology = = =
The cell nucleus was discovered by Robert Brown in 1831 . Demonstration of the cellular composition of all organisms , with each cell possessing all the characteristics of life , is attributed to the combined efforts of botanist Matthias Schleiden and zoologist Theodor Schwann ( 1810 – 1882 ) in the early 19th century although Moldenhawer had already shown that plants were wholly cellular with each cell having its own wall and Julius von Sachs had shown the continuity protoplasm between cell walls .
From 1870 to 1880 it became clear that cell nuclei are never formed anew but always derived from the substance of another nucleus . In 1882 Flemming observed the longitudinal splitting of chromosomes in the dividing nucleus and concluded that each daughter nucleus received half of each of the chromosomes of the mother nucleus : then by the early 20th century it was found that the number of chromosomes in a given species is constant . With genetic continuity confirmed and the finding by Eduard Strasburger that the nuclei of reproductive cells ( in pollen and embryo ) have a reducing division ( halving of chromosomes , now known as meiosis ) the field of heredity was opened up . By 1926 Thomas Morgan was able to outline a theory of the gene and its structure and function . The form and function of plastids received similar attention , the association with starch being noted at an early date . With observation of the cellular structure of all organisms and the process of cell division and continuity of genetic material , the analysis of the structure of protoplasm and the cell wall as well as that of plastids and vacuoles – what is now known as cytology , or cell theory became firmly established .
Later , the cytological basis of the gene @-@ chromosome theory of heredity extended from about 1900 – 1944 and was initiated by the rediscovery of Gregor Mendel 's ( 1822 – 1884 ) laws of plant heredity first published in 1866 in Experiments on Plant Hybridization and based on cultivated pea , Pisum sativum : this heralded the opening up of plant genetics . The cytological basis for gene @-@ chromosome theory was explored through the role of polyploidy and hybridization in speciation and it was becoming better understood that interbreeding populations were the unit of adaptive change in biology .
= = = Developmental morphology and evolution = = =
Until the 1860s it was believed that species had remained unchanged through time : each biological form was the result of an independent act of creation and therefore absolutely distinct and immutable . But the hard reality of geological formations and strange fossils needed scientific explanation . Charles Darwin 's Origin of Species ( 1859 ) replaced the assumption of constancy with the theory of descent with modification . Phylogeny became a new principle as " natural " classifications became classifications reflecting , not just similarities , but evolutionary relationships . Wilhelm Hofmeister established that there was a similar pattern of organization in all plants expressed through the alternation of generations and extensive homology of structures .
Polymath German intellect Johann Goethe ( 1749 – 1832 ) had interests and influence that extended into botany . In Die Metamorphose der Pflanzen ( 1790 ) he provided a theory of plant morphology ( he coined the word " morphology " ) and he included within his concept of " metamorphosis " modification during evolution , thus linking comparative morphology with phylogeny . Though the botanical basis of his work has been challenged there is no doubt that he prompted discussion and research on the origin and function of floral parts . His theory probably stimulated the opposing views of German botanists Alexander Braun ( 1805 – 1877 ) and Matthias Schleiden who applied the experimental method to the principles of growth and form that were later extended by Augustin de Candolle ( 1778 – 1841 ) .
= = = Carbon fixation ( photosynthesis ) = = =
At the start of the 19th century the idea that plants could synthesise almost all their tissues from atmospheric gases had not yet emerged . The energy component of photosynthesis , the capture and storage of the Sun 's radiant energy in carbon bonds ( a process on which all life depends ) was first elucidated in 1847 by Mayer , but the details of how this was done would take many more years . Chlorophyll was named in 1818 and its chemistry gradually determined , to be finally resolved in the early 20th century . The mechanism of photosynthesis remained a mystery until the mid @-@ 19th century when Sachs , in 1862 , noted that starch was formed in green cells only in the presence of light and in 1882 he confirmed carbohydrates as the starting point for all other organic compounds in plants . The connection between the pigment chlorophyll and starch production was finally made in 1864 but tracing the precise biochemical pathway of starch formation did not begin until about 1915 .
= = = Nitrogen fixation = = =
Significant discoveries relating to nitrogen assimilation and metabolism , including ammonification , nitrification and nitrogen fixation ( the uptake of atmospheric nitrogen by symbiotic soil microorganisms ) had to wait for advances in chemistry and bacteriology in the late 19th century and this was followed in the early 20th century by the elucidation of protein and amino @-@ acid synthesis and their role in plant metabolism . With this knowledge it was then possible to outline the global nitrogen cycle .
= = Twentieth century = =
20th century science grew out of the solid foundations laid by the breadth of vision and detailed experimental observations of the 19th century . A vastly increased research force was now rapidly extending the horizons of botanical knowledge at all levels of plant organization from molecules to global plant ecology . There was now an awareness of the unity of biological structure and function at the cellular and biochemical levels of organisation . Botanical advance was closely associated with advances in physics and chemistry with the greatest advances in the 20th century mainly relating to the penetration of molecular organization . However , at the level of plant communities it would take until mid century to consolidate work on ecology and population genetics . By 1910 experiments using labelled isotopes were being used to elucidate plant biochemical pathways , to open the line of research leading to gene technology . On a more practical level research funding was now becoming available from agriculture and industry .
= = = Molecules = = =
In 1903 Chlorophylls a and b were separated by thin layer chromatography then , through the 1920s and 1930s , biochemists , notably Hans Krebs ( 1900 – 1981 ) and Carl ( 1896 – 1984 ) and Gerty Cori ( 1896 – 1957 ) began tracing out the central metabolic pathways of life . Between the 1930s and 1950s it was determined that ATP , located in mitochondria , was the source of cellular chemical energy and the constituent reactions of photosynthesis were progressively revealed . Then , in 1944 DNA was extracted for the first time . Along with these revelations there was the discovery of plant hormones or " growth substances " , notably auxins , ( 1934 ) gibberellins ( 1934 ) and cytokinins ( 1964 ) and the effects of photoperiodism , the control of plant processes , especially flowering , by the relative lengths of day and night .
Following the establishment of Mendel 's laws , the gene @-@ chromosome theory of heredity was confirmed by the work of August Weismann who identified chromosomes as the hereditary material . Also , in observing the halving of the chromosome number in germ cells he anticipated work to follow on the details of meiosis , the complex process of redistribution of hereditary material that occurs in the germ cells . In the 1920s and 1930s population genetics combined the theory of evolution with Mendelian genetics to produce the modern synthesis . By the mid @-@ 1960s the molecular basis of metabolism and reproduction was firmly established through the new discipline of molecular biology . Genetic engineering , the insertion of genes into a host cell for cloning , began in the 1970s with the invention of recombinant DNA techniques and its commercial applications applied to agricultural crops followed in the 1990s . There was now the potential to identify organisms by molecular " fingerprinting " and to estimate the times in the past when critical evolutionary changes had occurred through the use of " molecular clocks " .
= = = Computers , electron microscopes and evolution = = =
Increased experimental precision combined with vastly improved scientific instrumentation was opening up exciting new fields . In 1936 Alexander Oparin ( 1894 – 1980 ) demonstrated a possible mechanism for the synthesis of organic matter from inorganic molecules . In the 1960s it was determined that the Earth 's earliest life @-@ forms treated as plants , the cyanobacteria known as stromatolites , dated back some 3 @.@ 5 billion years .
Mid @-@ century transmission and scanning electron microscopy presented another level of resolution to the structure of matter , taking anatomy into the new world of " ultrastructure " .
New and revised " phylogenetic " classification systems of the plant kingdom were produced , perhaps the most notable being that of August Eichler ( 1839 – 1887 ) , and the massive 23 volume Die natürlichen Pflanzenfamilien of Adolf Engler ( 1844 – 1930 ) & Karl Prantl ( 1849 – 1893 ) published over the period 1887 and 1915 . Taxonomy based on gross morphology was now being supplemented by using characters revealed by pollen morphology , embryology , anatomy , cytology , serology , macromolecules and more . The introduction of computers facilitated the rapid analysis of large data sets used for numerical taxonomy ( also called taximetrics or phenetics ) . The emphasis on truly natural phylogenies spawned the disciplines of cladistics and phylogenetic systematics . The grand taxonomic synthesis An Integrated System of Classification of Flowering Plants ( 1981 ) of American Arthur Cronquist ( 1919 – 1992 ) was superseded when , in 1998 , the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group published a phylogeny of flowering plants based on the analysis of DNA sequences using the techniques of the new molecular systematics which was resolving questions concerning the earliest evolutionary branches of the angiosperms ( flowering plants ) . The exact relationship of fungi to plants had for some time been uncertain . Several lines of evidence pointed to fungi being different from plants , animals and bacteria – indeed , more closely related to animals than plants . In the 1980s @-@ 90s molecular analysis revealed an evolutionary divergence of fungi from other organisms about 1 billion years ago – sufficient reason to erect a unique kingdom separate from plants .
= = = Biogeography and ecology = = =
The publication of Alfred Wegener 's ( 1880 – 1930 ) theory of continental drift 1912 gave additional impetus to comparative physiology and the study of biogeography while ecology in the 1930s contributed the important ideas of plant community , succession , community change , and energy flows . From 1940 to 1950 ecology matured to become an independent discipline as Eugene Odum ( 1913 – 2002 ) formulated many of the concepts of ecosystem ecology , emphasising relationships between groups of organisms ( especially material and energy relationships ) as key factors in the field . Building on the extensive earlier work of Alphonse de Candolle , Nikolai Vavilov ( 1887 – 1943 ) from 1914 to 1940 produced accounts of the geography , centres of origin , and evolutionary history of economic plants .
= = Twenty @-@ first century = =
In reviewing the sweep of botanical history it is evident that , through the power of the scientific method , most of the basic questions concerning the structure and function of plants have , in principle , been resolved . Now the distinction between pure and applied botany becomes blurred as our historically accumulated botanical wisdom at all levels of plant organisation is needed ( but especially at the molecular and global levels ) to improve human custodianship of planet earth . The most urgent unanswered botanical questions now relate to the role of plants as primary producers in the global cycling of life 's basic ingredients : energy , carbon , hydrogen , oxygen , and nitrogen , and ways that our plant stewardship can help address the global environmental issues of resource management , conservation , human food security , biologically invasive organisms , carbon sequestration , climate change , and sustainability .
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= Turf Moor =
Turf Moor is an association football stadium in Burnley , Lancashire , England . It is the home ground of Premier League club Burnley Football Club , who have played there since moving from its Calder Vale ground in 1883 . The stadium , which is situated on Harry Potts Way , named so after the club 's longest serving Manager , has a capacity of 21 @,@ 401 , all seated . It was one of the last remaining stadiums in England to have the players ' tunnel and dressing rooms behind one of the goals , until it was covered for seating in time for the 2014 @-@ 15 Premier League season and rebuilt between the David Fishwick and James Hargreaves stand . The ground originally consisted of just a pitch and the first grandstand was not built until 1885 . Six years after this , the " Star " stand was erected and terracing was later added to the ends of the ground . After the Second World War , the stadium was redeveloped with all four stands being rebuilt . During the 1990s , the ground underwent further refurbishment when the Longside and Bee Hole End terraces were replaced by all @-@ seater stands . Currently , the four stands at Turf Moor are the James Hargreaves Stand , the Jimmy McIlroy Stand , the Bob Lord Stand and the Cricket Field Stand .
Burnley played their first match at the ground on 17 February 1883 , losing 3 – 6 to local side Rawtenstall . When Prince Albert Victor opened a new hospital in Burnley in 1886 , Turf Moor became the first football ground to be visited by a member of the British Royal Family . The first Football League match at the ground took place on 6 October 1888 , with Fred Poland scoring the first competitive goal at the stadium . The record attendance at Turf Moor was set in 1924 when 54 @,@ 755 people attended an FA Cup tie between Burnley and Huddersfield Town . In the same year , Turf Moor hosted its only FA Cup semi @-@ final to date . In 1927 , the stadium was the venue of an international match between England and Wales . Since then , the ground has been used to host matches in the European Under @-@ 19 Championship and European Under @-@ 21 Championship fixtures .
In 2007 , plans for expansion of Turf Moor were released to the public . The Burnley directors proposed a major development of the stadium , costing £ 20 million . The plans , which would incorporate the rebuilding of the Cricket Field Stand and the moving of the players ' entrance tunnel , have been put on hold until the current financial climate improves . In 2009 , following Burnley 's promotion to the Premier League , the development of a second tier on the Bob Lord stand was announced . Director Paul Fletcher stated that the anticipated capacity of Turf Moor would eventually be 28 @,@ 000 to cope with extra fans . However following the club 's relegation from the Premier League in 2010 , these plans were put on hold indefinitely .
After again achieving promotion to the Premier League in 2014 further Ground renovations were undertaken to comply with new regulations include housing for International Media , relocation of the players tunnel and upgrades to seating in the David Fishwick Stand for away supporters . On 26 June 2014 the club unveiled a planning application for extensions to the Turf Moor front entrance including the rebuilding of the official Club Shop containing a first floor museum .
= = History = =
Sport was first played at the Turf Moor site in 1833 , when Burnley Cricket Club was founded and made the ground their home . Horse racing also took place at the site in 1840 . In 1883 , the cricket club invited Burnley Football Club , which had been formed in 1882 , to move from their original home at Calder Vale to a football pitch adjacent to the cricket field . The first football match at Turf Moor took place on 17 February 1883 , when Burnley were defeated 3 – 6 by Rawtenstall . Attendances at Turf Moor during the early years averaged at around 2 @,@ 000 , although a crowd of 12 @,@ 000 descended on the stadium on 29 March 1884 to see Burnley lose 2 – 4 to local rivals Padiham . For the first two years , spectators were forced to congregate around the pitch , so in 1885 the club built an 800 @-@ seater wooden grandstand along the Brunshaw Road side ( the south side ) of the ground and installed terracing for 5 @,@ 000 people at the ends of the pitch . The following year , Turf Moor became the first senior football ground to be visited by a member of the British Royal Family when Prince Albert Victor saw Burnley defeated 3 – 4 by Bolton Wanderers on 13 October 1886 , while visiting the town to open a new hospital .
Turf Moor hosted its first Football League match on 6 October 1888 , when Burnley won 4 – 1 against Bolton Wanderers . Five minutes into the game , Burnley centre forward Fred Poland scored the first ever league goal at the ground . In 1891 the Burnley Union Star Football Club disbanded , abandoning their Rakehead ground , which was complete with its own grandstand . Burnley bought the stand and moved it to Turf Moor . It became known as the " Star " stand and was erected on the site of the current James Hargreaves Stand , on the north side of the ground . In March of the same year , Turf Moor hosted its first floodlit football match . Sixteen creosote @-@ fuelled lamps were placed at regular intervals along the sides of the pitch , and spectators reported that while the edges of the field were sufficiently lit , there was a dark area in the centre . Burnley won the match , beating Nelson 4 – 2 in front of a crowd of 3 @,@ 000 people .
On 26 March 1898 , Turf Moor saw a crowd of over 20 @,@ 000 for the first time for Burnley 's FA Cup Third Round tie against Everton . The " Star " stand was demolished in 1898 and replaced by a new , larger stand , although it was still referred to as the " Stars " stand . Five years later , a second tier was built on the Brunshaw Road stand to accommodate club offices and in September 1903 , Turf Moor was able to host the club 's annual general meeting for the first time . In March 1909 the " Star " stand was extended , with new turnstiles and barricades erected in preparation for the FA Cup Quarter Final against reigning league champions Manchester United . In the spring of 1911 , plans were unveiled for the rebuilding of the Brunshaw Road stand , with former Burnley forward Arthur Bell the architect for the project . A strike amongst railway workers delayed the deliveries of steelwork for the new roof but spectators were still able to use the stand in time for Burnley 's first home league game of the 1911 – 12 season . However , work on the dressing rooms had not been completed , and players from both teams were forced to change in the adjoining cricket pavilion . The newly erected Brunshaw Road stand cost the club £ 5 @,@ 000 ( £ 459 @,@ 000 as of 2016 ) and could accommodate over 5 @,@ 500 spectators , including 2 @,@ 200 seated places , increasing the capacity of Turf Moor to just under 41 @,@ 000 .
In 1913 the Burnley directors decided to demolish the " Star " stand for a second time , just 15 years after it had been rebuilt . In the same year , the Brunshaw Road stand was further extended to run the whole length of the pitch and in 1914 a roof was constructed to cover the terracing at the Cricket Field end , thus increasing the capacity of the ground to almost 50 @,@ 000 . In 1922 , Turf Moor hosted its only FA Cup Semi Final ; a crowd of over 46 @,@ 000 turned out to see Huddersfield Town achieve a 3 – 1 victory over Notts County . On 23 February 1924 , a crowd of over 50 @,@ 000 saw Burnley secure a 1 – 0 win over Huddersfield Town in the FA Cup Third Round . The attendance was later confirmed to be 54 @,@ 775 , which is still a record for Burnley . In 1927 , Turf Moor hosted its only international fixture when England played Wales . England lost the match 2 – 1 , with Burnley captain Jack Hill scoring an own goal to give Wales the win . In 1932 , the Burnley Supporters ' Club raised funds to install a hut and scoreboard at the Bee Hole End of the ground . Six years later , plans were announced to build a new covered terrace on the site of the old " Stars " stand , but these plans were delayed by the outbreak of the Second World War .
The plans came to fruition after the war , and the Longside was completed in 1954 . The club spent £ 20 @,@ 000 ( £ 494 @,@ 000 as of 2016 ) on the roof alone and the terrace was built using help from players in the Burnley youth team . Three years later , the club also installed permanent floodlights at Turf Moor . The lights were first used on 16 December 1957 , when Burnley hosted rivals Blackburn Rovers in a friendly . On 16 November 1960 , the stadium was the venue of Burnley 's first ever match in the European Cup . Jimmy Robson and Jimmy McIlroy both scored early in the first half as Burnley recorded a 2 – 0 victory over Stade de Reims . During the late 1960s , in an effort to prevent supporters from throwing missiles , a section of the Bee Hole End terrace immediately behind the goal was fenced off . In 1969 , a new , bigger stand was built at a cost of £ 180 @,@ 000 ( £ 2 @.@ 67 million as of 2016 ) at the Cricket Field End that incorporated changing rooms and a players ' tunnel , which had previously been a part of the Brunshaw Road stand . Under @-@ seat heating was installed in the Cricket Field End , but after the first time it was used , chairman Bob Lord deemed it uneconomical and expensive , and it was never again switched on .
Redevelopment continued at Turf Moor and later in the early 1970s , the Bee Hole End terrace was extended . The new extension had a capacity of over 7 @,@ 000 and despite having no roof , it was very popular among supporters . In 1974 , Bob Lord hired Cambridge Soil Services to relay the Turf Moor pitch , and the work also incorporated new drainage technology and under @-@ soil heating . The pitch was raised and the slope that been ever @-@ present since the club had arrived at Turf Moor was removed . He then replaced the Brunshaw Road Stand with a new all @-@ seater stand named after himself , which was opened in 1974 by then @-@ prime minister Edward Heath . The stand held 2 @,@ 800 supporters , cost £ 480 @,@ 000 ( £ 4 @.@ 51 million as of 2016 ) and contained the board room and a number of luxurious seats for Burnley 's and visiting clubs ' directors . During the early 1970s , the total capacity increased from 32 @,@ 000 to 38 @,@ 000 . In 1975 , the floodlights that had been installed in 1957 were replaced . On 13 May 1983 , Turf Moor was chosen to host a match between Czechoslovakia and West Germany during the 1983 UEFA European Under @-@ 19 Football Championship .
A tragedy occurred at the stadium in March 1992 when 17 @-@ year @-@ old apprentice footballer Ben Lee was killed in a fall from the roof of the Longside Stand , when trying to retrieve a football .
Following the installation of the floodlights , Turf Moor did not undergo any further changes until the mid @-@ 1990s . After the Taylor Report had stated that all grounds must become all @-@ seater stadia , the Longside 's and Bee Hole End 's days were numbered , and in December 1994 the club announced the redevelopment of the two standing areas . In 1995 , Lincolnshire @-@ based company Linpave were contracted to build two new stands at Turf Moor . In June 1995 , Turf Moor hosted a match between England U21 and Latvia U21 in the qualifying campaign for the 1996 UEFA European Under @-@ 21 Football Championship . On 16 September 1995 , the last ever match was played in front of the historic Longside when Burnley won 2 – 1 against Hull City in a Second Division fixture . The Longside , which had housed both home and away supporters , was subsequently demolished and the James Hargreaves Stand , for home fans only , was built in its place . The new stand opened on 23 April 1996 for the visit of Bristol Rovers . The following day , demolition of the Bee Hole End started , with work on the two stands finally completed in September 1996 at a total cost of £ 5 @.@ 3 million ( £ 8 @.@ 97 million as of 2016 ) , taking the capacity of the stadium to 22 @,@ 619 . The new stand was named the Jimmy McIlroy Stand , in honour of the former Burnley forward and Northern Ireland international .
Turf Moor saw its first international women 's match on 4 September 2003 when England achieved a 1 – 0 victory over Australia . Two years later , England U20 drew 2 – 2 with Netherlands U20 , with former Burnley midfielder Richard Chaplow captaining the England side . On 25 May 2007 , Turf Moor hosted a friendly international between England B and Albania . Although the game was not officially recognised as a full international , a number of England first @-@ team players played in the game . In October 2007 , a Barco video wall was installed in the Cricket Field End , which at the time accommodated visiting supporters . At the start of the 2009 – 10 season , a new PA system was installed and the big screen was moved to allow home fans to sit in the Cricket Field Stand for the club 's inaugural season in the Premier League .
= = Structure and facilities = =
The pitch at Turf Moor is surrounded by four stands , known as the Bob Lord Stand , the David Fishwick Stand , the James Hargreaves Stand and the Jimmy McIlroy stand . The stadium has a total capacity of 21 @,@ 401 , which is approximately one seat for every three inhabitants of the town , no other league team has such a high ratio . The two newest stands , the James Hargreaves Stand and the Jimmy McIlroy Stand , both have two tiers , while the Bob Lord and David Fishwick are both single @-@ tiered . The Bob Lord Stand and the David Fishwick Stand both have wooden seats . All four stands are entirely seated . Visiting supporters are seated in the Cricket Field Stand .
The largest stand at Turf Moor is the James Hargreaves Stand , which was opened in 1996 as part of a ground redevelopment project which saw two new stands built to replace the Longside and the Bee Hole End at a total cost of £ 5 @.@ 3 million . When built it was named the North Stand , although it has its current name thanks to a six @-@ figure sponsorship deal . The stand can accommodate 8 @,@ 154 spectators and was opened on 23 April 1996 , replacing the Longside terrace . It runs parallel to the length of the pitch . The television gantry is located in the James Hargreaves Stand along with the media area , which is situated at the rear of the upper tier . The stand is the traditional seating area of the Suicide Squad , who had previously stood in the Longside until the terrace was demolished in 1995 . In the space between the upper and lower tiers of the James Hargreaves Stand there is a corporate area , which apart from being used for matchday hospitality is used for functions and events . Both the suite and the home dressing room , is licensed to hold civil marriage services .
The Jimmy McIlroy Stand is situated at the eastern side of the pitch and has a current capacity of 6 @,@ 280 . The upper tier of the stand is the designated family area at Turf Moor and like the James Hargreaves Stand , it has a number of corporate hospitality boxes . The Bob Lord Stand , which has a capacity of just under 4 @,@ 000 fans , runs parallel with Harry Potts Way and houses the executive lounges as well as the Burnley Football Club trophy room . The stand was built in 1974 and was paid for in part by the sale of Martin Dobson to Everton . Named after Bob Lord , the former chairman of Burnley , the stand cost £ 480 @,@ 000 was opened by Edward Heath , the Conservative Party leader at the time , a Burnley supporter , who had just been defeated as prime minister by Labour 's Harold Wilson .
The Cricket Field Stand , also known as the David Fishwick Stand for sponsorship reasons , is the oldest current stand at Turf Moor . It was constructed in 1969 and backs onto the clubhouse and pavilion of Burnley Cricket Club . It contains both teams ' dressing rooms as well as the officials ' lounge and the tunnel leading to the pitch . Turf Moor is one of the few remaining football grounds in England to have the changing facilities behind the goals . The stand was made available to home supporters for Burnley 's first Premier League season in 2009 – 10 , having previously been the away section of the stadium .
In the corner of the ground between the James Hargreaves Stand and Jimmy McIlroy Stand there is a 36m ² Barco video wall , which was previously situated in the Cricket Field Stand between 2007 and 2009 . In the car park behind the James Hargreaves Stand is Stadium Fitness , which includes a gymnasium , table @-@ tennis facilities and a large sports hall.Outside the ground , between the Jimmy McIlroy and Bob Lord stands is the Burnley club shop , otherwise known as the Clarets Superstore . Some of The club 's offices are sited above the store .
= = Future = =
On 27 July 2007 , Burnley revealed plans for a £ 20 million redevelopment of Turf Moor . The plans also included the creation of a youth academy at the club 's training facility at Gawthorpe Hall in nearby Padiham . The plans were detailed in six phases . In the first phase it was planned to move the changing rooms to the corner between the James Hargreaves Stand and the Jimmy McIlroy Stand . The second phase included the demolition of the Cricket Field Stand , a new stand to be built at that end of the ground that would incorporate a hotel , a restaurant and a newly constructed cricket pavilion , and would be able to accommodate 2 @,@ 500 fans . The redevelopments also included the construction of a multi @-@ storey car park adjacent to the stadium . Other planned improvements include a new club superstore and other retail outlets , and new business offices on the site of the current club shop . Revealed in the fifth phase was a transformation of the Bob Lord Stand , which will eventually house a multi @-@ screen cinema . The development of a second tier on the Bob Lord stand was later revealed by Burnley chief executive Paul Fletcher , taking the anticipated capacity of Turf Moor to 28 @,@ 000 spectators .
Work on the stadium was expected to start in late 2007 and finish in time for the 2010 season . Planning permission for the first stage of developments was granted on 7 April 2008 and work on the new players ' block was planned to commence in the summer of 2008 . It was decided to not start building until permission had been received for all phases of the development including the rebuilding of the Cricket Field Stand . In October 2008 , the project was put on hold by the club as a result of the global economic crisis restricting available funds . Revised plans were revealed in November 2009 , with further announcements expected in early 2010 . However further developments may be further delayed due to the club 's relegation from the Premier League .
In September 2011 , Burnley Football Club opened the UK 's first ever football university at Turf Moor known as the University College of Football Business . The university teaches up to 100 students per year about the business side of football . Seminar rooms have been added to the Jimmy McIlroy stand for lectures and classes .
The opening of this led to the building formerly The Sparrow Hawk Hotel being refurbished to act as student accommodation for the students studying at the UCFB .
= = Transport = =
Turf Moor is located to the east of Burnley town centre . The stadium has two car parks of its own , and there are also a number of parking facilities in the surrounding area . The railway station with the shortest walk to Turf Moor is Burnley Manchester Road . The stadium is also accessible from Burnley Central station on the East Lancashire Line which , although it is physically closer to the ground , is a slightly further walk due to the street layout and the intervening river . There are also a number of bus services in the area , and Turf Moor is very close to Burnley Bus Station .
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= Robert C. Michelson =
Robert C. Michelson ( born 1951 ) is an American engineer and academic widely known for inventing the entomopter , a biologically inspired flapping @-@ winged aerial robot , and for having established the International Aerial Robotics Competition . He has received degrees in electrical engineering from the Virginia Polytechnic Institute and the Georgia Institute of Technology . Michelson 's professional career began at the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory where he worked on radar @-@ based ocean surveillance systems . He later became a member of the research faculty at the Georgia Institute of Technology . At the Georgia Tech Research Institute ( GTRI ) he was involved in full @-@ time research , directing over 30 major research programs .
He is the author of three U.S. patents and over 90 journal papers , book chapters and reports . Michelson also developed classes in avionics and taught in the School of Aerospace Engineering at the Georgia Institute of Technology until his retirement from the University System of Georgia in 2004 . Michelson is the recipient of the 1998 AUVSI Pioneer Award and the 2001 Pirelli Award for the diffusion of scientific culture as well as the first Top Pirelli Prize .
During the 1990s , he created a tax @-@ exempt corporation to apply high tech solutions to modern archeology and has organized a number of archeological expeditions into eastern Anatolia . He now heads the engineering consulting company , Millennial Vision , LLC . Since the mid @-@ 1990s , Michelson 's work has concentrated on biologically inspired micro air vehicle design . Michelson is certified in various fields including Amateur radio , Scuba diving , experimental aircraft design / mechanics , and general contracting for home building .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
Michelson was born in 1951 in Washington D.C. , the only son of Carroll and Evelyn Michelson , and is related to Christian Michelsen , the first Prime Minister of Norway . Michelson attended the Burgundy Farm Country Day School during the sixth through eighth grades where he developed an appreciation for botany and ornithology . While at Fort Hunt High School he was President of the Fort Hunt Amateur Rocket Club which built large ( 2m x 5 cm ) instrumented solid fuel rockets that were launched at the Camp Pickett artillery range in Blackstone , Virginia .
= = = Education = = =
Michelson spent sixth through eighth grade at the Burgundy Farm Country Day School and later graduated from Fort Hunt High School in 1969 . He graduated from Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University in 1973 and the Georgia Institute of Technology in 1974 with degrees in Electrical Engineering .
= = = Career = = =
From 1971 to 1973 Michelson was a research engineer working on aerospace radar systems at the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory in Washington D.C. He spent the next 30 years in various engineering and management capacities within the Georgia Tech Research Institute in Atlanta , Georgia . During the 1970s and 1980s Michelson primarily developed radar signal processing and control hardware , but was also interested in the automation of remote sensing systems ranging from the tracking of endangered species to the creation of realistic soldier training scenarios and simulation and testing of foreign military radar assets . In the late 1980s he became Head of the Georgia Tech Research Institute 's Technology Development Division and his interests turned to unmanned aerial vehicle systems as a fusion of autonomy , information technology , and aeronautics . In particular , " aerial robotics " ( a term he coined in 1990 to represent the infusion of cognition into unmanned aerial vehicles ) dominated his research for the next two decades . Since the mid @-@ 1990s , Michelson 's work has concentrated on biologically inspired micro air vehicle design . From 1997 through 2004 Michelson was adjunct associate professor to the School of Aerospace Engineering , teaching classes in avionics for unmanned aerial vehicles ( UAVs ) and Micro / Mini Air Vehicle ( MAV ) design . Michelson retired from the Georgia Tech Research Institute in September 2004 and currently holds the title of Principal Research Engineer Emeritus with the Institute . In 2004 he created Millennial Vision , LLC to continue research into biologically inspired aerial robots and remote sensing . He is the President of SEPDAC ( Scientific Enterprise in Pursuit and Discovery of Ancient Cultures ) , a nonprofit educational and scientific organization . He was a member of the board of directors for The Sharp Mountain Preserve for a period of five years ( 2008 @-@ 2012 ) .
= = Professional activities = =
Michelson has been the U.S. representative and deputy chief referee to the Aviation Industry Corporation of China 's UAV Grand Prix during its inaugural year ( 2011 ) , and again in 2013 and 2015 . He was the section editor for " MAVs and Bio @-@ Inspired UAVs " in Springer 's Handbook of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles ( released in 2014 ) . Michelson was the NATO / RTA ( Research and Technology Agency ) lecturer at the Turkish Air Force Academy ( Hava Harp Okulu ) in Istanbul in 2006 , and invited lecturer on Micro Air Vehicle technology at both the von Karman Institute for Fluid Dynamics ( 1999 & 2003 ) and the Royal Military Academy ( 2001 ) in Brussels . He was the first " MITRE Technology Speaker " ( 1998 ) and has been a visiting technology professor in six nations : Australia ( 2002 ) , Belgium ( 1999 , 2003 ) , Norway ( 2001 ) , Sweden ( 2001 ) , Turkey ( 2001 , 2006 ) , and Mexico ( 2010 ) . Michelson was a consultant to the U.S. Army and the Indian Ministry of Defence in 2008 , responsible for defining and organizing the 1st U.S.-Asian Micro Air Vehicle Demonstration in Agra India . He performed similar duties for the U.S. Army in defining the 1st US @-@ European Micro Air Vehicle Competition / Demonstration in Garmisch Germany in 2005 . He created the short course , 21st Century Aerial Robotics , and the digital signal processing lecture / demonstrations in “ Principals of Modern Radar ” at the Georgia Institute of Technology . He is also creator and organizer of the annual International Aerial Robotics Competition . Before joining the staff of the Georgia Tech Research Institute he participated in design and endo @-@ atmospheric flight testing of computer @-@ controlled space @-@ based radar ocean surveillance systems while employed by the Naval Research Laboratory in Washington , D.C.
Michelson is listed in various editions of Who ’ s Who in Engineering , Who ’ s Who in America , and the 23rd edition of Who ’ s Who in the World . He is the author of over 90 reports , journal papers , and book chapters .
= = = Project director = = =
While at the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory , Michelson worked on radar @-@ based ocean surveillance systems and flew hardware test missions on a Lockheed Warning Star PO @-@ 1W Super Constellation . In 1974 Michelson began work at the Georgia Tech Research Institute , where he got his first contract when an entry @-@ level engineer ( Research Engineer I ) . This first project involved methods to electronically track the endangered species Trichechus manatus ( West Indian Manatee ) in the waters around the Kennedy Space Center .
Michelson directed over 30 major research projects during his career at the Institute . In 1979 Michelson directed the Army 's Indirect Fire Simulation effort conducted for Combat Development and Experimentation Command ( CDEC ) . Michelson directed a Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency ( DARPA ) program to show feasibility of a non @-@ line @-@ of @-@ sight radio @-@ acoustic sensor for bending radar signals using the Bragg principle to detect obstacle @-@ masked targets ( essentially making radars look around corners ) . He also directed a program to evaluate ground penetration radar for detection of buried natural gas leaks in urban utility systems . During 1981 , Michelson directed a program for the automated noninvasive testing of captured foreign threat assets . This system developed by Michelson 's design team remained in use by a foreign power for nearly a decade . Other radar test devices were also developed by Michelson for U.S. military test and evaluation purposes within the United States , including a program to develop a Ka @-@ band Linear Electronics Countermeasure Source ( KABLES ) for use in testing U.S. Army millimeter wave assets .
Michelson directed various efforts pertaining to future transportation . His team invented battery @-@ state @-@ of @-@ charge estimation techniques , developed electric vehicle systems simulation tools , and experimented with actively blown surfaces on passenger vehicles . During the mid @-@ 1990s , Michelson 's research began to focus almost entirely on unmanned vehicle systems , especially those with the power of flight . He directed efforts with both U.S. Government agencies and private industry pertaining to unmanned aerial vehicles systems ( UAS ) . One of his first UAS development programs was for a traffic surveillance drone using a compound ducted fan design , made to fly over Atlanta 's highways in order to fill surveillance gaps in the State 's tower @-@ mounted traffic camera system . It also could be sent to traffic accident locations to gather and relay vital information in advance of first @-@ responder arrival . Funding shortfalls resulted in the cancellation of the project before its maiden flight , but the design was later marketed for military use . Michelson 's focus turned to smaller vehicle systems that could fly indoors autonomously without the aid of global positioning system ( GPS ) reference signals . Under various contracts to DARPA and the Air Force , and using internal research and development funds from the Georgia Tech Research Institute , his design team designed a micro air vehicle ( MAV ) known as the entomopter . The NASA Institute for Advanced Concepts recognized the unique flight qualities of the entomopter and awarded Michelson two contracts to explore the feasibility of the entomopter for slow flight in Mars ' lower atmosphere .
In 2004 Michelson retired from the Georgia Tech Research Institute and started Millennial Vision , LLC which continued to pursue UAS and MAV research . Soon after establishing Millennial Vision , LLC , Michelson became engaged in a program to develop an unmanned stratospheric airship for persistent reconnaissance . He also was interested in MAVs and competitions by helping to define and organize various international events such as the 1st US @-@ European MAV event in Garmisch Germany ( MAV @-@ 05 ) and the subsequent 1st US @-@ Asian Demonstration and Assessment of Micro Aerial Vehicle and Unmanned Ground Vehicle Technology ( MAV @-@ 08 ) held in Agra India , as adjunct to the U.S. Army RDECOM @-@ Pacific and Indian Ministry of Defence .
= = = Associate professor of Aerospace Engineering = = =
During the 1990s , Michelson became an adjunct associate professor in the Georgia Tech School of Aerospace Engineering , where he taught graduate classes in avionics , with emphasis on unmanned aerial vehicles and micro air vehicles .
In parallel with his teaching duties in the Georgia Tech School of Aerospace Engineering , Michelson created a team @-@ taught short course through the Georgia Tech Department of Continuing Education entitled , " 21st Century Aerial Robotics " . Laurence " Nuke " Newcome and Michelson taught this course on the campus of the Georgia Institute of Technology for several years before engaging in single offerings around the United States as well as Sweden , Norway , and Turkey under NATO grants .
= = Honors and awards = =
Michelson is an Associate Fellow of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics ( AIAA ) , Senior Member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers ( IEEE ) , and a Full Member of the Scientific Research Society of North America , Sigma Xi . During the 1990s he served as President and member of the Board of Directors of the Association for Unmanned Vehicle Systems ( AUVSI ) International organization . In 1998 Michelson received the AUVSI Pioneer Award which is the highest level of recognition within the unmanned systems industry for technical contributions . Michelson is the recipient of the 2001 Pirelli Award for the diffusion of scientific culture , given by an international jury for the " best multimedia project coming from any educational institution in the world " . For endeavors related to the entomopter , he was also awarded the first € 25 @,@ 000 Top Pirelli Prize . In 2016 , the International Aerial Robotics Competition and its creator , Michelson , were officially recognized during the Georgia legislative session in the form of " Senate Resolution 1255 ” which recognized his effort in the development of the longest running aerial robotics competition in the world and for having been responsible for moving forward the state of the art in aerial robotics on several occasions during the past quarter century .
= = Avocations = =
Michelson has engaged in marine aquarium design and coral propagation since 1997 when he designed and built a fully automated marine reef biome , in which he propagated various coral species that he collected himself . He has been a NAUI certified scuba diver since 1969 , and has been a recreational diver in the Caribbean Sea and Pacific Ocean , where he dived on various wrecks and developed methods of collecting and successfully transporting marine invertebrates for propagation . Michelson has also built and flown his own man @-@ rated experimental rotorcraft . N8489B is a single seat gyrocopter for which Michelson is the FAA certified mechanic and pilot .
While working with ground penetrating radar for detection of urban gas leaks , road voids , and buried land mines at the Georgia Tech Research Institute , Michelson became interested in the use of high technology applications to archeology . Since 1995 he has organized half a dozen excursions into the military zone along the Turkish @-@ Iranian border , often with Turkish military escort , to research ancient ekistical artifacts of the eastern Anatolia region and has created a 501 ( c3 ) non @-@ profit corporation to apply various non @-@ traditional technologies to the field of archeology .
Michelson completed training in general contracting / home building in 1986 and built his own home . Later he was overseer for the construction of a Woodstock Georgia church building while continuing his career at the Georgia Tech Research Institute . In 2013 he completed a home of his own design in the mountains of North Georgia that was lumber @-@ free , consisting entirely of steel structural members with concrete foundation and concrete exterior .
Michelson was a Boy Scout and has maintained interest in scouting principles over the years . As a youth he attained Star rank in Troop 981 located in Alexandria Virginia , and was inducted into the Order of the Arrow . He became a Brotherhood member of Amangamek Wipit Lodge 470 , one of the largest lodges in the nation , and participated in activities such as the Philmont Scout Reservation ( 1967 ) . Influenced by their father , both of Michelson 's sons are Eagle Scouts with gold and silver palm awards . Michelson was adult advisor to Boy Scouts of America ( BSA ) Troop / Crew 8880 until its transition away from the BSA to becoming a Trail Life USA unit where Michelson remains in an advisory capacity .
Michelson has had interest in languages and syntax both for computers and spoken communication . He was formally taught Fortran in undergraduate school and learned BASIC , Forth , and various assembly languages on his own in support of his computer @-@ based projects . He designed the target processing unit for the Army 's Environment and Radar Operation Simulator ( EROS ) where it was necessary to design the hardware and coding language for a 10 MHz ( 100 ns cycle time ) processor before such things were available in microprocessor form . As to spoken languages , he is fluent in English , and is proficient in both Spanish and Turkish .
= = Presence in popular media and literature = =
Michelson has been widely interviewed and quoted in print ( e.g. , Business Week , Popular Mechanics , Scientific American , Chronicle of Higher Education ) , radio ( e.g. , National Public Radio , Armed Forces Radio , American Association for the Advancement of Science radio syndicate ) , and on television ( e.g. , Scientific American Frontiers , Discovery Channel , CNN , BBC , and various ABC / CBS / NBC / Fox affiliates ) . Worldwide interest in robotics , and especially the robots of war , spawned a series of televised robotics programming about Michelson 's work . A technical biography of Robert Michelson is the subject of episode 1008 of the television program Beyond Invention , which chronicles a number of his research projects including UAV research , the International Aerial Robotics Competition , the entomopter @-@ based Mars surveyor , and his work with automated coral propagation . Michelson is featured in various television programs focused specifically on the International Aerial Robotics Competition , including an hour @-@ long Discovery Science Channel program entitled Airbots . Michelson has been often quoted in news programming with regard to the International Aerial Robotics Competition and the applications of the underlying technology to military and civilian spheres . As the use of robotic drone aircraft increased during the Gulf Wars , public interest in the subject was peaked and Michelson began to be featured in series and specials such as the NOVA episode " Spies that Fly " and the BBC special Seven Ways to Topple Saddam . Because of the notoriety of his aerial robotic research , Michelson even became the basis for the fictional character Michael C. Robertson in the novel Soft Target : The Air ( 2007 ) by Joel Narlock . In this work , Michael C. Robertson is the creator of the entomopter at the Georgia Technology Research Institute . This fictitious character 's name is an anagram of Robert C. Michelson , the actual inventor of the entomopter at the Georgia Tech Research Institute . Michelson 's entomopter is also featured in another of Joel Narlock 's novels , Target Acquired ( 2003 ) .
= = Patents = =
US patent 6 @,@ 082 @,@ 671 , Robert C. Michelson , " Entomopter and Method for Using Same " , issued 2000 @-@ 07 @-@ 04
US patent 6 @,@ 094 @,@ 033 , Robert C. Michelson , " Battery State of Charge Detector with Rapid Charging Capability and Method " , issued 2000 @-@ 07 @-@ 25
US patent 6 @,@ 446 @,@ 909 , Robert C. Michelson , " Reciprocating Chemical Muscle ( RCM ) and Method for Using Same " , issued 2002 @-@ 09 @-@ 10
= = Representative publications = =
“ Test and Evaluation for Fully Autonomous Micro Air Vehicles , ” The ITEA Journal , December 2008 , Volume 29 , Number 4 , ISSN 1054 @-@ 0229 International Test and Evaluation Association , pp. 367 – 374
“ Very small flying machines , ” 2006 Yearbook of Science & Technology , McGraw @-@ Hill , New York , ISBN 0 @-@ 07 @-@ 146205 @-@ 8 , 2006 , pp. 341 – 344
“ Novel Approaches to Miniature Flight Platforms , ” Proceedings of the Institute of Mechanical Engineers , Vol . 218 Part G : Journal of Aerospace Engineering , Special Issue Paper 2004 , pp. 363 – 373
“ Beyond Biologically Inspired Insect Flight , ” von Karman Institute for Fluid Dynamics RTO / AVT Lecture Series on Low Reynolds Number Aerodynamics on Aircraft Including Applications in Emerging UAV Technology , Brussels Belgium , 24 – 28 November 2003
“ The Entomopter , ” Neurotechnology for Biomimetic Robots , ISBN 0 @-@ 262 @-@ 01193 @-@ X , The MIT Press , September 2002 , pp. 481 – 509
“ Autonomous Vehicles , ” Proceedings of the IEEE , Vol . 84 , No. 8 , August 1996 , pp. 1147 – 1164
“ Feasibility of Applying Radio @-@ Acoustic Techniques to Non Line @-@ of @-@ Sight Sensing , ” AIAA Journal of Aircraft , Vol . 33 , No. 2 , March – April 1996 , pp. 260 – 267
“ Tracking of the Florida Manatee , ” ISA Transactions , Vol . 21 , No. 1 , 1982 , pp. 79 – 85
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= French ironclad Normandie =
The French ironclad Normandie was the third and last of the three wooden @-@ hulled Gloire @-@ class ironclads built for the French Navy in 1858 – 62 . The ships of the Gloire class were classified as armoured frigates because they only had a single gun deck and their traditional disposition of guns arrayed along the length of the hull also meant that they were broadside ironclads . Normandie was the first ironclad to cross the Atlantic in support of the French intervention in Mexico in 1862 . Although the ship was active during the Franco @-@ Prussian War of 1870 – 71 , she saw no action . The unseasoned timber of her hull rotted quickly ; she was condemned in 1871 and subsequently scrapped .
= = Design and description = =
Designed by the French naval architect Henri Dupuy de Lôme , the ships of the class were intended to fight in the line of battle , unlike the first British ironclads . The ship was 77 @.@ 25 metres ( 253 ft 5 in ) long , with a beam of 17 metres ( 55 ft 9 in ) . Normandie had a maximum draft of 8 @.@ 48 metres ( 27 ft 10 in ) , a depth of hold of 10 @.@ 67 metres ( 35 ft 0 in ) and displaced 5 @,@ 650 tonnes ( 5 @,@ 560 long tons ) . The ships of the class had a high metacentric height of 2 @.@ 1 metres ( 7 ft ) and consequently rolled badly . With their gun ports only 1 @.@ 88 metres ( 6 ft 2 in ) above the waterline , they proved to be very wet .
Normandie had a single horizontal return connecting @-@ rod compound steam engine that drove one propeller . The engine was powered by eight Indret oval boilers and was designed for a capacity of 2 @,@ 500 indicated horsepower ( 1 @,@ 900 kW ) . She carried a maximum of 675 tonnes ( 664 long tons ) of coal which allowed her to steam for 4 @,@ 000 kilometres ( 2 @,@ 500 mi ) at a speed of 8 knots ( 15 km / h ; 9 @.@ 2 mph ) . The Gloire @-@ class ships were initially fitted with a light barquentine rig with three masts that had a sail area around 1 @,@ 100 square metres ( 11 @,@ 800 sq ft ) . This was later changed to a full ship rig of 2 @,@ 500 square metres ( 27 @,@ 000 sq ft ) , but later had to be reduced because excessive rolling .
The Gloire @-@ class ships were armed with 36 Modèle 1858 164 @.@ 7 @-@ millimetre ( 6 @.@ 5 in ) rifled muzzle @-@ loading guns , 34 of which were positioned on the single gun deck in the broadside . The remaining two guns were placed on the upper deck as chase guns . They fired a 44 @.@ 9 @-@ kilogram ( 99 @.@ 0 lb ) shell at a muzzle velocity of only 322 metres per second ( 1 @,@ 060 ft / s ) and proved to be ineffective against armour . They were replaced by rifled breech @-@ loading Modèle 1864 guns in 1868 . Six 240 @-@ millimetre ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) guns were mounted in the centre of the gun deck and a pair of 194 @-@ millimetre ( 7 @.@ 6 in ) guns replaced the original chase guns .
Normandie 's wooden hull was completely armoured with wrought iron plates 120 millimetres ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) thick . Backed by the 760 @-@ millimetre ( 30 in ) sides of the hull , the armour extended 5 @.@ 4 metres ( 17 ft 9 in ) above the waterline and 2 @.@ 0 metres ( 6 ft 7 in ) below . The Gloire @-@ class ships had an open @-@ topped conning tower with armour 100 millimetres ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick and 10 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 4 in ) of armour underneath the wooden upper deck .
= = Construction and service = =
Named after the province of Normandy , Normandie was ordered around September 1858 , six months after her sisters . The ship was laid down at the Arsenal de Cherbourg on 14 September 1858 , launched on 10 March 1860 and completed on 13 May 1862 . In July 1862 , Normandie became the first ironclad to cross the Atlantic , as the flagship of Vice Admiral Edmond Jurien de La Gravière , on her way to support the French intervention in Mexico . She was forced to return in April 1863 due to an outbreak of yellow fever that killed her captain , among others . While assigned to the Mediterranean Fleet , the ship made a port visit in August 1865 to Brest where the fleet hosted the British Channel Fleet . A few days later the French fleet made a reciprocal visit to Portsmouth where it was hosted by the Channel Fleet . From 1865 to 1868 , Normandie was assigned to the Evolutionary Squadron where she was commanded by Bernard Jauréguiberry , among others . The ship was assigned to the ironclad squadron commanded by Rear Admiral Didelot during the Franco @-@ Prussian War , but saw no action . Built of unseasoned timber , Normandie was in poor shape after the war and was decommissioned on 17 June 1871 . Condemned on 1 August , the ship was subsequently broken up and her engine was installed in the breastwork monitor Tonnerre .
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= Care Bears Movie II : A New Generation =
Care Bears Movie II : A New Generation is a 1986 children 's animated film produced by LBS Communications , Inc. and Canadian animation studio Nelvana and released by Columbia Pictures . The third animated feature from Nelvana , it was directed by Dale Schott , written by Peter Sauder and produced by Nelvana 's three founders ( Michael Hirsh , Patrick Loubert and Clive A. Smith ) . It starred the voices of Alyson Court , Cree Summer , Maxine Miller and Hadley Kay .
In the second film based on the Care Bears franchise , a character called The Great Wishing Star ( voiced by Chris Wiggins ) tells the origins of the Care Bears , and the story of their first Caring Mission . True Heart Bear and Noble Heart Horse lead the other Care Bears and Care Bear Cousins , as they come to the aid of Christy , a young camper who is tempted by an evil shape @-@ shifting figure named Dark Heart . The film marked the first appearance of the Care Bear Cubs , who also had their own line of toys .
A New Generation was made over a seven @-@ month period at Nelvana 's Toronto facilities , with additional work handled by Taiwan 's Wang Film Productions , and involved several crew members who had worked on the original Care Bears Movie . Patricia Cullen served as composer , and Los Angeles musicians Dean and Carol Parks worked on the film 's six songs . The Samuel Goldwyn Company , a U.S. independent distributor , was originally set to release this follow @-@ up ; demands from the film 's producers caused the company to give up . To the chagrin of Goldwyn 's founder , the worldwide rights were then acquired by Hollywood studio Columbia Pictures .
Upon its release in March 1986 , A New Generation gained mostly negative critical attention ; some of its key elements received comparisons to the German legend Faust and J. M. Barrie 's Peter Pan . The film grossed only US $ 8 @.@ 5 million in North America , about a third of what the previous instalment earned , and over US $ 12 million worldwide . It was released on video in August 1986 , and on DVD in April 2003 . This was the last animated feature for Columbia until Final Fantasy : The Spirits Within in 2001 . A third film starring the title characters , The Care Bears Adventure in Wonderland , was released in 1987 .
= = Plot = =
Aboard their boat , a yellow bear and a purple horse look after the baby animals known as the Care Bear Cubs and Care Bear Cousin Cubs . On the way , a red sea serpent threatens them — one of the many forms of Dark Heart , an evil spirit . They escape by following a rainbow up to the sky , while the boat transforms into the Cloud Clipper . There , the Great Wishing Star gives the group their " tummy symbols " , pictures that indicate each creature 's role or specialty . True Heart Bear and Noble Heart Horse , as the characters are named , become founders of the Kingdom of Caring , a land which comprises Care @-@ a @-@ Lot and the Forest of Feelings .
For the Bears ' first Caring Mission , True Heart and stowaway Swift Heart Rabbit ( one of the Cousins ) travel to Earth and visit a summer camp . There , they meet three of its participants : a girl named Christy , and her friends , the twins John and Dawn . A boastful boy nicknamed the " Camp Champ " always defeats them in competitions , and assigns them to trash duty . Christy is unsatisfied at this ; she and her friends run away , only to get lost in the woods . True Heart soon finds John and Dawn , and brings them to the Kingdom of Caring . After they arrive , the children hear a bell toll from the Caring Meter , which tells the Bears how much caring is taking place on Earth . Noble Heart and True Heart tell them to babysit the Cubs , before they leave to search for Dark Heart and Christy .
Meanwhile , in the woods , Christy meets Dark Heart ( as a human boy ) for the first time , and asks him to make her the new Camp Champ . He grants her that wish , telling her she must pay him back with one favor , and heads away while she rejoins her friends . Aware of Dark Heart 's potential , True Heart and Noble Heart move the Bear Cubs to Care @-@ a @-@ Lot , and the Cousin Cubs to the Forest of Feelings . Both sets quickly grow up to become the Care Bear Family .
Later , while the Bears prepare a party for the Kingdom 's founders , Dark Heart enters Care @-@ a @-@ Lot in disguise so that he can capture the whole Family . A cluster of Star Buddies , assistants to the Bears and Great Wishing Star , drives him off ; he then morphs into a raging red cloud . The Bears shoot light at him from their bellies , forming their " Care Bear Stare " ; the Cousins also help by using their " Care Cousin Call " . Afterward , True Heart and Noble Heart decide to search for him , and leave the Bears to handle missions all by themselves .
During their patrol , Wish Bear spots Christy stranded in a canoe within a lake ; the other Bears and Cousins set out to rescue her . Dark Heart fires lightning bolts before the team , and captures many of them with his magic bag — the favor he wanted Christy to do all along . The few Family members at hand determine that she has teamed up with him . This prompts Tenderheart Bear to hold a conference at the Hall of Hearts ; Friend Bear , Secret Bear and Christy 's friends later join them .
That night , Dark Heart 's influence causes the other children to wreck the camp . The Bears and Cousins search for the Family members , before Dark Heart imprisons them — first in cages , then inside big rubies hanging from a chandelier . Meanwhile , John and Dawn tell Christy of their conviction to rescue the Family from the villain . Feeling guilty , she finally pays him back by admitting what she has done . Despite this , her bargain with Dark Heart is over .
True Heart , Noble Heart , John and Dawn enter Dark Heart 's lair amid his impending deed ; Christy asks him to free the others . While True Heart and Noble Heart enact their Stare , lightning from his cloud strikes Christy , who screams in fear and gets strucked and wounded . With little energy left in her , she crashes down the chandelier with a marble . The Family members , finally free from the rubies , help True Heart and Noble Heart out .
At the sight of a dead Christy , Dark Heart becomes remorseful for his actions . He asks the Care Bears to bring her back to life , but is disappointed that their kindness is not even enough . So he , the Family , John and Dawn chant " We care ! " enough times to bring her back to life . Soon after , the group quickly leaves the cave as it transforms into an outhouse .
Dark Heart becomes a real boy , and everyone is overjoyed . After a swim in the lake , the campers say goodbye to the Bears and Cousins ; the former Dark Heart promises to be a better person at camp . The film ends with a message from its narrator , the Great Wishing Star , and flashbacks of the Care Bear Family 's childhood .
= = Cast = =
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
The Care Bears franchise was created in 1981 by Those Characters from Cleveland , a division of the greeting card company American Greetings . Early in their tenure , the characters appeared as toys from the Kenner company , and also in greeting cards by Elena Kucharik . They starred in two syndicated television specials from a Canadian animation studio , Atkinson Film @-@ Arts of Ottawa : The Care Bears in the Land Without Feelings ( 1983 ) and The Care Bears Battle the Freeze Machine ( 1984 ) . After the specials , Toronto 's Nelvana studio produced the first Care Bears Movie in less than eight months . It was distributed in the United States by The Samuel Goldwyn Company , an independent outfit , and grossed US $ 22 @.@ 9 million at the North American box @-@ office , the largest amount for a non @-@ Disney animated film at the time . This success guaranteed production of a second film , which was in consideration by May 1985 . As with the original , production took place at Nelvana 's facilities and Taiwan 's Wang Film Productions ; the Canadian studio also hired South Korean personnel to handle inking and painting . This time , over one hundred Nelvana animators worked on the film over a seven @-@ month period that lasted until February 1986 ; the company itself received credit for the story development . American Greetings and Kenner commissioned Nelvana to make the sequel on contract ; television syndicator LBS Communications , a co @-@ financier of the first one , became the producer and presenter .
Care Bears Movie II was Nelvana 's third animated feature film , after 1983 's Rock & Rule and The Care Bears Movie . It marked the directorial debut of Dale Schott , a Nelvana staff member who served as assistant director on the first Care Bears Movie , as well as the Nelvana / Lucasfilm TV series Ewoks . Several other crewmembers from the first film returned to the fold ; Nelvana 's founders ( Michael Hirsh , Patrick Loubert and Clive A. Smith ) served as producers , while Peter Sauder wrote the screenplay and Charles Bonifacio handled animation duties . Jack Chojnacki , the co @-@ president of American Greetings ' licensing division Those Characters from Cleveland , served once again as an executive producer . A roster of Toronto voice actors — among them Cree Summer , Sunny Besen Thrasher , Dan Hennessey and Hadley Kay — appeared in this follow @-@ up . Mickey Rooney and Georgia Engel , who appeared in the first film , did not return .
At one point , The Samuel Goldwyn Company was about to release A New Generation , but lost the distribution rights after turning down demands from the producers . Eventually , Nelvana went into negotiations with the Hollywood studio Columbia Pictures , which acquired worldwide theatrical rights in early 1986 . This led founder Samuel Goldwyn , Jr. to remark : " The fact that Columbia is distributing the Care Bears sequel is typical of the greed of the big studios . Someone else has to go in and prove something works , then a studio will charge in . " By contrast , Goldwyn acquired the rights to the original film after major U.S. studios passed on it ; they did not see the financial potential in a movie aimed strictly for children .
= = = Allusions = = =
According to Richard Freedman of the Newhouse News Service , " This must be the first version of the Faust myth in which not only does Faust ( or Faustina [ Christy ] , here ) manage to weasel out of the pact with the Devil , but succeeds in regenerating him , as well . " Elliot Krieger of Rhode Island 's Providence Journal also took note of such a theme , headlining his review " Faust goes to summer camp " . In regards to continuity issues , a reviewer in The Scarecrow Movie Guide observed a " montage showing the Care Bears and their Cousins growing up together from infancy to full Care Bear maturation — nullifying everything that happened in the first movie " . Mike McLane of Florida 's Gainesville Sun gave a few suggestions of the storyline 's possible religious subtext . He compared the Great Wishing Star to God , the Bears ' " beautiful cloud kingdom " of Care @-@ a @-@ Lot to Heaven , and Dark Heart to Satan ; he also hinted that the Bears protected humankind like angels did .
Charles Solomon pointed out that the film 's climax , in which the Bears help revive Christy , " borrows ... flagrantly from Peter Pan " . The Scarecrow contributor took note of this aspect , writing , " There 's an excruciating scene where the Care Bears turn to the audience and plead for help in the form of excessive and focused caring . " In his critique , Hal Lipper called it the " Tinker Bell Principle " , whereupon the audience must come together to save a dying character . In Vincent Canby 's opinion , the Great Wishing Star " looks like Tinker Bell if she were a star @-@ shaped beanbag " .
= = = Music = = =
As with the original film , Patricia Cullen composed the score for Care Bears Movie II . The soundtrack album was released in LP format by Kid Stuff Records . Los Angeles musicians Dean and Carol Parks were credited as producers , writers and performers of the film 's six songs , which were included on the album . Stephen Bishop , performer of the Oscar @-@ nominated " It Might Be You " from Tootsie , and Debbie Allen from the TV series Fame , were on hand as vocalists . John Braden arranged and edited the album .
The Parks recorded their contributions to the project at their home . At the time of production , they shared their experiences of working on the soundtrack :
Our children helped us tremendously with their feedback as real Care Bear fans . When we took on this project , we made up our mind not to write down to children . There 's a huge library of over @-@ simplistic music available to children , but kids love music and they have very sophisticated tastes . When Debbie came over to the house to record ' Care Bears Cheer Song , ' she brought her baby and nanny and manager and everyone had a great time .
The songs are particularly important because they forward the movement and reflect the action and feelings of the story . We try to make it so that everyone can relate to the music .
Paul Attanasio of The Washington Post gave a mixed response to the film 's music . " The songs are dopey , " he said , " but the score [ ... ] , which is mostly seven kinds of sprightly , has its occasional moments . " Vincent Canby wrote in his review , " [ There are ] unseen loudspeakers [ that ] pour out a nonstop Hit Parade of songs to be interred by , including ' I Care for You , ' ' Our Beginning ' and ' Forever Young . ' " But Joe Fox of The Windsor Star recommended it , adding , " [ W ] henever things start to drag a snappy tune comes along to get everyone interested . "
= = Release = =
= = = North America = = =
Initially intended for a mid @-@ year release , Care Bears Movie II opened on March 7 , 1986 , in the U.S. and Canada , grossing US $ 243 @,@ 161 from 55 theatres , and US $ 449 @,@ 649 by its first few days . At this stage , it managed to rank above a reissue of Disney 's 1959 production Sleeping Beauty , which also premiered that same weekend . However , when the final weekend box office results were announced Sleeping Beauty outgrossed Care Bears II by $ 59 @,@ 000 . Its wide @-@ release opening on March 21 brought in $ 2 @.@ 5 million from 1 @,@ 446 theatres , placing seventh on the box office chart . Over the next two weekends it earned little more than $ 1 million in 12th place . During release , it faced competition from another toy @-@ based film , Atlantic Releasing 's GoBots : Battle of the Rock Lords . At the time A New Generation opened , Richard Martin of the Ottawa Citizen commented : " ... The first Care Bears movie has become the most successful non @-@ Disney animated feature ever . This second movie from Nelvana could very well surpass that record , since it held the attention of all but the youngest members of the first @-@ night audience and even has something to offer adults . " Ultimately , this installment earned US $ 8 @,@ 540 @,@ 346 in North America — about a third of what the previous one earned ; over US $ 1 million of this total came from Canada . By 1988 , it made over US $ 12 million worldwide .
= = = Overseas = = =
Care Bears Movie II made its debut in the United Kingdom , via Columbia @-@ EMI @-@ Warner Distributors , on July 25 , 1986 ; it later appeared on home video in that country under the RCA / Columbia Pictures and Video Collection International labels . Warner @-@ Columbia Film of France released it on April 8 , 1987 as Les Bisounours II — Une nouvelle génération ; publishing rights were held by Hachette Livre . It was released in the Netherlands on April 9 , 1987 , as De Troetelbeertjes Deel 2 : Nieuwe Avonturen Van De Troetelbeertjes . The film is also known as Gli orsetti del cuore II in Italy , and Krambjörnarna : på nya äventyr in Sweden .
The Warner @-@ Columbia branch in West Germany released it under the title Glücks @-@ Bärchis , Teil 2 — Jetzt im Abenteuerland ( Care Bears lucky , Part 2 Now in Adventureland ) on December 11 , 1986 . It sold 174 @,@ 550 tickets and ranked 84th place among the year 's releases in that market ( excluding re @-@ issues ) , grossing approximately € 665 @,@ 000 ( the equivalent of DM1,300,000 , or US $ 824 @,@ 000 ) . By comparison , Filmwelt 's release of the first film that same year placed 47th with 538 @,@ 487 tickets . On October 13 , 1987 , RCA / Columbia Pictures released the local version of Care Bears Movie II on video .
The film was released in Mexico on December 25 , 1986 , as Los Ositos Cariñositos II , and in April 1987 in the Philippines . By the early 1990s , it was marketed as Ursinhos Carinhosos II in Brazil . In China , it is known under the title of Baby Love Bears ( Chinese : 爱心熊宝宝 ; pinyin : Àixīn xióng bǎobǎo ) . In the Russia movie was distributed under several names , such as Wonder Bears : The New Generation ( Russian : Чудо @-@ мишки . Новое поколение ) , in a more corresponding translation to the original ( Russian : Заботливые Мишки 2 : Новое поколение ) and other .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
The film received mostly negative reviews , in part because of their theory that Care Bears Movie II : A New Generation was part of the franchise 's marketing scheme at the time of release . This led The New York Times ' Vincent Canby to begin his review by proclaiming , " Product merchandising marches on . " Another reviewer claimed to have seen almost every collectible within the film 's first twenty minutes . The film was produced to serve as the franchise introduction of the Care Bear Cubs and the Care Bear Cousin Cubs , who also had their own line of toys from Kenner . The plushes , measuring 11 " in height , consisted of Bedtime Cub , Cheer Cub , Funshine Cub and Share Cub ; the line of Care Bear Cousin Cubs included Li 'l Bright Heart Raccoon , Li 'l Proud Heart Cat and Li 'l Swift Heart Rabbit . Kenner announced the introduction of the Cubs in 1985 , shortly before the film opened , and showcased them at the American International Toy Fair in February 1986 .
In The Motion Picture Guide 1987 Annual , Jay Robert Nash wrote that its title " refers to the new featured characters who , more than coincidentally , have ended up on the toy shelves of stores everywhere . " A critic from the Omaha World @-@ Herald , however , found it misleading and complained that the Cubs " are not ' a new generation ' at all " . Several critics considered the film a prequel to the original : the Omaha World Herald reviewer ; Edward Jones of Virginia 's The Free Lance @-@ Star ; Charles Solomon of the Los Angeles Times ; and Bill Cosford of The Miami Herald . According to Michael H. Price of the Fort Worth Star @-@ Telegram , " Care Bears Movie II is what the film industry calls a ' requel , ' tracing the origin of the Care Bear family and relatives of other species . "
In his Animated Movie Guide , animation expert Jerry Beck gave Care Bears Movie II a half @-@ star ( ½ ) out of four , and offered this consensus :
Unfortunately not many critics cared for the television standard limited animation , bland songs , and blatent [ sic ] product placement in this film . Strictly for toddlers over age six , [ it ] tries too hard to cram new characters into the plotline . The characters are obviously introduced to create toy lines .
This is the weakest of the Care Bear movies . Avoid at all costs .
John Stanley expressed his views likewise in his 1988 film guide , Revenge of the Creature Features :
[ This ] inferior sequel [ is ] rather charmless . This is strictly Saturday Morning at the Cartoons , a blatant commercial for Care Bear toys and related products ... [ T ] he bulbs are out as far as ideas are concerned .
" Care Bears Movie II is a sort of pre @-@ sequel that , I suspect , requires its audiences to have some prior knowledge of Care Bears , " Vincent Canby said in his New York Times review . " Very young kids may love this , but anybody over the age of 4 might find it too spooky . " Hal Lipper of the St. Petersburg Times remarked that it " is an enormously engaging cartoon — quite a feat when you consider the saccharine psychobabble passing for dialogue " . The Miami Herald 's Bill Cosford gave it two and a half stars out of four , the same rating he had applied to its predecessor . Edward Jones commented that " The animation can 't compare with the best of Disney . Take a look at Sleeping Beauty [ ... ] and you 'll see the difference . " Likewise , Italian critic Paolo Mereghetti complained , " [ This is an ] ugly sequel with awkward animation , and not even the small fry will find it fun . "
Charles Solomon said , " The new Care Bears film ... is even more sloppily made and hawks its goods even more shamelessly . [ ... ] The film makers seem more concerned with showcasing the toys than providing entertainment ; shared profits obviously count for more than shared feelings . If someone started selling ' Hate Bears , ' there undoubtedly would be a film about them . " Gene Siskel awarded the film zero stars out of four ( along with " Thumbs Down " on At the Movies — the Siskel & Ebert TV show having not been introduced yet ) , while Leonard Maltin gave it a " BOMB " rating in his Movie Guide , and added : " Your kids deserve better entertainment than this treacly stuff about the Kingdom of Caring . Prefab animation from the era of toy merchandising tie @-@ ins . " The Gale Group publication , VideoHound 's Golden Movie Retriever , gave it one bone out of four in its 1992 edition , but revised it to two later on . In 2001 , the Los Angeles @-@ based Hastings Bad Cinema Society picked A New Generation as one of The 100 Worst Movies of the 20th Century . " Even suffering through a Barney video would be preferable to sitting through this , " said compiler Michael Lancaster .
The film received some positive reviews , however . Writing for The Advocate of Baton Rouge , Louisiana , Norma Dyess Michaud deemed it " a must @-@ see for preschoolers , especially those who are in the throes of the current Care Bear mania " . Richard Martin praised the script and climax , along with the performances of the orphan Cubs . " Their pastel , birthday @-@ cake @-@ and @-@ whipped @-@ cream world has never looked sweeter , " he stated . The Philadelphia Daily News commented that it was " even better than the first one , which was good " .
= = = Home media = = =
Care Bears Movie II was released on VHS and Betamax by RCA / Columbia Pictures Home Video on August 21 , 1986 , and debuted in 12th place on Billboard 's Top Kid Video Sales chart on September 27 that same year . The film aired during 1987 on the Disney Channel , a premium television station , and was broadcast in later years on CBS , HBO , Showtime and The Movie Channel . It returned on VHS as part of the Columbia TriStar Family Collection on August 13 , 1996 . Columbia TriStar Home Entertainment premiered it on DVD on April 8 , 2003 ; the only special features in this edition were trailers for several of the company 's family @-@ oriented titles . This was the last animated feature to be released by Columbia Pictures until Final Fantasy : The Spirits Within in 2001 .
= = Sequel = =
In 1987 , Nelvana followed A New Generation with The Care Bears Adventure in Wonderland or The Care Bears Movie . In this third film , the Bears and Cousins travel to Wonderland and save its Princess from a wizard ; Alice , a girl from the real world , takes her place . Self @-@ financed by Nelvana and released by Cineplex Odeon Films , it was the last Care Bears movie of the 1980s to go into theatres . It grossed US $ 2 @.@ 6 million in the North American market , and US $ 6 million worldwide by February 1988 . The Bears would not appear in another feature production until 2004 's direct @-@ to @-@ video effort , Care Bears : Journey to Joke @-@ a @-@ lot .
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= Ohio State Route 363 =
State Route 363 ( SR 363 ) is a short north – south state highway located in west @-@ central Ohio . The southern terminus of this spur route is along the shores of Lake Loramie approximately two and a half miles ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) southeast of Minster , where the roadway becomes known as Lotus Road . The northern terminus of SR 363 is at a T @-@ intersection with SR 119 about one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) east of Minster .
Created in the middle of the 1930s , this short highway , which exists in both Shelby and Auglaize counties , provides access from SR 119 to a small community of cottages situated on a peninsula that juts out from the north side of Lake Loramie .
= = Route description = =
SR 363 runs for less than one @-@ half mile ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) in Shelby County and a little more than one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) in Auglaize County . The highway is not a part of the National Highway System . Around 490 vehicles use the road in Auglaize County on average every year , and 410 vehicles in Shelby County .
The route begins on a peninsula that juts out from the north shore of Lake Loramie in Shelby County 's McLean Township , at a transition from Lotus Road , a street that continues for a short distance further onto the peninsula before dead ending . This peninsula is populated by a number of cottages . SR 363 traverses northeasterly through this community of cottages before turning north and heading into more rural territory . Bounded by farmland on the west side and woods on the east side , SR 363 intersects F and K Road , then crosses into Auglaize County 's Jackson Township . At this point , the highway is now bordered by woods on the west and a pair of homes on the east , before entering fully into a landscape of open farmland . SR 363 passes a few homes prior to coming to its endpoint at a T @-@ intersection with SR 119 .
= = History = =
This two @-@ county spur route was first designated in 1934 along the routing that it occupies today . No major changes have taken place to this highway since its inception .
= = Major intersections = =
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= Cyclone Bella =
Cyclone Bella was a destructive tropical cyclone that passed near the Mauritius outer island of Rodrigues . The second named storm of the season , Bella originated in the middle of January 1991 from a surge in the monsoon trough to the southwest of Sumatra . For several days , the system remained weak as it moved generally west @-@ southwestward . On January 25 , it intensified to tropical storm status , but Bella took three more days to intensify to tropical cyclone status , with 10 minute maximum sustained winds of 120 kilometres per hour ( 75 miles per hour ) . The cyclone attained peak intensity on January 29 , officially reaching winds of 155 km / h ( 100 mph ) . The Joint Typhoon Warning Center unofficially estimated winds of 240 km / h ( 150 mph ) , the highest the agency estimated for any storm in the Southern Hemisphere in the year . Bella later turned to the southeast and weakened , passing about 50 km ( 30 mi ) west of Rodrigues on January 31 . The storm turned to the south @-@ southwest and back to the southeast again , becoming extratropical on February 4 .
While passing near Rodrigues , Bella produced strong winds and high tides , the latter of which caused flooding in the capital Port Mathurin . The storm was considered the worst on the island in 20 years . About 1 @,@ 500 homes were damaged or destroyed , leaving 1 @,@ 000 people homeless . Bella also severely damaged crops , roads , and the power grid on Rodrigues . The storm killed about half of the Rodrigues flying fox , a critically endangered species . Elsewhere , Bella was believed to have sunk a Madagascar cargo ship , with its 36 people on board .
= = Meteorological history = =
Similar to Cyclone Alison that had formed in early January 1991 , a surge in the monsoon trough spawned what would become Tropical Cyclone Bella , associated with the intertropical convergence zone . On January 13 , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) began monitoring a system about 660 km ( 410 mi ) southwest of Padang , Sumatra in the Australian basin . Moving to the west @-@ southwest , the system crossed into the south @-@ west Indian Ocean on January 17 , and the next day was tracked by the Météo France office in Réunion ( MFR ) . On January 20 , the disturbance turned sharply to the south @-@ southeast , although its westward motion resumed late the following day , influenced by a ridge to the south .
On January 22 , the disturbance intensified into a tropical depression . The JTWC upgraded the storm to tropical storm status on January 23 , three days after classifying it as Tropical Cyclone 08S . On January 25 , the MFR upgraded the depression to Tropical Storm Bella , a week after beginning to issue advisories . Around that time , the storm became visible on MFR satellite imagery . Following a lengthy period of minimal development , Bella subsequently intensified at a more regular rate as it slowed its forward motion . On January 26 , it turned more to the southwest , but the westward track resumed on the next day . Aided by warm sea surface temperatures of 28 ° C ( 82 ° F ) , Bella began to intensify quickly . On January 28 , both the JTWC and the MFR upgraded the storm to the equivalent of a minimal hurricane , estimating winds of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) ; this made Bella a tropical cyclone , the first of the season . Around this time , the storm developed a well @-@ defined eye 60 km ( 35 mi ) in diameter .
After becoming a tropical cyclone , Bella continued to intensify , reaching peak winds on January 29 . The MFR estimated 10 minute winds of 155 km / h ( 100 mph ) , and assessed a barometric pressure of 936 mbar ( 27 @.@ 6 inHg ) at that time . Meanwhile , the JTWC estimated 1 minute peak winds of 240 km / h ( 150 mph ) ; this strength , equivalent to a super typhoon , was the highest the JTWC estimated for any Southern Hemisphere storm during the tropical cyclone year . On January 30 , Bella turned to the southeast and began weakening , affected by wind shear in the region . The cyclone passed about 50 km ( 30 mi ) west of Rodrigues at 03 : 00 UTC on January 31 , with 10 minute winds of 135 km / h ( 85 mph ) . Shortly thereafter , the cyclone deteriorated into a tropical storm . The southeast trajectory was short @-@ lived , as Bella turned more to the south @-@ southwest on February 1 . After a final turn to the southeast , Bella became an extratropical cyclone on February 4 .
= = Impact and aftermath = =
Before Bella affected land , a class one warning , the lowest of four , was issued for Réunion , while a class four warning was issued for Rodrigues .
While moving near Rodrigues , Bella produced wind gusts of 210 km / h ( 130 mph ) , along with high tides that flooded the northern coastline , including the capital Port Mathurin . The storm damaged 1 @,@ 200 homes and destroyed 300 others , leaving about 1 @,@ 000 people homeless . About 30 schools were wrecked . The storm damaged about 75 % of the electrical network was damaged , which also disrupted water supply on the island , and about 30 % of roads were damaged . Over 90 % of the cropson the island were destroyed , with many livestock killed . Cyclone Bella killed about half of the Rodrigues flying fox , a critically endangered species , decreasing the numbers from around 800 to around 400 . The species had regrown from a minimum of around 70 in 1971 , and the trend toward regrowth continued after the storm , reaching about 3 @,@ 500 in 2002 . The storm also affected the Rodrigues warbler . The storm also injured nine people , and overall , Bella was considered the worst storm on the island in 20 years .
A 16 @,@ 570 ton cargo ship traveling from Madagascar to Réunion was lost on January 30 about 700 km ( 430 mi ) to the south of the center of Bella . The ship likely sank due to the cyclone , with 36 people on board .
In the aftermath of the storm , seven people contracted Typhoid fever on Rodrigues in relation to the storm . After Bella passed , the government of Mauritius noted the need for 4 @,@ 500 m ( 15 @,@ 000 ft ) of galvanized pipes to assist in rebuilding , as well as generators . The United States Agency for International Development donated $ 25 @,@ 000 ( 1991 USD ) to Mauritius to help in the aftermath . France , the United Kingdom , and India also donated to the country .
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= Grey 's Anatomy ( season 1 ) =
The first season of the American television medical drama Grey 's Anatomy , began airing in the United States on the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) on March 27 , 2005 and concluded on May 22 , 2005 . The first season introduces the main character , Meredith Grey , as she enrolls in Seattle Grace Hospital 's internship program and faces unexpected challenges and surprises . Season one had nine series regulars , four of whom have been part of the main cast ever since . The season initially served as a mid @-@ season replacement for the legal drama Boston Legal , airing in the Sunday night time slot at 10 : 00 , after Desperate Housewives . Although no clip shows have been produced for this season , the events that occur are recapped in " Straight to Heart " , a clip @-@ show which aired one week before the winter holiday hiatus of the second season ended . The season was officially released on DVD as two @-@ disc Region 1 box set under the title of Grey 's Anatomy : Season One on February 14 , 2006 by Buena Vista Home Entertainment .
The series ' protagonist and title character is Dr. Meredith Grey ( Ellen Pompeo ) , who is accepted into the residency program at the fictional Seattle Grace Hospital . She joins the program as an intern and is assigned to work under their resident Dr. Miranda Bailey ( Chandra Wilson ) , along with fellow interns an extremely competitive Dr. Cristina Yang ( Sandra Oh ) , an insecure Dr. George O 'Malley ( T. R. Knight ) , ex model Dr. Izzie Stevens ( Katherine Heigl ) , and an arrogant Dr. Alex Karev ( Justin Chambers ) . The surgical wing is primarily supervised by the Chief of Surgery Dr. Richard Webber ( James Pickens , Jr . ) . Dr. Preston Burke ( Isaiah Washington ) is the head of Cardio surgery . Meredith is in a romantic relationship with her attending Derek Shepherd ( Patrick Dempsey ) a stranger she had a one @-@ night stand with , and is the daughter of the renowned surgeon Ellis Grey ( Kate Burton ) , who now suffers from Alzheimer 's .
The season 's reviews and critiques were hugely positive , and the series received several awards and nominations for the cast and crew including three nominations at the 57th Primetime Emmy Awards including Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series for Oh . The series also received three nominations at the Golden Globe Award with the series itself being nominated for Best Drama Series , Dempsey nominated for Best Actor in a Drama Series Oh winning the Best Supporting Actress while the entire cast was nominated in the Outstanding Cast – Drama Series category . Oh also won the Outstanding Actress in a Drama Series at the 12th Screen Actors Guild Awards . Chambers and Pompeo were nominated Choice TV Breakout Performances at the 2005 Teen Choice Awards . Peter Horton and Jeffrey Melman were also nominated for the Best Directing – Drama Series , Night for A Hard Day 's Night and Into You Like a Train respectively at the 58th Directors Guild of America Awards .
The first five episodes of the second season were conceived , written and shot to air as the final five episodes of the first season , but aired during the 2005 @-@ 2006 season due to the high number of viewers that watched " Who 's Zoomin ' Who ? " , the season 's highest @-@ rated episode with 22 @.@ 22 million viewers tuning in . The series was chosen in the top ten for several 2005 " best of television " lists , including USA Today , San Jose Mercury News , The New York Times , The Boston Globe and Chicago Tribune
= = Production = =
The series was created by Shonda Rhimes and was aired on the ABC Network in the U.S. The season was produced by Touchstone Television , currently ABC Studios , The Mark Gordon Company , ShondaLand Production Company , and was distributed by Buena Vista International , Inc .. The season 's executive producers were Rhimes , Betsy Beers , Mark Gordon , James D. Parriott , Krista Vernoff , Rob Corn , and Mark Wilding . The staff writers were Rhimes , Parriott , Ann Hamilton , Vernoff , Kip Koenig , Mimi Schmir , Gabrielle Stanton , and Harry Werksman , Jr .. The directors throughout the season were Peter Horton , Tony Goldwyn , Adam Davidson . John David Coles , Scott Brazil , Darnell Martin , Sarah Pia Anderson , and Wendey Stanzler . Rhimes served as the season 's show runner . She and Horton , who wrote and directed the first two episodes respectively , would also have written and directed the season 's final two episodes , had they not been transferred into the second season .
The show was announced in late 2004 as a mid @-@ season replacement for Boston Legal . It was originally scheduled to run in the Boston Legal time slot for just four weeks , but after receiving high ratings remained in the time slot for the remainder of the season . ABC Entertainment President Steve McPherson commented on the scheduling decision : " Ultimately we decided that , without having adequate lead time or marketing dollars to devote to moving either show so late in the season , we 'd continue to let ' Grey 's ' build on its tremendous momentum through May . " Prior to broadcast , it was announced that the show 's title would change from Grey 's Anatomy to Complications , although ultimately this did not come to pass . Francie Calfo , executive vice president for development at ABC Entertainment , commented on the show 's conception : " I think there was a need for this kind of show on our air , specifically a medical show . And Shonda found a twist on it that made it perfect for where we 're at right now . Medical shows are hard , and it was hard trying to figure out where ours could be different . But where everybody else is speeding up their medical shows , she found a way to slow it down , so you get to know the characters . There 's definitely a strong female appeal to it . " Rhimes explained that she had found the idea of a show about smart women competing against one another an interesting one .
= = Cast = =
Nine actors had star billing in the show 's first season . Series creator Shonda Rhimes wanted a diverse cast , and so created characters without pre @-@ specified races . Determined not to have a show in which " all the extras are white , except the lone janitor " , she has created what the New York Times have called " one of the most colorful backgrounds in television " . Rhimes used a " blind @-@ casting " technique , which resulted in several roles going to actors of different racial backgrounds than first envisioned . Isaiah Washington , eventually cast as Preston Burke , was originally considered for the role of Derek Shepherd , while Burke was initially to be played by a white actor who dropped out at the last moment . Chandra Wilson was cast in the role of Miranda Bailey , who Rhimes had imagined as a blonde until auditioning Wilson . The Campus have observed that the Grey 's Anatomy cast is actually more diverse than the city it emulates , noting that Seattle is actually 70 % Caucasian .
The nine characters who appear as series regulars in the first season all work in the fictional Seattle Grace Hospital . Five of the characters are interns : Meredith Grey portrayed by Ellen Pompeo , who is in a romantic relationship with her attending Derek Shepherd , and is the daughter of the renowned surgeon Ellis Grey , who now suffers from Alzheimer 's ; Cristina Yang portrayed by Sandra Oh , an extremely competitive intern who befriends Meredith and begins a sexual relationship with Preston Burke ; Izzie Stevens portrayed by Katherine Heigl , an ex model who struggles to be recognized as a doctor ; Alex Karev portrayed by Justin Chambers , an arrogant intern who initially irritates his colleagues , and George O 'Malley portrayed by T.R. Knight , an insecure intern with a lack of confidence , who develops a crush on Meredith . The interns are mentored by their resident Miranda Bailey portrayed by Chandra Wilson , a disciplined woman who is nicknamed " The Nazi " . The surgical program is led by the Chief of Surgery Dr. Richard Webber portrayed by James Pickens Jr .. In his employ are Preston Burke and Derek Shepherd from New York portrayed by Isaiah Washington and Patrick Dempsey respectively . Guest stars include Meredith 's mother Ellis , portrayed by Kate Burton , nurse Olivia Harper , portrayed by Sarah Utterback , who serves as a love interest for George and Alex , and Derek 's estranged wife Addison Montgomery , played by Kate Walsh .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
The first season 's ratings were consistently high , ranking first in its timeslot and leading its closest competition by 7 @.@ 2 million viewers . It delivered ABC 's best audience retention following Desperate Housewives , was the highest rated show amongst 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds in 13 years since The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles , and produced ABC 's strongest series performance in the hour in more than four years . Commenting on the first season 's high ratings , Magna Global USA media analyst Steve Sternberg stated : " Roughly 80 percent of households during prime time only have one TV set on . People are looking for shows they can watch with other household members . And just as Desperate Housewives reaches a broad audience - younger , older , male , female - so does Grey 's Anatomy . " The season finale was watched by 22 @.@ 22 million viewers , and was ranked the ninth in viewership .
= = = Reviews = = =
The first season of Grey 's received mostly positive reviews from the critics . In regard to the first season , New York Daily News named Grey 's Anatomy a " winner " , whereas Newsday expressed a positive opinion by stating " You simply can 't stop watching . " Walter Chaw from Film Freak Central said the show was " so odious , so repugnant , that it 's impossible not to have predicted its newly @-@ minted role as the most popular program in the land . " The Washington Post 's Tom Shales was critical of the early series , finding it reminiscent of ER and commenting that : " The show is much more a matter of commercial calculation than an honest attempt to try something fresh and different " . He called Rhimes ' script for the pilot episode " nothing but a casserole made of equal parts ham and corn " , writing that overall : " It 's a ' new ' show only in the sense that Dr. Frankenstein 's monster was a new man . " Kate Aurthur for The New York Times deemed the show a hybrid of Ally McBeal , Sex and the City and ER , writing of the news that it had become the highest @-@ rated midseason drama in 12 years that : " When you parse its ratings , Grey 's Anatomy underscores one of the real lessons of the current season - men will watch shows with a female lead . That goes against conventional wisdom , which dictates that it 's easier to get women to watch shows aimed at men . " Review Stream gave positive reviews regarding the pilot episode , " A Hard Day 's Night " , due to the undeniable chemistry between Ellen Pompeo and Patrick Dempsey from the series ' first scene . Regarding Miranda Bailey 's appearance in the pilot , ReviewStream.com stated " She 's such a small woman but wait until she speaks " . HomeTheaterInfo.com , however , had a mixed perspectives on the pilot , noting that the storylines were similar to fellow ABC series Desperate Housewives , but also " brilliantly written , extremely well acted and directed to near perfection " . IGN gave a positive review stating , " The show isn 't derivative , and actually maintains a tenuous edge over its predecessor , the characters resemble real people - who are fragile , and yes , fallible . " and added , " this facile description does little justice to the show 's tightly @-@ wound plotting , character subtleties , or masterful acting , it speaks to the intangible nature of what differentiates the wheat from the chaff , so to speak , in network television . "
Sandra Oh won Best Supporting Actress – Series , Miniseries or Television Film at the 63rd Golden Globe Awards and Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Drama Series at the 12th Screen Actors Guild Awards in 2005 , for her portrayal of Cristina Yang during Grey 's Anatomy 's first season . The season also resulted in a number of awards nominations : At the 2005 Directors Guild of America Awards , Peter Horton received a nomination for the Best Directing in a Drama Series , for his work on " A Hard Day 's Night " . He was nominated for the same award and episode at the 57th Primetime Emmy Awards , which also saw Grey 's Anatomy nominated for Outstanding Casting for a Drama Series , and Oh was nominated Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series . Patrick Dempsey was nominated for Best Actor – Television Series Drama at the 63rd Golden Globe Awards , where the show was also nominated Best Television Series – Drama . The Producers Guild of America Awards in 2005 saw the season again nominated for Best Producer in a Drama Series , while that year 's Satellite Awards saw the show nominated for Best Television Series – Drama , and Oh nominated for Best Supporting Actress – Series , Miniseries or Television Film . Dempsey was nominated for the Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Drama Series at the 12th Screen Actors Guild Awards , where the whole cast were also nominated for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series .
= = Episodes = =
The number in the " No. in series " column refers to the episode 's number within the overall series , whereas the number in the " No. in season " column refers to the episode 's number within this particular season . " U.S. viewers in millions " refers to the number of Americans in millions who watched the episodes live . The first season 's episodes are altogether 387 minutes in length .
= = DVD Release = =
Grey 's Anatomy : Season One was released as a widescreen two @-@ disc Region 1 DVD box set in the USA on February 14 , 2006 . It was distributed by Buena Vista . In addition to all the episodes that had aired , it included an alternate title sequence , audio commentaries , an extended pilot episode and a making @-@ of featurette . The same set was released on October 11 , 2006 in Region 2 , featuring the planned fourteen episodes over three discs .
The first season was officially released on DVD in Region 1 on February 14 , 2006 , during the show 's second season . Under the title Grey 's Anatomy : Season One , the box set consists of episodes with Dolby Digital 5 @.@ 1 surround sound and widescreen format . It also contained extras available only on DVD , including extended episodes , footage from behind the scenes , audio commentaries and unaired scenes cut from the aired episodes . The same set was released in Region 4 on April 26 , 2006 , almost three months after its original release in the United States , whereas its release date in Region 4 was October 11 , 2006 . The UK set contained the original fourteen episodes , being released as a three @-@ disc boxset . The season has not been released on Blu @-@ ray disc in any region . The DVD box set is currently no . 899 in Movies and TV on Amazon.com and no . 3452 in Film and TV on Amazon.co.uk.
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= Van der Graaf Generator =
Van der Graaf Generator are an English progressive rock band , formed in 1967 in Manchester by singer @-@ songwriters Peter Hammill and Chris Judge Smith and the first act signed by Charisma Records . They did not experience much commercial success in the UK , but became popular in Italy during the 1970s . In 2005 the band reformed , and continue to perform as of 2016 .
The band formed at Manchester University , but settled in London where they signed with Charisma . They went through a number of incarnations in their early years , including a brief split in 1969 . When they reformed , they found minor commercial success with The Least We Can Do Is Wave to Each Other , and after the follow @-@ up album , H to He , Who Am the Only One , stabilised around a line @-@ up of Hammill , organist Hugh Banton , saxophonist David Jackson , and drummer Guy Evans . The quartet subsequently achieved significant success in Italy with the release of Pawn Hearts in 1971 .
After several exhausting tours of Italy , the band split in 1972 . They reformed in 1975 , releasing Godbluff and frequently touring Italy again , before a major line @-@ up change and a slight rename to Van der Graaf . The band split in 1978 . After many years apart , the band finally united at a gig at the Royal Festival Hall and a short tour in 2005 . Since then , the band has continued as a trio of Hammill , Banton , and Evans , who record and tour regularly in between Hammill 's concurrent solo career . A new album is scheduled for release in 2016 .
The group 's albums have tended to be both lyrically and musically darker in atmosphere than many of their progressive rock peers ( a trait they shared with King Crimson , whose guitarist Robert Fripp guested on two of their albums ) , and guitar solos were the exception rather than the rule , preferring to use Banton 's classically influenced organ , and , until his departure , Jackson 's multiple saxophones . While Hammill is the primary songwriter for the band , and its members have contributed to his solo albums , he is keen to stress that the band collectively arranges all its material . Hammill 's lyrics frequently covered themes of mortality , due to his love of science fiction writers such as Robert Heinlein and Philip K. Dick , along with his self @-@ confessed warped and obsessive nature . His voice has been a distinctive component of the band throughout its career . It has been described as " a male Nico " and would later on be cited as an influence by Goth bands in the 1980s . Though the group have generally been commercially unsuccessful outside of early 1970s Italy , they have inspired several musicians , including John Lydon and Julian Cope .
= = History = =
= = = Formation and early years ( 1967 – 69 ) = = =
The band formed in 1967 at Manchester University , after Chris Judge Smith , who had already played in several British rhythm and blues groups whilst a pupil in Oundle School , returned from a trip to San Francisco and , inspired by the bands he had seen , put together a list of possible band names to form a new group . After an unsatisfactory audition they had both attended in response to an advert to form a band , he met fellow student Peter Hammill , who was playing some of his original songs . Hammill had begun writing songs and poetry at the age of 12 while at prep school , and progressed to playing in bands while a pupil at Beaumont College . He was then briefly employed as a computer programmer , during which time he subsequently claimed to have written much of the band 's early material , before enrolling at Manchester . Smith was so impressed with the quality of Hammill 's original material that the two agreed to form a band together . The band name chosen from Smith 's list was based on a Van de Graaff generator , a mechanical device that produces static electricity with lightning @-@ like flashes – the misspellings are accidental . Smith recalls the reason for this may have been that Van de Graaff died in 1967 , which was widely reported in the media .
Among the bands that regularly played the university , including Cream , Jimi Hendrix , and Pink Floyd , they were particularly impressed by The Crazy World of Arthur Brown , and recruited an organist , Nick Pearne , to match the format of Arthur Brown 's band . Along with two female dancers , the initial line @-@ up was Hammill on guitar and vocals , Smith on drums , wind instruments and vocals , and Pearne on organ ( though he did not initially have an instrument ) . According to Smith , the band initially played as a two @-@ piece , with Smith occasionally using a typewriter as a percussion instrument ; their first gig as a three piece was in the student union , which lasted five minutes before the group 's amplifiers blew up .
The band managed to persuade fellow student Caleb Bradley to manage them , and by the start of 1968 , the band had managed to record a demo tape influenced by blues and jazz , sending it to Lou Reizner , then the U.K. head of Mercury Records , who offered the trio of Hammill , Smith , and Pearne a recording contract in May . At this point , the band had to make a decision whether to stay on at university , or quit their courses and move to London to turn professional . Pearne was not keen to abandon his studies , so decided to leave the group .
On arrival in London , Hammill and Smith met up with trainee BBC engineer and classically trained organist Hugh Banton , who was a brother of one of their friends back in Manchester . Later that year , they met Tony Stratton @-@ Smith , who agreed to sign a management contract with them in December . Through him , the band acquired a bass guitar player , Keith Ellis , with drummer Guy Evans joining not too long afterwards . This line @-@ up performed on BBC Radio 1 's Top Gear radio show in November , and recorded a series of demos for Mercury , before releasing a single ( " People You Were Going To " b / w " Firebrand " ) on Polydor Records in January 1969 . Melody Maker said the single was " one of the best records of the week " . But the single was quickly withdrawn under pressure from Mercury , since it violated the contract band members Hammill and Smith signed the previous year . Smith , feeling superfluous to requirements , left the band , amicably , shortly after the recording of the single . He later released demos featuring his time in Van der Graaf Generator on a CD , Democrazy .
Meanwhile , Mercury refused to let the band record , and at the same time Stratton @-@ Smith refused to let the other members of the band sign to Mercury too , as he did not think the deal was fair to the band ( only Hammill remained now of the original three who had signed with Mercury ) . On top of that in late January 1969 the band 's van and equipment were stolen . The theft aggravated their financial difficulties . Although the band was touring successfully , which included a concert in February at the Royal Albert Hall in support of Jimi Hendrix , it broke up in June after playing a final gig at Nottingham 's Pop & Blues Festival on 10 May entirely with borrowed equipment . John Peel , who was compering the show , announced their break @-@ up to the audience .
In July 1969 , Hammill had begun performing solo at The Marquee in London , and since there was no group , he decided to record what was intended to be his first solo album at Trident Studios on 31 July and 1 August , with Banton , Evans , and Ellis as session musicians . However , through a deal worked out by Stratton @-@ Smith , the album , The Aerosol Grey Machine , was released by Mercury under the band 's name in return for releasing the band from their contract . The album was initially only released in the United States with hardly any promotion at all , so sales were minimal , but the group decided to reform in the middle of the recording session . Ellis had already committed to joining Juicy Lucy and was replaced by Evan 's former bandmate in The Misunderstood , Nic Potter . The band had also enjoyed flautist Jeff Peach 's contributions to the album and wanted to recruit a further instrumentalist . " There was always the idea of having another melodic instrument , " recalled Evans . " He [ Banton ] ' ll play a solo , sure , and really give it something , but he doesn 't want to do that all the time . " Peach was approached to become a full @-@ time member , but dropped out after one rehearsal . The position was eventually filled by saxophonist and flautist David Jackson , who had previously played in a band called Heebalob with Smith . Hammill had already sat in with Heebalob at the Plumpton National Jazz Festival on 9 August , and , impressed by Jackson 's playing , invited him to join the band , partly because he also needed a flatmate to help pay with the rent .
= = = Signing to Charisma ( 1969 – 70 ) = = =
In September , the new five piece band began rehearsals in Notting Hill Gate. and began to modify its sound . Banton , influenced by the effects pedals popularised by Jimi Hendrix , used his electronic skills to modify a Farfisa organ , giving it a wider variety of sounds . Jackson took his jazz influences , particularly Rahsaan Roland Kirk , and began to play multiple saxophones ( usually alto and tenor ) simultaneously . Hammill , for his part , elected to sing in received pronunciation , exploring the full range of his vocal capabilities . " We were all megalomaniacs , " said Banton . " We grabbed our own space as best we could . " The band started to gig regularly , including the first of several live appearances at the Friars Aylesbury in November .
Tony Stratton @-@ Smith formed Charisma Records and signed the band as his first act , who recorded their second album , The Least We Can Do Is Wave to Each Other from 11 – 14 December with John Anthony in Trident Studios . Hammill 's voice was electronically treated on After The Flood , while Refugees and White Hammer featured cello and cornet respectively . Because the band finished ahead of their rehearsal schedule , Potter decided to overdub some electric guitar – an instrument he had never played before . The album was released in February 1970 and made the top 50 in the U.K , Melody Maker said " If all our groups were as together as this , the British music scene would improve ten @-@ fold . "
Potter , however , did not feel he fitted into this increasingly experimental sound the band was developing , and tended to wait until the others had worked out their parts during rehearsals , adding his bass lines on top at the last minute . After recording three tracks of their third album , H to He , Who Am the Only One , he decided to quit the band . His last gig was on 9 August at the 1970 Plumpton Festival . The remaining members auditioned Dave Anderson , roadie for Brinsley Schwarz and friend of the band , but after a week 's rehearsal , found that things weren 't working out musically . Banton , meanwhile , had become influenced by Vincent Crane 's work in Atomic Rooster , where Crane played the bass lines on a Hammond organ 's bass pedals , and suggested that he could do this as well . With just days to go before the next gig , they tried rehearsing as a four piece , and it was successful . Banton later played bass guitar on certain songs , having already learned the instrument in the mid @-@ 1960s , and Hammill expanded his instrumental capabilities on stage to cover piano and keyboards as well as guitar . Jackson modified his saxophones to be completely electric , as opposed to simply being amplified through a microphone , and combined the sound with a wah @-@ wah pedal and an octave divider .
H To He continued to be recorded sporadically throughout 1970 , and featured Robert Fripp of King Crimson contributing guitar on " The Emperor in His War @-@ Room " . John Anthony knew Fripp socially , and invited him to a session as a guest , something Fripp had never done before at that point . According to Jackson , Fripp " put headphones on and started searing away " , listening to the track once , then performing two takes . Killer , later to become a live favourite , recycled a middle eight from an old Heebalob song , and Smith received a co @-@ composition credit on the track . Reviewing the album , Sounds particularly praised Jackson 's saxophone work .
= = = The classic line @-@ up ( 1971 – 72 ) = = =
The Hammill / Banton / Jackson / Evans quartet that resulted from H to He , Who Am the Only One is now considered the " classic " line @-@ up , and went on to play as part of the " Six Bob Tour " in early 1971 with fellow Charisma labelmates Genesis and Lindisfarne . Despite the complexity of their music , the band were well received on the tour , with Hammill noting " at nearly all the gigs , most of the audience have known most of the songs ... It was like a big family actually , exactly as all of us had pictured it in our wildest dreams . "
While on tour , the band started working out compositions between gigs for their next album , which would become Pawn Hearts . The intention was to release a double album , and the band recorded the material ; however , for economic reasons , the released recording was a single album containing three tracks – " Lemmings " , " Man @-@ Erg " , and the 23 minute concept piece " A Plague of Lighthouse Keepers " . Reflecting on this , Hammill said : " Charisma Records felt that it wasn 't appropriate for us to release a double album and they vetoed the live studio recordings and the solo tracks by Guy , David , and Hugh . " The master tape of the recording sessions has been lost . Fripp again provided a cameo appearance on guitar . While " Man @-@ Erg " had already been performed on stage , " A Plague of Lighthouse Keepers " evolved in the studio , recorded in small sections and pieced together during mixing . According to producer John Anthony , the track features a lot more studio experimentation than on previous albums , saying " we pushed the facilities at Trident to the limit and had involved the use of every single tape machine in Trident at some stage . " The experiments included tape manipulation and Banton playing Mellotron and synthesizer . According to Jackson , one section of it features the entire band overdubbed 16 times . The album was not a success in the U.K , but proved highly successful in Italy , topping the chart there for 12 weeks . The following single , " Theme One " , reached number one in Italy , too . " Theme One " was an instrumental piece , originally written by Beatles producer George Martin as a fanfare for the BBC radio station Radio 1 , later to appear on US pressings of Pawn Hearts .
Following commercial success in Italy , the band did a six @-@ week tour there at the start of 1972 . The band were apprehensive about touring there , concerned they might be playing to half empty venues , but they were all shocked by the sheer volume of the crowds that came to see them . " Pawn Hearts was seen as the ultimate album by the ultimate band , " said Jackson , who at times found it difficult to walk down the street in parts of Italy without being recognised . " The tour was like the prophets have landed ... you couldn 't go anywhere without this lunatic ' Generator Mania ' breaking out . " After the tour , the group was immediately offered another Italian tour , this time doing up to three shows a day . In between the tours , the band made an appearance on Belgian television performing " Theme One " and " A Plague of Lighthouse Keepers " . Since the studio recording of " A Plague of Lighthouse Keepers " was a collage of multiple recordings , impossible to reproduce live in one setting , the band simply filmed individual sections of the song and spliced them together in the editing suite . It was the only live performance of the song until 2013 .
By June , the band had performed another Italian tour ( the third that year ) and wanted to start recording new material ( some of which ended up on Hammill 's solo album Chameleon in the Shadow of the Night ) . However , the combination of working for too long without a break , combined with a lack of support from Stratton @-@ Smith and Charisma and continued financial difficulties caused the band to implode , and Hammill left to pursue a solo career in mid @-@ 1972 .
The three remaining members recorded an instrumental album with Nic Potter , Ced Curtis , and Pietro Messina , under the name " The Long Hello " . Their self @-@ titled album ( The Long Hello ) was released in 1974 .
= = = First reunion ( 1975 – 78 ) = = =
Hammill 's split with the group was amicable , and Banton , Jackson , and Evans , among others , all contributed to his solo work at various times . By 1975 , the members of the band were ready to work with each other again , and they decided to reform the band . All the members were keen on carrying on with new music , with no nostalgia for their previous era , and did not want to play earlier stage favourites such as " Killer " ( the opening track on H to He , Who Am the Only One ) and " Theme One " . " We didn 't want to continue as if nothing had happened , " said Hammill .
The reformed band worked at a prolific pace , rehearsing , and touring France before recording three new albums in just 12 months , beginning with Godbluff . Unlike the earlier work with John Anthony at Trident , the sessions were produced by the band themselves , and both the Melody Maker and Sounds thought they were a tighter and more cohesive unit than previously . The album in particular saw Hammill making significant use of the Hohner clavinet keyboard . Still Life followed early the next year . Banton considers this album one of his favourites by the group .
In the summer of 1975 , the band returned to play Italy without incident , but when they returned to tour there in November , the intense political situation the country was going through caught up with them . The opening concert in Padova was marked with clashes with communists delivering political speeches , and the audience started throwing missiles towards the stage . After a gig without incident in Genoa , the third day of the tour at the PalaSport in Rome , in front of 40 @,@ 000 people , saw similar confrontations to the Padova gig . A fire broke out at the venue , but was brought under control . The next day , the band learned that most of their gear had been stolen from the tour van , including Hammill 's blue Fender Stratocaster , christened " Meurglys " . Despite threats from promoters that the band would continue the tour using hired equipment ( which Jackson considered impossible given the electronic modifications he had made to his saxophones ) , they abandoned the tour . Miraculously , all of Jackson 's saxophones had survived the theft .
In December 1976 , following World Record , Banton quit , quickly followed by Jackson in February 1977 . Nic Potter returned to replace Banton , and in a typically eccentric move Jackson was replaced by a violinist , Graham Smith ( formerly of Charisma folk @-@ rock band String Driven Thing ) . This line @-@ up produced the album The Quiet Zone / The Pleasure Dome . The band also shortened its name to Van der Graaf . Charles Dickie then joined the band on cello , documented on the live double @-@ album Vital , which saw a brief reunion with Jackson . By the time Vital was released , in the summer of 1978 , the band had already split , because of lack of record company support in the United States and financial difficulties .
In 1982 a collection of out @-@ takes and rehearsal recordings from the 1972 – 1975 hiatus was released ( initially on cassette only ) , called Time Vaults . These are not studio @-@ quality recordings .
= = = Second reunion ( 2005 to date ) = = =
Despite the 1978 split , Banton recalled that the group " never descended very far into our sub @-@ conscience " . Banton , Jackson and Evans appeared on Hammill 's solo albums , and all four occasionally played together . In 1996 , the quartet appeared on stage during a concert by Hammill and Evans at the Union Chapel in London to perform " Lemmings " , which was later released as The Union Chapel Concert . In 2003 , Banton , Jackson , and Evans joined with Hammill to perform " Still Life " at the Queen Elizabeth Hall in London .
Following the Queen Elizabeth Hall performance , the band members discussed working together . In mid @-@ 2004 , they began to write and rehearse new material . The result was a double CD , Present , released in April 2005 . Critical response was favourable ; BBC Music 's Peter Marsh said the group was " willing to push the envelope a little , and bless them for that " , while AllMusic ' Dave Thompson said the group " never made a less than fabulous album in their lives . And they 're not about to start now . " A reunion concert took place at the Royal Festival Hall , London , on 6 May , which was released as Real Time in 2007 . The Festival Hall concert was followed by several European dates in the summer and autumn . The concert in Leverkusen , Germany on 5 November was filmed for the Westdeutscher Rundfunk TV show Rockpalast , which was broadcast on 16 January 2006 .
Hammill stated in a December 2005 newsletter that there were no plans for further recordings or performances by the " classic " Van der Graaf Generator line @-@ up of himself , Banton , Evans and Jackson . Hammill subsequently announced that the band would be continuing as a trio , for live and studio work , without Jackson . He later stated that the reason for Jackson 's departure was that he " seemed to have difficulty in understanding what we had mutually agreed " and that he clashed with the other band members . Relationships between Jackson and the others become strained , and Hammill , Banton and Evans realised that the only way the group could continue was without him .
The group began touring as a trio in April and July 2007 over Europe . A concert on 14 April 2007 in the Paradiso in Amsterdam was recorded and streamed on the FabChannel website until March 2009 , and was released on DVD and CD in June 2009 .
The first trio recording , Trisector , was released on 17 March 2008 . Live concerts were played in Europe in March and April , and in Japan in June , among them , one at the Gouveia Art Rock Festival . There were further concerts in January 2009 in Europe , and the band played several concerts in Canada and the United States in the summer of 2009 , among them performances at NEARfest , in New York City . It was the first time Van der Graaf Generator had visited the United States since 1976 , and their second gig there .
In spring 2010 , the group recorded a new album in Devon . A Grounding in Numbers was released on 14 March 2011 . Live at Metropolis Studios 2010 was released as a 2CD / 1DVD set by Salvo / Union Square Music on 4 June 2012 . The band then toured the eastern part of the United States and Canada during June and July 2012 , including an appearance at NEARfest Apocalypse in Bethlehem , Pennsylvania on 22 June .
An album of out @-@ takes and in @-@ studio jams , similar to the second disc of Present , called ALT was released in June 2012 . Hammill has stated that he has enjoyed the current reunion , as " the activity has reinvigorated me . Going from one thing to another is an energizing thing . "
Hammill revealed via his website that the band 's former bassist Nic Potter died on the night of 16 January 2013 , aged 61 . The group continued to tour in 2013 , including the first live performance of " A Plague of Lighthouse Keepers " . In 2014 , the group collaborated with artist Vladislav Shabalin for an art venture titled the Earlybird Project . The title comes from the track of the same name on ALT . In 2015 , the group released the live album , Merlin Atmos featuring tracks recorded during the 2013 tour , and After the Flood , an album of BBC recordings from 1968 – 1977 . A new album , Do Not Disturb is scheduled for release in September 2016 .
= = Musical style = =
No one is likely to confuse the savage energy of King Crimson and Van der Graaf Generator in their mid @-@ 1970s incarnations with the disinterested density of Gentle Giant or the more pastoral , at times delicate , stylizations of Genesis or Renaissance ( or even Yes in their quieter moments )
Due to the time @-@ frame of the original band 's career , Van der Graaf Generator have been frequently referred to as a progressive rock band . Writing in Record Collector , Toby Manning said the music was " philosophical , even intellectual , complex .. at times , terrifying " . While the music on The Aerosol Grey Machine has a more pastoral , hippie feel , with prominent use of Hammill 's acoustic guitar , later work featured more complex instrumentation and arrangements . Hammill thinks the style of the band evolved due to the culture of music in the late 1960s , stating " the whole of music was laid out in front of you ... it was the blues in wonky time signatures . " Both Hammill and Banton have stated that Jimi Hendrix was an influence on the band 's sound , with Hammill remarking that " there 'd been distortion before , but there hadn 't been that real out @-@ there attitude to sound in itself " . The group 's experimental style has also been compared to Krautrock bands such as Can . Because of their musical influences and line @-@ up , the band tended to play darker musical themes than other progressive bands , with the possible exception of King Crimson . However , Hammill has stated that the group is still fun to work with , stating " as far as we 're concerned , it 's serious fun , but fun nonetheless . "
Hammill 's lyrics frequently covered themes of mortality , due to his love of science fiction writers such as Robert Heinlein and Philip K. Dick , along with his self @-@ confessed warped and obsessive nature . His voice has been a distinctive component of the band throughout its career . It has been described as " a male Nico " and would later on be cited as an influence by Goth bands in the 1980s .
Unlike several other notable prog rock keyboardists , such as Rick Wakeman or Keith Emerson , Banton considers himself primarily an organist , due to his background in classical and church music , and only ever used that instrument on stage , albeit heavily modified with customised electronics and devices . Hammill said that " Hugh is one of the most instinctive , baffling , and brilliant people I 've known and his intuitive hold on the worlds of music and electronics has always astonished me . " Banton used clonewheel organs during the 2005 reformation , but since 2009 he has used the Hammond XK @-@ 3c , and thinks Hammond have " cracked that sound at long last " .
Although Hammill has written the vast majority of the songs in the band 's catalogue , and all of the lyrics , he is keen to stress that the arrangements of the music comes from all the group 's members . In 1976 , being interviewed for the Melody Maker , he said that " VDGG is a band , a real band ... of course [ it ] is something special , it releases in individual terms parts of us that wouldn 't be aired otherwise . In 2013 , he reiterated , " Some people don 't think Van der Graaf is a democracy , but believe me , it 's entirely democratic , with everyone having very vocal and forceful opinions . "
The band have been compared with Genesis due to being label @-@ mates at Charisma Records , sharing management with Tony Stratton @-@ Smith and performing on the same bill on the " Six Bob Tour " . Hammill and Banton both reject this comparison , with Hammill noting that Genesis were far more driven to be commercially successful , whereas he prefers to release music without interference from record companies . In particular , he has mentioned that while he himself continues to release albums on a regular basis in the 21st century , Peter Gabriel 's " average output has been about 0 @.@ 2 albums a year " .
= = Influence = =
Though the group have generally been commercially unsuccessful outside of early 1970s Italy , they have inspired several notable musicians , including Rush , John Lydon , Marc Almond , Graham Coxon , Luca Prodan , Mark E. Smith , John Frusciante , Bruce Dickinson and Julian Cope . Dickinson , who has been a fan of the band since he saw them at Oundle School aged 13 , said that Hammill was one of his childhood heroes . Coxon is particularly fond of " House With No Door " from H to He , saying the track is " extremely beautiful , with Jackson 's truly lovely sax @-@ and @-@ flute instrumental section . " Almond recalled hearing " Killer " for the first time saying , " I 'd never heard anything like it before . It wasn 't just Peter 's snarling operatic vocal , it was the mix of instruments ... I became an instant fan . " Mentioning their reputation as something of an acquired taste , Lydon said , " There 's a few Van Der Graaf things I like , but I 'm not going to recommend anything to anyone . It might not be for them . Music doesn 't come with a set of guidelines . "
Although generally categorised as a progressive rock group , Cope is keen to distance the band from that movement , stating " Their music was like some Brechtian bar band – the opposite of prog rock , really " . Nevertheless , the band have been acknowledged as an influence on the neo @-@ progressive rock subgenre which emerged in the 1980s and featured Marillion as its most successful band . Marillion singer Fish thought highly of Hammill and invited him to be the support on the band 's early tours .
= = Personnel = =
= = = Members = = =
= = = Lineups = = =
= = = Timeline = = =
= = Discography = =
The Aerosol Grey Machine ( 1969 )
The Least We Can Do Is Wave to Each Other ( 1970 )
H to He , Who Am the Only One ( 1970 )
Pawn Hearts ( 1971 )
Godbluff ( 1975 )
Still Life ( 1976 )
World Record ( 1976 )
The Quiet Zone / The Pleasure Dome ( 1977 )
Present ( 2005 )
Trisector ( 2008 )
A Grounding in Numbers ( 2011 )
ALT ( 2012 )
Do Not Disturb ( announced to be released on 30 September 2016 )
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= CMLL World Middleweight Championship =
The CMLL World Middleweight Championship ( Spanish : Campeonato Mundial peso Medio de CMLL ) is a professional wrestling world championship promoted by the Mexican wrestling promotion Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre ( CMLL ) . While lighter weight classes are regularly ignored in wrestling promotions in the United States , with most emphasis placed on " heavyweights " , more emphasis is placed on the lighter classes in Mexican companies . The official definition of the Middleweight division in Mexico is a person between 82 kg ( 181 lb ) and 87 kg ( 192 lb ) , but the weight limits are not strictly adhered to in recent years . As it is a professional wrestling championship , it is not won or lost competitively but instead , by the decision of the bookers of a wrestling promotion . The title is awarded to a wrestler after he " wins " a match to maintain the illusion that professional wrestling is a competitive sport .
The current CMLL World Middleweight Champion is Dragón Rojo Jr . , having held the title since November 11 , 2011 , which make him the longest reigning champion in the history of the championship . Since its creation in 1991 , there have been 17 individual championship reigns shared between 12 wrestlers . El Dandy is the only wrestler to hold the championship three times and Apolo Dantés had the shortest reign of any champion , 77 days .
= = History = =
The middleweight division was one of the first weight divisions in Mexican Lucha libre to have a specific championship as the Mexican National Middleweight Championship was created in 1933 . When the Mexican Professional wrestling promotion Empresa Mexicana de Lucha Libre ( " Mexican Wrestling Enterprise " ; EMLL ) was founded in September 1933 they became one of several Mexican promotions to promote the championship . EMLL later created the " World Middleweight Championship to represent the highest level prize of the middleweight division , higher than the Mexican National Middleweight Championship . In 1952 EMLL joined the National Wrestling Alliance , which mean the title was renamed the NWA World Middleweight Championship .
In the late 1980s EMLL left the National Wrestling Alliance ( NWA ) to avoid the politics of the NWA and by 1991 they changed their name to Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre ( " World Wrestling Council " ; CMLL ) to distance themselves from the NWA . While they left the NWA the promotion kept using the NWA World Middleweight Championship as it had originated in EMLL . Following their name change CMLL decided to create a series of CMLL @-@ branded world championships , including adding the CMLL World Middleweight Championship , the third middleweight championship in the promotion . CMLL held a one @-@ night , eight @-@ man tournament to determine the first middleweight champion on December 18 , 1991 . The tournament final saw Blue Panther defeat El Satánico to become the first CMLL World Middleweight Champion .
In June 1992 Blue Panther was one of may CMLL wrestlers that left the company to join the newly formed Asistencia Asesoría y Administración ( AAA ) , leaving the CMLL World Middleweight Championship vacant . CMLL held a 16 @-@ man battle royal match to reduce the field to two finalists . El Dandy and Negro Casas survived the match and a week later El Dandy defeated Casas to become the second CMLL World Middleweight Champion . The championship has not been vacated since then .
The exodus from CMLL to AAA also meant that CMLL lost control of the Mexican National Middleweight Championship as then @-@ reigning champion Octagón was among the wrestlers that left the promotion . The Mexico City Boxing and Wrestling Commission allowed AAA to take control of the Mexican National Middleweight Championship at that point in time . On August 12 , 2010 , CMLL returned the NWA World Middleweight Championship to the NWA , but immediately replaced it with the NWA World Historic Middleweight Championship to keep two " world " level championships in the middleweight division . On May 3 , 2010 Jushin Thunder Liger defeated Negro Casas to win the championship . The match took place in Fukuoka , Fukuaka prefecture , Japan , which was the first time the middleweight championship changed hands outside of Mexico and also marked the first time a non @-@ Mexican wrestler held the championship .
= = Reigns = =
Dragón Rojo Jr. is the current champion having won the title on November 18 , 2011 from Jushin Thunder Liger . This is Dragón Rojo Jr . ' s first reign as middleweight champion , he is the 17th overall champion and also the wrestler who has held the championship the longest , at 1 @,@ 713 days and counting . El Dandy holds the record for most CMLL World Middleweight Championship reigns with three and is one of only three wrestlers to hold the title more than once , the others being Negro Casas and Emilio Charles Jr . Apolo Dantés held the title the shortest amount of time , a total of 77 days .
= = Rules = =
The official definition of the middleweight division in Mexico is from 82 kg ( 181 lb ) and 87 kg ( 192 lb ) . In the 20th century CMLL were generally consistent and strict about enforcing the actual weight limits . However in the 21st century the official definitions has at times been overlooked for certain champions . One example of this was when Mephisto , officially listed as 90 kg ( 200 lb ) , won the CMLL World Welterweight Championship , a weight class with a 82 kg ( 181 lb ) upper limit .
With a total of twelve CMLL promoted championships being labeled as " World " title the promotional focus shifts from championship to championship over time with no single championship being promoted as the " main " championship of the promotion . Championship matches usually take place under best two @-@ out @-@ of @-@ three falls rules . On occasion single fall title matches have taken place , especially when promoting CMLL title matches in Japan , conforming to the traditions of the local promotion , illustrated by Jushin Thunder Liger winning the championship during New Japan Pro Wrestling 's Wrestling Dontaku 2010 in a single @-@ fall match .
= = Tournaments = =
= = = 1991 = = =
In 1991 , CMLL held an eight @-@ man , one @-@ night tournament to crown the first ever CMLL World Middleweight champion . In the end Blue Panther won the championship by defeating El Satánico .
= = = 1992 = = =
Due to a large number of wrestlers leaving the company in the summer of 1992 the middleweight championship was vacated , forcing CMLL to hold a tournament . They opted to start out with a 16 @-@ man battle royal elimination match as a means to qualify for the final match the following week . Negro Casas and El Dandy outlasted a field of wrestlers that included Guerrero Maya , Águila Solitaria , Ponzona , Guerrero del Futuro , Plata , Espectro de Ultratumba , Espectro Jr . , Oro , Javier Cruz , Kung Fu , Kato Kung Lee , Ringo Mendoza , Bestia Salvaje and Último Dragón . The following week El Dandy defeated Casas to start his first of three championship reigns .
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= Shin @-@ shiro ( album ) =
Shin @-@ shiro ( Japanese : シンシロ , Hepburn : Shinshiro , " New White " ) ( Japanese pronunciation : [ ɕinɕiɺo ] ) is the third studio album by Japanese band Sakanaction . It was released on January 21 , 2009 through Victor Entertainment . The release was the band 's first album after relocating to Tokyo and moving to Victor Entertainment 's main roster . Led by the singles " Sen to Rei " and " Native Dancer " , the album became the group 's first release to chart in the top 10 albums on Oricon 's weekly album chart .
Shin @-@ shiro featured a different production approach to the band 's previous albums . Band vocalist Ichiro Yamaguchi collaborated with a different member of the band in a two @-@ person demo session for each songs , instead of their previous approach involving all five members working together . This approach was difficult for pianist Emi Okazaki , who had no experience with song production previously , and for drummer Keiichi Ejima , who learnt the guitar specifically to record demos for this album . The first finished demo , created by Yamaguchi and bassist Ami Kusakari 's for the song " Sen to Rei " strongly influenced the album 's production .
The album was well @-@ received critically , with critics noting the band 's growth ; praising the band 's electronic and pop sound , as well as Ichiro Yamaguchi 's songwriting and vocals . The album led Sakanaction to be chosen one of the ten iTunes Japan Sound of 2009 artists , as well as nominated at the Life Music Award 2009 .
In 2009 , the album was made available globally as a digital download , alongside the band 's debut and second albums Go to the Future ( 2007 ) and Night Fishing ( 2008 ) . In 2015 , the album was reissued on CD , LP record and lossless digital formats .
= = Background and development = =
Sakanaction was first formed in 2005 in Sapporo , Hokkaido . The band gained notoriety in Hokkaido after winning the audition to perform as a newcomer artist at the Rising Sun Rock Festival in Otaru in August 2006 , and after demos of their songs " Mikazuki Sunset " and " Shiranami Top Water " performed well on College Radio Japan Sapporo . The band were signed to major label Victor Entertainment , and released their debut album Go to the Future on May 7 , 2007 , through Victor 's BabeStar Label , and followed this up eight month later with the album Night Fishing ( 2009 ) .
The album is the band 's first after joining the main Victor Entertainment roster , after releasing two albums with Victor sub @-@ label BabeStar . After the release of Night Fishing , the band began looking for a new management company to sign a contract with . Originally , the members did not want to leave Sapporo , especially guitarist Motoharu Iwadera and bassist Ami Kusakari . Of the five management companies they were choosing between , none of them needed the band to relocate , except for Hipland Management . Vocalist Ichiro Yamaguchi realized that staying in Sapporo was against the band 's goal of making music for a much wider group of listeners , and was surprised when all of the members agreed with him . In Spring 2008 , the band moved to Tokyo from Hokkaido .
= = Writing and production = =
= = = Production techniques = = =
In April , Sakanaction had already started making songs for Shin @-@ shiro , despite having just finished their tour in March for the band 's second album Night Fishing , which had been released in January of the same year . The album 's production took a different approach to how Go to the Future and Night Fishing were produced . In their previous albums Yamaguchi produced the song demos , then took them to the studio and explained his vision for each song ; creating them in sessions with all of the band members . For Shin @-@ shiro , Yamaguchi created the songs , and then assigned each member of the band to create a demo based on their two @-@ person vision . This was a conscious move by Yamaguchi to create a new sound for the album , figuring that if all of members were concurrently working on the songs , it was inevitable that one person would take charge of each song .
Iwadera worked with Yamaguchi on the songs " Ame ( B ) " and " Namida Delight " , Kusakari on " Sen to Rei " , pianist Emi Okazaki on " Light Dance " , and drummer Keiichi Ejima on the instrumental composition " Minnanouta " . Kusakari and Okazaki collaborated to create demos for " Kiiroi Kuruma " . Yamaguchi worked by himself on the songs " Native Dancer " and " Enough " , while all of the band members contributed to " Adventure " and " Human " . The exception to this was " Zattō " , which was an old composition from Sakanaction 's early days in 2005 , when Yamaguchi and Iwadera were the only members of the group . The song 's arrangement was basically unchanged from the time of writing to its inclusion in the album . This pattern was not true for " Human " , which was originally a song written before the album sessions , however was completely rewritten when included in Shin @-@ shiro .
" Adventure " was created before the band left for Tokyo while they were experimenting with more approachable and pop sounds , and was intended to become the album 's leading single , in the role that was later filled by " Sen to Rei " . Similarly , in the early stages of the album 's creation , Yamaguchi also considered Adventure as a title for the album . When the members were creating demos for songs , Yamaguchi had not at that point finished composing the songs for the album . After finishing each composition , he would give it to a member to develop ; then return to composing more music while the members were all occupied . He found the two @-@ person production process invigorating , and was quickly able to write the remaining album material .
The band members all responded to this production method differently , with Iwadera and Kusakari finding the approach the easiest . Okazaki and Ejima both had trouble adopting this method . Okazaki was very anxious about her ability to create demos , having never used music software before , and not even owning a computer before moving to Tokyo . Yamaguchi bought her an iBook to help her with the process . Ejima found difficulty in recording demos due to the problem of recording drums at home for sound sampling . As a result , he learnt how to play the guitar . In June , the band were creating songs on a daily basis , and in August were still in the pre @-@ production stages of the album . The album was created at Yamaguchi 's apartment in Noborito in Kawasaki , Kanagawa , which became a meeting place for all of the band members for the album . In total , around thirty demo compositions were produced for the album . This method of song production also led to Yamaguchi being able to think of the album as a whole , as opposed to their methods on Go to the Future and Night Fishing , in which each song was thought of in its own individual context .
Kusakari was the fastest to finish her demo . Other than her , the other members brought their work half @-@ finished to their meetings with Yamaguchi . The song Kusakari was working on , " Sen to Rei " , became crucial to the creation of Shin @-@ shiro , as the band created the entire album in response to the song . Taking note of the musical style of " Sen to Rei " , the band created songs that showcased the other genres they performed , in order to expose new listeners to the entirety of the band 's sound . This was for first @-@ time listeners who came to know Sakanaction through " Sen to Rei " to be able to the entirety of the band 's sound . Kusakari 's version of the song " Sen to Rei " had a very strong guitar @-@ based rock sound , which the band mixed with electronic music . " Sen to Rei " was a challenge for the band , to bring as many entertaining and popular aspects to their music as they could , to balance the underground attributes of their sound .
= = = Demo production and location = = =
Sakanaction found that after moving to Tokyo , where the band stood in the Japanese music scene was a lot clearer to them . The album 's sound was inspired by Tokyo , and was a search to more consciously define what Sakanaction 's identity was , compared to their first two albums . As a result , Shin @-@ shiro felt like the end of the first chapter of Sakanaction to the band members . The music the band created on Shin @-@ shiro was a mix of everything that the band wanted to try musically , and an attempt to make a more " colorful " album inspired by both new wave and live performance @-@ style arrangements . They increased the tempo on the songs for the album , and focused on the beat of each song more than whether each song was structurally a pop song or not . Consciously attempting to create an album with a more popular sound , Yamaguchi was anxious about how his works would be received , and felt that these anxieties expressed themselves more on the album . For the song " Enough " , however , Yamaguchi wanted to create one song on the album that expressed his own thoughts on the album without being influenced by these pressures . The final studio takes of the songs were recorded in September 2008 .
The large amount of demos and separated work that each member was doing led to the creation of the instrumental song " Minnanouta " by Ejima . Originally Yamaguchi asked Ejima to create a song out of elements that Yamaguchi and Kusakari had discarded when making " Namida Delight " , but Ejima eventually took his favorite parts from all of the discarded demo takes to create the piece . At first , the band did not intend to have an interlude on the album , however found it was a helpful guide for new listeners to Sakanaction 's sound , and a good separator between the two halves of the album . " Namida Delight " also began as an instrumental song , however a melody and lyrics were added to the song after the band had entirely finished the piece .
The song " Ame ( B ) " was originally written as a folk song that Iwadera reworked into a progressive rock song . In the final stages of creation , Yamaguchi suggested they feature choral vocals in the song . Yamaguchi and Iwadera sung the vocal chorus themselves , with an additional three takes of Iwadera 's voice layered on top of each other . It was inspired by British rock band Queen 's 1980s dance music , and was written as what Yamaguchi thought was an " old style cool " song in a verse – chorus form , featuring two verses and a chorus . The version of the song featured on the album was built around the B verse alone , and felt similar to a remix to Yamaguchi because of this .
The demo version of the song " Light Dance " originally sounded similar to a war march , created this way by Okazaki was not very familiar with dance music . After fine @-@ tuning the arrangement , and inserting " oriental " synths in the style of Japanese bands Yellow Magic Orchestra and Godiego , " Light Dance " settled at a new wave sound . Yamaguchi considered aspects of " Light Dance " and " Adventure " were similar to heavy metal , such as the bass drum being layered with different instruments , but felt that these would be interpreted as new wave by most people .
The final studio versions of the album songs were recorded at Galva Studio in Kyūden , Setagaya , Tokyo . Several compositions had additional recorded elements . For " Zattō " , Iwadera and Yamaguchi incorporated a recording they had made of the crowds at Jiyūgaoka Station in Tokyo . Parts of " Ame ( B ) " were recorded outside , during a summer thunderstorm .
= = = Title = = =
The album 's title Shin @-@ shiro was intended to represent the kanji 新白 , a neologism created by Yamaguchi meaning " new white " , although it could also be interpreted as the homonym 真白 ( " pure white " ) . Yamaguchi hoped to express how the album was compiled with new feelings , and express the theme of the album as newness . The word " shin @-@ shiro " first appeared in Ichiro Yamaguchi 's blog in February 2008 , right after the release of Night Fishing . The cover design was created by the creative team Hatos , and features a waveform visual representation of the album title " Shin @-@ shiro " being spoken .
= = Promotion and release = =
The album was preceded by two singles . " Sen to Rei " was released on November 12 , 2008 , and later as the band 's first physical CD single release on December 10 . This was followed by a digital single " Native Dancer " in January 2009 . " Native Dancer " served as the leading promotional track on Shin @-@ shiro , promoted with a music video directed by Yuichi Kodama , featuring a pair of Nike sneakers performing an intricate dance . The video was critically successful , winning the best conceptual video award at the 2010 Space Shower Music Video Awards , and winning director Kodama the overall best director award .
The band performed a national tour of Japan in February and March 2009 , entitled Sakanaquarium 2009 : Shinshiro . The 13 date tour began in Kyoto on February 14 , and ended with two performances in Sapporo on March 20 and 21 . Following this , Sakanaction performed at three dates on Base Ball Bear 's Live Mathematics Tour : April 29 in Kōriyama , Fukushima , April 30 in Mito , Ibaraki and on May 7 in Kōfu , Yamanashi . On October 10 , Sakanaction performed their first overseas concert , the Gentra X Ssamzie Sound Festival in Paju , South Korea .
In 2015 the album was reissued , initially on vinyl record and a CD re @-@ release in March , followed by a lossless digital release . Originally the band had planned on releasing a new studio album in March 2015 , but they could not due to bassist Kusakari 's pregnancy .
= = Reception = =
= = = Retrospective = = =
In a retrospective interview on the album with Rockin ' On Japan in 2011 , Yamaguchi believed that many aspects of Sakanaction were not represented on the album , and felt that songs such as " Light Dance " , " Zattō " and " Enough " only showed surface @-@ level Sakanaction . The album 's comparative commercial success created an odd feeling for the band , as even though it sold many more copies than their previous works , they were not sure why it had stopped selling at 30 @,@ 000 copies . As a result of the album 's disappointing sales , Yamaguchi felt that Sakanaction needed to create a signature song that would be recognisable to a wide audience and would represent Sakanaction as a band , and spent most of 2009 experimenting on the song " Aruku Around " ( 2010 ) , released as the band 's next single after Shin @-@ shiro .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Critics positively reviewed Shin @-@ shiro , with both CDJournal and Vibe reviewers noting the strong contrast to their first two studio albums . Mio Yamada of Vibe wrote that the album was completely different direction to their previous albums , feeling it was more accessible , while CDJournal felt that the album was more " colorful " and " radical " . Yamada described it as a " Sakanaction @-@ style road movie " about finding yourself , while being lonely , anxious and fed up with the tedium of everyday . Shirō Ise of Listen.jp noted the album 's " high sense and edgy sound " based on " electronica and guitar rock " , while being inspired by a variety of genres such as 1990s alternative rock , new wave , technopop , house , ambient music and African @-@ American music . He praised the fact that despite how many genres the music was inspired by , the band 's music did not forget the heart of songs . CDJournal praised the fact that each song stands on its own musically , instead of being drowned out by the album 's overarching digital sound . Yuji Tanaka of CDJournal described the album as " dynamic technotronica rock " that fused the feel of live music with four on the floor beats . Alexey Eremenko of AllMusic gave the album four or of five stars , comparing it to the works of Asian Kung @-@ Fu Generation . He felt that Sakanaction created " a fresh version of new wave " , and felt that the album was " emotionally cohesive " . He felt that none of the songs on Shin @-@ shiro were " big catchy numbers " , but felt that this was beneficial for the musical flow . Eremenko , however , criticized the album for being " too lightweight " .
For the leading single " Sen to Rei " , CDJournal reviewers praised Sakanaction 's " ever @-@ changing sound " , and were impressed with the changing vocals in the song 's chorus . They noted that the song was not very " showy " , however felt that despite this , Sakanaction still expressed a " high quality hybrid " sound . Sakiko Okazaki of Rockin ' On Japan praised the song 's high @-@ pitched synthesizers , fast @-@ paced guitars , groovy bass and heart @-@ hitting drums , and felt the song expressed the vigor of Sakanaction .
CDJournal praised Yamaguchi 's " mostly detached but somehow cheerful vocals " in " Ame ( B ) " , and felt that " Light Dance " was an " addictive , danceable number " , and were impressed with the song 's guitar solo , as well as how the digital sound brought up feelings of impatience and doubt . They noted the gap in " Native Dancer " between its dance rhythm and painful lyrical content , and were impressed with its transition from a " nostalgic " piano sound , developing into a dance song . For the instrumental track " Minnanouta " , the reviewers praised the arrangement as " marvelous techno " , and noted the song 's distinctive sound loop , that " called out intoxication and ecstasy " . Kuniko Yamada of Bounce felt the album was " fresh " , and demonstrated the many senses that Sakanaction members had . She noted that the band were also comfortable in producing " guitar rock " songs such as " Sen to Rei " , and that the four on the floor such as " Adventure " and " Ame ( B ) " would be comfortable on the dance floor . She singled out " Native Dancer " for its " beautiful fusion of acoustic and synth sounds " , and felt that " Zattō " managed to be profound despite its simple arrangement .
In February , Sakanaction were named as one of the ten iTunes Japan Sound of 2009 artists : musicians who iTunes Japan staff expected to make it big in 2009 . At Life Music Award 2009 , a Tokyo FM competition based on radio DJ nominations , Sakanaction were the runners up for the Best Impact of Life award for most surprising act , however lost to 9mm Parabellum Bullet . In the 2009 CD Shop Awards , the album was chosen as one of the ten finalists .
= = = Commercial reception = = =
In its debut week , Shin @-@ shiro was the eighth most sold album in Japan according to the Japanese music chart Oricon , selling 12 @,@ 000 copies . This resulted in the band having their first top fifty release , and outselling their first two albums in a single week . Rival sales tracking agency SoundScan Japan tracked 10 @,@ 000 physical copies sold in the single 's first week , and a total of 16 @,@ 000 copies over two weeks . The album continued to chart in the top 100 albums for four more weeks , and the top 300 for an additional three , selling an additional 16 @,@ 000 units . During the release of the band 's single " Aruku Around " in January 2010 , the album re @-@ charted for a seven weeks , selling an additional 4 @,@ 000 copies . After re @-@ entering the chart for a single week in 2012 and being reissued in 2015 , the album 's current sales total adds to 34 @,@ 000 copies . In tracking regional sales , CDJournal noted the album had broad charting success across all of Japan , and was the band 's first album to perform well in the regional centers of Nagoya , Osaka and Fukuoka .
= = Track listing = =
All lyrics written by Ichiro Yamaguchi .
= = Personnel = =
Personnel details were sourced from Shin @-@ shiro 's liner notes booklet .
Sakanaction
Personnel and imagery
= = Charts = =
= = = Sales = = =
= = Release history = =
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= Fort Steuben Bridge =
The Fort Steuben Bridge , originally the Weirton @-@ Steubenville Bridge , was a suspension bridge which spanned the Ohio River from Steubenville , Ohio to Weirton , West Virginia and carried U.S. Route 22 and then Ohio State Route 822 during its existence . Completed in 1928 and opened as a toll bridge , the Fort Steuben Bridge was a more direct route for the flow of traffic across the river ; particularly for trucks and heavy vehicles from the industrial area . The Fort Steuben Bridge was weight @-@ restricted in 2006 and closed in 2009 due to deterioration . The bridge was demolished by Joseph B. Fay Co. on February 21 , 2012 .
= = Construction = =
Originally named the Weirton @-@ Steubenville Bridge , construction of the bridge began in 1927 and was completed in 1928 . Under the direction of the Dravo Contracting Company 's Engineering Works Department , based in Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania , the project was referred to as the " Stanton Bridge over the Ohio River at Steubenville , Ohio " . The bridge spanned 1 @,@ 584 ft 9 in ( 483 @.@ 03 m ) and had a width of 29 ft 3 in ( 8 @.@ 92 m )
= = Service life = =
Serving as a link between Steubenville , Ohio and Weirton , West Virginia , the Fort Steuben Bridge opened as a toll bridge in November 1928 . The bridge was the main carrier of U.S. Route 22 over the Ohio River , its traffic included trucks and heavy duty vehicles associated with the industrial facilities in Weirton @-@ Steubenville area and along the Ohio River . The Fort Steuben Bridge provided a more direct route for the flow of traffic which previously had to use the Market Street Bridge . As of 1940 the toll for the bridge was 5 cents ( US $ 0 @.@ 84 with inflation ) for pedestrians and 25 cents ( US $ 4 @.@ 22 with inflation ) for automobiles . The toll was removed in 1947 , when ownership of the bridge was transferred to the State of Ohio . Improvements to the bridge were made in 1956 .
By the late 1970s , traffic congestion on the bridge had become a serious problem . A 1978 study revealed that although the bridge could handle a peak 1 @,@ 600 vehicles passing over the bridge per hour , excess traffic pushing it towards its theoretical capacity of 1 @,@ 920 vehicles per hour could potentially cause gridlock on the bridge . The United States Senate report accompanying the fiscal 1983 appropriation bill for the United States Department of Transportation mentioned that its replacement had become a high priority . A proposed schedule was for the Federal Highway Administration ( FHWA ) to receive plans for a cable stayed superstructure by February 1 , 1983 , and for the project to be approved by mid @-@ April 1983 .
Fort Steuben Bridge 's replacement , the Veterans Memorial Bridge , was completed in 1990 . The Ohio Department of Transportation capped funding for maintaining the Fort Steuben Bridge in 1998 at around $ 200 @,@ 000 ( US $ 290 @,@ 000 with inflation ) per year . The Fort Steuben Bridge was weight @-@ restricted in 2006 due to the weakening of the structure over time . The assessment prompted a weight limit ; reducing the bridge 's traffic which consisted of heavy trucks . The bridge was known to be affected by rain vibration .
= = Closing and demolition = =
On January 8 , 2009 , a dip in the floor of the bridge was reported in the course of routine maintenance , prompting an inspection on the bridge . On January 15 , 2009 , the Ohio Department of Transportation deemed the bridge unfit for traffic , citing " significant deteriorating changes in the floor condition of the bridge . " Repairs to the bridge were not conducted because the bridge was expected to be demolished in late 2009 and the cost of the repairs would not be " cost effective or prudent " .
The Fort Steuben Bridge was destroyed in a controlled demolition on February 21 , 2012 . The Ohio Department of Transportation contracted Joseph B. Fay Co. to demolish the bridge . The roadway and approaches were removed in preparation for the demolition . A collection of 490 linear shape charges were used in 136 locations along the span , totaling 153 pounds ( 69 kg ) of explosives . The charges were rigged in a series of 20 blasts , each lasting only 0 @.@ 35 seconds and occurring only nine milliseconds apart . The cleanup of the debris was done by River Salvage Co. of Pittsburgh . The demolition was featured in a Scholastic SuperScience article and it included a picture of the demolition spread across two pages .
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= Blonde @-@ class cruiser =
The Blonde @-@ class cruisers were a pair of scout cruisers built for the Royal Navy in the first decade of the 20th century . Upon completion in 1910 – 11 , they served as flotilla leaders for destroyer flotillas of the First Fleet until 1913 when they were assigned to battleship squadrons . When the First World War began in August 1914 , they remained with their squadrons as the First Fleet was incorporated into the Grand Fleet , although they changed squadrons over the course of the war . Blonde did not participate in the Battle of Jutland in mid @-@ 1916 , unlike her sister ship , Blanche , which did , but never fired a shot . They were converted into minelayers the following year , but only Blanche actually laid mines . The sisters were reduced to reserve in 1919 and sold for scrap in 1920 – 21 .
= = Design and description = =
These scout cruisers were too slow to lead destroyers in battle or to defend the fleet against enemy destroyer attacks , but they were still used as flotilla leaders . The Blonde class was essentially a repeat of the preceding Boadicea class , albeit with a more powerful armament and less fuel . Displacing 3 @,@ 350 long tons ( 3 @,@ 400 t ) , the ships had an overall length of 405 feet ( 123 @.@ 4 m ) , a beam of 41 feet 6 inches ( 12 @.@ 6 m ) and a deep draught of 15 feet 6 inches ( 4 @.@ 7 m ) . They were powered by four sets of Parsons steam turbines , each driving two shafts . The turbines produced a total of 18 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 13 @,@ 000 kW ) , using steam produced by 12 Yarrow boilers that burned both fuel oil and coal , and gave a maximum speed of 24 @.@ 5 knots ( 45 @.@ 4 km / h ; 28 @.@ 2 mph ) . They carried a maximum of 780 long tons ( 790 t ) of coal and 190 long tons ( 190 t ) of fuel oil that gave them a range of 4 @,@ 100 nautical miles ( 7 @,@ 600 km ; 4 @,@ 700 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . Their crew consisted of 314 officers and ratings .
The main armament of the Blonde class consisted of ten breech @-@ loading ( BL ) 4 @-@ inch ( 102 mm ) Mk VII guns . The forward pair of guns were mounted side by side on a platform on the forecastle , six were amidships , three on each broadside , and the two remaining guns were on the centreline of the quarterdeck , one ahead of the other . The guns fired their 31 @-@ pound ( 14 kg ) shells to a range of about 11 @,@ 400 yards ( 10 @,@ 400 m ) . Their secondary armament was four quick @-@ firing ( QF ) three @-@ pounder ( 1 @.@ 9 @-@ inch ( 47 mm ) ) Vickers Mk I guns and two submerged 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedo tubes .
As scout cruisers , the ships were only lightly protected to maximise their speed . They had a curved protective deck that was one inch ( 25 mm ) thick on the slope and 0 @.@ 5 inches ( 13 mm ) on the flat . Their conning tower was protected by four inches of armour .
= = Ships = =
= = Service = =
Both Blonde and Blanche began their careers with destroyer flotillas , Blonde as senior officers ' ship for the 7th Flotilla of the Mediterranean Fleet and Blanche with the 1st Destroyer Flotilla of the First Fleet . But the sisters were transferred to the 4th and the 3rd Battle Squadrons , respectively , of the First Fleet in 1913 .
Blonde remained with the 4th Battle Squadron through 1916 , although she was detached for several months mid year . She had been transferred to the 1st Battle Squadron by April 1917 and was converted into a minelayer later in the year , although she never laid any mines in combat . Similarly , Blanche remained with the 3rd Battle Squadron until January 1916 when she joined her sister in the 4th Battle Squadron . The ship participated in the Battle of Jutland , but was on the unengaged side of the fleet and did not have the opportunity to fire at the Germans . She was detached from the 4th Battle Squadron at the beginning of 1917 , presumably to be converted into a minelayer . Blanche was assigned to the 5th Battle Squadron by April and laid some mines at the entrance to the Kattegat in February 1918 .
Blonde was in reserve by February 1919 and had been assigned to the Nore Reserve by 1 May , together with Blanche . The sisters were listed for sale by 18 March 1920 and Blonde was sold for scrap on 6 May . Blanche followed on 27 July 1921 .
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= Bless Me Indeed ( Jabez 's Song ) =
" Bless Me Indeed ( Jabez 's Song ) " ( sometimes called " Bless Me Indeed " ) is a song by Christian rock band MercyMe . Written by the band and produced by Pete Kipley , it was released as the lead single from the band 's 2001 album Almost There . The song was written at the request of the band 's record label , who wanted to produce a song based on the popular book The Prayer of Jabez ( 2000 ) . Although the band did not want to write it at first , they eventually relented and recorded it .
Lyrically , " Bless Me Indeed " asks God for blessing , paralleling Jabez 's prayer in 1 Chronicles . It received a mixed to positive response from critics ; lead singer Bart Millard has since described it as one of the band 's worst songs . The song did not perform well at Christian radio , peaking at number 27 on the Radio & Records Christian AC chart , leading to initial album sales that were lower than expected .
= = Background and composition = =
The idea behind " Bless Me Indeed ( Jabez 's Song ) " came from MercyMe 's record label , INO Records , who wanted to capitalize off the success of Bruce Wilkinson 's popular book The Prayer of Jabez ( 2000 ) . According to lead singer Bart Millard , the label figured that the book could introduce the band and set up a successful career . Although the band did not want to write the song , they eventually relented . " Bless Me Indeed ( Jabez 's Song ) " was written by Jim Bryson , Nathan Cochran , Bart Millard , Mike Scheuchzer , and Robby Shaffer - all five members of MercyMe at the time . Like the rest of Almost There , it was recorded at Ivy Park , The Indigo Room , Paradise Sound , and IBC Studios . Kipley produced and programmed the song , while Skye McCaskey and Julian Kindred engineered it . Salvo mixed the song . String instruments were recorded by the Paltrow Performance Group .
" Bless Me Indeed ( Jabez 's Song ) " has a length of four minutes and fourteen seconds . According to the sheet music published by Musicnotes.com , it is in set common time in the key of C major and has a tempo of 108 beats per minute . Bart Millard 's vocal range in the song spans from the low note of G ♯ 4 to the high note of F ♯ 5 . The song lyrically relates to the Biblical figure Jabez . In 1 Chronicles 4 : 10 , Jabez requests that God bless him by expanding his territory and keeping him free from evil , a request God accepts . In " Bless Me Indeed ( Jabez 's Song ) " , Millard requests the same from God .
= = Reception = =
" Bless Me Indeed " received a mixed to positive response from critics . Steve Losey of AllMusic selected it as a ' track pick ' . The J Man of Crosswalk.com described it as a " winner " , and appreciated that it was based on The Prayer of Jabez . In Amazon.com 's product description of Almost There , the reviewer stated the track " is a glimmer of brilliance where the group brings it all together " . However , Russ Breimeier of Christianity Today described the song as " [ not ] particularly remarkable " , preferring another song based on Jabez , According to John 's " Song of Jabez " . In an interview in 2014 , Millard stated that it is one of " one of the worst songs we ’ ve ever done " .
= = Chart performance = =
" Bless Me Indeed " was released as the first single from Almost There . Although the label anticipated the song 's connection with The Prayer of Jaebz would make it a success , it performed poorly on Christian radio . The song debuted at number 29 on the Radio & Records Christian AC chart for the week of August 31 , 2001 . The following week , it advanced to its peak of number 27 . The song spent four weeks on the chart before dropping off . The poor performance of the song at radio led to initial album sales that were lower than anticipated , although the album would later be certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) following the success of the album 's second single , " I Can Only Imagine " .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits from the album liner notes )
= = Charts = =
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= Dion Phaneuf =
Dion Phaneuf ( born April 10 , 1985 ) is a Canadian professional ice hockey defenceman for the Ottawa Senators of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . He has previously also played for the Calgary Flames and Toronto Maple Leafs . He was drafted ninth overall in the 2003 NHL Entry Draft by Calgary and made his NHL debut in 2005 after a four @-@ year junior career with the Red Deer Rebels of the Western Hockey League ( WHL ) , in which he was twice named the Defenceman of the Year . He set a Flames record for most goals by a first @-@ year defenceman and was named a finalist for the Calder Memorial Trophy as top rookie in 2005 – 06 . Two years later , he was a finalist for the James Norris Memorial Trophy as top defenceman , though he did not win either award . Since going pro , Phaneuf has been involved in two blockbuster trades . The first came in late 2009 , when he was involved in a seven @-@ player trade that saw him move from Calgary to Toronto . Six years later , Phaneuf was the centrepiece of a 9 @-@ player deal that saw him sent from Toronto to Ottawa .
Phaneuf is a three @-@ time NHL All @-@ Star . He has represented Team Canada internationally five times in his career , winning a silver medal and a gold medal at the World Junior Hockey Championship in 2004 and 2005 , respectively , as well as a gold medal at the 2007 Men 's World Ice Hockey Championships .
Phaneuf is active in the community ; the Flames honoured Phaneuf for his role as an ambassador to the Alberta Children 's Hospital , where he participated in events that help sick and injured children during his time in Calgary . Phaneuf was a common sight at Toronto events , often appearing at fundraisers , promotional activities or visiting patients at Sick Kids Hospital .
In 2013 , he married Elisha Cuthbert .
= = Early life = =
Dion Phaneuf was born April 10 , 1985 , in Edmonton , Alberta , to Paul , a construction worker , and Amber , a nurse , both originally from the province of Prince Edward Island . Dion attended Harry Ainlay Composite High School . Dion has a younger brother , Dane , who played for the P.E.I. Rocket of the Quebec Major Junior Hockey League ( QMJHL ) . Paul and Amber Phaneuf describe their family as close @-@ knit .
Paul Phaneuf maintained a backyard rink each winter that the young Phaneuf practiced on . His mother , a former figure skater who competed for Prince Edward Island at the 1975 Canada Winter Games , taught him to skate . Phaneuf also practiced his shot relentlessly in the basement of his family 's home , frequently breaking the nets his father bought .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Junior = = =
The Red Deer Rebels selected Phaneuf in the third round of the 2000 WHL Bantam Draft . One year later , he joined the Rebels for the 2001 – 02 season and recorded 17 points in 67 games . He added two assists in 21 games as the Rebels lost in the WHL Final against the Kootenay Ice . He improved to 16 goals and 30 points in 2002 – 03 as the Rebels again reached the WHL Finals , again losing , this time to the Kelowna Rockets . Phaneuf 's development earned him comparisons to Hall of Famer Scott Stevens , as he was lauded by scouts for his physical style and ability to excel both defensively and offensively . Then @-@ Calgary Flames General Manager Darryl Sutter valued Phaneuf so highly in the 2003 NHL Entry Draft that he attempted to trade up from his ninth overall selection in the Draft , though to no avail . Nonetheless , he was able to select Phaneuf with Calgary 's first selection in the draft .
Phaneuf established himself as the junior hockey team 's top player following the draft , earning the Bill Hunter Memorial Trophy as the top defenceman in the WHL . He was also named an Eastern Conference All @-@ Star by the WHL , and a First Team All @-@ Star by the Canadian Hockey League ( CHL ) . He was considered a candidate to join the Flames in 2004 . The 2004 – 05 NHL lockout , however , forced Phaneuf to play one final year of junior hockey . He scored 56 points in 55 games to finish his junior career with 146 total points . He repeated as the WHL 's Defenceman of the Year , and was again named to both WHL and CHL All @-@ Star Teams . Prospects Hockey rated Phaneuf as the top player in the CHL in both 2004 and 2005 , ahead of Sidney Crosby , naming him one of the best junior defencemen of the previous decade .
= = = Calgary Flames = = =
Phaneuf joined the Flames for the 2005 – 06 NHL season after signing his first professional contract in September 2005 . Phaneuf made his NHL debut on October 5 , 2005 , against the Minnesota Wild . Five nights later , he scored his first career goal , assist and points against the Colorado Avalanche . He was named the NHL 's Rookie of the Month for November after leading all rookie defencemen with nine points and two game @-@ winning goals . By January , Phaneuf was being named alongside Sidney Crosby and Alexander Ovechkin as a candidate for the NHL 's top rookie . He finished the season with 20 goals , only the third player in NHL history after Brian Leetch and Barry Beck to score 20 as a rookie defenceman . His 20 goals also broke the Flames franchise record for goals by a rookie defenseman , surpassing Gary Suter 's total of 18 . Phaneuf was named a finalist for the Calder Memorial Trophy as top rookie , but lost out to Ovechkin .
A 50 @-@ point sophomore season earned Phaneuf his first NHL All @-@ Star Game appearance in 2006 – 07 . He participated in the hardest shot competition at the SuperSkills competition , losing to Zdeno Chára , and scored a goal and an assist in the game itself to help the Western Conference defeat the East 12 – 9 . The Flames signed Phaneuf to a six @-@ year , US $ 39 million contract extension midway through the 2007 – 08 season . He responded by posting a career @-@ high 60 points , and was voted into the starting lineup by the fans for the 2008 All @-@ Star Game . Phaneuf was named to the NHL First All @-@ Star Team following the season , and was a finalist for the James Norris Memorial Trophy as defenceman of the year , losing to the Detroit Red Wings ' Nicklas Lidström .
The 2008 – 09 season was a frustrating one for Phaneuf , as he recorded a career @-@ low 11 goals and 47 points , and his poor plus @-@ minus rating of – 11 led fans to question his defensive commitment . His poor season and high salary also led to speculation that Phaneuf might be traded . In spite of his struggles , Phaneuf averaged 26 minutes and 31 seconds of ice time per game , the fourth highest in the League . He missed the final game of the Flames ' 2009 Stanley Cup playoff Western Quarter @-@ final series against the Chicago Blackhawks with broken ribs , after battling a hip injury during the regular season . Flames management defended Phaneuf , claiming that the injuries he battled affected his play .
= = = Toronto Maple Leafs = = =
On January 31 , 2010 , the Flames dealt Phaneuf , along with Fredrik Sjöström and Keith Aulie , to the Toronto Maple Leafs in exchange for Matt Stajan , Niklas Hagman , Ian White and Jamal Mayers .
On February 2 , 2010 , Phaneuf made his Toronto Maple Leaf debut , leading all Maple Leafs players in time on ice and ended the night with a fight and given second star of the game honours . He would record his first point , an assist , four nights later in a game against the Ottawa Senators and scored his first goal as a Leaf on April 7 , 2010 , on Henrik Lundqvist of the New York Rangers . Phaneuf was named an alternate captain in Toronto nine games after being acquired after Mike Komisarek suffered a season @-@ ending injury . While Phaneuf struggled offensively to begin his tenure in Toronto – he played 25 games in Toronto before scoring his first goal – then @-@ Leafs Head Coach Ron Wilson credited him with creating a positive change in the mood in the Toronto dressing room .
Phaneuf was named the 18th captain of the Toronto Maple Leafs on June 14 , 2010 , at a press conference held by General Manager Brian Burke , succeeding Mats Sundin , who left after the 2007 – 08 season .
On November 2 , 2010 , in a game against the Ottawa Senators , Phaneuf sustained an injury in the leg by having it cut open with a skate from Peter Regin while crashing into the boards . He was carried off the ice immediately and had surgery done the same night . Phaneuf was said to be off the ice for four @-@ to @-@ six weeks , and made a return to the Leafs ' lineup on December 9 , 2010 , a home ice game against the Philadelphia Flyers , which Philadelphia won 4 – 1 , though he had one assist on the lone Toronto goal .
On January 5 , 2012 , it was announced that Phaneuf would compete in his third All @-@ Star Game , having finished second amongst all defencemen on the fan ballot , gaining 614 @,@ 933 votes , behind the Ottawa Senators ' Erik Karlsson . On April 21 , 2013 , Phaneuf and the Leafs clinched a Stanley Cup playoff spot , the first time for Phaneuf since the 2008 – 09 season with the Calgary Flames . On December 10 , 2013 , Phaneuf received a two @-@ game suspension on a boarding hit on Boston Bruins defenceman Kevan Miller , which occurred on December 8 , 2013 , in Toronto . Phaneuf forfeited the amount of US $ 66 @,@ 666 @.@ 66 for his action .
= = = Ottawa Senators = = =
After parts of seven seasons with Toronto , Phaneuf was dealt to the Ottawa Senators on February 9 , 2016 , in a blockbuster nine @-@ player trade . Both fans and media alike viewed the trade with shock , as a significant deal between the arch @-@ rivals was viewed as very unlikely to happen . Phaneuf , Matt Frattin , prospects Casey Bailey , Ryan Rupert and Cody Donaghey were sent to the Senators in exchange for Jared Cowen , Colin Greening , Milan Michalek , prospect Tobias Lindberg and Ottawa 's 2017 second round draft pick . Due to the Battle of Ontario rivalry , this was the first time the Maple Leafs and Senators had made a trade since March 17 , 1998 , when Per Gustafsson was shipped to Ottawa in exchange for an 8th round pick . Phaneuf played a shortened 2015 – 16 season due to an " oblique injury and soreness in his right foot " after blocking a shot during a game against the Toronto Maple Leafs on March 12 , ending the season with 20 games played with the Senators , amassing one goal and eight points .
= = International play = =
Phaneuf made his international debut for the Canadian junior team at the 2004 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships in Helsinki , earning a leadership role under Head Coach Mario Durocher . A devastating bodycheck to the Czech Republic 's Rostislav Olesz led the referee to eject Phaneuf from the semi @-@ final game ; he was not suspended , however , and played in the gold medal game . The Canadians lost the final to the United States , while Phaneuf was named a tournament All @-@ Star at defence .
The Canadian team at the 2005 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships dominated the tournament , outscoring their opposition 35 – 6 in the games leading up to the gold medal match @-@ up with Russia .
Phaneuf scored a goal and threw a memorable bodycheck that knocked down two Russian players in the championship game as Canada routed the Russians 6 – 1 to win their first gold medal in eight years . He was again named a tournament All @-@ Star , as well as being named the outstanding defenceman of the tournament .
Following the Flames ' elimination in the 2007 Stanley Cup playoffs , Phaneuf joined the Canadian senior team at the 2007 Men 's World Ice Hockey Championships in Moscow . He recorded eight assists in seven games to help Canada win the gold medal over Finland . Once considered a virtual lock to join team Canada at the 2010 Winter Olympics , his struggles in the 2008 – 09 season placed his candidacy in doubt . Team Canada General Manager Steve Yzerman continued to express confidence in Phaneuf during a summer camp held in Calgary , but Phaneuf was not among the seven defencemen ultimately selected for the team .
After the Leafs missed the 2011 playoffs , Phaneuf served as alternate captain of Team Canada at the 2011 IIHF World Championship in Bratislava , Slovakia , where Canada finished fifth . Phaneuf was once again alternate captain of the Canadian team at the 2012 World Championship in Sochi , Russia . Canada repeated its fifth @-@ place finish of the prior year .
In August 2013 , Phaneuf attended the summer orientation camp for Team Canada in preparation for the 2014 Winter Olympics . Phaneuf , however , was not named to the final Olympic roster .
= = Playing style = =
In junior hockey , Phaneuf was known not only for his physical presence , but also his calm demeanour and offensive ability . He was compared to Hockey Hall of Famer Scott Stevens by his former coach , Brent Sutter . Scouts praised his defensive ability , and the poise he showed at both ends of the ice . Praised for his leadership abilities , Phaneuf was named the captain of Team WHL at the 2004 ATD Canada @-@ Russia Challenge , and was counted upon to take a leadership role with the Canadian junior team at the 2004 and 2005 World Junior Championships .
Entering his sophomore season , Phaneuf 's potential impact on a game was compared to that of Russian star Alexander Ovechkin , and a poll released by ESPN in 2008 revealed that 43 % of players asked argued Phaneuf was the hardest hitter in hockey , at the age of 22 . He was named an alternate captain by the Flames at the start of the 2008 – 09 season , though Brent Sutter chose to alternate amongst a group of veterans , including Phaneuf , in 2009 – 10 .
While he earned a James Norris Memorial Trophy nomination for his defensive play in 2008 , he struggled enough during the 2008 – 09 season that some observers began to question his defensive commitment . Phaneuf 's teammates were quick to defend his play and noted that he was among the League leaders in average time on ice per game . His hitting game has also earned criticism at times . The New York Islanders were especially upset at an open @-@ ice charge Phaneuf delivered to Kyle Okposo during a 2009 exhibition game that resulted in the latter suffering a concussion . Phaneuf has also been criticized for occasionally refusing to fight opponents who challenge him after throwing a big hit . For his part , Phaneuf stated he does not believe that he should be forced to fight after every big hit , though he would do so when necessary . His coaches have praised Phaneuf 's mentality . He has also been accused of playing " dirty " and " stupid " by opponents who feel that he occasionally takes unnecessary liberties with opposing players . A 2010 Sports Illustrated poll of 229 NHL players saw 21 % of respondents name Phaneuf as the most overrated player in the NHL , three times as many votes as any other player . Phaneuf dismissed the poll while several of his current and former teammates expressed their disagreement with the result .
= = Personal life = =
Phaneuf began dating Canadian actress Elisha Cuthbert in May 2008 . Their relationship became the centre of controversy in December 2008 when then @-@ Dallas Stars forward Sean Avery , who had dated Cuthbert in the past , commented on how other NHL players , such as Phaneuf — as well as Los Angeles Kings ' center Jarret Stoll , who was dating model Rachel Hunter , another ex @-@ girlfriend — fell in love with his " sloppy seconds . " NHL Commissioner Gary Bettman referred to the remarks as " disgusting " and subsequently suspended Avery six games ; the Stars later cut ties with the player .
Phaneuf and Cuthbert announced their engagement in September 2012 , and they married on July 6 , 2013 , at St. James Catholic Church in Summerfield , Prince Edward Island . Living in Toronto during the hockey season , Phaneuf and Cuthbert spend their summers at Phaneuf 's waterfront estate outside of New London , Prince Edward Island , in his parents ' home province .
While with the Flames , he was the official ambassador to the Alberta Children 's Hospital in Calgary and donated tickets to Flames games to help families at the facility . The Flames named him the recipient of the Ralph T. Scurfield Humanitarian Award in 2008 in recognition of his participation with the Children 's Hospital . Phaneuf has appeared on the cover of the NHL 09 video game , and played a role in NHL promotions and commercials .
Phaneuf is a fourth cousin of Canadian figure skater Cynthia Phaneuf .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
= = = International = = =
= = = All @-@ Star Games = = =
= = Awards and honours = =
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= Mongrels ( TV series ) =
Mongrels is a British puppet @-@ based situation comedy series first broadcast on BBC Three between 22 June and 10 August 2010 , with a making @-@ of documentary entitled " Mongrels Uncovered " broadcast on 11 August 2010 . A second and final series of Mongrels began airing on 7 November 2011 .
The series revolves around the lives of five anthropomorphic animals who hang around the back of a pub in Millwall , the Isle of Dogs , London . The characters are Nelson , a metrosexual fox ( voiced by Rufus Jones , performed by Andy Heath ) ; Destiny , an Afghan hound ( voiced by Lucy Montgomery , performed by Richard Coombs and Sue Beattie ) ; Marion , a " borderline @-@ retarded " cat ( voiced by Dan Tetsell , performed by Warrick Brownlow @-@ Pike ) ; Kali , a grudge @-@ bearing pigeon ( voiced by Katy Brand , performed by Iestyn Evans ) ; and Vince , Nelson 's friend , a sociopathic foul @-@ mouthed fox ( voiced by Paul Kaye , performed by various puppeteers ) .
The show is aimed at an adult audience , features " neutering , incontinence , cannibalism and catnip overdoses " and humour styles such as slapstick and farce . For example , the first episode begins with a scene in which Marion , portrayed as desperately trying to revive his deceased owner , learns she has actually been dead for four months , whereupon he casually gives his cat friends permission to eat her . Mongrels has attracted accusations of plagiarism , with claims that Mongrels stole ideas from a similar Channel 4 show called Pets .
On 18 January 2012 it was announced via Twitter that Mongrels had not been renewed for a third series by the BBC due to a decision made by Zai Bennett .
= = Plot = =
Mongrels looks at the lives of five animals that hang around the back of a pub called The Lord Nelson in Millwall , on the Isle of Dogs in the East End of London . The hero of the series is Nelson ( Vulpus metrosexualus ) , a fox who lives a metrosexual lifestyle . Described as : " The only wild fox in East London with subscriptions to all the major broadsheets ( excluding The Sunday Times ) , Nelson is , as he never tires of introducing himself at dinner parties ... ' An urbane fox ! ' "
Nelson 's love interest is Destiny , an Afghan hound . However , Destiny has no interest in Nelson . She is the pet dog of Gary ( Tony Way ) , the landlord of The Lord Nelson . However , like the other humans that appear in the series , he cannot understand what Destiny or what the other animals are saying . Elsewhere there is Marion ( Felis retardicus ) , an idiotic cat to whom Nelson acts as a father @-@ figure . Marion has been abandoned by several owners and is very corruptible . Then there is Kali ( Aves aggravaticus ) , a pigeon who likes to revel in the misfortune of others . She has several grudges , including a hatred of all humans and foxes for the way they treat birds . Lastly , there is Vince , Nelson 's older brother ( Vulpus c * * * itcus ) , a violent , foul @-@ mouthed fox who considers himself a proper animal . Almost all his lines contain at least one swear word that is always bleeped over .
There is no over @-@ riding story arc between episodes , but each episode does contain recurring elements . During each episode there are cutaways from the main plot to create extra gags . Most episodes also feature at least one celebrity appearance and every episode features a comic song .
= = Cast and characters = =
Rufus Jones as the voice of Nelson , an urban fox who has embraced a middle @-@ class , metrosexual lifestyle . Operated by Andy Heath
Dan Tetsell as the voice of Marion , a homeless Persian alley cat . Operated by Warrick Brownlow @-@ Pike
Lucy Montgomery as the voice of Destiny , a beautiful Afghan Hound . Operated by Richard Coombs and Sue Beattie
Katy Brand as the voice of Kali , a cynical , vindictive and street smart pigeon . Operated by Iestyn Evans
Paul Kaye as the voice of Vince , a violent , foul @-@ mouthed sociopathic fox .
Tony Way as Gary , Destiny 's owner .
Ruth Bratt – various incidental characters .
= = Creation = =
The show took five years to make . The idea was first suggested between the creator and director of Mongrels , Adam Miller , and the show 's head puppeteer , Andy Heath , when they worked on ITV children 's show Ripley and Scuff .
Miller described Mongrels as : " an adult sitcom , trying to do for puppetry what American shows like The Simpsons have done for animation . Obviously that 's aiming very high . Think [ stage musical ] Avenue Q meets Family Guy but with puppet animals . " He also said that : " We wanted to make something that had the pace of an American animation but with British sensibilities , that was adult , but not crude , that was based in the realities of the animal world , and that didn 't rely on the puppets to do the comedy . "
The original idea , known as The Un @-@ Natural World was of an urban fox living in Brixton called Nelson , who was so used to living in the city that he had lost any sense of being an animal . It also featured a cat , Marion , who was trying to encourage Nelson to be more animal @-@ like .
While Miller was working on a BBC Three sitcom he pitched the idea to producer Stephen McCrum . McCrum criticised the way Miller ended the first script , which ended with Nelson and Marion leave where they live . McCrum told him it was best to set the series in a single place rather than have the characters move from one place to another . McCrum then suggested taking Nelson and Marion , and writing a script about them . Later , another writer , Jon Brown came in to write and at this time rules were set out with regards to writing the show , such as the animals could not be dressed in clothes unless it was in a flashback sequence or during a song .
The new script was then pitched to the BBC . The pitch tape they made was based on the same pitch used by The Muppet Show . This was done as a tribute to it , with Miller arguing that when The Muppet Show did it , " it just must have just knocked the socks off the people who saw it , because it 's like nothing you 've ever seen before , and we thought : ' Why fix what ain 't broke , so we did our own very British version of that . " The producers liked it but did not fully understand what the show was about . Miller , Brown and a third writer , Daniel Peak began to write scripts over a period of four years . A pilot was eventually filmed and the BBC commissioned a full series , targeted at adults . Despite the adult nature , Miller did not want to make the show too crude . Eight episodes were filmed so as to spread the cost of making the series over each episode .
= = = Character development = = =
When writing for the commissioned series began , the character of Nelson was originally depicted as being brash and obnoxious . This was later changed to make him more metrosexual , middle class and likeable . Developing the character of Destiny , Nelson 's love interest , was a challenge to the programme makers . Kali was created to be a villain , with Miller describing her as a " Hitler @-@ figure " . Vince was partly based on the brash version of Nelson .
In the unbroadcast pilot We Are Mongrels , another character was included called Debbie . Debbie was a suicidal chicken who never left her coop . However , it was decided that the character did not go anywhere and could not be sustained for a full series , so the character was axed . Another chicken character called Wendy appeared in the first broadcast episode as a reference to Debbie . Both characters had the same voice actress , Ruth Bratt , who performed Wendy 's voice in exactly the same manner as that of Debbie .
= = = Casting = = =
Rufus Jones was among the first people auditioned for the role of Nelson . After several other auditions with other actors , Jones was called upon to play the part . Paul Kaye at one time provided the voice for Nelson before taking the role of Vince .
It was then decided by the creators to make Marion a foreign character and to find an accent that reflected this . There was discussion about Iranian @-@ British comic Omid Djalili playing the role . In the end , Tetsell was cast after auditioning with a poor version of Djalili 's Iranian accent . Tetsell describes the voice as a mixture of , " every accent on the planet " , but with the joke that Marion was meant to be a Persian cat .
= = = Puppets = = =
When the puppet for Marion was first created , he was depicted as having stripy fur , but looked more like a mouse in the eyes of the crew , so his puppet was changed . Marion 's image was based on topless photos of the comic actor James Corden .
The show 's puppeteers claim there are different problems working with different characters . For example , Destiny is the largest puppet and so moving her is more difficult . As Marion spends much of his time sitting on top of a rubbish bin , his puppeteer , Brownlow @-@ Pike , has to stand inside a bottomless bin for long periods of time . Kali is said to be the most difficult puppet to work with , because as she has no hands she is limited to what she can hold .
= = = Recording = = =
The show was originally entitled We Are Mongrels , but the title had to be changed for two reasons : one was that the title was too similar to another BBC Three comedy show , We Are Klang . The other is that none of the characters were mongrels . Therefore new suggestions were called for . Rejected titles included I , Nelson ; Humans ! Everywhere ! ; Undergrowth and Never Been Stroked . The last of these titles was rejected after one of the show 's additional writers , Danielle Ward ; " said it sounded like ' a makeover show for virgins ' . " During this time the crew referred to the show as Mongrels and it eventually became the show 's title .
When writing for Vince the writers blanked out all of the characters swearing like it is done on the show , but when it came to recording the programme the swear words had to be put in for Kaye to read them . During read @-@ throughs of the scripts , a toy horn was honked whenever Kaye swore to give an idea of what it would sound like during the programme .
The show also aims to be environmentally friendly in its production . A report from the BBC 's in @-@ house publication Ariel : " From reusable water bottles filled from tanks of tap water to double @-@ sided scripts , Mongrels is aiming to be the most sustainable production at the BBC . " The production team also use reusable or compostable cutlery in their canteen , reducing any future merchandise packaging to just a barcode , and replacing conventional lighting with fluorescent tube lights . This last move reduced the electricity bill for the second series by a third , saving £ 500 a week .
= = Cancellation = =
On 18 January 2012 , Tetsell revealed on Twitter that Mongrels had been cancelled , saying : " we 've all been sacked now " .
Miller posted another , longer message online saying :
" Mongrels friends , it is my unbearably sad duty to announce that we will not be returning for a third series on BBC Three , a decision that has been made based on the fact that apparently you need more than two people watching a programme to make it successful . Crazy talk . I 'd like to take this opportunity to thank everyone at BBC Comedy , BBC Three and BBC Worldwide who have supported us so strongly over the years , and helped us put our silly puppet show on the digital screens of the nation . I 'd also like to thank , from the bottom of my heart , all the writers , cast , crew and support team who have made a horribly challenging show such an utter joy to make . This news could not be less of a reflection on your brilliant work . Most of all I 'd like to thank those of you that loved watching Mongrels as much as we loved making it . It 's wonderfully reassuring to think that we weren 't mad after all , and that what we find funny , other people do too . I 'd like to believe that there 's room on television for a little show like ours ; one that 's not just another sitcom , one that tries to do things a bit differently and that tries to push a few boundaries here and there . Who knows , maybe we 'll find a that room in the future . I hope it has a minibar . Thank you for watching . Both of you . "
= = Reception = =
Mongrels was given mixed reviews , with some considering its quality to be inconsistent , with a reviewer for tvBite.com saying that the show was " a bit hit and miss " but also that , " even the laugh @-@ free moments have a well @-@ written sheen . " and that the work put into the jokes show . Jane Simon of the Daily Mirror wrote : " While most of it is very funny , some of the gags about Harold Shipman completely misjudge the tone . Maybe the age group BBC3 is aimed at reckon anything is fair game for comedy . " The Independent 's Tom Sutcliffe said that : " It does have its laughs , though , because the script isn 't entirely about crass shock value " , but that the sitcom , while aimed at adults , is " not really for grown @-@ ups . " Sam Wollaston of The Guardian was mainly positive about Mongrels , but said that the main reason he thought it was funny was because it depicted " cuddly children 's toys [ ... ] saying things you wouldn 't normally expect cuddly children 's toys to say . Like ' You are such a cock @-@ end ' " , and that , " the novelty will wear off at some point not too far away " .
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
Mongrels won the Royal Television Society Craft and Design Award 2009 – 2010 for " Production Design – Entertainment and Non @-@ Drama " led by production designer Simon Rogers . It was also nominated for the award for " Tape and Film Editing – Entertainment and Situation Comedy " led by film editor Nigel Williams , but lost to Pete versus Life .
In 2011 , Brown won the BAFTA Craft Award for " Break @-@ through Talent " . The series was nominated for the Ursa Major Award for " Best Anthrompomorphic Dramatic Short Work or Series " in 2010 ( series 1 ) and 2011 ( series 2 ) .
In 2012 , Andy Heath & Iestyn Evans won the Royal Television Society Craft and Design Award 2011 / 12 for special effects in Mongrels Series 2 , beating Downton Abbey and Great Expectations in the process .
= = Appearances in other programmes = =
On 13 August 2011 , the cast of Mongrels took part in the first ever Comedy Prom , in which they performed the song " Middle Class is Magical " from the seventh episode of the first series , " Marion The Superfluous Feed Character " . The performance was broadcast live on BBC Radio 3 , and later broadcast on BBC Two on 27 August 2011 .
= = Plagiarism accusations = =
Mongrels has attracted anger from production company Fit2Fill which claimed the BBC " ripped off " their 2001 Channel 4 sitcom Pets . Fit2Fill claimed they received 30 emails from people saying the series were similar , and they once pitched the idea of Pets to then BBC head of comedy Mark Freeland , who also acted as the executive producer of Mongrels .
The producer of Pets , Andrew Barclay said : " We checked the BBC 's Mongrels website this morning and the Beeb do appear to have hired the same puppet builders and puppeteers as Pets . We also notice that Mongrels ' executive producer is Mark Freeland , to whom we did once pitch a Pets follow @-@ up show . "
The co @-@ creator and co @-@ producer of Pets , Brian West , went on to post his views on a BBC blog post about Mongrels . Following this , a telephone conversation between West and Mongrels producer McCrum took place where McCrum , " claimed that no @-@ one from the BBC production team had watched Pets before or during the development and production of their series . " From this West responded that : " We might therefore conclude that any similarities between the two shows is 100 % coincidental . " West left people to judge for themselves whether Pets had been copied .
Afterwards , Andy Heath , a puppet builder who worked for both Mongrels and Pets , said on the same blog that he met Adam Miller in 2002 after he [ Heath ] finished working on Pets in 2000 , to work on Ripley and Scuff . Miller then began developing the idea for Mongrels in 2004 . Heath then went on to say :
" Pets was Pets . Mongrels is Mongrels . If , as a viewer , you can sit down and say they are the same , then there is little point of making any new shows , if the slightest similarity ( puppets and animals ) can be suggested as idea stealing . I am surprised Basil Brush hasn 't been on the blower , as he is a fox , and that must be a copy ! Right ? I worked on both , and know for a fact where they both come from . Two very different ideas . "
= = Merchandise = =
The first series of Mongrels was released on DVD ( region 2 and 4 ) and Blu @-@ ray disc ( region B ) on 16 August 2010 . The DVD and Blu @-@ ray discs featured the unbroadcast pilot amongst their extras . A planned DVD and Blu @-@ ray release of the second series was cancelled , . The DVD release of series two was later rescheduled for October 2012 . The second series was made available on DVD on the 8th of October 2012 in the UK , available separately or as a boxset with series 1 . A Blu @-@ ray release of series 2 should become available soon , but no official date has been set for such a release as of June 2014 . Both series are now available on iTunes and Netflix .
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= Vance v. Terrazas =
Vance v. Terrazas , 444 U.S. 252 ( 1980 ) , was a United States Supreme Court decision that established that a United States citizen cannot have his or her citizenship taken away unless he or she has acted with an intent to give up that citizenship . The Supreme Court overturned portions of an act of Congress which had listed various actions and had said that the performance of any of these actions could be taken as conclusive , irrebuttable proof of intent to give up U.S. citizenship . However , the Court ruled that a person 's intent to give up citizenship could be established through a standard of preponderance of evidence ( i.e. , more likely than not ) — rejecting an argument that intent to relinquish citizenship could only be found on the basis of clear , convincing and unequivocal evidence .
= = Background = =
Laurence Terrazas was born in the United States in 1947 . Because Terrazas 's father was Mexican and because Mexico 's citizenship laws then followed the principle of ius sanguinis , Terrazas held Mexican citizenship at birth and because he was born in the United States , Terrazas also held US citizenship under the ius soli of the Fourteenth Amendment ; therefore , Terrazas was a dual citizen of the United States and Mexico at birth .
While enrolled at a Mexican university in 1970 , Terrazas applied for a certificate of Mexican nationality . As part of his application , Terrazas signed a statement renouncing " United States citizenship , as well as any submission , obedience and loyalty to any foreign government , especially to that of the United States of America . "
During subsequent discussions with a US consular official , Terrazas gave conflicting answers as to whether or not he had truly intended to abandon his rights as a US citizen when he applied for his certificate of Mexican nationality . The State Department eventually concluded that he had lost his US citizenship , a decision which Terrazas appealed , first before the State Department 's board of appellate review , and subsequently to the courts .
Before the 1967 Supreme Court ruling in Afroyim v. Rusk , US law had provided for numerous ways for citizens to lose their citizenship . In its Afroyim ruling , the Supreme Court held that the Fourteenth Amendment barred Congress from revoking anyone 's citizenship without their consent . Specifically , the court held that a law automatically revoking the citizenship of anyone who had voted in a foreign election was unconstitutional and unenforceable . However , US law continued , after Afroyim to list several other " expatriating acts , " the voluntary performance of any of which would result in automatic loss of citizenship .
The 7th Circuit Court of Appeals ruled that according to Afroyim v. Rusk , " Congress is constitutionally devoid of the power " to revoke citizenship ; and that Congress had no power to legislate any evidentiary standard for proving Terrazas 's intent to relinquish his citizenship that fell short of a requirement of proof by clear , convincing and unequivocal evidence . The Secretary of State appealed this ruling to the Supreme Court , questioning not only the appellate court 's finding on the required standard of proof , but also challenging the finding that a separate intent to give up citizenship was required ( as opposed merely to the performance of a designated expatriating act ) .
= = Opinion = =
A 5 @-@ 4 majority of the Supreme Court held that it was not enough for the government to prove " the voluntary commission of an act , such as swearing allegiance to a foreign nation , that ' is so inherently inconsistent with the continued retention of American citizenship that Congress may accord to it its natural consequences , i. e . , loss of nationality . ' " Rather , the court held that its 1967 ruling in Afroyim v. Rusk " emphasized that loss of citizenship requires the individual 's ' assent , ' ... in addition to his voluntary commission of the expatriating act " and that " the trier of fact must in the end conclude that the citizen not only voluntarily committed the expatriating act prescribed in the statute , but also intended to relinquish his citizenship . " On that point , the Supreme Court agreed with the 7th Circuit ruling in Terrazas 's favor .
The majority then turned its attention to the question of a standard of proof in loss @-@ of @-@ citizenship cases . Terrazas had argued and the 7th Circuit had agreed that the 14th Amendment , as interpreted in Afroyim , had left Congress without any constitutional authority to set the standard of proof for intent to relinquish citizenship at a level any lower than one of clear and convincing evidence . The Supreme Court majority rejected this claim and held that Congress was within its rights to specify a standard of preponderance of evidence ( more likely than not ) when cases alleging loss of US citizenship were involved .
Finally , the Supreme Court majority upheld the validity of another aspect of the law as enacted by Congress : that the government could assume that a potentially expatriating act had been performed voluntarily and that any claim that a person had acted under duress was up to the person involved to establish by preponderance of evidence .
The Supreme Court did not explicitly rule on whether or not Terrazas had lost his US citizenship ; rather , it remanded the case back to the original trial court ( a Federal District Court in Illinois ) for further proceedings consistent with the court 's ruling .
Although the court 's membership was divided on the question of whether a " preponderance of evidence " standard was sufficient for establishing someone 's intent to give up their U.S. citizenship , all nine judges agreed with the key holding in Afroyim v. Rusk that US citizenship was safeguarded by the Fourteenth Amendment and could not be taken away by an act of Congress from a person without consent .
= = = Dissents = = =
The four justices who disagreed with the majority filed three separate dissenting opinions . All of the dissenting justices supported the Afroyim v. Rusk principle that retention of US citizenship was a constitutionally protected right , and they all agreed ( contrary to the court 's majority ) that Terrazas 's actions should not have led to the loss of his citizenship .
Justice Thurgood Marshall rejected the majority 's decision that an intent to give up citizenship could be established merely by a preponderance of evidence . Arguing that " the Court 's casual dismissal of the importance of American citizenship cannot withstand scrutiny , " he said that he " would hold that a citizen may not lose his citizenship in the absence of clear and convincing evidence that he intended to do so . "
Justice John Paul Stevens also argued that " a person 's interest in retaining his American citizenship is surely an aspect of ' liberty ' of which he cannot be deprived without due process of law " and that " due process requires that a clear and convincing standard of proof be met " in Terrazas 's case or others like it . Additionally , Stevens felt that Congress had not adequately addressed the question of specific intent to relinquish citizenship . " Since we accept dual citizenship , " he wrote , " taking an oath of allegiance to a foreign government is not necessarily inconsistent with an intent to remain an American citizen . Moreover , as now written , the statute cannot fairly be read to require a finding of specific intent to relinquish citizenship . "
Justices William J. Brennan , Jr . , and Potter Stewart argued that since Terrazas was born a dual US / Mexican national , his having taken an oath of allegiance to Mexico was consistent with his being a citizen of the U.S. In Brennan 's words : " The formal oath [ of allegiance to Mexico ] adds nothing to the existing foreign citizenship and , therefore , cannot affect his United States citizenship . " Brennan argued , in addition , that since " Congress has provided for a procedure by which one may formally renounce citizenship " before US consular officials , a procedure that all conceded that Terrazas used , Terrazas was still a US citizen .
= = Subsequent developments = =
After receiving Terrazas 's case from the Supreme Court on remand , the district court again ruled that Terrazas had lost his citizenship . On subsequent appeal , the 7th Circuit Court of Appeals reversed its earlier decision and , this time using a preponderance @-@ of @-@ evidence standard per the instructions of the Supreme Court , ruled against him , finding this time that there was " abundant evidence that plaintiff intended to renounce his United States citizenship when he acquired the Certificate of Mexican Nationality willingly , knowingly , and voluntarily . " since the office of U.S. Secretary of State changed hands twice following the Supreme Court 's ruling in the case , Edmund Muskie replacing Cyrus Vance in 1980 , and Alexander Haig assuming the position in 1981 , the subsequent lower court cases are known as Terrazas v. Muskie and Terrazas v. Haig .
Congress amended the Immigration and Nationality Act in 1986 to specify , as required by Vance v. Terrazas , that a potentially expatriating act may result in loss of citizenship only if it was performed " with the intention of relinquishing United States nationality . "
Although the Terrazas ruling left intact Congress 's right to specify a preponderance @-@ of @-@ evidence standard for judging intent to give up citizenship , the State Department in 1990 adopted a policy that pursues loss @-@ of @-@ citizenship proceedings issues usually only when an individual affirmatively states the intent to relinquish citizenship . When a case involving possible expatriation comes to the attention of a US consular officer , the officer will normally " simply ask the applicant if there was intent to relinquish U.S. citizenship when performing the act . If the answer is no , the consular officer will certify that it was not the person 's intent to relinquish U.S. citizenship and , consequently , find that the person has retained U.S. citizenship . "
A bill was introduced in 2005 , which sought , among other things , to force the State Department to abolish the above policy on loss of citizenship and reinstate its pre @-@ 1990 policy " of viewing dual / multiple citizenship as problematic and as something to be discouraged , not encouraged . " However , the bill never made it to the floor of the House and died in committee when the 109th Congress adjourned .
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= Falkner Island =
Falkner Island ( also called Faulkner 's Island ) is a 2 @.@ 87 @-@ acre ( 1 @.@ 16 ha ) crescent @-@ shaped island located in Long Island Sound 3 miles ( 5 km ) off the coast of Guilford , Connecticut , United States . The island has been visited by the Native Americans for thousands of years . Its Quinnipiac name is " Massancummock " , meaning " the place of the great fish hawks " . In 1641 , Henry Whitfield and the founders of Guilford purchased the island from the Mohegan tribe 's sachem , Uncas , as part of a transaction for the land east of East River . Purchased by the Stone family in 1715 , it remained in the family until it was sold to the government in 1801 .
The Falkner Island Light was constructed in 1802 and commissioned by President Thomas Jefferson . The light is the second oldest in Connecticut and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places . The lighthouse was automated in 1978 , and continues to operate as a navigational aid to the nearby Intracoastal Waterway . The island is part of the Stewart B. McKinney National Wildlife Refuge and has the fifth @-@ largest colony of nesting roseate terns in the northeastern United States . Much of the island 's land mass has been lost to erosion , down to about 2 @.@ 87 acres ( 11 @,@ 600 m2 ) from its original 4 @.@ 5 acres ( 18 @,@ 000 m2 ) . The United States Army Corps of Engineers reinforced the eastern boundary to slow the advancing deterioration .
= = Name origins = =
The first recorded name of the Falkner Island was coined by the Native Americans . The island name in Quinnipiac was " Massancummock " meaning " the place of the great fish hawks " . The Quinnipiac name did not refer to possession , but instead the usage or resources of the island .
The identity of the first European explorer is unknown , but it was likely the Dutch explorer Adrian Block who sailed through Long Island Sound around 1614 . The United States government credits Block as the discoverer . Early English settlers called it " Falcon Island " , likely stemming from the Native American name . Helander writes that the island was probably named for the osprey , but the English translation to " Falcon " suggesting the presence of the peregrine falcon was one of " simple ignorance " . The island 's name on Dutch maps was " Valcken Eylandt " . The name later evolved to Faulkner Island , perhaps as a result of the Faulkner family who lived on the island in the 1700s . When the island was transferred to the U.S. government in 1801 , the deed states the name as " Faulkners " . The U.S. Board on Geographic Names changed and established " Falkner Island " as its name in 1891 . However , the name change is not universally recognized and " popular usage " and the Faulkner 's Light Brigade that conserves the island 's lighthouse use " Faulkner " ; including publications .
= = History = =
Falkner Island has been the site of human activity for thousands of years . An archaeological survey performed on the island from 1997 @-@ 1998 found a quartz projectile point of the Squibnocket triangle variety which dates to 1000 @-@ 3000 B.C. The study was conducted by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service as part of the erosion control project ; it was required by law under the National Historic Preservation Act because the island is on the National Register of Historic Places . The findings were published in the Bulletin of the Archaeological Society of Connecticut in 2001 . In 1994 , John P. Menta 's The History of the Quinnipiac Indians identifies Falker Island as the site of ceremonial and religious practices , but that these practices are still unknown . According to Bruchac 's Thirteen Moons on Turtle 's Back the island was not a permanent settlement , but was likely used for fishing and hunting trips in the summer .
European contact occurred in the first half of the 1600s . A map in the possession of Reverend Henry Whitfield from a 1639 deed shows the island and the Quinnipiac name of " Massancummock " . In 1641 , Whitfield and the founders of Guilford purchased the island from the Mohegan tribe 's sachem , Uncas , as part of a transaction for the land east of East River . Uncas acquired the land when he married the daughter of the Hammonassett sachem , Sebequanash . At some point in the 1600s , Andrew Leete was an owner of the island . In 1715 , Caleb and Ebenezer Stone purchased the island and it remained in the Stone family until 1801 . In 1800 , Noah Stone sold it to a distant relative named Medad Stone for $ 158 @.@ 34 ( equivalent to $ 2 @,@ 208 in 2015 ) . On May 12 , 1801 , Medad Stone sold the island to the government for $ 325 ( equivalent to $ 4 @,@ 622 in 2015 ) . Joel Henderson , a historian , notes that Medad Stone and the government were likely openly communicating about the island . The United States Congress appropriated $ 6000 in March 1801 for the lighthouse , prior to the government 's acquisition of the property .
It was inhabited throughout the 1700s through 1976 , with the Faulkner family and various lightkeepers of the Falkner Island Light . During the War of 1812 , the British forces landed on the island and told the keeper 's wife , Thankful Stone , that they had nothing to fear as long as they kept the light burning . Later , the keeper , Solomon Stone , had to put the light out per order of the New London customs inspector . The British threatened to blow up the lighthouse and Stone got an order to relight the lighthouse . In 2008 , the generator house for the light was renovated to be a summer house for the United States Fish and Wildlife Service interns who study the endangered roseate terns . The erosion control project was completed , but Hurricane Irene and Hurricane Sandy greatly reduced the breeding habitat of the terns to just 50 square metres ( 540 sq ft ) .
Erosion threatens the island 's very existence , it is believed that it was around eight acres in 1639 before being reduced to 5 @.@ 70 acres by 1818 . By 1987 , the total area has fallen to 2 @.@ 87 acres and it was projected that it could lose another 12 inches each year until it disappears into the sea around 2026 .
= = Falkner Island Light = =
The Falkner Island Lighthouse was constructed in 1802 and commissioned by President Thomas Jefferson . The lighthouse has had three keeper 's houses throughout its service life , the first erected in 1802 and rebuilt in 1851 and again in 1871 . In 1976 , the keeper 's house burned in 1976 and the lighthouse was repaired and automated in 1978 . The Faulkner 's Light Brigade has undertaken the restoration and preservation of the lighthouse since 1991 , with the last major restoration work being completed in March 2011 . Access to Falkner Island and the light is restricted during the nesting season of the roseate terns , from May to August . The Falkner Island Lighthouse is the second oldest extant lighthouse in Connecticut and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places .
= = Wildlife = =
In 1985 , the island became part of the Stewart B. McKinney National Wildlife Refuge after it was acquired from the U.S. Coast Guard . According to the Connecticut Audubon Society , " it currently supports over 95 % of the nesting Common Terns in Connecticut . It is the site of one of the ten largest Roseate Tern ( ~ 45 pairs ) colonies in Northeastern North America , and is the only regular nesting location for this federally endangered species in the state . " Also living on the island is the American oystercatcher , with one to two breeding pairs noted each year . Although the erosion control project was completed , Hurricane Irene and Hurricane Sandy greatly reduced the breeding habitat of the terns to just 50 square metres ( 540 sq ft ) . In spring 2014 , the dock damaged by Hurricane Sandy is scheduled to be rebuilt .
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= Lieutenant Governor of New Jersey =
The Lieutenant Governor of New Jersey is an elected constitutional officer in the executive branch of the state government of New Jersey in the United States . The lieutenant governor is the second highest @-@ ranking official in the state government and is elected concurrently on a ticket with the governor for a four @-@ year term . Because the position itself does not carry any powers or duties other than to be next in the order of succession , the state constitution requires that the lieutenant governor be appointed to serve as the head of a cabinet @-@ level department or administrative agency within the governor 's administration .
Prior to 2010 , New Jersey was one of a few states in the United States that did not have a lieutenant governor to succeed to the governorship in the event of a vacancy in that office . Only two individuals had previously held the title — both during brief periods in the colonial era ( 1664 – 1776 ) under commission or letters patent from the British Crown . For most of the state 's ( and previously the colony 's ) history , a vacancy in the position of governor was filled by the president of the State Senate ( called the " Legislative Council " from 1776 to 1844 ) , or during the colonial era by the president of the royal governor 's Provincial Council .
After several episodes where the state had multiple " acting governors " in the span of a few years following the resignations of Governor Christine Todd Whitman in 2001 and Governor James E. McGreevey in 2004 , popular sentiment and political pressure from the state 's residents and news media outlets sought a permanent and tenable solution to the issue of gubernatorial succession . A referendum put before the state 's voters authorized the amendment of the state 's constitution in 2006 . This amendment provided for the state 's first lieutenant governor to be elected in the state 's 2009 gubernatorial election .
Republican Kim Guadagno is the first to serve in the post in its modern form . Guadagno , previously the sheriff in Monmouth County , was chosen by Governor Chris Christie to be his running mate on the Republican party ticket in the 2009 election . In addition to being lieutenant governor , Guadagno serves in Governor Christie 's cabinet as New Jersey 's 33rd Secretary of State .
= = Appointments during the colonial period ( 1702 – 1776 ) = =
During the proprietary period ( 1664 – 1702 ) , New Jersey was divided into two separate colonies , East Jersey and West Jersey . These were often administered in its first years by deputies who resided in North America and represented the province 's governor and its major investors ( the " proprietors " ) , who typically resided in London . In 1702 , the proprietors of East and West Jersey surrendered their political authority to Queen Anne . The Queen united both provinces into one crown colony to be administered by a royal governor appointed by the Crown .
Only two individuals held the post of Lieutenant Governor of New Jersey during its colonial history . This position existed by direct commission from the British monarch only for two brief periods , 1702 – 09 and 1755 – 57 . For most of the colonial period , in the event of the resignation , prolonged absence or death of the royal governor , the province would be administered by an " acting governor " who was the president of the Provincial Council ( also called the " Governor 's Council " ) — the upper house of the colonial legislature . The council presidency was an honorary ceremonial post given to the council 's oldest member .
Richard Ingoldesby ( d . 1719 ) , a British army captain who was dispatched to New York to restore royal authority in New York after Leisler 's Rebellion , was commissioned as the Lieutenant Governor of New Jersey and New York in November 1702 . Ingoldesby served under the colony 's first royal governor , Edward Hyde , Lord Cornbury and then his successor John Lovelace , 4th Baron Lovelace . Although Lord Cornbury was frequently absent from New Jersey and focused most of his efforts in New York , he refused to permit Ingoldesby any authority to govern . Ingoldesby became acting governor of both provinces briefly after the sudden death of Lord Lovelace on May 6 , 1709 . However , his authority was opposed by rival factions of the colony 's proprietors who asserted that his commission was invalid . Ingoldesby further angered the colony 's Quaker leaders after he retaliated against them for their opposition to raising troops from New Jersey to support a planned invasion of French colonies in Canada . His commission as governor was revoked in October 1709 , but the news of his removal did not reach him until April 1710 .
The second lieutenant governor , Thomas Pownall ( 1722 – 1805 ) , was appointed to the post in 1755 under royal governor Jonathan Belcher ( 1681 / 2 – 1757 ) . Pownall had little responsibility beyond anticipating the death of the aging governor who for most of his tenure was in declining health from a progressive paralytic disorder . Belcher lived longer than expected , and Pownall grew restless . In 1756 , Pownall journeyed to England , where he was offered the governorship of Pennsylvania , but this offer was retracted after he made demands for wide @-@ ranging powers . While in England , Pownall advised the government organized by Thomas Pelham @-@ Holles , 1st Duke of Newcastle , and his close foreign affairs advisor William Pitt on the state of affairs in the colonies during the Seven Years ' War ( called the French and Indian War in North America ) . Because the insights and first @-@ hand knowledge he shared had impressed his superiors in Britain , Pownall was commissioned as Royal Governor of Massachusetts in March 1757 . Pownall arrived in Boston to assume the new post on August 3 , 1757 . When Belcher died on August 31 , 1757 , Pownall did not assume the governorship of New Jersey . Pownall 's appointment in Massachusetts left the New Jersey to be administered by John Reading ( 1686 – 1767 ) in his second tenure as " acting governor " — continuing the previous convention of the president of the Governor 's Council assuming the governorship in an acting capacity . Reading assumed the post reluctantly , after first requesting unsuccessfully that Pownall return to New Jersey to assume the office .
From Ingoldesby 's removal in 1710 until the tenure of Pownall , four appointed royal governors ( John Montgomerie , Sir William Cosby , Lewis Morris , and Jonathan Belcher ) died in office and were replaced with acting governors from the provincial council . Two of these acting governors ( John Anderson and John Hamilton ) died in office , and were replaced by another acting governor drawn from the members of the provincial council .
= = Gubernatorial succession ( 1776 – 2001 ) = =
Prior to the creation of the modern lieutenant governor position , the only state @-@ wide , non @-@ federal , elected office was the Governor of New Jersey . New Jersey was one of eight states without a lieutenant governor and one of four states without any other state @-@ wide elected official ( including County Prosecutors ) . Further , the state constitution does not provide for elections for state @-@ wide cabinet @-@ level positions — it grants the governor the power to appoint the " principal department heads " for the executive branch . For these reasons , New Jersey 's governor was considered the most powerful elected chief executive in the United States .
In the event of a vacancy in the governor 's office , the state constitution specified that the President of the New Jersey State Senate , the upper chamber of the state legislature , would assume the role of acting governor without relinquishing his or her powerful role in the state senate . Further , if the acting governorship filled by the state senate president were vacated or that person could not assume the office , he or she would be succeeded by the Speaker of the New Jersey General Assembly , the state legislature 's lower chamber . This order of succession was included in the first state constitution in 1776 , reinstated in the subsequent 1844 constitution , and kept in the 1947 Constitution until the 2006 amendment .
On several occasions in the state 's history , proposals for a lieutenant governor were raised and rejected . Governor Alfred E. Driscoll backed a proposal to create the office in 1947 as the state was rewriting its constitution at a constitutional convention held at Rutgers University in New Brunswick . Driscoll 's proposal was not approved . In 1986 , Governor Thomas Kean proposed the creation of the office in a move seen at the time as a political maneuver " apparently to preclude the possibility of a Democratic successor " as Kean was being considered as a viable presidential or senatorial candidate in the 1988 election and the senate president was a Democrat . Kean 's proposal was not successful .
= = Modern creation of the office ( 2001 – present ) = =
= = = Resignations and succession controversies ( 2001 – 06 ) = = =
New Jersey had two recent periods during which several politicians assumed the governorship within the span of a few years . In 2001 , Governor Christine Todd Whitman resigned with one year remaining in her second term after being appointed by President George W. Bush to the position of administrator of the federal Environmental Protection Agency . Senate President Donald DiFrancesco became acting governor following Whitman 's resignation on January 31 , 2001 , and remained in office until he retired from the state senate on January 8 , 2002 .
In an unusual political circumstance , the 2001 legislative elections returned a senate with equal numbers of Republicans and Democrats , with each party having 20 senators . Both sides negotiated to choose two senators from their respective parties to serve as co @-@ presidents . Because of an 8 @-@ day gap between the seating of the new state legislature and the inauguration of Governor @-@ elect Jim McGreevey , four men held the position of acting governor :
Outgoing Senate President Donald DiFrancesco continued to serve until 12 : 00 noon on January 8 , 2002 , until the new senate session was convened .
New Jersey 's Attorney General John J. Farmer , Jr. was acting governor for 90 minutes on January 8 , 2002 , while awaiting the swearing in of the next senate president .
Senate co @-@ President John Bennett , a Republican , served as acting governor from January 8 to 12 , 2002 .
Senate co @-@ President Richard Codey , a Democrat , served as acting governor from January 12 , 2002 , until McGreevey was sworn in as governor at noon on January 15 , 2002 .
After Governor McGreevey resigned in the midst of a sex scandal in 2004 , Richard Codey served again as acting governor from November 15 , 2004 to January 17 , 2006 . Codey was the only acting governor during this time , as the 2003 legislative elections had given the Democrats outright control of the state senate . Codey 's tenure ended with the inauguration of Governor Jon Corzine on January 17 , 2006 .
Public attention was directed to the issue of succession in the wake of the resignations of Governor Whitman and Governor McGreevey during so brief a period . The response of the general public and the media was that the situation of acting governors and resignations made the situation untenable and that the state needed a permanent solution such as a lieutenant governor . There were three chief arguments in favor of establishing a lieutenant governor :
That the senate president was chosen by the members of the state senate , not elected by voters — eligible to be acting governor solely by virtue of having been elected by the citizens in only one of state 's forty legislative districts .
That an acting governor serving simultaneously in the executive branch and legislative branch made the position of governor incredibly powerful and was a breach of the " separation of powers " between branches of the government .
That there potentially would be a lack of continuity between political platforms from a governor of one party and a senate president of another who assumes the post as acting governor . As there was no guarantee the two individuals would be members of the same party , there was greater concern that the policies of the acting governor might be in direct conflict with those of the preceding governor .
= = = Referendum on a constitutional amendment = = =
In 2005 , the state legislature passed resolutions for a proposed constitutional amendment to create the position of lieutenant governor . In accordance with the state constitution , this proposal was put before the voters as a public question on the ballot for the general election held on November 8 , 2005 . The General Assembly considered legislation , designated as " Assembly Concurrent Resolution No. 100 " ( ACR100 ) , which it passed on February 24 , 2005 , with 73 votes in favor and 1 opposed The senate followed by approving the legislation , under the title " Senate Concurrent Resolution No. 2 ( SCR2 ) , with 32 votes in favor and 5 opposed on March 21 , 2005 . The senate was still run by Acting Governor Richard Codey as senate president .
The question proposed on the ballot read :
Shall the amendment of Articles II , IV , V and XI of the Constitution , agreed to by the Legislature , establishing the office of lieutenant governor , and providing for the term , election , succession , salary , qualifications , and duties of the office , and for an interim succession to be employed in the event of a vacancy in the office of the governor before the election of the first lieutenant governor , be adopted ?
The amendment question was approved by voters by a tally of 836 @,@ 134 votes ( 56 @.@ 1 % ) to 655 @,@ 333 ( 43 @.@ 9 % ) . In the interim period before the next election in 2009 , any vacancy in the office of governor after January 17 , 2006 would be filled first by the senate president , followed by the speaker of the general assembly , who would vacate their legislative seat upon assuming the governor 's office .
= = = 2009 gubernatorial election = = =
New Jersey elected its first lieutenant governor in 2009 . After the primary election in June 2009 , Governor Corzine signed into law A.3902 , a bill from the state legislature that sought to clarify a vague passage in the state constitution concerning a gubernatorial candidate 's selection of a running mate . Corzine signed the bill into law on June 25 , 2009 . The constitution provided that a gubernatorial candidate select a running mate within 30 days after the " nomination . " The confusion that arose concerned whether the " nomination " was the date of the primary election or the date that the vote count of that election was confirmed as final and certified by the state 's Secretary of State . As defined by state law , the primary election is held on " Tuesday after the first Monday in June " . However , the reported winner of a primary election is not official until the state 's 21 county clerks are canvassed for official results after an election . This allows time for the Secretary of State to tabulate stray late absentee ballots ( i.e. from military voters stationed outside the state ) ; calculate final adjustments of vote tallies ; litigate legal disputes ; and conduct recounts if necessary . A.3902 provided a clarification of this deadline as " 30 days after primary results are certified by the secretary of state , not the primary election itself . " The bill also reduced the number of days in which the June primary election results must be certified from 86 days ( which would place the deadline in August ) to the fourth Friday in June , less than 4 weeks after the election . By enacting this bill , New Jersey 's gubernatorial candidates had an extra three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half weeks to announce their selection of a lieutenant governor running mate . The 2009 deadline for such an announcement was moved from July 2 ( 30 days after the primary election ) to July 27 ( 30 days after the certification of election results ) .
In the week before the deadline , the three candidates nominated for governor and running in the November general election selected their running mates . The incumbent , Democratic nominee Governor Jon Corzine , chose State Senator Loretta Weinberg . His Republican challenger , Chris Christie , a former U.S. Attorney for New Jersey , selected Monmouth County Sheriff Kim Guadagno . Independent candidate Chris Daggett selected Frank J. Esposito , a history professor and former administrator at Kean University . On November 3 , 2009 , Christie defeated Corzine by a margin of 48 @.@ 5 % ( 1 @,@ 174 @,@ 445 votes ) to 44 @.@ 9 % ( 1 @,@ 087 @,@ 731 votes ) , with 5 @.@ 8 % ( 139 @,@ 579 votes ) of the vote going to Daggett . With Christie 's election as governor , Kim Guadagno was slated to become the state 's first lieutenant governor in its modern form . Christie and Guadagno were installed at inaugural ceremonies held on January 19 , 2010 .
= = Constitutional provisions = =
= = = Qualifications and duties = = =
As amended on January 17 , 2006 , New Jersey 's state constitution mandates that a person may only be eligible for the position of lieutenant governor if they meet the eligibility qualifications to serve as governor . Article V , Section I , paragraph 2 , requires that a candidate for governor ( and thus lieutenant governor ) be at least 30 years old , a citizen of the United States for at least 20 years , and a resident of New Jersey for at least seven years . Within 30 days after the certification of the statewide primary election , the candidate for governor selects a running mate to join his ticket as the candidate for lieutenant governor . The governor and lieutenant governor must be members of the same political party . As candidates they campaign on the same ticket , are elected conjointly , and serve the same four @-@ year term concurrently .
Additional requirements are imposed by Article V , Section I , paragraph 10 of the state constitution , which provides that the lieutenant governor be appointed as a head of a cabinet @-@ level department or administrative agency within the governor 's administration , with the exception that he or she cannot be the state 's attorney general . The current lieutenant governor , Kim Guadagno , serves as New Jersey 's 33rd Secretary of State .
= = = Order of succession = = =
The order of succession in the event the governor 's office is left vacant is specified in Article V , Section I , paragraph 6 of the New Jersey State Constitution , as amended , effective January 17 , 2006 , which states :
In the event of a vacancy in the office of Governor resulting from the death , resignation or removal of a Governor in office , or the death of a Governor @-@ elect , or from any other cause , the Lieutenant Governor shall become Governor , until a new Governor is elected and qualifies .
In the event of simultaneous vacancies in both the offices of Governor and Lieutenant Governor resulting from any cause , the President of the Senate shall become Governor until a new Governor or Lieutenant Governor is elected and qualifies . In the event that there is a vacancy in the office of Senate President , or the Senate President declines to become Governor , then the Speaker of the General Assembly shall become Governor until a new Governor or Lieutenant Governor is elected and qualifies . In the event that there is a vacancy in the office of Speaker of the General Assembly , or if the Speaker declines to become Governor , then the functions , powers , duties and emoluments of the office shall devolve for the time being upon such officers and in the order of succession as may be provided by law , until a new Governor or Lieutenant Governor is elected and qualifies .
= = List of lieutenant governors = =
= = = In the colonial period = = =
= = = In the modern era ( 2010 – present ) = = =
Democratic ( 0 ) Republican ( 1 )
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= German cruiser Deutschland =
Deutschland was the lead ship of her class of heavy cruisers ( often termed a pocket battleship ) which served with the Kriegsmarine of Nazi Germany during World War II . Ordered by the Weimar government for the Reichsmarine , she was laid down at the Deutsche Werke shipyard in Kiel in February 1929 and completed by April 1933 . Originally classified as an armored ship ( Panzerschiff ) by the Reichsmarine , in February 1940 the Germans reclassified the remaining two ships of this class as heavy cruisers . In 1940 , she was renamed Lützow , after the Admiral Hipper @-@ class heavy cruiser Lützow was handed over to the Soviet Union .
The ship saw significant action with the Kriegsmarine , including several non @-@ intervention patrols in the Spanish Civil War , during which she was attacked by Republican bombers . At the outbreak of World War II , she was cruising the North Atlantic , prepared to attack Allied merchant traffic . Bad weather hampered her efforts , and she only sank or captured a handful of vessels before returning to Germany . She then participated in Operation Weserübung , the invasion of Norway . Damaged at the Battle of Drøbak Sound , she was recalled to Germany for repairs . While en route , she was torpedoed and seriously damaged by a British submarine .
Repairs were completed by March 1941 , Lützow returned to Norway to join the forces arrayed against Allied shipping to the Soviet Union . She ran aground during a planned attack on convoy PQ 17 , which necessitated another return to Germany for repairs . She next saw action at the Battle of the Barents Sea with the heavy cruiser Admiral Hipper , which ended with a failure to destroy the convoy JW 51B . Engine problems forced a series of repairs culminating in a complete overhaul at the end of 1943 , after which the ship remained in the Baltic . Sunk in shallow waters in the Kaiserfahrt in April 1945 by Royal Air Force ( RAF ) bombers , Lützow was used as a gun battery to support German troops fighting the Soviet Army until 4 May 1945 , when she was disabled by her crew . Raised by the Soviet Navy in 1947 , she was subsequently sunk as a target in the Baltic .
= = Construction = =
Deutschland was ordered by the Reichsmarine from the Deutsche Werke shipyard in Kiel as Ersatz Preussen , a replacement for the old battleship Preussen . Her keel was laid on 5 February 1929 , under construction number 219 . The ship was launched on 19 May 1931 ; at her launching , she was christened by German Chancellor Heinrich Brüning . The ship accidentally started sliding down the slipway while Brüning was giving his christening speech . After the completion of fitting out work , initial sea trials began in November 1932 . The ship was commissioned into the Reichsmarine on 1 April 1933 .
Deutschland was 186 meters ( 610 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 20 @.@ 69 m ( 67 @.@ 9 ft ) and a maximum draft of 7 @.@ 25 m ( 23 @.@ 8 ft ) . The ship had a design displacement of 12 @,@ 630 t ( 12 @,@ 430 long tons ; 13 @,@ 920 short tons ) and a full load displacement of 14 @,@ 290 long tons ( 14 @,@ 520 t ) , though the ship was officially stated to be within the 10 @,@ 000 long tons ( 10 @,@ 000 t ) limit of the Treaty of Versailles . Deutschland was powered by four sets of MAN 9 @-@ cylinder double @-@ acting two @-@ stroke diesel engines . The ship 's top speed was 28 knots ( 52 km / h ; 32 mph ) , at 54 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 40 @,@ 000 kW ) . At a cruising speed of 20 knots ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) , the ship could steam for 10 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 19 @,@ 000 km ; 12 @,@ 000 mi ) . As designed , her standard complement consisted of 33 officers and 586 enlisted men , though after 1935 this was significantly increased to 30 officers and 921 – 1 @,@ 040 sailors .
Deutschland 's primary armament was six 28 cm ( 11 @.@ 0 in ) SK C / 28 guns mounted in two triple gun turrets , one forward and one aft of the superstructure . The ship carried a secondary battery of eight 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) SK C / 28 guns in single turrets grouped amidships . Her anti @-@ aircraft battery originally consisted of three 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) L / 45 guns , though in 1935 these were replaced with six 8 @.@ 8 cm L / 78 guns . In 1940 , the 8 @.@ 8 cm guns were removed , and six 10 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) L / 65 guns , four 3 @.@ 7 cm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) guns , and ten 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) guns were installed in their place . By the end of the war , her anti @-@ aircraft battery had again been reorganized , consisting of six 4 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) guns , ten 3 @.@ 7 cm guns , and twenty @-@ eight 2 cm guns .
The ship also carried a pair of quadruple 53 @.@ 3 cm ( 21 @.@ 0 in ) deck @-@ mounted torpedo launchers placed on her stern . The ship was equipped with two Arado Ar 196 seaplanes and one catapult . Deutschland 's armored belt was 60 to 80 mm ( 2 @.@ 4 to 3 @.@ 1 in ) thick ; her upper deck was 17 mm ( 0 @.@ 67 in ) thick while the main armored deck was 17 to 45 mm ( 0 @.@ 67 to 1 @.@ 77 in ) thick . The main battery turrets had 140 mm ( 5 @.@ 5 in ) thick faces and 80 mm thick sides . Radar initially consisted of a FMG G ( gO ) " Seetakt " set ; in 1942 , a FuMO 26 set was also installed .
= = History = =
Deutschland spent the majority of 1933 and 1934 conducting training maneuvers ; early speed trials in May 1933 indicated that a top speed of 25 knots ( 46 km / h ; 29 mph ) was preferable , but the ship comfortably reached 28 knots ( 52 km / h ; 32 mph ) on speed trials in June . Trials were completed by December 1933 , and the ship was ready for active service with the fleet . The ship also made a series of goodwill visits to foreign ports , including visits to Gothenburg , Sweden , and in October 1934 , a formal state visit to Edinburgh , Scotland . In April 1934 , Adolf Hitler visited the ship ; he reportedly toured the ship alone , speaking informally with crewmen .
The ship conducted a series of long distance training voyages into the Atlantic in 1935 . In March 1935 , she sailed as far as the Caribbean and South American waters . After returning to Germany , she went into dock for routine maintenance work , as well as installation of additional equipment . She had her aircraft catapult installed in this period , and was provided with two Heinkel He 60 floatplanes . Deutschland participated in fleet maneuvers in German waters in early 1936 . She was joined by her newly commissioned sister ship Admiral Scheer for a cruise into the mid @-@ Atlantic , which included a stop in Madeira .
= = = Spanish Civil War = = =
Following the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War in 1936 , Deutschland and Admiral Scheer were deployed to the Spanish coast on 23 July 1936 to conduct non @-@ intervention patrols off the Republican @-@ held coast of Spain . During the deployment , her gun turrets were painted with large black , white , and red bands to aid in identification from the air and indicate her neutral status . Her duties during the deployment included evacuating refugees fleeing from the fighting , protecting German ships carrying supplies for Francisco Franco 's Nationalists , and gathering intelligence for the Nationalists .
In May 1937 , the ship was docked in the port of Palma on the island of Majorca , along with several other neutral warships , including vessels from the British and Italian navies . The port was attacked by Republican aircraft , though anti @-@ aircraft fire from the warships drove them off . The torpedo boats Seeadler and Albatross escorted Deutschland to the island of Ibiza on 24 May . While moored in port there , she was again attacked by Republican bombers ; a pair of Soviet @-@ built SB @-@ 2 bombers , secretly flown by Soviet Air Force pilots , bombed the ship . Two bombs struck the ship ; the first penetrated the upper deck near the bridge and exploded above the main armored deck while the second hit near the third starboard 15 cm gun , causing serious fires below decks . The attack killed 31 German sailors and wounded 74 .
Deutschland quickly weighed anchor and left port . She rendezvoused with Admiral Scheer to take on additional doctors before proceeding to Gibraltar where the dead were buried with full military honors . Ten days later , however , Hitler ordered the men be exhumed and returned for burial in Germany . The ship 's wounded men were also evacuated in Gibraltar for treatment . Hitler , furious over the attack , ordered Admiral Scheer to bombard the port of Almería in retaliation for the so @-@ called " Deutschland incident " . Stalin subsequently issued orders that further attacks on German and Italian warships were strictly prohibited .
Deutschland spent the majority of 1938 and 1939 conducting training maneuvers with the rest of the fleet and making goodwill visits to various foreign ports . She made an official visit to Spain following the Nationalist victory in the Spanish Civil War 1939 . The ship participated in a major fleet exercise into the Atlantic with her sister Admiral Graf Spee , the light cruisers Köln , Leipzig , and Nürnberg , and several destroyers , U @-@ boats , and support vessels .
= = = World War II = = =
On 24 August 1939 , a week before the German invasion of Poland , Deutschland set sail from Wilhelmshaven , bound for a position south of Greenland . Here , she would be ready to attack Allied merchant traffic in the event of a general war following the attack on Poland . The supply ship Westerwald was assigned to support Deutschland during the operation . Deutschland was ordered to strictly observe prize rules , which required raiders to stop and search ships for contraband before sinking them , and to ensure that their crews are safely evacuated . The ship was also ordered to avoid combat with even inferior naval forces , as commerce disruption was the primary objective . Hitler hoped to secure a negotiated peace with Britain and France after he overran Poland , and he therefore did not authorize Deutschland to begin her raiding mission against British and French shipping until 26 September . By this time , Deutschland had moved south to hunt in the Bermuda @-@ Azores sea lane .
On 5 October , she found and sank the British transport ship Stonegate , though not before the freighter was able to send a distress signal informing vessels in the area of Deutschland 's presence . She then turned north to the Halifax route , where on 9 October , she encountered the American ship City of Flint . The 4 @,@ 963 gross register tons ( GRT ) freighter was found to be carrying contraband , and so was seized . A prize crew was dispatched to the ship ; they took the ship with the original crew held prisoner to Germany via Murmansk . The ship was seized by Norway when she anchored in Haugesund , however , and control of the ship was returned to the original crew . Meanwhile , on 14 October , Deutschland encountered and sank the Norwegian transport Lorentz W Hansen , of some 1 @,@ 918 GRT . The same day , she stopped the neutral Danish steamer Kongsdal , though when it became apparent that she was headed for a neutral port , the prisoners from Lorentz W Hansen were placed aboard her and she was allowed to proceed . Kongsdal would eventually report to the British Royal Navy the incident and confirm Deutschland as the raider operating in the North Atlantic .
Severe weather in the North Atlantic hampered Deutschland 's raiding mission , though she did tie down several British warships assigned to track her down . The French Force de Raid , centered on the battleship Dunkerque , was occupied with protecting convoys around Britain to prevent them from being attacked by Deutschland . In early November , the Naval High Command recalled Deutschland ; she passed through the Denmark Strait on 15 November and anchored in Gotenhafen on the 17th . In the course of her raiding mission , she sank only two vessels and captured a third . In 1940 , the ship underwent a major overhaul , during which a raked clipper bow was installed to improve the sea @-@ keeping qualities of the ship . At this time , she was re @-@ rated as a heavy cruiser and renamed Lützow . Hitler in person made the decision to rename the ship , recognizing the propaganda value of the sinking of a ship that bore the name of its country . Admiral Erich Raeder , the commander in chief of the Kriegsmarine , also hoped that renaming the ship would confuse Allied intelligence ; the Admiral Hipper @-@ class cruiser Lützow was designated for sale to the Soviet Navy , and it was hoped that the usage of her name for Deutschland would hide the transaction . The refit lasted until March 1940 , after which it was intended to send the ship on another commerce raiding operation into the South Atlantic . In April , however , she was assigned to forces participating in the invasion of Norway .
= = = = Operation Weserübung = = = =
Lützow was assigned to Group 5 , alongside the new heavy cruiser Blücher and the light cruiser Emden under the command of Konteradmiral Oskar Kummetz . Kummetz flew his flag in Blücher . Group 5 was tasked with capturing Oslo , the capital of Norway , and transported a force of 2 @,@ 000 mountain troops from the Wehrmacht . Lützow embarked over 400 of the soldiers for the voyage to Norway . The force left Germany on 8 April and passed through the Kattegat . While en route , the British submarine HMS Triton attacked the flotilla , though her torpedoes missed . German torpedo boats attacked the submarine and drove her off .
Shortly before midnight on the night of 8 April , Group 5 , with Blücher in the lead , passed the outer ring of Norwegian coastal batteries . Lützow followed directly behind the flagship , with Emden astern . Heavy fog and neutrality requirements , which required the Norwegians to fire warning shots , permitted the Germans to avoid damage . The Norwegians , including those manning the guns at the Oscarsborg Fortress were on alert , however . Steaming into the Oslofjord at a speed of 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) , the Germans came into range of the Norwegian guns ; the 28 cm , 15 cm and 57 mm guns opened fire on the invaders . During the ensuing Battle of Drøbak Sound , Blücher was hit by many shells and two torpedoes . She quickly capsized and sank with the loss of approximately 1 @,@ 000 sailors and soldiers . Lützow was hit three times by 15 cm shells from Oscarsborg 's Kopås battery , causing significant damage .
Lützow 's forward gun turret was hit by one of the 15 cm rounds , which disabled the center gun and damaged the right barrel . Four men were wounded . A second shell struck the ship 's deck and penetrated the upper and main armored decks ; starting a fire in the cruiser 's hospital and operating theater , killing two soldiers and severely wounding six others . A third struck her superstructure behind the port @-@ side aircraft crane . One of the aircraft on board was damaged , and four gunners were killed by the third shell . The ship was only able to fire her secondary battery in return . The heavy damage forced Lützow and the rest of the squadron to reverse course and exit the fjord . She eventually landed her troop complement in Verle Bay , after which she used her operational 28 cm guns to provide fire support . By the afternoon of 9 April , most of the Norwegian fortresses had been captured and the commander of the remaining Norwegian forces opened negotiations for surrender . The delay had , however , allowed enough time for the Norwegian government and royal family to flee Oslo .
The damage Lützow sustained prompted the Kriegsmarine to order her to return to Germany for repairs . The rest of Group 5 remained in Norway , so Lützow cruised at top speed to avoid submarines . Nevertheless , the British submarine HMS Spearfish attacked the ship and scored a serious hit . The torpedo destroyed Lützow 's stern , causing it to collapse and nearly fall off , and blew off her steering gear . Unable to steer , she was towed back to port and decommissioned for repairs , which lasted for nearly a year . During the attack on Norway , the ship suffered nineteen dead , and another fifteen were killed by the torpedo strike . Despite the setback , KzS August Thiele , Lützow 's commander , was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross for his actions during the Battle of Drøbak Sound , during which he took command of the task force after the loss of Blücher .
She was recommissioned for service on 31 March 1941 , after which the Kriegsmarine initially planned to send the ship on the commerce raiding operation planned the previous year . Her sister Admiral Scheer was to join Lützow for the operation , and on 12 June , she departed for Norway with an escort of destroyers . British torpedo bombers attacked the ship off Egersund and scored a single hit that disabled her electrical system and rendered the ship motionless . She took on a severe list to port and the port shaft was damaged . The crew effected emergency repairs that allowed her to return to Germany ; repair work in Kiel lasted for six months . By 10 May 1942 , the ship was finally pronounced ready for action .
= = = = Deployment to Norway = = = =
Lützow left Germany on 15 May 1942 for Norway ; by 25 May she had joined Admiral Scheer in Bogen Bay . She was made the flagship of the now Vizeadmiral Kummetz , the commander of Kampfgruppe 2 . Fuel shortages restricted operations , although Lützow and Admiral Scheer were able to conduct limited battle training exercises . Kampfgruppe 2 was assigned to Operation Rösselsprung , a planned attack on the Allied convoy PQ 17 , which was headed to the Soviet Union . On 3 July , the force left their anchorages , and in heavy fog Lützow and three destroyers ran aground and suffered significant damage . The British detected the German departure and ordered the convoy to scatter . Aware that surprise had been lost , the Germans broke off the surface attack and turned the destruction of PQ @-@ 17 over to the U @-@ boats and Luftwaffe . Twenty @-@ four of the convoy 's thirty @-@ five transports were sunk . Lützow returned to Germany for repairs , which lasted until the end of October . She began a brief set of trials starting on 30 October . She returned to Norway in early November with a destroyer escort , arriving in Narvik on the 12th .
On 30 December , Lützow , the heavy cruiser Admiral Hipper , and six destroyers left Narvik for Operation Regenbogen , an attack on convoy JW 51B , which was reported by German intelligence to be lightly escorted . Kummetz 's plan was to divide his force in half ; he would take Admiral Hipper and three destroyers north of the convoy to attack it and draw away the escorts . Lützow and the remaining three destroyers would then attack the undefended convoy from the south . At 09 : 15 on the 31st , the British destroyer Obdurate spotted the three destroyers screening for Admiral Hipper ; the Germans opened fire first . Four of the other five destroyers escorting the convoy rushed to join the fight , while Achates laid a smoke screen to cover the convoy . Kummetz then turned back north to draw the destroyers away . Captain Robert Sherbrooke , the British escort commander , left two destroyers to cover the convoy while he took the remaining four to pursue Admiral Hipper .
Lützow meanwhile steamed toward the convoy from the south , and at 11 : 42 she opened fire . The harsh conditions negatively affected her shooting , which ceased by 12 : 03 without any hits . Rear Admiral Robert Burnett 's Force R , centered on the cruisers Sheffield and Jamaica , standing by in distant support of the Allied convoy , raced to the scene . The cruisers engaged Admiral Hipper , which had been firing to port at the destroyer Obedient . Burnett 's ships approached from Admiral Hipper 's starboard side and achieved complete surprise . Lützow was then ordered to break off the attack on the convoy and reinforce Admiral Hipper . Lützow inadvertently came alongside Sheffield and Jamaica , and after identifying them as hostile , engaged them , though her fire remained inaccurate . The British cruisers turned toward Lützow and came under fire from both German cruisers . Burnett quickly decided to withdraw in the face of superior German firepower ; his ships were armed with 6 in ( 150 mm ) guns , while Admiral Hipper and Lützow carried 20 @.@ 3 cm ( 8 @.@ 0 in ) and 28 cm ( 11 in ) guns , respectively .
= = = = Operations in the Baltic = = = =
Hitler was furious over the failure to destroy the convoy , and ordered that all remaining German major warships be broken up for scrap . In protest , Raeder resigned ; Hitler replaced him with Admiral Karl Dönitz , who persuaded Hitler to rescind the order to dismantle the Kriegmarine 's surface ships . In March , Lützow moved to Altafjord , where she experienced problems with her diesel engines . The propulsion system proved to be so problematic that repairs in Germany were necessary . She briefly returned to Norway , but by the end of September 1943 , a thorough overhaul was required . The work was completed in Kiel by January 1944 , after which she remained in the Baltic Sea to conduct training cruises for new naval personnel .
On 13 April 1945 , twenty @-@ four Avro Lancaster bombers attacked Lützow and Prinz Eugen without success due to cloud cover . The RAF made another failed attack two days later , but on 16 April , a force of eighteen Lancasters scored a single hit and several near misses on Lützow with Tallboy bombs in the Kaiserfahrt . The water was shallow enough that her main deck was still 2 m ( 6 ft 7 in ) above water , permitting her use as a stationary gun battery against advancing Soviet forces under control of Task Force Thiele . She continued in this role until 4 May , by which time she had expended her main battery ammunition . Her crew rigged scuttling charges to destroy the hull , but a fire caused the explosives to detonate prematurely . The ultimate fate of Lützow was long unclear , as with most of the ships seized by the Soviet Navy . According to historians Erich Gröner and M. J. Whitley , the Soviet Navy raised the ship in September 1947 and broke her up for scrap in 1948 – 1949 . Historians Hildebrand , Röhr and Steinmetz , in their book Die Deutschen Kriegsschiffe , state that she instead sank off Kolberg , claiming that the Lützow broken up in the late 1940s was instead the Admiral Hipper @-@ class cruiser Lützow that had been sold to the Soviet Union in 1940 . The historian Hans Georg Prager examined the former Soviet archives in the early 2000s , and discovered that Lützow actually had been sunk in weapons tests in July 1947 , sinking in the Baltic Sea off Świnoujście , Poland , on 22 July 1947 .
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= Interstate 80 in Utah =
Interstate 80 ( I @-@ 80 ) is a part of the Interstate Highway System that runs from San Francisco , California , to Teaneck , New Jersey . The portion of the highway in the U.S. state of Utah is 196 @.@ 35 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 315 @.@ 99 km ) , through the northern part of the state . From west to east , I @-@ 80 crosses the state line from Nevada in Tooele County and traverses the Bonneville Salt Flats — which are a part of the larger Great Salt Lake Desert . It continues alongside the Wendover Cut @-@ off — the corridor of the former Victory Highway — U.S. Route 40 ( US @-@ 40 ) and the Western Pacific Railroad Feather River Route . After passing the Oquirrh Mountains , I @-@ 80 enters the Salt Lake Valley and Salt Lake County . A short portion of the freeway is concurrent with I @-@ 15 through Downtown Salt Lake City . At the Spaghetti Bowl , I @-@ 80 turns east again into the mouth of Parley 's Canyon and Summit County , travels through the mountain range and intersects the eastern end of I @-@ 84 near Echo Reservoir before turning northwest towards the Wyoming border near Evanston . I @-@ 80 was built along the corridor of the Lincoln Highway and the Mormon Trail through the Wasatch Range . The easternmost section also follows the historical routes of the First Transcontinental Railroad and US @-@ 30S .
Construction of the controlled @-@ access highway began in the 1950s , and by the late 1970s most of the freeway across the state of Utah had been completed . The four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ mile @-@ long ( 7 @.@ 2 km ) section of I @-@ 80 between Utah State Route 68 ( SR @-@ 68 , Redwood Road ) and the Salt Lake City International Airport was the last piece of the nearly 2 @,@ 900 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 4 @,@ 700 km ) freeway to be completed . It was opened on August 22 , 1986 , and was about 50 miles ( 80 km ) from the site of another cross @-@ country milestone in Utah , the driving of the Golden Spike of the First Transcontinental Railroad at Promontory Summit . Average daily traffic volumes in 2012 ranged between 6 @,@ 765 vehicles using the freeway at SR @-@ 58 and 121 @,@ 205 vehicles using the freeway at the Spaghetti Bowl in Downtown Salt Lake City . Throughout the state , the highway is also known as the Purple Heart Trail .
= = Route description = =
Out of the eleven states which I @-@ 80 passes through , the 196 @.@ 34 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 315 @.@ 98 km ) segment in Utah is the fourth shortest . The longest stretch of I @-@ 80 in a single state is the 455 @.@ 32 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 732 @.@ 77 km ) segment in Nebraska . As part of the Interstate Highway System , the entire route is listed on the National Highway System , a system of roads that are important to the nation 's economy , defense , and mobility .
Every year , the Utah Department of Transportation ( UDOT ) conducts a series of surveys on its highways to measure traffic volumes . This measure is expressed in terms of average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) , a measure of traffic volume for any average day of the year . In 2012 , UDOT calculated that as few as 6 @,@ 765 vehicles traveled I @-@ 80 at the interchange with SR @-@ 58 in Wendover , and as many as 121 @,@ 205 vehicles used the highway at the Spaghetti Bowl in downtown Salt Lake City . Between seven and 58 percent of the traffic recorded consisted of trucks . These counts are for the portion of the freeway in Utah .
= = = Tooele County = = =
The freeway enters Utah from Nevada in the city of Wendover on the edge of the Bonneville Salt Flats . The cities of West Wendover , Nevada and Wendover are accessible by I @-@ 80 's only business loop in Utah , whose interchange is just south of Danger Cave . The highway closely follows the historical routes of the Wendover Cutoff , the Victory Highway , and of the ex @-@ Western Pacific Railroad 's Feather River Route ( now part of the Union Pacific Railroad Central Corridor ) across the salt flats and the larger Great Salt Lake Desert . Bonneville Speedway , home to many land speed records , is accessible from I @-@ 80 . In the middle of the salt flats is a concrete sculpture , Metaphor : The Tree of Utah , which stands just off the westbound carriageway of I @-@ 80 , 30 mi ( 48 km ) east of Wendover .
Bounded on each sides by military training grounds , the I @-@ 80 corridor is overflown by commercial airliners traveling west from Salt Lake City International Airport . The freeway veers north around the Cedar Mountains in a small gap between them and the Lakeside Mountains . Further east , the highway passes the Stansbury Mountains , which are located in the Wasatch @-@ Cache National Forest . After the mountain ranges , the freeway arrives at the southern shore of the Great Salt Lake and closely follows the shore towards the western suburbs of Salt Lake City . However , the historical routes from which the route of I @-@ 80 was derived were routed further from the lake , passing through the towns of Grantsville and Tooele before crossing a bottleneck between the Oquirrh Mountains and Stansbury Island in the Great Salt Lake . These communities are now served by SR @-@ 138 and SR @-@ 36 respectively .
= = = Salt Lake County = = =
While traversing the neck , views can be had from I @-@ 80 of the Lake and Antelope Island . After passing the neck , the road forks , with I @-@ 80 proceeding towards the north end of Salt Lake City and SR @-@ 201 proceeding towards the south end . Historically , this intersection was the separation of US @-@ 40 and US @-@ 50 . After the intersection , the freeway corridor is again bottlenecked with the Great Salt Lake to the north and the Kennecott Copper smelter and tailings pond to the south . The Kennecott 's Bingham Canyon Mine , which was once considered to be the largest open @-@ pit copper mine , can be seen in the distance . The 1 @,@ 215 @-@ foot @-@ tall ( 370 m ) Kennecott Smokestack is one of the tallest freestanding structures in the United States . Along this portion , the freeway passes the historical site of the Saltair Resort .
The freeway enters the Salt Lake Valley on the former alignment of North Temple Street until it passes the Salt Lake City International Airport , where the freeway veers slightly south and leaves the North Temple Street corridor which leads to Temple Square in downtown Salt Lake City . The Green Line of the Utah Transit Authority ( UTA ) TRAX system briefly parallels I @-@ 80 before traveling down the center of North Temple Street . I @-@ 80 becomes concurrent with I @-@ 15 after interchanges with SR @-@ 58 and 600 South and continues south for about three miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) , passing along the western and southern edges of downtown Salt Lake City . The southern interchange with I @-@ 15 , which also includes SR @-@ 201 ( 21st South Freeway ) and marks the end of the concurrency , is known as the Spaghetti Bowl , . In the southwestern corner of the Spaghetti Bowl is another portion of the UTA TRAX Green Line as it travels towards West Valley City . After separating from I @-@ 15 , the freeway continues easterly through South Salt Lake , loosely following an alignment just south of 2100 South and the UTA S Line streetcar through the Sugar House neighborhood and past Sugar House Park — once the home of the Sugar House Prison towards the clockwise terminus of the I @-@ 215 270 ° belt route around Salt Lake . It continues through Parley 's Canyon , where the freeway joins the historical route of the Lincoln Highway . Between the mouth of the canyon and the Summit county line , the route re @-@ enters the Wasatch National Forest .
= = = Summit County = = =
Parley 's Canyon carries I @-@ 80 up the western slope of the Wasatch Front as a six @-@ lane freeway , cresting the mountains at an elevation of 7 @,@ 028 feet ( 2 @,@ 142 m ) at Parley 's Summit . Both the canyon and summit were named for Parley P. Pratt , an early settler to the Salt Lake Valley and an early Mormon leader who was asked to survey a new route across the mountains to replace the route through Emigration Canyon . Between 1848 and 1851 , Pratt surveyed , completed , and operated the Golden Pass toll road through the canyon that today bears his name . Pratt had unsuccessfully solicited for $ 800 ( equivalent to $ 399 thousand in 2015 ) to build the road , and sold it for $ 1 @,@ 500 ( equivalent to $ 740 thousand in 2015 ) . On and off ramps for the Wyoming port @-@ of @-@ entry are located just within Utah . In January 2014 , UDOT introduced variable speed limits to I @-@ 80 in Parley 's Canyon , allowing a speed limit between 35 mph ( 56 km / h ) up to the normal 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) depending on weather or traffic conditions .
Beyond Parley 's summit lies Park City , a mining town today better known for its many ski resorts . The Historic Union Pacific Rail Trail State Park travels in the median between carriageways of I @-@ 80 before paralleling the highway until the southern end of Echo Reservoir . The freeway turns north upon reaching the Rockport Reservoir at Wanship following the tributaries of the Weber River toward Echo Reservoir and dam . Upon reaching Echo Canyon and the junction with the eastern terminus of the western section of I @-@ 84 , the freeway follows the canyon east until it reaches the Wyoming state line near Evanston . I @-@ 80 forms the northeastern border between Rich and Summit Counties .
The portion through Echo Canyon follows the historical routes of the Mormon Trail , US @-@ 30S , and the First Transcontinental Railroad . A rest area in the canyon just east of the junction with I @-@ 84 features signs pointing out features that were obstacles for both the Mormon pioneers and the railroad construction workers , including Pulpit Rock , which was partially demolished when the I @-@ 80 was built through the canyon .
= = History = =
= = = Earlier roads = = =
I @-@ 80 follows the routes of two major auto trails through the state . In western Utah , I @-@ 80 follows the historical route of the Victory Highway from Wendover at the Nevada state line to the junction of US @-@ 40 near Park City . Throughout Utah , I @-@ 80 is signed as the modern route of the Lincoln Highway — except through Salt Lake City , where the Lincoln Highway is routed along State Route 201 and Parley 's Way . The route of the Lincoln Highway across Utah was generally derived from the route of the Pony Express and the Central Overland Route . However , much of the original route of the Lincoln Highway west of Salt Lake City is inaccessible . The original route of the Lincoln Highway proceeded southwest from Tooele towards Ely , Nevada . This area is now used for military bases , such as the Dugway Proving Ground and Tooele Army Depot . The area was closed to the public when these bases were established . I @-@ 80 and US @-@ 93 are the modern signing of the Lincoln Highway between those two cities . East of Salt Lake City , I @-@ 80 closely parallels the original route of the Lincoln Highway .
In 1926 , much of the route covered by I @-@ 80 , including Pratt 's former toll road from the Nevada state line into Salt Lake City , was signed as US @-@ 40 then as US @-@ 30 to the Wyoming state line . It was also part of the Victory Highway west of Salt Lake and the Lincoln Highway east of Salt Lake at this time . Most of the route had been improved but some stretches of graded road remained . In 1937 , parts of the route near Wanship were numbered US @-@ 530 . In 1950 , the highway near Echo was designated US @-@ 30S and US @-@ 189 . By 1959 , US @-@ 50 Alternate was also routed along the western portion of I @-@ 80 .
= = = Current road = = =
The first Utah State Route to have the number 80 is now known as SR @-@ 92 , which was originally numbered SR @-@ 80 until the 1977 renumbering of Utah State highways . Previously , the freeway 's legislative designation was SR @-@ 2 .
Passage of the Federal Aid Highway Act of 1956 formed the Interstate Highway System , and the I @-@ 80 number was first designated to a then @-@ unconstructed controlled @-@ access highway across the state by 1957 . I @-@ 80 was constructed in segments , starting in the late 1950s . By the late 1970s , the Utah portion of I @-@ 80 — except for a gap on the western edge of Salt Lake City — was largely complete . A four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ mile @-@ long ( 7 @.@ 2 km ) section between Redwood Road and Salt Lake City International Airport holds the distinction of being the final link of the transcontinental freeway to be completed . As an Interstate Highway , design specifications require a controlled @-@ access highway with no at @-@ grade intersections . This section was dedicated on August 22 , 1986 , and was the last to be completed to Interstate Highway specifications along the almost 2 @,@ 900 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 4 @,@ 700 km ) route of I @-@ 80 between San Francisco , California and Teaneck , New Jersey . The section was completed close to the thirtieth anniversary of the Interstate Highway System , which was noted at the dedication and considered to be a milestone in the history of highway construction in the United States . It was also noted at the dedication that this was only 50 miles ( 80 km ) south of Promontory Summit , where the golden spike of the United States First Transcontinental Railroad was laid .
The original designation of I @-@ 84 , which begins at an interchange with I @-@ 80 in Echo , was I @-@ 80N . This designation was changed to I @-@ 84 in 1977 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials despite objections from the Washington State Department of Transportation and the Idaho Transportation Department , and with the support of UDOT and the Oregon Department of Transportation . The legislative designation for this highway was SR @-@ 3 until the 1977 renumbering .
Rebuilding of the first portions of I @-@ 80 began in October 1990 with a one @-@ point @-@ four @-@ mile @-@ long ( 2 @.@ 3 km ) stretch near Redwood Road in Salt Lake City . By 1991 , UDOT estimated that the reconstruction of all federally funded highways in the state would cost up to $ 4 @.@ 3 billion ( equivalent to $ 9 @.@ 85 billion in 2015 ) . The Spaghetti Bowl interchange was first proposed in 1996 to accommodate traffic for the 2002 Winter Olympics being held in the city . Most of the Spaghetti Bowl was open by November 2000 ; the remainder opened in early 2001 . In 2002 , the Utah State Legislature named the highway the Purple Heart trail , in honor of wounded war veterans . Additional reconstruction work — which involved replacing most of the bridges along the route , resurfacing and installation of sound barriers — was done on I @-@ 80 between the Spaghetti Bowl and Parley 's Canyon in 2007 and 2008 .
= = Exit list = =
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= Calais =
Calais ( / ˈkæleɪ / CAL @-@ ay , traditionally / ˈkælᵻs / ; French pronunciation : [ kaˈlɛ ] ; Picard : Calés ; Dutch : Kales ) is a town and major ferry port in northern France in the department of Pas @-@ de @-@ Calais , of which it is a sub @-@ prefecture . Although Calais is by far the largest city in Pas @-@ de @-@ Calais , the department 's prefecture is its third @-@ largest city of Arras . The population of the metropolitan area at the 2010 census was 126 @,@ 395 . Calais overlooks the Strait of Dover , the narrowest point in the English Channel , which is only 34 km ( 21 mi ) wide here , and is the closest French town to England . The White Cliffs of Dover can easily be seen on a clear day from Calais . Calais is a major port for ferries between France and England , and since 1994 , the Channel Tunnel has linked nearby Coquelles to Folkestone by rail .
Due to its position , Calais since the Middle Ages has been a major port and a very important centre for transport and trading with England . It was annexed by Edward III of England in 1347 and grew into a thriving centre for wool production . The town came to be called the " brightest jewel in the English crown " owing to its great importance as the gateway for the tin , lead , lace and wool trades ( or " staples " ) . Calais was a territorial possession of England until its capture by France in 1558 . In 1805 it was a staging area for Napoleon 's troops for several months during his planned invasion of the United Kingdom . The town was virtually razed to the ground during World War II , when in May 1940 , it was a strategic bombing target of the invading German forces who took the town during the Siege of Calais . During World War II , the Germans built massive bunkers along the coast in preparation for launching missiles on England .
The old part of the town , Calais proper ( known as Calais @-@ Nord ) , is situated on an artificial island surrounded by canals and harbours . The modern part of the town , St @-@ Pierre , lies to the south and south @-@ east . In the centre of the old town is the Place d 'Armes , in which stands the Tour du Guet , or watch @-@ tower , a structure built in the 13th century , which was used as a lighthouse until 1848 when a new lighthouse was built by the port . South east of the Place is the church of Notre @-@ Dame , built during the English occupancy of Calais . It is arguably the only church built in the English perpendicular style in all of France . In this church former French President Charles de Gaulle married his wife Yvonne Vendroux . South of the Place and opposite the Parc St Pierre is the Hôtel @-@ de @-@ ville ( the town hall ) , and the belfry from the 16th and early 17th centuries . Today , Calais is visited by more than 10 million annually . Aside from being a key transport hub , Calais is also a notable fishing port and a centre for fish marketing , and some 3 @,@ 000 people are still employed in the lace industry for which the town is also famed .
= = History = =
= = = Early history = = =
Although the early history of habitation in the area is limited , the Romans called the settlement Caletum . Julius Caesar mustered 800 to 1 @,@ 000 sailing boats , five legions and some 2 @,@ 000 horses at Calais due to its strategic position to attack Britannia . At some time prior to the 10th century , it would have been a fishing village on a sandy beach backed by pebbles and a creek , with a natural harbour located at the western edge of the early medieval estuary of the River Aa . As the pebble and sand ridge extended eastward from Calais , the haven behind it developed into fen , as the estuary progressively filled with silt and peat . Subsequently , canals were cut between Saint @-@ Omer , the trading centre formerly at the head of the estuary , and three places to the west , centre and east on the newly formed coast : respectively Calais , Gravelines and Dunkirk . Calais was improved by the Count of Flanders in 997 and fortified by the Count of Boulogne in 1224 .
The first document mentioning the existence of this community is the town charter granted by Mathieu d 'Alsace in 1181 to Gerard de Guelders , Count of Boulogne ; Calais thus became part of the county of Boulogne . In 1189 , Richard the Lionheart is documented to have landed at Calais on his journey to the Third Crusade .
= = = 14th @-@ 15th century – the Pale of Calais = = =
English wool trade interests and King Edward III 's claims to be heir to the Kingdom of France led to the Battle of Crécy between England and France in 1346 , followed by Edward 's siege and capture of Calais in 1347 . Angered , the English king demanded reprisals against the town 's citizens for holding out for so long and ordered that the town 's population be killed en masse . He agreed , however , to spare them , on condition that six of the principal citizens would come to him , bareheaded and barefooted and with ropes around their necks , and give themselves up to death . On their arrival he ordered their execution , but pardoned them when his queen , Philippa of Hainault , begged him to spare their lives . This event is commemorated in The Burghers of Calais ( Les Bourgeois de Calais ) , one of the most famous sculptures by Auguste Rodin , erected in the city in 1895 . Though sparing the lives of the delegation members , King Edward drove out most of the French inhabitants , and settled the town with English . The municipal charter of Calais , previously granted by the Countess of Artois , was reconfirmed by Edward that year ( 1347 ) .
In 1360 the Treaty of Brétigny assigned Guînes , Marck and Calais — collectively the " Pale of Calais " — to English rule in perpetuity , but this assignment was informally and only partially implemented . On 9 February 1363 the town was made a staple port . It had by 1372 become a parliamentary borough sending burgesses to the House of Commons of the Parliament of England . It remained part of the Diocese of Thérouanne from 1379 , keeping an ecclesiastical tie with France .
The town came to be called the " brightest jewel in the English crown " owing to its great importance as the gateway for the tin , lead , cloth and wool trades ( or " staples " ) . Its customs revenues amounted at times to a third of the English government 's revenue , with wool being the most important element by far . Of its population of about 12 @,@ 000 people , as many as 5 @,@ 400 were recorded as having been connected with the wool trade . The governorship or Captaincy of Calais was a lucrative and highly prized public office ; the famous Dick Whittington was simultaneously Lord Mayor of the City of London and Mayor of the Staple in 1407 .
Calais was regarded for many years as being an integral part of the Kingdom of England , with its representatives sitting in the English Parliament . The continued English hold on Calais however depended on expensively maintained fortifications , as the town lacked any natural defences . Maintaining Calais was a costly business that was frequently tested by the forces of France and the Duchy of Burgundy , with the Franco @-@ Burgundian border running nearby . The British historian Geoffrey Elton once remarked " Calais — expensive and useless — was better lost than kept " . The duration of the English hold over Calais was , to a large extent , the result of the feud between Burgundy and France , under which both sides coveted the town , but preferred to see it in the hands of the English rather than their domestic rivals . The stalemate was broken by the victory of the French crown over Burgundy following Joan of Arc 's final battle in the Siege of Compiègne in 1430 , and the later incorporation of the duchy into France .
= = = 16th century = = =
In 1532 , English king Henry VIII visited Calais and his men calculated that the town had about 2400 beds and stabling to keep some 2000 horses . In September 1552 , the English adventurer Thomas Stukley , who had been for some time in the French service , betrayed to the authorities in London some French plans for the capture of Calais , to be followed by a descent upon England . Stukley himself might have been the author of these plans .
On 7 January 1558 , king Henry II of France sent forces led by Francis , Duke of Guise , who laid siege to Calais . When the French attacked , they were able to surprise the English at the critical strongpoint of Fort Nieulay and the sluice gates , which could have flooded the attackers , remained unopened . The loss was regarded by Queen Mary I of England as a dreadful misfortune . When she heard the news , she reportedly said , " When I am dead and opened , you shall find ' Philip ' [ her husband ] and ' Calais ' lying in my heart . " The region around Calais , then @-@ known as the Calaisis , was renamed the Pays Reconquis ( " Reconquered Country " ) in commemoration of its recovery by the French . Use of the term is reminiscent of the Spanish Reconquista , with which the French were certainly familiar — and , since it occurred in the context of a war with Spain ( Philip II of Spain was at the time Queen Mary 's consort ) , might have been intended as a deliberate snub .
The town was captured by the Spanish on 24 April 1596 in an invasion mounted from the nearby Spanish Netherlands by Archduke Albert of Austria , but it was returned to France under the Treaty of Vervins in May 1598 .
= = = 17th century to World War I = = =
Calais remained an important maritime city and smuggling center throughout the 17th century . However , during the next century the port of Calais began to stagnate gradually , as the nearby ports of Boulogne and Dunkirk began to rise and compete .
The French revolution at the end of the 18th century did not disturb Calais and no executions took place .
In 1805 , Calais hosted part of Napoleon 's army and invasion fleet for several months before his aborted invasion of Britain . From October to December 1818 , the British army used Calais as their departing port to return home after occupying post @-@ Waterloo France . General Murray appointed Sir Manley Power to oversee the evacuation of British troops from France . Cordial relations had been restored by that time and on 3 December the mayor of Calais wrote a letter to Power to express thanks for his " considerate treatment of the French and of the town of Calais during the embarkation . "
The British Expeditionary Force or BEF arrived in Calais on its way to the nearby frontline cutting through Nord @-@ Pas @-@ de @-@ Calais and Flanders . Calais was a key port for the supply of arms and reinforcements to the Western Front . In the 1930s , the town was known for being a politically socialist stronghold .
= = = World War II = = =
Calais was virtually razed to the ground during World War II . In May 1940 , it was a key objective of the invading German forces and became the scene of a last @-@ ditch defence — the Siege of Calais — which diverted a sizable amount of German forces for several days immediately prior to the Battle of Dunkirk . 3 @,@ 000 British and 800 French troops , assisted by Royal Navy warships , held out from 22 to 27 May 1940 against the 10th Panzer Division . The town was flattened by artillery and precision dive bombing and only 30 of the 3800 @-@ strong defending force were evacuated before the town fell . This may have helped Operation Dynamo , the evacuation of Allied forces at Dunkirk , as 10th Panzer would have been involved on the Dunkirk perimeter had it not been busy at Calais . Between 26 May and 4 June 1940 , some 330 @,@ 000 Allied troops escaped from the Germans at Dunkirk .
During the ensuing German occupation , it became the command post for German forces in the Pas @-@ de @-@ Calais / Flanders region and was very heavily fortified , as it was generally believed by the Germans that the Allies would invade at that point . It was also used as a launch site for V1 flying bombs and for much of the war , the Germans used the region as the site for railway guns used to bombard the south @-@ eastern corner of England . In 1943 they built massive bunkers along the coast in preparation for launching missiles on the southeast of England . Despite heavy preparations for defence against an amphibious assault , the Allied invasion took place well to the west in Normandy on D @-@ Day . Calais was very heavily bombed and shelled in a successful effort to disrupt German communications and persuade them that the Allies would target the Pas @-@ de @-@ Calais for invasion ( rather than Normandy ) . The town , by then largely in ruins , was liberated by General Daniel Spry 's 3rd Canadian Infantry Division between 25 September and 1 October 1944 . On 27 February 1945 Calais suffered a last bombing raid — this time by British bombers who mistook the town for Dunkirk , which was at that time still occupied by German forces . After the war there was little rebuilding of the historic city and most buildings were modern ones .
= = = 21st century – migration issues = = =
Since 1999 or earlier , an increasingly large number of migrants and refugees have started to arrive in the vicinity of Calais , where they remain living in the Calais jungle , the nickname given to a series of makeshift camps . The people live there while they attempt to enter the United Kingdom by stowing away on lorries , ferries , cars , or trains travelling through the Port of Calais or the Eurotunnel Calais Terminal . The people are a mix of refugees , asylum seekers and economic migrants from Darfur , Afghanistan , Syria , Iraq , Eritrea and other troubled areas of the world .
The Calais migrant crisis led to escalating tension between the UK and France in the summer of 2015 . The UK blamed France for not doing enough to stop migrants from entering the tunnel or making attempts to scale fences built along the border . The British Prime Minister David Cameron released a statement saying that illegal immigrants would be removed from the UK even if they reach the island . To discourage migrants and refugees from jumping on train shuttles at Calais , the UK government supplied fencing to be installed in the Eurotunnel where the vehicles are loaded on to train shuttles in Calais .
= = Geography and climate = =
Calais is located on the Pas de Calais , which marks the boundary between the English Channel and North Sea and located at the opposite end of the Channel Tunnel , 34 kilometres ( 21 miles ) from Dover . On a clear day the White cliffs of Dover can be viewed across the channel . Aside from being an important port and boarding point between France and England , it is at the nucleus of many major railway and highway networks and connected by road to Arras , Lens , Béthune and St. Omer . Dunkirk is located about 47 km ( 29 mi ) by road to the east . Calais is located 288 km ( 179 mi ) north by road from the French capital of Paris , roughly a 3 @-@ hour 15 minute journey . The commune of Calais is bordered by the English channel to the north , Sangatte and Coquelles to the west , Coulogne to the south and Marck to the east . The core area of the city is divided into the Old Town area within the old city walls , and the younger suburbs of St. Pierre , which are connected by a boulevard .
Calais is part of the Côte d 'Opale ( Opal Coast ) , a cliff @-@ lined section of northern French coast that parallels the white cliffs on the British coast and is part of the same geological formation . It is known for its scenic cliffs such as Cape Blanc Nez and Cape Gris Nez and for its wide area of dunes . Many artists have been inspired by its landscapes , among them the composer Henri Dutilleux , the writers Victor Hugo and Charles Dickens , and the painters J. M. W. Turner , Carolus @-@ Duran , Maurice Boitel and Eugène Boudin . It was the painter Édouard Lévêque who coined the name for this area in 1911 to describe the distinctive quality of its light .
The climate is temperate oceanic in Calais . Temperature ranges are moderate and the winters are mild with unstable weather . It rains on average about 700 to 800 mm ( 28 to 31 in ) per year .
The commune of Calais is divided into 13 quartiers :
= = Demographics = =
Changes in the number of inhabitants is known throughout the population censuses conducted since 1793 in Calais . Note the massive growth in population from 13 @,@ 529 in 1881 to 58 @,@ 969 in 1886 , a growth of 335 @.@ 9 % ; this is because the city of Saint Pierre merged with Calais in 1885 . According to the census INSEE of 2008 , Calais has 74 @,@ 817 people ( a decrease of 3 % from 1999 ) . The town 's population ranked 60th nationally , down from 53rd in 1999 .
= = Economy = =
The city 's proximity to England has made it a major port for centuries . It is the principal ferry crossing point between England and France , with the vast majority of Channel crossings being made between Dover and Calais . Companies operating from Calais include SeaFrance ( currently in liquidation ) , DFDS Seaways , and P & O Ferries . The French end of the Channel Tunnel is situated in the vicinity of Calais , in Coquelles some 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) to the west of the town . Calais possesses direct rail links to Paris , 148 miles ( 238 km ) to the south . More than 10 million people visit Calais annually .
From medieval times , English companies thrived in Calais . Calais was a particularly important centre in the production and trade of wool and cloth , which outweighed the costs of maintaining the town as part of England . In 1830 some 113 manufacturers were based in Calais and the St Pierre suburbs , the majority of which were English . There are still two major lace factories in Calais with around 700 looms and 3000 employees . The town exports in the early 20th century were lace , chemicals , paper , wines , especially champagne , spirits , hay , straw , wool , potatoes , woven goods , fruit , glass @-@ ware , lace and metal @-@ ware . Principal imports in the early 20th century included cotton and silk goods , coal , iron and steel , petroleum , timber , raw wool , cotton yarn and cork . During the five years 1901 – 1905 the average annual value of exports was £ 8 @,@ 388 @,@ 000 ( £ 6 @,@ 363 @,@ 000 in the years 1896 – 1900 ) , of imports £ 4 @,@ 145 @,@ 000 ( £ 3 @,@ 759 @,@ 000 in 1896 – 1900 ) .
As a fishing port , Calais has several notable fishing markets including Les Délices de la Mer and Huîtrière Calaisenne on the Boulevard La Fayette , the latter of which is noted for its oysters , lobster and crabs from Brittany . The Emile Fournier et Fils market on the Rue Mouron sells mainly smoked fish including salmon , trout , herring and halibut .
= = Notable landmarks = =
= = = Place d 'Armes = = =
Place d 'Armes is one of the largest squares in the city of Calais , adjoins the watchtower , and during medieval times was once the heart of the city . During the English occupation ( 1347 – 1558 ) , it became known as Market Square ( place du Marché ) . Only at the end of English occupation did it take the name of Place d 'Armes . After the reconquest of Calais in 1558 by Francis , Duke of Guise , Francis II gave Calais the right to hold a fair twice a year on the square , which still exists today , as well as a bustling Wednesday and Saturday market .
= = = Hôtel de Ville = = =
The town centre , which has seen significant regeneration over the past decade , is dominated by its distinctive town hall ( Hôtel de Ville ) at Place du Soldat Inconnu . It was built in the Flemish Renaissance style between 1911 and 1925 to commemorate the unification of the cities of Calais and Saint Pierre in 1885 . A previous town hall had been erected in 1818 . One of the most elegant landmarks in the city , its ornate 74 metre ( 246 ft ) high clock tower and belfry can be seen from out to sea and chimes throughout the day and has been protected by UNESCO since 2005 as part of a series of belfries across the region . The building parts have also been listed as a series of historic monuments by government decree of 26 June 2003 , including its roofs and belfry , main hall , glass roof , the staircase , corridor serving the first floor , the rooms on the first floor ( including decoration ) : the wedding room , the VIP lounge , the lounge of the council and the cabinet room . The hall has stained glass windows and numerous paintings and exquisite decor . It houses police offices .
= = = Église Notre @-@ Dame = = =
Église Notre @-@ Dame is a cathedral which was originally built in the late 13th century and its tower was added in the late 14th or early 15th century . Like the town hall it is one of the city 's most prominent landmarks . It was arguably the only church in the English perpendicular style in France . Much of the current 1400 capacity church dates to 1631 – 1635 . It contains elements of Flemish , Gothic , Anglo @-@ Norman and Tudor architecture . In 1691 , an 1800 cubic metre cistern was added to the church under orders by Vauban . The church is dedicated to the Virgin , and built in the form of a cross , consisting of a nave and four aisles — The old grand altar dated to 1628 and was built from Carrara marble wrecked on the coast , during its transit from Genoa to Antwerp . It contained eighteen figures , the two standing on either side of the altar @-@ piece — representing St. Louis and Charlemagne . The organ — of a deep and mellow tone , and highly ornamented by figures in relief — was built at Canterbury sometime around 1700 . The pulpit and reading @-@ desk , richly sculptured in oak , is another well @-@ executed piece of ecclesiastical workmanship from St. Omers . The altar @-@ piece , the Assumption , was often attributed to Anthony van Dyck , though in reality it is by Van Sulden ; whilst the painting over the side altar , believed to be by Peter Paul Rubens . A high and strongly built wall , partaking more of the fortress than a cathedral in its aspect , flanks the building , and protects it from the street where formerly ran the old river , in its course through Calais to the sea .
The square , massive Norman tower has three @-@ arched belfry windows on each face , surmounted by corner turrets , and a conically @-@ shaped tower of octagonal proportions , topped again by a short steeple . The tower was a main viewing point for the Anglo @-@ French Survey ( 1784 – 1790 ) which linked the Paris Observatory with the Royal Greenwich Observatory using trigonometry . Cross @-@ channel sightings were made of signal lights at Dover Castle and Fairlight , East Sussex .
The church was assigned as a historic monument by decree of 10 September 1913 , only to have its stained glass smashed during a Zeppelin bombardment on 15 January 1915 , falling through the roof . General de Gaulle married Yvonne Vendroux on 6 April 1921 at the cathedral . The building experienced extensive damage during World War II , and was partially rebuilt , although much of the old altar and furnishings were not replaced .
= = = Towers = = =
The Tour du Guet ( Watch Tower ) , situated in Calais Nord on the Places d 'Armes , is one of the few surviving pre @-@ war buildings . Dating from 1229 , when Philip I , Count of Boulogne , built the fortifications of Calais , it is one of the oldest monuments of Calais , although the oldest remaining traces date to 1302 . It has a height of 35 – 39 metres ( sources differ ) . An earthquake in 1580 split the tower in two , and at one time it threatened to collapse completely . The tower was repaired in 1606 , and then had the purpose of serving as a hall to accommodate the merchants of Calais . It was damaged in 1658 when a young stable boy set fire to it , while it was temporarily being used as royal stables during a visit of King Louis XIV . It was not repaired for some 30 years . In 1770 , a bell identical to the original bell of 1348 was cast . Due to its height , from the late 17th century it became an important watchout post for the city for centuries until 1905 ; the last keeper of the tower was forced to leave in 1926 . Abraham Chappe , ( a brother of Ignace Chappe ) installed a telegraph office in the tower in 1816 and operated for 32 years . It was this office which announced the death of Napoleon I to the French public in 1821 . It also had the dual function as lighthouse with a rotating beacon fuelled by oil from 1818 . The lantern was finally replaced by a new lighthouse on 15 October 1848 . During the First World War , it served as a military observation post and narrowly missed destruction during World War II . This tower has been classified as a historic monument since 6 November 1931 .
The Calais Lighthouse ( Le phare de Calais ) was built in 1848 , replacing the old watch tower as the lighthouse of the port . The 55 metre high tower was electrified in 1883 and automated in 1992 . The staircase has 271 steps leading up to the lantern . By day it is easily distinguishable from other coastal lighthouses by its white color and black lantern . The lighthouse was classified as a historical monument on 22 November 2010 .
= = = Forts = = =
The Citadel , located on the Avenue Pierre Coubertin , was built between 1560 and 1571 on the site of a former medieval castle which was built in 1229 by Philippe de Hureprel . Its purpose of its construction was to fend off would @-@ be invaders , but it wasn 't long until the city was successfully invaded by Archduke Albert of Austria on 24 April 1596 . Both Louis XIII and Cardinal Richelieu at one time considered expanding the citadel and Calais into a great walled city for military harbour purposes but the proposals came to nothing .
Fort Risban , located on the coast on the Avenue Raymond Poincaré at the port entrance , was built by the English to prevent supplies reaching Calais by sea during the siege in November 1346 and continued to be occupied by them until 1558 when Calais was restored to France . In 1596 , the fort was captured by the Spanish Netherlands until May 1598 when it was returned to the French following the Treaty of Vervins . It was rebuilt in 1640 . Vauban , who visited the fort some time in the 1680s , described it as " a home for owls , and place to hold the Sabbath " rather than a fortification . During World War II it served as an air raid shelter . It contains the Lancaster Tower , a name often given to the fort itself .
Fort Nieulay , located along the Avenue Roger Salengro originally dated to the 12th or 13th century . During the English invasion in 1346 , sluices gates were added as water defences and a fort was built up around it in 1525 on the principle that the people of the fort could defend the town by flooding it . In April and May 1677 , Louis XIV and Vauban visited Calais and ordered a complete rebuilding of Fort Nieulay . It was completed in 1679 , with the purpose to protect the bridge of Nieulay crossing the Hames River . By 1815 the fort had fallen into a ruined state and it wasn 't until 1903 that it was sold and improved by its farmer tenants . The fort was briefly the site of a low @-@ key scuffle with Germans in May 1940 .
= = = Museums , theatres and cultural centres = = =
Calais contains several museums . These include the Musée des Beaux @-@ Arts et de la Dentelle de Calais , Cité internationale de la Dentelle et de la Mode de Calais and the Musée de la Seconde Guerre Mondiale ( World War II museum ) . Cité internationale de la Dentelle et de la Mode de Calais is a lace and fashion museum located in an old Boulart factory on the canalside and contains workshops , a library and a restaurant and regularly puts on fashion shows . The World War II museum is located at Parc St Pierre opposite the town hall and south of the train station . The building is a former Nazi bunker and wartime military headquarters , built in 1941 by the Todt Organisation . The 194 @-@ metre @-@ long structure contains twenty rooms with relics and photographs related to World War II , and one room dedicated to World War I.
Theatres and cultural centres include Le théâtre municipal , Le Centre Culturel Gérard Philipe , Le Conservatoire à rayonnement départemental ( CRD ) , L 'auditorium Didier Lockwood , L 'École d 'Art de Calais , Le Channel , Le Cinéma Alhambra and La Médiathèque municipale . Le théâtre municipal or Calais Theatre is located on the Boulevard Lafayette and was built in 1903 on a plot of land which was used as a cemetery between 1811 and 1871 . The theatre opened in 1905 . On the first floor of the façade are statues which represent the performing arts subjects of Poetry , Comedy , Dance and Music .
= = = Monuments and memorials = = =
Directly in front of the town hall is a bronze cast of Les Bourgeois de Calais ( " The Burghers of Calais " ) , a sculpture by Auguste Rodin to commemorate six men who were to have been executed by Edward III in 1347 . The cast was erected in 1895 , funded by a public grant of 10 @,@ 000 francs . Rodin ( who based his design on a fourteenth @-@ century account by Jean Froissart ) intended to evoke the viewer 's sympathy by emphasizing the pained expressions of the faces of the six men about to be executed .
The Monument des Sauveteurs ( " Rescuers ' Monument " ) was installed in 1899 on Boulevard des Alliés , and transferred to the Quartier of Courgain in 1960 . It is a bronze sculpture , attributed to Edward Lormier .
The Monument Le Pluviôse is a 620 kg ( 1 @,@ 367 lb ) bronze monument built in 1912 by Émile Oscar Guillaume on the centre of the roundabout near the beach of Calais , commemorating the accidental sinking of the submarine Pluviôse in May 1910 , off the beach by the steamer Pas de Calais . Armand Fallières , president of the Republic , and his government came to Calais for a state funeral for its 27 victims . One of these victims , Delpierre Auguste , ( 1889 – 1910 ) , drowned at age 21 before the beach at Calais ; a dock in the city is named for him . The monument was dedicated on June 22 , 1913 .
Monument " Jacquard " was erected on the square in 1910 , opposite the entrance to the Calais theatre . It commemorates Joseph Marie Jacquard , popular in Calais because of his contribution to the development of lace through his invention of the Jacquard loom .
A tall column in the Courgain area of the city commemorates a visit by Louis XVIII .
Parc Richelieu , a garden behind the war memorial , was built in 1862 on the old city ramparts and redesigned in 1956 . It contains a statue designed by Yves de Coëtlogon in 1962 , remembering both world wars with an allegorical figure , representing Peace , which clutches an olive branch to her breast .
= = = Hotels and nightclubs = = =
Hôtel Meurice de Calais is a hotel , established in 1771 as Le Chariot Royal by the French postmaster , Charles @-@ Augustin Meurice , who would later establish the five @-@ star Hôtel Meurice , one of Paris ' most famous luxury hotels . It was one of the earliest hotels on the continent of Europe to specifically cater for the British elite . The hotel was rebuilt in 1954 – 55 . It has 41 en @-@ suite rooms .
The main centre of night activity in Calais is at the Casino Le Touquet ’ s on the Rue Royale and at the 555 Club . Every month , Casino Le Touquet hosts a dinner and dance cabaret . The casino features slot machines , blackjack , roulette , and poker facilities .
= = Education = =
There are several schools in Calais . These include Groupe Scolaire Coubertin , Eglise Saint @-@ Pierre , Universite du Littoral , Centre Universitaire , Lycée HQE Léonard de Vinci on Rue du Pasteur Martin Luther @-@ King , École d 'Art de Calais on Rue des Soupirants , and the Centre Scolaire Saint @-@ Pierre on Rue du Four à Chaux which provides education in the primary grades , high school , and vocational school . There are at least seven colleges in the city , such as Collège Martin Luther King on Rue Martin Luther King , Collège Nationalisé Lucien Vadez on Avenue Yervant Toumaniantz , Collège Les Dentelliers on Rue Gaillard , College Jean Mace on Rue Maréchaux , Collège République on Place République , Collège Vauban on Rue Orléansville , and Collège Privé Mixte Jeanne d 'Arc on Rue Champailler .
= = Sport = =
Calais is represented in association football by the Calais RUFC , who compete in the Championnat National . The club was founded 1902 as Racing Club de Calais and in 1974 was renamed as Calais Racing Union Football Club . Calais RUFC have a good reputation in French cup competitions and went as far as the final in the 1999 / 2000 season , losing out finally to Nantes . Since 2008 they have played at the Stade de l 'Épopée , a stadium which holds about 12 @,@ 000 spectators . The rugby club in Calais is Amicale Rugby Calaisien . Basketball is popular in Calais with the teams Calais Basket ( male ) and COB Calais ( female ) as is volleyball with the Lis Calais ( male ) and Stella Calais ( female ) teams . There is also the SOC club which caters in a range of sports including athletics , handball and football and Yacht Club de Calais , a yachting club . Calais also has Les Seagulls , an American football team .
= = Transport = =
= = = Sea = = =
The Port of Calais was the first cable ship port in Europe and is the fourth largest port in France and the largest for passenger traffic . The port accounts for more than a third of economic activity of the town of Calais . Cargo traffic has tripled over the past two decades . In 2007 more than 41 @.@ 5 million tonnes of traffic passed through Calais with some 11 @.@ 52 million passengers , 1 @.@ 4 million trucks and trailers , 2 @.@ 249 million cars and 4 @,@ 700 crossings a year . On average , ships sail from the port every 30 minutes . A new 400 million euro project is underway at the port to create a breakwater protecting a pool of 700 meters long , thus allowing virtually all types of ships to stop at Calais .
= = = Rail = = =
As well as the large port , the town is served by three railway stations : Gare de Calais @-@ Fréthun , Gare de Calais @-@ Ville , and Gare des Fontinettes , the former being the first stop on mainland Europe of the Eurostar line . Gare de Calais @-@ Ville is the nearest station to the port with trains to Gare de Boulogne @-@ Ville and either Gare de Lille Flandres or Gare de Lille Europe .
= = = Road = = =
Local bus services are provided by STCE . Free car parking facilities are available in front of the Calais ferry terminal and the maximum stay is three days . Calais is served by an airport and an airfield . Calais – Dunkerque Airport is located at Marck , 7 kilometres ( 4 @.@ 3 mi ) east north east of Calais . Saint @-@ Inglevert Airfield is located at Saint @-@ Inglevert , 13 kilometres ( 8 @.@ 1 mi ) south west of Calais .
= = Notable people = =
= = International relations = =
= = = Twin towns – Sister cities = = =
Calais is twinned with :
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= The Quatermass Xperiment =
The Quatermass Xperiment ( US title : The Creeping Unknown ) is a 1955 British science fiction horror film from Hammer Film Productions , based on the 1953 BBC Television serial The Quatermass Experiment written by Nigel Kneale . The film was produced by Anthony Hinds , directed by Val Guest , and stars Brian Donlevy as the eponymous Professor Bernard Quatermass . Jack Warner , Richard Wordsworth , and Margia Dean appear in supporting roles .
Three astronauts are launched into space aboard a rocket designed by Professor Quatermass , but the spacecraft returns to earth with only one occupant , Victor Carroon ( Richard Wordsworth ) . Something has infected him during the spaceflight , and he begins mutating into an alien organism which , if it spores , will engulf the Earth and destroy humanity . When the Carroon @-@ creature escapes from custody , Quatermass and Scotland Yard 's Inspector Lomax ( Jack Warner ) , have just hours to track it down and prevent a catastrophe .
= = Plot = =
The British Rocket Group , headed by the taciturn Professor Bernard Quatermass , launches its first manned rocket into space . Shortly thereafter , all contact is lost with the rocket and its three crew : Carroon , Reichenheim , and Green . The large rocket later returns to earth , crashing into an English country field .
Quatermass and his assistant Briscoe arrive at the scene , along with the emergency services . Opening the rocket 's access hatch , the space @-@ suited Carroon stumbles outside ; inside , there is no sign of the other two crew members . Carroon is in shock , only able to say the words " Help me " . He is taken to hospital while Quatermass and Briscoe investigate what happened to the rocket and its two missing crew .
It quickly becomes evident that Carroon has been altered by something he encountered in space ; he can absorb any living thing with which he comes in contact . When he smashes a potted cactus in his hospital room , absorbing it , his right hand and then his arm begins to mutate . Not knowing this , Carroon 's wife , Judith , hires a private investigator to break her husband out of the secured hospital . The escape is successful , but Carroon then kills and absorbs the private investigator . It does not take long for Judith to discover what her husband has become , and Carroon soon flees from his horrified wife .
Inspector Lomax of Scotland Yard initiates a manhunt to find the missing Carroon . Hiding out at the London docks , he encounters a little girl , leaving her unharmed through sheer willpower . Instead , Carroon heads for a nearby zoo where he absorbs many of the animals . By now he has become a completely mutated creature . Quatermass and Briscoe track the Carroon @-@ creature to Westminster Abbey , where it has crawled high up on the metal scaffolding inside . From his examination of tissue samples taken from Carroon , Quatermass concludes that some kind of alien has completely taken over and will eventually release reproduction spores , endangering the entire planet . With the assistance of a television crew working at the Abbey , Quatermass succeeds in killing the Carroon @-@ creature by electrocution .
The threat eliminated , Quatermass quickly walks through the Abbey , preoccupied by his thoughts . He ignores all who ask questions . Marsh , his other assistant , approaches and asks " What now " ? Never breaking stride , Quatermass offhandedly replies , " I 'll need your help . We start over again " . He quickly leaves Marsh behind , walking into the London night .
= = Cast = =
Brian Donlevy as Prof. Bernard Quatermass
Jack Warner as Inspector Lomax
Margia Dean as Mrs. Judith Carroon
Richard Wordsworth as Victor Carroon
Thora Hird as Rosemary ' Rosie ' Elizabeth Wrigley
Gordon Jackson as BBC TV Producer
David King @-@ Wood as Dr. Gordon Briscoe
Harold Lang as Christie
Lionel Jeffries as Blake
Sam Kydd as Police Sergeant
Jane Asher as Little Girl ( uncredited )
Basil Dignam as Sir Lionel Dean ( uncredited )
Maurice Kaufmann as Marsh ( uncredited )
Arthur Lovegrove as Sergeant Bromley ( uncredited )
Bartlett Mullins as Zookeeper ( uncredited )
Marianne Stone as Central Clinic Nurse ( uncredited )
Toke Townley as The Chemist ( uncredited )
= = Production = =
The screenplay , written by Richard Landau and Val Guest , presents a heavily compressed version of the events of the original television serial . The most significant plot change occurs at the climax of the film . In the television version , Quatermass appeals to the last vestiges of the creature 's humanity and convinces it to commit suicide to save the world . In the film , Quatermass kills the creature by electrocution . Nigel Kneale was critical of the changes made for the film adaptation and of the casting of Brian Donlevy , whose brusque interpretation of Quatermass was not to his liking . To make the film 's plot convincing to audiences , Guest employed a high degree of realism , directing the film in a style akin to a newsreel . The film was shot on location in London , Windsor and Bray and at Hammer 's Bray Studios . Carroon 's transformation was effected by makeup artist Phil Leakey , who worked in conjunction with cinematographer Walter J. Harvey to accentuate Wordsworth 's naturally gaunt features to give him an alien appearance . Special effects , including a model of the fully mutated creature seen at the climax , were provided by Les Bowie . The music was composed by James Bernard , the first of many scores he wrote for Hammer .
Hammer marketed the film in the United Kingdom by dropping the " E " from " Experiment " in the title to emphasise the adults @-@ only ' X ' Certificate given to the film by the British Board of Film Censors . Upon general release in 1955 , the film formed one half of the highest grossing double bill in the UK . It was the first Hammer production to attract the attention of a major distributor in the US , in this case United Artists , who distributed the film under the title The Creeping Unknown . Its success led to Hammer producing an increasing number of horror films , including two sequels Quatermass 2 ( 1957 ) and Quatermass and the Pit ( 1967 ) , making them synonymous with the genre . The Quatermass Xperiment is regarded as the first of these " Hammer Horrors " .
= = = Development = = =
The Quatermass Experiment was a six @-@ part serial broadcast by BBC Television in 1953 . Written by Nigel Kneale , it was an enormous success with critics and audiences alike , later described by film historian Robert Simpson as " event television , emptying the streets and pubs " . Among its viewers was Hammer Films producer Anthony Hinds , who was immediately keen to buy the rights for a film version . Incorporated in 1934 , Hammer had developed a niche for itself making second features , many of which were adaptations of successful BBC Radio productions . Hammer contacted the BBC on 24 August 1953 , two days after the transmission of the final episode , to enquire about the film rights . Nigel Kneale also saw the potential for a film adaptation and , at his urging , the BBC touted the scripts around a number of producers , including the Boulting Brothers and Frank Launder and Sidney Gilliat . Kneale met with Sidney Gilliat to discuss the scripts but Gilliat was reluctant to buy the rights as he felt any film adaptation would inevitably receive an ‘ X ’ Certificate from the British Board of Film Censors ( BBFC ) , restricting admission to persons over the age of sixteen . Hammer were not so reticent , deciding from the outset that they would deliberately pursue an ‘ X ’ Certificate . Hammer 's offer met some resistance within the BBC , with one executive expressing reservations that The Quatermass Experiment was not suitable material for the company , but the rights were nevertheless sold for an advance of £ 500 .
Nigel Kneale was a BBC employee at the time , which meant that his scripts were owned entirely by the BBC and he received no extra payment for the sale of the film rights . This became a matter of some resentment on Kneale 's part , and when his BBC contract came up for renewal he demanded and secured control over any future film rights for his work . Despite this Kneale remained bitter over the affair until the BBC made an ex @-@ gratia payment of £ 3 @,@ 000 to him in 1967 , in recognition of his creation of Quatermass .
The film was co @-@ produced by Robert L. Lippert , an American movie producer and distributor . Hammer had entered into an arrangement with Lippert in 1951 under which Lippert provided finance and supplied American stars for Hammer 's films and distributed them in the United States . In return , Hammer 's distribution arm , Exclusive Films , distributed Lippert 's films in the United Kingdom . Lippert 's company was , in fact , a front for 20th Century Fox , whose president , Spyros Skouras , was a close friend of Lippert 's . Quota laws in the UK meant that US films had to have a British supporting feature , so it was in the American studios ' interests to fund these features to recover a greater proportion of the box office receipts .
= = = Writing = = =
The first draft of the screenplay was written by Richard Landau , an American who had worked on six previous Hammer productions , including Spaceways ( 1953 ) , one of the company 's first forays into science fiction . Landau made significant changes in condensing the action to less than half the length of the original teleplay . For instance , the opening thirty minutes of the television version are covered in just two minutes in the film . In the process , Landau played up the horror elements of Kneale 's original teleplay . Aware that the film would be co @-@ funded by American backers , Landau added a transatlantic dimension to the script : Quatermass 's " British Rocket Group " became the " British @-@ American Rocket Group " and the character of his assistant , Briscoe , was rewritten as a US Air Force flight surgeon . Quatermass himself was demoted to a doctor and written much more as an action hero than the thoughtful scientist created by Nigel Kneale . Some characters from the television version , such as the journalist James Fullalove , are omitted altogether . Judith Carroon 's role in the film version is reduced to little more than that of the stricken astronaut 's anxious wife whereas in the television version she is also a prominent member of Quatermass 's Rocket Group . A subplot involving an extramarital affair between her and Briscoe is also left out of the film version . Kneale was particularly aggravated by the dropping of the notion from his original teleplay that Carroon has absorbed not only the bodies but also the memories and the personalities of his two fellow astronauts . This change leads to the most significant difference between the two versions : in the television version , Quatermass makes an appeal to the last vestiges that remain of the three astronauts absorbed by the creature and convinces it to commit suicide before it can spore whereas in the film version Quatermass kills the creature by electrocution . Director Val Guest defended this change believing it was " filmically a better end to the story " . He also felt it unlikely that Brian Donlevy 's gruff interpretation of Quatermass would lend itself to talking the creature into submission .
Having fallen foul of the censors with some of their earlier films , Hammer had an informal agreement to submit scripts in advance of shooting to the BBFC for comment . When the draft script for The Quatermass Xperiment was submitted , Board Secretary Arthur Watkins replied , " I must warn you at this stage that , while we accept this story in principle for the ‘ X ’ category , we could not certificate , even in that category , a film treatment in which the horrific element was so exaggerated as to be nauseating and revolting to adult audiences ” . The BBFC were particularly concerned with the violence in the scenes where Carroon escapes from hospital and with how graphic the depiction of Caroon 's transformation into the alien creature would be .
The script was refined further by director Val Guest , who cut 30 pages from Landau 's script . One of Guest 's key contributions to the script was to tailor the dialogue to suit the brusque style of star Brian Donlevy . With an American actor cast as Quatermass , Guest reverted Briscoe to a British character and reinstated Quatermass 's title of professor . Guest also adapted some sections of the script in response to the concerns of the BBFC . Further stylistic changes were sought by the BBC who retained a script approval option after the sale of the rights and asked Nigel Kneale to work on their suggested changes , much to his indignation . Kneale was tasked with rewriting any scenes featuring BBC announcers to match the BBC 's news reporting style .
= = = Casting = = =
Irish American actor Brian Donlevy was brought in by Robert L. Lippert to play the title role of Quatermass to provide an interest for American audiences . Donlevy , in his own words , specialised in " he @-@ men roles – rough , tough and realistic " . Nominated for an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor for Beau Geste ( 1939 ) , he was also known for his appearances in The Great McGinty ( 1940 ) and The Glass Key ( 1942 ) . At the time he appeared as Quatermass his career was in decline , however . Donlevy 's no @-@ nonsense portrayal of Quatermass is very different from that of Reginald Tate in the television version and was not to Nigel Kneale 's liking , who said , " I may have picked Quatermass 's surname out of a phone book , but his first name was carefully chosen : Bernard , after Bernard Lovell , the creator of Jodrell Bank . Pioneer , ultimate questing man . Donlevy played him as a mechanic , a creature with a completely closed mind ” . Responding to Kneale 's criticisms , Val Guest said , " Nigel Kneale was expecting to find Quatermass like he was on television , a sensitive British scientist , not some American stomping around , but to me Donlevy gave it absolute reality " . By this stage in his career , Donlevy was suffering from alcoholism ; it was some weeks into the shoot before Guest became aware that the flask of coffee he always carried on set was laced with brandy . Guest found , however , that " Brian was all right , no problem at all once you kept him sober " . He reprised the role of Quatermass in Quatermass 2 ( 1957 ) but was replaced by Andrew Keir in the third film , Quatermass and the Pit ( 1967 ) .
Inspector Lomax was played by Jack Warner , who appeared by arrangement with the J. Arthur Rank Organisation , with whom he was contracted . At the time he was best known as the star of Here Come the Huggetts ( 1948 ) and its sequels . Shortly after finishing The Quatermass Xperiment , he made his first appearance on television in the role he is most associated with , as the title character in Dixon of Dock Green ( 1955 – 76 ) . Warner plays Lomax in a lighthearted fashion and there is a running joke in the film involving Lomax 's futile attempts to find the time to have a shave with his electric razor .
Richard Wordsworth was cast by Val Guest as the hapless Victor Carroon because " he had the right sort of face for the part " . He was best known at the time for his work in the theatre . His performance in The Quatermass Xperiment is frequently compared with that of Boris Karloff in Frankenstein ( 1931 ) . Guest , aware of the risk of an actor going over the top with the part , directed Wordsworth to " hold back just a mite of what you 're feeling " . Summing up Wordsworth 's performance , film critic Bill Warren said , " All Carroon 's anguish and torment are conveyed in one of the best mime performances in horror and science fiction films ... A sequence in which he is riding in a car with his wife is uncanny : only the alien is visible for a long moment " . Wordsworth went on to appear in three more Hammer films : The Camp on Blood Island ( 1958 ) , The Revenge of Frankenstein ( 1958 ) and The Curse of the Werewolf ( 1961 ) . He remained known predominantly as a stage actor , among other things devising and starring in a one @-@ person show dedicated to his great @-@ great grandfather , the poet William Wordsworth .
Another American star provided by Robert L. Lippert was Margia Dean , who played Judith Carroon . A former beauty queen , Dean was allegedly cast on account of her association with the 20th Century Fox president , Spyros Skouras . According to executive producer Michael Carreras , " Skouras had a girlfriend who was an actress and he wanted her in pictures , but he didn 't want her in pictures in America , because of the tittle @-@ tattle or whatever , so he set it up though his friend Bob Lippert " . Val Guest recalled of her , " She was a sweet girl , but she couldn 't act " . Her American accent was considered out of place in the film and so her lines were dubbed in post production .
Among the other actors that appear in the film are Thora Hird , Gordon Jackson , David King @-@ Wood , Harold Lang , Lionel Jeffries and Sam Kydd , many of whom appeared regularly in films directed by Val Guest . The Quatermass Xperiment also saw an early role for Jane Asher , who plays the little girl whom Carroon encounters when he is on the run .
= = = Filming = = =
Val Guest was hired to direct the film . He began his career co @-@ writing comedies such as Oh , Mr Porter ! ( 1937 ) and Ask a Policeman ( 1939 ) before moving into directing with Miss London Ltd . ( 1943 ) . His first directing job for Hammer was on Life with the Lyons ( 1954 ) and he went on to direct their first two colour features : The Men of Sherwood Forest ( 1954 ) and Break in the Circle ( 1954 ) . Guest had little interest in science fiction and was unenthusiastic about directing the film ; he reluctantly took copies of Nigel Kneale 's television scripts with him on holiday in Tangiers and only began reading them after being teased for his " ethereal " attitude by his wife , Yolande Donlan . Impressed by what he read and pleased to be offered the opportunity to break away from directing comedy films , he took the job . In his approach to directing the film , Guest sought to make " a slightly wild story more believable " by creating a " science fact " film , shot " as though shooting a special programme for the BBC or something " . Influenced by Elia Kazan 's Panic in the Streets ( 1950 ) , Guest employed a cinéma vérité style , making extensive use of hand @-@ held camera , even on set , an unusual technique for the time which horrified several of the technicians employed on the film . To inject pace and add further realism into the story , Guest directed his actors to deliver their lines rapid @-@ fire and to overlap the dialogue . A meticulous planner , he created storyboards for every shot and mounted them on a blackboard so as to brief the crew for each day 's scenes . As a consequence , some members of the crew found Guest 's approach to be too mechanical .
Principal photography began on 12 October 1954 with a night shoot at Chessington Zoo and continued from 18 October 1954 into December . The budget was £ 42 @,@ 000 , low even by the standards of Hammer at the time . Special effects technician Les Bowie recalled , " We did Quatermass on a budget so low it wasn 't a real budget . I did it for wages not as a proper effects man who gets allocated a certain budget for a movie " . The shots of the emergency services rushing to the rocket crash site at the beginning of the movie were filmed in the village of Bray , Berkshire , where Hammer 's studios were located . The scenes with the crashed rocket were shot in a corn field at Water Oakley , near Bray . It was originally intended to make the crash site look more spectacular by setting fire to the field but bad weather put paid to this idea . Guest used a wide @-@ angle lens for these shots to convey a feeling of vastness to the scene . Carroon 's encounter with the little girl was filmed at the East India Docks in London . A second unit , under cameraman Len Harris , conducted additional location shooting around London for the montage scenes of the police search for Carroon . For the shot of the lights of London going out when the electricity is diverted to Westminster Abbey , an agreement was made with one of the engineers at Battersea Power Station to turn off the lights illuminating the outside of the station ; however the engineer misunderstood and briefly cut all the power along the River Thames . Most of the remaining location shooting was done in the Windsor area . The rest of the film was shot at Hammer 's Bray Studios , with the New Stage there housing the sets for the hospital and the interior of Westminster Abbey . Michael Carreras had written to the Abbey seeking permission to film there but was refused . The rooms of Down Place , the former country house Bray Studios were built around , were used for other scenes such as Inspector Lomax 's office . Art director James Elder Wills , in his final film for Hammer , made great use of the existing architecture of Down Place to enhance the effectiveness of his sets .
= = = Makeup and special effects = = =
The work of makeup artist Phil Leakey in transforming Richard Wordsworth 's Carroon into the mutating creature was a key contribution to the effectiveness of the film . Val Guest , Anthony Hinds and Leakey all agreed that the makeup should make Carroon appear pitiful rather than ugly . Leakey placed a light above the actor in the makeup chair and then worked on accentuating the shadows cast by his eyebrows , nose , chin and cheekbones . The makeup was a liquid rubber solution mixed with glycerine to give the impression of sweat . Leakey 's job was made easier by Wordsworth 's natural high cheekbones and hollow temples and he also worked closely with cinematographer Walter J. Harvey to ensure the lighting in each shot emphasised Wordsworth 's features . Leakey also created Carroon 's mutating arm . The hand was created from a cast of the hand of an arthritis victim , enlarged and exaggerated by Leakey . The rest of the arm was built up using latex and rubber and , inside , had a series of plastic tubes through which fluid was pumped to give the effect of the arm swelling . A large sponge @-@ rubber prosthetic was used for a brief scene in the zoo showing Carroon 's mutation had advanced further . The shrivelled corpses of Carroon 's victims , glimpsed from time to time in the film , were also made by Leakey .
Les Bowie provided the special effects : he had made his name perfecting an improved technique for matte painting , called the delineating matte , and formed a company with Vic Margutti that specialised in matte effects . Bowie provided a number of matte paintings to enhance the scale of certain key shots in the film , including the crashed rocket , the Westminster Abbey set and the shot of Quatermass walking away from the Abbey at the climax of the movie . Partly because of the concerns raised by the BBFC and partly on account of the low budget , Val Guest kept the creature largely off @-@ screen for much of the film , feeling that audiences ' imaginations would fill in the blanks more effectively than he and the special effects team could deliver on @-@ screen . For the climactic scenes at Westminster Abbey , however , Bowie created a monster from tripe and rubber and photographed it against a model of the Abbey . Sparks and fireworks were used for the shots of the creature being electrocuted . Michael Carreras felt something was missing when he viewed the first cut of this scene : he said , " There was this great glob of something hanging about on the scaffolding . And they had put in the best music they could and put the best effects on it , but it meant nothing as far as I was concerned … absolutely nothing at all " . An eye was added to the model of the monster and a human scream added to the soundtrack to give the creature some semblance of humanity in its final moments . Models were also used for the rocket blasting off in the final shot of the film .
= = = Music = = =
John Hotchkis was originally hired to compose the music but , when he fell ill , Anthony Hinds asked conductor John Hollingsworth to recommend a replacement . Hollingsworth suggested James Bernard , with whom he had worked on a number of BBC radio productions . Bernard sent Hinds a tape of the score of one of these productions , an adaptation of The Duchess of Malfi , and was duly hired . Bernard watched the film a number of times , stopping after each reel to make notes and discuss where the music would be needed . Val Guest was not involved in any of the music sessions ; Anthony Hinds supervised Bernard and made the final decisions as to where the music should occur . Bernard composed the music at his piano and then worked out the orchestration , which was performed by the Royal Opera House Orchestra . Hollingsworth restricted the arrangement of the score to just the string and percussion sections : Bernard recalled , " I had not written for film before and had only used strings for the BBC scores , so I think that John thought it would be better to see how I got on with these two sections before letting me loose with a full orchestra " . The score runs to 20 minutes and uses a rising and falling three @-@ note semitone throughout . Bernard 's biographer , David Huckvale , argues that Bernard 's use of atonal strings to create a sense of menace predates Bernard Herrmann 's score for Psycho ( 1960 ) , which is usually cited as the first film to employ the technique . Remarking on the effectiveness of the score , the film critic John Brosnan said , " Of prime importance , is the contribution of the soundtrack , in this case supplied by James Bernard who never wrote a more unnerving , jangly score " . Bernard went on to become Hammer 's most prolific composer , scoring 23 Hammer films between 1955 and 1974 . Several cues from The Quatermass Xperiment were released on CD in 1999 by GDI Records on a compilation titled The Quatermass Film Music Collection .
= = Reception = =
= = = Cinema release = = =
As expected , The Quatermass Xperiment received an ‘ X ’ Certificate from the BBFC , restricting admission to persons over the age of sixteen . It was only the twelfth film to receive the certificate since its introduction in 1951 . Whereas most other studios were nervous of this new certificate , Hammer , who had noticed the success of the similarly ‘ X ’ -rated Les Diaboliques ( 1954 ) , chose to exploit it by dropping the " E " from " Experiment " in the title of the film . " X is not an unknown quantity " was the tagline Exclusive Films used to sell the picture to cinema managers , urging them to " Xploit the Xcitement " of the film . On subsequent re @-@ releases , the film reverted to the title The Quatermass Experiment .
The Quatermass Xperiment premièred on 26 August 1955 at the London Pavilion on Piccadilly Circus . The supporting feature was The Eric Winstone Band Show . It performed extremely well during its West End run , taking £ 3 @,@ 500 a week at the box office . Timed to coincide with the broadcast of the television sequel , Quatermass II , the film went on general release in the United Kingdom on 20 November 1955 in a double bill with the French film Rififi . This became the most successful double bill release of 1955 in the UK . In some parts of the UK , the Watch Committees of local councils demanded certain scenes , mainly close @-@ up shots of Carroon 's victims , be removed before allowing the film to be exhibited in their jurisdictions .
In the United States , Robert L. Lippert attempted to interest Columbia Pictures in distributing the film but they felt it would be competition for their own production , It Came From Beneath The Sea , which was on release at the time . Because Quatermass was unknown in the US , Lippert had renamed the film Shock ! . Unable to secure a sale , he retitled it again , this time to The Creeping Unknown . United Artists eventually acquired the distribution rights in March 1956 for a fee of $ 125 @,@ 000 . The Creeping Unknown was packaged in a double bill with a Gothic horror movie called The Black Sleep , starring Basil Rathbone , Lon Chaney , Jr. and Bela Lugosi . Four minutes , mainly of expository material , were cut from the runtime of the film . It opened in US theatres in June 1956 and was so successful that United Artists offered to part @-@ fund a sequel . According to a report in Variety , published on 6 November 1956 , a nine @-@ year @-@ old boy died of a ruptured artery at a cinema in Oak Park , Illinois during a showing of this double bill . The Guinness Book of Records subsequently recorded the incident as the only known case of an audience member dying of fright while watching a horror film .
= = = Critical response = = =
The Times newspaper gave the film a generally favourable assessment : its critic wrote , " Mr. Val Guest , the director , certainly knows his business when it comes to providing the more horrid brand of thrills ... The first part of this particular film is well up to standard . Mr. Brian Donlevy , as the American scientist responsible for the experiment , is a little brusque in his treatment of British institutions but he is clearly a man who knows what he is doing . Mr. Jack Warner , representing Scotland Yard , is indeed a comfort to have at hand when Things are on the rampage . " Positive reviews also came from Peter Burnup in the News of the World , who found that " with the added benefit of bluff , boisterous Brian Donlevy … all earnest addicts of science fiction will undoubtedly love every minute of it " while the reviewer in The Manchester Guardian praised " a narrative style that quite neatly combines the horrific and the factual " and Today 's Cinema called it " one of the best essays in science fiction to date " Film historian Bruce G. Hallenbeck notes a degree of national pride in some of the positive reviews . For instance , Paul Dehn in the News Chronicle said , " This is the best and nastiest horror film I have seen since the War . How jolly that it is also British ! " . Similarly , William Whitebait in the New Statesman , who found the film to be " better than either War of the Worlds or Them ! " , also called for " a couple of cheers for the reassurance that British films can still , once in a while , come quick " .
On a less positive note , Frank Jackson of Reynolds News quipped " That TV pseudo @-@ science shocker The Quatermass Xperiment has been filmed and quitermess they 've made of it too " , before slating the film as " 82 minutes of sick @-@ making twaddle " . The horror content of the film was mentioned in several reviews : Patrick Gibbs of the Daily Telegraph said the film " gives the impression that it originated in the strip of some horror comic . It remains very horrid and not quite coherent " while the reviewer in the Daily Mirror found the film to be " a real chiller thriller but not for the kids " and Dilys Powell of The Sunday Times found the film " exciting but distinctly nauseating " . Another unimpressed critic was François Truffaut , who wrote in Cahiers du cinéma that " This one is very , very bad , far from the small pleasure we get , for example , from the innocent science fiction films signed by the American Jack Arnold ... The subject could have been turned into a good film , not lacking in spice ; with a bit of imagination ... None of this is in this sadly English film ” .
Upon its release in the United States Variety praised the film as an " extravagant piece of science fiction . Despite its obvious horror angles , production is crammed with incident and suspense " . According to Hallenbeck , many US critics found Brian Donlevy 's gruff Quatermass a breath of fresh air from the earnest hero scientists of American science fiction films , such as Gene Barry 's character in War of the Worlds .
Other US trade reviews were mixed . Harrison 's Reports felt , " the story is , of course , quite fantastic but it has enough horrific ingredients to go over with those who enjoy scary doings . " Film Bulletin was not impressed . " Its strong point is an eerie atmosphere . . . but fails to build the suspense essential in this kind of film . . . Val Guest 's direction is heavy with cliches . "
Among the critics and film historians who have reviewed The Quatermass Xperiment in the years since it release have been John Baxter who said , in Science Fiction in the Cinema ( 1970 ) , " In its time , The Quatermass Experiment was a pioneering sf film ... Brian Donlevy was stiff but convincing ... Much of the film is saved , however , by Richard Wordsworth ... one of the finest such performances since Karloff 's triumphs of the Thirties . ” This view was echoed by John Brosnan in The Primal Screen ( 1991 ) : " One of the best of all alien possession movies " , he wrote , " Not since Boris Karloff as Frankenstein 's monster has an actor managed to create such a memorable , and sympathetic , monster out of mime alone " . Bill Warren in Keep Watching The Skies ! ( 1982 ) found that " the buildup is slightly too long and too careful " but also said , " It 's an intelligent , taut and well @-@ directed thriller ; it showcases Nigel Kneale 's ideas well ; it 's scary and exciting . It was made by people who cared about what they were doing , who were making entertainment for adults . It is still one of the best alien invasion films " . Steve Chibnall , writing for the British Film Institute 's Screenonline , describes The Quatermass Xperiment as " one of the high points of British SF / horror cinema . " The horror fiction writer Stephen King praised the film as one of his favourite horror movies from between 1950 and 1980 in his non @-@ fiction book Danse Macabre ( 1991 ) . The film director John Carpenter , who later collaborated with Nigel Kneale on the film Halloween III : Season of the Witch ( 1982 ) , has claimed that The Quatermass Xperiment " had an enormous , enormous impact on me – and it continues to be one of my all @-@ time favourite science @-@ fiction movies . "
= = Legacy = =
The success of The Quatermass Xperiment came at an opportune time for Hammer . By 1955 the deal with Robert L. Lippert had expired and the company produced just one feature film that year , Women Without Men . Many of the independent cinemas that provided the market for Hammer 's films in the UK were struggling in the face of competition from television and faced closure . The Quatermass Xperiment gave Hammer a much needed box office hit and was also the first film to bring the company to the attention of a major film distributor , in this case United Artists . From this point onward , Hammer was increasingly able to deal directly with the major distributors and no longer needed intermediaries like Lippert . This ultimately spelt the end for Exclusive Films , Hammer 's own distribution company , which was wound down in the late 1950s .
Hammer quickly sought to capitalise on its good fortune with a sequel . Staff member Jimmy Sangster pitched a story about a monster emerging from the Earth 's core . However , when the company asked Nigel Kneale for permission to use the character of Quatermass , he refused , not wanting to lose control of his creation . Nevertheless , the film went ahead , as X the Unknown ( 1956 ) , again capitalising on the ' X ' Certificate in its title and featuring a newly created scientist character , very much in the Quatermass mould , played by Dean Jagger . Quatermass did eventually return to cinema screens in Quatermass 2 ( 1957 ) and Quatermass and the Pit ( 1967 ) , both of which had screenplays written by Nigel Kneale and based on serials originally written by him and presented by BBC Television . Rival British film companies also tried to cash in with science fiction films of their own , including Satellite in the Sky , The Gamma People and Fire Maidens from Outer Space ( all 1956 ) .
The Quatermass Xperiment was Hammer 's first film to be adapted from a television drama . Market research carried out by the company showed that it was the horror aspect of the film , rather than the science fiction , that most appealed to audiences . Three of the four films Hammer made in 1956 were horror films : X the Unknown , Quatermass 2 and The Curse of Frankenstein . The enormous success of the latter of these cemented Hammer 's reputation for horror and the company became synonymous with the genre . Michael Carreras later said , " The film that must take all the credit for the whole Hammer series of horror films was really The Quatermass Xperiment " .
= = Video Releases = =
The Quatermass Xperiment was released in 2003 by DD Video on Region 2 DVD . It contained a number of extra features including a commentary by director Val Guest and Hammer historian Marcus Hearn , as well as an interview with Val Guest , an original trailer , and a production booklet written by Marcus Hearn and Jonathan Rigby . A Region 1 made @-@ on @-@ demand DVD @-@ R , sourced from a high @-@ definition master , was released in 2011 by MGM . The film had been previously released on VHS cassette and LaserDisc .
= = In other media = =
The film was adapted into a 16 @-@ page comic strip published in two parts in the March – April 1977 and June 1977 issues of the magazine The House of Hammer ( volume 1 , issue # ' s 8 and 9 , published by General Book Distribution ) . It was drawn by Brian Lewis from a script by Les Lilley and Ben Aldrich . The cover of issue 9 featured a painting by Lewis of Professor Quatermass .
= = = = Books = = = =
= = = = CD and DVD liner notes and booklets = = = =
= = = = DVD commentaries and interviews = = = =
= = = = Newspaper articles = = = =
= = = = Online = = = =
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= Banksia canei =
The mountain banksia ( Banksia canei ) is a species of shrub in the plant genus Banksia . It occurs in subalpine areas of the Great Dividing Range between Melbourne and Canberra in southeastern Australia . Although no subspecies are recognised , four topodemes ( geographically isolated populations ) have been described , as there is significant variation in the shape of both adult and juvenile leaves between populations . Although superficially resembling B. marginata , it is more closely related to another subalpine species , B. saxicola .
Banksia canei is generally encountered as a many @-@ branched shrub that grows up to 3 m ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) high , with narrow leaves and the yellow inflorescences ( flower spikes ) appearing from late summer to early winter . The old flowers fall off the spikes , and up to 150 finely furred follicles develop , which remain closed until burnt in a bushfire . Each follicle bears two winged seeds . Response to fire is poorly known , although it is thought to regenerate by seed . Birds such as the yellow @-@ tufted honeyeater and various insects forage among the flower spikes . It is frost tolerant in cultivation , but copes less well with aridity or humidity , and is often short @-@ lived in gardens . One cultivar , Banksia " Celia Rosser " , was registered in 1978 , but has subsequently vanished .
= = Description = =
Banksia canei grows as a woody shrub to 3 m ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) in height , usually with many branches . Its bark is smooth with horizontal lenticels , initially reddish @-@ brown before fading to grey tones . The stiff leaves are arranged alternately along the stems and show significant variation in shape and size . Adult leaves are linear or narrowly obovate in shape , and generally measure 2 – 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 79 – 1 @.@ 97 in ) , though some populations have leaves as short as 1 cm ( 0 @.@ 39 in ) or as long as 10 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) . The juvenile leaves are generally larger and wider with dentate margins . New growth is seen mainly from February to April . The complex flower spikes , known as inflorescences , appear between December and May , peaking over February to April . They arise from nodes of 1 – 3 @-@ year @-@ old branchlets or can be terminal . Cylindrical in shape , they are composed of a central woody spike , from which a large number of compact floral units arise perpendicularly to it . They are generally 5 – 10 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 – 3 @.@ 9 in ) high and 3 – 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 – 2 @.@ 0 in ) wide , but some do reach 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) high . Mauve @-@ tinted in bud , they generally open to become pale yellow in colour . As with most banksias , anthesis is acropetal ; the opening of the individual buds proceeds up the flower spike from the base to the top . The flower limbs may be pale grey or blue @-@ tinged , while the styles are yellow . As the inflorescences age , the old flowers fall away leaving a naked spike . Up to 150 follicles develop , each covered in short fine fur which is initially pale brown but fades to green @-@ grey and partly wears away . More or less elliptic in shape , they measure 12 – 18 mm ( 0 @.@ 47 – 0 @.@ 71 in ) long , 3 – 8 mm ( 0 @.@ 12 – 0 @.@ 31 in ) high , and 4 – 9 mm ( 0 @.@ 16 – 0 @.@ 35 in ) wide , and mostly remain closed until burnt by fire , although a few may open after several years . They contain two fertile seeds each , between which lies a woody dark brown separator of similar shape to the seeds . Measuring 13 – 18 mm ( 0 @.@ 5 – 0 @.@ 7 in ) in length , the seed is obovate , and composed of a dark brown 8 – 11 mm ( 0 @.@ 3 – 0 @.@ 4 in ) -wide membranous ' wing ' and crescent @-@ shaped ( lunate ) seed proper which measures 6 – 8 mm ( 0 @.@ 2 – 0 @.@ 3 in ) long by 2 @.@ 5 – 4 mm ( 0 @.@ 1 – 0 @.@ 2 in ) wide . The seed surface can be smooth or covered in tiny ridges , and often glistens . The resulting seedling first grows two obovate cotyledon leaves , which may remain for several months as several more leaves appear .
= = Taxonomy = =
Banksia canei was first described in 1967 by James H. Willis , who had collected it on 27 November 1962 along the Mt . Seldom Seen track in the vicinity of Wulgulmerang , Victoria . Earlier collections include a specimen Ferdinand von Mueller had collected near Omeo in 1853 , and one found by Richard Hind Cambage in 1908 near Kydra Peak . However , neither botanist considered this to be a new species at the time , instead holding it to be an unusual mountain form of the locally widespread B. marginata . Willis named the species after Victorian plantsman Bill Cane who had alerted authorities to the existence of an unusual banksia that was distinct from B. marginata some years previously . At the time , a plant collected from Mount Fulton near Port Davey in South West Tasmania was thought to be B. canei , but it was later reassessed as B. marginata . B. canei can be distinguished by its larger follicles and sharp points to the leaves . In his 1981 monograph of the genus Banksia , Alex George noted that despite a superficial resemblance to B. marginata , its bare old cones and stouter foliage indicated a closer relationship to B. integrifolia and B. saxicola , although it lacks the latter species ' whorled leaf arrangement . A fossil species , B. kingii from the late Pleistocene of Melaleuca Inlet in southwestern Tasmania , has robust foliage and infructescence resembling those of B. canei and B. saxicola , and appears to be a recently extinct relative . The leaf of a much older fossil species Banksieaephyllum acuminatum from Oligocene deposits in the Latrobe Valley closely resembles B. canei in shape , anatomy and vein pattern .
The current taxonomic arrangement of the Banksia genus is based on botanist Alex George 's 1999 monograph for the Flora of Australia book series . In this arrangement , B. canei is placed in Banksia subgenus Banksia , because its inflorescences take the form of Banksia 's characteristic flower spikes ; section Banksia because of its straight styles ; and series Salicinae because its inflorescences are cylindrical . Kevin Thiele placed it in a subseries Integrifoliae , where he found strong support for it and B. saxicola to be each other 's closest relative . The two were a sister group ( i.e. next closest relative ) to the four then @-@ recognised subspecies of B. integrifolia . The subseries all bear whorled leaves apart from B. canei and B. aquilonia . However , this subgrouping of the Salicinae was not supported by George . He did place the two subalpine taxa ( B. canei and B. saxicola ) at the end of the sequence as he thought they were the most recently evolved species , since he considered the group to have a tropical origin and B. dentata to be the oldest lineage .
B. marginata 's placement within Banksia may be summarised as follows :
Genus Banksia
Subgenus Isostylis
Subgenus Banksia
Section Oncostylis
Section Coccinea
Section Banksia
Series Grandes
Series Banksia
Series Crocinae
Series Prostratae
Series Cyrtostylis
Series Tetragonae
Series Bauerinae
Series Quercinae
Series Salicinae
B. dentata – B. aquilonia – B. integrifolia – B. plagiocarpa – B. oblongifolia – B. robur – B. conferta – B. paludosa – B. marginata – B. canei – B. saxicola
Since 1998 , American botanist Austin Mast and co @-@ authors have been publishing results of ongoing cladistic analyses of DNA sequence data for the subtribe Banksiinae , which then comprised genera Banksia and Dryandra . Their analyses suggest a phylogeny that differs greatly from George 's taxonomic arrangement . Banksia canei resolves as an early offshoot within the series Salicinae . Early in 2007 , Mast and Thiele rearranged the genus Banksia by merging Dryandra into it , and published B. subg . Spathulatae for the taxa having spoon @-@ shaped cotyledons ; thus B. subg . Banksia was redefined as encompassing taxa lacking spoon @-@ shaped cotyledons . They foreshadowed publishing a full arrangement once DNA sampling of Dryandra was complete ; in the meantime , if Mast and Thiele 's nomenclatural changes are taken as an interim arrangement , then B. canei is placed in B. subg . Spathulatae .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Several disjunct populations of Banksia canei have been recorded across alpine areas of southeastern Australia , generally at altitudes of 500 to 1 @,@ 000 m ( 1 @,@ 600 to 3 @,@ 300 ft ) in northeastern Victoria and southeastern New South Wales . One outlier at a lower altitude has been found on land partly cleared for agriculture at 250 m ( 820 ft ) elevation at Yowrie . The species is listed as " Rare in Victoria " on the Department of Sustainability and Environment 's Advisory List of Rare Or Threatened Plants In Victoria . In a 1978 paper reviewing the species , Alf Salkin coined the term topodeme to indicate a geographically isolated population of plants , derived from the Ancient Greek words topos " place " and deme " people " or " county ( population ) " . Salkin described four populations ( topodemes ) , each found in granite @-@ based rocky soils in subalpine regions , and isolated from one another by wide river valleys . They would have occupied lower altitudes at cooler geological periods and higher altitudes in warmer times . Each of the main four populations varies from the others in their leaf morphology . Salkin observed that as the habitat and environment was similar across the range , the differences were secondary to genetic drift , as certain traits have begun to dominate over others by chance as the populations begin to diverge genetically .
Most populations are located south or east of the Great Dividing Range , the exception being the Snowy Mountains population . The Kybean Range population is contiguous , while the others are fragmented . From west to east the populations are :
The Wellington River form , in the Snowy Range from Mount Howitt southwards to an area between the Moroka and Barkly Rivers . The Wonnangatta Mitchell system separates this form from the Wulgulmerang form to the east . The margins of the adult leaves are prominently dentate ( toothed ) , much more so than other forms which may have occasional ' teeth ' here and there . The flower has a distinctive blue @-@ grey limb .
The Snowy Mountains form , found to the north of the Snowy Mountains and west of the Australian Capital Territory , Talbingo and Corryong in the Bogong Mountains . This is separated by the Murray River to the south . This form has the smallest infructescences , measuring 6 – 8 cm ( 2 @.@ 4 – 3 @.@ 1 in ) high and 3 @.@ 5 – 4 cm ( 1 @.@ 4 – 1 @.@ 6 in ) wide . The adult leaves are 10 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) long , while the flowers are small , with perianths only 1 @.@ 6 cm ( 0 @.@ 63 in ) long . Like those of the Wellington River form , the flower limbs are blue @-@ grey .
The Wulgulmerang form , located to the north and east of Omeo , to Wulgulmerang and the Little River . The flower limb is a more yellow @-@ brown and the infructescences resemble those of B. marginata . It is found among granite rocks in association with the candlebark ( Eucalyptus rubida ) .
The Kybean Range form , in southeastern New South Wales – located in the Kybean Range and Tuross River east of Cooma . The Snowy River separates this form from the Wulgulmerang form to the west . This form has the largest flower spikes and infructescences , measuring up to 14 cm ( 5 @.@ 5 in ) high and 6 cm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) wide . It has very short adult leaves , yet wide juvenile leaves that resemble Banksia integrifolia .
There is one report of naturalisation in Western Australia , near Jerramungup , on a road verge .
= = Ecology = =
Banksia flower spikes are important sources of nectar for mammals , insects and birds , particularly honeyeaters . Animals recorded foraging among the flower spikes of B. canei include the yellow @-@ tufted honeyeater ( Lichenostomus melanops ) , and bees , wasps and ants .
Banksia canei lacks a lignotuber and appears to regenerate from bushfire by seed , although its response to fire has been little studied . The follicles remain closed until burnt , although some do open spontaneously after five years or so . The fungus Banksiamyces toomansis , of the order Helotiales , infects older cones and seed , and hence seed older than about five years is often not viable . Plectronidium australiense is a species of anamorphic fungus that was recovered from a dead branch of B. canei at Healesville Sanctuary and described in 1986 .
= = Cultivation = =
Banksia canei is somewhat slow @-@ growing in cultivation , and takes around five to seven years to flower from seed . Its furry @-@ follicled fruiting cones are attractive , although generally obscured by foliage . Although grown successfully in England and tolerant of temperatures to − 12 ° C ( 10 ° F ) , Banksia canei has a reputation of being difficult to keep alive in Australian gardens . Plants often grow well as seedlings in pots , but perish once planted in the ground . It is tolerant to frost , but not to aridity or possibly more humid conditions . The species prefers a sunny aspect and fair drainage . It has been grown in inland New South Wales on the Southern Tablelands and Rylstone . Banksia canei seed requires stratification — storing at 5 ° C ( 41 ° F ) for 60 days — before it germinates , which takes a further 6 to 25 days . Salkin proposed this was necessary so that seed released in a summer or autumn bushfire would lie dormant over the winter months before germinating in the spring . Banksia saxicola and some Banksia marginata seeds of subalpine provenance also share this trait .
In 1975 , as part of a study on the four populations of B. canei , Salkin carried out germination experiments , producing around a thousand seedlings . In January that year , two seedlings from the Wulgulmerang population displayed deeply lobed ( pinnatisect ) leaves and a prostrate habit . One died , but in April two seedlings from the Wellington River seed appeared which bore the same appearance . Both these younger seedlings died , but the one older plant survived . It was propagated and registered as a cultivar Banksia ' Celia Rosser ' on 28 May 1978 , named in honour of Celia Rosser , an artist who has illustrated many banksias . It produced flower spikes 4 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) high and 4 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) wide , which made up for their small size by their abundance . Salkin felt its importance lay not in its horticultural potential but in its appearance in two geographically distant populations . He felt it represented the reappearance of an earlier ( possibly ancestral ) form , representing " allelomorphs all but lost " . However , the cultivar has since vanished .
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= Ralph Vaughan Williams =
Ralph Vaughan Williams OM ( / ˈreɪf ˌvɔːn ˈwɪljəmz / 12 October 1872 – 26 August 1958 ) was an English composer . His works include operas , ballets , chamber music , secular and religious vocal pieces and orchestral compositions including nine symphonies , written over nearly fifty years . Strongly influenced by Tudor music and English folk @-@ song , his output marked a decisive break in British music from its German @-@ dominated style of the 19th century .
Vaughan Williams was born to a well @-@ to @-@ do family with strong moral views and a progressive social outlook . Throughout his life he sought to be of service to his fellow citizens , and believed in making music as available as possible to everybody . He wrote many works for amateur and student performance . He was musically a late developer , not finding his true voice until his late thirties ; his studies in 1907 – 08 with the French composer Maurice Ravel helped him clarify the textures of his music and free it from Teutonic influences .
Vaughan Williams is among the best @-@ known British symphonists , noted for his very wide range of moods , from stormy and impassioned to tranquil , from mysterious to exuberant . Among the most familiar of his other concert works are Fantasia on a Theme by Thomas Tallis ( 1910 ) and The Lark Ascending ( 1914 ) . His vocal works include hymns , folk @-@ song arrangements and large @-@ scale choral pieces . He wrote eight works for stage performance between 1919 and 1951 . Although none of his operas became popular repertoire pieces , his ballet Job : A Masque for Dancing ( 1930 ) was successful and has been frequently staged .
Two episodes made notably deep impressions in Vaughan Williams 's personal life . The First World War , in which he served in the army , had a lasting emotional effect . Twenty years later , though in his sixties and devotedly married , he was reinvigorated by a love affair with a much younger woman , who later became his second wife . He went on composing through his seventies and eighties , producing his last symphony months before his death at the age of eighty @-@ five . His works have continued to be a staple of the British concert repertoire , and all his major compositions and many of the minor ones have been recorded .
= = Life and career = =
= = = Early years = = =
Vaughan Williams was born at Down Ampney , Gloucestershire , the third child and younger son of the vicar , the Reverend Arthur Vaughan Williams ( 1834 – 1875 ) and his wife , Margaret , née Wedgwood ( 1842 – 1937 ) . His paternal forebears were of mixed English and Welsh descent ; many of them went into the law or the Church . The judges Sir Edward and Sir Roland Vaughan Williams were respectively Arthur 's father and brother . Margaret Vaughan Williams was a great @-@ granddaughter of Josiah Wedgwood and niece of Charles Darwin .
Arthur Vaughan Williams died suddenly in February 1875 , and his widow took the children to live in her family home , Leith Hill Place , Wotton , Surrey . The children were under the care of a nurse , Sara Wager , who instilled in them not only polite manners and good behaviour but also liberal social and philosophical opinions . Such views were consistent with the progressive @-@ minded tradition of both sides of the family . When the young Vaughan Williams asked his mother about Darwin 's controversial book On the Origin of Species , she answered , " The Bible says that God made the world in six days . Great Uncle Charles thinks it took longer : but we need not worry about it , for it is equally wonderful either way " .
In 1878 , at the age of five , Vaughan Williams began receiving piano lessons from his aunt , Sophy Wedgwood . He displayed signs of musical talent early on , composing his first piece of music , a four @-@ bar piano piece called " The Robin 's Nest " , in the same year . He did not greatly like the piano , and was pleased to begin violin lessons the following year . In 1880 , when he was eight , he took a correspondence course in music from Edinburgh University and passed the associated examinations .
In September 1883 he went as a boarder to Field House preparatory school in Rottingdean on the south coast of England , forty miles from Wotton . He was generally happy there , although he was shocked to encounter for the first time social snobbery and political conservatism which were rife among his fellow pupils . From there he moved on to the public school Charterhouse in January 1887 . His academic and sporting achievements there were satisfactory , and the school encouraged his musical development . In 1888 he organised a concert in the school hall , which included a performance of his G major Piano Trio ( now lost ) with the composer as violinist .
While at Charterhouse Vaughan Williams found that religion meant less and less to him , and for a while he was an atheist . This softened into " a cheerful agnosticism " , and he continued to attend church regularly to avoid upsetting the family . His views on religion did not affect his love of the Authorised Version of the Bible , the beauty of which , in the words of Ursula Vaughan Williams in her 1964 biography of the composer , remained " one of his essential companions through life . " In this , as in many other things in his life , he was , according to his biographer Michael Kennedy , " that extremely English product the natural nonconformist with a conservative regard for the best tradition " .
= = = Royal College of Music and Trinity , Cambridge = = =
In July 1890 Vaughan Williams left Charterhouse and in September he was enrolled as a student at the Royal College of Music ( RCM ) , London . After a compulsory course in harmony with Francis Edward Gladstone , professor of organ , counterpoint and harmony , he studied organ with Walter Parratt and composition with Hubert Parry . He idolised Parry , and recalled in his Musical Autobiography ( 1950 ) :
Parry once said to me : " Write choral music as befits an Englishman and a democrat " . We pupils of Parry have , if we have been wise , inherited from him the great English choral tradition , which Tallis passed on to Byrd , Byrd to Gibbons , Gibbons to Purcell , Purcell to Battishill and Greene , and they in their turn through the Wesleys , to Parry . He has passed on the torch to us and it is our duty to keep it alight .
Vaughan Williams 's family would have preferred him to have remained at Charterhouse for two more years and then go on to Cambridge University . They were not convinced that he was talented enough to pursue a musical career , but feeling it would be wrong to prevent him from trying , they had allowed him to go to the RCM . Nevertheless , a university education was expected of him , and in 1892 he temporarily left the RCM and entered Trinity College , Cambridge , where he spent three years , studying music and history .
Among those with whom Vaughan Williams became friendly at Cambridge were the philosophers G. E. Moore and Bertrand Russell , the historian G. M. Trevelyan and the musician Hugh Allen . He felt intellectually overshadowed by some of his companions , but he learned much from them and formed lifelong friendships with several . Among the women with whom he mixed socially at Cambridge was Adeline Fisher , the daughter of Herbert Fisher , an old friend of the Vaughan Williams family . She and Vaughan Williams grew close , and in June 1897 , after he had left Cambridge , they became engaged to be married .
During his time at Cambridge Vaughan Williams continued his weekly lessons with Parry , and studied composition with Charles Wood and organ with Alan Gray . He graduated as Bachelor of Music in 1894 and Bachelor of Arts the following year . After leaving the university he returned to complete his training at the RCM . Parry had by then succeeded Sir George Grove as director of the college , and Vaughan Williams 's new professor of composition was Charles Villiers Stanford . Relations between teacher and student were stormy . Stanford , who had been adventurous in his younger days , had grown deeply conservative ; he clashed vigorously with his modern @-@ minded pupil . Vaughan Williams had no wish to follow in the traditions of Stanford 's idols , Brahms and Wagner , and he stood up to his teacher as few students dared to do . Beneath Stanford 's bluster lay a recognition of Vaughan Williams 's talent and a desire to help the young man correct his opaque orchestration and extreme predilection for modal music .
In his second spell at the RCM ( 1895 – 96 ) Vaughan Williams got to know a fellow student , Gustav Holst , who became a lifelong friend . Stanford emphasised the need for his students to be self @-@ critical , but Vaughan Williams and Holst became , and remained , one another 's most valued critic ; each would play his latest composition to the other while still working on it . Vaughan Williams later observed , " What one really learns from an Academy or College is not so much from one 's official teachers as from one 's fellow @-@ students ... [ we discussed ] every subject under the sun from the lowest note of the double bassoon to the philosophy of Jude the Obscure " . In 1949 he wrote of their relationship , " Holst declared that his music was influenced by that of his friend : the converse is certainly true . "
= = = Early career = = =
Vaughan Williams had a modest private income , which in his early career he supplemented with a variety of musical activities . Although the organ was not his preferred instrument , the only post he ever held for an annual salary was as a church organist and choirmaster . He held the position at St Barnabas , in the inner London district of South Lambeth , from 1895 to 1899 for a salary of £ 50 a year . He disliked the job , but working closely with a choir was valuable experience for his later undertakings .
In October 1897 Adeline and Vaughan Williams were married . They honeymooned for several months in Berlin , where he studied with Max Bruch . On their return they settled in London , originally in Westminster and , from 1905 , in Chelsea . There were no children of the marriage .
In 1899 Vaughan Williams passed the examination for the degree of Doctor of Music at Cambridge ; the title was formally conferred on him in 1901 . The song " Linden Lea " became the first of his works to appear in print , published in the magazine The Vocalist in April 1902 and then as separate sheet music . In addition to composition he occupied himself in several capacities during the first decade of the century . He wrote articles for musical journals and for the second edition of Grove 's Dictionary of Music and Musicians , edited the first volume of Purcell 's Welcome Songs for the Purcell Society , and was for a while involved in adult education in the University Extension Lectures . From 1904 to 1906 he was music editor of a new hymn @-@ book , The English Hymnal , of which he later said , " I now know that two years of close association with some of the best ( as well as some of the worst ) tunes in the world was a better musical education than any amount of sonatas and fugues " . Always committed to music @-@ making for the whole community , he helped found the amateur Leith Hill Music Festival in 1905 , and was appointed its principal conductor , a post he held until 1953 .
In 1903 – 04 Vaughan Williams started collecting folk @-@ songs . He had always been interested in them , and now followed the example of a recent generation of enthusiasts such as Cecil Sharp and Lucy Broadwood in going into the English countryside noting down and transcribing songs traditionally sung in various locations . Collections of the songs were published , preserving many that could otherwise have vanished as oral traditions died out . Vaughan Williams incorporated some into his own compositions , and more generally was influenced by their prevailing modal forms . This , together with his love of Tudor and Stuart music , helped shape his compositional style for the rest of his career .
Over this period Vaughan Williams composed steadily , producing songs , choral music , chamber works and orchestral pieces , gradually finding the beginnings of his mature style . His compositions included the tone poem In the Fen Country ( 1904 ) and the Norfolk Rhapsody No. 1 ( 1906 ) . He remained unsatisfied with his technique as a composer . After unsuccessfully seeking lessons from Sir Edward Elgar , he contemplated studying with Vincent d 'Indy in Paris . Instead , he was introduced by the critic and musicologist M. D. Calvocoressi to Maurice Ravel , a more modernist , less dogmatic musician than d 'Indy .
= = = Ravel ; rising fame ; First World War = = =
Ravel took few pupils , and was known as a demanding taskmaster for those he agreed to teach . Vaughan Williams spent three months in Paris in the winter of 1907 – 08 , working with him four or five times each week . There is little documentation of Vaughan Williams 's time with Ravel ; the musicologist Byron Adams advises caution in relying on Vaughan Williams 's recollections in the Musical Autobiography written forty @-@ three years after the event . The degree to which the French composer influenced the Englishman 's style is debated . Ravel declared Vaughan Williams to be " my only pupil who does not write my music " ; nevertheless , commentators including Kennedy , Adams , Hugh Ottaway and Alain Frogley find Vaughan Williams 's instrumental textures lighter and sharper in the music written after his return from Paris , such as the String Quartet in G minor , On Wenlock Edge , the Overture to The Wasps and A Sea Symphony . Vaughan Williams himself said that Ravel had helped him escape from " the heavy contrapuntal Teutonic manner " .
In the years between his return from Paris in 1908 and the outbreak of the First World War in 1914 , Vaughan Williams increasingly established himself as a figure in British music . For a rising composer it was important to receive performances at the big provincial music festivals , which generated publicity and royalties . In 1910 his music featured at two of the largest and most prestigious festivals , with the premieres of the Fantasia on a Theme by Thomas Tallis at the Three Choirs Festival in Gloucester Cathedral in September and A Sea Symphony at the Leeds Festival the following month . The leading British music critics of the time , J. A. Fuller Maitland of The Times and Samuel Langford of The Manchester Guardian , were strong in their praise . The former wrote of the fantasia , " The work is wonderful because it seems to lift one into some unknown region of musical thought and feeling . Throughout its course one is never sure whether one is listening to something very old or very new " . Langford declared that the symphony " definitely places a new figure in the first rank of our English composers " . Between these successes and the start of war Vaughan Williams 's largest @-@ scale work was the first version of A London Symphony ( 1914 ) . In the same year he wrote The Lark Ascending in its original form for violin and piano .
Despite his age — he was forty @-@ two in 1914 — Vaughan Williams volunteered for military service on the outbreak of the First World War . Joining the Royal Army Medical Corps as a private , he drove ambulance wagons in France and later in Greece . Frogley writes of this period that Vaughan Williams was considerably older than most of his comrades , and " the back @-@ breaking labour of dangerous night @-@ time journeys through mud and rain must have been more than usually punishing " . The war left its emotional mark on Vaughan Williams , who lost many comrades and friends , including the young composer George Butterworth . In 1917 Vaughan Williams was commissioned as a lieutenant in the Royal Artillery , seeing action in France from March 1918 . The continual noise of the guns damaged his hearing , and led to deafness in his later years . After the armistice in 1918 he served as director of music for the British First Army until demobilised in February 1919 .
= = = Inter @-@ war years = = =
During the war Vaughan Williams stopped writing music , and after returning to civilian life he took some time before feeling ready to compose new works . He revised some earlier pieces , and turned his attention to other musical activities . In 1919 he accepted an invitation from Hugh Allen , who had succeeded Parry as director , to teach composition at the RCM ; he remained on the faculty of the college for the next twenty years . In 1921 he succeeded Allen as conductor of the Bach Choir , London . It was not until 1922 that he produced a major new composition , A Pastoral Symphony ; the work was given its first performance in London in May conducted by Adrian Boult and its American premiere in New York in December conducted by the composer .
Throughout the 1920s Vaughan Williams continued to compose , conduct and teach . Kennedy lists forty works premiered during the decade , including the Mass in G minor ( 1922 ) , the ballet Old King Cole ( 1923 ) , the operas Hugh the Drover and Sir John in Love ( 1924 and 1928 ) , the suite Flos Campi ( 1925 ) and the oratorio Sancta Civitas ( 1925 ) .
During the decade Adeline became increasingly immobilised by arthritis , and the numerous stairs in their London house finally caused the Vaughan Williamses to move in 1929 to a more manageable home , " The White Gates " , Dorking , where they lived until Adeline 's death in 1951 . Vaughan Williams , who thought of himself as a complete Londoner , was sorry to leave the capital , but his wife was anxious to live in the country , and Dorking was within reasonably convenient reach of town .
In 1932 Vaughan Williams was elected president of the English Folk Dance and Song Society . From September to December of that year he was in the US as a visiting lecturer at Bryn Mawr College , Pennsylvania . The texts of his lectures were published under the title National Music in 1934 ; they sum up his artistic and social credo more fully than anything he had published previously , and remained in print for most of the remainder of the century .
During the 1930s Vaughan Williams came to be regarded as a leading figure in British music , particularly after the deaths of Elgar , Delius and Holst in 1934 . Holst 's death was a severe personal and professional blow to Vaughan Williams ; the two had been each other 's closest friends and musical advisers since their college days . After Holst 's death Vaughan Williams was glad of the advice and support of other friends including Boult and the composer Gerald Finzi , but his relationship with Holst was irreplaceable .
In some of Vaughan Williams 's music of the 1930s there is an explicitly dark , even violent tone . The ballet Job : A Masque for Dancing ( 1930 ) and the Fourth Symphony ( 1935 ) surprised the public and critics . The discordant and violent tone of the symphony , written at a time of growing international tension , led many critics to suppose the symphony to be programmatic . Hubert Foss dubbed it " The Romantic " and Frank Howes called it " The Fascist " . The composer dismissed such interpretations , and insisted that the work was absolute music , with no programme of any kind ; nonetheless , some of those close to him , including Foss and Boult , remained convinced that something of the troubled spirit of the age was captured in the work .
As the decade progressed , Vaughan Williams found musical inspiration lacking , and experienced his first fallow period since his wartime musical silence . After his anti @-@ war cantata Dona nobis pacem in 1936 he did not complete another work of substantial length until late in 1941 , when the first version of the Fifth Symphony was completed .
In 1938 Vaughan Williams met Ursula Wood ( 1911 – 2007 ) , the wife of an army officer , Captain ( later Lieutenant @-@ Colonel ) Michael Forrester Wood . She was a poet , and had approached the composer with a proposed scenario for a ballet . Despite their both being married , and a four @-@ decade age @-@ gap , they fell in love almost from their first meeting ; they maintained a secret love affair for more than a decade . Ursula became the composer 's muse , helper and London companion , and later helped him care for his ailing wife . Whether Adeline knew , or suspected , that Ursula and Vaughan Williams were lovers is uncertain , but the relations between the two women were of warm friendship throughout the years they knew each other . The composer 's concern for his first wife never faltered , according to Ursula , who admitted in the 1980s that she had been jealous of Adeline , whose place in Vaughan Williams 's life and affections was unchallengeable .
= = = 1939 – 52 = = =
During the Second World War Vaughan Williams was active in civilian war work , chairing the Home Office Committee for the Release of Interned Alien Musicians , helping Myra Hess with the organisation of the daily National Gallery concerts , serving on a committee for refugees from Nazi oppression , and on the Council for the Encouragement of Music and the Arts ( CEMA ) , the forerunner of the Arts Council . In 1940 he composed his first film score , for the propaganda film 49th Parallel .
In 1942 Michael Wood died suddenly of heart failure . At Adeline 's behest the widowed Ursula was invited to stay with the Vaughan Williamses in Dorking , and thereafter was a regular visitor there , sometimes staying for weeks at a time . The critic Michael White suggests that Adeline " appears , in the most amicable way , to have adopted Ursula as her successor " . Ursula recorded that during air raids all three slept in the same room in adjacent beds , holding hands for comfort .
In 1943 Vaughan Williams conducted the premiere of his Fifth Symphony at the Proms . Its serene tone contrasted with the stormy Fourth , and led some commentators to think it a symphonic valediction . William Glock wrote that it was " like the work of a distinguished poet who has nothing very new to say , but says it in exquisitely flowing language " . The music Vaughan Williams wrote for the BBC to celebrate the end of the war , Thanksgiving for Victory , was marked by what the critic Edward Lockspeiser called the composer 's characteristic avoidance of " any suggestion of rhetorical pompousness " . Any suspicion that the septuagenarian composer had settled into benign tranquillity was dispelled by his Sixth Symphony ( 1948 ) , described by the critic Gwyn Parry @-@ Jones as " one of the most disturbing musical statements of the 20th century " , opening with a " primal scream , plunging the listener immediately into a world of aggression and impending chaos . " Coming as it did near the start of the Cold War , many critics thought its pianissimo last movement a depiction of a nuclear @-@ scorched wasteland . The composer was dismissive of programmatic theories : " It never seems to occur to people that a man might just want to write a piece of music . "
In 1951 Adeline died , aged eighty . In the same year Vaughan Williams 's last opera , The Pilgrim 's Progress , was staged at Covent Garden as part of the Festival of Britain . He had been working intermittently on a musical treatment of John Bunyan 's allegory for forty @-@ five years , and the 1951 " morality " was the final result . The reviews were respectful , but the work did not catch the opera @-@ going public 's imagination , and the Royal Opera House 's production was " insultingly half @-@ hearted " according to Frogley . The piece was revived the following year , but was still not a great success . Vaughan Williams commented to Ursula , " They don 't like it , they won 't like it , they don 't want an opera with no heroine and no love duets — and I don 't care , it 's what I meant , and there it is . "
= = = Second marriage and last years = = =
In February 1953 Vaughan Williams and Ursula were married . He left the Dorking house and they took a lease of 10 Hanover Terrace , Regent 's Park , London . It was the year of Queen Elizabeth 's coronation ; Vaughan Williams 's contribution was an arrangement of the Old Hundredth psalm tune , and a new setting of " O taste and see " from Psalm 34 , performed at the service in Westminster Abbey .
Having returned to live in London , Vaughan Williams , with Ursula 's encouragement , became much more active socially and in pro bono publico activities . He was a leading figure in the Society for the Promotion of New Music , and in 1954 he set up and endowed the Vaughan Williams Trust to support young composers and promote new or neglected music . He and his wife travelled extensively in Europe , and in 1954 he visited the US once again , having been invited to lecture at Cornell and other universities and to conduct . He received an enthusiastic welcome from large audiences , and was overwhelmed at the warmth of his reception . Kennedy describes it as " like a musical state occasion " .
Of Vaughan Williams 's works from the 1950s , Grove makes particular mention of Three Shakespeare Songs ( 1951 ) for unaccompanied chorus , the Christmas cantata Hodie ( 1953 – 4 ) , the Violin Sonata , and , most particularly , the Ten Blake Songs ( 1957 ) for voice and oboe , " a masterpiece of economy and precision " . Unfinished works from the decade were a cello concerto and a new opera , Thomas the Rhymer . The predominant works of the 1950s were his three last symphonies . The seventh — officially unnumbered , and titled Sinfonia antartica — divided opinion ; the score is a reworking of music Vaughan Williams had written for the 1948 film Scott of the Antarctic , and some critics thought it not truly symphonic . The Eighth , though wistful in parts , is predominantly lighthearted in tone ; it was received enthusiastically at its premiere in 1956 , given by the Hallé Orchestra under the dedicatee , Sir John Barbirolli . The Ninth , premiered at a Royal Philharmonic Society concert conducted by Sir Malcolm Sargent in April 1958 , puzzled critics with its sombre , questing tone , and did not immediately achieve the recognition it later gained .
Having been in excellent health , Vaughan Williams died suddenly in the early hours of 26 August 1958 at Hanover Terrace . Two days later , after a private funeral at Golder 's Green , he was cremated . On 19 September , at a crowded memorial service , the ashes were interred near the burial plots of Purcell and Stanford in the north choir aisle of Westminster Abbey .
= = Music = =
Michael Kennedy characterises Vaughan Williams 's music as a strongly individual blending of the modal harmonies familiar from folk ‐ song with the French influence of Ravel and Debussy . The basis of his work is melody , his rhythms , in Kennedy 's view , being unsubtle at times . Vaughan Williams 's music is often described as visionary ; Kennedy cites the masque Job and the Fifth and Ninth Symphonies . Vaughan Williams 's output was prolific and wide ranging . For the voice he composed songs , operas , and choral works ranging from simpler pieces suitable for amateurs to demanding works for professional choruses . His comparatively few chamber works are not among his better known compositions . Some of his finest works elude conventional categorisation , such as the Serenade to Music ( 1938 ) for sixteen solo singers and orchestra ; Flos Campi ( 1925 ) for solo viola , small orchestra , and small chorus ; and his most important chamber work , in Howes 's view — not purely instrumental but a song cycle — On Wenlock Edge ( 1909 ) with accompaniment for string quartet and piano .
In 1955 the authors of The Record Guide , Edward Sackville @-@ West and Desmond Shawe @-@ Taylor , wrote that Vaughan Williams 's music showed an exceptionally strong individual voice : Vaughan Williams 's style is " not remarkable for grace or politeness or inventive colour " , but expresses " a consistent vision in which thought and feeling and their equivalent images in music never fall below a certain high level of natural distinction " . They commented that the composer 's vision is expressed in two main contrasting moods : " the one contemplative and trance @-@ like , the other pugnacious and sinister " . The first mood , generally predominant in the composer 's output , was more popular , as audiences , preferred " the stained @-@ glass beauty of the Tallis Fantasia , the direct melodic appeal of the Serenade to Music , the pastoral poetry of The Lark Ascending , and the grave serenity of the Fifth Symphony " . By contrast , as in the ferocity of the Fourth and Sixth Symphonies and the Concerto for Two Pianos : " in his grimmer moods Vaughan Williams can be as frightening as Sibelius and Bartók " .
= = = Symphonies = = =
It is as a symphonist that Vaughan Williams is best known . The composer and academic Elliott Schwartz wrote ( 1964 ) , " It may be said with truth that Vaughan Williams , Sibelius and Prokofieff are the symphonists of this century " . Although Vaughan Williams did not complete the first of them until he was thirty @-@ eight years old , the nine symphonies span nearly half a century of his creative life . In his 1964 analysis of the nine , Schwartz found it striking that no two of the symphonies are alike , either in structure or in mood . Commentators have found it useful to consider the nine in three groups of three — early , middle and late .
= = = = Sea , London and Pastoral Symphonies ( 1910 – 1922 ) = = = =
The first three symphonies , to which Vaughan Williams assigned titles rather than numbers , form a sub @-@ group within the nine , having programmatic elements , absent from the later six . A Sea Symphony ( 1910 ) , the only one of the series to include a part for full choir , differs from most earlier choral symphonies in that the choir sings in all the movements . The extent to which it is a true symphony has been debated ; in a 2013 study , Alain Frogley describes it as a hybrid work , with elements of symphony , oratorio and cantata . Its sheer length — about eighty minutes — was unprecedented for an English symphonic work , and within its thoroughly tonal construction it contains harmonic dissonances that pre @-@ echo the early works of Stravinsky which were soon to follow .
A London Symphony ( 1911 – 13 ) which the composer later observed might more accurately be called a " symphony by a Londoner " , is for the most part not overtly pictorial in its presentation of London . Vaughan Williams insisted that it is " self @-@ expressive , and must stand or fall as ' absolute ' music " . There are some references to the urban soundscape : brief impressions of street music , with the sound of the barrel organ mimicked by the orchestra ; the characteristic chant of the lavender @-@ seller ; the jingle of hansom cabs ; and the chimes of Big Ben played by harp and clarinet . But commentators have heard — and the composer never denied or confirmed — some social comment in sinister echoes at the end of the scherzo and an orchestral outburst of pain and despair at the opening of the finale . Schwartz comments that the symphony , in its " unified presentation of widely heterogeneous elements " , is " very much like the city itself " . Vaughan Williams said in his later years that this was his favourite of the symphonies .
The last of the first group is A Pastoral Symphony ( 1921 ) . The first three movements are for orchestra alone ; a wordless solo soprano voice is added in the finale . Despite the title the symphony draws little on the folk @-@ songs beloved of the composer , and the pastoral landscape evoked is not a tranquil English scene , but the French countryside ravaged by war . Some English musicians who had not fought in the First World War misunderstood the work and heard only the slow tempi and quiet tone , failing to notice the character of a requiem in the music and mistaking the piece for a rustic idyll . Kennedy comments that it was not until after the Second World War that " the spectral ' Last Post ' in the second movement and the girl 's lamenting voice in the finale " were widely noticed and understood .
= = = = Symphonies 4 – 6 ( 1935 – 48 ) = = = =
The middle three symphonies are purely orchestral , and generally conventional in form , with sonata form ( modified in places ) , specified home keys , and four @-@ movement structure . The orchestral forces required are not large by the standards of the first half of the 20th century , although the Fourth calls for an augmented woodwind section and the Sixth includes a part for tenor saxophone . The Fourth Symphony ( 1935 ) astonished listeners with its striking dissonance , far removed from the prevailing quiet tone of the previous symphony . The composer firmly contradicted any notions that the work was programmatical in any respect , and Kennedy calls attempts to give the work " a meretricious programme [ ... ] a poor compliment to its musical vitality and self @-@ sufficiency " .
The Fifth Symphony ( 1943 ) was in complete contrast to its predecessor . Vaughan Williams had been working on and off for many years on his operatic version of Bunyan 's The Pilgrim 's Progress . Fearing — wrongly as it turned out — that the opera would never be completed , Vaughan Williams reworked some of the music already written for it into a new symphony . Despite the internal tensions caused by the deliberate conflict of modality in places , the work is generally serene in character , and was particularly well received for the comfort it gave at a time of all @-@ out war . Neville Cardus later wrote , " The Fifth Symphony contains the most benedictory and consoling music of our time . "
With the Sixth Symphony ( 1948 ) Vaughan Williams once again confounded expectations . Many had seen the Fifth , composed when he was seventy , as a valedictory work , and the turbulent , troubled Sixth came as a shock . After violent orchestral clashes in the first movement , the obsessive ostinato of the second and the " diabolic " scherzo , the finale perplexed many listeners . Described as " one of the strangest journeys ever undertaken in music " , it is marked pianissimo throughout its 10 – 12 @-@ minute duration .
= = = = Sinfonia antartica , Symphonies 8 and 9 ( 1952 – 57 ) = = = =
The seventh symphony , the Sinfonia antartica ( 1952 ) , a by @-@ product of the composer 's score for Scott of the Antarctic , has consistently divided critical opinion on whether it can be properly classed as a symphony . Alain Frogley in Grove argues that though the work can make a deep impression on the listener , it is neither a true symphony in the understood sense of the term nor a tone poem and is consequently the least successful of the mature symphonies . The work is in five movements , with wordless vocal lines for female chorus and solo soprano in the first and last movements . In addition to large woodwind and percussion sections the score features a prominent part for wind machine .
The Eighth Symphony ( 1956 ) in D minor is noticeably different from its seven predecessors by virtue of its brevity and , despite its minor key , its general light @-@ heartedness . The orchestra is smaller than for most of the symphonies , with the exception of the percussion section , which is particularly large , with , as Vaughan Williams put it , " all the ' phones ' and ' spiels ' known to the composer " . The work was enthusiastically received at its early performances , and has remained among Vaughan Williams 's most popular works .
The final symphony , the Ninth , was completed in late 1957 and premiered in April 1958 , four months before the composer 's death . It is scored for a large orchestra , including three saxophones , a flugelhorn , and an enlarged percussion section . The mood is more sombre than that of the Eighth ; Grove calls its mood " at once heroic and contemplative , defiant and wistfully absorbed " . The work received an ovation at its premiere , but at first the critics were not sure what to make of it , and it took some years for it to be generally ranked alongside its eight predecessors .
= = = Other orchestral music = = =
Grove lists more than thirty works by Vaughan Williams for orchestra or band over and above the symphonies . They include two of his most popular works — the Fantasia on a Theme by Thomas Tallis ( 1910 , revised 1919 ) , and The Lark Ascending , originally for violin and piano ( 1914 ) ; orchestrated 1920 . Other works that survive in the repertoire in Britain are the Norfolk Rhapsody No 1 ( 1905 – 06 ) , The Wasps , Aristophanic suite — particularly the overture ( 1909 ) , the English Folk Song Suite ( 1923 ) and the Fantasia on Greensleeves ( 1934 ) .
Vaughan Williams wrote four concertos : for violin ( 1925 ) , piano ( 1926 ) , oboe ( 1944 ) and tuba ( 1954 ) ; another concertante piece is his Romance for harmonica , strings and piano ( 1951 ) . None of these works have rivalled the popularity of the symphonies or the short orchestral works mentioned above . Bartók was among the admirers of the Piano Concerto , written for and championed by Harriet Cohen , but it has remained , in the words of the critic Andrew Achenbach , a neglected masterpiece .
In addition to the music for Scott of the Antarctic , Vaughan Williams composed incidental music for eleven other films , from 49th Parallel ( 1941 ) to The Vision of William Blake ( 1957 ) .
= = = Chamber and instrumental = = =
By comparison with his output in other genres , Vaughan Williams 's music for chamber ensembles and solo instruments forms a small part of his oeuvre . Grove lists twenty @-@ four pieces under the heading " Chamber and instrumental " ; three are early , unpublished works . Vaughan Williams , like most leading British 20th @-@ century composers , was not drawn to the solo piano and wrote little for it . From his mature years , there survive for standard chamber groupings two string quartets ( 1908 – 09 , revised 1921 ; and 1943 – 44 ) , a " phantasy " string quintet ( 1912 ) , and a sonata for violin and piano ( 1954 ) . The first quartet was written soon after Vaughan Williams 's studies in Paris with Ravel , whose influence is strongly evident . In 2002 the magazine Gramophone described the second quartet as a masterpiece that should be , but is not , part of the international chamber repertory . It is from the same period as the Sixth Symphony , and has something of that work 's severity and anguish . The quintet ( 1912 ) was written two years after the success of the Tallis Fantasia , with which it has elements in common , both in terms of instrumental layout and the mood of rapt contemplation . The violin sonata has made little impact .
= = = Vocal music = = =
Ursula Vaughan Williams wrote of her husband 's love of literature , and listed some of his favourite writers and writings :
From Skelton and Chaucer , Sidney , Spenser , the Authorised Version of the Bible , the madrigal poets , the anonymous poets , to Shakespeare — inevitably and devotedly — on to Herbert and his contemporaries , Milton , Bunyan , and Shelley , Tennyson , Swinburne , both Rossettis , Whitman , Barnes , Hardy and Housman .
In addition to his love of poetry , Vaughan Williams 's vocal music is inspired by his lifelong belief that the voice " can be made the medium of the best and deepest human emotion . "
= = = = Songs = = = =
Between the mid @-@ 1890s and the late 1950s Vaughan Williams set more than eighty poems for voice and piano accompaniment . The earliest to survive is " A Cradle Song " , to Coleridge 's words , from about 1894 . The songs include many that have entered the repertory , such as " Linden Lea " ( 1902 ) , " Silent Noon " ( 1904 ) and the song cycles Songs of Travel ( 1905 and 1907 ) and On Wenlock Edge . To Vaughan Williams the human voice was " the oldest and greatest of musical instruments " . He described his early songs as " more or less simple and popular in character " , and the musicologist Sophie Fuller describes this simplicity and popularity as consistent throughout his career . Many composers of the late 19th and early 20th centuries wrote sentimental works for female voice ; by contrast , songs by Vaughan Williams 's songs such as " The Vagabond " from Songs of Travel , to words by Robert Louis Stevenson , are " a particularly masculine breath of fresh air " ( Fuller ) , " virile open @-@ air verses " ( Kennedy ) . Some of Vaughan Williams 's later songs are less well known ; Fuller singles out the cycle Three Poems by Walt Whitman , a largely dark work , as too often overlooked by singers and critics . For some of his songs the composer expands the accompaniment to include two or more string instruments in addition to the piano ; they include On Wenlock Edge , and the Chaucer cycle Merciless Beauty ( 1921 ) , judged by an anonymous contemporary critic as " surely among the best of modern English songs " .
= = = = Choral music = = = =
Despite his agnosticism Vaughan Williams composed many works for church performance . His two best known hymn tunes , both from c . 1905 , are " Down Ampney " to the words " Come Down , O Love Divine " , and " Sine nomine " " For All the Saints " . Grove lists a dozen more , composed between 1905 and 1935 . The other church works include a Magnificat and Nunc Dimittis ( 1925 ) , a Mass ( 1920 – 21 ) and a Te Deum ( 1928 ) .
Vaughan Williams 's choral works for concert performance include settings of both secular and religious words . The former include Toward the Unknown Region to words by Whitman ( composed 1904 – 06 ) , Five Tudor Portraits , words by John Skelton ( 1935 ) , and the Shakespearean Serenade to Music ( in its alternative version for chorus and orchestra , 1938 ) . Choral pieces with religious words include the oratorio Sancta Civitas ( 1923 – 25 ) and the Christmas cantata Hodie ( 1954 ) . In 1953 the composer said that of his choral works Sancta Civitas was his favourite . The Dona Nobis Pacem , an impassioned anti @-@ war cantata ( 1936 ) is a combination of both , with words from Whitman and others juxtaposed with extracts from the Latin mass , anticipating a similar mixture of sacred and secular text in Britten 's War Requiem twenty @-@ five years later .
= = = Stage works = = =
Vaughan Williams was wary of conventional labels ; his best known ballet is described on the title page as " a masque for dancing " and only one of his operatic works is categorised by the composer simply as an opera . For some of his theatre pieces that could be classed as operas or ballets , he preferred the terms " masque " , " romantic extravaganza " , " play set to music " , or " morality " .
In a 2013 survey of Vaughan Williams 's stage works , Eric Saylor writes , " With the possible exception of Tchaikovsky , no composer 's operatic career was less emblematic of his success elsewhere . " Although Vaughan Williams was a regular opera @-@ goer , enthusiastic and knowledgeable about works by operatic masters from Mozart to Wagner and Verdi , his success in the operatic field was at best patchy . There is widespread agreement among commentators that this was partly due to the composer 's poor choice of librettists for some , though not all , of his operas . Another problem was his keenness to encourage amateurs and student groups , which sometimes led to the staging of his operas with less than professional standards . A further factor was the composer 's expressed preference for " slow , long tableaux " , which tended to reduce dramatic impact , although he believed them essential , as " music takes a long time to speak — much longer than words by themselves . "
Hugh the Drover , or Love in the Stocks ( completed 1919 , premiere 1924 ) has a libretto , by the writer and theatre critic Harold Child , which was described by The Stage as " replete with folksy , Cotswold village archetypes " . In the view of the critic Richard Traubner the piece is a cross between traditional ballad opera and the works of Puccini and Ravel , " with rhapsodic results . " The score uses genuine and pastiche folk songs but ends with a passionate love duet that Traubner considers has few equals in English opera . Its first performance was by students at the Royal College of Music , and the work is rarely staged by major professional companies .
Old King Cole ( 1923 ) is a humorous ballet . The score , which makes liberal use of folk @-@ song melodies , was thought by critics to be strikingly modern when first heard . Kennedy comments that the music " is not a major work but it is fun . " The piece has not been seen frequently since its premiere , but was revived in a student production at the RCM in 1937 .
On Christmas Night ( 1926 ) , a masque by Adolph Bolm and Vaughan Williams , combines singing , dancing and mime . The story is loosely based on Dickens 's A Christmas Carol . The piece was first given in Chicago by Bolm 's company ; the London premiere was in 1935 . Saylor describes the work as a " dramatic hodgepodge " which has not attracted the interest of later performers .
The only work that the composer designated as an opera is the comedy Sir John in Love ( 1924 – 28 ) . It is based on Shakespeare 's The Merry Wives of Windsor . Folk song is used , though more discreetly than in Hugh the Drover and the score is described by Saylor as " ravishingly tuneful " . Although versions of the play had already been set by Nicolai , Verdi , and Holst , Vaughan Williams 's is distinctive for its greater emphasis on the love music rather than on the robust comedy . In 1931 , with the Leith Hill Festival in mind , the composer recast some of the music as a five @-@ section cantata , In Windsor Forest , giving the public " the plums and no cake " , as he put it .
The Poisoned Kiss ( 1927 – 29 , premiered in 1936 ) is a light comedy . Vaughan Williams knew the Savoy operas well , and his music for this piece was and is widely regarded as in the Sullivan vein . The words , by an inexperienced librettist , were judged to fall far short of Gilbert 's standards . Saylor sums up the critical consensus that the work is something between " a frothy romantic comedy [ and ] a satirical fairy @-@ tale " , and not quite successful in either category .
Job : A Masque for Dancing ( 1930 ) was the first @-@ large scale ballet by a modern British composer . Vaughan Williams 's liking for long tableaux , however disadvantageous in his operas , worked to successful effect in this ballet . The work is inspired by William Blake 's Illustrations of the Book of Job ( 1826 ) . The score is divided into nine sections and an epilogue , presenting dance interpretations of some of Blake 's engravings . The work , choreographed by Ninette de Valois , made a powerful impression at its early stagings , and has been revived by the Royal Ballet several times . Kennedy ranks the score as " one of Vaughan Williams 's mightiest achievements " , and notes that it is familiar in concert programmes , having " the stature and cohesion of a symphony . "
In Kennedy 's view the one @-@ act Riders to the Sea ( 1925 – 31 , premiered 1937 ) is artistically Vaughan Williams 's most successful opera ; Saylor names Sir John in Love for that distinction , but rates Riders to the Sea as one of the composer 's finest works in any genre . It is an almost verbatim setting of J. M. Synge 's 1902 play of the same name , depicting family tragedy in an Irish fishing village . Kennedy describes the score as " organized almost symphonically " with much of the thematic material developed from the brief prelude . The orchestration is subtle , and foreshadows the ghostly finale of the Sixth Symphony ; there are also pre @-@ echoes of the Sinfonia antartica in the lamenting voices of the women and in the sound of the sea .
The Bridal Day ( 1938 – 39 ) is a masque , to a scenario by Ursula , combining voice , mime and dance , first performed in 1953 on BBC television . Vaughan Williams later recast it a cantata , Epithalamion ( 1957 ) .
The Pilgrim 's Progress ( 1951 ) , the composer 's last opera , was the culmination of more than forty years ' intermittent work on the theme of Bunyan 's religious allegory . Vaughan Williams had written incidental music for an amateur dramatisation in 1906 , and had returned to the theme in 1921 with the one @-@ act The Shepherds of the Delectable Mountains ( finally incorporated , with amendments , into the 1951 opera ) . The work has been criticised for a preponderance of slow music and stretches lacking in dramatic action , but some commentators believe the work to be one of Vaughan Williams 's supreme achievements . Summaries of the music vary from " beautiful , if something of a stylistic jumble " ( Saylor ) to " a synthesis of Vaughan Williams 's stylistic progress over the years , from the pastoral mediation of the 1920s to the angry music of the middle symphonies and eventually the more experimental phase of the Sinfonia antartica in his last decade " ( Kennedy ) .
= = Recordings = =
Vaughan Williams conducted a handful of recordings for gramophone and radio . His studio recordings are the overture to The Wasps , and the ballet Old King Cole ( both made in 1925 ) , Dona Nobis Pacem ( 1936 ) , and the Fourth Symphony ( 1937 ) . Live concert tapings include the Serenade to Music , and the Fifth Symphony , recorded in 1951 and 1952 , respectively . There is a recording of Vaughan Williams conducting the St Matthew Passion with his Leith Hill Festival forces . In the early days of LP in the 1950s Vaughan Williams was better represented in the record catalogues than most British composers . The Record Guide ( 1955 ) contained nine pages of listings of his music on disc , compared with five for Walton , and four apiece for Elgar and Britten .
All the composer 's major works and many of the minor ones have been recorded . There have been numerous complete LP and CD sets of the nine symphonies , beginning with Boult 's Decca cycle of the 1950s , most of which was recorded in the composer 's presence . Although rarely staged , the operas have fared well on disc . The earliest recording of a Vaughan Williams opera was Hugh the Drover , in an abridged version conducted by Sargent in 1924 . Since the 1960s there have been stereophonic recordings of Hugh the Drover , Sir John in Love , Riders to the Sea , The Poisoned Kiss , and The Pilgrim 's Progress . Most of the orchestral recordings have been by British orchestras and conductors , but notable non @-@ British conductors who have made recordings of Vaughan Williams 's works include Herbert von Karajan , Leonard Bernstein , Leopold Stokowski , and , most frequently , André Previn , who conducted the London Symphony Orchestra in the first complete stereo cycle of the symphonies , recorded between 1967 and 1972 . Among the British conductors most closely associated with Vaughan Williams 's music on disc and in concert in the generations after Boult , Sargent and Barbirolli are Vernon Handley , Richard Hickox , Sir Mark Elder and Sir Andrew Davis . Record companies with extensive lists of Vaughan Williams recordings include EMI , Decca , Chandos , Hyperion and Naxos .
= = Honours and legacy = =
Vaughan Williams refused a knighthood at least once , and declined the post of Master of the King 's Music after Elgar 's death . The one state honour he accepted was the Order of Merit in 1935 , which confers no prenominal title : he preferred to remain " Dr Vaughan Williams " . His academic and musical honours included an honorary doctorate of music from the University of Oxford ( 1919 ) ; the Cobbett medal for services to chamber music ( 1930 ) ; the gold medal of the Royal Philharmonic Society ( 1930 ) ; the Collard life fellowship of the Worshipful Company of Musicians ( 1934 , in succession to Elgar ) ; an honorary fellowship of Trinity College , Cambridge ( 1935 ) ; the Shakespeare prize of the University of Hamburg ( 1937 ) ; the Albert medal of the Royal Society of Arts ( 1955 ) ; and the Howland memorial prize of Yale University ( 1954 ) .
The Royal College of Music commissioned an official portrait of the composer from Sir Gerald Kelly ( 1952 ) which hangs in the college . The Manchester Art Gallery has a bronze sculpture of Vaughan Williams by Epstein ( 1952 ) and the National Portrait Gallery ( NPG ) has drawings by Joyce Finzi ( 1947 ) and Juliet Pannett ( 1957 and 1958 ) ; versions of a bronze head of the composer by David McFall ( 1956 ) are in the NPG and at the entrance to the Music reading room of the British Library . There is a statue of Vaughan Williams in Dorking , and a bust in Chelsea Embankment Gardens , near his old house in Cheyne Walk .
In 1994 a group of enthusiasts founded the Ralph Vaughan Williams Society , with the composer 's widow as its president and Roy Douglas and Michael Kennedy as vice presidents . The society has sponsored and encouraged performances of the composer 's works including complete symphony cycles and a Vaughan Williams opera festival . The society has promoted premieres of neglected works , and has its own record label , Albion Records .
Composers of the generation after Vaughan Williams reacted against his style , which became unfashionable in influential musical circles in the 1960s ; diatonic and melodic music such as his was neglected in favour of atonal and other modernist compositions . In the 21st century this neglect has been reversed . In the fiftieth anniversary year of his death two contrasting documentary films were released : Tony Palmer 's O Thou Transcendent : The Life of Vaughan Williams and John Bridcut 's The Passions of Vaughan Williams . British audiences were prompted to reappraise the composer . The popularity of his most accessible works , particularly the Tallis Fantasia and The Lark Ascending increased , but a wide public also became aware of what a reviewer of Bridcut 's film called " a genius driven by emotion " . Among the 21st @-@ century musicians who have acknowledged Vaughan Williams 's influence on their development are John Adams , PJ Harvey , Sir Peter Maxwell Davies , Anthony Payne , Wayne Shorter , Neil Tennant and Mark @-@ Anthony Turnage .
After Vaughan Williams 's death , The Times summed up his legacy in a leading article :
[ H ] istorically his achievement was to cut the bonds that from the times of Handel and Mendelssohn had bound England hand and foot to the Continent . He found in the Elizabethans and folk @-@ song the elements of a native English language that need no longer be spoken with a German accent , and from it he forged his own idiom . The emancipation he achieved thereby was so complete that the composers of succeeding generations like Walton and Britten had no longer need of the conscious nationalism which was Vaughan Williams 's own artistic creed . There is now an English music which can make its distinctive contribution to the comity of nations .
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= Marvel Trading Card Game =
Marvel Trading Card Game is a video game for the Nintendo DS , PC , and PlayStation Portable . It was developed by Vicious Cycle Software and 1st Playable Productions and published by Konami . The game is based on Upper Deck Entertainment 's Marvel Comics @-@ based collectible card game , and was released across all three platforms in several regions in 2007 .
Marvel Trading Card Game is a virtual card game in which the player chooses to be either a superhero or supervillain in single @-@ player mode . Multiplayer modes are also available . The game follows the rules laid out in Upper Deck 's VS System , used in card games across several franchises including Marvel , DC Comics , and Hellboy .
The game received mixed reviews from critics . It was considered faithful to the physical version , but reviewers commented that it was not accessible to players who weren 't already fans of collectible card games . The handheld versions were criticized for presenting a visual format inappropriate for small screens .
= = Gameplay = =
Marvel Trading Card Game is a collectible card game with similarities to other card games , like Magic : The Gathering . The game was designed to portray the VS System rules exactly the same as the physical version , created by baseball card manufacturer Upper Deck Entertainment . Players start each match with a premade deck of cards , from which they draw a number of cards to form a hand . Cards in the hand can be subsequently put into play , and each card represents a character or ability that is played against similar cards possessed by the opponent .
Matches are formatted into segmented turns during which players can act . Each turn a player draws two cards to add to their hand , and cards in a hand can be put onto the playing field . The playing field is made of up individual rows where cards can be placed ; there are six rows for each player . Cards are played by spending " resource points " which act as a form of energy . The more powerful a card is , the more resource points are required to play it . Resource points are gained by specifically assigning any card in the hand to a resource row , and only one card can be made into a resource each turn . More powerful cards , such as Magneto , require a higher available pool of resources and so can only be played in later turns in a match . Once put into play from the player 's hand , a card can be used to provide a benefit to the player or to attack the opponent . Types of cards include characters , such as Onslaught and Namor ; each character has an attack and defense rating that represents how much damage they can inflict and sustain . Other cards include locations and equipment , which can be used to boost the statistics and abilities of characters , and " plot twists " which encompass a wide range of effects , such as forcing an opponent to forfeit some of the cards in their hand . Each player has a life bar that is depleted with each successful attack by an opponent , and a player loses the match when their life bar is empty .
Whenever a card in play is activated or otherwise used , such as resources , it is referred to as " tapped " and is generally unavailable for further use until the next turn . Unlike Magic , however , characters can attack and defend in the same turn , unless they are " stunned " in combat . Damage is calculated by adding the difference between an attacking character 's attack and the defending character 's defense , plus the resource cost of the card . Any damage not absorbed by a defending character is applied to the player 's life total . The location of a card on the playing field can affect its statistics ; in order to attack , characters further away from the opponent must possess a projectile weapon or the ability to fly , for instance . Adjacent characters with a matching team affiliation within the Marvel universe can also reinforce one another 's attack and defense , such as the Spider Friends and X @-@ Men . Cards activating an ability can be countered by the opponent , and these abilities and counters combine to form a " chain " that dictates the order in which their effects are applied .
= = = Single @-@ player = = =
Marvel Trading Card Game 's single @-@ player mode allows the player to choose one of two different campaigns ; one for heroes and one for villains . Both campaigns are based around the Sentinels . Each campaign contains six chapters , with each chapter represented by a series of card matches . The chapters are different for heroes and villains with the exception of the final chapter . Some matches have additional requirements for victory beyond reducing an opponent 's health to zero . Completing missions awards the player booster packs and virtual money that can be used to purchase additional cards in the in @-@ game card shop .
= = = Multiplayer = = =
Each version of the game offers multiplayer support . The PC version allows players to play over the internet or a local area network . Players can trade cards among one another and participate in matches and tournaments , some of which were sponsored by Konami . PSP owners can play Marvel Trading Card Game with the console 's local wireless " ad @-@ hoc " mode or online against other PSP and PC players . The DS version can be used for both local- and internet @-@ based two @-@ player games , but is incompatible for tournament use . Cards earned in the single @-@ player campaign cannot be used in multiplayer games , but they were available for purchase with actual money in an online store until Konami suspended the service .
= = Development = =
In August 2005 , video game publisher Konami acquired an exclusive license to make games based on Upper Deck 's Marvel collectible card game . Konami had published previous titles based on card games , such as the Yu @-@ Gi @-@ Oh ! series . Marvel Trading Card Game was formally announced at the Electronic Entertainment Expo ( E3 ) video game convention in May 2006 . Konami explained that the game would use Upper Deck 's " VS System " rules and would be available for the DS , PSP , and PC consoles . It was to have both single @-@ player and multiplayer modes for all three systems , and the PC and PSP versions would be cross @-@ compatible . Konami promised that it would host online tournaments , complete with prizes . The PSP and PC versions were developed by Vicious Cycle Software , and the DS version was outsourced to New York @-@ based designer 1st Playable Productions .
From the beginning of development , Vicious Cycle wanted players on all three consoles to be able to play against each other online . This option was ultimately not implemented for the DS . Lead designer Dave Ellis said " ... development time and platform limitations didn ’ t permit our DS developers to pursue that option , so the DS version was ultimately limited to Wi @-@ Fi and online play with other DS players . " The PSP and PC versions allow players to use the same matchmaking system , and the game 's code is linked so that if one platform is patched , the other must be as well . Players with a PC can download and use the online component of the game for free .
The plot in the single @-@ player mode of Marvel Trading Card Game was composed by Marvel writer John Layman , and the cutscenes were drawn by comic artists like Keron Grant and Pat Olliffe . Early in the development process , the design team had considered portraying the player 's avatar as a character within the game 's story , but this idea was eventually discarded , and the game does not explain the player 's role . The plot , which revolves around the group of robotic enemies of the X @-@ Men known as Sentinels , was created because in real life , competitive play in the Marvel card game community was focused on Sentinel decks around the time of Marvel Trading Card Game 's development . Around 300 separate decks were created by the design team for the single @-@ player mode , and AI opponents use a more challenging deck if they are played against more than once .
The game contains over 1 @,@ 100 cards , and includes cards from select expansion sets in the physical version , like the Avengers and the Fantastic Four . PC and PSP owners can download the X @-@ Men expansion set online for free . Over four hundred characters are represented , with over a hundred as specific entries in the story mode . Artwork for cards was provided by artists such as Alex Garner and Adam Kubert . Whenever a player completes a chapter in the story mode , they are awarded a five @-@ card booster pack . The game includes a deck editor that allows players to create and modify decks as they see fit .
Marvel Trading Card Game was released for the PSP on February 27 , 2007 in North America , June 8 in Europe , and July 6 in Australia . The DS version was released on May 22 in North America , July 25 in Europe , and on August 3 in Australia . The PC version was released on June 8 in Europe and July 3 in North America , and included a limited edition .
= = = Online community = = =
Online matchmaking and the card store were opened in tandem with the PSP version 's North American release . PC players used the same services when their version was released . The matchmaking service , the website , store , and other online features were maintained by Agora Games , a gaming company that specializes in online communities . Konami offered players sanctioned tournaments and downloadable card packs . On March 12 , 2008 , Konami announced that it was closing down the website 's forums and the online store . Matchmaking and online play would continue to be available to the public , but all cards would be made available for free to all accounts .
" As we pass our one year anniversary , Konami has decided to transition the site to a free service . All cards in all accounts will be made available , and we will continue the service as long as there is a strong desire for it from the community . "
= = Reception = =
Reception of Marvel Trading Card Game across all three platforms was mixed . The game was compared to other collectible card games such as Pokémon , Magic , and Munchkin . Reviewers were pleased with the game 's representation of the VS System rules , but felt that it was less accessible to players who weren 't familiar with the physical version . Several reviews referred to the gameplay as addictive ; IGN 's Hilary Goldstein said " I have to admit , I am somewhat addicted to the Marvel Trading Card Game . It 's not a great game by any measure , but it does an excellent job of tapping into the collector 's mentality of comic @-@ book fans . "
The game 's difficulty , especially the complexity of the VS System ruleset , was described as a potential barrier for gamers . PALGN said " Even though there are a handful of in @-@ game tutorials , they aren ’ t entirely utilised efficiently as they ’ re basically just a big slab of text making the game less friendly towards a wider audience . " GamesRadar 's Eric Bratcher said " If you aren 't familiar with the source , get ready for a very steep learning curve . " One X @-@ Play reviewer commented that the game 's tutorial " might go down in history as the worst in @-@ game tutorial ever created , " and another said that gamers who would be most interested in the video game would already be avid players of the physical version .
On the handheld versions , many reviewers complained that Marvel Trading Card Game 's layout made it difficult to play , as there wasn 't enough room on the small screens for the playing field of a match . IGN referred to the presentation and visuals as " abysmal " . GameSpot described the game 's portrayal of plot twist chains as " an alien tax return " . The text on individual cards on the PSP version was considered difficult to read , but the DS format of holding the console sideways to play was praised .
Reviewers praised the gameplay options available to players , although GameZone described the story mode as " bland " and IGN called it " too long for its own good " . Multiplayer gameplay was well received . GameSpot called the multiplayer " surprisingly solid " and Pocket Gamer described the choice of online modes as " a raft of pleasing multiplayer options . " IGN said of the PSP version " Though MTCG 's single @-@ player is fairly deep and enjoyable , the focus is on multiplayer ... It 's only through the infrastructure online mode that you can access the aspects of MTCG that make it worth the $ 30 purchase . "
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= There 's No Place Like Home =
" There 's No Place Like Home , Parts 1 , 2 & 3 " is the season finale of the American Broadcasting Company 's fourth season of the serial drama television series Lost , consisting of the 12th through 14th episodes . They are also the 84th through 86th episodes of the show overall . The three constituent episodes were split into two broadcasts ; " Part 1 " first aired on May 15 , 2008 , and " Part 2 " , serving as the two @-@ hour season finale of the fourth season , first aired on May 29 , 2008 , on ABC in the United States and on CTV in Canada . The episodes were written by executive producers / show runners Carlton Cuse and Damon Lindelof ; " Part 1 " was directed by co @-@ executive producer Stephen Williams , while executive producer Jack Bender directed " Part 2 " . The episode 's title is a reference to The Wonderful Wizard of Oz .
The narrative takes place in late December 2004 , 100 days after the crash of Oceanic Flight 815 . The survivors of the crash team up with the Others , natives of the island where the plane crashed , to confront the mercenaries from the freighter Kahana , who have come to the island . Following this , some of the survivors escape the island , which is afterwards moved by Ben Linus ( Michael Emerson ) . Flashforwards show the first actions of the Oceanic Six , those who are rescued , after returning home in January 2005 , and their lives in late 2007 . The cliffhanger from the previous season finale , " Through the Looking Glass , " is resolved by revealing John Locke ( Terry O 'Quinn ) to be dead and in the coffin that Jack Shephard ( Matthew Fox ) visits in that episode .
Production and broadcast of the fourth season were interrupted by the 2007 – 2008 Writers Guild of America strike and following its resolution , the writers were unable to compress the remainder of season four into the five allotted episodes and the season finale was extended by one hour . Subsequently , the production schedule was compressed and post @-@ production work was completed in three weeks , instead of the usual two months .
The second part was watched by 12 million Americans , making Lost the most watched show of the week , for the first time in the show 's history . Both parts were met with critical acclaim . Matthew Fox 's acting in his flashforward scenes was praised , as was Michael Giacchino 's musical score . The episode 's editing was nominated for both a Primetime Emmy Award and Eddie Award .
= = Plot = =
= = = Part 1 = = =
In flashforwards to January 2005 , the Oceanic Six — Jack Shephard , Kate Austen ( Evangeline Lilly ) , Sayid Jarrah ( Naveen Andrews ) , Sun @-@ Hwa Kwon ( Yunjin Kim ) , Hugo " Hurley " Reyes ( Jorge Garcia ) and Claire Littleton 's ( Emilie de Ravin ) infant , Aaron — arrive in Honolulu , where Hurley and Sun are reunited with their parents ; Jack with his mother ; and Sayid with his girlfriend , Nadia Jaseem ( Andrea Gabriel ) . In the ensuing media circus , a press conference is held , where they lie about everything that has happened on the island , going as far as saying that they are the only living survivors of the plane crash . Sometime later , Hurley 's dad ( Cheech Marin ) gives Hurley his newly rebuilt 1970s Camaro , at a surprise birthday party . Hurley , however , becomes panicked and runs away when he notices that the car 's odometer displays the numbers . In Seoul , South Korea , Sun visits her father and informs him that she used the money from her settlement with Oceanic Airlines to buy a controlling interest in his company because she blames him for her husband 's , Jin @-@ Soo Kwon ( Daniel Dae Kim ) , death . In the final flashforward , Jack eulogizes his deceased father , Christian Shephard ( John Terry ) . After the ceremony , Carole Littleton ( Susan Duerden ) , Claire 's mother , reveals to him that Claire is his half @-@ sister .
On December 30 , 2004 , following the events of " Cabin Fever " , Jack and Kate follow the tracking signal on the phone given to them by Frank Lapidus ( Jeff Fahey ) , who dropped it onto the survivors ' beach from a helicopter . They encounter James " Sawyer " Ford ( Josh Holloway ) , Aaron and Miles Straume ( Ken Leung ) ; Kate returns to the beach with Miles and Aaron . Jack and Sawyer meet up with Lapidus at the helicopter , but decide to rescue Hurley , who is with Ben , the mercenaries ' target , before leaving for the freighter . Meanwhile , Sayid arrives at the beach on the freighter 's Zodiac boat and informs the survivors that they must go to the freighter as soon as possible because the mercenaries ' secondary objective is to kill everyone on the island . He and Kate go after Jack and Sawyer , but are captured by Richard Alpert ( Nestor Carbonell ) and the rest of the Others . After unsuccessfully attempting to convince his crush , Charlotte Lewis ( Rebecca Mader ) , to leave the island , Daniel Faraday ( Jeremy Davies ) starts ferrying people to the freighter . Sun , Jin , and Aaron arrive at the boat , only to discover a bomb , consisting of a large amount of C4 explosives , on board .
Meanwhile , in their quest to move the island , Ben , Locke and Hurley arrive at the Dharma Initiative Orchid station , which is disguised as a greenhouse . Ben sends Locke to the real part of the station and surrenders himself to Martin Keamy ( Kevin Durand ) and the other mercenaries from the Kahana , who had previously arrived . A final montage shows the Oceanic Six and Ben in their respective predicaments .
= = = Part 2 = = =
On the island , Jack and Sawyer meet up with Hurley and Locke at the Orchid station . Jack and Locke once more argue about the nature of the island ; Locke implores him to lie about the island once he and the other survivors leave . At the helicopter , Kate , Sayid , and the Others free Ben by ambushing and killing the mercenaries , except Keamy , who feigns death . In return , the Others allow Kate , Sayid and the other survivors to leave the island on the helicopter . Ben returns to the Orchid , where he gets in a hidden elevator with Locke .
Inside the underground part of the Orchid station , Ben puts every metal item he can find into a small compartment at the back of the room , while Locke watches the orientation video for the Orchid . On the tape , Pierre Chang ( François Chau ) begins to discuss time travel involving " negatively charged exotic matter " when the VCR malfunctions and the tape rewinds itself . Shortly , Keamy arrives and tells Locke that if he ( Keamy ) dies , the C4 on the freighter will detonate , due to a remote trigger linked to a heart rate monitor he is wearing . Regardless , Ben kills Keamy with no remorse or sympathy for those on the boat , in order to avenge his adopted daughter Alex ( Tania Raymonde ) , whom Keamy executed . Ben seals and then activates power to the compartment he had loaded with metal items , blowing a hole in the back of it . Ben , now wearing a parka , tells Locke that whoever moves the island is forced to leave it and never come back ; Ben must do it so that Locke can stay and lead the Others . Locke then goes to the Others , who welcome him home . Ben climbs through the hole and down a rocky tunnel beyond it into a frozen chamber , cutting his arm in the process . He then turns a very large metal wheel . As he completes the rotation , an eerie sound and white @-@ yellow light soon envelop the entire island . Ben disappears , only to reappear several months later in the Sahara Desert ( as seen in " The Shape of Things to Come " ) .
Jack , Kate , Sayid , Sawyer , Hurley , and Frank Lapidus leave the island on the helicopter , but discover a fuel leak on board . In order to lighten the helicopter , Sawyer jumps out after whispering something in Kate 's ear and kissing her . The helicopter makes it to the Kahana in the nick of time ; they refuel it , fix the leak , pick up Desmond Hume ( Henry Ian Cusick ) , Sun and Aaron and leave seconds before the C4 detonates . The resulting explosion kills Michael Dawson ( Harold Perrineau ) , who is told that " he can go now " by a vision of Christian Shephard . The status of Jin , who is still on the boat , is left uncertain as a cliffhanger . Sawyer swims back to the island and laments the destruction of the boat with Juliet Burke ( Elizabeth Mitchell ) . The people on the helicopter decide to return to the island , but as they approach , they see the island vanish in the white @-@ yellow light . With nowhere to land , the helicopter runs out of fuel and the survivors are forced to ditch into the ocean . They drift in a rescue raft for several hours , where Hurley suggests that Locke succeeded in moving the island , but Jack disagrees . At night , the survivors are rescued by Penny Widmore ( Sonya Walger ) , Desmond 's girlfriend , with whom he is finally reunited . Jack then convinces the other survivors that they must lie about their experiences on the island , to protect those left behind . In keeping with the faked wreckage of Flight 815 found in the Java Trench , the Oceanic Six are dropped off near the island of Sumba , where they are found by local villagers .
In flashforwards to late 2007 , following those in " Through the Looking Glass " , Jack , Kate and Walt Lloyd ( Malcolm David Kelley ) all recount stories of being approached by Jeremy Bentham , the dead man in the coffin . Kate has a dream in which Claire tells her not to bring Aaron back to the island . In London , England , Sun confronts Charles Widmore ( Alan Dale ) , Penny 's father , who sent the Kahana to the island , and tells him that they have common interests involving the island . After finding out that Bentham is dead , Sayid breaks into the mental hospital where Hurley is staying and convinces him to go " somewhere safe " . Jack returns to the funeral parlor , where he is confronted by Ben , who says that the island will not allow Jack to return without everyone else who left joining him . This includes Jeremy Bentham 's body , who is finally revealed to be John Locke .
= = Production = =
= = = Cast = = =
The episode features the last appearance of actor Harold Perrineau , whose character Michael dies in an explosion , as a main cast member . The character of Michael was absent for the entire third season of Lost and returned midway through the fourth season in " Ji Yeon . " Perrineau was disappointed that he was brought back to the show only to be killed and that Michael does not get a chance to reunite with his son , Walt , saying , " there are all these questions about how [ the writers ] respond to black people on the show ... Walt just winds up being another fatherless child . It plays into a really big , weird stereotype and , being a black person myself , that wasn 't so interesting . " The fate of Jin , who is also on the freighter when it explodes , is left uncertain . Actor Daniel Dae Kim was arrested for driving under the influence of alcohol , which prompted speculation about his future on the series , due to co @-@ stars Michelle Rodriguez ( Ana @-@ Lucia Cortez ) and Cynthia Watros ( Libby ) leaving Lost after DUI arrests . This episode also marks Malcolm David Kelley 's first appearance on the show since the third season , excepting a computer effects shot of the actor in " Meet Kevin Johnson " . Kelley 's character , Walt , was " benched " for the majority of the second and third seasons because the actor 's growth was disproportionate to the amount of time that has passed on the island . The writers got the idea to show him in flashforwards in his older form while writing " Through the Looking Glass " .
= = = Writing = = =
Throughout season four , Jack and Locke have argued about the true nature of the island , whether it had supernatural powers and on how Oceanic Flight 815 crashing could be part of the survivors ' destiny . Upon witnessing the island vanish at the end of this episode , Jack finally realizes that Locke was right . Jack then takes Locke 's advice and convinces the other survivors that they must lie about the island once they are rescued . This is further emphasized by the fact that the same music is played during Jack and Locke 's conversation and when the survivors encounter Penny 's boat . Lindelof has also stated that Sawyer 's message to Kate in the helicopter is a " critical plot point " in that it ultimately leads to the end of Jack and Kate 's relationship once they return home ( as seen in " Something Nice Back Home " ) . In terms of plot structure , the main action scene of the episode , where the Others and the survivors confront the mercenaries , was deliberately placed at the beginning of " Part 2 " so that the remainder of the episode could focus on character development . Furthermore , all of the present time plotlines are interconnected by the C4 bomb on the freighter , even though the writers themselves have called the use of the bomb as a plot device " ridiculous " . It was necessary , however , in order to keep both Michael and Jin from leaving the freighter with the other survivors .
The final scenes of the episode , particularly Ben turning the wheel , Penny and Desmond 's reunion and the last shot of Locke in the coffin were kept secret , in order to prevent spoilers from leaking . The phrase " Frozen Donkey Wheel " was coined to describe not only the wheel that Ben turns , but also the final scene in which Locke is shown to be in the coffin . Only six people knew that Locke was in the coffin — actors Matthew Fox , Michael Emerson and Terry O 'Quinn ; writers Lindelof and Cuse and Jack Bender , the director .
= = = = Writers ' Strike = = = =
The Writers Guild of America went on strike on November 4 , 2007 after the writers had only finished the first eight episodes of the season . Show runners Lindelof and Cuse wanted to hold the eight episodes until they were able to produce more of the season , but ABC decided that the eight episodes would be aired from January to March , regardless of whether any more episodes were produced in the 2007 – 2008 season . After the resolution of the strike , ABC decided to produce five more episodes for the fourth season . This conflicted with ABC 's earlier plan to broadcast seasons four , five and six in uninterrupted blocks of sixteen episodes each . Despite this , ABC prioritized scheduling Grey 's Anatomy , Ugly Betty and Lost 's returns all for April 24 . The decision left the three unproduced episodes of season four " in the bank " to be used later in seasons five and six .
After the resolution of the strike , Lindelof said that the effect of the strike on the fourth season would be minimal and the season 's story arc would be completed as originally intended . However , the first draft of the second part of " There 's No Place Like Home , " was 85 pages long , approximately 30 pages longer than a typical one hour Lost script . Lindelof and Cuse found that they could not compress the second half of the season finale into one episode and actually wanted to expand it . Subsequently , the show runners went into " advanced talks " with executives at ABC and convinced them to produce one of their episodes " in the bank " , thereby extending " There 's No Place Like Home : Part 2 " to two hours . However , this caused a scheduling problem with Grey 's Anatomy and Ugly Betty , which were both already scheduled to air their season finales on May 22 , 2008 . To allow Lost to have a two @-@ hour finale , ABC moved it one week later to May 29 , 2008 and aired both parts of " There 's No Place Like Home " back @-@ to @-@ back . Ultimately , this left thirty @-@ four episodes to be split over seasons five and six , which will each have seventeen episodes . Another effect of the strike was that the backstories of the so @-@ called " freighter folk " , i.e. Faraday , Miles and Charlotte , had to be pushed back to season five . As such , the writers dropped hints to Charlotte 's backstory in " There 's No Place Like Home " .
= = = Filming = = =
" There 's No Place Like Home : Part 2 " was filmed in approximately three and a half weeks ; filming concluded three weeks before the episode aired . Scenes set on the exterior of the freighter were shot on an actual freighter named Kahana . Several actors and crew members stayed aboard the freighter while filming " There 's No Place Like Home " , as well as other episodes of the fourth season . Director Jack Bender and several others became seasick after only spending a short time on board . The helicopter featured in several scenes never actually took off from or landed on the Kahana because the rotors were too large and would hit the boat if used . Instead , the rotors were added using digital effects and the helicopter was raised and lowered by a crane onto the deck of the freighter while it was docked . Filming took place during this and the footage was intercut with scenes of Michael dealing with the bomb ; thus the helicopter is never seen landing on the freighter . Other scenes set on the helicopter were shot on a soundstage in front of a green screen , where actress Yunjin Kim lost her voice from screaming . Furthermore , the first prop bomb was deemed to be too small and the amount of C4 was doubled , even though the original amount of C4 depicted was sufficient to blow up the freighter . The set for the exterior of the Orchid station was constructed in the Manoa valley on the island of Oahu , near Paradise Park , a defunct tourist attraction , which served as the Dharma Initiative Hydra station in the first few episodes of the third season . The exterior elevator for the Orchid station did not actually move and a camera trick was used to simulate movement . The scene in which Sun confronts Widmore was filmed on location , in London , because actor Alan Dale ( Widmore ) was appearing as King Arthur in Spamalot there at the time . Dale was not made aware of the plot of the episode , saying that " the wording , the title and all the headings on the scripts were changed . Only [ he ] knew they were the Lost scripts , along with the director . " Sonya Walger declared that despite being a guest star on the show since the second season 's finale , the rescue scene was the first time she had met Matthew Fox and Evangeline Lilly , as most of her scenes were either only with Henry Ian Cusick or alone . Two alternate endings were shot for the episode in order to minimize the risk of the real ending being leaked . Both versions were shown on Good Morning America on May 30 , 2008 . In the first alternate ending , Sawyer is in the coffin and in the second , Desmond is in the coffin . Overall , it took four editors approximately three weeks to edit the second part of the finale , which under normal circumstances would take two months .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" There 's No Place Like Home : Part 1 " was watched by 10 @.@ 962 million American viewers , of which 6 @.@ 391 million were ages 18 to 49 , ranking nineteenth for the week in total viewers and eighth among viewers age 18 to 49 . The episode was watched by 1 @.@ 296 million Canadian viewers , ranking fifteenth for the week . It was also watched by 914 @,@ 000 viewers in the United Kingdom and by 464 @,@ 000 viewers in Australia , making it the thirtieth most watched program of the night , a feat that David Dale of The Sun @-@ Herald thought proved that " there 's hope for the world " . " There 's No Place Like Home : Part 2 " was watched by 12 @.@ 303 million American viewers , of which 6 @.@ 453 million were ages 18 to 49 , making it the most watched show of the week overall and in the 18 to 49 demographic . It was the first Lost episode to lead the weekly ratings . The episode was watched by 1 @.@ 448 million Canadian viewers , ranking second for the week . It was also watched by 1 @.@ 166 million viewers in the United Kingdom and by 603 @,@ 000 viewers in Australia .
= = = Critical response = = =
Patrick Kevin Day of the Los Angeles Times praised Michael Giacchino 's musical score , writing that " I 'm reminded of the heights of emotion this series can evoke . " Jarett Wieselman of the New York Post thought that the finale 's split and two @-@ week break was " not cool " , but asked " how brilliant was Sun 's smackdown on her bad daddy ? " . Alan Sepinwall of The Star @-@ Ledger wrote that " when Lost is at its best … it manages to balance revelations … with great character moments . I don 't know that I 'd put this one in the pantheon ( again , a lot of it was set @-@ up for … [ Parts 2 & 3 ] ) , but it was definitely in the spirit of what I love about the show . " Kristin dos Santos of E ! praised the chemistry between Naveen Andrews and Andrea Gabriel , who play Sayid and Nadia , respectively . Chris Carabott of IGN gave Part 1 of the three @-@ hour finale a 7 @.@ 9 . He commended the music and called it " a good opening to what should be an exciting season finale " ; however , the lack of suspense in favor of set @-@ up was cited as the reason for the modest rating . However , Carabott gave Parts 2 & 3 a perfect 10 review , tying with other perfect @-@ 10 episodes such as " The Constant " and " Through the Looking Glass " . He stated that " Not a moment is wasted in this brilliantly paced and well @-@ executed conclusion to what has been a fantastic season . " Dan Compora of SyFy Portal called " Part 1 " " an excellent setup episode [ with ] fast pace , important revelations , and nearly a full utilization of the cast " . Compora decided that " certain characters work much better in very small doses … a little bit of [ Hurley ] goes a long way [ and ] it was nice to see Jack featured without completely dominating an episode . " Oscar Dahl of BuddyTV summed up Part 1 as " very good " , but said that the opening flashforward in which the Oceanic Six are reunited with their families was anticlimactic and " although each flashforward scene had minor and major revelations , it felt patched together and a little sloppy , like Lindelof and Cuse had all this ground to cover in their quest to link all the action up to the final scene of season 3 … That said , the flashforward scenes all played out exceedingly well . " Daniel of TMZ welcomed the return of Richard ( on the island ) and gave the episode an " A " , saying that it had " more than a few fantastic scenes . All the flashforward scenes tonight were right on the money as far as I was concerned . " Jay Glatfelter of The Huffington Post " really liked this episode " and concluded that it " definitely showcased the new breath of life the fourth season gave to the show . "
Matthew Fox received much praise for his performance in the scene in which his character Jack reacts to the revelation that Claire is his half @-@ sister . Jarett Wieselman of the New York Post called this " brilliant acting " , while Alan Sepinwall of The Star @-@ Ledger said that " Fox played Jack 's anguish beautifully " and called this scene a contender for " Fox 's single best moment in the history of the show " . Kristin dos Santos gave Fox " mad props " and Chris Carabott of IGN said that " Fox hasn 't been given much of an opportunity to stretch his acting muscles this season but he gives a great performance [ in this scene ] . "
Robert Bianco of USA Today said that " a great season of Lost ended with a suitably great finale , which … ended with the … whoa @-@ inducing discovery that Locke was the man in the casket . Didn 't see that coming — and I can 't wait to see what this terrific TV series has coming next . " Matthew Gilbert of The Boston Globe wrote that " the episode was dynamic and busy enough as it relied heavily on action @-@ adventure … but the finale wasn 't as mind @-@ bending as [ the third ] season 's farewell , during which we received the show 's first flash @-@ forward . " Alan Sepinwall of The Star @-@ Ledger enjoyed the triple @-@ length " There 's No Place Like Home " , but ranked it in the middle of his list of the season 's episodes from best to worst and decided that " ' There 's No Place Like Home " ( both parts ) played fair with the audience 100 percent , answered [ many ] questions … and yet … I feel ever so slightly disappointed by all of this . " He also found the special effects " looked much shoddier than usual " and praised the score . Frazier Moore of the Associated Press thought that " it might be the most rewarding , deliciously challenging episode in the history of this mystical ABC serial . " Dan Compora of SyFy Portal wrote that " Part 2 " " was perhaps the most action @-@ packed , meaningful episode of television I 've watched all year . The pace was excellent , and the revelations were plentiful . " Compora also wrote that " though the pace was considerably slower , the finale delivered in a big way … it was [ not a letdown , being ] well written and well directed in its own right . "
= = = Awards = = =
The second part of " There 's No Place Like Home " was nominated for Outstanding Single @-@ Camera Picture Editing for a Drama Series for the 2008 Creative Arts Emmy Awards , however it lost to the pilot episode of Breaking Bad . The episode as a whole was nominated by the American Cinema Editors for Best Edited Miniseries or Film – Commercial Television at the American Cinema Editors Awards 2008 , losing to 24 : Redemption .
= = Note = =
A. ^ Prior to being broadcast , " There 's No Place Like Home : Part 2 " was known as " There 's No Place Like Home : Parts 2 & 3 " in ABC 's press material . The home release of season four , as well as ABC 's official Lost website , refers to it as " There 's No Place Like Home : Part 2 " . Furthermore , the home release states that there are fourteen episodes in season four and " There 's No Place Like Home " is counted as three episodes .
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= Polikarpov TIS =
The Polkarpov TIS was a heavily armed Soviet heavy fighter designed during the early 1940s . Only two prototypes were built because its intended engines proved to be too unreliable to be placed into production and the engines ' manufacturer lacked the resources to fix the problems . The second prototype crashed in September 1944 and the program was canceled after the death of Nikolai Nikolaevich Polikarpov , the chief designer of his eponymous OKB , earlier that year .
= = Design and development = =
The original request for proposals for a heavy escort fighter ( Tyazholyy Istrebitel ' Soprovozhdeniya ) was received at the Polikarpov OKB in November 1938 , but the press of work with the I @-@ 180 and SPB prototypes prevented any significant design work until the third quarter of 1940 . Mikhail Yangel was appointed head designer , but his job was complicated by multiple changes in the role of the aircraft from escort fighter to interceptor , dive bomber , and eventually reconnaissance .
The prototype , internally designated as aircraft or TIS " A " , was a low @-@ wing , all @-@ metal , cantilever monoplane with two Mikulin AM @-@ 37 engines and a twin tail . The monocoque fuselage had four 7 @.@ 62 mm ( 0 @.@ 300 in ) ShKAS machine guns in the nose , each with 1 @,@ 000 rounds . The pilot and the gunner / radio @-@ operator were seated back @-@ to @-@ back , separated by an armor plate , under sliding canopies . The gunner had a dorsal ShKAS on a TSS @-@ 1 mount with 750 rounds that could be used once his canopy was slid forward . He also had a ventral ShKAS mounted below the armored floor that he could access by raising a hatch in the floor and kneeling down to fire the machine guns . The ventral gun was provided with 500 rounds of ammunition . A 12 @.@ 7 mm ( 0 @.@ 50 in ) UBK machine gun with 400 rounds and a 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) ShVAK cannon with 350 rounds were mounted in each wing root . Underneath the wings were two racks each capable of carrying a single 500 kg ( 1 @,@ 100 lb ) FAB @-@ 500 bomb . The wing had automatic leading edge slats and four split flaps separated by the engine nacelles . The single wheel landing gear retracted into the rear part of the nacelles , as did the tailwheel into the fuselage .
The ' A ' prototype first flew in September 1941 and reached a speed of 555 km / h ( 345 mph ) at 5 @,@ 800 m ( 19 @,@ 000 ft ) altitude . It suffered from a lack of directional stability and the engines were unreliable and vibrated above 5 @,@ 000 m ( 16 @,@ 000 ft ) . Factory No. 51 attempted to fix the stability problem in late September by increasing the area of the rear fins , but was unsuccessful . Flight testing continued in October in Novosibirsk , to where the LII ( Russian : Лётно @-@ исследовательский институт — Flight Research Institute ) had been evacuated . Eliminating the stability problem took until March 1942 , although the engines remained as unreliable as ever .
By the summer of 1942 it was clear that the Mikulin OKB lacked the resources to fix the problems with the AM @-@ 37 and that the TIS would need a new engine , but the OKB 's resources were fully utilized on the I @-@ 185 and ITP programs and the TIS program was put on hold . Work did not resume on the TIS until the second half of 1943 , after the I @-@ 185 had been canceled , and the Mikulin AM @-@ 39 engine was selected . A new prototype was built , internally called the " MA " , with a completely revised armament . Two ShVAK cannon replaced the nose ShKAS machine guns and a UBT machine gun in a VUB @-@ 1 mount replaced the dorsal ShKAS , while the ventral machine gun was removed entirely . Two 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) Shpitalny Sh @-@ 37 or 45 mm ( 1 @.@ 8 in ) 111P cannon replaced the wing root guns . The intended AM @-@ 39s were unavailable and therefore two Mikulin AM @-@ 38Fs were used as a temporary expedient . The engine radiators were moved from the nacelles into the wings . They were fed by inlets in the leading edge and outlets on the undersurface of the wing .
= = Operational history = =
The " MA " was flight tested from June to September 1944 and generally met its expected performance figures . The engines were optimized for low altitudes and the aircraft could only reach a maximum speed of 535 km / h ( 332 mph ) and a ceiling of 6 @,@ 600 metres ( 21 @,@ 700 ft ) . It did , however , have an initial climb rate of 13 @.@ 5 m / s ( 44 ft / s ) and , on the basis of the flight tests , it was concluded that it would be capable reaching 650 km / h ( 400 mph ) at 7 @,@ 150 m ( 23 @,@ 460 ft ) and would take 6 @.@ 4 minutes to reach 5 @,@ 000 metres ( 16 @,@ 404 ft ) once the AM @-@ 39s were fitted . A brake failure on 29 June damaged the " MA " , which required a month to repair , but a crash @-@ landing on 16 September caused by the failure of the undercarriage to extend proved to be the death knell for the TIS program . The OKB was being shut down after Polikarpov 's death at the end of June and there was no one willing to champion the TIS .
= = Specifications ( TIS ( A ) ) = =
Data from Gunston , The Osprey Encyclopedia of Russian Aircraft 1875 @-@ 1995
General characteristics
Crew : 2
Length : 11 @.@ 7 m ( 38 ft 5 in )
Wingspan : 15 @.@ 5 m ( 50 ft 10 in )
Height : 4 @.@ 35 m ( 14 ft 3 in )
Wing area : 34 @.@ 8 m2 ( 375 sq ft )
Airfoil : NACA @-@ 230
Empty weight : 5 @,@ 800 kg ( 12 @,@ 787 lb )
Gross weight : 7 @,@ 840 kg ( 17 @,@ 284 lb )
Fuel capacity : 2 @,@ 430 l ( 530 imp gal ; 640 US gal )
Powerplant : 2 × Mikulin AM @-@ 37 liquid @-@ cooled V12 engines , 1 @,@ 044 kW ( 1 @,@ 400 hp ) each
Propellers : 3 @-@ bladed VISh @-@ 61SF
Performance
Maximum speed : 555 km / h ( 345 mph ; 300 kn )
Range : 1 @,@ 720 km ( 1 @,@ 069 mi ; 929 nmi )
Service ceiling : 10 @,@ 250 m ( 33 @,@ 629 ft )
Time to altitude : 7 @.@ 3 minutes to 5 @,@ 000 m ( 16 @,@ 404 ft )
Armament
Guns : 2 × 20 mm ShVAK cannon ( wing roots )
2 × 12 @.@ 7 mm UBK machine guns ( wing roots )
4 × 7 @.@ 62 mm ShKAS machine guns ( nose )
2 × 7 @.@ 62 mm ShKAS machine guns ( flexibly mounted )
Bombs : up to 1 @,@ 000 kg ( 2 @,@ 200 lb )
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= Enter the Grave =
Enter the Grave is the debut album by the English thrash metal band Evile . Released on 27 August 2007 in Europe and on 25 September in North America and Japan , the album received generally favorable reviews and entered the UK Rock Chart at number 33 . It was produced by Flemming Rasmussen and recorded at Sweet Silence Studios , Copenhagen , Denmark . Rasmussen had produced three Metallica albums , which raised the profile of the album 's release . The track " Thrasher " was included on the 2008 Earache Thrash Pack , a downloadable selection of songs for the music video console game Rock Band .
The album 's lyrics were inspired by films scripts , recounts of the life of Countess Bathory and witch burnings . Enter the Grave was re @-@ released as a limited @-@ edition " redux " version on 13 October 2008 in Europe and on 28 October in North America . According to the Huddersfield Daily Examiner , Enter the Grave had shifted 30 @,@ 000 copies by September 2009 .
= = Recording = =
On 18 October 2006 , Earache Records announced that it had signed a record contract with Evile . Looking for a producer for their debut album , the band decided they would send a request by email to producer Flemming Rasmussen " for a laugh " ; Rasmussen had previously produced three Metallica albums ; 1984 's Ride the Lightning , 1986 's Master of Puppets , and 1988 's ... And Justice for All . Lead vocalist / rhythm guitarist Matt Drake typed Rasmussen 's name into Google , and the first result returned was the producer 's official website . Drake emailed Rasmussen asking if he would be interested . The producer replied a few days later , asking him to send several tracks . Drake emailed a number of mp3 files , but Rasmussen did not reply , leading Drake to worry that the producer " hated them , and thought they were shit . " Earache Records subsequently emailed Rasmussen to formally ask if he would produce Evile 's debut album , to which Rasmussen replied , " Yes " . On 12 March 2007 , his involvement was made public .
Pre @-@ production with Rasmussen began on 28 – 29 April at Evile 's Huddersfield , West Yorkshire rehearsal space . Soon after the band performed a live set at Tottenham Court Road , London 's Fopp record store , which Rasmussen attended to observe Evile 's live sound , and further gain a feel for the group 's music . The album was recorded and mixed at Sweet Silence Studios , Copenhagen , Denmark . Enter the Grave was produced , engineered , mixed and mastered by Rasmussen , who also supplied additional backing vocals to title track " Enter the Grave " . Anders H. Mortensen , meanwhile , acted as assistant engineer . Photographs taken during the album 's recording sessions were posted at Evile 's official MySpace blog , where fans were also invited to ask the band 's members questions about the recording process for Enter the Grave .
In turn , Evile 's guitarists went into a room where another person sat with a microphone , ready to capture the sound . From the control room , Rasmussen would say " Right , play something " . The respective guitarist would play his instrument , to which Rasmussen would respond " Right , move it left " . Moving the guitar left , the respective guitarist would play again , Rasmussen replying with " Move it right . Alright , leave it there . Don 't touch it " . The respective guitarist would leave his instrument in that position , and the " record " button would be pressed . From there , the musician in question would play his parts . A Mesa Boogie Dual Rectifier amplifier was tested alongside a Marshall amplifier , but according to Drake , " the Mesa ( sound ) was nowhere near as good " . Evile chose to record Enter the Grave 's guitar parts using a Marshall amplifier , and spent roughly ten minutes attempting to achieve a " decent " sound . Slightly more time was spent testing the drums so that a " nice " sound could be achieved , and so that the drums could be tuned .
By 5 June , recording for Enter the Grave had been completed , and Rasmussen had begun mixing the album . Video footage shot during recording sessions was uploaded to Earache Records ' official YouTube account on 4 July , providing an exclusive glimpse behind the scenes . In reviewing Enter the Grave , some journalists commented on Rasmussen 's role as producer . Chris Kee of Zero Tolerance Magazine said that " getting Flemming Rasmussen to produce [ Enter the Grave ] is a major coup and as you 'd expect he 's done a sterling job , these fine songs all being blessed with a clean , crisp , uncluttered sound " , whereas Ian Webster of Terrorizer felt that " booking a band into Sweet Silence Studios in Copenhagen to record their debut with legendary Metallica producer Flemming Rasmussen is one hell of a statement of intent from Earache . " Eduardo Rivadavia of Allmusic also commented on Rasmussen 's involvement , declaring that his production " is surely one large reason why the album is characterized by a distinctively crunchy , rhythmically airtight attack . "
= = Marketing and promotion = =
On 23 April 2007 Earache released a six @-@ CD collection entitled Metal : A Headbanger 's Companion which included a demo version of " Enter the Grave " on its third disc . Six days later , following a pre @-@ production session , Evile performed a live set at Tottenham Court Road , London 's Fopp store . " Enter the Grave " , " Schizophrenia " and " Armoured Assault " were made available for streaming on the group 's official website on 25 June . " Enter the Grave " was further included on an Earache summer sampler CD given out free with the August 2007 issue of Decibel .
Fans who pre @-@ ordered the album from Earache 's webstore received an exclusive red 7 " vinyl single , along with an Evile poster . This vinyl was limited to a thousand copies and featured two unreleased demo tracks — " Darkness Shall Bring Death " and " Sacrificial " . The 7 " single was also available to purchase from selected independent retailers . On the day of the album 's release outside of North America and Japan , Evile performed an in @-@ store show at Manchester 's Virgin Megastore .
Released in Europe and North America on 21 January 2008 and 5 February respectively , the song " Thrasher " surfaced on the compilation Thrashing Like A Maniac . " Thrasher " was also part of the Earache Thrash Pack , downloadable content made available on 18 March for the music video console game Rock Band . With producer Dan Fernbach of Static Films , Evile filmed a music video for the track on 28 August in South London .
= = Lyrical themes = =
Enter the Grave 's liner notes credit Evile as a whole for having written the album 's lyrics . In discussing his lyrical contributions during an October 2007 interview , lead vocalist / rhythm guitarist Matt Drake said that he was " really inspired by films " ; " First Blood " ' s lyrics were inspired by the 1982 film of the same name , whereas " We Who Are About to Die " ' s lyrics were inspired by the 2000 epic Gladiator . Inspired by an urban legend about Countess Bathory , the lyrics for " Bathe In Blood " were written by Drake while Evile were recording at Sweet Silence Studios – after penning the track 's lyrics , he thought he " had gone too far " . " Burned Alive " , meanwhile , was about burning witches ; reading about witches and " how they were dealt with in olden times " , Drake " thought it might be interesting to add a devilish slant to it " . Inspired by what he read , Drake wrote about burned witches going to Hell , returning , and then killing everyone . Drake also wrote the lyrics to title track " Enter the Grave " , and " Schizophrenia " , the former being about a serial killer .
Written by bassist Mike Alexander , the lyrics to " Armoured Assault " describe a giant tank @-@ like war machine . Alexander wrote " Killer From the Deep " ' s lyrics as well , which Drake thinks might have been inspired by 1975 thriller Jaws . Drummer Ben Carter contributed lyrics for Enter the Grave , writing the lyrics to " Man Against Machine " .
Eduardo Rivadavia of Allmusic felt that the album 's lyrics were characterized by " splatter @-@ demonic lyrics , reminiscent of Bay Area staples like Exodus and Forbidden – even early Slayer for brief , exceptionally inspired moments . " Metal Maniacs ' Kevin Stewart @-@ Panko commented that Enter the Grave contained " songs about such need @-@ to @-@ know topics as John Rambo ( " First Blood " ) , sharks ( " Killer From the Deep " ) and , umm , thrash ( " Thrasher " ) , " deeming the album 's lyrical content " escapist ridiculousness . "
= = Critical reception = =
Originally scheduled for issue in early 2007 , Enter the Grave was released in Europe on 27 August 2007 by Earache Records and debuted at number 33 on the UK Rock Chart . Released in North America and Japan almost one month later on 25 September by Earache Records and Howling Bull Records respectively , the album sold 200 copies in the United States during its first week of release . Its Japanese edition included the bonus demo tracks " Darkness Shall Bring Death " and " Sacrificial " , both of which were also available as an exclusive red 7 " single vinyl . A limited @-@ edition " redux " version of the album was issued on 13 October in Europe and on 28 October in North America , housed in a slipcase . This re @-@ release included three bonus tracks , an Enter the Grave patch , a guitar pick , and a two @-@ hour DVD including the entire full @-@ length played live in rehearsal , live footage from Evile 's February 2008 European tour with Megadeth , band interviews , and exclusive behind @-@ the @-@ scenes footage of the group on the road .
Writing mostly favourable reviews of the album , many journalists referenced 1980s thrash groups , particularly Exodus , Slayer and Testament . Awarding the album eight out of ten stars , Dom Lawson of Classic Rock described Enter the Grave as " a monstrous , life @-@ affirming metal album that craftily welds misty @-@ eyed nostalgia for the glory days of Exodus , Testament and Arise @-@ era Sepultura to contemporary sonic values " . Rock Sound writer Ronnie Kerswell observed that " title track " Enter the Grave " nods towards Slayer 's classic " Angel of Death " " , and summarized by calling the full @-@ length " old school as fuck " , while awarding Enter the Grave eight out of ten stars . Dave Ling of Metal Hammer gave the album eight out of ten stars as well , feeling that " with the galloping likes of " Bathe In Blood " , " Thrasher " and " First Blood " , Evile have fulfilled their side of the deal " . Chris Kee of Zero Tolerance Magazine noted that " the influences are easy to spot – Metallica , Exodus , Testament , Forbidden , Laaz Rockit , Slayer " , but still called Enter the Grave " a triumph , a resounding war cry from the spearhead of the new UK thrash assault " , awarding four and a half out of five stars .
Ian Webster of Terrorizer wrote that " First Blood " is ultra @-@ Exodus and goes head to head with the Slayer attack of " Schizophrenia " and " Armoured Assault " " , and hailed the album as " the best UK thrash debut since Sabbat 's History of a Time to Come " , awarding nine out of ten stars . Giving Enter the Grave four out of five stars , Kerrang ! ' s James Hoare commented that the album was " honed on a steady diet of early Slayer , Sacred Reich and Nuclear Assault " , summarizing the full @-@ length as " an absolute hair @-@ swirling , air @-@ punching beast " . Terrorizer dubbed Enter the Grave the nineteenth best album of 2007 , whereas Classic Rock rated the full @-@ length the thirty @-@ eighth best album of 2007 .
= = Track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
Matt Drake – lead vocals , rhythm guitar , 3rd guitar solo on " We , Who are About to Die "
Ol Drake – lead guitar , cover concept
Mike Alexander – bass guitar
Ben Carter – drums
Flemming Rasmussen – Producer , engineer , mixer , masterer and additional backing vocals on " Enter the Grave "
Anders H Mortensen – Assistant engineer
Vitaly S Alexius – Cover illustration
Tom Warner – Layout
Lucy Swift – Photos
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= Youth Olympic Games =
The Youth Olympic Games ( YOG ) is an international multi @-@ sport event organized by the International Olympic Committee . The games are held every four years in staggered summer and winter events consistent with the current Olympic Games format . The first summer version was held in Singapore from 14 to 26 August 2010 while the first winter version was held in Innsbruck , Austria from 13 to 22 January 2012 . The age limitation of the athletes is 14 to 18 . The idea of such an event was introduced by Johann Rosenzopf from Austria in 1998 . On 6 July 2007 , International Olympic Committee ( IOC ) members at the 119th IOC session in Guatemala City approved the creation of a youth version of the Olympic Games , with the intention of sharing the costs of hosting the event between the IOC and the host city , whereas the traveling costs of athletes and coaches were to be paid by the IOC . These Games will also feature cultural exchange programs and opportunities for participants to meet Olympic athletes .
Several other Olympic events for youth , like the European Youth Olympic Festival held every other year with summer and winter versions , and the Australian Youth Olympic Festival , have proven successful . The Youth Games are modelled after these sporting events . The YOG are also a successor to the discontinued World Youth Games .
The Summer Youth Olympic Games of Singapore in 2010 and Nanjing in 2014 each played host to 3600 athletes and lasted 13 days , whereas the Winter YOG of Innsbruck in 2012 had 1059 athletes and lasted 10 days . Even though this exceeded initial estimates , the YOG are still both smaller in size as well as shorter than their senior equivalents . The next Summer YOG to take place will be the 2018 Summer Youth Olympic Games of Buenos Aires . The next Winter YOG to take place will be the 2020 Winter Youth Olympic Games of Lausanne .
= = History = =
The concept of the Youth Olympic Games came from Austrian industrial manager Johann Rosenzopf in 1998 . This was in response to growing global concerns about childhood obesity and the dropping participation of youth in sport activities , especially amongst youth in developed nations . It was further recognized that a youth version of the Olympic Games would help foster participations in the Olympic Games . Despite these reasons for having an Olympic event for young people , the IOC 's response of holding a purely sporting event was negative . IOC delegates wanted the event to be as much about cultural education and exchange as it was about sports , which is why the Culture and Education Program ( CEP ) was developed as a component of each celebration of the Games . Jacques Rogge , IOC President , formally announced plans for the Youth Olympic Games at the 119th IOC session in Guatemala City on 6 July 2007 . There are several goals for the YOG , and four of them include bringing together the world 's best young athletes , offering an introduction into Olympism , innovating in educating and debating Olympic values . The city of Singapore was announced as the host of the inaugural Summer Youth Olympics on 21 February 2008 . On 12 December 2008 the IOC announced that Innsbruck , host of the 1964 and 1976 Winter Olympics , would be the host of the inaugural Winter Youth Olympics in 2012 .
= = Requirements of host cities = =
The scale of the Youth Olympic Games is smaller than that of the Olympics , which is intentional and allows for smaller cities to host an Olympic event . Potential host cities are required to keep all events within the same city and no new sports venues should be built . Exceptions to this building moratorium include a media center , amphitheater facilities for classes and workshops , and a village for coaches and athletes . This village is to be the heart of the Games for the athletes , and the hub of activity . No new or unique transportation systems are required as all athletes and coaches will be transported by shuttles . According to bid procedures , the track and field stadium for the opening and closing ceremonies must hold 10 @,@ 000 people , and a city must have a 2 @,@ 500 @-@ seat aquatics facility ( for Summer editions ) .
= = Financing = =
The original estimated costs for running the Games were US $ 30 million for the Summer and $ 15 million to $ 20 million for Winter Games , these costs do not include infrastructure improvements for venue construction . The IOC has stipulated that costs for infrastructure and venues is to be paid by the host city . The IOC will pay travel costs to the host city and room and board for the athletes and judges , estimated at $ 11 million . The funding will come from IOC funds and not revenues . The budgets for the final two bids for the inaugural Summer Games came in at $ 90 million , much higher than the estimated costs . The cost of the first games in Singapore escalated to an estimated S $ 387 million ( $ 284 million ) . Sponsors have been slow to sign on for the YOG , due to the fact that it is a new initiative and corporations are not sure what level of exposure they will get . The budget for the inaugural Winter Games to be held in Innsbruck has been estimated at $ 22 @.@ 5 million , which does not include infrastructure improvements and venue construction .
= = Participation = =
Over 200 countries and 3 @,@ 600 athletes participated in the inaugural 2010 Youth Summer Olympics . Participants are placed in the following age groups : 14 – 15 years , 16 – 17 years , and 17 – 18 years . The athlete 's age is determined by how old he or she is by 31 December of the year they are participating in the YOG . Qualification to participate in the Youth Olympics is determined by the IOC in conjunction with the International Sport Federations ( ISF ) for the various sports on the program . To ensure that all nations are represented at the YOG the IOC instituted the concept of Universality Places . A certain number of spots in each event are to be left open for athletes from under @-@ represented nations regardless of qualifying marks . This is to ensure that every nation will be able to send at least four athletes to each Youth Olympic Games . For team tournaments one team per continent will be allowed to compete along with a sixth team either representing the host nation or as proposed by the IF with IOC approval . There is a cap of two teams ( one boys ' and one girls ' ) per nation . Finally , no nation may enter more than 70 athletes in individual sports .
= = Sports = =
The sports contested at the Youth Games are the same as those scheduled for the traditional Games , but with some adaptations , and a limited number of disciplines and events . For example , in the aquatics sport the IOC decided to include diving and swimming events but excluded synchronized swimming and water polo . Some of the sports have been modified for the Games . The basketball competition uses the 3x3 format , which is a 3 @-@ on @-@ 3 half @-@ court game , where the periods are five minutes each , and the first team to 33 points wins . The hockey was introduced as outdoor format in 2010 games but was later changed to the hockey5s a smaller version of indoor played in outdoor in 2014.The cycling disciplines are mountain bike , BMX , and road , while track cycling has been left off the schedule . Other youth @-@ driven sports may eventually be contested if backed by international sports federations . In November 2007 , it was revealed that pentathlon will be included , as well as sailing , giving an edge to candidate cities near water .
The Winter Youth Games will feature seven sports . Hockey will have not only a men 's and women 's tournament but also an individual skills challenge . In luge , figure skating and short track speed skating there will be mixed NOC events that will allow athletes from various countries to compete together in teams . Alpine and cross @-@ country skiing will have events in which men and women will compete on mixed @-@ gendered teams .
= = Culture and education = =
Education and culture are also key components for the Youth edition . Not only does the education / culture aspect apply to athletes and participants , but also youth around the world and inhabitants of the host city and surrounding regions . To this end a Culture and Education Program ( CEP ) will be featured at each Games . The first CEP at the 2010 Singapore Games featured events that fostered cooperation amongst athletes of different nations . It had classes on topics ranging from health and fitness to the environment and career planning . Local students from Singapore made booths at the World Culture Village that represented each of the 205 participating National Olympic Committee . The Chat with Champions sessions were the most popular portion of the program . Participants were invited to hear inspirational talks given by former and current Olympic athletes .
Also part of the CEP are the Young Ambassadors Programme , Young Reporters Programme and Athlete Role Models . Under the Young Ambassadors Programme , a group of youths aged 18 to 25 years old are nominated by the NOCs to help promote the YOG in their regions and communities , and encourage the athletes to participate in the CEP programmes .
The Young Reporters Programme provides journalism students or those who have recently started their journalism careers a cross @-@ platform journalist @-@ training programme and on @-@ the @-@ job experience during the YOG . Young Reporters , between the ages of 18 and 24 , are selected by the Continental Associations of National Olympic Committees and will represent each of the five continents .
Acting as mentors to help support and advise young Olympians are the Athlete Role Models , who are typically active or recently retired Olympians nominated by the IFs , such as Japanese wrestler Kaori Icho , Italian Simone Farina and Namibian Frank Fredericks .
Emphasis on exchange goes beyond the CEP . Another unique feature of the Youth Olympic Games are mixed @-@ gender and mixed @-@ national teams . Triathlon relays , fencing , table tennis , archery and mixed swimming relays are a few of the sports in which athletes from different nations and mixed genders can compete together . YOG organizers are also using social media such as Facebook , Flikr , and Twitter as key platforms for engaging young athletes before , during , and after each celebration of the Games . Multi @-@ lingual , multi @-@ cultural , and multi @-@ age requirements are the targets of the program , which stress the themes of " Learning to know , learning to be , learning to do , and learning to live together " .
= = All @-@ time Youth Olympic Games medal table = =
= = List of Youth Olympic Games = =
In early November 2007 , Athens , Bangkok , Singapore , Moscow , and Turin were selected by the IOC as the five candidate cities to host the inaugural Youth Olympic Games . In January 2008 , the candidates were further pared down to just Moscow and Singapore . Finally , on 21 February 2008 , Singapore was declared host of the inaugural Youth Olympic Games 2010 via live telecast from Lausanne , Switzerland , winning by a tally of 53 votes to 44 for Moscow .
On 2 September 2008 IOC announced that the executive board had shortlisted four cities among the candidates to host the first Winter Youth Olympic Games in 2012 . The four candidate cities were Harbin , Innsbruck , Kuopio , and Lillehammer . IOC president Jacques Rogge appointed Pernilla Wiberg to chair the commission which analysed the projects . As with the Summer Games , the list was then shortened to two finalists , Innsbruck and Kuopio , in November 2008 . On 12 December 2008 , it was announced that Innsbruck beat Kuopio to host the games . Nanjing , China was selected by the IOC over Poznan , Poland to be the host @-@ city of the 2014 Youth Olympics . The election was held on 10 February 2010 , two days before the start of the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver . Lillehammer , Norway will host the 2016 Winter Youth Olympics . At this moment have speculated bidding for the 2023 Summer Youth Olympics .
= = = Summer Games = = =
= = = Winter Games = = =
= = Medal count = =
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= Buster Posey =
Gerald Dempsey " Buster " Posey III ( born March 27 , 1987 ) is an American professional baseball catcher for the San Francisco Giants of Major League Baseball . He stands 6 feet 1 inch ( 1 @.@ 85 m ) tall and weighs 220 pounds ( 100 kg ) . He bats and throws right @-@ handed . Posey has also filled in at first base for the Giants .
Posey grew up in Leesburg , Georgia . He played four sports in high school ; when playing baseball , he excelled at hitting and pitching . He attended Florida State University , where he began playing the catcher position . He won the Golden Spikes Award in 2008 and was selected by the Giants with the fifth overall pick in the 2008 Major League Baseball draft . Posey made his major league debut on September 11 , 2009 . After beginning the 2010 season in the minor leagues , he was called back up to the major leagues in May . With the presence of then full @-@ time catcher Bengie Molina , Posey played first base when originally called up to the majors , but became the Giants ' regular catcher at the end of June when Molina was traded to the Texas Rangers , the team the Giants would later face in the World Series .
As a rookie , he finished with a .305 batting average , 18 home runs , and 67 runs batted in . He was named the National League ( NL ) Rookie of the Year . He caught every inning of the playoffs as the Giants won the 2010 World Series . In 2011 , Posey missed most of the year after he was severely injured in a collision with Scott Cousins at home plate .
Posey returned from his injury in 2012 and posted a .336 batting average to win the 2012 NL batting title . He became the second San Francisco Giant to win the batting title and was named the NL Most Valuable Player for 2012 . He won his second World Series that year as the Giants swept the Detroit Tigers in four games . In 2013 , Posey signed an eight @-@ year contract extension worth $ 167 million , a record in sum and in length for a player with his level of experience . He won his third World Series the following year as the Giants defeated the Kansas City Royals .
= = Early years = =
Posey , the oldest of four children , was born to Gerald Dempsey " Buster " Posey II and Traci Posey on March 27 , 1987 , in Leesburg , Georgia . His nickname , " Buster " , came from his father 's childhood nickname . He played football , soccer , and basketball growing up , but baseball was his main sport . As a junior at Lee County High School , Posey pitched and played shortstop . That year he hit 9 doubles , 3 triples , and 7 home runs while setting school records for batting average ( .544 ) and runs batted in ( RBI ) ( 46 ) . His pitching achievements included a 10 – 1 record and a 1 @.@ 53 earned run average ( ERA ) . In his senior year , he batted .462 with 40 RBI while setting a school record with 14 home runs . In 13 starts as a pitcher that year , he had a 12 – 0 record with a 1 @.@ 06 ERA and 108 strikeouts . In the Georgia AAAA State Championship , Lee County was defeated by Henry County High , for whom fellow future major leaguer Jason Heyward played .
After his senior season , Posey was named the Georgia Gatorade Player of the Year , the Louisville Slugger State Player of the Year , an EA Sports All @-@ American , and a Baseball America All @-@ American . He graduated with a 3 @.@ 94 grade point average in high school , fourth in his class of 302 students . Although he was drafted in the 50th round of the 2005 Major League Baseball ( MLB ) Draft by the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim , he chose to enroll in college instead of signing a professional baseball contract .
= = College career = =
Posey played college baseball for the Florida State Seminoles under coach Mike Martin . He played shortstop as a freshman at Florida State , starting all 65 games for the Seminoles . He was named a Louisville Slugger Freshman All @-@ American . He finished his freshman season with a .346 batting average , four home runs and 48 RBI . As a sophomore , Posey moved to the catcher position on the suggestion of assistant coach Mike Martin , Jr . He batted .382 with three home runs and 65 RBI . After one season of playing the position , Posey finished second to Ed Easley in Johnny Bench Award voting .
In 2008 , as a junior , he hit .463 with 26 home runs and 93 RBI , won the Johnny Bench Award , and garnered the Collegiate Baseball Player of the Year award . On May 12 , he hit a grand slam and played all nine fielding positions in a 10 – 0 victory over Savannah State University ; as a pitcher that day , he struck out both batters he faced . Posey was awarded the Dick Howser Trophy and the Golden Spikes Award at the end of the year .
During the college offseason , Posey started at shortstop for the Yarmouth @-@ Dennis Red Sox in 2006 when they won the Cape Cod Baseball League championship . He started at catcher in 2007 when they won another championship .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Draft and minor leagues = = =
Buster was considered by Baseball America to be the best catcher available in the 2008 Major League Baseball draft . He was drafted by the San Francisco Giants with the fifth overall pick . On August 16 , the Giants signed Posey shortly before the signing deadline for draftees and gave him a $ 6 @.@ 2 million bonus , the largest up @-@ front bonus in Giants history . Entering the 2009 season , Baseball America ranked him the number two prospect in the Giants ' organization ( behind Madison Bumgarner ) . He was invited to the Giants ' spring training in 2009 . Following spring training , Posey was assigned to the Giants ' Class A Advanced affiliate , the San Jose Giants of the California League . In 80 games with San Jose , he batted .326 with 63 runs , 95 hits , 23 doubles , 13 home runs , and 58 RBI .
On July 13 , Posey was promoted to the Giants ' Class AAA team , the Fresno Grizzlies of the Pacific Coast League . In 35 games with Fresno , he batted .321 with 21 runs scored , 42 hits , eight doubles , five home runs , and 22 RBI .
= = = San Francisco Giants ( 2009 – present ) = = =
= = = = 2009 = = = =
Because of an injury to Giants starting catcher Bengie Molina , Posey was called up to the majors for the first time on September 2 , 2009 . He made his major league debut on September 11 , striking out in his first at bat against Hiroki Kuroda of the Los Angeles Dodgers . Posey got his first major league hit on September 19 against Jeff Weaver of the Dodgers . In 17 at @-@ bats with the Giants in 2009 , Posey had two hits .
Coming into 2010 , Baseball America ranked Posey as the top prospect in the Giants ' organization . After again appearing in the Giants ' spring training camp , Posey began the 2010 season at Fresno , batting .349 with 31 runs scored , 60 hits , 13 doubles , six home runs , and 32 RBI in 47 games .
= = = = 2010 = = = =
Posey was called up to the major leagues on May 29 , 2010 , and started at first base against the Arizona Diamondbacks . Posey drove in the first runs of his major league career , going three for four with three RBIs . He appeared primarily at first base through the end of June . Posey hit his first career home run against Aaron Harang of the Cincinnati Reds on June 9 . Following Molina 's trade to the Texas Rangers on June 30 , Posey became the starting catcher for the Giants .
Posey hit his first career grand slam against Chris Narveson of the Milwaukee Brewers on July 7 , en route to a two @-@ home run , four @-@ hit , six @-@ RBI night . This was part of a ten @-@ game streak from July 1 to July 10 during which he batted .514 with 19 hits , six home runs , and 13 RBI to set a National League ( NL ) record for rookies during any ten @-@ day stretch according to the Elias Sports Bureau . This performance also earned him the NL Player of the Week honors for the week of July 5 – 11 , 2010 .
In a July 10 game against the Washington Nationals , Posey was inserted into the Giants ' batting order as the clean @-@ up hitter , which became his regular position in the lineup . He had a 21 @-@ game hitting streak that started July 4 and ended July 29 when Aníbal Sánchez of the Florida Marlins threw a one @-@ hitter against the Giants . During the streak , which fell one game short of tying the San Francisco Giants ' rookie mark set by Willie McCovey and five short of the team record , Posey batted .440 with 37 hits , six home runs , and 23 RBI . Posey was awarded both the NL Player of the Month and NL Rookie of the Month awards for his excellent July .
On September 21 , Posey hit an eighth @-@ inning home run against Andrew Cashner of the Chicago Cubs to win the game , 1 @-@ 0 . He hit another eighth @-@ inning home run against Luke Gregerson of the San Diego Padres in the final game of the year on October 3 as Giants secured the NL West Division championship by defeating the Padres 3 @-@ 0 . In 108 games , Posey batted .305 with 58 runs scored , 124 hits , 23 doubles , 18 home runs , and 67 RBI .
Posey was named the NL Rookie of the Year ; Posey had 20 first place votes while Heyward , now playing for the Atlanta Braves , finished second with nine . Posey was the sixth Giant to win the award , joining Willie Mays , Orlando Cepeda , Willie McCovey , Gary Matthews and John Montefusco . He was also the sixth catcher in NL history to win the award . Posey was named by his peers as the NL Players Choice Awards Outstanding Rookie . He was named the catcher on Baseball America 's All @-@ Rookie Team and the 2010 Topps Major League Rookie All @-@ Star Team . He finished 11th in NL Most Valuable Player ( MVP ) voting .
In the NL Division Series ( NLDS ) against the Braves , Posey batted .375 as the Giants won the series in four games . In Game 4 of the NL Championship Series ( NLCS ) against the Philadelphia Phillies , he became the first rookie to get four hits in an NLCS game as the Giants won 6 – 5 . He batted .217 with five hits and three RBI in the series as the Giants defeated the Phillies in six games . In Game 4 of the World Series against the Texas Rangers , Posey and Madison Bumgarner formed the first rookie starting pitcher @-@ catcher tandem in a World Series since Yogi Berra caught Spec Shea in Game 1 of the 1947 World Series . Posey hit his first postseason home run against Darren O 'Day in the 4 @-@ 0 victory , making him the fifth rookie catcher to hit a home run in the World Series . The Giants won the series four games to one , giving Posey ( who batted .300 with a home run and two RBI in the Series ) his first World Series ring . Posey caught every inning of the playoffs for the Giants .
= = = = 2011 = = = =
Posey set season highs with three hits and four RBI on April 6 , 2011 , including a two @-@ run home run against Tim Stauffer in an 8 – 4 victory over the Padres .
On May 25 , during a game against the Florida Marlins , Posey was injured during a collision with Scott Cousins at home plate as Cousins scored the winning run in the 12th inning of a 7 – 6 Giants ' loss . Posey suffered a fractured fibula and torn ligaments in his ankle , requiring season @-@ ending surgery . Cousins , who was not disciplined , said he hit Posey intentionally in order to score . " If you hit them , you punish them and you punish yourself , but you have a chance of that ball coming out . " He expressed regret over injuring Posey , saying " I certainly didn ’ t want him to get hurt . " Cousins received threats from fans , but Posey denounced them : " I appreciate the continued support of Giants fans and others as I begin the process of working my way back ... But in no way do I condone threats of any kind against Scott Cousins or his family . As I said last week , I 'm not out to vilify Scott . " In 45 games , Posey batted .284 with 17 runs scored , 46 hits , five doubles , four home runs , and 21 RBI .
= = = = 2012 = = = =
Posey started at catcher during Matt Cain 's perfect game on June 13 , 2012 , the 22nd in major league history . He stated afterwards that the game had him feeling " as nervous as I 've ever been on a baseball field . " He played in the 2012 Major League Baseball All @-@ Star Game , his first , on July 10 , going 0 @-@ 2 with a walk and a run scored . After batting .289 with 10 home runs and 43 RBI in 77 games before the All @-@ Star break , Posey batted .385 with 14 home runs and 60 RBI in the final 71 games of the season . On July 17 , he had three hits and five RBI in a 9 – 0 victory over the Braves . Four days later , he had four hits and three RBI , including a two @-@ run home run against Cole Hamels in a 10 @-@ inning , 6 – 5 victory over the Phillies . Two days later , he had three hits and four RBI , including a three @-@ run home run against Clayton Richard in a 7 – 1 victory over the Padres . He hit a game @-@ winning three @-@ run home run against Lance Lynn on August 7 in a 4 – 2 victory over the St. Louis Cardinals . On September 17 , he had three hits , including a game @-@ winning two @-@ run home run against Wade Miley in a 3 – 2 victory over the Diamondbacks . In 148 games , Posey had 78 runs scored , 178 hits ( tied for eighth in the NL with David Wright ) , 39 doubles ( tied for eighth with Yonder Alonso ) , 24 home runs , and 103 RBI ( sixth ) .
Posey 's teammate Melky Cabrera batted .346 in 2012 , but he asked MLB to rule him ineligible for the batting title after receiving a 50 @-@ game suspension for raised testosterone levels . As a result , Posey led both leagues in batting in 2012 with an average of .336 , becoming the first catcher to lead the NL in hitting since Ernie Lombardi of the Boston Braves in 1942 . He also became only the second San Francisco Giant to win the batting title , following Barry Bonds in 2002 and 2004 . Posey 's .433 batting average against left @-@ handed pitching ( 71 for 164 ) led all batters in the major leagues in 2012 .
In Game 5 of the NLDS against the Reds on October 11 , Posey hit a grand slam against Reds starter Mat Latos to give the Giants a 6 @-@ 0 lead and subsequently won the game . The Giants become the second NL team to win a Division Series after being down two games to none and first since the LDS became a permanent standard in the playoffs in 1995 . Posey became just the third catcher in MLB history to hit a grand slam in the playoffs , along with Berra and Eddie Pérez . He also completed a strikeout @-@ throw out double play at third base in the sixth inning to help preserve the victory . He batted .154 with four hits and one RBI in the NLCS as the Giants defeated the Cardinals in seven games . He hit a two @-@ run home run against Max Scherzer in Game 4 of the World Series as the Giants swept the Detroit Tigers , giving Posey his second World Series ring .
After the season , the Baseball Writers ' Association of America named Posey the NL MVP . He won the Silver Slugger Award for the catcher position . He won the NL Hank Aaron Award , and Miguel Cabrera of the Tigers won the American League ( AL ) award , marking the first time in history that World Series opponents won the award in the same year . He was named the NL Comeback Player of the Year , and he received the Willie Mac Award from the Giants ' organization .
= = = = 2013 = = = =
Eligible for salary arbitration for the first time , Posey signed a one @-@ year , $ 8 million contract with the Giants prior to the 2013 spring training season . On March 29 , Posey agreed to an eight @-@ year contract extension worth $ 167 million , said by the Giants to be the most lucrative in franchise history . The contract wiped out three arbitration years and five years of free agency for Posey , locking in his services through the 2021 season with a club option for 2022 . The agreement was the second largest in major league history for a catcher , exceeded only by that of Joe Mauer in 2010 with the Minnesota Twins .
On July 1 , 2013 , Posey was named National League Player of the Week for the week of June 23 @-@ June 29 . It was the second time Posey earned the award during his career , and the first since 2010 . In six games Posey hit .500 , to raise his average from .307 to .322 , had an on @-@ base percentage of .560 , a slugging percentage of 1 @.@ 182 , stroked four home runs , and drove in six .
On July 13 , 2013 , Posey caught Tim Lincecum 's first no @-@ hitter against the San Diego Padres . The no @-@ hitter also marks the 15th ever in Giants history as well as the second performed in an away ballpark .
On July 16 , 2013 , Posey played in his second straight All @-@ Star Game , striking out in his only at @-@ bat .
Posey 's offense regressed in 2013 following his 2012 MVP season , especially in the second half of the season where he hit just 3 home runs . However , he still finished with a solid .294 batting average , 15 home runs and 72 runs batted in .
= = = = 2014 = = = =
On July 13 , 2014 , Posey and pitcher Madison Bumgarner hit grand slam home runs against the Arizona Diamondbacks . It marked the first time in Major League Baseball history that a catcher and a pitcher hit grand slams in the same game .
On August 29 , 2014 , in a 13 – 2 win over the Milwaukee Brewers at AT & T Park , Posey went 5 @-@ for @-@ 5 in 6 innings , and became the only catcher in Giants franchise history to have two career five @-@ hit games .
In the 2014 World Series the Giants defeated the Kansas City Royals in seven games , giving Posey his third ring in five years .
= = = = 2015 = = = =
On June 9 , 2015 , Posey caught rookie Chris Heston 's no @-@ hitter against the New York Mets at Citi Field , including the final out , a strikeout . It marks the seventeenth no @-@ hitter in Giants franchise history . This was the third no @-@ hitter during which Posey played catcher and the fourth overall , as he started at first base in Tim Lincecum 's second career no @-@ hitter . This puts him one behind the record for no @-@ hitters caught , held by the Philadelphia Phillies ' Carlos Ruiz and the Boston Red Sox ' Jason Varitek .
On June 19 , 2015 , in a 9 – 5 win over the Los Angeles Dodgers at Dodger Stadium , Posey hit a grand slam and stole a base , becoming the first Giants catcher in 112 years since Roger Bresnahan to accomplish the feat . Four days later , in a 6 – 0 win over the San Diego Padres at AT & T Park , Posey hit another grand slam . On July 5 , 2015 , Posey was selected to his third career All @-@ Star Game and was number one in voting for NL catchers .
On September 6 , 2015 , at Coors Field , in a 7 @-@ 4 win over the Colorado Rockies , Posey hit his 100th career home run .
On November 11 , 2015 , Posey was named winner of the 2015 Wilson Defensive Player of the Year award , given to the best defensive catcher in MLB . The following day , Posey was named winner of the 2015 National League Silver Slugger award at catcher .
= = = = 2016 = = = =
On May 28 , in a 10 @-@ 5 win over the Colorado Rockies at Coors Field , Posey hit two three @-@ run home runs en route to a career @-@ high six runs batted in . It is the second most RBIs in a single game by a Giants catcher in the San Francisco Era .
Posey was selected by Fan Voting to start at catcher in the 2016 MLB All Star Game , Posey 's fourth career MLB All @-@ Star Game , the most all @-@ time by a Giants catcher in franchise history . He was the catcher for battery mate Johnny Cueto , the second battery mate he started and caught for in the Midsummer Classic after teammate Matt Cain in 2012 .
= = Personal life = =
Posey married his high school sweetheart , Kristen , in January 2009 . They had twins in 2011 . Posey lives with his family in the East Bay during the season , and they also have a home in Georgia during the off @-@ season .
Posey 's younger sister , Samantha , played softball for Valdosta State University . On April 18 , 2011 , she hit a home run cycle in a doubleheader .
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= Solar Jetman =
Solar Jetman : Hunt for the Golden Warpship is a multi @-@ directional shooter video game developed by Zippo Games and Rare and published by Tradewest . It was released in North America on 14 October 1990 and in Europe on 26 September 1991 for the Nintendo Entertainment System . The game is the third instalment of the Jetman series and was later re @-@ released by Nintendo for their NES @-@ based PlayChoice @-@ 10 arcade system in the United States in 1990 .
In the game , series protagonist Jetman must manoeuvre his small craft through caverns of various planets whilst searching for pieces of the Golden Warpship . The game is presented in a horizontal side @-@ view environment and has ranging gravitational pulls for each planet , which subjects Jetman 's craft to various forms of inertia . Similar to its predecessors , Jetman must keep his craft topped up with fuel in order to progress through levels .
The game was developed mostly by Mancunian developer Zippo Games under the name of Iota before being ordered to change the game into a Jetman title by Rare . Ports of the game for the ZX Spectrum , Commodore 64 and Atari ST were completed but not released due to poor sales of the NES version . The game received mostly positive reviews upon release , with critics praising the game 's presentation and graphics , however criticism was directed at the game 's difficulty . It was later included in Rare 's 2015 Xbox One retrospective compilation , Rare Replay .
= = Gameplay = =
The game is a multi @-@ directional shooter that is presented in a horizontal side @-@ view , in similar vein to earlier instalments of the Jetman series . The game is set after the events of Lunar Jetman and involves series protagonist Jetman on his quest to gather all pieces of the Golden Warpship , a mythical starship that allows interstellar travel . The player controls Jetman 's pod in either a clockwise or anti @-@ clockwise direction . The pod is subject to inertia but not drag physics depending on the level of gravity of the set planet . The constant pull of gravity changes every level , which makes stable flight challenging and manoeuvring the pod more difficult as the levels progress .
Solar Jetman has twelve planets and one hidden planet , each with its own gravity and system of enemy @-@ infested caverns . The goal is to navigate these caverns with small jetpods launched from an immobile mothership , on each planet bringing back a piece of the Golden Warpship and enough fuel to journey to the next one . Items are collected with a tow cable that makes flight more difficult due to the drag of the item , and are released over the mothership or deposited in small wormholes deeper in the caverns . Points are earned by retrieving valuables and destroying enemies , and can be spent after every other stage to buy power @-@ ups for Jetman 's pod . If a pod is destroyed , Jetman will eject out of the pod and walk around in an agile but vulnerable spacesuit . The player may be able to return to the mothership in order to collect a new pod . If the player dies outside of their pod , a life will be lost .
= = Development and release = =
Solar Jetman was developed in @-@ joint by Mancunian developer Zippo Games and Leicestershire @-@ based Rare . Founded by brothers Ste and John Pickford , Zippo Games was known for developing Ironsword , a sequel to Rare 's 1987 game Wizards & Warriors . Impressed by the success of Ironsword , Rare purchased Zippo Games and commissioned them more development projects , a decision which was viewed unfavourably by Ste Pickford , as he wanted to focus on developing games independently . After the buy @-@ out , the Pickford brothers started development of Iota on 1 June 1989 , a game which was conceived by programmer Steve Hughes to be an arcade @-@ shooter inspired by the Atari ST game Oids . Despite having initial creative control over Iota , Rare ordered Zippo Games to change the game into a Jetman title halfway through development .
During the late 1980s , the Stamper brothers sold the rights of Ultimate Play The Game to U.S. Gold and shifted their focus from the British home computing market to broader home console games . Solar Jetman was the first game to be released under the re @-@ branded Rare . The company became one of the first western developers to be granted a licence by Nintendo to produce games for the Nintendo Entertainment System , during which Rare began employing more staff and expanding their operations in order to develop more games for home consoles .
After development switched to Solar Jetman , the Pickford brothers received little input from Rare , with Ste Pickford later speculating that the Stamper brothers had confidence in their abilities , despite being entrusted with their most " revered " series . In a retrospective interview , Ste Pickford stated that he drew inspiration for the mechanics of Solar Jetman from a ZX Spectrum game , Scuba Diving , admitting that the gravitational pulls of Jetman 's pod were reminiscent of the way a scuba diver manoeuvred . Development of Solar Jetman lasted around a year and started from a standard two @-@ man team to a workforce of several people as the game eventually grew larger in scale .
Shortly after release , Sales Curve Interactive announced ports of Solar Jetman for the ZX Spectrum , Commodore 64 , Atari ST and Commodore Amiga , all developed by Software Creations and intended for release on the STORM label . The Commodore 64 , Amiga and Atari ST versions were complete and the ZX Spectrum reached a playable demo state before the project was cancelled due to poor sales of the NES original and perceived unsuitability for the home computer markets . The Commodore 64 version has subsequently been discovered and made available for download . Despite the cancellations , Solar Jetman was later re @-@ released by Nintendo for their NES @-@ based PlayChoice @-@ 10 arcade system in 1990 . The game was later included in Rare 's 2015 Xbox One retrospective compilation , Rare Replay .
= = Reception = =
The game was received positive reviews from critics upon release , despite the poor sales of the NES version . Reviewers of Mean Machines praised the game 's playability and gameplay , stating that it was " second @-@ to @-@ none " and the different gravity pulls of each planet provided " unique challenges " . Richard Leadbatter of Computer and Video Games similarly praised the gameplay , comparing it to that of Thrust . Leadbatter found the gameplay challenging and stated that the addition of power @-@ ups boosts the game 's playability . Steve Jarrett of Total ! asserted that the gameplay was simplistic but addictive as exploration of the game 's twelve planets would " set the player at it for weeks " .
The graphics and sound were also praised . Reviewers of Mean Machines stated that the graphics were " simply brilliant " and presented an " artistic accomplishment " , whereas the sound was similarity " excellent " . Leadbatter stated that the sound and graphics were " functional " rather than outstanding , despite stating that the graphics appeared " fast and smooth " . Jarrett regarded the graphics as simple but " dead smooth " in appearance , also praising the smooth animation of the enemies and the movement of the player 's ship . Jarrett also praised the sound , heralding the soundtrack as " eerie " yet " great " . The game 's playability and replay value were praised by a reviewer of Mean Machines , stating that the number of levels and items will last a " couple of months " . Jarrett similarly stated that the game 's twelve levels provides good replay value due to the game 's difficulty .
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= Don Tallon =
Donald " Don " Tallon ( 17 February 1916 – 7 September 1984 ) was an Australian cricketer who played 21 Test matches as a wicket @-@ keeper between 1946 and 1953 . He was widely regarded by his contemporaries as Australia 's finest ever wicket @-@ keeper and one of the best in Test history , with an understated style , an ability to anticipate the flight , length and spin of the ball and an efficient stumping technique . Tallon toured England as part of Don Bradman 's Invincibles of 1948 and was recognised as one of the Wisden Cricketers of the Year in 1949 for his performances during that season . During his Test career , Tallon made 58 dismissals comprising 50 catches and 8 stumpings .
His early cricket was played in Bundaberg where he was selected to represent Queensland Country against the England cricket team during the infamous Bodyline tour . Aged 17 , he made his first @-@ class cricket debut for Queensland against Victoria in December 1933 . By the 1935 – 36 season , Tallon was an established player and he topped the Queensland batting averages for the season , however he was a surprise non @-@ inclusion for the 1938 Australian team to tour England . Following the Second World War and the retirement or unavailability of other candidates , he was finally given an opportunity to play Test cricket , making his debut against New Zealand in 1946 aged 30 .
Following the Invincibles tour , poor health dogged Tallon , causing him to miss the 1949 – 50 tour of South Africa . He recovered his spot for the Ashes series in 1950 – 51 , catching well but failing with the bat . Tallon missed selection for the 1951 – 52 Test season but recovered his spot for the 1953 Australian team to tour England . He played in the first Test before being replaced by Gil Langley , this time permanently . He retired from first @-@ class cricket in 1953 and returned to Bundaberg , assisting his brother in running a corner store . He died in Bundaberg aged 68 .
= = Early years = =
Tallon was born and raised in the Queensland coastal sugar and rum town of Bundaberg , 400 kilometres ( 249 mi ) north of Brisbane . He learned to play cricket on a backyard wicket with his three brothers and father Les , an iron moulder at the Bundaberg foundry , who played as a slow bowler in the local cricket competition . Often the matches would stretch past the daylight hours , and the brothers would play inside the house after moving the furniture to create some open space . Tallon was formally trained as a wicket @-@ keeper at North Bundaberg State School where he and his brothers were coached by Tom O 'Shea , a teacher and former Sheffield Shield wicket @-@ keeper . He became the primary school 's wicket @-@ keeper at the age of seven , playing with and against boys aged 11 and 12 . He learned to keep to the leg spin of his brother Bill , who also went on to represent Queensland . Tallon later said of his decision to become a wicket @-@ keeper , " You are never out of the game , and that suits me fine " . He was captain of his school team at the age of 11 and rose to become captain of Queensland Schoolboys aged 13 . He played in Bundaberg 's A grade adult team at 14 , and came to the attention of state selectors when Bundaberg played a team captained by Test player Alan Kippax in 1931 .
The following season , he played in the Country trials in Brisbane . He was selected for the Queensland Colts in 1932 – 33 and represented Queensland Country against Douglas Jardine 's England cricket team during the Bodyline tour . In England 's innings of 376 , Tallon conceded only five byes and stumped Herbert Sutcliffe , regarded as one of the finest batsmen in Test history . He did not get a chance to display his batting prowess as the Bodyline spearhead Harold Larwood rattled him with a series of deliveries aimed at the throat , before bowling him for two . Tallon 's fast and efficient skills behind the stumps further caught the eye of cricket officials in early 1933 at the Country Week Carnivals . Tallon distinguished himself with his tidy keeping to the express pace bowling of Eddie Gilbert , whose suspect action and indigenous heritage were later the subject of controversy .
= = First @-@ class debut = =
He made his first @-@ class debut for Queensland at 17 against Victoria in December 1933 , having never previously attended a first @-@ class match as a spectator . He conceded only six byes and took a catch in an innings of 542 in a tidy performance , and made 17 and three in an innings defeat , but was dropped after the match . Queensland officials had ruled that it was not advisable to take such a young player on away trips to Victoria , South Australia and New South Wales . Tallon reclaimed his position when Queensland returned for their home games and from then on was the first @-@ choice wicket @-@ keeper for the state . He played in only one other first @-@ class match for the 1933 – 34 season , scoring 13 and taking a catch and a stumping in an eight @-@ wicket win over South Australia .
In his second first @-@ class match in the 1934 – 35 season , and his fourth overall , he confirmed his batting ability with 58 and 86 against the South Australian bowling attack led by Clarrie Grimmett , the world 's leading leg spinner at the time , but was unable to prevent an eight @-@ wicket defeat . Tallon played in five matches for the season , and Queensland lost four and won none . He took four catches , made two stumpings and scored 216 runs at 24 @.@ 00 in innings , although he did score four ducks .
Towards the end of 1934 , Tallon moved to Brisbane , where he worked as a storeman for a car company . In 1935 – 36 , Tallon was Queensland 's top batsman in terms of both runs and batting average , scoring 569 runs at an average of 51 @.@ 72 . He started well with 58 in a drawn match against New South Wales , and then scored 45 and made six dismissals in an innings as Queensland fell to an innings defeat against the Marylebone Cricket Club ( MCC ) , including five stumpings . He then made four dismissals in an innings in the next match against Victoria .
Tallon was prominent in the next match against South Australia in Adelaide . The hosts included Australia captain Don Bradman in their ranks , making a comeback from illness . The match was mainly noted for Bradman 's 233 but Tallon impressed him by taking two particularly difficult catches , one of which dismissed the Australian captain himself . Bradman also praised Tallon for conceding only seven byes in a total of 642 , particularly his ability to take balls passing down the leg side . Tallon then scored 88 in Queensland 's reply . Bradman opined that he had a " clean @-@ hitting crisp style ... attacking , positive , and with a technique to rival most first @-@ class batsmen " . Despite this , Queensland fell to defeat by an innings and 226 runs . He followed this with 51 in a defeat to New South Wales . The highlight of Tallon 's season was his highest first @-@ class score of 193 , against Victoria in Brisbane , in the last fixture of the season , a match in which he also took five catches in an innings . Tallon 's innings played a large part in the hosts ' saving of the match after conceding a lead of 252 on the first innings . As he continued his consistent form with both bat and gloves , he came into strong consideration for Test selection . While Tallon was performing strongly in Australia , the national team were in South Africa and defeated their hosts 4 – 0 . Nevertheless , it was another unsuccessful season for Queensland ; Tallon did not experience a win and suffered losses in three of his six matches .
= = Pre @-@ war non @-@ selection = =
During the 1930s , Queensland was a weak cricketing state , having only been admitted to the Sheffield Shield in 1926 – 27 , and the national selectors tended to choose Australia teams composed entirely of New South Welshmen , Victorians and South Australians . New South Wales ' Bert Oldfield was the incumbent wicket @-@ keeper and had no plans to retire , while Victoria 's Ben Barnett had been the reserve keeper on the 1934 tour of England . South Australia 's Charlie Walker was also talked of as a possible Test player .
Tallon was scrutinised as a Test candidate when England toured for the 1936 – 37 Ashes series . He was selected in Bradman 's XI for a one @-@ off match against Victor Richardson 's XI at the start of the season . It was a testimonial for Richardson and such matches were used as Test trials for the top players in Australia . Tallon took three catches but was unable to capitalise with the bat . He made three and was unbeaten without scoring in the second innings as Bradman 's men reached their target . In the next match against New South Wales , Tallon took four catches and scored 100 to bring his team back into contention after conceding a 190 @-@ run lead . However , New South Wales scraped home to win by one wicket . It continued a winless streak for Tallon in Queensland colours that had lasted for over two and a half years . Tallon had a final chance to push for selection in two matches for an Australian XI and Queensland respectively , against Gubby Allen 's Englishmen before the Tests . He made a total of seven dismissals but scored only 49 runs in three innings .
When the Test team was announced , Tallon was overlooked as the selectors persisted with Oldfield . Tallon remained consistent for Queensland , making 22 dismissals in total for the season . With the bat , he once again topped his state 's averages , scoring 434 runs at 36 @.@ 16 . He scored 101 against South Australia and 96 against Victoria , but both matches were lost . Queensland defeat New South Wales to record their first win in three years , but the remaining five Sheffield Shield matches were all lost .
The 1937 – 38 season was purely domestic , with no international matches , but it was an opportunity for all players to push for selection in the squad for the 1938 Ashes tour . It was another disappointing season for Queensland , who were again winless ; they lost three matches , hung on a for a draw , eight wickets down in another , and the other two fixtures were washed out before the second innings . Tallon scored 204 runs at 22 @.@ 66 without managing a half @-@ century and made 17 dismissals .
Tallon 's non @-@ selection for the 1938 Ashes touring party surprised commentators . In selection deliberations , Bradman had lobbied for Tallon and Walker , asserting that Oldfield was past his best . The other two selectors , Chappie Dwyer from New South Wales and Bill Johnson from Victoria , outvoted Bradman . They selected Barnett , because of his previous tour to England , and Walker . Tallon 's omission was overshadowed by that of Grimmett , regarded alongside Bill O 'Reilly as the world 's leading legspinner . No official reason was given for Tallon 's non @-@ selection . A leak revealed that the reason for his omission was that he was not familiar with the bowling of Australia 's three spinners : O 'Reilly , Chuck Fleetwood @-@ Smith and Frank Ward . Another was Tallon 's preference in standing back to medium pacers . In reality , Tallon stood back and stood up to the stumps depending on the situation . While the medium pacers were swinging the ball , he would stand back to avoid the risk of missing an edge . When the ball was old , he would stand up to the stumps when a medium pacer was operating and effect many stumpings with his fast reflexes .
During the series , Barnett made two notable errors . With Australia leading the series 1 – 0 going into the Fifth Test at The Oval , Barnett dropped Len Hutton and Maurice Leyland when both were on 40 . Leyland went on to post 187 while Hutton set a Test world record of 364 . In effect , England were gifted an extra 461 runs as they set a world record score of 7 / 903 . Bradman injured himself during the marathon innings in a rare stint at the bowling crease after the specialist bowlers had failed to break the Englishmen . With opener Jack Fingleton also injured , Australia were down to nine men and fell to the heaviest defeat in Test history ( an innings and 579 runs ) and the series was drawn .
Tallon responded during the 1938 – 39 season by equalling two world records . The season started poorly for Queensland , not winning any of their first three matches . Tallon made eight dismissals in the opening match of the Sheffield Shield campaign against New South Wales , but the visitors hung on for a draw with one wicket in hand . After two consecutive losses , Tallon set the first of his world records . Against New South Wales in Sydney , he dismissed 12 batsmen , six in each innings , a feat performed only once before , in 1868 by Surrey 's Ted Pooley . Tallon 's dozen included three stumpings and he was at the crease when Queensland hit the winning runs to complete their first victory in two years . After nine innings during the season without passing 36 , Tallon returned to form with the bat , scoring 115 against South Australia , but was unable to take the field in the second innings due to injury as the match ended in a ten @-@ wicket defeat . In the final match of the season , Tallon became the fourth keeper to make seven dismissals in an innings , in a match against Victoria . He did not concede a bye in the innings of 348 , and scored 44 as Queensland completed an innings win . Tallon finished the season with 34 dismissals in six matches , setting a new Australian season record . He took more than five dismissals in an innings in four of the ten innings in which he kept wicket . Observers noted Tallon to be more motivated than ever ; his catching and stumping style became more animated , and his appealing reached new levels of sound . He passed 100 first @-@ class dismissals during the season , achieved in just 32 matches — the fastest Australian to reach the mark . Tallon ended the season with 305 runs at 30 @.@ 50 .
= = World War II = =
Following his form in 1938 – 39 , Tallon eagerly awaited the arrival of England for the 1940 – 41 tour of Australia . He was only 23 and regarded as an almost certain selection following his record @-@ breaking performance with both bat and gloves . However , the outbreak of the Second World War called a halt to his rise and robbed him of the opportunity to represent his country while in his prime as a cricketer ; official international cricket did not resume until he was 29 . In the meantime , domestic cricket continued in 1939 – 40 . It was another poor season for Queensland , who won only once and lost their remaining five matches . Tallon scored two fifties before scoring 154 in his last Sheffield Shield innings of the season . This set Victoria a target of 230 , but they reached it for the loss of only one wicket . Tallon was selected for The Rest of Australia in a one @-@ off match against New South Wales at the end of the season , but managed only a duck and eight . He ended the summer with 401 runs at 28 @.@ 62 and 17 dismissals .
With the war intensifying , the 1940 – 41 season was truncated and the last before the hostilities ended . Tallon scored 55 and completed four dismissals as Queensland started with a 27 @-@ run loss to New South Wales . He then starred in a match for combined Queensland and Victoria team against New South Wales . Tallon scored 55 and 152 and completed four dismissals , but was unable to prevent a one @-@ wicket loss . He ended with 379 runs at 42 @.@ 11 and made 16 dismissals in five matches .
With first @-@ class cricket cancelled , Tallon joined the Australian Army in August 1940 at Bundaberg . Tallon was discharged in 1943 as a private and was not decorated . His discharge was due to stomach ulcers and he later had a major operation to remove part of his stomach .
Upon the resumption of competitive cricket , Tallon 's chances of selection had improved due to the fates of his pre @-@ war wicket @-@ keeping rivals . Oldfield had long retired . Barnett , a captain in the army , had been a prisoner of the Japanese at Changi in Singapore for four years . Emaciated , he slowly recovered his fitness and forced his way back into the Victorian team , but was almost 40 and intended to retire in the near future . Walker had joined the Royal Australian Air Force as a gunner and was killed in a duel with Nazi fighter pilots over Soltau in Germany . This left Tallon as the front @-@ runner , but there was a possibility that the selectors would opt for generational change and install a more youthful keeper like Gil Langley or Ron Saggers with an eye to the future . With the pressure of selection on his head , Tallon made eight dismissals in the first match after the resumption of cricket , against New South Wales in Brisbane , including three stumpings and three catches from the leg spin of Colin McCool , a future Test team @-@ mate . The performance was to herald the start of a prolific bowler @-@ wicket @-@ keeper partnership . Tallon then scored 74 to guide Queensland to the target of 270 with four wickets in hand . Queensland won two of their seven matches and Tallon scored 305 runs at 30 @.@ 50 and completed 27 dismissals to finally gain national selection .
= = Test debut = =
Tallon made his Test debut in a one @-@ off Test against New Zealand at Wellington in March 1946 , although the match was only given Test accreditation two years later . On a wet wicket , New Zealand were dismissed for 42 and 54 against the slow bowling of Bill O 'Reilly and Ernie Toshack . Tallon made a stumping , a run out and took a catch . He scored only five runs as Australia won by an innings and 103 runs . Tallon had rarely kept to O 'Reilly 's leg spin and impressed the bowler , who compared him with Oldfield . During the tour of New Zealand , Australia won all of their five matches , four by an innings . Tallon scored 123 runs at 41 @.@ 00 and made 12 dismissals .
The following season saw Australia 's first Test series since the end of World War II , with five matches scheduled against Wally Hammond 's touring Englishmen in the 1946 @-@ 47 Ashes series . Tallon staked his claim for the Test wicket @-@ keeping position in Queensland 's second match of the season , which was against MCC . Tallon combined with McCool in four stumpings and two catches , and in the process took his first @-@ class tally to 170 dismissals his 50th first @-@ class match . He also scored 26 and 35 . Tallon 's proficiency keeping wicket to McCool 's bowling was now a major factor in his favour for national selection , because McCool had established himself as Australia 's first @-@ choice spinner since the retirement of O 'Reilly . Tallon was duly selected for the First Test of the series in Brisbane .
In First Test at Brisbane Tallon took two catches but scored only 14 in a victory . Tallon was worried that his poor batting might lead to him being replaced , but he was retained as Australia secured an innings victory in Sydney . He put in a polished performance with the gloves , with four catches and two stumpings , in addition to 30 runs . The only negative aspect of the match for Tallon was that he dislocated his finger . Beyond the raw statistics , two of the catches that Tallon made in the first innings were regarded as among his finest ever and turned the tide of the match . Len Hutton and Bill Edrich — two of England 's leading batsmen — had seen their team to lunch with only the loss of one wicket . Tallon declared to Bradman that he intended to dismiss Hutton down the leg side , so Bradman brought off spinner Ian Johnson into the attack immediately after lunch . Johnson was instructed to bowl at Hutton 's legs to give him an opportunity to glance the ball . Hutton obliged and struck the ball from the middle of his bat , expecting a boundary . He turned around and was shocked to see that Tallon had intercepted the ball from a blind position at a range of just one metre . The score was 2 / 88 as Hutton , who held the Test world record score was dismissed and replaced at the batting crease by Denis Compton . Bradman introduced McCool and Compton misjudged a cut shot which went wide of Tallon and struck Johnson , fielding at slip , in the chest . The ball rebounded past Tallon 's shoulder and was heading for the ground when he spun and dived backwards to catch it just before it landed . According to Roland Perry , it was " an acrobatic feat that would put any trapeze artist in the shade , taking one of the most brilliant catches in Test history " . Tallon took another difficult catch from McCool to dismiss Hammond as England fell to 4 / 99 , with three specialist batsmen to improbable catches . This restricted England and allowed Australia to set up a match @-@ winning lead .
Tallon now felt secure about his place in the team for the rest of the series . This led to increased confidence in his play in the Third Test at Melbourne ( MCG ) . After keeping tidily and scoring 35 in the first innings , Tallon combined with Ray Lindwall in the second innings for a 154 @-@ run partnership in just 92 minutes . Described by Wisden as a " hurricane " , the partnership was marked by Tallon 's powerful driving and cutting . Lindwall reached his century , but Tallon fell for 92 to Doug Wright . Tallon 's 92 remained the highest score by an Australian wicketkeeper until Rod Marsh equalled it with 92 not out in the 1970 @-@ 71 Ashes series and surpassed it with 132 against New Zealand in 1973 – 74 .
In the Fourth Test at Adelaide Tallon stumped Denis Compton , but the umpire gave him not out because " the glare of the sun suddenly became so intense that he was unable to see clearly the white line of the popping crease " and Compton made 147 . The England openers Len Hutton and Cyril Washbrook had put on 100 in the second innings when Tallon caught Washbrook , scooping up a ball from Lindwall . Washbrook " stood there transfixed . Even some of the Australian leg @-@ side fielders expressed amazement " . Tallon was known for his impetuous appealing - " he was often roaring before he had studied facts and it was his over @-@ eagerness that brought about the shocking decision " - and this caused an umpiring controversy . But Tallon maintained the appeal and Bradman backed him . Washbrook told Wally Hammond that the ball had gone into the ground just before it went into Tallon 's gloves and the England captain tried unsuccessfully to find a press photograph of the ball touching the ground . Later in the match Tallon missed a vital stumping off the England wicketkeeper Godfrey Evans , who stayed put for 95 minutes without making a run . Tallon stumped Compton again , but he was given not out and went on to make an unbeaten 103 in a match @-@ saving stand of 85 with Evans .
Tallon 's keeping was further lauded in the second innings of the Fifth Test , when he stumped Edrich , Jack Ikin and Alec Bedser from McCool 's bowling . By series end , Tallon had set an Australian Test record of 20 dismissals in a series and averaged 29 with the bat . He also scored 54 and claimed seven dismissals in a Queensland win over South Australia .
Tallon started the next season by taking five catches and scoring 41 in the second innings and Queensland scraped home to beat New South Wales by two wickets . He played in all five Tests against India in the Australian summer of 1947 – 48 , and earned praise from Indian skipper Lala Amarnath who described him as the " greatest keeper he had seen " . Tallon made 13 dismissals but had an unproductive time with the bat , scoring only 49 runs at 12 @.@ 25 . Outside the Tests , Tallon scored 229 runs at 22 @.@ 90 and made 15 dismissals in six matches for Queensland .
= = Invincibles tour = =
Tallon 's form saw him selected for the 1948 Ashes tour as part of the side that would become known to cricket history as the Invincibles . Tallon was the first @-@ choice wicket @-@ keeper , with Saggers as his deputy . Having spent the majority of his life in sunny Queensland and growing up in tropical Bundaberg , the cold English climate initially caught Tallon off guard . He did not wet his inner gloves as was his custom due to the temperature . As England agreed to make a new ball available every 55 overs , this meant that the ball would more frequently be in a favourable state for fast bowling , since it would swing more . As a result , Australia adopted a pace @-@ oriented strategy and Johnson was the only spinner regularly used in the Test matches . McCool was not to play a Test on the tour , depriving Tallon of an opportunity to show his stumping abilities standing up at the stumps to his Queensland team @-@ mate .
Early in the tour , Tallon struck an unbeaten 17 on a damp pitch in a low @-@ scoring match as Australia defeated Yorkshire by four wickets . It was the closest that the tourists came to defeat for the tour .
Tallon had difficulty with the English conditions early in the season as he sustained a bruised right finger when he lost sight of a Ray Lindwall bouncer on a misty morning during a tour match against Surrey at The Oval and was hit as he put hand over his face for protection , with the ball running away for four byes . As a result of the injury , Tallon was rested for the following three matches .
Despite sustaining an injury from a catching error , Tallon was selected for the First Test at Trent Bridge . He took four catches , including two difficult ones to dismiss key batsmen at the start of the second innings . He thus helped Australia to seize the initiative by denying England a good start , which was converted into an eight @-@ wicket victory . The teams moved on to Lord 's and Australia compiled 350 in its first innings . Tallon made 53 and helped the tail to " wag " and recover from a position of 7 / 258 . Tallon did not concede a bye in England 's first innings of 215 and his diving was estimated to have saved around 40 runs . One of the three catches he took stood out ; it came when Washbrook inside edged a Toshack full toss directly downwards at Tallon 's ankle . Bradman described the catch as " miraculous " because Tallon had to reach so low , so quickly , in order to take the catch . Another dive to stop a leg glance resulted in a severely bruised left little finger . However , Tallon also conceded 16 byes in England 's total of 186 . Australia won the Test , and Tallon was rested ahead of the next Test to allow his finger to recover .
The teams played out a draw in the third match at Manchester , where Tallon dismissed George Emmett from the bowling of Ray Lindwall with a diving one @-@ handed catch . He also dropped Compton three times , allowing the English batsman to go from 50 to 145 not out as he held the hosts ' first innings together .
Tallon 's little left finger swelled up after the Third Test and he exacerbated the injury during a tour match against Middlesex , ruling him out of the Fourth Test at Headingley , which Australia won to secure the series . He returned for the Fifth Test at The Oval , taking three catches , including an acrobatic catch of Len Hutton down the leg side that was considered the catch of the season . He scored 31 as Australia sealed the series 4 – 0 with an innings win . When the last match of the tour against Scotland in Aberdeen became safe , with Australia in an unassailable position , Bradman allowed Tallon to dispense with his wicket @-@ keeping pads and try his luck at bowling leg spin . Tallon never bowled in his Test career and only rarely in first @-@ class cricket , where he delivered 301 balls , the approximate workload of a specialist bowler in one match .
Tallon had had moderate success with his batting during the Test series , aggregating 114 runs at 28 @.@ 50 . In 14 first @-@ class matches , he scored 283 runs at 25 @.@ 72 . The Australian team strategy of primarily depending on pace bowling saw Tallon make 12 catches and no stumpings during the Tests ; however , Bradman rested his lead pace bowlers Miller and Lindwall during the tour games to save energy for the Tests and allowed the spinners do more work , so that overall Tallon took 29 catches and 14 stumpings for the tour . Bradman deemed Tallon more agile than Saggers and better at taking acrobatic catches . Tallon 's performances during the English summer saw him named by Wisden as one of its five Cricketers of the Year .
= = Later career = =
Upon Tallon 's return to Australia , he made an unbeaten 146 in Bradman 's Testimonial match at the MCG in December 1948 . He featured in a tenth @-@ wicket partnership of 100 with Geff Noblet , who scored only nine as Tallon farmed the strike effectively . This saw the match scores tied on the last ball of the match . Tallon also made seven dismissals for the match . Queensland lost more than they won during the season , but Tallon continued to be productive , scoring 453 runs at 34 @.@ 85 and making 26 dismissals in seven matches .
Tallon was selected for but withdrew from the 1949 – 50 tour to South Africa due to illness caused by stomach ulcers , and employment reasons . His place was taken by Saggers , who made 21 dismissals in the five Tests . In the meantime , Tallon recovered and played in the Australian domestic season . After scoring 52 in the opening match for the season , he scored 98 and two scores of 58 not out to help Queensland end the season with consecutive wins . He ended with 349 runs at 43 @.@ 63 and 11 dismissals in six matches . Tallon was selected for a brief tour of New Zealand at the end of the season with an Australian Second XI led by Bill Brown , and scored 116 in an unofficial Test in Dunedin . It was the top @-@ score in Australia 's 299 and the hosts led by only eight runs with one wicket in hand in their second innings when the match ended in a draw . Many of the matches during the tour were not first @-@ class but in one such game , Tallon scored 70 not out as Australia defeated Otago by an innings .
For the home Ashes series of 1950 – 51 Tallon was fit once more and available for national selection . Despite making only 37 runs in four innings in the lead @-@ up matches , Tallon was chosen for all five Tests . He had a poor time with the bat , making only 39 runs at an average of just 6 @.@ 50 . He took only eight catches , but kept tidily to retain his place in the team . His performances for Queensland were hardly more productive ; he scored 161 runs at 16 @.@ 10 and aside from a rain @-@ affected draw , his state lost their remaining six matches .
By this time , Tallon was losing his hearing , and gained the derisive nickname Deafy . In one Test , he had been told by captain Lindsay Hassett before going out to bat that there was to be an appeal for bad light . Hassett said " go for the light " but Tallon misheard it as " go for a lash " . Tallon walked out and was dismissed for a low score after attempting to attack the English bowlers , leaving his skipper displeased .
Tallon missed selection during the 1951 – 52 season due his increasingly error @-@ prone glovework and a combination of health reasons including stomach ulcers and deafness . He did not play a first @-@ class match because of lack of his fitness . In any case , Tallon had secretly been barred from selection by the Australian Board of Control for making unauthorised comments in the media ; this fact was not revealed for half a century .
He was unable to reclaim his Test place in 1952 – 53 despite making 133 against the touring South Africans and 84 against New South Wales for Queensland before the Tests . Tallon totalled 508 runs at 33 @.@ 87 for the season and made 33 dismissals in eight matches , including seven in one fixture against Western Australia , but failed to taste victory in a single Queensland match . His omission angered Queensland fans , who relentlessly heckled the Australians during the First Test against the tourists in Brisbane , making fun of the mistakes made by Tallon 's replacement Gil Langley in particular .
He was selected for the 1953 tour of England , and scored 76 against Tasmania before the tourists departed . Despite making only 35 runs at 7 @.@ 00 in the lead @-@ up matches , Tallon was selected for the First Test at Trent Bridge , his first match at the top level in more than two years . He took two catches and scored a duck and 15 . Hassett and his deputy Arthur Morris then made the decision to replace Tallon with Langley . Still troubled by stomach ulcers , Tallon played in another eight first @-@ class matches for the tour , scoring 119 runs at 19 @.@ 83 . His most notable effort was an unbeaten 83 in an innings win over Kent . He was unable to regain his Test position .
Tallon retired in dramatic circumstances after the first match of the 1953 – 54 Sheffield Shield season . During the match , he suddenly took off his gloves and handed the keeping duties to Peter Burge . He scored 21 and 54 not out in a drawn match against New South Wales . Two months later , he played for Arthur Morris 's XI against Hassett 's XI , a testimonial match for the latter . Tallon made 17 not out and nine in a 121 @-@ run win . Tallon continued to play local cricket in Bundaberg for another decade .
= = Style = =
Regarded as one of Australia 's finest ever wicket @-@ keepers , Tallon was lean and relatively tall for a wicket @-@ keeper , standing 180 cm . Tallon 's high acclaim among cricket pundits derived from his style , rather than raw statistics . In 21 Tests , Tallon kept wicket in 41 innings , making 58 dismissals at an average of 1 @.@ 41 per innings . Modern Australian glovemen such as Rod Marsh and Ian Healy , both of whom held the Test world record for dismissals , averaged closer to two . Tallon 's Test batting average of 17 @.@ 13 pales in comparison to that of contemporary wicket @-@ keepers such as Australia 's Adam Gilchrist and Sri Lanka 's Kumar Sangakkara , both of whom have made a double century and more than ten centuries . English wicket @-@ keepers from two decades after World War II such as Godfrey Evans and Jim Parks scored two Test centuries apiece and averaged substantially more than Tallon .
Tallon had an understated style , which was without flourish or flamboyancy . He was known for his anticipation of the flight , length and spin of the ball . He was particularly regarded for his stumping efficiency and his ability to catch balls down the leg side . Tallon often stood up to the stumps for medium pace bowlers and he had a textbook stumping technique in which he lifted the bails without disturbing the stumps . Tallon 's crouch was more pronounced than most other keepers and he rebounded upwards further and faster than others . He had a particularly smooth and graceful catching technique that left his hands undamaged from the ball 's impact , the injury in England in 1948 being a notable exception that proved the rule . In recognising him as one of their five Cricketers of the Year in the 1949 Wisden , the Almanack noted that his hands resembled those of a violinist , while Bradman noted that all his " fine , longer fingers were intact " as though he had not played much cricket . According to his English counterpart Godfrey Evans , Tallon was the " best and most nimble keeper ever " while Australian team @-@ mate Alan Davidson called him the " Bradman of keepers " . Due to financial reasons , Tallon could not afford new equipment and he used an outdated pair of iron @-@ coated gloves for most of his career .
Strong driving and quick scoring were hallmarks of his batting , made possible by his swift footwork . According to Bradman , Tallon 's batting was " attacking , positive and with a technique to rival most first @-@ class batsmen " . This led Bradman to select Tallon in his all @-@ time best XI . Tallon was a vociferous and frequent appealer behind the stumps , something that led to complaints from opposition batsmen who felt that the pressure he exerted was unfair .
= = Outside cricket = =
Tallon married his first wife Marjorie Beattie in 1946 . The constant travel , interstate and overseas , took a toll on his marriage and the pair divorced in 1950 . In 1954 , he married Lynda Kirchner from his native Bundaberg , with whom he had two daughters . In retirement , Tallon helped his younger brother Mat in running a corner store in Bundaberg . His nephew Ross played one match for Queensland Colts in 1967 – 68 . The Tallon bridge , built in 1995 in Bundaberg was named after the famous Bundabergian which links west & north Bundaberg . He died of heart disease in 1984 .
= = Test match performance = =
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= The Merger ( The Office ) =
" The Merger " is the eighth episode of the third season of the American comedy television series The Office and the show 's 36th overall . It was written by consulting producer Brent Forrester and directed by Ken Whittingham . It first aired on November 16 , 2006 , as a special " super @-@ sized " 40 @-@ minute ( including commercials ) episode on NBC .
The series depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton and Stamford branches of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In this episode , the two branches are merged . Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) and Pam Beesley ( Jenna Fischer ) have an awkward reunion , Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) tries to make his new employees feel welcome , and a rivalry begins between Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) and Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) .
The episode featured recurring guest stars Helms , Creed Bratton , Rashida Jones , Wayne Wilderson , Mike Bruner , and Ursula Burton . According to Nielsen Media Research , an estimated 8 @.@ 63 million viewers watched " The Merger " on its first broadcast . Critical reception to the episode was mainly positive , with many reviewers spotlighting Helms and his character in particular as highlights .
= = Synopsis = =
The Scranton and Stamford branches prepare for the upcoming merger . Pam Beesley ( Jenna Fischer ) professes excitement over the merger , mostly because of the return of Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) . Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) proclaims he 'll be the No. 2 man in Scranton in six weeks time through " name repetition , personality mirroring and never breaking off a handshake . " A rivalry between Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) and Andy begins over the No. 2 position in the office . At the welcoming party , Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) plays a videotape he has created called " Lazy Scranton " , which features him and Dwight rhyming over the music of Saturday Night Live 's " Lazy Sunday " .
Michael embarrasses overweight new employee Tony Gardner ( Mike Bruner ) by attempting to push him onto a table with the rest of the new employees ; this causes Tony to quit . However , an angered Michael fires him instead , unintentionally entitling him to severance pay . Michael learns that Jim is the No. 2 in the office , which prompts Andy and Dwight to argue over who is No. 3 . After a plan to unite the employees goes awry . They find that they have a common interest : their contempt of Michael .
= = Production = =
" The Merger " was the fourth episode of the series to be directed by Ken Whittingham . It was written by consulting producer Brent Forrester , his first writing credit for The Office . The episode featured guest appearances from recurring actor Creed Bratton as well as from Ed Helms , Rashida Jones , Wayne Wilderson , Mike Bruner , and Ursula Burton , whose characters joined the Scranton branch . In her weekly blog for TV Guide , actress Kate Flannery stated that it " was a really fun episode " to film , as she was able to work with a variety of new actors . She added , " They double the size and they double the comedy ... It was like a party all week shooting this episode . "
The season three DVD contains a number of deleted scenes , including Kevin and Angela reacting to Jim 's return , Karen noting that she and Meredith have the same thermos and being offered alcohol , Andy introducing himself to Kevin , Michael telling Karen and Phyllis that eventually they will " share the same menstrual cycle , " Hannah and Meredith fighting over desk space , Andy asking Kevin if he has lost weight , and Michael performing a magic trick in front of the office . The original broadcast contained a small subplot involving Kevin and a new paper shredder from Staples Inc . , where Kevin talks about how he is given almost no responsibility at work but is content as long as they let him shred documents . It was removed from the episode for the DVD release and is not contained in the deleted scenes .
= = Reception = =
" The Merger " was first broadcast on November 16 , 2006 in the United States on the National Broadcasting Company ( NBC ) . As a special promotion , the network broadcast " super @-@ sized " , forty @-@ minute episodes of The Office , 30 Rock , and My Name is Earl . According to Nielsen Media Research , an estimated 8 @.@ 63 million viewers watched the episode . Among adults aged 18 to 49 , it earned 4 @.@ 2 / 10 ratings share , meaning that it was seen by 4 @.@ 2 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 10 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of broadcast . The episode reached second place for the night in that demographic , and twenty @-@ fourth for the week among all the major networks .
IGN 's Brian Zoromski rated " The Merger " 9 out of 10 , an indication of an " amazing " episode . He called the opening sequence " arguably the funniest " scene , and believed " Andy 's proven to be an even better source of hilarity than he ever was in the Stamford office . " Zoromski was unhappy however with the " outright product placement " with Staples , writing that " the show 's quality felt a little compromised . It 's one thing to see blatant product placement in a reality show like Survivor or American Idol but when it invades a great scripted comedy … well , it kinda drags the show down to the reality level . " Doug Elfman of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times thought the episode was " funnier than it 's been in a while , " praising Kelly but criticizing the " fat @-@ guy joke . " Elfman cited Michael and Andy 's new relationship as a positive element . Television Without Pity graded the episode with an A + .
Entertainment Weekly columnist Abby West praised Fischer 's " masterful " performance , writing that it " really is nice to see Pam coming into her own ... And I love that she didn 't inhibit herself when Jim walked in — she just ran right up and hugged him . " West also highlighted Carell and Helms , explaining that with the former , " Michael is never completely loathsome — because Steve Carell imbues him with such vulnerability . " AOL TV writer Michael Sciannamea also enjoyed Helms ' performance , believing that " the competiton [ sic ] between Andy and Dwight will surely make for some classic moments . " Sciannamea concluded his review , " What makes this show so great is that the supporting players have a chance to shine at the right moments . I thought Stanley 's reactions to the whole situation were hysterical , and Creed is just great . He deserves some more airtime . "
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= The Silence ( song ) =
" The Silence " is a song by British singer Alexandra Burke from her debut studio album Overcome ( 2009 ) . The song was written by Bilal Hajji and Savan Kotecha , along with the song 's producer Nadir " RedOne " Khayat . The song was released as a promotional single in anticipation of the re @-@ release of Overcome ( 2010 ) . Burke stated that the song was written when her aunt told the singer about how she and her partner were experiencing troubles in their relationship , and that they were not telling each other how they felt . In response , Burke asked her aunt why he was letting the silence in their relationship do the talking instead of them discussing it . " The Silence " is an R & B and pop @-@ influenced power ballad and instrumentation consists of a piano , a guitar and drums . The lyrics of the song feature the protagonist asking why the other person in the relationship remains silent about their difficulties instead of talking about them .
The song garnered positive reviews from music critics , who praised Burke 's vocal performance . It also received comparisons to songs by Bonnie Tyler , Beyoncé Knowles and Leona Lewis . Upon the release of Overcome , the song debuted at number 95 on the UK Singles Chart on the strength of digital download sales . A year later when released as a promotional single , it peaked at number 16 on the chart . It peaked inside the top thirty on the singles charts in Hungary , Ireland and Scotland , and peaked at number 66 in Switzerland . An accompanying music video was directed by Nzingha Stewart and shot in black and white . It features Burke in a variety of different stylized sets in different outfits and dresses . The singer has performed the song on The Paul O 'Grady Show and The X Factor . It was included on the set list of her All Night Long Tour ( 2011 ) .
= = Background and release = =
After the release and success of the lead single " Bad Boys " from her debut album Overcome in October 2009 , the singer released " Broken Heels " as the second single in January 2010 , with the intention of releasing " The Silence " as the album 's third single . However , a remix single version of " All Night Long " featuring Pitbull was released as the third single from the album instead in May 2010 . On 25 October 2010 , Burke announced via Twitter that " The Silence " would be the final song to be released from Overcome , writing " Some of you might be surprised at my choice of next single and some of you guys will hopefully be really happy . " The song was re @-@ recorded with a new vocal for inclusion on the re @-@ release of the album , entitled " The Silence ( New Single Mix ) " . In an interview with Eamonn Holmes for Sky News Sunrise in December 2010 , Burke stated that " The Silence " was released as a promotional single for the re @-@ release of Overcome and for Christmas . During an interview talking about the song for Virgin Media in December 2010 , Burke stated that " The Silence " is a " very special song " and that despite it being a " very emotional song to sing " , it is one of her most favourite songs on Overcome .
= = Composition and lyrics = =
" The Silence " is a power ballad , which lasts for a duration of three minutes and 35 seconds . It draws influence from the music genre of R & B and pop , while instrumentation consists of a piano , a guitar and drums . The song is written in the key of A minor and is set in simple time with a metronome of 76 beats per minute . Burke 's vocal range in the song spans from the low note of F3 to the high note of F5 . In an interview with Peter Andre on The Paul O 'Grady Show on 3 November 2009 , Burke explained the meaning of the songs lyrics , saying " I 'm sure everyone has been in that situation where you are in a relationship , it might not be going so well and you kinda want your other half to speak out and say what is on their mind , and I 've had relationships like that . " Burke continued to explain that when she was in the recording studio with RedOne , her Aunt was experiencing problems in her relationship which related to the lyrics in " The Silence , " and that she felt that her Aunt 's partner should not " let the silence do the talking ? Why doesn 't he let you know how he feels ? , " and that " The Silence " was written as a result . The songs begins with the lyrics " Oh , you lift me up . "
= = Response = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
" The Silence " garnered positive reviews from music critics . Al Fox for BBC Music described the song as " a gargantuan power ballad " and that it displays Burke 's " rich and emotive vocals . " Fox also compared the song to the work of Bonnie Tyler and Beyoncé Knowles . Nick Levine for Digital Spy wrote that Overcome features ballads which are reminiscent to songs performed by previous X Factor winner Leona Lewis , with regard to " The Silence " and the title track " Overcome . "
= = = Chart performance = = =
Upon the release of Overcome , " The Silence " debuted on the UK Singles Chart at number 95 in the chart issue dated 31 October 2009 . Upon its release as a promotional single in December 2010 , it re @-@ entered the singles chart at number 126 on 11 December 2010 , and leaped to its peak of number 16 the following week . In the chart issue dated 25 December 2010 , the song fell twenty positions to number 36 . " The Silence " leaped from number 125 to number 13 on the UK Digital Chart . The following week , it dropped to number 35 . In Scotland , the song peaked at number 16 on the Scottish Singles Chart on 18 December 2010 . The following week , it descended to number 37 . " The Silence " debuted and peaked at number 30 on the Irish Singles Chart on 9 December 2010 . The following week , it dropped to number 35 . The song debuted and peaked on the Swiss Singles Chart at number 66 on 12 December 2010 , and fell to number 69 the following week . A month later , the song re @-@ entered the chart at number 72 on 23 January 2011 for one week . In Hungary , the song peaked at number 26 .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " The Silence " was directed by Nzingha Stewart before the video for " All Night Long " was shot . The video was shot in black and white , and features Burke in different outfits and dresses , as well as in a variety of sets with props . It begins with a couple of establishing shots of Burke of her posing with a balloon wearing and in another set where she is sitting on music speakers . Throughout the video , Burke is visibly in a studio with different backdrops , where she is preparing to be photographed . During the first verse , Burke is shown in the two sets while she sings the lyrics . Prior to the first chorus , a new set is introduced of Burke wearing a black dress which exposes all of her back while sitting on the floor next to a stereo . During the first verse , all three sets show Burke carrying out different tasks with he props , as well as a new set where she sits in front of a white backdrop in a plain white oversized shirt . As the second verse begins , the set of Burke sitting on the floor next to a stereo changes to that of her standing up in front of a microphone singing the lyrics , with the backdrop of a city skyline . During the second verse , another set is introduced of Burke posing against a stuffed animal . During the bridge , Burke sings the lyrics standing in front of the camera without any props surrounding her ; prior to sustaining a long note , Burke has her back to the camera and is nude from the waist up . During the final verse , Burke 's anger and desperation is shown to be heightened , as she sings to her herself in the mirror and places more emphasis on her movement . The video ends with the singer nude from the waist up and facing the camera , covering herself with her arms crossed over her chest .
= = Live performances = =
Burke performed the song for the first time on MTV Push upon the release of Overcome . Burke then performed the song on 3 November 2009 on The Paul O 'Grady show , where she gave an interview about her experience on The X Factor and how the lyrics for " The Silence " were conceptualised . Upon the announcement that the song and music video were going to be released , Burke included the song on her set list of the Jingle Bell Ball concerts around the country , where other artists including Nicole Scherzinger , Olly Murs and The Wanted also performed . During the performance at The O2 Arena in London , Burke was moved to tears and apologised to the audience , saying " I 'm sorry for getting emotional , but that song means way too much to me . " Burke performed the song on the semi final of the seventh series of The X Factor on 5 December 2010 . At the end of the performance , Burke was lifted into the air on a harness . The song was also included on the set list of Burke 's All Night Long Tour ( 2011 ) .
= = Track listings = =
2009 standard edition
" The Silence " – 4 : 01
2010 deluxe edition
" The Silence " ( New Single Mix ) – 3 : 35
= = Credits and personnel = =
" The Silence " ( 2009 ) credits adapted from the liner notes of Overcome , and " The Silence " ( New Single Mix ) ( 2010 ) credits adapted from the deluxe edition of Overcome .
= = Charts = =
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= Blackford County , Indiana =
Blackford County is located in the east central portion of the U.S. state of Indiana . The county is named for Judge Isaac Blackford , who was the first speaker of the Indiana General Assembly and a long @-@ time chief justice of the Indiana Supreme Court . Created in 1838 , Blackford County is divided into four townships , and its county seat is Hartford City . Two incorporated cities and one incorporated town are located within the county . The county is also the site of numerous unincorporated communities and ghost towns . Occupying only 165 @.@ 58 square miles ( 428 @.@ 9 km2 ) , Blackford County is the fourth smallest county in Indiana . As of the 2010 census , the county 's population is 12 @,@ 766 people in 5 @,@ 236 households . Based on population , the county is the 8th smallest county of the 92 in Indiana . Although no interstate highways are located in Blackford County , three Indiana state roads cross the county , and an additional state road is located along the county 's southeast border . The county has two railroad lines . A north – south route crosses the county , and intersects with a second railroad line that connects Hartford City with communities to the west .
Before the arrival of European @-@ American settlers during the 1830s , the northeastern portion of the future Blackford County was briefly the site of an Indian reservation for Chief Francois Godfroy of the Miami tribe . The first European @-@ American pioneers were typically farmers that settled near rivers where the land had drainage suitable for agriculture . Originally , the county was mostly swampland , but more land became available for farming as the marshes were cleared and drained . Over the next 30 years , small communities slowly developed throughout the county . When the county 's rail lines were constructed in the 1860s and 1870s , additional communities evolved around railroad stops .
Beginning in the late 1880s , the discovery of natural gas and crude oil in the county ( and surrounding region ) caused the area to undergo an economic boom period known as the Indiana Gas Boom . Manufacturers relocated to the area to take advantage of the low @-@ cost energy and railroad facilities . The boom period lasted about 15 years , and is reflected in Blackford County 's population , which peaked in 1900 at 17 @,@ 213 . The new construction associated with the additional prosperity of the boom period caused a significant upgrade in the county 's appearance , as wooden buildings were replaced with structures made with brick and stone . Much of the infrastructure built during that time remains today — including Montpelier 's historic Carnegie Library and many of Hartford City 's buildings in the Courthouse Square Historic District .
Agriculture continues to be important to the county , and became even more important after the loss of several large manufacturers during the 20th century . Today , 72 percent of Blackford County is covered by either corn or soybean fields ; additional crops , such as wheat and hay , are also grown .
= = Geography = =
According to the 2010 census , Blackford County has a total area of 165 @.@ 58 square miles ( 428 @.@ 9 km2 ) , of which 165 @.@ 08 square miles ( 427 @.@ 6 km2 ) ( or 99 @.@ 70 % ) is land and 0 @.@ 50 square miles ( 1 @.@ 3 km2 ) ( or 0 @.@ 30 % ) is water , making it the fourth smallest county in the state . The county is located in East Central Indiana , about 55 miles ( 89 km ) south of Fort Wayne , Indiana , and about 78 miles ( 126 km ) northeast of Indianapolis . Along the north side of the county is Wells County , and on the eastern side of the county is Jay County , which separates Blackford County from Indiana 's border with the state of Ohio . Delaware County is located on Blackford County 's southern border , and to the west is Grant County .
The county land was flattened by two glaciers millions of years ago . These glaciers are also responsible for the rich Blackford County farmland that became available after the county was cleared and drained . During the early 20th century , the Renner Stock Farm , in Licking Township , was known statewide for its quality cattle , hogs , and horses .
The county has some small streams and lakes , although the lakes are man @-@ made . The Salamonie River , flowing out of Jay County ( Indiana ) from the east , crosses the northeast corner of Blackford County . Big and Little Lick Creek flow westward in Licking and Jackson townships in the southern half of the county . Early settlers were attracted to Lick Creek , and then the Salamonie River , because the nearby land had suitable drainage for farming . The county 's lakes include Lake Blue Water in Harrison Township ; Cain 's Lake , Shamrock Lakes and Lake Mohee in Licking Township ; and Lake Placid in Jackson Township . Lake Blue Water is a spring @-@ fed former stone quarry located one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) east of Montpelier . The Shamrock Lakes ( a group of six lakes ) were created between 1960 and 1965 , and the first lake was originally intended to be a water supply for a farmer 's cattle .
Licking and Harrison townships were original to the county . Washington Township , which is named after President George Washington , was created June 29 , 1839 , by the county commissioners . Jackson Township , which is thought to be named after President Andrew Jackson , was created by the commissioners on September 22 , 1839 .
= = = Communities = = =
Two incorporated cities are located within the county , and a small portion of a third city occupies the county 's southeast corner . The largest city is county seat Hartford City , located in the southern half of the county . Hartford City 's population in 2010 was 6 @,@ 220 — well below its 1970 peak of 8 @,@ 207 . Another incorporated city is Montpelier , which is located on the southern banks of the Salamonie River in the northeastern part of the county . Montpelier 's 2010 population was 1 @,@ 805 , which is below its Census Bureau peak of 3 @,@ 405 achieved in 1900 — and less than one half of an unofficial peak of 5 @,@ 000 estimated during the city 's oil boom in 1895 . A small portion of the city of Dunkirk , known as Shadyside , is located in the Jackson Township portion of Blackford County , but most of Dunkirk is located in Jay County . The population for the entire city of Dunkirk was 2 @,@ 362 in 2010 . Shamrock Lakes is Blackford County 's only incorporated town , achieving that status on May 21 , 1973 — and was the first community in Indiana to do so in 50 years . Its 2010 population was 231 .
Road maps typically show five unincorporated communities in Blackford County : Converse ( formerly named Crumley 's Crossing ) , Matamoras , Millgrove , Roll ( formerly named Dundee ) , and Trenton ( former post office named Priam ) . These communities are sometimes listed as ghost towns , as nearly all businesses in these communities have closed . However , residences are still maintained in these communities , and they are listed as populated places by the U.S. Geological Survey . Millgrove , Roll , and Trenton all had post offices during the 19th or 20th centuries .
= = = = Extinct settlements = = = =
Blackford County has over 10 communities that do not exist anymore . In some cases , a church , farm or single residence remains at the extinct community 's location . Among these former communities , Bowser Station , Dorsey Station , Mollie , Silas , and Slocum all had post offices during the 19th century . Mollie 's post office lasted until 1907 .
Bowser Station — This community was a railroad stop in southern Licking Township , and had a post office during the 1870s .
Dorsey Station — This Harrison Township community was a railroad stop , and had a post office during the 1870s .
Frog Alley — This Washington Township community had a church and school . The name Frog Alley was bestowed on the community because of the swampy condition of the area . The school , which began in 1863 , lasted until 1923 .
Greenland — Located in Harrison Township at 400 North and 600 East .
Little Chicago — Located in northwest corner of Harrison Township , and in Wells County .
Mollie — This community thrived in the 1890s as a railroad stop with a grain elevator , post office , and general store . The Harrison Township oil fields were located nearby .
Pleasantdale — Located in Harrison Township , at 300 North and 600 East .
Renner — This Licking Township community was a railroad stop next to the Renner Stock Farm . Housing for the farm 's employees was also located there . It thrived from the 1890s until the 1920s . Renner is still listed as a populated place by the U.S. Geological Survey , but its " population " is a farm .
Silas — The Washington Township land that became the community of Silas was purchased in 1848 , and the original owner established a church and school . By 1880 , a general store was established at that location , and its owner was community namesake Silas Rayl . During the first decade of the 20th century , the Silas general store closed , contributing to the demise of the community .
Slocum — This community was located in southeastern Harrison Township ( exact location not known ) , and had a post office from 1886 until 1902 .
The Town of Luck — Located in Harrison Township at 250 North and 800 East .
Winterhurst — Located in Licking Township , at 200 South and 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) East .
= = History = =
Following thousands of years of varying cultures of indigenous peoples , the historic Miami and Delaware Indians ( a.k.a. Lenape ) are the first @-@ recorded permanent settlers in the Blackford County area , living on the Godfroy Reserve after an 1818 treaty . The site is located in Blackford County 's Harrison Township , east of Montpelier . Although the Godfroy Reserve was allotted to Miami Indian Chief Francois ( a.k.a. Francis ) Godfroy , Delaware Indians were also allowed to stay there . The Miami tribe was the most powerful group of Indians in the region , and Francois Godfroy ( who was half French ) was one of their chiefs . By 1839 , Godfroy had sold the reserve , and the Indians had migrated west . Benjamin Reasoner was the first European – American to enter future Blackford County , and its first land owner . He entered what would become Licking Township on July 9 , 1831 . Reasoner and his sons built the county 's first mill , which was located on the family farm .
For a brief period , the land that would become Blackford County was the western part of Jay County . An act of the Indiana General Assembly , which was approved January 30 , 1836 , created Jay County effective after March 1 , 1836 . In December 1836 , a motion was made in the Indiana House of Representatives to review dividing Jay County , but that resolution was not adopted . Two Blackford County communities , Matamoras and Montpelier , originally existed as part of Jay County . Both of these communities are located along the Salamonie River in what became the northeast portion of Blackford County . John Blount founded Matamoras , arriving in 1833 . This village is Blackford County 's oldest community , and is the site of the county 's largest water mill . The mill , constructed around 1843 , was considered one of the finest in the state . Blackford County 's other former Jay County community is Montpelier , which is located west of Matamoras on the Salamonie River . Led by Abel Baldwin , the community was started in 1836 by groups of migrant settlers from Vermont . The Vermont natives named the settlement after the capital of their home state , Montpelier . Blackford County 's Montpelier was platted in 1837 ( before Matamoras ) , and is the county 's oldest platted community .
Several sources claim Blackford County was created in 1837 . However , the law was not finalized until 1838 . Indiana bill of the House No. 152 was originally for the creation of a county named Windsor . The name " Windsor " was replaced with the name " Blackford " by the House of Representatives in January 1838 . An " act for the formation of the county of Blackford " was approved on February 15 , 1838 . This act intended that the county would be " open for business " on the first Monday in April , 1838 , which was April 2 . However , the county was not organized . Finally , on January 29 , 1839 , the original February 15 act was amended , stating that Blackford County shall " enjoy the rights and privileges " of an independent county . The act also appointed commissioners , and corrected a misprint that defined the southeast corner of the new county .
Over the next two years , a political " battle " continued over the location of the county seat . The tiny community of Hartford was repeatedly selected by the commissioners , but those decisions were challenged by individuals favoring Montpelier . While Licking Township ( location of community of Hartford ) was the most populous township in the county , the community of Montpelier was the county 's oldest platted community . After a third and fourth act of the Indiana General Assembly , Hartford was finalized as the location of the county seat — and construction of a courthouse began . Because it was discovered that another community in Indiana was also named Hartford , Blackford County 's Hartford was eventually renamed Hartford City .
During the next 25 years , the county grew slowly . Plans were made for roads and railroads , and swampland was drained . The first railroad line was authorized in 1849 . The plan was for the Fort Wayne & Southern Railroad Company to connect the Indiana cities of Fort Wayne and Muncie — running north – south through the Blackford County communities of Montpelier and Hartford City . Although work constructing the railroad line began in the 1850s , it was not completed ( by connecting Fort Wayne to Muncie ) until 1870 , and this delay caused it to be the second railroad to operate in Blackford County . By the time the railroad began operations , it was named Fort Wayne , Cincinnati & Louisville Railroad . The Lake Erie and Western Railroad acquired this railroad in 1890 .
The first railroad to operate in Blackford County crossed somewhat east – west through the county 's southern half . The railroad was named Union and Logansport Railroad Company by the time it entered Blackford County . This line was proposed in 1862 , and completed to Hartford City in 1867 — running through the Blackford County communities of Dunkirk , Crumley 's Crossing , and Hartford City . The small community of Crumley 's Crossing was renamed Converse , and two other communities ( Millgrove and Renner ) became established on this line . The railroad was eventually named Pittsburgh , Cincinnati and St. Louis Railroad . Other names for the railroad since that time include the Panhandle division of the Pennsylvania Railroad , Penn Central Railroad Company , Conrail , and Norfolk Southern Railway . A portion of this line is now abandoned , and the track has been removed between Converse and Hartford City , south of State Road 26 .
= = = Gas boom = = =
In 1886 , natural gas was discovered in two counties adjacent to Blackford County . The discoveries were in the small community of Eaton ( south of Hartford City along railroad line ) in Delaware County , and in the city of Portland in Jay County ( east of Hartford City and Millgrove ) . The Hartford City Gas & Oil Company was formed in early 1887 , and successfully drilled a natural gas well later in the year . In Montpelier , the Montpelier Gas & Oil Mining company was organized in the spring of 1887 . While natural gas was found throughout Blackford County , crude oil was found mostly in the county 's Harrison Township ( somewhat between Montpelier and Mollie ) . Blackford County 's first successful oil well , located just south of Montpelier , began producing during 1890 . Montpelier was thought to be " the very heart of the greatest natural gas and oil field in the world " . Oil was also found in parts of Washington Township , including a well that was thought to be " the most phenomenal well ever drilled in America " . By 1896 , Blackford County had 18 natural gas companies . These companies were headquartered in all four of the county 's townships , including the communities of Hartford City , Montpelier , Roll , Dunkirk , Trenton ( Priam Post Office ) , and Millgrove .
In June 1880 , only 171 people held manufacturing jobs in Blackford County . The Indiana Gas Boom transformed the region , as manufacturers moved to the area to utilize the natural gas and railroad system . During 1901 , Indiana state inspectors visited 21 manufacturing facilities in Blackford County , and these companies employed 1 @,@ 346 people ( compare to 171 two decades earlier ) . Since these inspections were in Hartford City and Montpelier only , additional manufacturing employees from the county 's small communities ( such as Millgrove 's glass factory ) could be added to the count of 1 @,@ 346 . The county 's two largest employers were glass factories : American Window Glass plant number 3 and Sneath Glass Company . Hartford City 's resources ( low cost energy , two railroads , and workforce ) were especially favored by glass factories , and a 1904 directory lists 10 of them .
In addition to an economic transformation , another byproduct of the gas boom was an upgrade of Blackford County 's appearance . Many of the county 's landmark buildings were constructed during the gas boom , including the current courthouse and surrounding buildings in Hartford City 's Courthouse Square Historic District . The city 's waterworks was also built during that period . Additional buildings include the Carnegie Library and historic Presbyterian Church . In Montpelier , many of the buildings in its Downtown Historic District were also constructed during the gas boom . Montpelier 's historic Baptist Church and Montpelier 's Carnegie Library were constructed in the early 1900s – near the end of the gas boom .
= = = Post @-@ gas boom = = =
The Indiana Gas Boom gradually came to an end during the first decade of the 20th century . The end of the gas boom meant less prosperity for the county . The gas and oil workers left , some of the manufacturers moved , and the service industries were forced to close or cut back operations because of fewer customers . Adding to the county 's problems , machines made the labor – intensive method originally used for producing window glass obsolete , causing many of the county 's skilled glass workers at the large American Window Glass plant to lose their jobs . By 1932 , the window glass plant of the county 's former largest employer was closed . According to the United States Census , Blackford County 's population peaked at 17 @,@ 123 in 1900 , and it still has not returned to that zenith over 100 years later .
The end of the gas boom was especially difficult for the smaller communities in the county , since the loss of a single business had more of an impact on undersized communities than it did for a town with many businesses . In the case of Millgrove , the community 's major manufacturer ( a glass factory ) closed . For other communities , such as Mollie , the loss of the gas and oil workers meant that the local post office was a " waste of time " , and consumer demand at the general store was significantly diminished .
Improvements to the automobile and highways , which coincided with the end of the gas boom , may have also contributed to the decline of the county 's smaller communities . The automobile changed " business and shopping patterns at the expense of the small @-@ town merchant . " Small town residents began to drive to larger communities to purchase goods , because of the wider selection . The improved quality of automobiles and roads competed with passenger service on the railroads ( and interurban lines ) , causing a decline in passenger traffic on the rails . Small towns associated with railroad stations suffered from the loss in traffic . In Blackford County , passenger service on the Lake Erie and Western Railroad line ( owned by the Nickel Plate Road by that time ) was discontinued in 1931 , and the last interurban train ran on January 18 , 1941 .
Although the natural gas and oil workers left the area after the gas ( and oil ) boom , Montpelier 's population eventually stabilized — and Hartford City 's grew . Some of the manufacturers remained in the county 's two largest cities because of a lack of better alternatives . Hartford City 's Sneath Glass Company , a major employer , continued operations until the 1950s . Hartford City leaders attracted businesses such as Overhead Door ( 1923 ) and 3M ( 1955 ) to replace some of the companies that left the area . Overhead Door was a major employer in Hartford City for over 60 years . A major setback for the community involving Overhead Door occurred during the 1980s , although it began in the 1960s . During the 1960s , Overhead Door moved its headquarters from Hartford City to Dallas , Texas . Its Hartford City manufacturing plant continued to be a major employer until the 1980s , when Overhead Door cut back local operations . The Hartford City facility finally closed in 2000 . The county lost another major Hartford City employer in 2011 when the Key Plastics plant closed , as 200 people lost their jobs .
Agriculture continues to be an important factor in the county 's economy . Over 70 percent of Blackford County 's land is occupied by soybean or corn fields . Additional crops and livestock are also raised . Good returns in agriculture are not always reflected in the economy of nearby towns , as industrial agriculture has reduced the number of workers it needs , and family farms have declined . Many small towns in the " Corn Belt " , such as the communities in Blackford County , continue to decline in size and affluence .
= = Demographics = =
As of the 2010 United States Census , Blackford County 's population density was 77 @.@ 3 inhabitants per square mile ( 29 @.@ 8 / km2 ) , well below the average for Indiana , which was 180 @.@ 8 inhabitants per square mile ( 69 @.@ 8 / km2 ) . Blackford County had 12 @,@ 766 people , 5 @,@ 236 households , and 3 @,@ 567 families residing within its borders . The racial makeup of the county was 97 @.@ 7 percent white , 0 @.@ 4 percent black or African American , 0 @.@ 2 percent Native American , 0 @.@ 1 percent Asian , 0 @.@ 3 percent from other races , and 1 @.@ 3 percent from two or more races . Those of Hispanic or Latino origin made up 0 @.@ 9 percent of the population .
The average household size was 2 @.@ 41 , and the average family size was 2 @.@ 88 . Families accounted for 68 @.@ 1 percent of the county 's 5 @,@ 236 households , and 75 @.@ 5 percent of these families included a husband and wife living together . Children under the age of 18 were living in 38 @.@ 9 percent of the family households . Non @-@ family households accounted for 31 @.@ 9 percent of total households , and 86 @.@ 8 percent of them were occupied by someone living alone . People 65 years and older , living alone , accounted for 40 @.@ 1 percent of non @-@ family households — or 12 @.@ 8 percent of all types of households .
In terms of age distribution , 22 @.@ 8 percent of the population were under the age of 18 , and 21 @.@ 6 percent were 62 years of age or older . The median age was 42 @.@ 4 years . For every 100 females , there were 97 @.@ 2 males . For every 100 females age 18 and over , there were 93 @.@ 7 males .
As of the 2000 United States Census , the median income for a household in the county was $ 34 @,@ 760 , and the median income for a family was $ 41 @,@ 758 . Males had a median income of $ 30 @,@ 172 versus $ 21 @,@ 386 for females . The per capita income for the county was $ 16 @,@ 543 . About 6 @.@ 0 percent of families and 8 @.@ 7 percent of the population were below the poverty line , including 12 @.@ 3 percent of those under age 18 and 8 @.@ 6 percent of those age 65 or over . In terms of ancestry , 16 @.@ 7 percent were German , 15 @.@ 5 percent were American , 9 @.@ 3 percent were Irish and 7 @.@ 8 percent were English .
= = Government = =
The county government is a constitutional body granted specific powers by the Constitution of Indiana and the Indiana Code . The county council is the legislative branch of the county government and controls all spending and revenue collection . Representatives are elected from county districts . The council members serve four @-@ year terms and are responsible for setting salaries , the annual budget and special spending . The council also has limited authority to impose local taxes , in the form of an income and property tax that is subject to state level approval , excise taxes and service taxes . In 2010 , the county budgeted approximately $ 3 @.@ 95 million for the district 's schools and $ 3 @.@ 18 million for other county operations and services , for a total annual budget of approximately $ 7 @.@ 1 million .
The executive body of the county is made of a board of commissioners . The commissioners are elected county @-@ wide , in staggered terms , and each serves a four @-@ year term . One of the commissioners , typically the most senior , serves as president . The commissioners are charged with executing the acts legislated by the council , collecting revenue and managing day @-@ to @-@ day functions of the county government . The 2011 president of Blackford County 's board of commissioners is Fred Walker .
The county maintains a small claims court that can handle some civil cases . The judge on the court is elected to a term of four years and must be a member of the Indiana Bar Association . The judge is assisted by a constable who is elected to a four @-@ year term . In some cases , court decisions can be appealed to the state level circuit court .
The county has several other elected offices , including sheriff , coroner , auditor , treasurer , recorder , surveyor and circuit court clerk . Each of these elected officers serves a term of four years and oversees a different part of county government . Members elected to county government positions are required to declare party affiliations and be residents of the county .
Each of the townships has a trustee who administers rural fire protection and ambulance service , provides poor relief and manages cemetery care , among other duties . The trustee is assisted in these duties by a three @-@ member township board . The trustees and board members are elected to four @-@ year terms .
Based on 2000 census results , Blackford County is part of Indiana 's 6th congressional district , Indiana Senate district 19 and Indiana House of Representatives district 31 .
= = Climate and weather = =
Blackford County has a typical Midwestern humid continental seasonal climate , and its Köppen climate classification is Dfa . There are four distinct seasons , with winters being cold with moderate snowfall , while summers can be warm and humid . In recent years , average temperatures in county seat Hartford City have ranged from a low of 18 ° F ( − 8 ° C ) in January to a high of 84 ° F ( 29 ° C ) in July , although a record low of − 26 ° F ( − 32 ° C ) was recorded in January 1994 and a record high of 103 ° F ( 39 ° C ) was recorded in June 1988 . Average monthly precipitation ranged from 1 @.@ 94 inches ( 49 mm ) in February to 4 @.@ 33 inches ( 110 mm ) in June .
March and April are considered tornado season in Indiana . Blackford County endured a category 4 storm on Palm Sunday ( April 11 ) in 1965 . This storm was one of many tornados that occurred in the Midwest on that day . Category 4 tornados have maximum speeds of 207 to 260 miles per hour ( 333 to 418 km / h ) , and this one crossed Blackford County farmland east of Roll . Although there were no fatalities in Blackford County from this tornado , two people were killed in neighboring Wells County . The county has experienced at least five other tornados . The most recent tornados were two that occurred in Hartford City in 2002 . However , the two Hartford City tornados were rated category 1 on the Fujita scale — much less dangerous than a category 4 .
Blackford County has a record for hail . Hail 4 @.@ 5 inches ( 110 mm ) in diameter fell in Hartford City on April 9 , 2001 . In a tie with the city of Cayuga , those hail " stones " are the largest ever recorded in the state of Indiana .
The biggest recorded snow storm was the Great Blizzard of 1978 , which occurred on January 26 – 27 , 1978 . A federal state of emergency was declared for Indiana at that time . Indiana governor Otis R. Bowen authorized the use of National Guard equipment , facilities , and personnel throughout the state . Low temperatures , high winds , and deep snow caused Hartford City to look like a ghost town , as schools and businesses closed . Wind gusts up to 45 miles per hour ( 72 km / h ) caused snowdrifts up to 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) high , making travel by any type of truck or automobile almost impossible . Snowmobiles were the only viable means of transportation , and volunteers from Hartford City 's Snowmobile Club provided emergency assistance .
= = Economy = =
Blackford County 's economy is supported by a labor force of approximately 5 @,@ 900 workers with an unemployment rate for June 2013 of 9 @.@ 8 percent . Industrial parks are located in both Montpelier and Hartford City , and both cities are served by railroad line owned by Norfolk Southern . Over 30 employers of varying size are located in the county . The Blackford County School System has the most employees , with locations in both Hartford City and Montpelier . 3M Company is currently the largest manufacturer in the county , and has been located in Hartford City since its purchase of the Hartford City Paper Mill in 1955 . Another business employing more than 100 people is Blackford County Community Hospital , located in Hartford City . Emhart Gripco is Montpelier 's leading employer , with over 100 people working at its facility .
Four categories of employment account for over 50 percent of employment in the county : manufacturing , government , retail trade , and health care . The largest category is manufacturing , and it accounts for about 19 percent of the county 's employed workforce . In addition to local Blackford County businesses , larger local economies in the more populous counties to the south and west offer employment and commerce , particularly in the city of Muncie in Delaware County , and the city of Marion in Grant County . Both counties employ more workers than their local workforce can provide .
Agriculture has a significant impact on the county , although farm workers account for only about 5 percent of the county 's workers . In 2007 , the county had 250 farms occupying 84 @,@ 626 acres ( 34 @,@ 247 ha ) . Therefore , roughly 80 percent of Blackford County is farmland . Nearly 72 @,@ 000 acres ( 29 @,@ 000 ha ) are devoted to the cultivation of soybeans and corn . Wheat , hay , and oats were also grown . Livestock include over 24 @,@ 000 hogs and pigs .
= = Transportation = =
There are no interstate highways in Blackford County , although Interstate 69 passes about 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) to the west of the county 's western border . U.S. Route 35 shares a portion of I @-@ 69 's route in this area ; it also does not enter Blackford County .
State Road 3 enters the county from the south after passing through Eaton in neighboring Delaware County . It passes directly north through Hartford City and leaves the county near Roll , continuing north into Wells County . State Road 18 runs from west to east through the north end of the county , on its way from Marion to the Ohio border ; it passes through Montpelier and Matamoras .
State Road 26 also runs from west to east , entering from Upland in neighboring Grant County and passing through Hartford City where it crosses State Road 3 . Going on through Trenton , it enters Jay County on its way to the Ohio border .
State Road 167 runs along the eastern border of the county for about 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) as it goes north from Dunkirk ; it terminates when it reaches State Road 26 .
A Norfolk Southern Railway railroad line enters the county from the south after leaving Eaton ; it runs about a mile to the east of State Road 3 until it reaches Hartford City where it veers to the northeast and passes through Montpelier . It continues into Wells County to the north . Norfolk Southern also owns Blackford County 's east – west line located in the southern half of the county . An 8 @-@ mile ( 13 km ) section of this line , between Converse and Hartford City , was abandoned during the last decade , and track has been removed . The line is still in service north of State Road 26 , between Hartford City and Upland in Grant County . In October 2009 , Central Railroad Company of Indianapolis pursued a leasing agreement to operate the east – west line with Norfolk Southern Railway in Blackford County . However , the line currently does not appear on the Central Railroad Company of Indianapolis system map .
= = Education and health care = =
The county 's five public schools are administered by the Blackford County School Corporation . During the 2010 – 11 school year , a total of 1 @,@ 943 students attended these schools . The county school system was reorganized in 1963 , after a county @-@ wide vote favored a single school system for the entire county . As a result of this decision , Hartford City and Montpelier High Schools graduated their last classes in 1969 , and a new high school serving the entire county was constructed in time for the 1969 – 1970 school year . Like the county , the new high school was named after Isaac Newton Blackford , and is called Blackford High School . The school is located a few miles north of Hartford City , and is therefore somewhat near the center of the county . The school was designed for 1 @,@ 200 students , and initial enrollment totaled to 1 @,@ 150 students , serving grades 9 through 12 . Current high school enrollment is less than 650 . All students in grades 7 and 8 attend Blackford Junior High School . Although the county was served by eight elementary schools during the 1980s , consolidations have decreased the number of elementary schools to three . Montpelier Elementary School serves grades 1 through 6 , and also has kindergarten classes . In Hartford City , Southside Elementary School hosts a kindergarten and grades 1 through 3 , while students in grades 4 through 6 attend Northside Elementary School .
At least four universities are located close to Blackford County . All four are located in adjacent counties , but are less than 25 miles ( 40 km ) from Hartford City . Ball State University is the largest and most well known , and is located south of Hartford City in Muncie . Muncie is also home to Ivy Tech State College @-@ East Central . Private school Indiana Wesleyan University is located in Marion , which is west of Montpelier . Another private school , Taylor University , is less than 10 miles ( 16 km ) west of Hartford City in Upland .
The cities of Montpelier and Hartford City both have public libraries . The Public Library of Montpelier and Harrison Township was built in 1907 and 1908 . This building is also known as the Montpelier Carnegie Library because it was made possible by a grant from philanthropist ( and former business magnate ) Andrew Carnegie . The library was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 2007 . Hartford City 's Public library was also made possible by a grant from Carnegie , and it was built in 1903 . The Carnegie Fund required local towns to do fundraising to match the grants , and to commit to operating the libraries after their construction . In many localities , women 's groups were instrumental in organizing and doing fundraising for the libraries , both at the time of construction and since . Another library located in Hartford City belongs to the Blackford County Historical Society , and a museum is housed in the same building .
The Blackford County Health Department is located in Hartford City , and has a staff of nine people that serves and educates the county . Immunization and blood pressure clinics are provided in addition to educational services and emergency preparedness . The county 's hospital is Indiana University Health Blackford Hospital , a 15 @-@ bed facility located on Hartford City 's north side . This facility was opened January 2005 , and includes a medical office building and ambulance garage .
= = Media = =
The first newspaper in Blackford County was The Hartford City Times , which was started by Dr. John Moler in 1852 . Moler ran a drug store and print shop , and the Times was mostly an advertiser . At least one source considers The Blackford County News , which was started later in 1852 , as the county ’ s first newspaper — possibly because the Times was mostly for advertising . Across the county in Montpelier , the The Montpelier Examiner was first published in 1879 , and that newspaper is the predecessor of the town ’ s long @-@ time newspaper , The Montpelier Herald . The county 's first daily newspaper , the Evening News , was started in 1894 by Edward Everett Cox . This Hartford City newspaper was eventually renamed Hartford City News . After Cox ’ s death in the 1930s , the Cox family sold the Hartford City News to the owners of Hartford City ’ s Times @-@ Gazette , and the combined entity became the Hartford City News @-@ Times . Changing ownership over the years , the Hartford City News @-@ Times continued operations through the 20th century . During the 21st century , the newspaper began using the name News @-@ Times , and calls itself " Blackford County ’ s only daily newspaper " .
The two major television markets that reach Blackford County are Indianapolis and Fort Wayne . Although a few lower @-@ powered stations are located closer to Blackford County in cities such as Muncie , Marion , and Kokomo , these stations typically do not have a broadcast range that covers all of Blackford County . There are no AM radio stations based in Blackford County , but plenty of nearby areas have AM stations in broadcast range . This includes Indianapolis , Fort Wayne , Muncie , and Marion among others . Plenty of FM stations are also in broadcast range , and Blackford County has FM radio stations located in Hartford City and Montpelier . Hartford City , Montpelier , and portions of the county 's rural areas have internet access available .
= = Notable people = =
Kevin A. Ford was born in Portland , Indiana , in 1960 . His family moved to Montpelier , Indiana , and he graduated from Blackford High School in 1978 . Ford holds four academic degrees , and retired from active duty as a colonel in the United States Air Force in 2008 . He was the pilot for the Space Shuttle Discovery during its August 2009 flight , and has logged over 332 hours in outer space . On October 23 , 2012 , Ford began another voyage into outer space . This time , his journey was aboard a Russian spacecraft , with the International Space Station as his destination .
Clarence G. Johnson was the first president of Overhead Door Corporation , and lived in Hartford City , Indiana , from 1923 until he died in 1935 . He was a pioneer in the development of garage doors , and holds numerous patents . One of Johnson 's more notable inventions is the first " electric operator for sectional upward @-@ acting doors " . Johnson 's Overhead Door Corporation was a major employer in Blackford County for over 60 years , employing as many as 515 people during its peak years .
Maurice Clifford Townsend was born August 11 , 1884 , on a small farm in Blackford County 's Licking Township . After graduating from college in Marion , Indiana , Townsend served as superintendent of Blackford County schools , superintendent of Grant County schools , and as a representative of the Blackford @-@ Grant District in the Indiana General Assembly . Townsend was elected as Indiana 's lieutenant governor in 1932 . He won the 1936 election for governor , and served the single four @-@ year term allowed by law . After Townsend 's public service in Indiana , he served in the administration of President Franklin D. Roosevelt , and worked in agriculture related offices . Townsend 's legacy is directing school buses to be painted yellow for safety and identification purposes , an idea that spread nationwide .
Erika Wicoff is one of the most decorated female athletes in Indiana University history , earning three Big Ten Player of the Year awards as a golfer . She was the Big Ten women 's golf champion in 1994 , 1995 , and 1996 . A native of Hartford City , Indiana , she later competed in the Ladies Professional Golf Association . Wicoff was inducted into the Indiana Athletics Hall of Fame in 2006 .
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= No. 1 Basic Flying Training School RAAF =
No. 1 Basic Flying Training School ( No. 1 BFTS ) was a flying training school of the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) . Along with No. 1 Initial Flying Training School ( No. 1 IFTS ) , it was formed in response to increased demand for aircrew during the Korean War and Malayan Emergency . No. 1 BFTS was established in December 1951 at RAAF Base Uranquinty , New South Wales , where it operated de Havilland Tiger Moths and CAC Wirraways . The school absorbed the activities of No. 1 IFTS in January 1955 , as aircrew training requirements had ased following the end of the Korean War . No. 1 BFTS moved to RAAF Base Point Cook , Victoria , in May 1958 , by which time it was exclusively flying CAC Winjeels . Its training program expanded in the mid @-@ 1960s owing to Australia 's commitments in the Vietnam War . No. 1 BFTS was re @-@ formed as No. 1 Flying Training School at Point Cook in January 1969 .
= = History = =
Prior to World War II , all pilot training in the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) was conducted under the auspices of one unit , No. 1 Flying Training School ( No. 1 FTS ) , at RAAF Point Cook , Victoria . With the dramatic expansion of aircrew training under the wartime Empire Air Training Scheme , No. 1 FTS was supplanted in 1940 – 41 by twelve elementary flying training schools ( EFTS ) and eight service flying training schools ( SFTS ) . Post @-@ war rationalisation saw all the EFTSs and SFTSs disbanded . No. 1 FTS , re @-@ formed using the personnel and equipment of No. 5 Service Flying Training School in Uranquinty , New South Wales , returned to Point Cook and again became the RAAF 's sole facility for training new pilots .
= = = Formation at Uranquinty = = =
In response to demands for more aircrew to meet Australia 's commitments to the Korean War and Malayan Emergency , flying training in the RAAF was again expanded in 1951 – 52 , resulting in the functions of No. 1 FTS being split among three separately located units . No. 1 FTS itself was renamed No. 1 Applied Flying Training School ( No. 1 AFTS ) in March 1952 , and assumed responsibility for advanced weapons and combat training on CAC Wirraways . Meanwhile , in November 1951 , No. 1 Initial Flying Training School ( No. 1 IFTS ) was raised at RAAF Station Archerfield , Queensland , to impart students with general aeronautical and military knowledge , after which they received their flight grading during twelve hours on de Havilland Tiger Moths . Graduate pilots of No. 1 IFTS went on to another new unit , No. 1 Basic Flying Training School ( No. 1 BFTS ) at RAAF Base Uranquinty , New South Wales , where they underwent further aerial instruction that included instrument , formation and night flying , as well as aerobatics and navigation . The first part of their training at No. 1 BFTS included 40 hours on Tiger Moths , after which they would fly 50 hours on Wirraways . Successful students finally transferred to No. 1 AFTS , before graduating as sergeant pilots .
When No. 1 BFTS formed at Uranquinty on 1 December 1951 , it had 377 staff , 37 Tiger Moths and 37 Wirraways , and came under the control of Headquarters Southern Area ( Training Command from 1 October 1953 ) . The first pilots ' course commenced on 1 April 1952 , and graduated on 1 August . The first course of graduates from No. 1 IFTS transferred in the same month . As well as RAAF pilots , No. 1 BFTS trained students from the Australian Army and the Royal Australian Navy 's Fleet Air Arm . In February 1953 , a prototype CAC Winjeel , designed and manufactured in Australia , arrived at the school to undergo trials . From January 1956 to February 1957 , the Winjeel gradually replaced both the Tiger Moth and the Wirraway as No. 1 BFTS 's training aircraft . As well as these aircraft , Link Trainer instrument flying simulators were employed at the school . By November 1954 , following the end of the Korean War , the RAAF 's need for further aircrew to fulfill its international obligations had eased and the decision was made to combine the syllabus of No. 1 IFTS with No. 1 BFTS starting in January 1955 , after which No. 1 IFTS was disbanded .
= = = Relocation to Point Cook = = =
In May 1958 , No. 1 AFTS relocated to RAAF Base Pearce , Western Australia , to re @-@ equip with de Havilland Vampire jet trainers . Its place at RAAF Base Point Cook was taken by No. 1 BFTS , which transferred from Uranquinty . RAAF Base Uranquinty closed on 18 December 1958 , and No. 1 BFTS commenced operations at Point Cook the following day . Trainee pilots could now expect to fly approximately 85 hours on Winjeels at No. 1 BFTS , followed by 125 hours on Vampires at No. 1 AFTS , and gain a short @-@ service commission as a pilot officer upon graduation . On 31 December 1958 , the Flying Training Squadron at RAAF College , Point Cook , was closed , and graduates undertook their basic flying training at No. 1 BFTS . From 1961 , cadets at the recently established RAAF Academy ( successor to RAAF College ) were given between 25 and 50 hours " motivational flying " at No. 1 BFTS , as practical relief from the " hard grind " of their four years of academic study . By mid @-@ 1964 , the school had a staff of 182 , including 22 flying instructors , and was operating 30 Winjeels . Students were flying 124 hours , including eight at night , over a 40 @-@ week course , and were generally expected to go solo after eight or nine hours in the air .
The pace of flying training increased in the mid @-@ 1960s as the RAAF expanded and enlisted more aircrew to fulfill Australia 's commitment to the Vietnam War . According to Air Force historian Alan Stephens , " It was not uncommon for thirteen aircraft , some flown by inexperienced solo students , to be in the circuit simultaneously at Point Cook , creating something of a ' sink or swim ' environment for the trainees " . The ratio of students to instructors was generally around 3 : 1 ; junior instructors might fly four times a day , plus twice more when night training . By mid @-@ 1967 , No. 1 BFTS had 34 instructors , was operating 40 aircraft , and was logging around 2 @,@ 000 flying hours per month ; its training program necessitated the use of as many as five other airstrips at the nearby RAAF Base Laverton and Bacchus Marsh , to augment the four runways at its home airfield in Point Cook . On 31 December 1968 , No. 1 BFTS was disbanded at Point Cook , re @-@ forming there as No. 1 FTS on 1 January 1969 . At the same time , No. 1 AFTS was disbanded at Pearce and re @-@ formed as No. 2 Flying Training School . Subsequent rationalisation of RAAF flying training saw the disbandment of No. 1 FTS at Point Cook on 31 January 1993 . Initial flight grading and basic instruction has since been conducted by civilian contractors at the Australian Defence Force Basic Flying Training School .
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= Maryland Route 363 =
Maryland Route 363 ( MD 363 ) is a state highway in the U.S. state of Maryland . Known for almost all of its length as Deal Island Road , the state highway runs 18 @.@ 30 miles ( 29 @.@ 45 km ) from a dead end on Deal Island east to Mansion Avenue in Princess Anne . MD 363 connects Princess Anne and U.S. Route 13 ( US 13 ) with the communities of Deal Island , Chance , and Dames Quarter on Tangier Sound in northwestern Somerset County . The state highway was constructed starting from Princess Anne around 1920 , and reached Chance in the early 1930s . It was extended to Deal Island when a modern bridge to the island was constructed in 1940 . MD 363 was extended to its present terminus on the island in the late 1950s .
= = Route description = =
MD 363 begins at a dead end in the community of Wenona at the southern end of Deal Island . The state highway heads north , sharply curving before crossing Middle Creek . The road runs through another series of sharp curves through marshland before straightening out and passing St. John 's Methodist Episcopal Church and the old post office building , two examples of buildings on the island preserved as part of the Deal Island Historic District . The route passes a boat ramp accessed from Ralph Abbott Road before a high @-@ level bridge carries it over Upper Thorofare , a strait between Laws Cove and Tangier Sound . On the north side of the bridge , MD 363 intersects MD 363A , the northern approach to the previous bridge to Deal Island , before passing through the community of Chance , the site of Rock Creek Methodist Episcopal Church . After passing Haines Point Road , which leads to a large public boat ramp , the state highway continues northeast across the two branches of Rock Creek and through more marshland before entering Dames Quarter . MD 363 traverses Dames Quarter Creek and passes through Deal Island Wildlife Management Area .
After passing through the wildlife management area , MD 363 heads east on a 5 @-@ mile ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) straight through the hamlets of St. Stephens and Monie . The state highway bypasses the village of Oriole , which is accessed by Oriole Back Road from the west and MD 627 ( Oriole Road ) from the east . After passing to the south of Venton , which features the historic home Panther 's Den and All Saints Church , MD 363 traverses the Chesapeake Forest Lands . On the east edge of the forest , the road curves northeast and then east toward Princess Anne , passing farmland , several residential subdivisions , and the Flying W Airport . Immediately after crossing the Manokin River , MD 363 reaches its intersection with US 13 ( Ocean Highway ) . The state highway continues east into the town of Princess Anne as Manokin Avenue , where it reaches its eastern terminus at Mansion Avenue , named for the Teackle Mansion one block to the south . The roadway continues east through the Princess Anne Historic District toward MD 675 ( Somerset Avenue ) in the center of the town .
= = History = =
MD 363 had been built from Princess Anne to the eastern end of the 5 @-@ mile ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) straight by 1921 . The state highway reached Monie by 1923 and Dames Quarter in 1926 . MD 363 was under construction west to Chance in 1930 and completed by 1933 . The state highway 's western terminus remained at Chance until 1940 . MD 363 was extended to the other side of Upper Thorofare when a modern bridge replaced a causeway that had been in place since at least 1903 . The state highway was widened in stages from Princess Anne between 1950 and 1958 , culminating in the extension of MD 363 to Wenona in 1958 . MD 363 originally continued east from its present terminus in Princess Anne along Mansion Avenue and Prince William Street to end at MD 675 . The state highway assumed its present eastern terminus around 1985 . The present bridge across Upper Thorofare was completed in 1987 .
= = Junction list = =
The entire route is in Somerset County .
= = Auxiliary route = =
MD 363A is a 0 @.@ 06 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 097 km ) spur that parallels the westbound side of MD 363 just north of the highway 's bridge over Upper Thorofare between the mainland and Deal Island .
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= A New System of Domestic Cookery =
A New System of Domestic Cookery , first published in 1806 by Maria Eliza Rundell ( 1745 – 16 December 1828 ) , was the most popular English cookbook of the first half of the nineteenth century ; it is often referred to simply as " Mrs Rundell " , but its full title is A New System of Domestic Cookery : Formed Upon Principles of Economy ; and Adapted to the Use of Private Families .
Mrs Rundell has been called " the original domestic goddess " and her book " a publishing sensation " and " the most famous cookery book of its time " . It ran to over 67 editions ; the 1865 edition had grown to 644 pages , and earned two thousand guineas .
= = Book = =
The first edition of 1806 was a short collection of Mrs Rundell 's recipes published by John Murray . It went through dozens of editions , both legitimate and pirated , in both Britain and the United States , where the first edition was published in 1807 . The frontispiece typically credited the authorship to " A Lady " . Later editions continued for some forty years after Mrs Rundell 's death . The author Emma Roberts ( c . 1794 – 1840 ) edited the 64th edition , adding some recipes of her own .
Sales of A New System of Domestic Cookery helped to found the John Murray publishing empire . Sales in Britain were over 245 @,@ 000 ; worldwide , over 500 @,@ 000 ; the book stayed in print until the 1880s . When Rundell and Murray fell out , she approached a rival publisher , Longman 's , leading to a legal battle .
= = = Contents = = =
The 1865 edition is divided into 35 chapters over 644 pages . It begins with a 2 @-@ page preface . The table of contents lists each recipe under its chapter heading . There is a set of tables of weights , measures , wages and taxes before the main text . There is a full index at the end .
= = = Approach = = =
In contrast to the relative disorder of English eighteenth century cookery books such as Eliza Smith 's The Compleat Housewife ( 1727 ) or Elizabeth Raffald 's The Experienced English Housekeeper ( 1769 ) , Mrs Rundell 's text is strictly ordered and neatly subdivided . Where those books consist almost wholly of recipes , Mrs Rundell begins by explaining techniques of economy ( " A minute account of the annual income and the times of payment should be kept in writing " ) , how to carve , how to stew , how to season , to " Look clean , be careful and nice in work , so that those who have to eat might look on " , how to choose and use steam @-@ kettles and the bain @-@ marie , the meanings of foreign terms like pot @-@ au @-@ feu ( " truly the foundation of all good cookery " ) , all the joints of meat , the " basis of all well @-@ made soups " , so it is page 65 before actual recipes begin .
The recipes are written as direct instructions . Quantities , if given , are incorporated in the text . For example , " Gravy to make Mutton eat like Venison " runs :
Pick a very stale woodcock , or snipe , cut it to pieces ( but first take out the bag from the entrails ) , and simmer with as much unseasoned meat gravy as you will want . Strain it , and serve in the dish .
Basic skills like making pastry are explained separately , and then not mentioned in recipes . Under " Pastry " , Mrs Rundell gives directions for " Rich Puff Paste " , " A less rich Paste " , and " Crust for Venison Pasty " , with variations such as " Raised Crusts for Custards or Fruit " . A recipe for " Shrimp Pie , excellent " then proceeds with the bare minimum indication of quantities and a passing mention of " the paste " :
Pick a quart of shrimps ; if they are very salt , season them with only mace and a clove or two . Mince two or three anchovies ; mix these with the spice , and then season the shrimps . Put some butter at the bottom of the dish , and over the shrimps , with a glass of sharp white wine . The paste must be light and thin . They do not take long baking .
Advice is given on choosing the best supplies in the market . For instance :
Fowls . — If a cock is young , his spurs will be short ; but take care to see they have not been cut or pared , which is a trick often practised . If fresh , the vent will be close and dark .
= = Reception = =
= = = Contemporary = = =
The Monthly Review wrote in 1827 that A New System of Domestic Cookery
is almost too well known to require notice [ i.e. a review ] . Its chief object is , to teach economy in the management of the table ; and this , we think , it accomplishes . We cannot speak in praise of its receipts for the higher kinds of cookery , but we dare say that they will be very much admired by precisely that class of gastronomes whose judgement is worth nothing . "
The review concluded that " though we have no respect for Mrs. Rundell 's salmis , we cordially admire her practical good sense , and applaud her for the production of a useful book " which had been " the pattern of all that have since been published . "
By 1841 the Quarterly Literary Advertiser was able to give as the " Opinions of the Press " , on the 64th edition , paragraphs of favourable reviews from the Worcestershire Guardian ( " the standard work of reference in every private family in English society " ) , the Hull Advertiser ( " most valuable advice upon all household matters " ) , the Derby Reporter ( " a complete guide ... suited to the present advanced state of the art " ) , Keane 's Bath Journal ( " it leaves no room to any rival " ) , the Durham Advertiser ( " No housekeeper ought to be without this book " ) , the Brighton Gazette ( " if further proof be wanting , it may be found in the fact that Mrs. Rundell received from her publisher , Mr. Murray , no less a sum than Two Thousand Guineas for her labour ! ! " ) , the Aylesbury News ( " the peculiarity of the present work is its scientific preface , and an attention to economy as well as taste in giving its directions " ) , the Bristol Mirror ( " far surpasses all its predecessors , and continues to be the best treatise extant concerning the art " ) , the Midland Counties Herald ( " ought to be in the hands of every lady who does not consider it vulgar to look after the affairs of her own household " ) , the Inverness Herald ( " enriched with the latest improvements in gastronomic science " ) and The Scotsman , which ventured
The sixty @-@ fourth edition ! So much for Mrs. Rundell 's portion of the work . Of that portion , after this , we need say nothing . ... Of the additions made by her successor [ Emma Roberts ] , ... she appears to have brought a large amount of experience in the art of cookery to the task , and her name alone is a sufficient guarantee for the utility and excellence of her new receipts .
In 1844 , the Foreign Quarterly Review commented on the 67th edition that
it is exclusively a middle class book , and intended for the rich bourgeoisie . The compiler , Mrs. Rundell , had spent the early part of her life in India , and the last edition of the work is enriched with many receipts of Indian cookery . It is on the whole a succinct and judicious compilation ... For many years , if report speaks truly , it has produced 1000 £ . a year to the publisher " .
= = = Modern = = =
Severin Carrell , writing in The Guardian , calls Mrs Rundell " the original domestic goddess " and her book " a publishing sensation " of the early nineteenth century , as it sold " half a million copies and conquered America " , as well as helping to found the John Murray publishing empire . For all that , Carrell notes , both " the most famous cookery book of its time " and Rundell herself vanished into obscurity .
Elizabeth Grice , writing in The Telegraph , similarly calls Mrs Rundell " a Victorian domestic goddess " , though without " Nigella 's sexual frisson , or Delia 's uncomplicated kitchen manners " . Grice points out that " at 61 , she was too old to act the pouting goddess " to sell her book , but " sell it did , in vast numbers , as a lifeline to cash @-@ strapped middle @-@ class English households that were desperate to keep up appearances but were having trouble with the staff . " She says that compared to Eliza Acton " who could write better " ( as in her 1845 book , Modern Cookery for Private Families ) , and the " ubiquitous " Mrs Beeton , Mrs Rundell " has unfairly slipped from view " .
Alan Davidson , in the Oxford Companion to Food writes that " It did not include many novel features , although it did have one of the first English recipes for tomato sauce . "
= = Editions = =
There have been over 67 editions , success leading to constant revision and extension : the first edition had 344 pages , while the 1865 edition runs to 644 pages including the index . Some landmarks in the book 's publication history are :
" By a Lady . " 1st edition . London : John Murray , 1806 .
( no title page ) Boston : W. Andrews , 1807 .
" By a Lady . " Philadelphia : Benjamin C. Buzby , 1807 .
" By a Lady . " " Second edition " . Boston : Andrews & Cummings , and L. Blake , 1807 .
" By a Lady . " New edition , 1808 . " Price Seven Shillings and Sixpence . "
" By a Lady . " New @-@ York : R. McDermut & D. B. Arden , 1814 .
" By a Lady . " 1816 edition , reprinted by Persephone Books , 2008 .
" By a Lady . " New edition , 1824 .
" By a Lady . " London : Thomas Allman , 1840 .
" By a Lady . " 66th edition , John Murray , 1842 .
" By Mrs. Rundell . " From the Sixty @-@ Seventh London Edition . Philadelphia : Carey and Hart , 1844 .
" By a Lady . " New edition , " 245th thousand " , John Murray , 1865 .
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= 1885 – 86 West Bromwich Albion F.C. season =
The 1885 – 86 season was the eighth season in the history of West Bromwich Albion Football Club . In what was their inaugural season as a professional club , Albion moved to the Stoney Lane ground after leaving their previous home at Four Acres . The team also changed the colour of its kit , wearing blue and white striped jerseys for the first time . As league football had not been introduced in England at the time , the team competed solely in cup competitions and friendly matches throughout the season , playing 52 matches in total .
West Bromwich Albion won two regional cup competitions in 1885 – 86 . They defeated Walsall Swifts by a single goal in the replayed final of the Birmingham Senior Cup , while in the Staffordshire Senior Cup a replay was again required as Stoke were beaten 4 – 2 following a goalless draw in the original tie . Albion also progressed through seven rounds to reach the FA Cup Final for the first time , becoming the first Midlands team to do so . However , after initially drawing 0 – 0 with Blackburn Rovers , they lost 2 – 0 in the replay .
= = Off the field = =
Football was an amateur game until July 1885 , when the Football Association decided to legalise payments to players . West Bromwich Albion held a committee meeting the following month , at which it was decided that the club should become professional . Albion 's first professionals earned 10 shillings ( 50 pence ) per week , with no training allowance provided .
After deciding not to renew the lease on the Four Acres , Albion moved to their fifth ground , Stoney Lane , in time for the 1885 – 86 season . The ground was located close to the Plough and Harrow public house , which served as the club 's headquarters at the time . Albion took out an initial seven @-@ year lease on the Stoney Lane site , paying an annual rent of £ 28 to its owner , a local undertaker named Mr Webb . The pitch was returfed and levelled , with ashes spread around the perimeter , and a wooden grandstand was built that came to be known as ' Noah 's Ark ' . The ground cost £ 370 to build , a sum that was offset by a number of friendly matches that took place early in the season .
During their early years , West Bromwich Albion had played in whatever coloured kit was available locally . However , at a committee meeting held in September 1885 , the club decreed that blue and white striped jerseys should be adopted on a permanent basis . With the exception of a brief trial of scarlet and blue broad stripes early in the 1889 – 90 season , the team have worn these colours ever since , although initially the blue was of a lighter shade ; the navy blue stripes were not introduced until after the First World War .
Due to the club 's financial situation , the reserve team had their wages halved early on in the season , and by January 1886 the payments made to reserve players were withdrawn altogether , although there was a possibility of them receiving a bonus at the end of the season if funds permitted . This resulted in Albion 's second team refusing to play against Small Heath Alliance and the game was cancelled . Some of the players were suspended as a result of their actions , but were later re @-@ instated .
= = FA Cup = =
In their third season in the FA Cup , West Bromwich Albion were drawn at home in every round prior to the semi @-@ final . In the first two rounds , they defeated Aston Unity 4 – 1 and Wednesbury Old Athletic 3 – 2 . The team then received a bye to the fourth round , where they beat Wolverhampton Wanderers by a 3 – 1 scoreline . Old Carthusians were defeated by a single goal in the fifth round . A hat @-@ trick from Jem Bayliss — the first by an Albion player in the FA Cup — contributed to a 6 – 0 quarter @-@ final victory over Old Westminsters , putting the club into the FA Cup semi @-@ final for the first time .
The semi @-@ final took place at Aston Lower Grounds and was against one of Albion 's local rivals , Small Heath Alliance . Albion won 4 – 0 — Arthur Loach and George Woodhall each scoring twice — to become the first Midlands club to reach the FA Cup Final . After the game , Small Heath supporters invaded the pitch and then pelted missiles at vehicles bound for West Bromwich , causing several injuries . In the final , Albion met holders Blackburn Rovers at the Kennington Oval , drawing 0 – 0 . No extra time was played , so a replay was arranged at Derby Cricket Ground , the first time that an FA Cup Final match had taken place outside London . Albion were beaten 2 – 0 as Rovers lifted the FA Cup for the third year in succession . This was the first of three successive FA Cup Finals in which West Bromwich Albion participated .
Source for match details :
= = Birmingham Senior Cup = =
Due to a congested fixture list , Albion fielded a reserve side in the first two rounds of their fifth Birmingham Senior Cup campaign , beating Sparkhill Alliance 6 – 0 and Burton Swifts 4 – 1 . Tommy Green scored a hat @-@ trick in the third round match away at Notts Rangers , as Albion ran out 7 – 2 winners . Burslem Port Vale were defeated 5 – 0 in the semi @-@ final , which took place at a neutral venue , Aston Lower Grounds . The team drew 1 – 1 with Walsall Swifts in the final , which was also at Aston Lower Grounds . The replay took place at the same venue and George Woodhall scored the only goal of the game as Albion won the trophy for the first time .
Source for match details :
= = Staffordshire Senior Cup = =
Albion , taking part in the Staffordshire Senior Cup for the fourth time , defeated Stafford Rangers 4 – 0 in the first round replay ( following a goalless draw ) . In round two , a George Woodhall hat @-@ trick helped to achieve a 5 – 2 win against Leek , after which Albion were handed a bye to the fourth round . They then beat Stoke Free Wanderers 5 – 0 , while in the semi @-@ final Burton Wanderers were defeated 3 – 0 at Stoke 's Victoria Ground . The final took place at the same venue as Stoke themselves provided the opposition . The match finished goalless and Albion won the replay 4 – 2 at Stoney Lane in front of 5 @,@ 500 supporters . Two goals from Jem Bayliss and one each from Tommy Green and George Woodhall gave Albion their second victory in the competition .
Source for match details :
= = Friendlies and benefit matches = =
After the move to Stoney Lane , Albion held four exhibition games to help cover the cost of the ground . The first of these was a 4 – 1 win against Third Lanarkshire Rifle Volunteers on 5 September 1885 , in front of 2 @,@ 122 spectators . Tommy Green scored a hat @-@ trick , including the first goal to be scored at Stoney Lane . As league football had yet to be established , the club also played in a number of other friendly matches throughout the season . Their 31 friendly matches included 21 wins and 9 defeats , while one match against Bolton Wanderers was abandoned with the game still scoreless . Albion 's joint biggest friendly victories of the season were their 7 – 0 wins against Small Heath Alliance , Aston Unity and Halliwell . The season 's heaviest friendly defeat was the 0 – 7 reverse at home to Preston North End . Albion also took part in the Walsall Senior Cup and Birmingham Charity Cup , but entered a reserve team for both competitions .
Source for match details :
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= Crewkerne =
Crewkerne / ˈkruːkərn / is a town and electoral ward in Somerset , England , situated 9 miles ( 14 km ) south west of Yeovil and 7 miles ( 11 km ) east of Chard in the South Somerset district close to the border with Dorset . The civil parish of West Crewkerne includes the hamlets of Woolminstone and Henley . The town lies on the River Parrett , A30 road and West of England Main Line railway .
The earliest written record of Crewkerne is in the 899 will of Alfred the Great . After the Norman conquest it was held by William the Conqueror and in the Domesday Survey of 1086 was described as a royal manor . Crewkerne Castle was possibly a Norman motte castle . The town grew up in the late mediaeval period around the textile industry , its wealth preserved in the fifteenth century Church of St Bartholomew . During the 18th and 19th centuries the main industry was cloth making , including webbing , and sails for the Royal Navy .
Local ecological sites include the Bincombe Beeches Local Nature Reserve and the Millwater biological Site of Special Scientific Interest . Crewkerne railway station is served by South West Trains on the main south western railway line . There are local supermarkets and local shops , and some local industry . The town is the birthplace of several notable people and has varied cultural and sporting facilities including those at Wadham Community School .
= = History = =
The name Crewkerne is thought to be derived from Cruc @-@ aera ; from the British cruc - a spur of a hill , and the Old English aera - a house , especially a storehouse . The town was known as Crocern , or Cruaern in the 899 will of Alfred the Great when he left it to his younger son Æthelweard , and by 1066 the manor was held by Edith Swanneck mistress of King Harold . After the Norman conquest it was held by William the Conqueror and the church estate was given to the Abbaye @-@ aux @-@ Hommes in Caen , Normandy . In the Domesday Survey of 1086 it was described as a royal manor .
In 1499 , John de Combe , a precentor of Exeter Cathedral and former vicar of Crewkerne , founded Crewkerne Grammar School . The school survived until 1904 .
The parish was part of the hundred of Crewkerne .
Crewkerne Castle was possibly a Norman motte castle on a mound to the north @-@ west of the town , which is known as Castle Hill . The town grew up in the late mediaeval period around the textile industry , its wealth preserved in its fifteenth century parish church . It later prospered as a coaching stop in the Georgian period .
The Manor Farmhouse in Henley was built from hamstone in the early 17th century , but possibly incorporates medieval fragments . The building is designated by English Heritage as a Grade II * listed building . During the 18th and 19th centuries the main industry was cloth making , including webbing , and sails for the Royal Navy .
= = Governance = =
The town council has responsibility for local issues , including setting an annual precept ( local rate ) to cover the council ’ s operating costs and producing annual accounts for public scrutiny . The parish council evaluates local planning applications and works with the local police , district council officers , and neighbourhood watch groups on matters of crime , security , and traffic . The parish council 's role also includes initiating projects for the maintenance and repair of parish facilities , as well as consulting with the district council on the maintenance , repair , and improvement of highways , drainage , footpaths , public transport , and street cleaning . Conservation matters ( including trees and listed buildings ) and environmental issues are also the responsibility of the council .
The town falls within the non @-@ metropolitan district of South Somerset , which was formed on 1 April 1974 under the Local Government Act 1972 , having previously been Crewkerne Urban District . The district council is responsible for local planning and building control , local roads , council housing , environmental health , markets and fairs , refuse collection and recycling , cemeteries and crematoria , leisure services , parks , and tourism . This electoral ward includes Misterton and at the 2011 Census had a population of 7 @,@ 826 .
The Town Hall occupies the lower part of the Victoria Hall in the Market Square . The Hamstone building was rebuilt around 1742 , altered in 1836 , when a south piazza was added after the demolition of the shambles . In 1848 @-@ 9 it became a museum , reading room and library and was remodelled in 1900 by Thomas Benson of Yeovil to create shops and offices . It is a Grade II listed building .
Somerset County Council is responsible for running the largest and most expensive local services such as education , social services , the library , roads , public transport , trading standards , waste disposal and strategic planning , although fire , police and ambulance services are provided jointly with other authorities through the Devon and Somerset Fire and Rescue Service , Avon and Somerset Constabulary and the South Western Ambulance Service .
It is also part of the Yeovil county constituency represented in the House of Commons of the Parliament of the United Kingdom . It elects one Member of Parliament ( MP ) by the first past the post system of election , and part of the South West England constituency of the European Parliament which elects six MEPs using the d 'Hondt method of party @-@ list proportional representation .
= = Geography = =
The town lies west of the River Parrett . The main residential areas are around the town centre with Kithill and Park View to the South and Wadham Park to the North .
In the northern outskirts of the town is the Bincombe Beeches 5 hectares ( 12 acres ) Local Nature Reserve. which is managed by the town council and includes a line of beech trees , some of which are between 150 and 200 years old . Between 2002 and 2005 grants were obtained to improve access to the site and support the planting of new trees . The Millwater biological Site of Special Scientific Interest consists of a complex mosaic of pasture , wet grassland , tall @-@ herb fen , standing and running water , Alder and Willow carr .
= = = Climate = = =
Along with the rest of South West England , Crewkerne has a temperate climate which is generally wetter and milder than the rest of the country . The annual mean temperature is approximately 10 ° C ( 50 @.@ 0 ° F ) . Seasonal temperature variation is less extreme than most of the United Kingdom because of the adjacent sea temperatures . The summer months of July and August are the warmest with mean daily maxima of approximately 21 ° C ( 69 @.@ 8 ° F ) . In winter mean minimum temperatures of 1 ° C ( 33 @.@ 8 ° F ) or 2 ° C ( 35 @.@ 6 ° F ) are common . In the summer the Azores high pressure affects the south @-@ west of England , however convective cloud sometimes forms inland , reducing the number of hours of sunshine . Annual sunshine rates are slightly less than the regional average of 1 @,@ 600 hours . In December 1998 there were 20 days without sun recorded at Yeovilton . Most the rainfall in the south @-@ west is caused by Atlantic depressions or by convection . Most of the rainfall in autumn and winter is caused by the Atlantic depressions , which is when they are most active . In summer , a large proportion of the rainfall is caused by sun heating the ground leading to convection and to showers and thunderstorms . Average rainfall is around 700 mm ( 28 in ) . About 8 – 15 days of snowfall is typical . November to March have the highest mean wind speeds , and June to August have the lightest winds . The predominant wind direction is from the south @-@ west .
= = Transport = =
The following major roads pass through Crewkerne :
Northbound : A356 North Street — To A303 for London and North Somerset .
Southbound : A356 South Street- To Maiden Newton and Dorchester .
Westbound : A30 West Street — To Exeter and the South West of England .
Eastbound : A30 East Street — To Yeovil and Salisbury .
Southbound : B3156 Hermitage Street — To Lyme Regis .
Crewkerne railway station is served by South West Trains on the main south western railway line . Trains operate to London Waterloo ( two and a half hours away ) via Salisbury ( 70 minutes ) , and in the opposite direction to Exeter St Davids ( under an hour ) . The station was opened by the London and South Western Railway on 19 July 1860 . It was designed by Sir William Tite and has been designated as a Grade II listed building .
The town is served by Stagecoach South West with buses to Yeovil via Kithill , Misterton and Haselbury Plucknett and Chard . Buses also run to Merriott , South Petherton and Ilminster and Taunton . First Somerset & Avon has service to Bridport via Beaminster and Broadwindsor , Yeovil via East Chinnock and West Coker and Chard .
It is on the route of the Monarch 's Way a 615 @-@ mile ( 990 km ) long @-@ distance footpath in England that approximates the escape route taken by King Charles II in 1651 after being defeated in the Battle of Worcester .
= = Economy = =
Crewkerne is a small market town centre with many cafes , shops and supermarkets . Crewkerne also has a wide selection of public houses . The largest supermarket is the Waitrose store which is around 21 @,@ 000 sq ft ( 2 @,@ 000 m2 ) and opened in November 2008 . All of the large supermarkets are situated around the South Street multi @-@ storey car park . The other smaller supermarkets are Co @-@ operative ( previously Somerfield ) and Lidl .
Ariel Motor Company is based in Crewkerne , and is one of the UK 's smallest automobile companies , with just seven employees , producing fewer than 100 cars per year . It was founded in 1991 and changed its name from Solocrest Ltd in 2001 . The company 's flagship car is the Ariel Atom , an extremely light , high performance car .
= = Religious sites = =
St Bartholomew 's Parish Church stands on high ground to the west of the town . The first Saxon church was founded before the end of the 9th century as a " minster " , or main church of a Saxon royal estate that included an area which later became the parishes of Seaborough , Wayford and Misterton . This church was replaced after the Norman Conquest with a larger stone cruciform building , with a central tower . This was almost completely rebuilt and enlarged in the late 15th and early 16th centuries . This is , for the most part , the church building visible today . It is an excellent example of the Perpendicular style with many unusual and individual features . These include the west front , the nave , the six @-@ light aisle windows and the Tudor @-@ style chapels and windows in the north east corner . The building material is golden @-@ coloured Ham Hill stone , quarried nearby . There is a notable pair of ' green man ' carvings within the church .
No major alterations have been made since the Reformation in the 1530s and 1540s , but there have been many changes to the interior to accommodate various phases of Church of England worship . Among these are an oven used for baking communion bread in the south east corner of the north chapel . During the Civil War , considerable damage was done including the destruction of nearly all of the medieval stained glass . William III of England worshipped in the church following his landing in the Glorious Revolution of 1689 . By the early 19th century , all the medieval furnishings , except the Norman font had disappeared . New pews were made and the west galleries were added in 1808 @-@ 11 . The latest restoration that has left the church interior visible today , took place in the late 19th century ; it was more sympathetic to the church 's architectural character than many Victorian restorations . At this time , the central section of the west gallery was removed to reveal the great west window and the organ was relocated to the south transept . The pews date from around 1900 and have attractive carved bench @-@ ends . The church has been designated by English Heritage as a Grade I listed building .
Crewkerne also contains one of very few Unitarian chapels left in the West Country , Crewkerne Unitarian Church , a tiny chapel tucked away on Hermitage Street . The Methodist church on South Street is shared by Roman Catholic and Methodist congregations , following the closure and proposed redevelopment of St Peter 's Catholic Church .
= = Education = =
The two primary schools within Crewkerne are St. Bartholomew 's first school which is located on Kithill and Ashlands which is located in North Street . The middle school is called Maiden Beech Middle School which is located on the B3165 Lyme Road . The school has students from ages 9 to 13 and this is where they do their Key Stage 2 SATS .
Crewkerne Grammar School was situated at DeCombe House , until it closed in the late 1960s , before the Grammar school was combined into St Martins School of Abbey Street . St Martins used to be situated in the High Street , until it moved to its current position in the late 1970s . The Senior and Juniors School section closed in 2003 , and now serves as a pre @-@ school nursery only . The School Gymnasium was located along Gouldsbrook Terrace , and is still undergoing repairs to the floor and roof .
Wadham School has students from 13 to 18 years old and includes those travelling from surrounding villages . In November 2005 , Wadham was placed into Special measures after failing an Ofsted inspection . In June 2007 Wadham successfully left Special Measures , after a full Ofsted inspection showed the school had sufficiently progressed .
= = Culture = =
The Henhayes Centre provides conference facilities and has also featured exhibitions .
Crewkerne and District Museum is part of a wider heritage centre which includes local archives and a meeting room . The museum opened in 2000 in an old house with an 18th @-@ century frontage . It was restored with the help of grants from the Heritage Lottery Fund , Somerset County Council , South Somerset District Council and Crewkerne Town Council . The development of Crewkerne during the 18th and 19th centuries , with particular emphasis on the flax and linen industry is illustrated with a permanent display . Other collections relate to local archaeology , Coins and Medals , Costume and Textiles , Fine Art , Music , Personalities , Science and Technology , Social History , Weapons and War .
= = Sport = =
The Crewkerne Aqua Centre also provides swimming pool and fitness gym facilities to the town , located on the grounds next to Henhayes Park , which used to be the Grammar Schools Playing fields . St. Martins School retained the use of the playing fields until the junior section was closed in 2003 , as regular sports days were a tradition dating back to the Grammar school era in the town . A further sports centre is situated on the Wadham School campus . Crewkerne Cricket Club play in the Dorset Funeral Plan Cricket League , whilst Both Crewkerne Town F.C. and Crewkerne Rangers F.C. play in the Perry Street and District League .
= = Notable residents = =
Thomas Coryat a traveller and writer of the late Elizabethan and early Jacobean age was born in Crewkerne around 1577 . Mathematician John Caswell was also born here . A later traveller Colonel Joshua Fry was born in the town in 1699 before becoming a surveyor , adventurer , mapmaker , soldier , and member of the House of Burgesses , the legislature of the colony of Virginia . Another Englishman from Crewkerne who emigrated to the American Colonies was William Phelps who was born around 1599 and became one of the founders of both Dorchester , Massachusetts and Windsor , Connecticut , foreman of the first grand jury in New England , served most of his life in early colonial government , and played a key role in establishing the first democratic town government in the American colonies . Ralph Reader CBE an actor , theatrical producer and songwriter , best known for staging the original Gang Show , a Variety show for members of the Scouting Movement , was born in Crewkerne in 1903 . The cricketer Michael Barnwell was born in the town in 1943 .
= = Twin towns = =
Crewkerne is twinned with Igny , Essonne and Bures @-@ sur @-@ Yvette in France .
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= Ranveer Singh =
Ranveer Singh Bhavnani ( born 6 July 1985 ) is an Indian film actor who appears in Hindi films . After completing a bachelor 's degree from Indiana University , Bloomington , Singh returned to India to pursue a career in film . He made his acting debut in 2010 with a leading role in Yash Raj Films ' romantic comedy Band Baaja Baaraat . The film emerged as a critical and commercial success , earning Singh a Filmfare Award in the Best Male Debut category .
Singh went on to star in the romantic drama Lootera ( 2013 ) , Sanjay Leela Bhansali 's tragic romance Goliyon Ki Raasleela Ram @-@ Leela ( 2013 ) , his biggest commercial successes to that point , and in the action @-@ drama Gunday ( 2014 ) . In 2015 , he starred in the ensemble comedy @-@ drama Dil Dhadakne Do ( 2015 ) , and portrayed Bajirao I in the historical romance Bajirao Mastani , one of the highest @-@ grossing Bollywood films , for which he garnered critical acclaim and won the Filmfare Award for Best Actor .
= = Early life and background = =
Singh was born on 6 July 1985 into a Sindhi family to Anju and Jagjit Singh Bhavnani . His grandparents , Sunder Singh Bhavnani and Chand Burke , moved to Mumbai from Karachi , Sindh , during the Partition of India . He has an elder sister named Ritika Bhavnani . Singh is the maternal cousin of actress Sonam Kapoor and producer Rhea Kapoor , daughters of actor Anil Kapoor and wife Sunita Kapoor ( née Bhavnani ) . Singh explains that he dropped his surname Bhavnani , since he felt that the name would have been " too long , too many syllables " , thus downplaying his brand as a " saleable commodity " .
Singh always aspired to be an actor , participating in several school plays and debates . Once when he had gone for a birthday party , his grandmother asked him to dance and entertain her . Singh remembers that he suddenly jumped in the lawn and started dancing to the song " Chumma Chumma " from the 1991 action film , Hum . He felt the thrill of performing and was interested in acting and dancing . However , after he joined H.R. College of Commerce and Economics in Mumbai , Singh realised that getting a break in the film industry was not at all easy , as it was mostly people with a film background who got these opportunities . Feeling that the idea of acting was " too far @-@ fetched " , Singh focused on creative writing . He went to the United States where he received his Bachelor of Arts degree from Indiana University .
At university , he decided to take acting classes and took up theatre as his minor . After completing his studies and returning to Mumbai in 2007 , Singh worked for a few years in advertising as a copywriter , with agencies like O & M and J. Walter Thompson . He then worked as an assistant director , but left it to pursue acting . He decided to send his portfolio to directors . He would go for all kinds of auditions , but did not get any good opportunities , while only getting calls for minor roles : " Everything was so bleak . It was very frustrating . There were times I would think whether I was doing the right thing or not . "
= = Career = =
= = = Early work ( 2008 – 11 ) = = =
In January 2010 , Singh was called for an audition by Shanoo Sharma , the head of the casting division for Yash Raj Films . They informed him that it was for a lead role in their film titled Band Baaja Baaraat , a romantic comedy set in the world of wedding planning . Aditya Chopra , the vice president of the company , later saw the audition tapes on video and was impressed by Singh 's acting , and decided that he fit the part of Bittoo Sharma , the hero of the film . However , the director Maneesh Sharma needed some more convincing and he was called for a few more auditions over the next two weeks until they were completely convinced of his caliber . After the two weeks of testing , Singh was confirmed for the role of Bittoo , with Anushka Sharma playing the female lead .
Singh described the role of Bittoo Sharma as a typical Delhi boy . To prepare for the role , he spent time with students at the Delhi University campus . Prior to the release of the film , trade analysts were skeptical of the film 's commercial potential , citing the middling response to Yash Raj Films ' last few productions , the lack of a male star and the fact that the female lead , Anushka Sharma , was by then an " almost @-@ forgotten " actress . However , Band Baaja Baaraat went on to become a sleeper hit . Singh 's portrayal of Bittoo was praised , with Anupama Chopra of NDTV writing that Singh was " pitch perfect in the role of the uncouth but good @-@ hearted small town slacker who is a bit of a duffer when it comes to matters of the heart . The film earned approximately ₹ 214 million ( US $ 3 @.@ 2 million ) at the domestic box office . At the 56th Filmfare Awards , Singh won the award for Best Male Debut .
Following Band Baaja Baarat , Singh signed on for Ladies vs Ricky Bahl , a romantic comedy produced by Chopra and directed by Maneesh Sharma . He played a conman Ricky Bahl who cons girls for a living but finally meets his match . The film co @-@ starred Anushka Sharma , Parineeti Chopra , Dipannita Sharma and Aditi Sharma . According to Singh , the title character had various avatars in the film , including a chirpy , entertaining side and a sinister side . Nikhat Kazmi of The Times of India wrote , " Ranveer is , well Ranveer : your average Joe kind of hero who looks convincing enough as Sunny , Deven , Iqbal , Ricky , his sundry avatars . " Commercially , Ladies vs Ricky Bahl earned ₹ 370 million ( US $ 5 @.@ 5 million ) domestically .
= = = Success ( 2013 – present ) = = =
Singh 's next release was Lootera ( 2013 ) , a period romance , written and directed by Vikramaditya Motwane , and co @-@ starring Sonakshi Sinha . An adaptation of O. Henry 's short story The Last Leaf , Lootera was critically acclaimed . Rajeev Masand of CNN @-@ IBN wrote that Singh " brings a quiet sensitivity to Varun , and occasionally a smoldering intensity . Offering a finely internalized performance , he leaves a lasting impression . " However , Lootera performed poorly at the box office .
Singh next starred opposite Deepika Padukone in Sanjay Leela Bhansali 's adaptation of William Shakespeare 's Romeo and Juliet , entitled Goliyon Ki Raasleela Ram @-@ Leela , in which he played Ram , a Gujarati boy based on the character of Romeo . Bhansali was impressed by Singh 's performance in Band Baaja Baaraat and decided to cast him for the film . Goliyon Ki Raasleela Ram @-@ Leela generated positive reviews from critics , as did Singh 's performance . Writing for India Today , Rohit Khilnani commented that " Singh has everything going for him here . His Bollywood hero entry scene lying down on a bike in the song ' Tattad Tattad ' is outstanding . He learnt a new language to better his performance for the character Ram and it paid off . In his fourth film he has the presence of a star . " The film emerged as Singh 's biggest commercial success , with worldwide revenues of ₹ 2 @.@ 02 billion ( US $ 30 million ) . For his portrayal , he received several recognitions , including a Best Actor nomination at Filmfare .
In 2014 , Singh starred as a Bengali criminal in Ali Abbas Zafar 's Gunday , alongside Arjun Kapoor , Priyanka Chopra and Irrfan Khan . David Chute of Variety praised Singh 's screen presence and wrote that he " tucks the movie 's center of interest under his arm and takes it with him — even though he has the could @-@ be @-@ thankless " good brother " role " . Also , Singh 's chemistry with Kapoor was considered by critic Rohit Khilnani to the prime asset of the film . Gunday proved to be Singh 's biggest box office opener , and eventually emerged a box @-@ office success with a revenue of ₹ 1 billion ( US $ 15 million ) worldwide . After a cameo appearance in Finding Fanny , Singh starred as a gangster in Shaad Ali 's unsuccessful crime drama Kill Dil opposite Parineeti Chopra and Ali Zafar and received negative reviews .
In Zoya Akhtar 's ensemble comedy @-@ drama Dil Dhadakne Do ( 2015 ) , Singh starred with Anil Kapoor , Shefali Shah and Priyanka Chopra as the younger sibling of a dysfunctional Punjabi family . Writing for Mumbai Mirror , critic Kunal Guha found Singh to be the " surprise element " of the film ; he praised his " immaculate comic timing " and particularly noted on the subtelty of his performance . The film further was an economic success , grossing ₹ 1 @.@ 47 billion ( US $ 22 million ) worldwide within seventeen days of release . Singh next reunited with Sanjay Leela Bhansali for the epic romance Bajirao Mastani ( 2015 ) opposite Deepika Padukone and Priyanka Chopra . He portrayed Bajirao I , for which he shaved his head and locked himself up in a hotel room for 21 days . Raja Sen in his review mentioned : " Ranveer Singh brings his character to life and does so with both machismo and grace , his Peshwa Bajirao slicing down soldiers like a lehnga @-@ clad golfer wielding a too @-@ sharp niblick . The film was a box @-@ office success and Singh won the Filmfare Award for Best Actor .
As of July 2016 , Singh has completed work on Aditya Chopra 's romance Befikre in Paris , opposite Vaani Kapoor . In addition , he has committed to star in Sanjay Leela Bhansali 's Padmavati , a film based on Rani Padmavati , along with Deepika Padukone and an untitled Rohit Shetty film , co @-@ starring Tamannaah .
= = Filmography and awards = =
= = = Filmography = = =
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
Singh is the recipient of two Filmfare Awards : Best Male Debut for Band Baaja Baaraat ( 2010 ) and Best Actor for Bajirao Mastani ( 2016 ) . He has received an additional Best Actor nomination at the ceremony for Goliyon Ki Raasleela Ram @-@ Leela ( 2013 ) .
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= 1987 Atlantic hurricane season =
The 1987 Atlantic hurricane season was a below @-@ average hurricane season that was limited by an ongoing El Niño . The season officially began on June 1 , 1987 , and lasted until November 30 , 1987 , although activity began on May 24 when a tropical depression developed 400 mi ( 640 km ) east of the central Bahamas . The June through November dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the Atlantic basin . The first cyclone to attain tropical storm status was an unnamed tropical storm which formed on August 9 , nearly a month later than usual . The final storm of the year , Tropical Depression Fourteen , merged with a weak extratropical low on November 4 . The season marked the first year tropical storm watches and warnings were issued ; previously , gale watches and warnings were used for tropical storms , and this season was one of only a few seasons with no deaths in the United States ; the last time this happened was in the 1981 season .
During this season , 14 tropical depressions formed of which seven attained tropical storm status . One tropical storm was operationally classified as a tropical depression but was reclassified in post @-@ analysis . Three tropical cyclones reached hurricane status of which only one became a major hurricane , which is a Category 3 or greater on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale . Hurricane Emily was the costliest storm of the season , causing $ 80 @.@ 3 million in damage ( 1987 USD ) as it ravaged the Dominican Republic and Bermuda . Tropical Depression Fourteen was the deadliest storm of the season , causing six deaths as it passed across Jamaica . Of the seven cyclones that attained tropical storm status , three did not affect land .
= = Seasonal forecasts and activity = =
Forecasts of hurricane activity are issued before each hurricane season by hurricane expert Dr. William M. Gray and his associates at Colorado State University . An average season , as defined by NOAA , has 6 to 14 named storms , with 4 to 8 of those reaching hurricane strength , and with 3 hurricanes becoming major hurricanes . The June 2 , 1987 report suggested that eight tropical storms would form during the 1987 season , five of them becoming hurricanes .
The forecast anticipated more tropical activity than what ultimately occurred . During the season , 14 tropical depressions formed from May 25 to November 5 . Seven of the depressions strengthened into tropical storms , six of them named . Tropical Depression Two was upgraded into a tropical storm in post @-@ season analysis , and as a result has no name . Tropical storms Arlene , Emily and Floyd all reached hurricane status during their durations , of which only Emily reached major hurricane status .
The United States was affected by four tropical cyclones in 1987 , of which three struck Florida . The unnamed tropical storm struck Texas and affected much of the Gulf Coast of the United States .
The season 's activity was reflected with a cumulative accumulated cyclone energy ( ACE ) rating of 34 , which is classified as " below normal " . ACE is , broadly speaking , a measure of the power of the hurricane multiplied by the length of time it existed , so storms that last a long time , as well as particularly strong hurricanes , have high ACEs . ACE is only calculated for full advisories on tropical systems at or exceeding 34 knots ( 39 mph , 63 km / h ) or tropical storm strength . Subtropical cyclones are excluded from the total .
= = Storms = =
= = = Tropical Depression One = = =
A low @-@ pressure area was observed by a Reconnaissance Aircraft and declared the first tropical depression of the year on May 25 — one week before the official season began . Moving at about 8 mph ( 13 km / h ) , the depression was located 400 miles ( 640 km ) from the east central Bahamas . It moved towards Florida and stalled off the coast , with a prediction to cause thundershowers across the state on May 28 . The Bahamian government released a storm warning for its northern islands as the system grew stronger . The tropical depression weakened on June 1 , the official start of the hurricane season .
= = = Tropical Storm Two = = =
The second tropical depression of the season formed in the northwestern Gulf of Mexico from a tropical wave on August 9 . It quickly strengthened into a tropical storm , though the strengthening was not known until post @-@ season analysis . Based on lack of significant organization or reports at the time , the storm remained unnamed . It traveled northwestward and neared the coast . The tropical storm made landfall near High Island , Texas on August 10 , and quickly weakened to a tropical depression as it moved northeastward . It turned to the southeast and reached the Gulf of Mexico . The weakening system accelerated to the northeast , and dissipated over Georgia on August 17 . Just over 21 inches ( 0 @.@ 53 m ) of rainfall was associated with the storm , causing flash flooding and water damage amounting to $ 7 @.@ 4 million ( 1987 USD , $ 13 @.@ 3 million in 2008 USD ) .
= = = Hurricane Arlene = = =
A low pressure system on the tail end of a stationary cold front organized into a subtropical depression on August 8 near the South Carolina coast , and drifted southward . Convection became more organized , and the storm was classified Tropical Depression Three on August 10 over the Bahamas . It executed an anticyclonic loop to the northeast , and was estimated to have attained tropical storm status on August 11 , based on reports from Hurricane Hunters . Small cells in the ridge of high pressure caused Arlene to take an unusual track to the east , with two southward jogs in its path . A trough of low pressure near Bermuda initially inhibited strengthening . However , after high pressures to its east forced the storm northward , more favorable conditions allowed Arlene to intensify into a hurricane on August 22 . Operationally , it was upgraded two days earlier , based on the appearance of an eye feature on satellite imagery . After becoming a hurricane , Arlene accelerated to the northeast into the cold waters of the north Atlantic Ocean , and on August 23 it became extratropical about halfway between Newfoundland and Ireland . The extratropical remnants turned to the southeast and later to the east , making landfall on the Iberian Peninsula before dissipating on August 28 over Spain .
As Arlene approached , islanders of Bermuda were warned to board up windows , with winds of 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) expected . Ultimately , the island experienced winds of 35 mph ( 60 km / h ) with gusts up to 49 mph ( 80 km / h ) . A blind sailor on a trip across the Atlantic was unable to make it to a harbor in Bermuda due to the hurricane , and rode out the storm in the open sea . The storm produced moderate rainfall to coastal areas of Spain , contributing to a monthly rainfall record at Rota . The 14 @.@ 5 day total between the start of its best track and when it attained hurricane status is the largest on record for a North Atlantic hurricane .
= = = Tropical Depression Four = = =
The fourth tropical depression of the season formed off the coast of Antigua on August 14 . Initially , forecasters anticipated the system to intensify into a tropical storm ; however , a reconnaissance mission into the depression on August 15 revealed that it was poorly organized and was declassified a tropical cyclone . Tropical Depression Four peaked at 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) and dissipated on August 15 .
= = = Tropical Storm Bret = = =
A well @-@ organized tropical disturbance formed off the African coast on August 17 and became a tropical depression the following day , as classified by satellite imagery . Later the same day , the ship S.S. Columbus Canterrury reported 40 mph ( 60 km / h ) winds and a minimal pressure of 1004 millibars , and the depression became Tropical Storm Bret .
The cyclone moved a westward course of 20 — 25 mph ( 40 km / h ) and reached its peak intensity of 50 miles per hour ( 80 km / h ) winds and 1000 millibars in pressure on August 20 . A ridge of high pressure in the eastern Atlantic Ocean , north of Bret , began to weaken and drift to the east on August 20 . Bret was moving at 17 mph ( 27 km / h ) to the east on August 21 . It was thought that Bret would strengthen at this point . Bret slowed from August 21 until August 23 , moving at only 15 – 20 mph .
The cyclone soon moved on a northwestward course and encountered wind shear . Bret weakened into a depression on August 23 , due to the wind shear over the system . The next morning , the depression became a tropical wave with no low @-@ level circulation left . The wave was soon absorbed by a trough of low pressure during the next few days .
= = = Tropical Depression Six = = =
A tropical depression formed off the African coast on August 31 , in which forecasters predicted would become the third tropical storm of the season . At 0600 UTC August 31 , the depression was seemingly appeared unchanged , with winds of averaging about 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) . The depression was then located 950 miles ( 1 @,@ 530 km ) west of Sao Taigo in Cape Verde , stirring up 12 @-@ foot ( 4 m ) seas .
The next day , Tropical Depression Six moved westward to a position 1 @,@ 050 miles ( 1 @,@ 690 km ) off the Cape Verde Islands , too far from the Caribbean islands for the National Hurricane Center to send a reconnaissance flight into the depression . Tropical Depression Six was at the time not a threat to land and few ships were in the area . It degenerated into a tropical wave on September 4 , never affecting land or reaching storm @-@ intensity .
= = = Tropical Storm Cindy = = =
On September 1 a tropical wave exited the African coast , and moved westward across the Atlantic Ocean . A trough of low pressure moved southeastward through the tropics , and brought the wave more towards the north . Generally favorable conditions for development allowed the wave to organize into a tropical depression on September 5 , and two days later it attained tropical storm status . Cindy continued northward , and peaked at 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) winds on September 8 before turning to the northeast . Strong upper @-@ level shear weakened the storm , and after two days of struggling as a tropical storm , Cindy became extratropical on September 10 to the northwest of the Azores . Cindy did not affect any landmasses .
= = = Tropical Depression Eight = = =
A tropical depression formed in the Caribbean Sea on September 5 . It tracked westward through the body of water , and reached peak winds of 35 mph ( 56 km / h ) on September 7 . Despite its appearance , Tropical Depression Eight failed to develop further and early on September 8 , the depression made landfall near Puerto Cabezas , Nicaragua shortly before dissipating .
= = = Tropical Depression Nine = = =
An upper @-@ level cyclone in the northern Gulf of Mexico started tropical cyclogenesis offshore the southeast United States . Convection organized around a low pressure area east of Florida , and it was declared Tropical Depression Nine on September 7 . Initially poorly organized , the depression moved generally northward without strengthening , and quickly made landfall along the coast of South Carolina . It maintained its identity as it tracked through North Carolina and the Mid @-@ Atlantic States , and on September 10 the depression merged with a frontal wave over New England . The cyclone dropped moderate precipitation along its path , peaking at 10 @.@ 23 inches ( 0 @.@ 260 m ) in central Virginia ; stations in Maryland , the Carolinas , and Pennsylvania reported over 5 inches ( 125 mm ) of rainfall . Flash flood warnings were issued in some localities due to the precipitation , and in Virginia over 50 roads were washed out . Slick roads caused three tractor @-@ trailers to jackknife along a 2 mile ( 3 km ) portion of the Capital Beltway . Additionally , four people required rescue assistance after being trapped in swollen creeks .
= = = Tropical Storm Dennis = = =
A tropical depression formed on September 8 off the coast of Africa . It tracked westward , passing to the south of the Cape Verde islands , and based on satellite imagery was estimated to have reached tropical storm status on September 10 . Tropical Storm Dennis continued to gradually intensify , and on September 11 attained peak winds of 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) and a minimum pressure of 1 @,@ 000 mbar ( 30 inHg ) . Subsequently the cyclone weakened to minimal tropical storm status , and by September 14 , Dennis was expected to immediately weaken to tropical depression status . However , Dennis remained a minimal tropical storm for four more days before deteriorating to a tropical depression on September 18 , as reported by a Hurricane Hunters plane . The depression turned abruptly northwestward through a weakness in the subtropical ridge , suggesting a new low pressure area developed . On September 19 it turned to the northeast , and on September 20 Dennis merged with an extratropical low .
= = = Tropical Depression Eleven = = =
On September 14 , a tropical depression developed about 490 miles ( 790 km ) southeast of Antigua . Tracking westward at 5 – 10 mph ( 8 – 16 km / h ) , the depression maintained winds of about 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) , and was deemed " no cause for alarm " for the Lesser Antilles . Failing to intensify further , the depression degenerated into a tropical wave on September 16 to the east of Antigua . No damage or fatalities were reported .
= = = Hurricane Emily = = =
A tropical depression , the tenth of the season , formed on September 20 . It soon became a tropical storm that day off the South American coast . Emily quickly strengthened becoming a hurricane less than 48 hours later on September 22 .
The cyclone then slowly began turning north , soon making landfall in the Dominican Republic , where three people were reported dead and there was $ 30 million ( 1987 US dollars , $ 56 @.@ 9 million in 2009 USD ) in damage . Emily passed over Hispaniola , turned to the northeast , and eventually made landfall in Bermuda , where it caused $ 50 million ( 1987 USD , $ 94 @.@ 8 million in 2009 USD ) in damage , though there were no fatalities . It weakened into a tropical storm after landfall , peaking at 125 miles per hour ( 200 km / h ) in wind speed , a Category @-@ 3 hurricane .
After peaking at winds of 90 miles per hour ( 140 km / h ) , Emily dissipated on September 26 . Thousands of migratory birds took refuge on Bermuda during the storm , including ten thousand bobolinks and thousands of Connecticut warblers . After the storm passed Bermuda , Emily became the second @-@ fastest @-@ moving hurricane of the previous century ( behind only the 1938 New England hurricane ) , moving at a pace of 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) or 31 m / s . Emily was the first hurricane in the Caribbean Sea since Hurricane Katrina of the 1981 Atlantic hurricane season .
= = = Hurricane Floyd = = =
A broad area of low pressure organized into a tropical depression off the coast of Nicaragua on October 9 . After drifting to the southeast , it turned to the north @-@ northwest and organized into a tropical storm on October 10 . Subsequent to crossing western Cuba , Floyd accelerated to the northeast , and attained hurricane status late on October 12 . It passed through the Florida Keys before entraining cooler , drier air from a stationary frontal boundary . Its convection became very disorganized , and Floyd weakened back to a tropical storm early on October 13 to the southeast of Miami ; the storm crossed the Bahamas , and becoming an extratropical cyclone before being absorbed by the frontal boundary on October 14 .
Damage in Florida was minimal due to the disorganized nature of the hurricane . Floyd brought up to 10 @.@ 07 in ( 256 mm ) of rain to the state , causing moderate crop damage in the southern portion of the state . In addition , a tornado spawned by the storm damaged portions of the Florida Keys . Overall damage amounted to around $ 500 @,@ 000 ( 1987 USD ) , with no casualties or injuries reported .
= = = Tropical Depression Fourteen = = =
A broad area of low pressure existed in the central Caribbean Sea in late October . It steadily organized , and was classified as Tropical Depression Fourteen on October 31 . It moved northwestward , and entered a high @-@ shear environment due to an upper level low situated toward the end of a high pressure system . By November 1 , little convection remained as the weak depression turned to the north and crossed Cuba . A burst of convection organized over the depression , and brought strong wind gusts to the Florida Keys as it passed through the area on November 2 . It continued to the north @-@ northwest , paralleling the Florida west coast , and lost all of its convection on November 3 . The system turned to the northeast , and merged with a weak extratropical low over northern Florida on November 4 .
Rainfall was experienced as far north as eastern Georgia and extreme southern South Carolina . Other parts of the United States received high to moderate rains while the aforementioned region received low amounts . Six fatalities were reported from devastating rainfall in Jamaica from the depression .
= = Season effects = =
This is a table of all of the storms that did form in the 1987 Atlantic hurricane season . It includes their duration , names , landfall ( s ) – denoted by bold location names – damages , and death totals . Deaths in parentheses will be additional and indirect ( an example of an indirect death would be a traffic accident ) , but are still related to that storm . Damage and deaths will include totals while the storm was extratropical or a wave or low , and all of the damage figures are in 1987 USD .
= = Storm names = =
The following names were used for named storms that formed in the north Atlantic in 1987 . This is the same list used for the 1981 season . No names were retired , so it was used again in the 1993 season . Names that were not assigned are marked in gray .
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= Do Ya Thang ( Rihanna song ) =
" Do Ya Thang " is a song by Barbadian recording artist Rihanna , taken from the deluxe edition of her sixth studio album , Talk That Talk ( 2011 ) . It was written by Terius Nash and Rihanna herself , with production helmed by Nash under his stage @-@ name The @-@ Dream . " Do Ya Thang " is an R & B song with prominent influences of music from the 1980s . The song uses " catchy " drum breaks , synths and " funky " and " subtle " hook . Lyrically , it is a complimentary love track that contains " curse " words and a repetitive chorus .
" Do Ya Thang " received predominantly positive reviews from music critics , with many of them praising its composition and sound , while also linking it to Rihanna 's previous works from her first studio album Music of the Sun ( 2005 ) . Upon the release of Talk That Talk , the song debuted on the lower regions of the singles charts in South Korea and the United Kingdom ; at number 80 and 136 respectively . It also debuted on the UK R & B Chart at number 38 .
= = Production and recording = =
" Do Ya Thang " was written by The @-@ Dream and Rihanna . The @-@ Dream produced the song . He also co @-@ wrote two more songs on the album : its fourth single " Birthday Cake " and " Red Lipstick " , with the latter also being featured on the deluxe edition of Talk That Talk ( 2011 ) . Rihanna recorded " Do Ya Thang " at several recording studios during her worldwide Loud Tour ( 2011 ) , including Pelican Hill , in Newport Coast , California and Studio De La Grand Armee in Paris , France . The song was mixed by Manny Marroquin while Erik Madrid and Chris Galland served as mixing assistants . The vocal production of " Do Ya Thang " was completed by Kuk Harrell and assisted by Jennifer Rosales .
= = Composition = =
" Do Ya Thang " is an R & B song with prominent influences of music from the 1980s . The song has a length of 3 minutes and 44 seconds . Shaun Kitchener of Entertainmentwise.com described the song as a " hip hop flavoured pop treat " . " Do Ya Thang " uses " catchy " drum breaks , synths , " funky " and " subtle " hook that , according Gigwise 's Edward Keeble , can be found on Rihanna 's 2007 single " Umbrella " ( Good Girl Gone Bad , 2007 ) , which was also co @-@ written by Nash . Keeble further called the song a " modern classic " . Emily Exton of Popdust noted the song 's resemblance with the album 's second single " You da One " , " recorded over a loud ' 80s synth " .
Lyrically , " Do Ya Thang " is a complimentary love song that contains " curse " words and a repetitive chorus . Robert Copsey of Digital Spy wrote that the song has a simple message evident in the lyrics , " At the end of the day you are who you are and I love you that way . " Maz Halima of Flavour Magazine described the track as a " serene song " . " Do Ya Thang " contains the line " And you my lover / But I love you like a brother " which , according to Popdust 's Exton , is reminiscent of actress Angelina Jolie and her brother James Haven at the Oscars . Exton further explained that the song is full with vague descriptions of Rihanna 's feelings , which result as " hollow " declaration that she is never going away . While singing the lines " Middle of the Day / Give Me What I want / It feels so special / It feels so good " she admits " liking afternoon delights " .
= = Critical reception = =
According to Maz Hallima of Flavour Magazine , " Do Ya Thang " has a very " teenager @-@ ish vibe " which according to her works well , however she is aware why Rihanna kept it as a bonus track of the album . Sam Lansky of MTV Buzzworthy wrote that the song " can 't be beat for sheer likability " . He further noted that Rihanna is stepping back from her " hypersexual persona to sing a more earnest , good @-@ natured tune " . Michael Jepson of The Fourth State concluded that " Do Ya Thang " , together with " Cockiness ( Love It ) " and " Roc Me Out " , are the top candidates from Talk That Talk that can be labeled as the album 's " highlights " . According to Jepson , all three songs are " blatantly raunchy " and feel like a follow up to Rihanna 's 2011 single " S & M " ( Loud , 2011 ) . Shaun Kitchener of EntertainmentWise concluded that Rihanna " takes a breather for ' Do Ya Thang ' , and we get a rare glimpse of Sweet Loving Rihanna instead . "
= = Credits and personnel = =
Recording
Recorded at Pelican Hill , Newport Coast , California ; Studio De La Grand Armee , Paris , France
Personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Talk That Talk , Def Jam Recordings , SRP Records .
= = Charts = =
Upon the release of Talk That Talk , due to digital downloads " Do Ya Thang " charted on the singles charts in South Korea and the United Kingdom . It debuted on the South Korea Gaon International Chart at number 80 on November 26 , 2011 , with sales of 6 @,@ 288 digital copies . In the United Kingdom , " Do Ya Thang " debuted at number 38 on the UK R & B Chart on November 27 , 2011 . The song also debuted at number 136 on the UK Singles Chart for the chart issue dated December 3 , 2011 .
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= Alabama State Route 73 =
State Route 73 , also known as SR @-@ 73 , is a numbered state highway in Alabama . The route runs 11 @.@ 219 miles ( 18 @.@ 055 km ) from SR @-@ 71 in Higdon north to the Tennessee border , where it becomes State Route 377 ( SR @-@ 377 ) . SR @-@ 73 passes through rural areas in eastern Jackson County , serving the community of Bryant .
The SR @-@ 73 designation was first used for present @-@ day CR @-@ 29 between Piedmont in Calhoun County and Forney in Cherokee County , existing in the 1930s and 1940s . In the 1950s , SR @-@ 207 was briefly assigned to the road between Higdon and Bryant before it received the SR @-@ 73 designation . SR @-@ 73 was extended in the 1980s north to the Tennessee state line to connect to SR @-@ 377 .
= = Route description = =
SR @-@ 73 begins at an intersection with SR @-@ 71 in the community of Higdon , Alabama , heading north on a two @-@ lane undivided road . The route heads through rural areas of farms and woods with some homes , curving to the northwest . The road heads north again as it crosses under several power lines radiating from the Widows Creek Power Plant along the Tennessee River . SR @-@ 73 continues northeast past homes and businesses in the Bryant , Alabama area on top of Sand Mountain prior to going north through more forested areas with a few rural homes . The route passes through a mix of farm and woodland before it turns east into forests . SR @-@ 73 makes a sharp curve north again to traverse Sand Mountain as it comes to the Tennessee border . At this point , the road continues into Tennessee as SR @-@ 377 , which ascends Sand Mountain to end at SR @-@ 156 , east of South Pittsburg , Tennessee .
= = History = =
The SR @-@ 73 designation was first assigned in 1934 to an unimproved road connecting SR @-@ 74 in Piedmont and SR @-@ 62 in Forney , passing through Spring Garden and Rock Run , Alabama . By 1948 , this road was removed from the state highway system , becoming CR 29 in Calhoun and Cherokee counties by 1955 . What would become the current SR @-@ 73 south of Bryant became a part of SR @-@ 207 by 1955 ; at this time , the portion of road was a paved highway . SR @-@ 207 was redesignated SR @-@ 73 by 1957 . By 1987 , SR @-@ 73 was extended north from Bryant to the Tennessee border .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Jackson County .
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= The End of the Road =
The End of the Road is the second novel by American writer John Barth , published first in 1958 , and then in a revised edition in 1967 . The irony @-@ laden black comedy 's protagonist Jacob Horner suffers from a nihilistic paralysis he calls " cosmopsis " — an inability to choose a course of action from all possibilities . As part of a schedule of unorthodox therapies , Horner 's nameless Doctor has him take a teaching job at a local teachers ' college . There Horner befriends the super @-@ rational Joe Morgan and his wife Rennie . The trio become entangled in a love triangle , with tragic results . The story deals with issues controversial at the time , such as sexuality , racial segregation , and abortion .
Barth and his critics often pair the novel with its predecessor , The Floating Opera ( 1956 ) ; both were written in 1955 , and are available together in a one @-@ volume edition . Both are philosophical novels ; The End of the Road continues with the conclusions about absolute values made by the protagonist of The Floating Opera , and takes these ideas " to the end of the road " . Barth wrote both novels in a realistic mode , in contrast to Barth 's better @-@ known metafictional , fabulist , and postmodern works from the 1960s and later , such as Lost in the Funhouse ( 1968 ) and LETTERS ( 1979 ) .
Critics have been divided over whether Barth identified with the book 's protagonist , who retreats from emotion and human relations through language and intellectual analysis ; Jake prefers to keep even his sexual relations impersonal . Language is presented as a distortion of experience , yet nevertheless unavoidable . In his later novels Barth forefronted the artifice in his writing , beginning with The Sot @-@ Weed Factor ( 1960 ) , a work Barth conceived as the last of a " loose trilogy of novels " .
A 1970 film loosely based on the novel stars James Earl Jones , Stacy Keach and Harris Yulin in their earliest feature roles . It was rated X , in part because of a graphic abortion scene .
= = Publishing history = =
While teaching at Penn State , Barth embarked on a cycle of 100 stories he called Dorchester Tales ; he abandoned it halfway through to begin his first two published novels . He completed both The Floating Opera and The End of the Road in 1955 . Appleton @-@ Century @-@ Crofts published The Floating Opera in 1956 , but sales were not strong enough to encourage the publisher to pick up Barth 's next offering , which was felt to be too similar to the first book . Doubleday published The End of the Road in 1958 ; it received only marginally more attention than The Floating Opera . A revised edition in 1967 restored material cut from the first edition , and had a new introduction by Barth . Anchor Books collected these two novels in a single @-@ volume edition in 1988 ; in his foreword to it Barth states he originally titled the book What To Do Until the Doctor Comes , but Doubleday editor Edward Aswell persuaded him to change it , as he " feared the novel would be mistaken for a treatise on first aid " .
= = Background = =
The story narrates the first @-@ person confession Jacob Horner in the form of a therapeutic psychodrama . Horner writes on October 4 , 1955 , of events in 1951 – 53 .
Barth spent most of his adult life teaching at universities . As in many of Barth 's novels , the setting and characters of The End of the Road have an academic background ; most of the story takes place on a university campus . The novel tackles controversial contemporary issues such as abortion ( which had yet to achieve wide social acceptance ) and racial segregation .
The End of the Road can be viewed with The Floating Opera ( 1956 ) as forming the early , existentialist or nihilist phase of Barth 's writing career . This phase was realistic in a modernist sense ; it lacked the fantastic elements that manifested themselves in Barth 's experimental phase that began with The Sot @-@ Weed Factor ( 1960 ) . Both novels , while displaying a distinctive style , followed conventions readers expected from a novel , and were part of a realist trend in American novels during the 1940s and 1950s . As The Floating Opera closes , its protagonist , Todd Andrews , concludes that life has no absolute values but that there are relative values that are " no less ' real ' , for ... being relative " . Barth has said he wrote The End of the Road to refute this worldview by carrying " all non @-@ mystical value @-@ thinking to the end of the road " , and that the second novel was a " nihilistic tragedy " paired with the " nihilistic comedy " of the first . Barth also sees the book as the second of a " loose trilogy of novels " that concludes with The Sot @-@ Weed Factor , after which he embarked on the fabulist Giles Goat @-@ Boy ( 1966 ) .
= = Plot = =
In a sense , I am Jacob Horner .
Jacob " Jake " Horner suffers from " cosmopsis " — an inability to choose from among all possible choices he can imagine . Having abandoned his graduate studies at Johns Hopkins University , he becomes completely paralyzed in the Pennsylvania Railroad Station in Baltimore just after his 28th birthday , An unnamed African @-@ American doctor who claims to specialize in such conditions takes him under his care at his private therapy center , the Remobilization Farm .
As part of his schedule of therapies , Jake takes a job teaching at Wicomico State Teachers College , where he becomes friends with history teacher Joe Morgan and his wife Rennie . Joe and Jake enjoy intellectual sparring in a " duel of articulations " . The philosophical Morgans have a marriage in which everything must be articulated , and in which " the parties involved are able to take each other seriously " — and to Joe " seriously " means sometimes beating his wife . The Doctor prescribes Jake " mythotherapy " , in which he is to read Sartre and to assign himself " masks " to abolish the ego , inducing action through the adoption of symbolic roles . Jake seeks out a woman , Peggy Rankin , whom he had earlier picked up ; when she rebuffs him , he succeeds in seducing again her by striking her , in imitation of Joe .
While Joe busies himself with his Ph.D. dissertation , he encourages Rennie to teach Jake horseback riding . During their rides , Rennie and Jake talk at length about the Morgans ' unusual relationship . After returning from one such outing , Jake encourages a resistant Rennie to spy on her husband . She is convinced that " real people " like Joe are not " any different when they are alone " ; such people have " [ n ] o mask . What you see of them is authentic . " What Rennie sees of Joe while spying disorients her and her vision of him — he masturbates , picks his nose , makes faces , and sputters gibberish syllables to himself .
Jake and Rennie commit adultery ; when Joe discovers it , he insists they maintain the affair , in an effort to discover the reasons for his wife 's unfaithfulness . Rennie discovers she is pregnant , but cannot be sure whether Joe or Jake is the father . The Morgans visit Jake , Joe with Colt .45 in hand . Rennie insists on having an abortion , or she will commit suicide . Under an assumed name , Jake hunts for an abortionist ; when Peggy refuses to help him find one , he strikes her . Unable to find a physician who will agree to the procedure , Jake turns to the Doctor . Rennie dies from the botched abortion . His relativist " cosmopsis " confirmed , Jake reverts to his paralysis . Two years later , as part of his Scriptotherapy on the relocated Remobilization Farm , he writes of his Wicomico experience .
= = Themes and motifs = =
The End of the Road is rich in recurring metaphor . In the opening chapter , while in the Doctor 's Progress and Advice Room , Jake finds himself in the awkward position of having to choose the manner in which he will sit , with his choices restricted . Jake notes that Rennie has made the same sort of choice @-@ that @-@ is @-@ not @-@ a @-@ choice by remaining married to Joe , and that Joe , in opposition to his philosophies , has to make a " choice " about Rennie 's adultery and pregnancy .
On his mantel Jake keeps a bust of Laocoön sculpted by a dead uncle . As Laocoön was bound by serpents , Jake feels himself bound into inaction " by the serpents Knowledge and Imagination , which ... no longer tempt but annihilate " . This is reflected in Laocoön 's grimace , which Jake frequently consults and interprets according to his mood — with admiration , frustration , or indifference . After the disaster of Rennie 's abortion , Jake tells the bust , " We 've come too far " , and abandons it along with his job , car and apartment .
Barth coined the term " cosmopsis " in The End of the Road for a sense of seeing and comprehending all available paths of action and the futility of choosing among them . Jake expands on Jean @-@ Paul Sartre 's famous existentialist line " existence precedes essence " , saying " existence not only precedes essence : in the case of human beings it rather defies essence . " The Doctor tells Jake , " Choosing is existence : to the extent that you don 't choose , you don 't exist . " To cope with inability to make decisions , the Doctor prescribes three therapies : the arbitrary principles of Sinistrality ( " If the alternatives are side by side , choose the one on the left " ) , Antecedence ( " if they 're consecutive in time , choose the earlier " ) and Alphabetic Priority ( " choose the alternative whose name begins with the earlier letter of the alphabet " ) .
The Doctor prescribes " Mythotherapy " to move Jake beyond his paralysis by giving him arbitrary decision @-@ making principles and having him take on identities by wearing " masks " — assuming roles . He tells Jake " fiction isn 't a lie at all , but a true representation of the distortion that everyone makes of life " . These distortions — an approach Jake calls " mythoplastic " — people employ to with the arbitrary conditions life thrusts upon them . According to Jake , it is the imagination that enables one to cope , and its lack in the Morgans was to lead to their destruction .
Both Jake and Joe use their intellects to distance themselves from their emotions ; both see others as specimens to be observed rather than as peers to relate to . Only when overcome with emotion does Jake briefly shed his self @-@ consciousness , which he makes sure to quickly regain .
Jake is uncomfortable " with women who took their sexual transports too seriously " , and prefers his sexual relations to be impersonal ; the Doctor recommends he take up masturbation and avoid the complications of marriage or girlfriends . Jake 's attitude toward sex is paralleled by his impersonal attitude to human relations in general .
Horse symbols permeate the text . Rennie , an accomplished rider , and her husband whip their heads back and forth horse @-@ like when they laugh . Joe is fond of the epithet horseshit when pointing out nonsense . His surname , Morgan , is the name of an American breed of horse . Joe 's consistent sureness , his " rationality and absence of ' craft or guile ' " , according to Thomas Schaub , seem to echo the Houyhnhnms , the race of rational horses in Jonathan Swift 's Gulliver 's Travels .
The novel 's opening line recalls the " Call me Ishmael " opening of Herman Melville 's Moby @-@ Dick . Choices of wording such as " inscrutable " and " wrinkled brow " appear to Thomas H. Schaub to be deliberate echoes from Melville 's novel .
= = Style = =
A virtuoso stylist , Barth concerns himself with deflating the pretensions of his characters . He displays an attitude toward sexuality that is free from taboo . Irony and black comedy are plentiful , but come to a sudden emotional halt with the crisis in the abortion room .
The End of the Road is in a realistic style that may come as a surprise to those familiar only with Barth 's later books . The narrator avoids naturalistic descriptions of his surroundings , and most other details , and describes the physical aspects of life ( especially of women ) with disgust or contempt . He indulges in occasional bursts of eloquence : " A turning down of dinner damped , in ways subtle past knowing , manic keys on the flute of me , least pressed of all , which for a moment had shrilled me rarely " . The realism is not a conventional everyday realism : the situations themselves are fantastic , though plausible .
Naturalism makes a significant appearance in the 12th chapter , in which Jake witnesses Rennie 's botched abortion and finds himself unable to conquer his emotions with reason . Jac Tharpe saw this change of style as evidence that the chapter had originated as a separate story that was integrated into the novel ; Charles B. Harris sees the " sudden use of naturalistic details " as taking on an " integral function " in the book , one prepared by the previous chapter with the subtle introduction of some passing naturalistic detail .
Though he shows concern for verisimilitude — particularly in the immediacy of the abortion scene — Barth at times draws attention to the artifice of the writing . Jake recounts long conversations with Rennie or Joe that he points out never occurred as written — he has ordered and condensed their content . Jake also expresses a belief that was to manifest itself in Barth 's later approach to writing : " To turn experience into speech , that is , to classify , to conceptualize , to grammarize , to syntactify it — is always a betrayal of it , a falsification of it " .
= = Primary characters = =
Jacob " Jake " Horner
Constantly aware of the many possibilities in life , Jake is paralyzed by his inability to choose from among them . In his own words , he is able " to maintain with perfect unenthusiasm contradictory , or at least polarized , opinions at once on a given subject " . On occasion Jake finds himself in an empty mental state , free of mood , personality , or motivation ; he calls these times " weatherless " , after a dream he had in which attempts to find the weather forecast lead him to a meteorologist who informs him that the forecast is " no weather " . He fills the void of his weatherlessness by occupying himself with rocking in his chair or singing the " Pepsi @-@ Cola hits the spot " advertising jingle to himself . Completely arbitrary , Horner seems the epitome of unreason to Joe Morgan 's ultra @-@ rationality , though Rennie comments that he and Joe " work from a lot of the same rational premises " . He is scrupulously attentive to details , recording the possible positions of his arms and legs in the Progress and Advice Room ; making note of who was on top first , or on which shoulder he was bitten , and which brand of condoms were used in his affair with Rennie ; even parsing the grammar of sentences for the reader . He submits even his emotions to the ordering processes of reason . The name " Jake Horner " is reminiscent of the rationalizing Little Jack Horner , as well as of the horns of a cuckold .
Joe Morgan
Joe is a history teacher and scoutmaster . He is consistent , decisive , rational , and lacking " craft or guile " , and thus feels entirely certain of everything . An existentialist , he believes he has rid himself of arbitrary values and arrived at his essence . He believes that if something exists , it can be articulated . He recognizes the relativism of his value system , and that an ultimate system of values cannot be reached through logic . He maintains that " the most a man can ever do is be right from his point of view ... He 's got to expect conflict from people or institutions who are also right from their points of view , but whose points of view are different from his . "
Joe 's definition of marriage requires that " the parties involved be able to take each other seriously " . Despite Jake 's making fun of Rennie , he likes Jake for appearing to take her seriously , as he believes few men take women seriously . He is voyeuristic in the rationalized probing of his wife for the minute details of her ongoing affair with Jake .
Rennie Morgan
Rennie is married to Joe , whom she looks up to . Joe has twice knocked her out in the past . Jake describes her as a " clumsy animal " . Her birth name is Renée , a name signifying rebirth , and her maiden name was MacMahon — " reborn son of man " , perhaps signifying rebirth in Joe 's image , according to Thomas Schaub . Both Joe and Jake observe and treat her like a patient .
The Doctor
Described by Jake as " bald , dark @-@ eyed , and dignified " , the unnamed , elderly African @-@ American Doctor specializes in immobility and paralysis at his Remobilization Farm in Vineland , New Jersey . He is an existential ultra @-@ pragmatist and insists Jake rely on empirical facts rather than logic in making decisions , and echoes Wittgenstein 's proposition from Tractatus Logico @-@ Philosophicus , " The world is everything that is the case " .Because of racial segregation that would not end until 1954 , he is unable to buy himself a cup of coffee at the bus station . He works outside of the law , and is unable to give Rennie an abortion in the safety of a hospital .
Peggy Rankin
Rankin is Jake 's " Forty @-@ Year @-@ Old @-@ Pickup " , a local schoolteacher Jake has picked up like " a bird who perches on the muzzle of [ his ] gun " . in nearby Ocean City . In imitation of Joe , Jake hits her , once to woo her , the other time when she will not help him find an abortionist .
= = Reception and legacy = =
A 1958 Time magazine review called The End of the Road " that rarity of U.S. letters — a true novel of ideas " . In the Chicago Review in 1959 , reviewer David Kerner called it an " ideological farce " , a genre he considered a " special type " with few contemporary examples . George Bluestone in 1960 used the term " serious farce " , calling it an emerging new genre . Kerner praised Barth 's " coherence of ... allegory " , " depth of ... feeling for ideology " , and " excellence of intention " , but argues that the work 's realistic style is at odds with the farcical , two @-@ dimensional characters , who lack a " human and social setting " to give them roundedness and credibility . To Thomas LeClair in 1973 , the novel was Barth 's " purest presentation of the comedy of intellectual abstraction " .
As part of a cast that includes characters from each of Barth 's first six books the characters Jake and Joe resurface in Barth 's 1979 novel LETTERS on the Doctor 's Remobilization Farm , relocated to Fort Erie , Ontario . The End of the Road is presented in that book as a discarded manuscript Jake had titled What I Did Until the Doctor Came . Barth 's fictitious version of himself in LETTERS uses the manuscript as the basis for The End of the Road ; decades later he writes to Jake of his appropriation , and of the film based on the book , calling the latter " as false to the novel as was the novel to your Account and your Account to the actual Horner @-@ Morgan @-@ Morgan triangle " .
Jonathan Lethem wrote of the influence The End of the Road had on his novel As She Climbed Across the Table ( 1997 ) , which also involves a love triangle in an academic setting . In Lethem 's novel , the narrator , in a position similar to Joe Morgan 's , experiences the dilemma of " losing a woman to a rival who " , like Jake Horner , " refuses to provide any fixed identity to hate , compete with , or understand " .
= = = Critical views = = =
As The Floating Opera and The End of the Road make little display of the metafictional formal prowess of Barth 's later works , critics often overlook them . Some consider these first two novels little more than apprentice works , while others see them in light of the later works , removed from their historical and social context .
Critics have been divided on whether Barth identified with the narrator 's beliefs ; this appeared probable to John Gardner , Richard W. Noland , and Tony Tanner , while Beverly Gross and Campbell Tatham believed the tragic ending demonstrates the contrary . Philosopher Robert C. Solomon included excerpts from the book in a collection on existentialism . Gardner objected to the book 's absurdist philosophy , " vulgarities of style " , and a " touch of life @-@ hate which reveals itself in the author 's fascination with the ugly , the disgusting " ; Gardner found this " fascination " perplexing , as " in other respects Barth seems all sunshine and good cheer " . Christopher Conti saw a " moral @-@ satiric design " also found in Nabokov 's Lolita ( 1955 ) and Gardner 's Grendel ( 1971 ) , in which the reader is meant to see through the moral failings of the novels ' " monstrous narrators " .
Charles B. Harris sees Jake 's and Joe 's intellectualism as a Freudian obsessional neurosis . To Freud , he writes , the source of such a condition lies in " the chronic existence of love and hatred , both directed towards the same person and both of the highest degree of intensity " . Rennie expresses this overtly when she tells Jake , " [ I ] f I love you at all , I don 't just love you . I swear , along with it I honestly and truly hate your God @-@ damned guts ! "
To Dirk Vanderbeke , the " masks " the Doctor prescribes mask the " essential emptiness " of egoless existential philosophy . He writes that , anticipating Michel Foucault 's theories of the self in The Archaeology of Knowledge ( 1974 ) , all the characters wear self @-@ defining masks that they at some point let slip , and that Jake 's paralysis stems from an inability to choose a role with which to participate in society . Vanderbeke writes , " Mythotherapy is not simply the cure for Jacob 's state of mind but the general mode of human existence . "
Cynthia Davis sees the women in Barth 's early works as lacking the choice @-@ making , identity @-@ forming dynamism of the men ; Rennie has no viewpoint of her own , only ones formed by Joe or Jake . Davis states , " Only as bodies do Barth 's women defy male control : in sex , in pregnancy , in death . " To Judith Wilt , Rennie appears to assert herself in a seeming determination to die on the abortion table , cutting herself with the curette and inhaling her own vomit ; there is no evidence in the book beyond her own assertion that Rennie had ever been pregnant . Barth returned to the subject of abortion in Sabbatical in 1982 .
To literary theorist Michael LeMahieu , Barth 's first two novels confront a logical positivist " separation of facts and values " common in postwar American fiction . The End of the Road displays " aesthetic resistance to the philosophical realism it desires results in a state of narrative , logical , affective , and ethical exhaustion at the end of the book " . The narrative conflict echoes an ethical conflict between the characters ' value systems that Joe insists is inevitable .
= = Adaptations = =
The End of the Road is the only work of Barth 's to have been adapted to film . Director Aram Avakian 's loose adaptation End of the Road ( 1970 ) stars James Earl Jones , Stacy Keach and Harris Yulin in their earliest feature roles . Graphic scenes earned the film an X rating , such as those of the botched abortion and of what Barth calls a " man rapes chicken " scene not found in the book . Barth and critics widely panned the movie ; Barth wrote disdainfully about it in the introduction to the 1988 single @-@ volume edition of The Floating Opera and The End of the Road . Academics Ken Pellow and Rita Hug opined that the linguistic , literary and philosophical aspects of the book made it difficult to adapt ; they argued that Jake Horner 's frequent speaking to the reader is key to the book 's effectiveness but does not lend itself to film .
Director Paul Edwards made a stage adaptation of the novel for Roadworks Productions in 1993 , with John Mozes as Jake , Kate Fry as Rennie , and Patrick McNulty as Joe . Edwards makes Jake 's immobility central to the play ; it opens with him seated and writing , and closes with him doing the same until the audience has left . The production won a Joseph Jefferson Award in 1993 .
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= William of Wrotham =
William of Wrotham or William de Wrotham ( died c . 1217 ) was a medieval English royal administrator and clergyman . Although a late 13th @-@ century source says that William held a royal office under King Henry II of England ( reigned 1154 – 1189 ) , the first contemporary reference to William is in 1197 , when he became responsible among other things for the royal tin mines . He also held ecclesiastical office , eventually becoming Archdeacon of Taunton , and served King John of England as an administrator of ecclesiastical lands and a collector of taxes .
William 's main administrative work was naval . He was in charge of the royal fleet in the south of England in 1205 , and was one of those responsible for the development of Portsmouth as a naval dockyard . He continued to be involved in naval matters until 1214 or later , but by 1215 he had joined the First Barons ' War against John . After John 's death in 1216 , William returned to the royalist cause . He probably died in late 1217 . Known to a contemporary chronicler as one of John 's " evil advisers " , William is said by modern historians to have had a " special responsibility for ports , customs , and the navy " , and was " keeper of ports " , a forerunner of the office of First Lord of the Admiralty .
= = Early life = =
Little is known of William 's background or family , except that his father Godwin held land in Shipbourne , near Wrotham in Kent , perhaps as a vassal of the Archbishops of Canterbury . William 's brother Richard was named as William 's deputy in 1207 .
According to late 13th @-@ century documents , the Hundred Rolls , King Henry II gave William the office of steward of Exmoor , and lands at North Petherton , Somerset . William was the prebend of St Decumans in the cathedral chapter of Bath Cathedral by 9 May 1204 . He claimed to have held the office since 1194 during a later dispute with Savaric fitzGeldewin , the Bishop of Bath and another canon of the cathedral , Roger Porretanus , who claimed the prebend . By 23 December 1205 , William had secured a papal judgement against Roger .
William may have owed his advancement in royal service to Geoffrey fitzPeter , a royal judge . In 1197 he granted William a manor at Sutton @-@ at @-@ Hone , Kent , which later was supposed to become a hospital , but instead eventually became a preceptory for the Knights Hospitaller . From 1197 William was responsible for the collection of revenues from Geoffrey 's lands at Lydford , Devon , and held the office of chief forester of Somerset ; it is unclear to whom he owed that position .
= = Royal service = =
In 1197 , Hubert Walter , who was Archbishop of Canterbury and Justiciar , appointed William to the administration of the royal stannaries , or tin mines , and in 1198 William was placed in charge of tin production , an office later known as the Lord Warden of the Stannaries . Under his control the mines became much more lucrative for the king , and accounted for a total of £ 1100 in William 's first year of administration . As part of his administrative work he became the first warden of Lydford Castle after it was constructed in the 1190s . In 1199 he was involved in a dispute over the stannaries with another official , Hugh Bardulf , temporarily losing control of them – along with his office as sheriff – in 1200 . The reason for the loss of these offices is uncertain . After restoration to office , he remained as Lord Warden of the Stannaries until 1215 .
In 1198 and 1199 , William was Sheriff of Devon and Sheriff of Cornwall , along with another royal servant , and served as a royal justice . In 1200 he was recorded as a receiver of the carucage , a tax on land , in the Pipe roll ; whether this meant that he was a local or a national collector of the tax is unclear . By 12 September 1204 , William was Archdeacon of Taunton in the Diocese of Bath , and he witnessed the election of Jocelin of Wells as the new bishop of the diocese . He was jointly placed in charge of the mints of London and Canterbury in 1205 , along with Reginald de Cornhill , with whom he also shared the collection of the tax of a fifteenth on merchants , a post the two had held since 1202 . In May 1205 William , along with de Cornhill , was given custody of one of three dies for the mint at Chichester ; in July the king gave William 's custody to Simon of Wells , the Bishop of Chichester . William was one of the officials in charge of the collection of a tax of a thirteenth in 1207 .
William was also placed in charge of vacant ecclesiastical offices , collecting their revenues for the king . He performed this office for the Diocese of Worcester around 1200 , the Diocese of Winchester in 1204 , for Glastonbury Abbey in 1205 , and for Whitby Abbey in 1206 and 1209 . From his actions it can be assumed that Wrotham was a member of the royal household , probably working in the wardrobe .
= = Naval administration = =
William 's main administrative work concerned the navy . In 1204 he , de Cornhill , and William of Furnell were placed in charge of granting wool export licences . William of Wrotham was also one of the officials charged with supervising the ships dispatched to the coasts in 1204 , after the loss of Normandy exposed England to invasion by the French . In 1205 he was again one of the keepers of the royal fleet along the south coast . William was in charge of the 17 ships based in Romney , Rye , Shoreham , Southampton , Winchelsea , and Exeter , while the rest of the fleet came under Cornhill 's control . In the same year , he was also in charge of naval spending for the attempted invasion of France , which in June alone totalled over 470 pounds . William surrendered custody of Taunton Castle to Peter de Taraton in July and was in charge of purchasing the royal wine in August . No further naval duties are recorded until November , when along with Cornhill he was responsible for assessing the ports .
In 1206 William was in charge of the naval forces in the Cinque Ports and commanded the fleet that invaded Poitou . Whether he accompanied the fleet or stayed in England after it sailed is unclear ; according to two historians – F. W. Brooks and R. W. Powell – it is more likely he stayed . From 1206 until 1215 he was effectively commander of King John 's navy , and helped to develop Portsmouth as a royal dockyard . In 1208 William was put in charge of ensuring that no ships sailed without royal permission . That year he also oversaw the naval preparations made by the Cinque Ports . The purpose of these preparations is unknown ; the Annals of Dunstable ascribe to John a desire to oppress the Cinque Ports . During May 1208 a royal order was issued that William 's deputies in all the seaports should seize any ships in the ports that were from foreign countries , excluding Denmark , Norway and other countries that did not oppose John 's diplomatic efforts . A gap in the governmental records does not allow a detailed view of William 's activities for the next years , until 1212 , when William is shown performing many of the same duties as earlier . He was in charge of repair of some ships and the construction of a large new ship , named the Deulabenit , owned by the king . William was also responsible for impressing privately owned merchant ships into royal service . These ships were used in the naval action of the Battle of Damme at Zwyn in 1213 , when a fleet under William Longespee , the Earl of Salisbury , destroyed a substantial French naval force and sacked the town of Damme .
In late 1213 William was directing the efforts of the seaports of south @-@ western England and the Cinque Ports in naval affairs . He was also responsible for the setting up of a supply depot for the navy in June 1213 , for which he received supplies from the diocese of Chichester . In 1214 William had custody of some royal prisoners . The same year , the king ordered him to return a merchant ship if he had indeed seized it from its owner , Joscelin de Hampton . Also in 1214 , William co @-@ founded the hospital of Domus Dei in Portsmouth with Peter des Roches , the Bishop of Winchester . The foundation was confirmed by the king in October 1214 .
John rewarded William for his service with churches in Sheppey and East Malling , which were granted in 1207 , and the right to oversee the royal forests in Cornwall and Devon . Other grants included lands in Dartford and Sutton @-@ at @-@ Hone that had escheated to the crown , lands in Westminster and a prebend in the royal ecclesiastical foundation at Hastings .
= = Later years and legacy = =
During John 's reign , Pope Innocent III placed an interdict on England , forbidding public celebration of sacred rites in English churches . William supported John , and remained in England . The medieval chronicler Roger of Wendover named William as one of John 's " evil advisers " , or " most wicked counsellors " . Modern historians argue that Roger 's account of John 's reign , while containing some truth , was written to defame men who were prominent in the early years of King Henry III , John 's son who had succeeded his father in October 1216 . According to Nicholas Vincent , while Roger 's account of the exactions and crimes of the members of his list of evil advisers certainly had a strong basis of truth , it was also greatly exaggerated . W. L. Warren agrees and points out that many of the details of Roger 's accounts that can be checked with other records are wrong , making the other parts of his stories suspect .
In 1215 William joined the baronial rebellion against John , and lost his naval offices , the royal forester 's office for Somerset , and custody of Lydford Castle . In May 1216 the king offered William a safe conduct , which noted that William had fled overseas . The letters were witnessed by Peter des Roches . In mid @-@ 1217 , he rejoined the royalist cause , returning to the side of Henry III . This action regained him some of his lost lands .
William last appeared in documents on 25 July 1217 and was dead by 16 February 1218 , probably before 2 December 1217 , when someone else is mentioned as archdeacon . On 16 February 1218 , John Marshall became the guardian of Richard , William 's nephew and heir , who was the son of William 's brother Richard .
William has been described as having a " special responsibility for ports , customs , and the navy " by the historian Robert Bartlett . He is usually given the title of " keeper of ports " or " keeper of galleys " , which Ralph Turner equates with being First Lord of the Admiralty in later history . Sometimes this would be given as " custos portum maris " in Latin , or " keeper of the seaports " . At other times he was titled " keeper of the king 's ships " . Bartlett also called William " one of the king 's most important administrators " . Charles Young said that William 's service to King John was a " distinguished administrative career " , and J. E. A. Joliffe called William one of the " greatest of the king 's clerks " .
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= Guitar Solos =
Guitar Solos is the debut solo album of English guitarist , composer and improviser Fred Frith . It was recorded while Frith was still a member of the English experimental rock group Henry Cow and was released in the United Kingdom on LP record by Caroline Records in October 1974 . The album comprises eight tracks of unaccompanied and improvised experimental rock music played on prepared guitars by Frith without any overdubbing .
Guitar Solos was voted one of the best albums of 1974 by NME critics . AllMusic called it a landmark album because of its innovative and experimental approach to guitar playing . It also attracted the attention of Brian Eno , resulting in Frith 's playing guitar on two of Eno 's albums , and spawned two follow @-@ up albums , Guitar Solos 2 ( 1976 ) and Guitar Solos 3 ( 1979 ) . Guitar Solos was remastered and released on CD on Frith 's own record label , Fred Records in 2002 .
= = Background = =
Fred Frith was a classically @-@ trained violinist who turned to playing blues guitar while still at school . In 1967 he went to Cambridge University where he and fellow student , Tim Hodgkinson formed Henry Cow . While at University , Frith read John Cage 's Silence : Lectures and Writings , which changed his attitude to music completely . He realised that " sound , in and of itself , can be as important as [ ... ] melody and harmony and rhythm . " This changed his approach to the guitar , " just to see what I could get out of it " and initiated a long period of experimentation that continued throughout Frith 's musical career .
While the music of Henry Cow was highly orchestrated and structured , Frith also began to experiment with unstructured music , using prepared instruments and chance composition . In June 1974 , after the release of Henry Cow 's second album , Virgin Records ( Henry Cow 's record label ) commissioned a solo record from Frith . They were impressed with his musical ability and gave him free rein to record whatever he wanted . In a 2001 radio interview , Frith said he used the opportunity as a challenge : " I said to myself [ ... ] in two weeks time I 'm going to go into the studio and I have no idea what I 'm going to do and I 'm going to kind of reinvent the instrument for myself . " Frith spent four days in July 1974 recording at the Kaleidophon Studios in London , and the resulting experimentation and the process of galvanisation and pressure led to the " radical approach to the guitar " on the album . In October 1974 , Virgin released the album as Guitar Solos on their budget label , Caroline Records .
= = Recording = =
Frith recorded the album at David Vorhaus 's Kaleidophon Studios in London on 11 – 13 and 15 July 1974 , where he played a modified 1936 Gibson K @-@ 11 . He added an extra pickup over the strings at the nut , enabling him to amplify sound from both sides of the fretted note . He then split the fretboard in two with a capo , effectively giving him two guitars , each amplified separately that he could play independently with each hand . To split the sounds further he attached alligator clips at various positions on the strings . The net result was a guitar with multiple sound sources that could be channelled to a mixer and distributed across the stereo soundscape .
The album was recorded in four days without any overdubbing . All the pieces were improvised , some completely , some to a roughly preconceived idea , and sound as they were played , except for " No Birds " , which was recorded in two parts , and " Not Forgotten " , from which two notes were removed . The only sounds not produced ' naturally ' by guitar are those of a fuzzbox used on " Out of Their Heads ( On Locoweed ) " , " Heat c / w Moment " and " No Birds " , an echo delay used on " No Birds " , and ambient noise from Frith 's breath and feet on " Heat c / w Moment " .
On the longest track on the album , " No Birds " , Frith played on two prepared guitars simultaneously , creating the timbre and range of an orchestra . He laid the two guitars flat on a table , neck to neck with the bodies of the guitars at opposite ends and the necks parallel to each other . He tuned the strings on both guitars to one note , and because they were stereo guitars with nut pickups , he had six separate sound sources coming from each guitar . Using volume pedals on some of the sound sources , he filtered sounds in and out of the mix without doing anything on the guitars .
= = Reception and influence = =
Guitar Solos was voted one of the best albums of 1974 by NME critics . Sean Westergaard of AllMusic called Guitar Solos a landmark album because of its innovative and experimental approach to guitar playing . Radio journalist Chris Comer said it was a " ground breaking guitar improvisation record . " In the January 1983 edition of Down Beat magazine , Bill Milkowski wrote that on Guitar Solos " Frith unveiled a haunting collection of improvised music on prepared guitar which must have stunned listeners of the day . Even today that album stands up as uniquely innovative and undeniably daring . " The album also attracted the attention of Brian Eno who was " excited by the timbral possibilities that [ Frith had ] been discovering . " Eno asked Frith to record with him , and this resulted in Frith playing guitar on two of Eno 's albums , Before and After Science ( 1977 ) and Music for Films ( 1978 ) .
The table @-@ top guitar setup Frith used on this album became a standard for many of his subsequent live solo performances , including those recorded on his 1982 live double album Live in Japan . He later extended his technique to include " found objects " , which he used on his guitars to extract new sounds .
The success of Guitar Solos spawned two follow @-@ up albums , Guitar Solos 2 ( 1976 ) and Guitar Solos 3 ( 1979 ) , which featured Frith and other improvising guitarists , including Derek Bailey and Hans Reichel . Frith coordinated and produced these albums , and employed many of the same " unorthodox techniques " he had used on Guitar Solos . When a remastered edition of the original Guitar Solos was released 28 years later on Frith 's own Fred Records label , it attracted further praise from critics . Westergaard wrote that " Guitar Solos ' lasting legacy is that it radically redefined the way some people think about the guitar . "
= = Track listing = =
All tracks written by Fred Frith .
= = = Original 1974 release = = =
= = = 1991 CD re @-@ issue bonus tracks = = =
= = = Track notes = = =
Tracks 9 – 10 were recorded on Tom Newman 's barge ( Argonaut Studio ) in January 1976 , and were originally released on the follow @-@ up album , Guitar Solos 2 ( 1976 ) .
Tracks 11 – 13 were recorded at Briollay , France , in October 1978 , and were originally released on the follow @-@ up album , Guitar Solos 3 ( 1979 ) .
Tracks 14 – 18 were recorded at Noise , New York City , in September 1988 , and were previously unreleased .
= = Personnel = =
Fred Frith – prepared guitars
= = = Production = = =
David Vorhaus – recording engineer
Ray Smith – album sleeve photography and design
= = CD re @-@ issues = =
In 1991 RecRec Music ( Switzerland ) and East Side Digital ( United States ) re @-@ issued Guitar Solos on CD comprising all the tracks from the original Guitar Solos LP , plus the Fred Frith tracks from the follow @-@ up albums , Guitar Solos 2 and Guitar Solos 3 , along with five previously unreleased tracks by Frith .
In 2002 Fred Records issued a remastered version of the original Guitar Solos LP with no extra tracks .
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= German occupation of Luxembourg during World War I =
The German occupation of Luxembourg in World War I was the first of two military occupations of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg by Germany in the twentieth century . From August 1914 until the end of World War I on 11 November 1918 , Luxembourg was under full occupation by the German Empire . The German government justified the occupation by citing the need to support their armies in neighbouring France , although many Luxembourgers , contemporary and present , have interpreted German actions otherwise .
During this period , Luxembourg was allowed to retain its own government and political system , but all proceedings were overshadowed by the German army 's presence . Despite the overbearing distraction of the occupation , the Luxembourgish people attempted to lead their lives as normally as possible . The political parties attempted to focus on other matters , such as the economy , education , and constitutional reform .
The domestic political environment was further complicated by the death of Paul Eyschen , who had been Prime Minister for 27 years . With his death came a string of short @-@ lived governments , culminating in rebellion , and constitutional turmoil after the withdrawal of German soldiers .
= = Background = =
Since the 1867 Treaty of London , Luxembourg had been an explicitly neutral state . The Luxembourg Crisis had seen Prussia thwart France 's attempt to purchase the Grand Duchy from the Netherlands . Luxembourg 's neutrality was accepted by Prussia 's then @-@ Chancellor , Otto von Bismarck , who boasted , " In exchange for the fortress of Luxembourg , we have been compensated by the neutrality of the country , and a guarantee that it shall be maintained in perpetuity . "
In June 1914 , Archduke Franz Ferdinand , heir to the thrones of Austria @-@ Hungary , was assassinated by pan @-@ Slavic nationalists , leading to a sudden deterioration in relations between Austria @-@ Hungary and Serbia . Austria @-@ Hungary was supported by the German Empire , whilst Serbia had the backing of the Russian Empire . On 28 July , Austria @-@ Hungary attacked Serbia , which , in turn , required the mobilisation of Russia , hence of Germany , thanks to its responsibilities under the Dual Alliance .
Anticipating a retaliatory declaration of war from Russia 's closest western ally , France , Germany put into action the Schlieffen Plan . Under this military strategy , formulated by Count Schlieffen in 1905 , Germany would launch a lightning attack on France through the poorly defended Low Countries . This would bypass France 's main defences , arranged to the south . Germany 's army would be able to encircle Paris , force France to surrender , and turn its full attention to the Eastern Front .
Since the 1860s , Luxembourgers had been keenly aware of German ambition , and Luxembourg 's government was well aware of the implications of the Schlieffen Plan . In 1911 , Prime Minister Paul Eyschen commissioned an engineer to evaluate Germany 's western railroad network , particularly the likelihood that Germany would occupy Luxembourg to suit its logistical needs for a campaign in France . Moreover , given the strong ethnic and linguistic links between Luxembourg and Germany , it was feared that Germany might seek to annex Luxembourg into its empire . The government of Luxembourg aimed to avoid this by re @-@ affirming the country 's neutrality .
= = Invasion = =
On 1 August 1914 , Germany declared war on Russia . On the outbreak of war with its eastern neighbour , Germany put the Schlieffen Plan into action , and Luxembourg 's government 's fears were realised . Initially , Luxembourg was only a transit point for Albrecht von Württemberg 's Fourth Army . One of the railways from the northern Rhineland into France passed through Troisvierges , in the far north of Luxembourg , and Germany 's first infringement of Luxembourg 's sovereignty and neutrality was the unauthorised use of Troisvierges station . Eyschen protested , but could do nothing to prevent Germany 's incursion .
The next day , while French troops were still at a distance from the German frontier , Germany launched a full invasion . German soldiers began moving through south @-@ eastern Luxembourg , crossing the Moselle River at Remich and Wasserbillig , and headed towards the capital , Luxembourg City . Tens of thousands of German soldiers had been deployed to Luxembourg in those twenty @-@ four hours ( although the Grand Duchy 's government refuted any precise number that was suggested ) . Grand Duchess Marie @-@ Adélaïde ordered that the Grand Duchy 's small army , which numbered under 400 , not to resist , and , on the afternoon of the 2 August , she and Eyschen met the German commander , Oberst Richard Karl von Tessmar , on Luxembourg City 's Adolphe Bridge , the symbol of Luxembourg 's modernisation . They protested mildly , but both the young Grand Duchess and her aging statesman accepted German military rule as inevitable .
On 2 August , German Chancellor Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg justified the complete occupation of Luxembourg in terms of military necessity , arguing that France was ready to invade Luxembourg itself . The French minister in Luxembourg dismissed this argument , claiming that it would not have considered violating Luxembourg 's neutrality unless Germany had done so first . Bethmann Hollweg attempted to prove his country 's regret by offering Luxembourg compensation for the losses due to the military presence . On 4 August , Bethmann Hollweg told the Reichstag :
However , when it seemed that Germany was on the verge of victory , the Chancellor began to revise his statements . In his Septemberprogramm , Bethmann Hollweg called for Luxembourg to become a German federal state , and for that result to be forced upon the Luxembourgish people once Germany achieved victory over the Triple Entente . Given this promise , it came as a great relief to most Luxembourgers that the British and French halted the German advance at the Battle of the Marne in mid @-@ September . The result for the combatant nations was trench warfare , but , for Luxembourg , it was the indefinite continuation of German occupation .
= = Eyschen government = =
Just as the war was in the balance on the Western Front , so the fate of Luxembourg was see @-@ sawing back and forth . It was clear to all that the good conduct of the Luxembourgish government , if fully receptive to the needs of the German military administrators , could guarantee Luxembourg 's continued self @-@ government , at least in the short @-@ term . Eyschen was a familiar and overwhelmingly popular leader , and all factions put their utmost faith in his ability to steer Luxembourg through the diplomatic minefield that was occupation . On 4 August 1914 , he expelled the French minister in Luxembourg at the request of the German minister , followed by the Belgian minister four days later and the Italian minister when his country entered the war . To the same end , Eyschen refused to speak ill of the German Zollverein , even though he had talked openly of exiting the customs union before the war began .
On occasions , Eyschen 's principles got the better of him . On 13 October 1914 , a Luxembourgish journalist named Karl Dardar was arrested by the German army for publishing anti @-@ German stories . He was then taken to Koblenz , and tried and sentenced by court @-@ martial to three months imprisonment . Eyschen was outraged that the Germans had kidnapped a Luxembourgish citizen and tried him for an extraterritorial offence , and Eyschen did nothing to hide his indignation . Eyschen told the German minister in Luxembourg that the action was a ' direct injury to the Grand Duchy 's national sovereignty ' .
Such vexatious complaints were repeated , by both Eyschen and Victor Thorn , when a railway worker was arrested in January 1915 for allegedly working for French military intelligence , and subsequently tried and sentenced in Trier . As Minister for Justice , Thorn was incensed that the Luxembourgish legal system had been treated with such disdain . Such objections were not received well by the German authorities . Although they tired of Eyschen 's stubborn ways , he remained a useful tool to unite the various Luxembourgish political factions . On 23 June 1915 a letter was sent to the Luxembourg government stating that the Germans considered Luxembourg to be a theatre of war and that the population , therefore , was subject to military law .
Eyschen was not alone in letting his principles obstruct government business . In the summer of 1915 , Eyschen pushed to further reduce the role of the Catholic Church in the state school system . Grand Duchess Marie @-@ Adélaïde objected . A fervently religious Catholic ( as was most of the country , but not her late father , who was Protestant ) , she was reputed to have said , " I will not allow their most precious heritage [ Roman Catholicism ] to be stolen while I have the key . " Marie @-@ Adélaïde refused to budge , inviting Eyschen to resign if he could not accept her decision . Eyschen nearly did , but decided to control himself . Nevertheless , he would not be long in the job .
= = After Eyschen = =
= = = Eyschen 's death = = =
On 11 October 1915 , Luxembourg 's political system was brought to its knees by the death of Paul Eyschen . When war broke out , Eyschen had been 73 years old , but his premiership of twenty @-@ seven years was the only government that most Luxembourgers had known . Throughout the first year of German occupation , he had been a rock for the Luxembourgish people . He had also been of great importance to Marie @-@ Adélaïde ; the Grand Duchess had never been groomed for the position , was fifty @-@ three years Eyschen 's junior , and was considered both politically naïve and dangerously partisan for a constitutional monarch . The recent strains were relatively cosmetic .
Critically , Eyschen had the confidence of the Chamber of Deputies , and he had managed to hold together a government containing all major factions , seemingly by force of personality alone . To make matters worse for national unity , the strain of occupation had broken apart the pre @-@ war anti @-@ clericalist alliance between the socialist and the liberal factions , thus depriving both the clericalists and anti @-@ clericalists of a legislative majority . The Catholic conservatives formed the largest bloc , but they were least likely to form a majority coalition .
= = = Mongenast government = = =
The day after Eyschen 's death , Grand Duchess Marie @-@ Adélaïde invited Mathias Mongenast , who had been Minister for Finance since 1882 , to form a minority government . Mongenast 's special status as a ' caretaker ' Prime Minister is underlined by his official title ; he was not ' President of the Government ' , as all other Prime Ministers since 1857 had been , but held the lesser title of ' President of the Council ' .
Mongenast 's administration was never intended to be long @-@ lived , and Marie @-@ Adélaïde 's main objective when appointing the experienced Mongenast was to steady the ship . Nevertheless , nobody expected the government to fall as soon as it did . On 4 November 1915 , Mongenast nominated a new candidate for head of Luxembourg 's école normale . The nomination did not meet with Grand Ducal approval , and Marie @-@ Adélaïde rejected him . Mongenast persisted ; education had been a hobby horse of his , and he imagined that the Grand Duchess would accept the advice of a minister as experienced as he was . He was wrong ; the Grand Duchess had always been single @-@ minded , and resented a minority Prime Minister , particularly one so new to the job , making demands of her . The next day , Mongenast resigned , just twenty @-@ five days after being given the job .
= = = Loutsch government = = =
Having fought with Mongenast , the Grand Duchess decided to appoint an all @-@ conservative cabinet led by Hubert Loutsch . The Chamber of Deputies was steadfastly opposed ; the Party of the Right held only 20 seats out of 52 , but they formed the plurality . Marie @-@ Adélaïde sought to end this deadlock by dissolving the Chamber of Deputies and by calling for the voters to grant a mandate to the conservatives . This outraged the left , which assumed that its deputies alone had the constitutional right to grant the government confidence ; it was dubbed by those on the left a ' coup d 'état by the Grand Duchess ' . Nonetheless , on 23 December 1915 , Luxembourg went to the polls . Although the position of the Party of the Right was improved , taking 25 seats , it fell a whisker short of winning an absolute majority . On 11 January 1916 , the Chamber of Deputies passed a motion of no confidence , and Loutsch resigned .
= = National Union Government = =
= = = Forming a consensus = = =
After the failure of the all @-@ conservative government , the Grand Duchess turned to the leading liberal politician , Victor Thorn , to form a new government . After Eyschen 's premiership of 27 years , two governments had come and gone in three months , and the Luxembourgish people were becoming disillusioned with the failure of the politicians . Thorn 's nature was to be a conciliatory leader , and he made a direct appeal to the Chamber of Deputies to support his government , no matter the deputies ' individual ideological persuasions : " If you want a government that acts , and is capable of acting , it is imperative that all parties support this government . " This support was forthcoming from all parties , but only on the condition that each was invited into the government ; Thorn was left with no choice but to afford them this . The resulting grand coalition cabinet included every leading light in Luxembourgish politics ; besides Thorn himself , there were the conservatives Léon Kauffmann and Antoine Lefort , the socialist leader Dr Michel Welter , and the liberal Léon Moutrier .
= = = Food shortage = = =
The most pressing concern of the Luxembourgish government was that of food supply . The war had made importation of food an impossibility , and the needs of the German occupiers inevitably came before those of the Luxembourgish people . To slow the food supply 's diminishment , Michel Welter , the Director @-@ General for both agriculture and commerce , banned the export of food from Luxembourg . Furthermore , the government introduced rationing and price controls to counteract the soaring demand and to make food more affordable for poorer Luxembourgers . However , the measures did not have the desired effect . Increasing numbers of Luxembourgers turned to the black market , and , to the consternation of the Luxembourgish government , the German army of occupation seemed to do little to help . Moreover , the government accused Germany of aiding the development of the black market by refusing to enforce regulations , and even of smuggling goods themselves .
Through 1916 , the food crisis deepened , compounded by a poor potato harvest across all of the Low Countries ; in neighbouring Belgium , the harvest was between 30 % and 40 % down on the previous year . Although many Luxembourgers were on near @-@ starvation level dietary intakes , the country managed to avoid famine . In part , this was due to a reduction of German soldiers ' dependence upon local food sources , instead relying on imports from Germany .
Despite the avoidance of a famine , the Luxembourgish government lost much of the faith placed in it by the public and by the politicians . On 22 December 1916 , Michel Welter , the minister responsible , was censured by the Chamber of Deputies , which demanded his resignation . Thorn procrastinated , seeking any option but firing the leader of one of three major parties , but could find none . On 3 January 1917 , Welter was fired , and replaced by another socialist , Ernest Leclère . Even after the change and von Tessmar 's promise of his soldiers ' better conduct in future , Léon Kauffmann was capable of citing thirty @-@ six instances of German soldiers caught smuggling foodstuffs between March 1917 and June 1918 .
= = = Miners ' strike = = =
Discontent amongst the population grew constantly , particularly in the country 's industrialised south . The autumn of 1916 had seen the first unionisation within the iron and steel industries , with trade unions springing up in both Luxembourg City and Esch @-@ sur @-@ Alzette . Despite the war demand , iron production had slumped , leading to greater employment insecurity . In March and April , three independents were elected as deputies from the canton of Esch @-@ sur @-@ Alzette , where the economy was dominated by iron and steel . As independents , these newly elected deputies were the only legislative opposition to the National Union Government .
For many Luxembourgers , particularly the miners , expression of disgust at the government could not be directed through the ballot box alone . Sensing the threat of civil disobedience or worse , von Tessmar threatened any individual committing an act of violence ( in which he included strike action ) with the death penalty . However , on 31 May 1917 , the workers sought to use their most potent weapon , by defying von Tessmar 's ultimatum and downing tools . Germany was dependent upon Luxembourgish iron , as the British Royal Navy 's naval blockade forced Germany to look to accessible local supplies ; in 1916 , Luxembourg produced over one @-@ seventh of the Zollverein 's pig iron . As such , Germany simply could not afford a strike , lest it be deprived of critical raw materials .
In putting down the strike , von Tessmar was ruthlessly efficient , but he was not required to resort to the executions that he had threatened . Within nine days , the strike was defeated and the leaders arrested . The two ringleaders were then sentenced by German court @-@ martial in Trier to ten years imprisonment , to the disgust of the government . The continued refusal of the German authorities to respect the Luxembourgish government , and the humiliating manner in which the strike was put down by German military muscle rather than the Luxembourgish gendarmerie , were too much for Thorn . On 19 June 1917 , the government resigned .
= = Kauffmann government = =
Although the experiment in grand coalition had failed , the need for some political unity remained . As the National Union Government was collapsing , Kauffmann arranged an alliance between his Party of the Right and Moutrier 's Liberal League , seeking to achieve change that would outlive the occupation . The primary objective was to address the perennial grievances of the left by amending the constitution ; in November 1917 , the Chamber of Deputies launched a wide @-@ ranging series of debates on various amendments to the constitutions . Ultimately , the constitution was amended to prohibit the government from entering into secret treaties , to improve deputies ' pay ( hitherto set at just 5 francs a day ) , to introduce universal suffrage , and to change the plurality voting system to a proportional one .
Whereas all of the above measures were broadly popular , across most of the political spectrum , the same was not true of the proposal to amend Article 32 . Said article had not been amended in the overhaul of 1868 , and its text had remained unchanged since the original constitution of 1848 , stating unequivocally that all sovereignty resided in the person of the Grand Duchess . For some , particularly those that resented the close relations between Marie @-@ Adélaïde and the German royalty , the idea of national sovereignty residing in such a person was unacceptable . The Chamber of Deputies voted to review Article 32 , but Kauffmann refused to allow it , seeing the redefinition of the source of national sovereignty as covert republicanism .
The summer of 1918 saw a dramatic decline in the fortunes of the government . On 8 July , Clausen , in central Luxembourg City , had been bombed by the British Royal Air Force , killing ten civilians . Although this did not endear the Allies to Luxembourgers , the Grand Duchess ' instinct was to run to the Germans , who were even less popular amongst the people . On 16 August , German Chancellor Georg von Hertling paid a visit to Luxembourg ; although Hertling asked only to see the Grand Duchess , Kauffmann asked that he also attend . To the Luxembourgish people , relations between the two countries now seemed unambiguously cordial , and all that was left of Kauffmann 's credibility disappeared . This was compounded further by the news on 26 August of the engagement of the Grand Duchess ' sister , Princess Antonia , to Crown Prince Rupprecht of Bavaria , who was Generalfeldmarschall in the German army . Pressure mounted on Kauffmann ; with his party still strong , but with his personal reputation shattered , he was left with no option but to resign , which he did on 28 September in favour of Émile Reuter , another conservative .
= = End of the war = =
= = = Armistice = = =
By the autumn of 1918 , Germany 's position in the war was becoming untenable . The massive Spring Offensive had been an unmitigated disaster , whereas the Allied counter @-@ attack , the Hundred Days Offensive , had driven Germany back towards its own borders . On 6 November , von Tessmar announced the full withdrawal of German soldiers from Luxembourg . Five days after von Tessmar 's announcement , Germany signed an armistice treaty , which brought an end to the war of four years . One of the terms of the armistice involved the withdrawal of German soldiers from Luxembourg , along with the other occupied countries .
The Allied Powers agreed that the German withdrawal from Luxembourg would be observed by the United States , and that the USA would receive the honour of liberating the captive country . On 18 November , General John Pershing issued a proclamation to the people of Luxembourg , stating that the United States ' newly formed Third Army would move through Luxembourg to occupy the German Rhineland , but that the Americans would come as allies and as liberators :
After four years of violation of its territory , the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg is to be fortunately liberated . ... American troops enter the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg as friends , and will abide rigorously by international law . Their presence , which will not be extended longer than is absolutely necessary , will not be a burden upon you . The operation of the government and institutions will not be impeded . Your lives and livelihoods will not be disturbed . Your person and your property will be respected .
The following day , American soldiers crossed the Franco @-@ Luxembourgish border . Everywhere , they were fêted as liberators , in the spirit that Pershing had intended to inspire , and were met by bands and civilians waving flags , and were adorned with flowers . Luc Housse , the Mayor of Luxembourg City , told the advancing American army that the Germans had , on the whole , been disciplined and well @-@ behaved in the previous three weeks : a marked improvement upon his numerous complaints earlier in the conflict . Finally , on 22 November 1918 , the German army completed its withdrawal from Luxembourg , ending its occupation .
Germany 's defeat created the perfect opportunity for the Allied powers to resolve the Luxembourgish question once and for all . By removing Luxembourg from Germany 's sphere of influence , they hoped to guarantee its continued independence , and thus preserve the peace they had won . On 19 December , at the instigation of the British and French governments , the Luxembourgish government announced its withdrawal from the Zollverein and an end to the railway concessions that Luxembourg had previously granted Germany .
= = = Rebellion = = =
Although the Allies were satisfied at this remedy , at the time , the Luxembourgish government was threatened by a communist insurgency . After the retreat of the German army , revolutionaries established Russian @-@ influenced Workers ' councils across Luxembourg . On 10 November , the day after Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg declared a similar ' socialist republic ' in Germany , communists in Luxembourg City declared a republic , but it lasted for only a matter of hours . Another revolt took place in Esch @-@ sur @-@ Alzette in the early hours of 11 November , but also failed . The socialists had been fired up by the behaviour of Grand Duchess Marie @-@ Adélaïde , whose interventionist and obstructive streak had stymied even Eyschen . On 12 November , socialist and liberal politicians , finding their old commonality on the issue , called for her abdication . A motion in the Chamber of Deputies demanding the abolition of the monarchy was defeated by 21 votes to 19 ( with 3 abstentions ) , but the Chamber did demand the government hold a popular referendum on the issue .
Although the left 's early attempts at founding a republic had failed , the underlying cause of the resentment had not been addressed , and , as long as Marie @-@ Adélaïde was Grand Duchess , the liberals would ally themselves to the socialists in opposition to her . The French government also refused to cooperate with a government led by a so @-@ called ' collaborator ' ; French Foreign Minister Stéphen Pichon called cooperation ' a grave compromise with the enemies of France ' . More pressing than either of these troubles , on 9 January , a company of the Luxembourgish army rebelled , declaring itself to be the army of the new republic , with Émile Servais ( the son of Emmanuel Servais ) as ' Chairman of the Committee of Public Safety ' . However , by January , the vacuum left by the German withdrawal had been filled by American and French soldiers . President of the Chamber François Altwies asked French troops to intervene . Eager to put an end to what it perceived to be pro @-@ Belgian revolutions , the French army crushed the would @-@ be revolutionaries .
Nonetheless , the disloyalty shown by her own armed forces was too much for Marie @-@ Adélaïde , who abdicated in favour of her sister , Charlotte . Belgium , which had hoped to either annex Luxembourg or force it into personal union , grudgingly recognised Charlotte on 13 February . The dynasty 's hold on power would be tenuous until September 1919 , when a referendum on the future of the Grand Duchy found 77 @.@ 8 % in favour of continued rule by the House of Nassau @-@ Weilburg .
= = = Paris Peace Conference = = =
Despite the armistice ending the war , and the end of the revolts , Luxembourg 's own future was still uncertain . Belgium was one of the countries hit hardest by the war ; almost the whole of the country was occupied by Germany , and over 43 @,@ 000 Belgians , including 30 @,@ 000 civilians , had died as a result . Belgium sought compensation , and had its eye on any and all of its neighbours ; in November 1918 , Lord Hardinge , the Permanent Secretary at the Foreign Office , told the Dutch ambassador in London , " The Belgians are on the make , and they want to grab whatever they can . "
From early 1919 , Belgium engaged in a propaganda campaign to promote its vision of annexation . At the Paris Peace Conference , the Belgian delegation argued in favour of the international community allowing Belgium to annex Luxembourg . However , fearing loss of influence over the left bank of the Rhine , France rejected Belgium 's overtures out of hand , thus guaranteeing Luxembourg 's continued independence .
The resulting Treaty of Versailles set aside two articles ( § 40 and § 41 ) to address concerns for Luxembourg 's status . The main article , § 40 , revoked all special privileges that Germany had acquired in Luxembourg , with Germany specifically renouncing advantages gained in the treaties of 1842 , 1847 , 1865 , 1866 , February 1867 , May 1867 , 1871 , 1872 , and 1902 . The effects of these treaties ' revocation were then explicitly stated ; Luxembourg would withdraw from the Zollverein , Germany would lose its right to use the Luxembourgish railways , and Germany was obligated to recognise the termination of Luxembourg 's neutrality , thus validating the actions of the Luxembourgish government since the armistice . Furthermore , to prevent economic embargo after the end of the customs union , the treaty allowed Luxembourg an indefinite option on German coal , and prohibited Germany from levying duty on Luxembourgish exports until 1924 .
= = Luxembourgers overseas = =
Thousands of Luxembourgers overseas , unconstrained by the Luxembourgish government 's need to remain neutral , signed up to serve with foreign armies . 3 @,@ 700 Luxembourgish nationals served in the French Army , of whom over 2 @,@ 000 died . As Luxembourg 's pre @-@ war population was only 266 @,@ 000 , the loss of life solely in the service of the French army amounted to almost 1 % of the entire Luxembourgish population , relatively greater than the totals for many combatant countries ( see : World War I casualties ) . The Luxembourgish volunteers are commemorated by the Gëlle Fra ( literally ' Golden Lady ' ) war memorial , which was unveiled in Luxembourg City on 27 May 1923 . The original memorial was destroyed on 20 October 1940 , during the Nazi occupation , as it symbolised the rejection of German identity and active resistance against Germanisation . After World War II , it was gradually rebuilt , culminating in its second unveiling , on 23 June 1985 .
The Luxembourgish community in the United States found itself confronted by a crisis of identity . Traditionally , they had identified themselves as ethnically German , rather than as a separate community of their own . As such , they read German language newspapers , attended German schools , and lived amongst German Americans . Nonetheless , when it became apparent that the war would not be over quickly , the opinions of Luxembourg Americans changed ; on 2 May 1915 , the Luxemburger Brotherhood of America 's annual convention decided to adopt English as its only official language . Other organisations were less inclined to change their ways ; the Luxemburger Gazette opposed President Woodrow Wilson 's supposed ' favouritism ' towards the United Kingdom as late in the war as 1917 . However , when the United States entered the war in April of that year , the wavering members of the community supported the Allies , changing forever the relationship between the German and Luxembourgish communities in the USA .
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= Neptune =
Neptune is the eighth and farthest known planet from the Sun in the Solar System . In the Solar System , it is the fourth @-@ largest planet by diameter , the third @-@ most @-@ massive planet , and the densest giant planet . Neptune is 17 times the mass of Earth and is slightly more massive than its near @-@ twin Uranus , which is 15 times the mass of Earth and slightly larger than Neptune . Neptune orbits the Sun once every 164 @.@ 8 years at an average distance of 30 @.@ 1 astronomical units ( 4 @.@ 50 × 109 km ) . Named after the Roman god of the sea , its astronomical symbol is ♆ , a stylised version of the god Neptune 's trident .
Neptune is not visible to the unaided eye and is the only planet in the Solar System found by mathematical prediction rather than by empirical observation . Unexpected changes in the orbit of Uranus led Alexis Bouvard to deduce that its orbit was subject to gravitational perturbation by an unknown planet . Neptune was subsequently observed with a telescope on 23 September 1846 by Johann Galle within a degree of the position predicted by Urbain Le Verrier . Its largest moon , Triton , was discovered shortly thereafter , though none of the planet 's remaining known 14 moons were located telescopically until the 20th century . The planet 's distance from Earth gives it a very small apparent size , making it challenging to study with Earth @-@ based telescopes . Neptune was visited by Voyager 2 , when it flew by the planet on 25 August 1989 . The advent of the Hubble Space Telescope and large ground @-@ based telescopes with adaptive optics has recently allowed for additional detailed observations from afar .
Neptune is similar in composition to Uranus , and both have compositions that differ from those of the larger gas giants , Jupiter and Saturn . Like Jupiter and Saturn , Neptune 's atmosphere is composed primarily of hydrogen and helium , along with traces of hydrocarbons and possibly nitrogen , but contains a higher proportion of " ices " such as water , ammonia , and methane . However , its interior , like that of Uranus , is primarily composed of ices and rock , and hence Uranus and Neptune are normally considered " ice giants " to emphasise this distinction . Traces of methane in the outermost regions in part account for the planet 's blue appearance .
In contrast to the hazy , relatively featureless atmosphere of Uranus , Neptune 's atmosphere has active and visible weather patterns . For example , at the time of the Voyager 2 flyby in 1989 , the planet 's southern hemisphere had a Great Dark Spot comparable to the Great Red Spot on Jupiter . These weather patterns are driven by the strongest sustained winds of any planet in the Solar System , with recorded wind speeds as high as 2 @,@ 100 kilometres per hour ( 580 m / s ; 1 @,@ 300 mph ) . Because of its great distance from the Sun , Neptune 's outer atmosphere is one of the coldest places in the Solar System , with temperatures at its cloud tops approaching 55 K ( − 218 ° C ) . Temperatures at the planet 's centre are approximately 5 @,@ 400 K ( 5 @,@ 100 ° C ) . Neptune has a faint and fragmented ring system ( labelled " arcs " ) , which was first detected during the 1960s and confirmed by Voyager 2 .
= = History = =
= = = Discovery = = =
Some of the earliest recorded observations ever made through a telescope , Galileo 's drawings on 28 December 1612 and 27 January 1613 , contain plotted points that match up with what is now known to be the position of Neptune . On both occasions , Galileo seems to have mistaken Neptune for a fixed star when it appeared close — in conjunction — to Jupiter in the night sky ; hence , he is not credited with Neptune 's discovery . At his first observation in December 1612 , Neptune was almost stationary in the sky because it had just turned retrograde that day . This apparent backward motion is created when Earth 's orbit takes it past an outer planet . Because Neptune was only beginning its yearly retrograde cycle , the motion of the planet was far too slight to be detected with Galileo 's small telescope . In July 2009 , University of Melbourne physicist David Jamieson announced new evidence suggesting that Galileo was at least aware that the ' star ' he had observed had moved relative to the fixed stars .
In 1821 , Alexis Bouvard published astronomical tables of the orbit of Neptune 's neighbour Uranus . Subsequent observations revealed substantial deviations from the tables , leading Bouvard to hypothesise that an unknown body was perturbing the orbit through gravitational interaction . In 1843 , John Couch Adams began work on the orbit of Uranus using the data he had . Via Cambridge Observatory director James Challis , he requested extra data from Sir George Airy , the Astronomer Royal , who supplied it in February 1844 . Adams continued to work in 1845 – 46 and produced several different estimates of a new planet .
In 1845 – 46 , Urbain Le Verrier , independently of Adams , developed his own calculations but aroused no enthusiasm in his compatriots . In June 1846 , upon seeing Le Verrier 's first published estimate of the planet 's longitude and its similarity to Adams 's estimate , Airy persuaded Challis to search for the planet . Challis vainly scoured the sky throughout August and September .
Meanwhile , Le Verrier by letter urged Berlin Observatory astronomer Johann Gottfried Galle to search with the observatory 's refractor . Heinrich d 'Arrest , a student at the observatory , suggested to Galle that they could compare a recently drawn chart of the sky in the region of Le Verrier 's predicted location with the current sky to seek the displacement characteristic of a planet , as opposed to a fixed star . On the evening of 23 September 1846 , the day Galle received the letter , he discovered Neptune within 1 ° of where Le Verrier had predicted it to be , about 12 ° from Adams ' prediction . Challis later realised that he had observed the planet twice , on 4 and 12 August , but did not recognise it as a planet because he lacked an up @-@ to @-@ date star map and was distracted by his concurrent work on comet observations .
In the wake of the discovery , there was much nationalistic rivalry between the French and the British over who deserved credit for the discovery . Eventually , an international consensus emerged that both Le Verrier and Adams jointly deserved credit . Since 1966 , Dennis Rawlins has questioned the credibility of Adams 's claim to co @-@ discovery , and the issue was re @-@ evaluated by historians with the return in 1998 of the " Neptune papers " ( historical documents ) to the Royal Observatory , Greenwich . After reviewing the documents , they suggest that " Adams does not deserve equal credit with Le Verrier for the discovery of Neptune . That credit belongs only to the person who succeeded both in predicting the planet 's place and in convincing astronomers to search for it . "
= = = Naming = = =
Shortly after its discovery , Neptune was referred to simply as " the planet exterior to Uranus " or as " Le Verrier 's planet " . The first suggestion for a name came from Galle , who proposed the name Janus . In England , Challis put forward the name Oceanus .
Claiming the right to name his discovery , Le Verrier quickly proposed the name Neptune for this new planet , though falsely stating that this had been officially approved by the French Bureau des Longitudes . In October , he sought to name the planet Le Verrier , after himself , and he had loyal support in this from the observatory director , François Arago . This suggestion met with stiff resistance outside France . French almanacs quickly reintroduced the name Herschel for Uranus , after that planet 's discoverer Sir William Herschel , and Leverrier for the new planet .
Struve came out in favour of the name Neptune on 29 December 1846 , to the Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences . Soon , Neptune became the internationally accepted name . In Roman mythology , Neptune was the god of the sea , identified with the Greek Poseidon . The demand for a mythological name seemed to be in keeping with the nomenclature of the other planets , all of which , except for Earth , were named for deities in Greek and Roman mythology .
Most languages today , even in countries that have no direct link to Greco @-@ Roman culture , use some variant of the name " Neptune " for the planet . However , in Chinese , Japanese , and Korean , the planet 's name was translated as " sea king star " ( 海王星 ) , because Neptune was the god of the sea . In Mongolian , Neptune is called Dalain Van ( Далайн ван ) , reflecting its namesake god 's role as the ruler of the sea . In modern Greek the planet is called Poseidon ( Ποσειδώνας , Poseidonas ) , the Greek counterpart of Neptune . In Hebrew , " Rahab " ( רהב ) , from a Biblical sea monster mentioned in the Book of Psalms , was selected in a vote managed by the Academy of the Hebrew Language in 2009 as the official name for the planet , even though the existing Latin term " Neptun " ( נפטון ) is commonly used . In Māori , the planet is called Tangaroa , named after the Māori god of the sea . In Nahuatl , the planet is called Tlāloccītlalli , named after the rain god Tlāloc .
= = = Status = = =
From its discovery in 1846 until the subsequent discovery of Pluto in 1930 , Neptune was the farthest known planet . When Pluto was discovered it was considered a planet , and Neptune thus became the penultimate known planet , except for a 20 @-@ year period between 1979 and 1999 when Pluto 's elliptical orbit brought it closer to the Sun than Neptune . The discovery of the Kuiper belt in 1992 led many astronomers to debate whether Pluto should be considered a planet or as part of the Kuiper belt . In 2006 , the International Astronomical Union defined the word " planet " for the first time , reclassifying Pluto as a " dwarf planet " and making Neptune once again the outermost known planet in the Solar System .
= = Physical characteristics = =
Neptune 's mass of 1 @.@ 0243 × 1026 kg , is intermediate between Earth and the larger gas giants : it is 17 times that of Earth but just 1 / 19th that of Jupiter . Its gravity at 1 bar is 11 @.@ 15 m / s2 , 1 @.@ 14 times the surface gravity of Earth , and surpassed only by Jupiter . Neptune 's equatorial radius of 24 @,@ 764 km is nearly four times that of Earth . Neptune , like Uranus , is an ice giant , a subclass of giant planet , due to their smaller size and higher concentrations of volatiles relative to Jupiter and Saturn . In the search for extrasolar planets , Neptune has been used as a metonym : discovered bodies of similar mass are often referred to as " Neptunes " , just as scientists refer to various extrasolar bodies as " Jupiters " .
= = = Internal structure = = =
Neptune 's internal structure resembles that of Uranus . Its atmosphere forms about 5 % to 10 % of its mass and extends perhaps 10 % to 20 % of the way towards the core , where it reaches pressures of about 10 GPa , or about 100 @,@ 000 times that of Earth 's atmosphere . Increasing concentrations of methane , ammonia and water are found in the lower regions of the atmosphere .
The mantle is equivalent to 10 to 15 Earth masses and is rich in water , ammonia and methane . As is customary in planetary science , this mixture is referred to as icy even though it is a hot , dense fluid . This fluid , which has a high electrical conductivity , is sometimes called a water – ammonia ocean . The mantle may consist of a layer of ionic water in which the water molecules break down into a soup of hydrogen and oxygen ions , and deeper down superionic water in which the oxygen crystallises but the hydrogen ions float around freely within the oxygen lattice . At a depth of 7000 km , the conditions may be such that methane decomposes into diamond crystals that rain downwards like hailstones . Very @-@ high @-@ pressure experiments at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory suggest that the base of the mantle may comprise an ocean of liquid carbon with floating solid ' diamonds ' .
The core of Neptune is composed of iron , nickel and silicates , with an interior model giving a mass about 1 @.@ 2 times that of Earth . The pressure at the centre is 7 Mbar ( 700 GPa ) , about twice as high as that at the centre of Earth , and the temperature may be 5 @,@ 400 K.
= = = Atmosphere = = =
At high altitudes , Neptune 's atmosphere is 80 % hydrogen and 19 % helium . A trace amount of methane is also present . Prominent absorption bands of methane exist at wavelengths above 600 nm , in the red and infrared portion of the spectrum . As with Uranus , this absorption of red light by the atmospheric methane is part of what gives Neptune its blue hue , although Neptune 's vivid azure differs from Uranus 's milder cyan . Because Neptune 's atmospheric methane content is similar to that of Uranus , some unknown atmospheric constituent is thought to contribute to Neptune 's colour .
Neptune 's atmosphere is subdivided into two main regions : the lower troposphere , where temperature decreases with altitude , and the stratosphere , where temperature increases with altitude . The boundary between the two , the tropopause , lies at a pressure of 0 @.@ 1 bars ( 10 kPa ) . The stratosphere then gives way to the thermosphere at a pressure lower than 10 − 5 to 10 − 4 microbars ( 1 to 10 Pa ) . The thermosphere gradually transitions to the exosphere .
Models suggest that Neptune 's troposphere is banded by clouds of varying compositions depending on altitude . The upper @-@ level clouds lie at pressures below one bar , where the temperature is suitable for methane to condense . For pressures between one and five bars ( 100 and 500 kPa ) , clouds of ammonia and hydrogen sulfide are thought to form . Above a pressure of five bars , the clouds may consist of ammonia , ammonium sulfide , hydrogen sulfide and water . Deeper clouds of water ice should be found at pressures of about 50 bars ( 5 @.@ 0 MPa ) , where the temperature reaches 273 K ( 0 ° C ) . Underneath , clouds of ammonia and hydrogen sulfide may be found .
High @-@ altitude clouds on Neptune have been observed casting shadows on the opaque cloud deck below . There are also high @-@ altitude cloud bands that wrap around the planet at constant latitude . These circumferential bands have widths of 50 – 150 km and lie about 50 – 110 km above the cloud deck . These altitudes are in the layer where weather occurs , the troposphere . Weather does not occur in the higher stratosphere or thermosphere . Unlike Uranus , Neptune 's composition has a higher volume of ocean , whereas Uranus has a smaller mantle .
Neptune 's spectra suggest that its lower stratosphere is hazy due to condensation of products of ultraviolet photolysis of methane , such as ethane and ethyne . The stratosphere is also home to trace amounts of carbon monoxide and hydrogen cyanide . The stratosphere of Neptune is warmer than that of Uranus due to the elevated concentration of hydrocarbons .
For reasons that remain obscure , the planet 's thermosphere is at an anomalously high temperature of about 750 K. The planet is too far from the Sun for this heat to be generated by ultraviolet radiation . One candidate for a heating mechanism is atmospheric interaction with ions in the planet 's magnetic field . Other candidates are gravity waves from the interior that dissipate in the atmosphere . The thermosphere contains traces of carbon dioxide and water , which may have been deposited from external sources such as meteorites and dust .
= = = Magnetosphere = = =
Neptune also resembles Uranus in its magnetosphere , with a magnetic field strongly tilted relative to its rotational axis at 47 ° and offset at least 0 @.@ 55 radii , or about 13500 km from the planet 's physical centre . Before Voyager 2 's arrival at Neptune , it was hypothesised that Uranus 's tilted magnetosphere was the result of its sideways rotation . In comparing the magnetic fields of the two planets , scientists now think the extreme orientation may be characteristic of flows in the planets ' interiors . This field may be generated by convective fluid motions in a thin spherical shell of electrically conducting liquids ( probably a combination of ammonia , methane and water ) resulting in a dynamo action .
The dipole component of the magnetic field at the magnetic equator of Neptune is about 14 microteslas ( 0 @.@ 14 G ) . The dipole magnetic moment of Neptune is about 2 @.@ 2 × 1017 T · m3 ( 14 μT · RN3 , where RN is the radius of Neptune ) . Neptune 's magnetic field has a complex geometry that includes relatively large contributions from non @-@ dipolar components , including a strong quadrupole moment that may exceed the dipole moment in strength . By contrast , Earth , Jupiter and Saturn have only relatively small quadrupole moments , and their fields are less tilted from the polar axis . The large quadrupole moment of Neptune may be the result of offset from the planet 's centre and geometrical constraints of the field 's dynamo generator .
Neptune 's bow shock , where the magnetosphere begins to slow the solar wind , occurs at a distance of 34 @.@ 9 times the radius of the planet . The magnetopause , where the pressure of the magnetosphere counterbalances the solar wind , lies at a distance of 23 – 26 @.@ 5 times the radius of Neptune . The tail of the magnetosphere extends out to at least 72 times the radius of Neptune , and likely much farther .
= = Climate = =
Neptune 's weather is characterised by extremely dynamic storm systems , with winds reaching speeds of almost 600 m / s ( 2 @,@ 200 km / h ; 1 @,@ 300 mph ) — nearly reaching supersonic flow . More typically , by tracking the motion of persistent clouds , wind speeds have been shown to vary from 20 m / s in the easterly direction to 325 m / s westward . At the cloud tops , the prevailing winds range in speed from 400 m / s along the equator to 250 m / s at the poles . Most of the winds on Neptune move in a direction opposite the planet 's rotation . The general pattern of winds showed prograde rotation at high latitudes vs. retrograde rotation at lower latitudes . The difference in flow direction is thought to be a " skin effect " and not due to any deeper atmospheric processes . At 70 ° S latitude , a high @-@ speed jet travels at a speed of 300 m / s .
Neptune differs from Uranus in its typical level of meteorological activity . Voyager 2 observed weather phenomena on Neptune during its 1989 flyby , but no comparable phenomena on Uranus during its 1986 fly @-@ by .
The abundance of methane , ethane and acetylene at Neptune 's equator is 10 – 100 times greater than at the poles . This is interpreted as evidence for upwelling at the equator and subsidence near the poles .
In 2007 , it was discovered that the upper troposphere of Neptune 's south pole was about 10 K warmer than the rest of its atmosphere , which averages approximately 73 K ( − 200 ° C ) . The temperature differential is enough to let methane , which elsewhere is frozen in the troposphere , escape into the stratosphere near the pole . The relative " hot spot " is due to Neptune 's axial tilt , which has exposed the south pole to the Sun for the last quarter of Neptune 's year , or roughly 40 Earth years . As Neptune slowly moves towards the opposite side of the Sun , the south pole will be darkened and the north pole illuminated , causing the methane release to shift to the north pole .
Because of seasonal changes , the cloud bands in the southern hemisphere of Neptune have been observed to increase in size and albedo . This trend was first seen in 1980 and is expected to last until about 2020 . The long orbital period of Neptune results in seasons lasting forty years .
= = = Storms = = =
In 1989 , the Great Dark Spot , an anti @-@ cyclonic storm system spanning 13000 × 6600 km , was discovered by NASA 's Voyager 2 spacecraft . The storm resembled the Great Red Spot of Jupiter . Some five years later , on 2 November 1994 , the Hubble Space Telescope did not see the Great Dark Spot on the planet . Instead , a new storm similar to the Great Dark Spot was found in Neptune 's northern hemisphere .
The Scooter is another storm , a white cloud group farther south than the Great Dark Spot . This nickname first arose during the months leading up to the Voyager 2 encounter in 1989 , when they were observed moving at speeds faster than the Great Dark Spot ( and images acquired later would subsequently reveal the presence of clouds moving even faster than those that had initially been detected by Voyager 2 ) . The Small Dark Spot is a southern cyclonic storm , the second @-@ most @-@ intense storm observed during the 1989 encounter . It was initially completely dark , but as Voyager 2 approached the planet , a bright core developed and can be seen in most of the highest @-@ resolution images .
Neptune 's dark spots are thought to occur in the troposphere at lower altitudes than the brighter cloud features , so they appear as holes in the upper cloud decks . As they are stable features that can persist for several months , they are thought to be vortex structures . Often associated with dark spots are brighter , persistent methane clouds that form around the tropopause layer . The persistence of companion clouds shows that some former dark spots may continue to exist as cyclones even though they are no longer visible as a dark feature . Dark spots may dissipate when they migrate too close to the equator or possibly through some other unknown mechanism .
= = = Internal heating = = =
Neptune 's more varied weather when compared to Uranus is due in part to its higher internal heating . Although Neptune lies over 50 % further from the Sun than Uranus , and receives only 40 % its amount of sunlight , the two planets ' surface temperatures are roughly equal . The upper regions of Neptune 's troposphere reach a low temperature of 51 @.@ 8 K ( − 221 @.@ 3 ° C ) . At a depth where the atmospheric pressure equals 1 bar ( 100 kPa ) , the temperature is 72 @.@ 00 K ( − 201 @.@ 15 ° C ) . Deeper inside the layers of gas , the temperature rises steadily . As with Uranus , the source of this heating is unknown , but the discrepancy is larger : Uranus only radiates 1 @.@ 1 times as much energy as it receives from the Sun ; whereas Neptune radiates about 2 @.@ 61 times as much energy as it receives from the Sun . Neptune is the farthest planet from the Sun , yet its internal energy is sufficient to drive the fastest planetary winds seen in the Solar System . Depending on the thermal properties of its interior , the heat left over from Neptune 's formation may be sufficient to explain its current heat flow , though it is more difficult to simultaneously explain Uranus 's lack of internal heat while preserving the apparent similarity between the two planets .
= = Orbit and rotation = =
The average distance between Neptune and the Sun is 4 @.@ 50 billion km ( about 30 @.@ 1 astronomical units ( AU ) ) , and it completes an orbit on average every 164 @.@ 79 years , subject to a variability of around ± 0 @.@ 1 years . The perihelion distance is 29 @.@ 81 AU ; the aphelion distance is 30 @.@ 33 AU .
On 11 July 2011 , Neptune completed its first full barycentric orbit since its discovery in 1846 , although it did not appear at its exact discovery position in the sky , because Earth was in a different location in its 365 @.@ 26 @-@ day orbit . Because of the motion of the Sun in relation to the barycentre of the Solar System , on 11 July Neptune was also not at its exact discovery position in relation to the Sun ; if the more common heliocentric coordinate system is used , the discovery longitude was reached on 12 July 2011 .
The elliptical orbit of Neptune is inclined 1 @.@ 77 ° compared to that of Earth .
The axial tilt of Neptune is 28 @.@ 32 ° , which is similar to the tilts of Earth ( 23 ° ) and Mars ( 25 ° ) . As a result , this planet experiences similar seasonal changes . The long orbital period of Neptune means that the seasons last for forty Earth years . Its sidereal rotation period ( day ) is roughly 16 @.@ 11 hours . Because its axial tilt is comparable to Earth 's , the variation in the length of its day over the course of its long year is not any more extreme .
Because Neptune is not a solid body , its atmosphere undergoes differential rotation . The wide equatorial zone rotates with a period of about 18 hours , which is slower than the 16 @.@ 1 @-@ hour rotation of the planet 's magnetic field . By contrast , the reverse is true for the polar regions where the rotation period is 12 hours . This differential rotation is the most pronounced of any planet in the Solar System , and it results in strong latitudinal wind shear .
= = = Orbital resonances = = =
Neptune 's orbit has a profound impact on the region directly beyond it , known as the Kuiper belt . The Kuiper belt is a ring of small icy worlds , similar to the asteroid belt but far larger , extending from Neptune 's orbit at 30 AU out to about 55 AU from the Sun . Much in the same way that Jupiter 's gravity dominates the asteroid belt , shaping its structure , so Neptune 's gravity dominates the Kuiper belt . Over the age of the Solar System , certain regions of the Kuiper belt became destabilised by Neptune 's gravity , creating gaps in the Kuiper belt 's structure . The region between 40 and 42 AU is an example .
There do exist orbits within these empty regions where objects can survive for the age of the Solar System . These resonances occur when Neptune 's orbital period is a precise fraction of that of the object , such as 1 : 2 , or 3 : 4 . If , say , an object orbits the Sun once for every two Neptune orbits , it will only complete half an orbit by the time Neptune returns to its original position . The most heavily populated resonance in the Kuiper belt , with over 200 known objects , is the 2 : 3 resonance . Objects in this resonance complete 2 orbits for every 3 of Neptune , and are known as plutinos because the largest of the known Kuiper belt objects , Pluto , is among them . Although Pluto crosses Neptune 's orbit regularly , the 2 : 3 resonance ensures they can never collide . The 3 : 4 , 3 : 5 , 4 : 7 and 2 : 5 resonances are less populated .
Neptune has a number of known trojan objects occupying both the Sun – Neptune L4 and L5 Lagrangian points — gravitationally stable regions leading and trailing Neptune in its orbit , respectively . Neptune trojans can be viewed as being in a 1 : 1 resonance with Neptune . Some Neptune trojans are remarkably stable in their orbits , and are likely to have formed alongside Neptune rather than being captured . The first and so far only object identified as associated with Neptune 's trailing L5 Lagrangian point is 2008 LC18 . Neptune also has a temporary quasi @-@ satellite , ( 309239 ) 2007 RW10 . The object has been a quasi @-@ satellite of Neptune for about 12 @,@ 500 years and it will remain in that dynamical state for another 12 @,@ 500 years .
= = Formation and migration = =
The formation of the ice giants , Neptune and Uranus , has proven difficult to model precisely . Current models suggest that the matter density in the outer regions of the Solar System was too low to account for the formation of such large bodies from the traditionally accepted method of core accretion , and various hypotheses have been advanced to explain their formation . One is that the ice giants were not formed by core accretion but from instabilities within the original protoplanetary disc and later had their atmospheres blasted away by radiation from a nearby massive OB star .
An alternative concept is that they formed closer to the Sun , where the matter density was higher , and then subsequently migrated to their current orbits after the removal of the gaseous protoplanetary disc . This hypothesis of migration after formation is favoured , due to its ability to better explain the occupancy of the populations of small objects observed in the trans @-@ Neptunian region . The current most widely accepted explanation of the details of this hypothesis is known as the Nice model , which explores the effect of a migrating Neptune and the other giant planets on the structure of the Kuiper belt .
= = Moons = =
Neptune has 14 known moons . Triton is the largest Neptunian moon , comprising more than 99 @.@ 5 % of the mass in orbit around Neptune , and it is the only one massive enough to be spheroidal . Triton was discovered by William Lassell just 17 days after the discovery of Neptune itself . Unlike all other large planetary moons in the Solar System , Triton has a retrograde orbit , indicating that it was captured rather than forming in place ; it was probably once a dwarf planet in the Kuiper belt . It is close enough to Neptune to be locked into a synchronous rotation , and it is slowly spiralling inward because of tidal acceleration . It will eventually be torn apart , in about 3 @.@ 6 billion years , when it reaches the Roche limit . In 1989 , Triton was the coldest object that had yet been measured in the Solar System , with estimated temperatures of 38 K ( − 235 ° C ) .
Neptune 's second known satellite ( by order of discovery ) , the irregular moon Nereid , has one of the most eccentric orbits of any satellite in the Solar System . The eccentricity of 0 @.@ 7512 gives it an apoapsis that is seven times its periapsis distance from Neptune .
From July to September 1989 , Voyager 2 discovered six moons of Neptune . Of these , the irregularly shaped Proteus is notable for being as large as a body of its density can be without being pulled into a spherical shape by its own gravity . Although the second @-@ most @-@ massive Neptunian moon , it is only 0 @.@ 25 % the mass of Triton . Neptune 's innermost four moons — Naiad , Thalassa , Despina and Galatea — orbit close enough to be within Neptune 's rings . The next @-@ farthest out , Larissa , was originally discovered in 1981 when it had occulted a star . This occultation had been attributed to ring arcs , but when Voyager 2 observed Neptune in 1989 , Larissa was found to have caused it . Five new irregular moons discovered between 2002 and 2003 were announced in 2004 . A new moon and the smallest yet , S / 2004 N 1 , was found in 2013 . Because Neptune was the Roman god of the sea , Neptune 's moons have been named after lesser sea gods .
= = = Planetary rings = = =
Neptune has a planetary ring system , though one much less substantial than that of Saturn . The rings may consist of ice particles coated with silicates or carbon @-@ based material , which most likely gives them a reddish hue . The three main rings are the narrow Adams Ring , 63 @,@ 000 km from the centre of Neptune , the Le Verrier Ring , at 53 @,@ 000 km , and the broader , fainter Galle Ring , at 42 @,@ 000 km . A faint outward extension to the Le Verrier Ring has been named Lassell ; it is bounded at its outer edge by the Arago Ring at 57 @,@ 000 km .
The first of these planetary rings was detected in 1968 by a team led by Edward Guinan . In the early 1980s , analysis of this data along with newer observations led to the hypothesis that this ring might be incomplete . Evidence that the rings might have gaps first arose during a stellar occultation in 1984 when the rings obscured a star on immersion but not on emersion . Images from Voyager 2 in 1989 settled the issue by showing several faint rings .
The outermost ring , Adams , contains five prominent arcs now named Courage , Liberté , Egalité 1 , Egalité 2 and Fraternité ( Courage , Liberty , Equality and Fraternity ) . The existence of arcs was difficult to explain because the laws of motion would predict that arcs would spread out into a uniform ring over short timescales . Astronomers now estimate that the arcs are corralled into their current form by the gravitational effects of Galatea , a moon just inward from the ring .
Earth @-@ based observations announced in 2005 appeared to show that Neptune 's rings are much more unstable than previously thought . Images taken from the W. M. Keck Observatory in 2002 and 2003 show considerable decay in the rings when compared to images by Voyager 2 . In particular , it seems that the Liberté arc might disappear in as little as one century .
= = Observation = =
With an apparent magnitude between + 7 @.@ 7 and + 8 @.@ 0 , Neptune is never visible to the naked eye and can be outshone by Jupiter 's Galilean moons , the dwarf planet Ceres and the asteroids 4 Vesta , 2 Pallas , 7 Iris , 3 Juno and 6 Hebe . A telescope or strong binoculars will resolve Neptune as a small blue disk , similar in appearance to Uranus .
Because of the distance of Neptune from Earth , its angular diameter only ranges from 2 @.@ 2 to 2 @.@ 4 arcseconds , the smallest of the Solar System planets . Its small apparent size makes it challenging to study it visually . Most telescopic data was fairly limited until the advent of the Hubble Space Telescope and large ground @-@ based telescopes with adaptive optics ( AO ) . The first scientifically useful observation of Neptune from ground @-@ based telescopes using adaptive optics , was commenced in 1997 from Hawaii . Neptune is currently entering its spring and summer season and has been shown to be heating up , with increased atmospheric activity and brightness as a consequence . Combined with technological advancements , ground @-@ based telescopes with adaptive optics are recording increasingly more detailed images of it . Both Hubble and the adaptive @-@ optics telescopes on Earth has made many new discoveries within the Solar System since the mid @-@ 1990s , with a large increase in the number of known satellites and moons around the outer planet , among others . In 2004 and 2005 , five new small satellites of Neptune with diameters between 38 and 61 kilometres were discovered .
From Earth , Neptune goes through apparent retrograde motion every 367 days , resulting in a looping motion against the background stars during each opposition . These loops carried it close to the 1846 discovery coordinates in April and July 2010 and again in October and November 2011 .
Observation of Neptune in the radio @-@ frequency band shows that it is a source of both continuous emission and irregular bursts . Both sources are thought to originate from its rotating magnetic field . In the infrared part of the spectrum , Neptune 's storms appear bright against the cooler background , allowing the size and shape of these features to be readily tracked .
= = Exploration = =
Voyager 2 is the only spacecraft that has visited Neptune . The spacecraft 's closest approach to the planet occurred on 25 August 1989 . Because this was the last major planet the spacecraft could visit , it was decided to make a close flyby of the moon Triton , regardless of the consequences to the trajectory , similarly to what was done for Voyager 1 's encounter with Saturn and its moon Titan . The images relayed back to Earth from Voyager 2 became the basis of a 1989 PBS all @-@ night program , Neptune All Night .
During the encounter , signals from the spacecraft required 246 minutes to reach Earth . Hence , for the most part , Voyager 2 's mission relied on preloaded commands for the Neptune encounter . The spacecraft performed a near @-@ encounter with the moon Nereid before it came within 4400 km of Neptune 's atmosphere on 25 August , then passed close to the planet 's largest moon Triton later the same day .
The spacecraft verified the existence of a magnetic field surrounding the planet and discovered that the field was offset from the centre and tilted in a manner similar to the field around Uranus . Neptune 's rotation period was determined using measurements of radio emissions and Voyager 2 also showed that Neptune had a surprisingly active weather system . Six new moons were discovered , and the planet was shown to have more than one ring .
The flyby also provided the first accurate measurement of Neptune 's mass which was found to be 0 @.@ 5 percent less than previously calculated . The new figure disproved the hypothesis that an undiscovered Planet X acted upon the orbits of Neptune and Uranus .
After the Voyager 2 flyby mission , the next step in scientific exploration of the Neptunian system , is considered to be a Flagship orbital mission . Such a hypothetical mission is envisioned to be possible in the late 2020s or early 2030s . However , there have been a couple of discussions to launch Neptune missions sooner . In 2003 , there was a proposal in NASA 's " Vision Missions Studies " for a " Neptune Orbiter with Probes " mission that does Cassini @-@ level science . Another , more recent proposal was for Argo , a flyby spacecraft to be launched in 2019 , that would visit Jupiter , Saturn , Neptune , and a Kuiper belt object . The focus would be on Neptune and its largest moon Triton to be investigated around 2029 . The proposed New Horizons 2 mission ( which was later scrapped ) might also have done a close flyby of the Neptunian system .
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= Terry Bywater =
Terrance " Terry " Bywater ( born 28 February 1983 ) is a British wheelchair basketball player . He participated in the 2000 Summer Paralympics , where his team came in fourth place ; in the 2004 Summer Paralympics , where he won a bronze medal and was the highest scorer for Great Britain ; the 2008 Summer Paralympics , winning another bronze medal ; and the 2012 Summer Paralympics , where his team again came in fourth place .
= = Personal = =
Bywater was born on 28 February 1983 in Dormanstown , England and currently lives in Cleveland , North Yorkshire . As of 2009 , he weighs 74 kilograms ( 11 st 9 lb ) and is 1 @.@ 8 metres ( 5 ft 11 in ) tall . He was born without a tibia and a fibula in his left leg , which was amputated when he was two . He has a son , Benjamin Bywater .
= = Wheelchair basketball = =
Bywater began playing wheelchair basketball at the age of 13 at an open day in Middlesbrough with the Teesside Lions . He later played with them . After playing for a year , he was selected for the Great Britain Under @-@ 23 team and began training in 1993 . He made his debut at the Sydney 2000 Summer Paralympics , and finished fourth . He participated in the 2008 Summer Paralympics in Beijing , where he won a bronze medal , and was the top Great Britain scorer in the event . He currently plays for the Sheffield Steelers . He once played for C. D. Fundosa in Spain , along with many other European clubs . Bywater returned to England so he could play with the Super League Club Sheffield Steelers throughout the 2011 — 12 season . He is a 4 @.@ 5 point player .
His first championships were the 2001 / 2002 European Championships in Amsterdam , Netherlands , where he finished fourth . In 2002 he went to the World Championships in Kitakyushu in Japan , where he finished second ( silver ) . He participated in the 2003 European Championships in Sassari , Italy , and won bronze . He competed in the 2005 European Championships in Paris , France , and won silver . He competed in the 2006 World Championships in Amsterdam and was fifth place , and in 2007 he participated in the European Championships in Wetzlar , Netherlands , and received a silver medal . Two years later , he won bronze in the European Championships of Adana in Turkey . In 2010 , for the first time , he participated in the World Wheelchair Basketball Championships in Birmingham , and was fifth place . He won gold in the 2011 European Championships in Nazareth , Israel . At the 2012 Summer Olympics in London , the wheelchair basketball team lost to the United States , and finished in fourth position , after losing to Canada , missing out of the finals . He said that not winning a medal at the Paralympics was the " worst moment " of his career .
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= Illinois Route 120 =
Illinois Route 120 ( IL 120 ) is a major east – west state highway in northeastern Illinois . It runs from U.S. Route 14 near Woodstock to Illinois Route 131 in Waukegan . It travels a distance of 34 @.@ 48 miles ( 55 @.@ 49 km ) and is one of the few roads that provides direct access from McHenry County to Interstate 94 ( Tri @-@ State Tollway ) in Lake County . Throughout its length , it shifts between two and four lanes as it passes through a setting that consists of open rural areas , as well as larger developments and heavy congestion .
Although small capacity improvements have been made over time , a lengthy two lane section of road in the Grayslake vicinity has yet to see any major expansion . This key segment has been the subject of much delay and debate regarding the greater traffic flow across north @-@ central Lake County . In October 2009 , a special council approved a unified vision for an improvement plan for most of the Lake County portion of Illinois 120 , which includes a long discussed bypass around downtown Grayslake .
= = Route description = =
= = = McHenry County = = =
Beginning at its western terminus at a rural unsignalized intersection with U.S. Route 14 ( Northwest Highway ) , IL 120 starts out as a two lane road just west of the city of Woodstock . This section is known as Washington Street as it heads in a southeast direction and enters the outer residential neighborhoods of Woodstock . In this area , the road curves due east , crosses the Metra Union Pacific / Northwest Line tracks near the station , then briefly heads north before turning once more to the northwest . Immediately after doing so , it passes a signalized intersection with IL 47 ( Seminary Avenue / Eastwood Drive ) before traveling north of the McHenry County Fairgrounds and then heading out of the Woodstock area and back into a prairie setting . The road then curves back to the north and then takes a right turn at an unsignalized intersection where it continues generally east for the remainder of its length .
Before reaching the McHenry area a little more than four miles east , the road passes through two signalized intersections , some light forests , and some sparse residential developments . Now entering the busier city of McHenry , it takes on the name Elm Street and widens to four lanes west of Ringwood Road . Light commercial buildings with neighborhoods behind them line the roadway until the crossing of the McHenry Branch of the Union Pacific / Northwest Line near the McHenry Metra station . At the next intersection , IL 120 meets with IL 31 ( Front Street / Richmond Road ) where they briefly run concurrently for less than a half mile . It next travels over the Fox River , passes by another section of commercial business , and then returns to a quieter setting that features a mix of open areas , neighborhoods , small business , and Lily Lake .
= = = Lake County = = =
Continuing its somewhat rural journey to the east , Illinois 120 becomes known as Belvidere Road as it enters Lake County and the town of Lakemoor which is soon followed by the busy intersection of U.S. Route 12 / Illinois Route 59 ( Rand Road ) . The road then heads into the town of Volo which features land developed with businesses and homes on the south and undeveloped land on the north . This is also where it passes the intersection of the western terminus of IL 60 and then narrows down to two lanes . The road then runs past the Baxter Healthcare facility and proceeds into the Round Lake area where it goes by the Nippersink Forest Preserve on the north and then between two residential developments . For just a slight instance , it travels through Round Lake Park before entering the town of Hainesville where it passes the Metra Milwaukee District / North Line tracks , the eastern terminus of IL 134 , and a few business before going into the more populated city of Grayslake . Neighborhoods and occasional small businesses lie north and south of the road until it crosses Canadian National Railway ( CN ) tracks ( used by the Metra North Central Service ) immediately before an intersection with IL 83 ( Barron Boulevard ) . After passing a shopping plaza on the south , the next stretch of roadway contains a mix of other businesses and residential developments , as well as a branch of the Lake Forest Hospital , while also widening to four lanes on its approach to a major junction with U.S. Route 45 . Past the intersection , the road passes a commercial plaza and again narrows back to two lanes before going by more neighborhoods on the north , and some open areas that contain the Almond Marsh Forest Preserve on the south .
At this point it widens to become a four @-@ lane divided highway west of Almond Road and it enters the southern part of Gurnee where travels near the Merit Club golf course which lies to the south of a " T " intersection with Hunt Club Road . The eastbound approach to this intersection features the only dual @-@ left turn lanes on the entire length of Illinois 120 . The remaining section of highway , although only briefly limited @-@ access , does have limited signalized intersections which keeps traffic flowing at a more constant rate . It first passes under a grade separation at Illinois Route 21 ( Milwaukee Avenue ) and goes over the Des Plaines River before forming an interchange with Interstate 94 ( Tri @-@ State Tollway ) . Only southbound access is permitted to I @-@ 94 ; northbound access is available via IL 21 . It next enters part of the Waukegan area and shortly encounters an at @-@ grade intersection with O 'Plaine Road and then continues with more grade separation at the Canadian Pacific Railway ( CP ) tracks and Greenleaf Avenue . Interchanges with IL 43 ( Waukegan Road ) and U.S. Route 41 ( Skokie Highway ) closely follow one another with a brief transition into Park City located between these two junctions . It can be confusing in this area as there is no direct access to northbound US @-@ 41 or southbound IL @-@ 43 , which terminates immediately north at US @-@ 41 . Illinois 120 loses its divided highway status after traveling over the Union Pacific ( UP ) tracks and passing by its last stretch of businesses as it reenters Waukegan . It soon reaches the commercially developed , signalized intersection of Illinois Route 131 ( Green Bay Road ) where it terminates as a state route ; Belvidere Road continues east as a local road .
= = History = =
State Bond Issue ( SBI ) Route 120 originally ran from Havana to Mason City in west @-@ central Illinois . In 1939 this became IL 119 , and in 1951 , U.S. Route 136 . In the meantime , in 1941 Illinois 120 replaced Illinois Route 20 to avoid confusion with nearby U.S. Route 20 . In 1972 , the designation was removed east of IL 131 . During the early 1990s , plans came about to widen 5 @.@ 7 miles of roadway in McHenry and Lake counties . The project extended from River Road in McHenry to east of Illinois 60 . These plans also included the construction of a short southern bypass around the town of Volo . By 1994 , the work had concluded which resulted in four concrete travel lanes , providing easier access between the two counties . In 2000 , a $ 4 @.@ 6 million construction project was completed at the intersection of US @-@ 45 . The improvements that took place to Illinois 120 were : expanding to two lanes in each direction and adding a right turn lane to the eastbound approach . The most recent major construction that has taken place was between August 2007 and July 2008 at the interchange with I @-@ 94 . The work consisted of demolishing the two bridge structures that travel over the tollway and replacing them with new ones .
= = Future = =
In recent years there has been much discussion on how to improve the east – west traffic flow throughout north @-@ central Lake County . IL 120 enters Lake County from the west as a four @-@ lane highway and then downgrades to a two @-@ lane highway less than three miles east , just past IL 60 and later becomes a four lane divided highway west of Hunt Club Road . Since there is heavy traffic from nearby Interstate 94 to the east as well as traffic traveling to and from McHenry County in the west , it seems logical to address this gap which is not yet four lanes . The solution to this problem was agreed to be a 17 @-@ mile improvement from US @-@ 12 to US @-@ 41 , including a 7 @-@ mile southern bypass in Grayslake . This has since become known as the " 120 bypass " .
This project is closely related to another long delayed Lake county transportation project ; the IL 53 extension . The currently stalled project has been planned to extend the limited @-@ access expressway , which carries IL 53 and terminates at Lake @-@ Cook Road , north to connect to the 120 bypass , and then branch off toward U.S. Route 12 to the west and Interstate 94 to the east . If the project were ever built , it would seem necessary that the east – west 120 bypass would be built as a limited @-@ access expressway to connect with the proposed north – south Illinois 53 extension which is also limited @-@ access . The entire scope of this project ; starting on Illinois 120 at Interstate 94 , continuing west on the 120 bypass , and connecting with the Illinois 53 extension would provide a direct route for commuters in northern Lake County to gain access to the western and southwestern Chicago suburbs . Since there have been many delays over the decades on how to proceed with this extension , the 120 bypass project moved forward on its own as an independent project .
In 2006 , a feasibility study got underway by a special corridor planning council which was composed of groups from nearby communities and local government officials and took public input . Initially , the main focus for the public was to provide feedback for the road character or type of road . The alternatives considered were : a four lane roundabout boulevard , four lane signalized boulevard , six lane signalized arterial , and six lane expressway . In December 2008 , it was revealed that the four lane boulevard option was selected in an 11 – 2 vote over an expressway , however it still remained open whether or not roundabouts would be used in place of traffic signals at intersections . The cost of the project was estimated at $ 521 million . In May 2009 , the preferred roadway alignment was selected .
On October 14 , 2009 , the Route 120 Corridor Planning Council Governance Board came to a consensus and approved a unified vision for the project which recommends that the bypass be built as a four lane arterial highway with limited @-@ access . The next step is for the Illinois Department of Transportation to begin a Phase I Preliminary Engineering Study .
In 2012 , the Blue Ribbon Advisory Council revived the 120 expressway alternative as a tollway , rather than a roundabout or signalized boulevard , and proposed the 53 / 120 expressway plan to IDOT as a 4 lane completely below grade tollway with a speed limit of 45 mph with a multi @-@ use path , bioswale grassy median , and landscaped raised berms , in @-@ pavement lighting , all electronic tolling , and innovative interchange designs . Proposed interchanges of Rt 53 : IL Rt 22 - unknown innovative interchange design , Midlothian Rd - design not yet proposed , Peterson Rd - Village of Grayslake proposes a folded diamond interchange to reduce land acquisitions , 120 bypass - Village of Grayslake proposes a triple @-@ stack interchange complex with the highest fly @-@ over ramp at 12 feet above grade , the middle elevation fly @-@ over ramp 10 feet below grade , and the main line beneath to be a tunnel with road surface at 32 feet below grade . Proposed interchanges of Rt 120 : Alleghany Rd - Village of Grayslake proposes a folded diamond interchange to reduce land acquisitions , IL Rt 83 ( Village of Grayslake proposes to be realigned to Atkinson Rd with Rt 83 aligned to a bridge constructed over a railyard and stone business , to pass west of FedEx , pass west of the current 83 alignment at Peterson , and veer back east to join the existing 83 alignment south of Peterson ) , Rt 53 - tunnel , U.S. Rt 45 - Single Point Urban Interchange ( SPUI ) . IDOT is in the Phase I Preliminary Engineering Study , to be completed sometime in 2015 .
= = Major intersections = =
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= Divine Intervention ( album ) =
Divine Intervention is the sixth studio album by American thrash metal band Slayer . Released on September 27 , 1994 , through American Recordings , it was their first album to feature Paul Bostaph , replacing the band 's original drummer Dave Lombardo . The production posed a challenge to the record company , as its marketing situation drew arguments over the album 's explicitness . The band used the Decade of Aggression live album to give them time to decide the album 's style . Since it was released nearly four years after Seasons in the Abyss , vocalist Tom Araya said that there was more time spent on production compared to the band 's previous albums . The cover was painted and designed by Wes Benscoter as a re @-@ imaging of the group 's early " Slayergram " graphic .
Even though so much time was spent on production , Kerry King said that the mixing and mastering should have had more attention . The song 's origins came not only from television shows , but were also inspired by various other things , including Rush Limbaugh , and serial killer Jeffrey Dahmer . In 1998 the album was banned in Germany due to the lyrics of " SS @-@ 3 " , " Circle of Beliefs " , " Serenity in Murder " , " 213 " and " Mind Control " . Divine Intervention received mixed reviews by critics . The album sold 93 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . It peaked number eight on the Billboard 200 and charted at number 15 on UK Albums Chart . It was rewarded gold in the United States and Canada . An EP entitled Serenity in Murder was released shortly after the album .
= = Writing and production = =
Tom Araya said that " when we did Divine Intervention , this was the last conference we ever had with a record label where they sat us down and sold us the idea of how they wanted to do " Divine " , and how they were going to do this with the cover ... and all these different ideas for the album . Then one guy looked at us and said , ' But we need a hit song . ' And we said , ' But you 've got eleven songs , and if you can 't find a hit in one of them then you 're shit out of luck because that 's what we 're giving you . ' So we 're like saying to them , ' Right , you write the fucking hit song and we 'll record it . ' That shut the guy up and that was the last time we had any kind of meetings like that ! "
Araya described " For this one , I just kind of got inspired by watching TV . That gave me a whole lot of ideas . The whole idea about the dude with Slayer in his arms was brought about because reality is scarier than anything you can make up . The production of the album posed as a challenge to the record company , " how to market a group whose gore @-@ soaked , extreme music is anathema to radio programmers . " It is the company 's first attempt to " hit the thrash band 's core @-@ audience of rabid enthusiasts with a fan @-@ orientated marketing assault . " Araya related : " We decided to take more time to bring this one together . We actually went into the studio with more written material than the past . We completed three out of seven songs outside the studio . We all sort of felt it was important to do it slowly . After the last tour , we had the intention to take the break . "
= = Composition = =
The College Music Journal said that " the band deals almost exclusively with realism " in the album , and noted that it " shocks and splatters like a severed artery , painting crimson pictures of murders , necrophiliacs , and the ravaged , chaotic world they inhabit " . Both the mixing and mastering were criticized , with guitarist Kerry King saying that the band should have " paid more attention to the mix " , and Araya saying that it " is the one ( if any ) that he would not mind re @-@ mastering " . Neil Strauss from The New York Times explained many of the album 's origins . " 213 " was described as a " love song " by Araya , which was something they had never done before . The song was named after serial killer and sex offender Jeffrey Dahmer 's old apartment number . " Dittohead " , a partial tribute to Rush Limbaugh , begins by criticizing the legal system for " being too lenient on killers " . The song " ended up not denouncing the system but advocating its permissiveness " . " Sex , Murder , Art " was said by TheState.com to feature " roars about a maddening relationship and his ' pleasure in inflicting pain . ' "
King said that the album contained origins relating to " war stories " and " explorations of madness " . It is Paul Bostaph 's first studio album with Slayer , resulting in Alex Henderson of AllMusic saying that it is a " positive , energizing influence on Slayer , which sounds better than ever on such dark triumphs as ' Killing Fields , ' ' Serenity in Murder , ' and ' Circle of Beliefs . ' " Henderson also said that they " focus [ ed ] on the violently repressive nature of governments and the lengths to which they will go to wield power " .
= = Artwork and packaging = =
The album was issued in a clear jewel box with a die @-@ cut cardboard O @-@ card . It included sixteen pages , which fold out to be a poster , which displays the cover art . Both the disc and the disc tray feature — as described by Chris Morris — an " image reflective of the mania displayed by the group 's fans , and exemplary of American frequently deployed shock tactics : a kid carving the band 's name into his arms with a scalpel . " Mike Bone from American Recordings said that " we captured this not only by photography , but with video — him actually doing it . " The front cover was painted and designed by Wes Benscoter , an American artist who would later paint the covers for the other Slayer releases Undisputed Attitude and Live Intrusion . The album sleeve features for the second time the backronym Satan Laughs As You Eternally Rot . This phrase was first used on the vinyl edition of the album Show No Mercy where it was carved into the runout groove of the record .
= = Reception = =
AllMusic said that " instead of doing something calculated like emulating Nirvana or Pearl Jam — or for that matter , Nine Inch Nails or Ministry — Slayer wisely refused to sound like anyone but Slayer . Tom Araya and co. responded to the new environment simply by striving to be the heaviest metal band they possibly could . " By the album 's release date , vocalist Tom Araya considered it to be their best album .
Divine Intervention sold 93 @,@ 000 copies in its first week , and by 2002 , it sold over 400 @,@ 000 copies in the US . It was reported that in the same year of its released , Kevin Kirk from the Heavy Metal Shop " ordered 1 @,@ 000 copies of Slayer 's Divine Intervention and sold every last album in a matter of weeks " . Although it is less accessible than its predecessor Seasons in the Abyss , Rolling Stone considered it to be their most successful album as of 2001 .
= = Track listing = =
= = Chart positions and certifications = =
= = Credits = =
Personnel information can be verified at AllMusic .
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= Leonardo da Vinci =
Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinci , more commonly Leonardo da Vinci or simply Leonardo ( Italian : [ leoˈnardo di ser piˈero da ( v ) ˈvintʃi ] ; 15 April 1452 – 2 May 1519 ) , was an Italian polymath whose areas of interest included invention , painting , sculpting , architecture , science , music , mathematics , engineering , literature , anatomy , geology , astronomy , botany , writing , history , and cartography . He has been variously called the father of paleontology , ichnology , and architecture , and is widely considered one of the greatest painters of all time . Sometimes credited with the inventions of the parachute , helicopter and tank , he epitomized the Renaissance humanist ideal .
Many historians and scholars regard Leonardo as the prime exemplar of the " Universal Genius " or " Renaissance Man " , an individual of " unquenchable curiosity " and " feverishly inventive imagination " . According to art historian Helen Gardner , the scope and depth of his interests were without precedent in recorded history , and " his mind and personality seem to us superhuman , while the man himself mysterious and remote " . Marco Rosci notes that while there is much speculation regarding his life and personality , his view of the world was logical rather than mysterious , and that the empirical methods he employed were unorthodox for his time .
Born out of wedlock to a notary , Piero da Vinci , and a peasant woman , Caterina , in Vinci in the region of Florence , Leonardo was educated in the studio of the renowned Florentine painter Andrea del Verrocchio . Much of his earlier working life was spent in the service of Ludovico il Moro in Milan . He later worked in Rome , Bologna and Venice , and he spent his last years in France at the home awarded to him by Francis I of France .
Leonardo was , and is , renowned primarily as a painter . Among his works , the Mona Lisa is the most famous and most parodied portrait and The Last Supper the most reproduced religious painting of all time , their fame approached only by Michelangelo 's The Creation of Adam . Leonardo 's drawing of the Vitruvian Man is also regarded as a cultural icon , being reproduced on items as varied as the euro coin , textbooks , and T @-@ shirts . Perhaps fifteen of his paintings have survived . Nevertheless , these few works , together with his notebooks , which contain drawings , scientific diagrams , and his thoughts on the nature of painting , compose a contribution to later generations of artists rivalled only by that of his contemporary , Michelangelo .
Leonardo is revered for his technological ingenuity . He conceptualised flying machines , a type of armoured fighting vehicle , concentrated solar power , an adding machine , and the double hull , also outlining a rudimentary theory of plate tectonics . Relatively few of his designs were constructed or even feasible during his lifetime , as the modern scientific approaches to metallurgy and engineering were only in their infancy during the Renaissance . Some of his smaller inventions , however , such as an automated bobbin winder and a machine for testing the tensile strength of wire , entered the world of manufacturing unheralded . A number of Leonardo 's most practical inventions are nowadays displayed as working models at the Museum of Vinci . He made substantial discoveries in anatomy , civil engineering , optics , and hydrodynamics , but he did not publish his findings and they had no direct influence on later science .
Today , Leonardo is widely considered one of the most diversely talented individuals ever to have lived .
= = Life = =
= = = Childhood , 1452 – 1466 = = =
Leonardo was born on 15 April 1452 ( Old Style ) " at the third hour of the night " in the Tuscan hill town of Vinci , in the lower valley of the Arno river in the territory of the Medici @-@ ruled Republic of Florence . He was the out @-@ of @-@ wedlock son of the wealthy Messer Piero Fruosino di Antonio da Vinci , a Florentine legal notary , and Caterina , a peasant . Leonardo had no surname in the modern sense – " da Vinci " simply meaning " of Vinci " ; his full birth name was " Lionardo di ser Piero da Vinci " , meaning " Leonardo , ( son ) of ( Mes ) ser Piero from Vinci " . The inclusion of the title " ser " indicated that Leonardo 's father was a gentleman .
Little is known about Leonardo 's early life . He spent his first five years in the hamlet of Anchiano in the home of his mother , and from 1457 lived in the household of his father , grandparents and uncle , Francesco , in the small town of Vinci . His father had married a sixteen @-@ year @-@ old girl named Albiera Amadori , who loved Leonardo but died young in 1465 without children . When Leonardo was sixteen ( 1468 ) , his father married again to twenty @-@ year @-@ old Francesca Lanfredini , who also died without children . Piero 's legitimate heirs were born from his third wife Margherita di Guglielmo ( who gave birth to six children : Antonio , Giulian , Maddalena , Lorenzo , Violante and Domenico ) and his fourth and final wife , Lucrezia Cortigiani ( who bore him another six children : Margherita , Benedetto , Pandolfo , Guglielmo , Bartolomeo and Giovanni ) .
In all Leonardo had twelve half @-@ siblings , who were much younger than him ( the last was born when Leonardo was forty years old ) and with whom he had very few contacts , but they caused him difficulty after his father 's death in the dispute over the inheritance .
Leonardo received an informal education in Latin , geometry and mathematics . In later life , Leonardo recorded only two childhood incidents . One , which he regarded as an omen , was when a kite dropped from the sky and hovered over his cradle , its tail feathers brushing his face . The second occurred while he was exploring in the mountains : he discovered a cave and was both terrified that some great monster might lurk there and driven by curiosity to find out what was inside .
Leonardo 's early life has been the subject of historical conjecture . Vasari , the 16th @-@ century biographer of Renaissance painters , tells of how a local peasant made himself a round shield and requested that Ser Piero have it painted for him . Leonardo responded with a painting of a monster spitting fire that was so terrifying that Ser Piero sold it to a Florentine art dealer , who sold it to the Duke of Milan . Meanwhile , having made a profit , Ser Piero bought a shield decorated with a heart pierced by an arrow , which he gave to the peasant .
= = = Verrocchio 's workshop , 1466 – 76 = = =
In 1466 , at the age of fourteen , Leonardo was apprenticed to the artist Andrea di Cione , known as Verrocchio , whose workshop was " one of the finest in Florence " . He apprenticed as a garzone ( studio boy ) to Andrea del Verrocchio , the leading Florentine painter and sculptor of his day Other famous painters apprenticed or associated with the workshop include Domenico Ghirlandaio , Perugino , Botticelli , and Lorenzo di Credi . Leonardo would have been exposed to both theoretical training and a vast range of technical skills , including drafting , chemistry , metallurgy , metal working , plaster casting , leather working , mechanics and carpentry as well as the artistic skills of drawing , painting , sculpting and modelling .
Much of the painted production of Verrocchio 's workshop was done by his employees . According to Vasari , Leonardo collaborated with Verrocchio on his The Baptism of Christ , painting the young angel holding Jesus ' robe in a manner that was so far superior to his master 's that Verrocchio put down his brush and never painted again . On close examination , the painting reveals much that has been painted or touched @-@ up over the tempera using the new technique of oil paint , with the landscape , the rocks that can be seen through the brown mountain stream and much of the figure of Jesus bearing witness to the hand of Leonardo . Leonardo may have been the model for two works by Verrocchio : the bronze statue of David in the Bargello and the Archangel Raphael in Tobias and the Angel .
By 1472 , at the age of twenty , Leonardo qualified as a master in the Guild of Saint Luke , the guild of artists and doctors of medicine , but even after his father set him up in his own workshop , his attachment to Verrocchio was such that he continued to collaborate with him . Leonardo 's earliest known dated work is a drawing in pen and ink of the Arno valley , drawn on 5 August 1473 .
= = = Professional life , 1476 – 1513 = = =
Florentine court records of 1476 show that Leonardo and three other young men were charged with sodomy but acquitted ; homosexual acts were illegal in Renaissance Florence . From that date until 1478 there is no record of his work or even of his whereabouts . In 1478 , he left Verrocchio 's studio and was no longer resident at his father 's house . One writer , the " Anonimo " Gaddiano , claims that in 1480 Leonardo was living with the Medici and working in the Garden of the Piazza San Marco in Florence , a Neo @-@ Platonic academy of artists , poets and philosophers that the Medici had established . In January 1478 , he received an independent commission to paint an altarpiece for the Chapel of St. Bernard in the Palazzo Vecchio ; in March 1481 , he received a second independent commission for The Adoration of the Magi for the monks of San Donato a Scopeto . Neither commission was completed , the second being interrupted when Leonardo went to Milan .
In 1482 , Leonardo , who according to Vasari was a most talented musician , created a silver lyre in the shape of a horse 's head . Lorenzo de ' Medici sent Leonardo to Milan , bearing the lyre as a gift , to secure peace with Ludovico Sforza , Duke of Milan . At this time Leonardo wrote an often @-@ quoted letter describing the many marvellous and diverse things that he could achieve in the field of engineering and informing Ludovico that he could also paint .
Leonardo worked in Milan from 1482 until 1499 . He was commissioned to paint the Virgin of the Rocks for the Confraternity of the Immaculate Conception and The Last Supper for the monastery of Santa Maria delle Grazie . In the spring of 1485 , Leonardo travelled to Hungary on behalf of Ludovico to meet Matthias Corvinus , for whom he is believed to have painted a Holy Family . Between 1493 and 1495 , Leonardo listed a woman called Caterina among his dependents in his taxation documents . When she died in 1495 , the list of funeral expenditures suggests that she was his mother .
Leonardo was employed on many different projects for Ludovico , including the preparation of floats and pageants for special occasions , designs for a dome for Milan Cathedral and a model for a huge equestrian monument to Francesco Sforza , Ludovico 's predecessor . Seventy tons of bronze were set aside for casting it . The monument remained unfinished for several years , which was not unusual for Leonardo . In 1492 , the clay model of the horse was completed . It surpassed in size the only two large equestrian statues of the Renaissance , Donatello 's Gattamelata in Padua and Verrocchio 's Bartolomeo Colleoni in Venice , and became known as the " Gran Cavallo " . Leonardo began making detailed plans for its casting ; however , Michelangelo insulted Leonardo by implying that he was unable to cast it . In November 1494 , Ludovico gave the bronze to be used for cannon to defend the city from invasion by Charles VIII .
At the start of the Second Italian War in 1499 , the invading French troops used the life @-@ size clay model for the Gran Cavallo for target practice . With Ludovico Sforza overthrown , Leonardo , with his assistant Salai and friend , the mathematician Luca Pacioli , fled Milan for Venice , where he was employed as a military architect and engineer , devising methods to defend the city from naval attack . On his return to Florence in 1500 , he and his household were guests of the Servite monks at the monastery of Santissima Annunziata and were provided with a workshop where , according to Vasari , Leonardo created the cartoon of The Virgin and Child with St Anne and St John the Baptist , a work that won such admiration that " men and women , young and old " flocked to see it " as if they were attending a great festival " .
In Cesena in 1502 , Leonardo entered the service of Cesare Borgia , the son of Pope Alexander VI , acting as a military architect and engineer and travelling throughout Italy with his patron . Leonardo created a map of Cesare Borgia 's stronghold , a town plan of Imola in order to win his patronage . Maps were extremely rare at the time and it would have seemed like a new concept . Upon seeing it , Cesare hired Leonardo as his chief military engineer and architect . Later in the year , Leonardo produced another map for his patron , one of Chiana Valley , Tuscany , so as to give his patron a better overlay of the land and greater strategic position . He created this map in conjunction with his other project of constructing a dam from the sea to Florence , in order to allow a supply of water to sustain the canal during all seasons .
Leonardo returned to Florence where he rejoined the Guild of Saint Luke on 18 October 1503 , and spent two years designing and painting a mural of The Battle of Anghiari for the Signoria , with Michelangelo designing its companion piece , The Battle of Cascina . In Florence in 1504 , he was part of a committee formed to relocate , against the artist 's will , Michelangelo 's statue of David .
In 1506 Leonardo returned to Milan . Many of his most prominent pupils or followers in painting either knew or worked with him in Milan , including Bernardino Luini , Giovanni Antonio Boltraffio and Marco d 'Oggiono . At this time he may have commenced a project for an equestrian figure of Charles II d 'Amboise , the acting French governor of Milan . A wax model survives , and if genuine , is the only example of Leonardo 's sculpture .
Leonardo did not stay in Milan for long because his father had died in 1504 , and in 1507 he was back in Florence trying to sort out problems with his brothers over his father 's estate . By 1508 Leonardo was back in Milan , living in his own house in Porta Orientale in the parish of Santa Babila .
= = = Old age , 1513 – 1519 = = =
From September 1513 to 1516 , under Pope Leo X , Leonardo spent much of his time living in the Belvedere in the Vatican in Rome , where Raphael and Michelangelo were both active at the time . In October 1515 , King Francis I of France recaptured Milan . On 19 December , Leonardo was present at the meeting of Francis I and Pope Leo X , which took place in Bologna . Leonardo was commissioned to make for Francis a mechanical lion which could walk forward , then open its chest to reveal a cluster of lilies . In 1516 , he entered François ' service , being given the use of the manor house Clos Lucé , now a public museum , near the king 's residence at the royal Château d 'Amboise . It was here that he spent the last three years of his life , accompanied by his friend and apprentice , Count Francesco Melzi , and supported by a pension totalling 10 @,@ 000 scudi .
Leonardo died at Clos Lucé , on 2 May 1519 . Francis I had become a close friend . Vasari records that the king held Leonardo 's head in his arms as he died , although this story , beloved by the French and portrayed in romantic paintings by Ingres , Ménageot and other French artists , as well as by Angelica Kauffman , may be legend rather than fact . Vasari states that in his last days , Leonardo sent for a priest to make his confession and to receive the Holy Sacrament . In accordance with his will , sixty beggars followed his casket . Melzi was the principal heir and executor , receiving as well as money , Leonardo 's paintings , tools , library and personal effects . Leonardo also remembered his other long @-@ time pupil and companion , Salai and his servant Battista di Vilussis , who each received half of Leonardo 's vineyards , his brothers who received land , and his serving woman who received a black cloak " of good stuff " with a fur edge . Leonardo da Vinci was buried in the Chapel of Saint @-@ Hubert in Château d 'Amboise , in France .
Some 20 years after Leonardo 's death , Francis was reported by the goldsmith and sculptor Benvenuto Cellini as saying : " There had never been another man born in the world who knew as much as Leonardo , not so much about painting , sculpture and architecture , as that he was a very great philosopher . "
= = Relationships and influences = =
= = = Florence : Leonardo 's artistic and social background = = =
Florence at the time of Leonardo 's youth was the centre of Christian Humanist thought and culture . Leonardo commenced his apprenticeship with Verrocchio in 1466 , the year that Verrocchio 's master , the great sculptor Donatello , died . The painter Uccello , whose early experiments with perspective were to influence the development of landscape painting , was a very old man . The painters Piero della Francesca and Filippo Lippi , sculptor Luca della Robbia , and architect and writer Leon Battista Alberti were in their sixties . The successful artists of the next generation were Leonardo 's teacher Verrocchio , Antonio del Pollaiuolo and the portrait sculptor Mino da Fiesole , whose lifelike busts give the most reliable likenesses of Lorenzo Medici 's father Piero and uncle Giovanni .
Leonardo 's youth was spent in a Florence that was ornamented by the works of these artists and by Donatello 's contemporaries , Masaccio , whose figurative frescoes were imbued with realism and emotion , and Ghiberti , whose Gates of Paradise , gleaming with gold leaf , displayed the art of combining complex figure compositions with detailed architectural backgrounds . Piero della Francesca had made a detailed study of perspective , and was the first painter to make a scientific study of light . These studies and Alberti 's treatise De Pictura were to have a profound effect on younger artists and in particular on Leonardo 's own observations and artworks .
Massaccio 's " Expulsion from the Garden of Eden " depicting the naked and distraught Adam and Eve created a powerfully expressive image of the human form , cast into three dimensions by the use of light and shade , which was to be developed in the works of Leonardo in a way that was to be influential in the course of painting . The humanist influence of Donatello 's " David " can be seen in Leonardo 's late paintings , particularly John the Baptist .
A prevalent tradition in Florence was the small altarpiece of the Virgin and Child . Many of these were created in tempera or glazed terracotta by the workshops of Filippo Lippi , Verrocchio and the prolific della Robbia family . Leonardo 's early Madonnas such as The Madonna with a carnation and the Benois Madonna followed this tradition while showing idiosyncratic departures , particularly in the case of the Benois Madonna in which the Virgin is set at an oblique angle to the picture space with the Christ Child at the opposite angle . This compositional theme was to emerge in Leonardo 's later paintings such as The Virgin and Child with St. Anne .
Leonardo was a contemporary of Botticelli , Domenico Ghirlandaio and Perugino , who were all slightly older than he was . He would have met them at the workshop of Verrocchio , with whom they had associations , and at the Academy of the Medici . Botticelli was a particular favourite of the Medici family , and thus his success as a painter was assured . Ghirlandaio and Perugino were both prolific and ran large workshops . They competently delivered commissions to well @-@ satisfied patrons who appreciated Ghirlandaio 's ability to portray the wealthy citizens of Florence within large religious frescoes , and Perugino 's ability to deliver a multitude of saints and angels of unfailing sweetness and innocence .
These three were among those commissioned to paint the walls of the Sistine Chapel , the work commencing with Perugino 's employment in 1479 . Leonardo was not part of this prestigious commission . His first significant commission , The Adoration of the Magi for the Monks of Scopeto , was never completed .
In 1476 , during the time of Leonardo 's association with Verrocchio 's workshop , the Portinari Altarpiece by Hugo van der Goes arrived in Florence , bringing from Northern Europe new painterly techniques that were to profoundly affect Leonardo , Ghirlandaio , Perugino and others . In 1479 , the Sicilian painter Antonello da Messina , who worked exclusively in oils , traveled north on his way to Venice , where the leading painter Giovanni Bellini adopted the technique of oil painting , quickly making it the preferred method in Venice . Leonardo was also later to visit Venice .
Like the two contemporary architects Bramante and Antonio da Sangallo the Elder , Leonardo experimented with designs for centrally planned churches , a number of which appear in his journals , as both plans and views , although none was ever realised .
Leonardo 's political contemporaries were Lorenzo Medici ( il Magnifico ) , who was three years older , and his younger brother Giuliano , who was slain in the Pazzi conspiracy in 1478 . Leonardo was sent as an ambassador by the Medici court to Ludovico il Moro , who ruled Milan between 1479 and 1499 .
With Alberti , Leonardo visited the home of the Medici and through them came to know the older Humanist philosophers of whom Marsiglio Ficino , proponent of Neo Platonism ; Cristoforo Landino , writer of commentaries on Classical writings , and John Argyropoulos , teacher of Greek and translator of Aristotle were the foremost . Also associated with the Academy of the Medici was Leonardo 's contemporary , the brilliant young poet and philosopher Pico della Mirandola . Leonardo later wrote in the margin of a journal , " The Medici made me and the Medici destroyed me . " While it was through the action of Lorenzo that Leonardo received his employment at the court of Milan , it is not known exactly what Leonardo meant by this cryptic comment .
Although usually named together as the three giants of the High Renaissance , Leonardo , Michelangelo and Raphael were not of the same generation . Leonardo was twenty @-@ three when Michelangelo was born and thirty @-@ one when Raphael was born . Raphael lived until the age of only 37 and died in 1520 , the year after Leonardo died , but Michelangelo went on creating for another 45 years .
= = = Personal life = = =
Within Leonardo 's lifetime , his extraordinary powers of invention , his " outstanding physical beauty " , " infinite grace " , " great strength and generosity " , " regal spirit and tremendous breadth of mind " , as described by Vasari , as well as all other aspects of his life , attracted the curiosity of others . One such aspect was his respect for life , evidenced by his vegetarianism and his habit , according to Vasari , of purchasing caged birds and releasing them .
Leonardo had many friends who are now renowned either in their fields or for their historical significance . They included the mathematician Luca Pacioli , with whom he collaborated on the book De divina proportione in the 1490s . Leonardo appears to have had no close relationships with women except for his friendship with Cecilia Gallerani and the two Este sisters , Beatrice and Isabella . While on a journey that took him through Mantua , he drew a portrait of Isabella that appears to have been used to create a painted portrait , now lost .
Beyond friendship , Leonardo kept his private life secret . His sexuality has been the subject of satire , analysis , and speculation . This trend began in the mid @-@ 16th century and was revived in the 19th and 20th centuries , most notably by Sigmund Freud . Leonardo 's most intimate relationships were perhaps with his pupils Salai and Melzi . Melzi , writing to inform Leonardo 's brothers of his death , described Leonardo 's feelings for his pupils as both loving and passionate . It has been claimed since the 16th century that these relationships were of a sexual or erotic nature . Court records of 1476 , when he was aged twenty @-@ four , show that Leonardo and three other young men were charged with sodomy in an incident involving a well @-@ known male prostitute . The charges were dismissed for lack of evidence , and there is speculation that since one of the accused , Lionardo de Tornabuoni , was related to Lorenzo de ' Medici , the family exerted its influence to secure the dismissal . Since that date much has been written about his presumed homosexuality and its role in his art , particularly in the androgyny and eroticism manifested in John the Baptist and Bacchus and more explicitly in a number of erotic drawings .
= = = Assistants and pupils = = =
Gian Giacomo Caprotti da Oreno , nicknamed Salai or Il Salaino ( " The Little Unclean One " i.e. , the devil ) , entered Leonardo 's household in 1490 . After only a year , Leonardo made a list of his misdemeanours , calling him " a thief , a liar , stubborn , and a glutton " , after he had made off with money and valuables on at least five occasions and spent a fortune on clothes . Nevertheless , Leonardo treated him with great indulgence , and he remained in Leonardo 's household for the next thirty years . Salai executed a number of paintings under the name of Andrea Salai , but although Vasari claims that Leonardo " taught him a great deal about painting " , his work is generally considered to be of less artistic merit than others among Leonardo 's pupils , such as Marco d 'Oggiono and Boltraffio . In 1515 , he painted a nude version of the Mona Lisa , known as Monna Vanna . Salai owned the Mona Lisa at the time of his death in 1525 , and in his will it was assessed at 505 lire , an exceptionally high valuation for a small panel portrait .
In 1506 , Leonardo took on another pupil , Count Francesco Melzi , the son of a Lombard aristocrat , who is considered to have been his favourite student . He travelled to France with Leonardo and remained with him until Leonardo 's death . Melzi inherited the artistic and scientific works , manuscripts , and collections of Leonardo and administered the estate .
= = Painting = =
Despite the recent awareness and admiration of Leonardo as a scientist and inventor , for the better part of four hundred years his fame rested on his achievements as a painter and on a handful of works , either authenticated or attributed to him that have been regarded as among the masterpieces .
These paintings are famous for a variety of qualities which have been much imitated by students and discussed at great length by connoisseurs and critics . Among the qualities that make Leonardo 's work unique are the innovative techniques which he used in laying on the paint , his detailed knowledge of anatomy , light , botany and geology , his interest in physiognomy and the way in which humans register emotion in expression and gesture , his innovative use of the human form in figurative composition , and his use of the subtle gradation of tone . All these qualities come together in his most famous painted works , the Mona Lisa , the Last Supper and the Virgin of the Rocks .
= = = Early works = = =
Leonardo 's early works begin with the Baptism of Christ painted in conjunction with Verrocchio . Two other paintings appear to date from his time at the workshop , both of which are Annunciations . One is small , 59 centimetres ( 23 in ) long and 14 centimetres ( 5 @.@ 5 in ) high . It is a " predella " to go at the base of a larger composition , in this case a painting by Lorenzo di Credi from which it has become separated . The other is a much larger work , 217 centimetres ( 85 in ) long . In both these Annunciations , Leonardo used a formal arrangement , such as in Fra Angelico 's two well @-@ known pictures of the same subject , of the Virgin Mary sitting or kneeling to the right of the picture , approached from the left by an angel in profile , with a rich flowing garment , raised wings and bearing a lily . Although previously attributed to Ghirlandaio , the larger work is now generally attributed to Leonardo .
In the smaller picture , Mary averts her eyes and folds her hands in a gesture that symbolised submission to God 's will . In the larger picture , however , Mary is not submissive . The girl , interrupted in her reading by this unexpected messenger , puts a finger in her bible to mark the place and raises her hand in a formal gesture of greeting or surprise . This calm young woman appears to accept her role as the Mother of God , not with resignation but with confidence . In this painting , the young Leonardo presents the humanist face of the Virgin Mary , recognising humanity 's role in God 's incarnation .
= = = Paintings of the 1480s = = =
In the 1480s , Leonardo received two very important commissions and commenced another work which was also of ground @-@ breaking importance in terms of composition . Two of the three were never finished , and the third took so long that it was subject to lengthy negotiations over completion and payment . One of these paintings is that of St. Jerome in the Wilderness . Bortolon associates this picture with a difficult period of Leonardo 's life , as evidenced in his diary : " I thought I was learning to live ; I was only learning to die . "
Although the painting is barely begun , the composition can be seen and it is very unusual . Jerome , as a penitent , occupies the middle of the picture , set on a slight diagonal and viewed somewhat from above . His kneeling form takes on a trapezoid shape , with one arm stretched to the outer edge of the painting and his gaze looking in the opposite direction . J. Wasserman points out the link between this painting and Leonardo 's anatomical studies . Across the foreground sprawls his symbol , a great lion whose body and tail make a double spiral across the base of the picture space . The other remarkable feature is the sketchy landscape of craggy rocks against which the figure is silhouetted .
The daring display of figure composition , the landscape elements and personal drama also appear in the great unfinished masterpiece , the Adoration of the Magi , a commission from the Monks of San Donato a Scopeto . It is a complex composition , of about 250 x 250 centimetres . Leonardo did numerous drawings and preparatory studies , including a detailed one in linear perspective of the ruined classical architecture which makes part of the backdrop to the scene . But in 1482 Leonardo went off to Milan at the behest of Lorenzo de ' Medici in order to win favour with Ludovico il Moro , and the painting was abandoned .
The third important work of this period is the Virgin of the Rocks which was commissioned in Milan for the Confraternity of the Immaculate Conception . The painting , to be done with the assistance of the de Predis brothers , was to fill a large complex altarpiece , already constructed . Leonardo chose to paint an apocryphal moment of the infancy of Christ when the infant John the Baptist , in protection of an angel , met the Holy Family on the road to Egypt . In this scene , as painted by Leonardo , John recognizes and worships Jesus as the Christ . The painting demonstrates an eerie beauty as the graceful figures kneel in adoration around the infant Christ in a wild landscape of tumbling rock and whirling water . While the painting is quite large , about 200 × 120 centimetres , it is not nearly as complex as the painting ordered by the monks of St Donato , having only four figures rather than about fifty and a rocky landscape rather than architectural details . The painting was eventually finished ; in fact , two versions of the painting were finished , one which remained at the chapel of the Confraternity and the other which Leonardo carried away to France . But the Brothers did not get their painting , or the de Predis their payment , until the next century .
= = = Paintings of the 1490s = = =
Leonardo 's most famous painting of the 1490s is The Last Supper , painted for the refectory of the Convent of Santa Maria della Grazie in Milan . The painting represents the last meal shared by Jesus with his disciples before his capture and death . It shows specifically the moment when Jesus has just said " one of you will betray me " . Leonardo tells the story of the consternation that this statement caused to the twelve followers of Jesus .
The novelist Matteo Bandello observed Leonardo at work and wrote that some days he would paint from dawn till dusk without stopping to eat and then not paint for three or four days at a time . This was beyond the comprehension of the prior of the convent , who hounded him until Leonardo asked Ludovico to intervene . Vasari describes how Leonardo , troubled over his ability to adequately depict the faces of Christ and the traitor Judas , told the Duke that he might be obliged to use the prior as his model .
When finished , the painting was acclaimed as a masterpiece of design and characterisation , but it deteriorated rapidly , so that within a hundred years it was described by one viewer as " completely ruined " . Leonardo , instead of using the reliable technique of fresco , had used tempera over a ground that was mainly gesso , resulting in a surface which was subject to mold and to flaking . Despite this , the painting has remained one of the most reproduced works of art , countless copies being made in every medium from carpets to cameos .
= = = Paintings of the 16th century = = =
Among the works created by Leonardo in the 16th century is the small portrait known as the Mona Lisa or " la Gioconda " , the laughing one . In the present era it is arguably the most famous painting in the world . Its fame rests , in particular , on the elusive smile on the woman 's face , its mysterious quality brought about perhaps by the fact that the artist has subtly shadowed the corners of the mouth and eyes so that the exact nature of the smile cannot be determined . The shadowy quality for which the work is renowned came to be called " sfumato " or Leonardo 's smoke . Vasari , who is generally thought to have known the painting only by repute , said that " the smile was so pleasing that it seemed divine rather than human ; and those who saw it were amazed to find that it was as alive as the original " .
Other characteristics found in this work are the unadorned dress , in which the eyes and hands have no competition from other details , the dramatic landscape background in which the world seems to be in a state of flux , the subdued colouring and the extremely smooth nature of the painterly technique , employing oils , but laid on much like tempera and blended on the surface so that the brushstrokes are indistinguishable . Vasari expressed the opinion that the manner of painting would make even " the most confident master ... despair and lose heart . " The perfect state of preservation and the fact that there is no sign of repair or overpainting is rare in a panel painting of this date .
In the painting Virgin and Child with St. Anne the composition again picks up the theme of figures in a landscape which Wasserman describes as " breathtakingly beautiful " and harkens back to the St Jerome picture with the figure set at an oblique angle . What makes this painting unusual is that there are two obliquely set figures superimposed . Mary is seated on the knee of her mother , St Anne . She leans forward to restrain the Christ Child as he plays roughly with a lamb , the sign of his own impending sacrifice . This painting , which was copied many times , influenced Michelangelo , Raphael , and Andrea del Sarto , and through them Pontormo and Correggio . The trends in composition were adopted in particular by the Venetian painters Tintoretto and Veronese .
= = = Murals = = =
Leonardo 's The Battle of Anghiara was commissioned in 1505 , but was lost . All that remains is a copy by Rubens , but Maurizio Seracini is convinced it can still be found and has spent a lifetime searching for it . He was allowed to drill some pilot holes in a mural in the Salone dei Cinquecento , Palazzo Vecchio , Florence , and his team did find evidence of an oil painting underneath .
= = = Drawings = = =
Leonardo was not a prolific painter , but he was a most prolific draftsman , keeping journals full of small sketches and detailed drawings recording all manner of things that took his attention . As well as the journals there exist many studies for paintings , some of which can be identified as preparatory to particular works such as The Adoration of the Magi , The Virgin of the Rocks and The Last Supper . His earliest dated drawing is a Landscape of the Arno Valley , 1473 , which shows the river , the mountains , Montelupo Castle and the farmlands beyond it in great detail .
Among his famous drawings are the Vitruvian Man , a study of the proportions of the human body , the Head of an Angel , for The Virgin of the Rocks in the Louvre , a botanical study of Star of Bethlehem and a large drawing ( 160 × 100 cm ) in black chalk on coloured paper of The Virgin and Child with St. Anne and St. John the Baptist in the National Gallery , London . This drawing employs the subtle sfumato technique of shading , in the manner of the Mona Lisa . It is thought that Leonardo never made a painting from it , the closest similarity being to The Virgin and Child with St. Anne in the Louvre .
Other drawings of interest include numerous studies generally referred to as " caricatures " because , although exaggerated , they appear to be based upon observation of live models . Vasari relates that if Leonardo saw a person with an interesting face he would follow them around all day observing them . There are numerous studies of beautiful young men , often associated with Salai , with the rare and much admired facial feature , the so @-@ called " Grecian profile " . These faces are often contrasted with that of a warrior . Salai is often depicted in fancy @-@ dress costume . Leonardo is known to have designed sets for pageants with which these may be associated . Other , often meticulous , drawings show studies of drapery . A marked development in Leonardo 's ability to draw drapery occurred in his early works . Another often @-@ reproduced drawing is a macabre sketch that was done by Leonardo in Florence in 1479 showing the body of Bernardo Baroncelli , hanged in connection with the murder of Giuliano , brother of Lorenzo de ' Medici , in the Pazzi conspiracy . With dispassionate integrity Leonardo has registered in neat mirror writing the colours of the robes that Baroncelli was wearing when he died .
= = Observation and invention = =
= = = Journals and notes = = =
Renaissance humanism recognized no mutually exclusive polarities between the sciences and the arts , and Leonardo 's studies in science and engineering are sometimes considered as impressive and innovative as his artistic work . These studies were recorded in 13 @,@ 000 pages of notes and drawings , which fuse art and natural philosophy ( the forerunner of modern science ) , made and maintained daily throughout Leonardo 's life and travels , as he made continual observations of the world around him .
Leonardo 's writings are mostly in mirror @-@ image cursive . The reason may have been more a practical expediency than for reasons of secrecy as is often suggested . Since Leonardo wrote with his left hand , it is probable that it was easier for him to write from right to left .
His notes and drawings display an enormous range of interests and preoccupations , some as mundane as lists of groceries and people who owed him money and some as intriguing as designs for wings and shoes for walking on water . There are compositions for paintings , studies of details and drapery , studies of faces and emotions , of animals , babies , dissections , plant studies , rock formations , whirlpools , war machines , flying machines and architecture .
These notebooks — originally loose papers of different types and sizes , distributed by friends after his death — have found their way into major collections such as the Royal Library at Windsor Castle , the Louvre , the Biblioteca Nacional de España , the Victoria and Albert Museum , the Biblioteca Ambrosiana in Milan which holds the twelve @-@ volume Codex Atlanticus , and British Library in London which has put a selection from the Codex Arundel ( BL Arundel MS 263 ) online . The Codex Leicester is the only major scientific work of Leonardo 's in private hands . It is owned by Bill Gates and is displayed once a year in different cities around the world .
Leonardo 's notes appear to have been intended for publication because many of the sheets have a form and order that would facilitate this . In many cases a single topic , for example , the heart or the human fetus , is covered in detail in both words and pictures on a single sheet . Why they were not published within Leonardo 's lifetime is unknown .
= = = Scientific studies = = =
Leonardo 's approach to science was an observational one : he tried to understand a phenomenon by describing and depicting it in utmost detail and did not emphasize experiments or theoretical explanation . Since he lacked formal education in Latin and mathematics , contemporary scholars mostly ignored Leonardo the scientist , although he did teach himself Latin . In the 1490s he studied mathematics under Luca Pacioli and prepared a series of drawings of regular solids in a skeletal form to be engraved as plates for Pacioli 's book De divina proportione , published in 1509 .
It appears that from the content of his journals he was planning a series of treatises to be published on a variety of subjects . A coherent treatise on anatomy was said to have been observed during a visit by Cardinal Louis ' D ' Aragon 's secretary in 1517 . Aspects of his work on the studies of anatomy , light and the landscape were assembled for publication by his pupil Francesco Melzi and eventually published as Treatise on Painting by Leonardo da Vinci in France and Italy in 1651 and Germany in 1724 , with engravings based upon drawings by the Classical painter Nicolas Poussin . According to Arasse , the treatise , which in France went into 62 editions in fifty years , caused Leonardo to be seen as " the precursor of French academic thought on art " .
While Leonardo 's experimentation followed clear scientific methods , a recent and exhaustive analysis of Leonardo as a scientist by Frtijof Capra argues that Leonardo was a fundamentally different kind of scientist from Galileo , Newton and other scientists who followed him in that , as a Renaissance Man , his theorising and hypothesising integrated the arts and particularly painting .
= = = Anatomy = = =
Leonardo started his study in the anatomy of the human body under the apprenticeship of Andrea del Verrocchio , who demanded that his students develop a deep knowledge of the subject . As an artist , he quickly became master of topographic anatomy , drawing many studies of muscles , tendons and other visible anatomical features .
As a successful artist , he was given permission to dissect human corpses at the Hospital of Santa Maria Nuova in Florence and later at hospitals in Milan and Rome . From 1510 to 1511 he collaborated in his studies with the doctor Marcantonio della Torre . Leonardo made over 240 detailed drawings and wrote about 13 @,@ 000 words towards a treatise on anatomy . These papers were left to his heir , Francesco Melzi , for publication , a task of overwhelming difficulty because of its scope and Leonardo 's idiosyncratic writing . It was left incomplete at the time of Melzi 's death more than 50 years later , with only a small amount of the material on anatomy included in Leonardo 's Treatise on painting , published in France in 1632 . During the time that Melzi was ordering the material into chapters for publication , they were examined by a number of anatomists and artists , including Vasari , Cellini and Albrecht Dürer who made a number of drawings from them .
Leonardo 's anatomical drawings include many studies of the human skeleton and its parts , and studies muscles and sinews . He studied the mechanical functions of the skeleton and the muscular forces that are applied to it in a manner that prefigured the modern science of biomechanics . He drew the heart and vascular system , the sex organs and other internal organs , making one of the first scientific drawings of a fetus in utero . The drawings and notation are far ahead of their time , and if published , would undoubtedly have made a major contribution to medical science .
As an artist , Leonardo also closely observed and recorded the effects of age and of human emotion on the physiology , studying in particular the effects of rage . He also drew many figures who had significant facial deformities or signs of illness . Leonardo also studied and drew the anatomy of many animals , dissecting cows , birds , monkeys , bears , and frogs , and comparing in his drawings their anatomical structure with that of humans . He also made a number of studies of horses .
= = = Investigations = = =
Da Vinci performed some very detailed investigations into not only anatomy but also physiology . He attempted to identify the source of ' emotions ' and their expression . His dissections and documentation of muscles , nerves , and vessels helped to describe the physiology and mechanics of movement . He found it difficult to incorporate the prevailing system and theories of bodily humours , but eventually he abandoned these physiological explanations of bodily functions . He made the observations that humours were not located in cerebral spaces or ventricles . He also documented that the humours were not contained in the heart or the liver , and it was the heart that defined the circulatory system . He was the first to define atherosclerosis and liver cirrhosis . He created models of the cerebral ventricles with the use of melted wax and constructed a glass aorta to observe the circulation of blood through the aortic valve by using water and grass seed to watch flow patterns . Vesalius published his work on anatomy and physiology in De humani corporis fabrica in 1543 .
= = = Engineering and inventions = = =
During his lifetime , Leonardo was valued as an engineer . In a letter to Ludovico il Moro , he claimed to be able to create all sorts of machines both for the protection of a city and for siege . When he fled to Venice in 1499 , he found employment as an engineer and devised a system of moveable barricades to protect the city from attack . He also had a scheme for diverting the flow of the Arno river , a project on which Niccolò Machiavelli also worked . Leonardo 's journals include a vast number of inventions , both practical and impractical . They include musical instruments , a mechanical knight , hydraulic pumps , reversible crank mechanisms , finned mortar shells , and a steam cannon .
In 1502 , Leonardo produced a drawing of a single span 720 @-@ foot ( 220 m ) bridge as part of a civil engineering project for Ottoman Sultan Beyazid II of Constantinople . The bridge was intended to span an inlet at the mouth of the Bosporus known as the Golden Horn . Beyazid did not pursue the project because he believed that such a construction was impossible . Leonardo 's vision was resurrected in 2001 when a smaller bridge based on his design was constructed in Norway .
Leonardo was fascinated by the phenomenon of flight for much of his life , producing many studies including Codex on the Flight of Birds ( c . 1505 ) , as well as plans for several flying machines such as a flapping ornithopter and a machine with a helical rotor . The British television station Channel Four commissioned a 2003 documentary Leonardo 's Dream Machines . Leonardo 's designs for machines such as a parachute , and giant crossbow were interpreted , constructed and tested . Some of those designs proved successes , whilst others fared less well when practically tested .
= = Fame and reputation = =
Leonardo 's fame within his own lifetime was such that the King of France carried him away like a trophy , and was claimed to have supported him in his old age and held him in his arms as he died . Interest in Leonardo and his work has never diminished . Crowds still queue to see his best @-@ known artworks , T @-@ shirts still bear his most famous drawing , and writers continue to hail him as a genius while speculating about his private life , as well as about what one so intelligent actually believed in .
Giorgio Vasari , in the enlarged edition of Lives of the Artists , 1568 , introduced his chapter on Leonardo da Vinci with the following words :
In the normal course of events many men and women are born with remarkable talents ; but occasionally , in a way that transcends nature , a single person is marvellously endowed by Heaven with beauty , grace and talent in such abundance that he leaves other men far behind , all his actions seem inspired and indeed everything he does clearly comes from God rather than from human skill . Everyone acknowledged that this was true of Leonardo da Vinci , an artist of outstanding physical beauty , who displayed infinite grace in everything that he did and who cultivated his genius so brilliantly that all problems he studied he solved with ease .
The continued admiration that Leonardo commanded from painters , critics and historians is reflected in many other written tributes . Baldassare Castiglione , author of Il Cortegiano ( " The Courtier " ) , wrote in 1528 : " ... Another of the greatest painters in this world looks down on this art in which he is unequalled ... " while the biographer known as " Anonimo Gaddiano " wrote , c . 1540 : " His genius was so rare and universal that it can be said that nature worked a miracle on his behalf ... " .
The 19th century brought a particular admiration for Leonardo 's genius , causing Henry Fuseli to write in 1801 : " Such was the dawn of modern art , when Leonardo da Vinci broke forth with a splendour that distanced former excellence : made up of all the elements that constitute the essence of genius ... " This is echoed by A. E. Rio who wrote in 1861 : " He towered above all other artists through the strength and the nobility of his talents . "
By the 19th century , the scope of Leonardo 's notebooks was known , as well as his paintings . Hippolyte Taine wrote in 1866 : " There may not be in the world an example of another genius so universal , so incapable of fulfilment , so full of yearning for the infinite , so naturally refined , so far ahead of his own century and the following centuries . " Art historian Bernard Berenson wrote in 1896 : " Leonardo is the one artist of whom it may be said with perfect literalness : Nothing that he touched but turned into a thing of eternal beauty . Whether it be the cross section of a skull , the structure of a weed , or a study of muscles , he , with his feeling for line and for light and shade , forever transmuted it into life @-@ communicating values . "
The interest in Leonardo 's genius has continued unabated ; experts study and translate his writings , analyse his paintings using scientific techniques , argue over attributions and search for works which have been recorded but never found . Liana Bortolon , writing in 1967 , said : " Because of the multiplicity of interests that spurred him to pursue every field of knowledge ... Leonardo can be considered , quite rightly , to have been the universal genius par excellence , and with all the disquieting overtones inherent in that term . Man is as uncomfortable today , faced with a genius , as he was in the 16th century . Five centuries have passed , yet we still view Leonardo with awe . "
= = Miscellaneous = =
Davinciite , a recently described mineral recognized in 2011 by the International Mineralogical Association , is named in honor of the artist .
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= Ali Abu Nuwar =
Ali Abu Nuwar ( surname also spelled Abu Nuwwar , Abu Nawar or Abu Nowar ; 1925 – 15 August 1991 ) was a Jordanian army officer , serving as chief of staff in May 1956 – April 1957 . He participated in the 1948 Arab – Israeli War as an artillery officer in the Jordanian army 's predecessor , the Arab Legion , but his vocal opposition to British influence in Jordan led to his virtual exile to Paris as military attaché in 1952 . There , he forged close ties with Jordanian crown prince Hussein , who promoted Abu Nuwar after his accession to the throne .
Abu Nuwar 's enmity with Glubb Pasha , the Arab Legion 's powerful British chief of staff , his insistence on establishing Arab command over the army and his influence with Hussein led the latter to dismiss Glubb Pasha and appoint Abu Nuwar in his place . However , Abu Nuwar 's ardent support for the pan @-@ Arabist policies of Egyptian president Gamal Abdel Nasser contributed to Jordan 's increasing isolation from the UK and the US , which were major sources of foreign aid to Jordan . At the same time , existing dissatisfaction with Abu Nuwar 's leadership by palace officials and veteran Bedouin army units culminated into violent confrontations at the large army barracks in al @-@ Zarqa between royalist and Arab nationalist units . Two principal accounts emerged regarding the events at al @-@ Zarqa , with the royalist version holding that the incident was an abortive coup by Abu Nuwar against Hussein , and the dissident version asserting that it was a staged , American @-@ backed counter @-@ coup by Hussein against the pan @-@ Arabist movement in Jordan . In any case , Abu Nuwar resigned and was allowed to leave Jordan for Syria . He was subsequently sentenced to 15 years in absentia .
Abu Nuwar spent much of his time in exile between Syria and Egypt organizing opposition to Hussein and the monarchy , all the while maintaining his innocence in the al @-@ Zarqa incident . He returned to Jordan in 1964 after being pardoned by Hussein as part of the latter 's broader reconciliation efforts with his exiled opposition . In 1971 , Abu Nuwar was made ambassador to France and he was later appointed to the senate of Jordan 's parliament in 1989 . He died from blood cancer at a London hospital at age 66 , one year after the publication of his memoirs , A Time of Arab Decline : Memoirs of Arab Politics ( 1948 – 1964 ) .
= = Early life = =
Ali Abu Nuwar was born in 1925 in al @-@ Salt , Transjordan , which was then under British control . His father 's family , the Abu Nuwar , was a prominent Arab clan in al @-@ Salt . His mother was of Circassian descent . In his youth , Abu Nuwar was influenced by the discussions that his father and relatives held about the effects of the 1916 Arab Revolt , the 1917 Balfour Declaration and the 1920 Syrian Arab defeat at the Battle of Maysalun had on the fate of the Middle East . During the closing years of World War I , the Ottomans had been driven out of their Arab territories by an alliance of Hashemite @-@ led Arab rebels and British forces , and were thereafter replaced by the British and French , who effectively occupied the Arab territories . Revolts and popular opposition against European rule in Palestine , Transjordan and elsewhere in the region emerged in the 1920s and 1930s . In his memoirs , Abu Nuwar recalled that his teachers in al @-@ Salt would tell him and his classmates that the " Arab Nation was colonized and fragmented and that it was on the shoulders of our generation to take responsibility for freedom and unity " .
= = Military career = =
Abu Nuwar joined the Arab Legion and was made an artillery officer in 1946 , during the reign of Emir Abdullah I. During the 1948 Arab – Israeli War , he served as a lieutenant . Afterward , he received training in the British staff college of Camberly for two years before returning to Jordan , which was formed out of Transjordan and the West Bank as a result of the 1948 war . Israeli gains during the war had caused an upswing in anti @-@ colonialist and Arab nationalist militancy among numerous officers in the Arab armies who blamed their political and military leadership for the Israeli victories . They considered the old guard incompetent , corrupt and beholden to the colonial powers . Among these incensed officers was Abu Nuwar . Although he was not a founder of the " Free Officers " , a Baathist @-@ affiliated underground organization of anti @-@ British Jordanian officers , he joined the group after being invited in 1950 , following his return to Jordan .
Abu Nuwar became a vociferous critic of British aid to Jordan , viewing it as a form of dependency on Jordan 's former colonial ruler , and of Glubb Pasha , the influential British officer in charge of the Arab Legion who was derided by Arab nationalists as a symbol of lingering British colonialism in Jordan . When Abdullah I was assassinated in 1951 , Glubb and Prime Minister Tawfik Abu al @-@ Huda 's government discussed preventing Abdullah 's son and heir apparent , Emir Talal , a sympathizer of the Free Officers , from being enthroned ; Talal had been checked into a mental institution in Switzerland , but many Free Officers believed the British were fabricating Talal 's mental illness to keep him out of Jordan . In response , Abu Nuwar sought to install Talal on the throne by force , and to that end he appealed for support from the Free Officers and sent Awni Hannun , a Jordanian military doctor , to bring Talal to Jordan . However , Hannun was forbidden from meeting Talal due to visitation restrictions and was dismissed by Glubb for alleged incitement against British interests . Nonetheless , Talal was enthroned , and Abu Nuwar subsequently urged him to dismiss Glubb . The latter feared Abu Nuwar 's efforts posed a threat to British interests in Jordan , and thus directed Abu al @-@ Huda 's government to effectively exile Abu Nuwar from the country . The government complied , dispatching Abu Nuwar to Paris to serve as Jordan 's military attaché in September 1952 . Talal was later dethroned by parliamentary decision on the basis of his mental incapacity .
During his assignment in Paris , Abu Nuwar met King Talal 's son and successor , Crown Prince Hussein , who frequently visited the city during weekend breaks from his training at the Sandhurst Military Academy . Abu Nuwar was keen to gain Hussein 's favor and disseminate to him Arab nationalist ideas calling for an end to British influence in the Jordanian military . Hussein was enthused by Abu Nuwar , and after his enthronement in May 1953 , Hussein attempted to have Abu Nuwar return to Jordan despite Glubb 's reservations . In August , Hussein visited London where he invited Abu Nuwar and other like @-@ minded officers , including Free Officer Shahir Abu Shahut , to meet with him . There , Abu Shahut informed Abu Nuwar of the Free Officers ' plans to " Arabize " the Arab Legion , i.e. remove the force 's British leadership , including Glubb . Afterward , Abu Nuwar informed Hussein at a party celebrating his enthronement that he was a leading member of the Free Officers ( though he was not ) and communicated the group 's desire to assert Arab command over the Arab Legion , an aim to which Hussein was receptive . Hussein was impressed by Abu Nuwar who vocally condemned the British presence in Jordan during the party , which earned Abu Nuwar cheers by Jordanian officers .
= = = Aide @-@ de @-@ camp = = =
After Hussein returned to Amman , he continued to press for Abu Nuwar 's return to Jordan , but Glubb consistently stalled efforts to reassign Abu Nuwar . Later in 1953 , Hussein sent Abu Nuwar to confer with the strongman of Egypt , Gamal Abdel Nasser , who had recently toppled his country 's pro @-@ British monarchy . In 1954 , Abu Nuwar was briefly brought to Amman for consultations with Hussein . Hussein ultimately bypassed Glubb and had Abu Nuwar permanently reassigned to Jordan in November 1955 . Abu Nuwar arrived amid growing anti @-@ British upheaval . In a meeting between Glubb and Abu Nuwar , Glubb made clear his displeasure with Hussein 's decision and threatened " shorten his [ Abu Nuwar 's ] life " if he incited against British interests in the country . After being informed of the meeting , Hussein appointed Abu Nuwar as his senior aide @-@ de @-@ camp ( ADC ) . Abu Nuwar was also promoted to lieutenant @-@ colonel .
As ADC , Abu Nuwar was a major influence over then @-@ 20 year old Hussein and was constantly at his side , advising Hussein to dismiss Glubb and sever ties with the British . Hussein was also influenced by other Arab nationalist officers and personalities , including his cousin Zaid ibn Shaker , and the increasingly anti @-@ imperialist and Arab nationalist political atmosphere in the country . As a sign of his increasing nationalism and as a means to quiet political opposition to his rule , Hussein decided to dismiss Glubb . He coordinated with Abu Nuwar and other Free Officers to ensure that his impending dismissal of Glubb would not result in a revolt by the latter 's supporters within the Arab Legion . Thus , on 28 February 1956 , Abu Nuwar was instructed to ready his troops , and he subsequently posted Free Officers at the Amman Airport , the major army base at al @-@ Zarqa and in the vicinity of Glubb Pasha 's Amman residence . After Abu Nuwar 's positions were confirmed to him , Hussein conferred with his cabinet and dismissed Glubb on 1 March . Glubb complied with the order and departed Jordan the following day . Hussein then promoted Abu Nuwar to major @-@ colonel and appointed Major General Radi Annab to Glubb 's former position as chief of staff of the Arab Legion , which was concurrently renamed the Jordanian Armed Forces .
= = = Chief of staff = = =
On 24 May , Abu Nuwar was appointed as chief of staff following Annab 's retirement . Glubb 's dismissal was met with great enthusiasm among Jordan 's inhabitants and Arab nationalists in and outside of the country . However , Abu Nuwar 's ascendancy as head of the army was resented by its veteran Bedouin units ; he was generally regarded as a competent staff officer , but did not have experience as a commander . As part of his efforts to modernize the army , he mandated that education was a prerequisite for advancement , an act which disproportionately affected Bedouin officers , many of whom lacked formal education . As a result of Abu Nuwar 's measure , several senior Bedouin officers were retired or reassigned to non @-@ command posts . To counterbalance opposition to him within the army 's ranks , Abu Nuwar established the Fourth Infantry Brigade , which mostly consisted of Palestinians , who he believed would form an integral part of his power base within the military . Abu Nuwar 's appointment also contributed to the increasing deterioration of ties between Jordan and the British government .
As chief of staff , Abu Nuwar embraced many of the pan @-@ Arabist and anti @-@ imperialist ideas of Nasser , who became president of Egypt in 1956 . Abu Nuwar communicated his support for Nasser and the Arab nationalist Ba 'ath Party , which was active in Syria and Jordan , during a meeting with Lebanese president and Nasser opponent , Camille Chamoun , in 1956 . An American embassy official in Jordan remarked that during a discussion with Abu Nuwar , the latter " out @-@ Nassered Nasser " . He was regarded as an " ultranationalist " by the Central Intelligence Agency ( CIA ) . According to historian Ivan Pearson , American diplomatic and intelligence views were colored by the negative perceptions of Abu Nuwar in Israel and Abu Nuwar 's role in the dismissal of Prime Minister Samir al @-@ Rifai in May ; Rifai was seen by the Israelis as a counterbalance to Hussein 's Arab nationalist advisers , and Abu Nuwar maneuvered to sideline Rifai soon after Glubb 's dismissal . Abu Nuwar was a major opponent of Iraq 's Hashemite rulers ( relatives of Hussein ) and that country 's pro @-@ British prime minister , Nuri al @-@ Said . Abu Nuwar 's opposition was driven by suspicions that the Iraqis sought to oust him from his military post , while King Abd al @-@ Ilah and al @-@ Said mutually regarded Abu Nuwar with suspicion . Abu Nuwar 's influence with Hussein was likely a major reason Jordan resisted Iraqi attempts to merge the two Hashemite @-@ ruled countries .
= = = = Suez Crisis = = = =
In late 1956 , parliamentary elections in Jordan resulted in major victories for Arab nationalist and other left @-@ leaning parties . Hussein subsequently appointed Sulayman al @-@ Nabulsi , an Arab nationalist , socialist and one of the leading pro @-@ Nasser MP @-@ elects , as prime minister in October . Roughly coinciding with al @-@ Nabulsi 's appointment , the British , French and Israelis launched a tripartite invasion of the Suez Canal and the Sinai Peninsula of Egypt , mainly in response to Nasser 's nationalization of the Suez Canal Company among other reasons . Hussein declared a state of emergency and his opposition against the invasion and agreed to Egyptian chief of staff Abdel Hakim Amer 's request for Jordanian military intervention . To that end , Hussein instructed Abu Nuwar to immediately execute Amer 's order to launch Operation Beisan , which entailed a Jordanian @-@ Syrian armored invasion of the Israeli coastal plain , which was seen as Israel 's most vulnerable region due to the short length between the coast and the Jordanian @-@ held West Bank . However , Abu Nuwar viewed the operation as far too risky for the Jordanian army and advised Hussein to await Syria 's adherence to the plan ; Egypt , Syria and Jordan had formed a defense pact days before the Israeli occupation of Sinai on 29 October .
Al @-@ Nabulsi also hesitated to abide by Hussein 's orders , prompting a meeting of Hussein , Abu Nuwar and the Jordanian cabinet to assess the situation . According to then @-@ Public Works Minister Anwar al @-@ Khatib 's recollections , Abu Nuwar argued that his troops would quickly lose control of the Hebron and Nablus regions to Israel , but would " defend Jerusalem to the last man and the last drop of blood " . Hussein 's eagerness to aid Egypt was tempered by Abu Nuwar 's assessment , but he only relented in his attempted intervention after Nasser communicated to Hussein appreciation of his genuine support and a warning not to risk losing the Jordanian army to the far stronger Israeli military . Later in his life , Abu Nuwar had stated that he had been ready " to give the Israelis a very rough time " in 1956 , but only dissuaded Hussein when Nasser counseled the king against intervention , after which Abu Nuwar told Hussein that attacking Israel while the Egyptians had withdrawn from Sinai " would be suicide " .
During the Suez Crisis , Hussein requested that Syria , Saudi Arabia and Iraq send troops to Jordan as a precautionary measure to prevent a potential invasion of the country by the tripartite allies . Prime Minister al @-@ Said was reticent to put Iraqi troops under Abu Nuwar 's command and suggested that Abu Nuwar be dismissed as a prerequisite to any deployment of troops to Jordan . This did not occur , but the Iraqis nonetheless sent troops to Jordan . However , their deployment was opposed by al @-@ Nabulsi on the grounds that Iraq was a member of the Baghdad Pact , an alliance of Middle Eastern countries with the UK that was condemned by Arab nationalists as a British @-@ led attempt to stifle pan @-@ Arab unity , instead of the Egyptian @-@ Jordanian @-@ Syrian @-@ Saudi alliance known as the " Amman Pact " . Despite Hussein 's protestations , al @-@ Nabulsi , using his prerogative as head of the government , succeeded in forcing the Iraqis ' withdrawal by the end of November .
= = = = Support for pan @-@ Arab unity = = = =
On 19 January 1957 , Jordan signed the Arab Solidarity Agreement ( ASA ) with Saudi Arabia , Egypt and Syria which entailed those countries ' financial assistance to replace the annual British aid to Jordan that ended with the abrogation of the Anglo @-@ Jordanian Treaty in November 1956 ( the treaty was officially and mutually abrogated in March 1957 ) . However , implementation of the ASA was hindered by Egypt and Syria 's inability or unwillingness to subsidize the Jordanian army , whose budget rivaled that of their own armies . Furthermore , by then , Abu Nuwar was steadily losing Hussein 's confidence due to dissatisfaction with Abu Nuwar among the army brass and the negative effects that his anti @-@ Western hostility was having on relations with Jordan 's principal Western allies , the UK and US ; Hussein viewed the latter two as much @-@ needed alternatives of financial support to Jordan in lieu of his disappointment with the ASA .
Meanwhile , serious divisions emerged in the Jordanian state over reactions to the Eisenhower Doctrine , which ostensibly aimed to stem Soviet expansion in the Middle East , but was viewed by Arab nationalists as a neo @-@ colonialist ploy to control the region . Al @-@ Nabulsi and Foreign Minister Abdullah Rimawi , a Baathist , led the camp opposing the doctrine as a threat to Arab sovereignty and as means to control the region 's oil assets and support Israel , while Hussein publicly embraced the doctrine as a preventive measure against growing communist influence in the country . Prior to these disagreements , al @-@ Nabulsi had been clamping down on communist literature and influence in the press ( the communists were generally opposed by Arab nationalists ) , whilst attempting to establish diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union ( USSR ) without Hussein 's knowledge . To that end , he dispatched Abu Nuwar to Moscow in February 1957 to serve as an initial contact with the Soviets . Later , al @-@ Nabulsi publicly declared his intention to establish relations with the USSR and pursue a political union with Egypt and Syria , and requested from Hussein a confirmation of his dismissal of several royalist officials . Hussein responded by forcing al @-@ Nabulsi to resign on 10 April 1957 .
= = = Alleged coup attempt and resignation = = =
Amid the political chaos in Jordan and two days before al @-@ Nabulsi 's resignation , an army unit from the First Armoured Brigade commanded by Captain Nadhir Rashid engaged in a maneuver , named Operation Hashem in honor of the Hashemite royal family , at the major intersections of Amman . The move raised Hussein 's suspicions and prompted him to order Abu Nuwar to withdraw the unit , which he did . Hussein believed the move was a presage to an impending coup . Abu Nuwar sought to allay Hussein 's concerns and told him it was a routine exercise executed numerous times in the preceding years to monitor the traffic into and out of the city , while Rashid later claimed it was part of a broader contingency plan to move troops to the West Bank in the event of an Israeli invasion . According to Pearson , Rashid 's maneuver was meant to intimidate Hussein , while historian Betty Anderson has speculated that the " officers could have been testing the waters to see what they could achieve militarily " . Whatever the actual reason for the maneuver , it heightened Hussein 's suspicions of a coup by Abu Nuwar and the Arab nationalists , and it prompted warnings from veteran royalist officials , namely Bahjat al @-@ Talhouni and Sharif Naser , that such a coup was impending .
On 13 April , rioting broke out at the army barracks in al @-@ Zarqa , which contained the largest concentration of troops in the country , between mostly hadari ( non @-@ Bedouin ) units loyal to Abu Nuwar and Bedouin @-@ dominated units loyal to Hussein . Two main accounts emerged regarding this incident , known as the " Zarqa uprising " among other names , with one account having been advanced by Hussein and Western historiographers and the other by political dissidents and many in the Jordanian and Arab press . Pearson has said the " incident is steeped in mystery and persistent controversy " , and Anderson likewise has written that " questions abound about whether this coup attempt originated with the military , led by Abu Nuwar and the Free Officers , or with the king and the Americans , who wanted an excuse to remove " the Arab nationalist movement " from Jordan 's political scene " .
According to Hussein 's account of the events , Abu Nuwar and the Free Officers had planned for the Bedouin @-@ dominated First Infantry Regiment in al @-@ Zarqa to participate in a training exercise in the desert without ammunition to render it unavailable for Hussein to use against a planned anti @-@ government demonstration scheduled to be held by al @-@ Nabulsi on 14 April . Hussein was still wary of al @-@ Nabulsi due to an alleged intercept of a message from Nasser imploring al @-@ Nabulsi to resist his dismissal from the premiership . Hussein was informed of the Free Officers ' alleged plot by Sharif Naser and Bedouin officers from Zarqa on the evening of 13 April . The incident coincided with a delivery by Abu Nuwar of an ultimatum to Prime Minister Said al @-@ Mufti ( al @-@ Nabulsi 's successor ) warning Hussein to appoint a government reflecting the will of the elected parliament or face an army revolt . Al @-@ Mufti apparently broke down emotionally in Hussein 's presence , prompting the latter to inquire from Abu Nuwar about the ultimatum , to which Abu Nuwar professed his surprise . Hussein then brought Abu Nuwar along with him to inspect the scene at al @-@ Zarqa , where Hussein was told by loyalist officers from al @-@ Zarqa that rumors of his death had provoked heavy clashes between his loyalists and those of Abu Nuwar and that only the physical presence of Hussein would put an end to the fighting . Moreover , Hussein was told that Rashid and Ma 'an Abu Nuwar ( a distant cousin of Abu Nuwar ) had been ordered to Amman to besiege the royal palace and arrest Hussein .
Both accounts agree that the during the fighting in al @-@ Zarqa , numerous Free Officers were rounded up and arrested by loyalist Bedouin officers . Both accounts also agree that as Hussein made his way to into al @-@ Zarqa , he was cheered on by loyalist soldiers and he intervened in the middle of the clashes at his own risk and was emotionally embraced by his supporters , who chanted " Death to Abu Nuwar and all the traitors ! " Abu Nuwar remained in the car , fearful for his life by Hussein 's loyalist troops and he then apparently begged Hussein to protect him and allow him to return to Amman , which Hussein agreed to . By nightfall , Abu Nuwar persuaded Hussein to allow him to leave the country and on the morning of 14 March , he officially resigned and departed for Damascus , Syria with his family .
Major @-@ General Ali al @-@ Hiyari , Abu Nuwar 's chief rival in the Jordanian army , was appointed as Abu Nuwar 's replacement , but on 20 April , he defected to Syria . Al @-@ Hiyari claimed that prior to the incident at al @-@ Zarqa and shortly after the forced resignation of al @-@ Nabulsi 's cabinet , palace officials had canvassed the army general staff to inquire about the officers ' opinions regarding a change in direction of the new government away from the pan @-@ Arabist policies of Egypt and Syria . Accordingly , when Abu Nuwar and the Free Officers voiced their refusal " to use the army against " the popular will in the country , palace officials laid out plans to royalist officers , including al @-@ Hiyari , for a false flag operation at al @-@ Zarqa . Al @-@ Hiyari 's account was widely reported throughout Jordan and the Arab world , and despite dismissal of the account by palace officials , it led to further public skepticism toward the official version of events regarding the alleged coup plot .
Abu Nuwar consistently denied any betrayal of Hussein and claimed he was a " fall man " , the victim of political intrigue in the kingdom in which his rivals sought to discredit him . At a press conference in Damascus , he stated that the entire incident was an overreaction by Hussein to sensational and false reports of a coup plot and that the incident was likely a preemptive coup by Hussein and the old guard , supported or engineered by US intelligence , against the main proponents of pan @-@ Arab unity in Jordan . Rashid and Ma 'an Abu Nuwar likewise strongly denied any kind of coup plot on their end . According to Pearson , the accounts of the Free Officers and al @-@ Hiyari were lent further credence by the lack of evidence in the military trials against the alleged conspirators who were arrested , the light sentences that they were given and the eventual rehabilitation of the alleged conspirators , including Abu Nuwar , who were later reassigned to high @-@ ranking posts in the state and military .
= = Later career = =
On 22 April , Abu Nuwar issued a radio statement from the Cairo @-@ based Voice of the Arabs radio station denouncing Hussein . In coordination with Abu Nuwar , the following day , a Patriotic Congress composed of Hussein 's secularist opposition was held in Nablus in the West Bank demanding major palace officials be dismissed , expulsion of the American ambassador and military attaché , rejection of the Eisenhower Doctrine , federal unity with Egypt and Syria and reinstatement of the dismissed army officers , including Abu Nuwar . As a result of the congress , Hussein put Nablus , Jerusalem and Amman under military curfew , dissolved political parties , imposed press censorship , dismissed municipal councils in the West Bank in favor of military governors , disbanded Palestinian @-@ dominated army units , arrested al @-@ Nabulsi ( who had since been made foreign minister ) and dismissed the cabinet of Prime Minister Fakhri al @-@ Khalidi . Although he eventually relaxed some of these measures , namely military curfews and severe press censorship , Hussein 's moves significantly curtailed the constitutional democracy that existed in Jordan in the mid @-@ 1950s .
On 26 September 1957 , Abu Nuwar , Rimawi and al @-@ Hiyari were sentenced to 15 years imprisonment in absentia . During his exile from Jordan , Abu Nuwar initially resided in Damascus , along with other Jordanian dissidents , including al @-@ Hiyari and Rimawi . However , in 1958 , Abu Nuwar moved to Egypt following that country 's union with Syria forming the United Arab Republic ( UAR ) under Nasser 's presidency ( Syria seceded in 1961 ) . Thenceforth , Abu Nuwar lived much of the remainder of his exile in Cairo . In 1958 , under the aegis of the UAR and with assistance from the head of Syrian intelligence , Abd al @-@ Hamid al @-@ Sarraj , the Jordanian dissidents in exile formed the Jordanian Revolutionary Council . It consisted of Jordanian Baathists , left @-@ leaning politicians and dissident army officers , including Abu Nuwar , al @-@ Hiyari and Abdullah al @-@ Tal , a friend of Abu Nuwar who had been exiled by Hussein before him . The group attempted to recruit a university students in Jordan to form the vanguard of the nationalist movement in the country , funded the smuggling of weapons to Palestinian dissidents in the West Bank and the refugee camps around Amman , financially assisted Jordanian officers and politicians dismissed by Hussein , and organized assassination attempts against leading royalist politicians , including al @-@ Rifai , Talhouni and Hazza al @-@ Majali . There were disputes between al @-@ Tal and Abu Nuwar over leadership of the group .
In April 1963 , Abu Nuwar declared a government in exile in the name of the Jordanian Republic and disseminated propaganda through his own radio station . The following year , or in 1965 , Abu Nuwar returned to Jordan after being pardoned by Hussein as part of a broader reconciliation with exiled dissidents in a bid to co @-@ opt opposition to his rule . In February 1971 , Abu Nuwar was appointed Jordan 's ambassador to France . In the 1989 Jordanian parliamentary election , Abu Nuwar was appointed by Hussein to the senate , the Jordanian Parliament 's upper house . Abu Nuwar 's memoirs , A Time of Arab Decline : Memoirs of Arab Politics ( 1948 – 1964 ) , were published in London in 1990 . Abu Nuwar suffered from blood cancer in his later years , and he died in a London hospital on 15 August 1991 , at the age of 66 . He was still in office when he died .
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= Battle of Loznica ( 1941 ) =
The Battle of Loznica involved an attack on the German garrison of that town by the Jadar Chetnik Detachment on 31 August 1941 . Following the World War II German @-@ led Axis invasion of Yugoslavia in April 1941 , the Kingdom of Yugoslavia was partitioned . At the time , Loznica was part of the German @-@ occupied territory of Serbia , which included Serbia proper , with the addition of the northern part of Kosovo ( around Kosovska Mitrovica ) , and the Banat .
The Chetniks attacked , led by Lieutenant Colonel Veselin Misita , who was killed during the assault . The Germans surrendered , and 93 were captured . This battle was closely followed by the joint Partisan @-@ Chetnik attack on the German garrison at Banja Koviljača .
= = Background = =
In April 1941 , Germany and its allies invaded and occupied the Kingdom of Yugoslavia , which was then partitioned . Some Yugoslav territory was annexed by its Axis neighbours , Hungary , Bulgaria and Italy . The Germans engineered and supported the creation of the puppet state , the Independent State of Croatia ( Croatian : Nezavisna Država Hrvatska , NDH ) , which roughly comprised most of the pre @-@ war Banovina Croatia , along with rest of present @-@ day Bosnia and Herzegovina and some adjacent territory . The Italians , Hungarians and Bulgarians occupied other parts of Yugoslavian territory . Germany did not annex any Yugoslav territory , but occupied northern parts of present @-@ day Slovenia and stationed occupation troops in the northern half of the NDH . The German @-@ occupied part of Slovenia was divided into two areas that were placed under the administration of the Gauleiters of the neighbouring Reichsgau Kärnten and Reichsgau Steiermark .
The remaining territory , which consisted of Serbia proper , the northern part of Kosovo ( around Kosovska Mitrovica ) , and the Banat was occupied by the Germans and placed under the administration of a German military government . This was due to the key rail and riverine transport routes that passed through it , and its valuable resources , particularly non @-@ ferrous metals .
In May , German troops of the 750th Infantry Regiment of the 704th Infantry Division were stationed in the Mačva , Jadra and Pocerina ( Cer ) districts of the Podrinje region , garrisoning Šabac , Banja Koviljača and Loznica .
In early July , shortly after the launching of Operation Barbarossa against the Soviet Union , armed resistance began in the German @-@ occupied territory of Serbia , against both the German Army and the representatives of the German @-@ installed puppet government known as the Commissioner Government . This was a response to appeals from both Joseph Stalin and the Communist International for communist organisations across occupied Europe to draw German troops away from the Eastern Front , and followed a meeting of the Central Committee of the Yugoslav Communist Party in Belgrade on 4 July . This meeting resolved to shift to a general uprising , form Partisan detachments of fighters and commence armed resistance , and call for the populace to rise up against the occupiers throughout Yugoslavia . This also coincided with the departure of the last of the German invasion force that had remained to oversee the transition to occupation . From the appearance of posters and pamphlets urging the population to undertake sabotage , it rapidly turned to attempted and actual sabotage of German propaganda facilities and railway and telephone lines . The first fighting occurred at the village of Bela Crkva on 7 July , when gendarmes tried to disperse a public meeting , and two gendarmes were killed .
= = Prelude = =
In the Podrinje region , encompassing the Drina basin , a Partisan district committee had been formed on 29 June , to oversee the local uprising and form Partisan detachments . After collecting weapons and ammunition , the detachment 's first action was to attack the gendarmerie station in Bogatić on 7 August , disarming the gendarmes and capturing more weapons . Due to the scope of the local uprising , on 9 August the detachment was renamed the Podrinje Partisan Detachment . They disarmed the re @-@ equipped gendarme platoon at Bogatić on 10 August , and then carried out the destruction of town archives , telephone lines and bridges in the district . By 14 August , the detachment 's ranks had swelled to about 360 fighters in six companies , the occupation forces and local collaborators were finding it difficult to use the road from the district centre Šabac to Loznica due to Partisan ambushes , and the railway line between the two towns was out of action .
The first royalist Chetnik units were mobilised by order of Draža Mihailović in August 1941 . In late July , Mihailović had sent a regular officer , Lieutenant Colonel Veselin Misita to the Jadar district as his emissary . Misita had established himself at the Tronoša Monastery near Loznica . The abbot of the monastery was Georgije Bojić , who was also a captain in the Royal Yugoslav Army reserves . In August , Misita and Bojić held a meeting with pro @-@ Chetnik people from the Jadar district to set up the Jadar Chetnik Detachment . Other key attendees included Nikola Gordić and Mika Komarčević . On 15 August , the 25 @-@ strong Cer Chetnik Detachment was formed under the command of a regular artillery officer , Captain First Class Dragoslav Račić . Due to Mihailović 's position that the Chetniks should prepare for an uprising , but not engage in fighting the occupiers until the time was right , some Chetniks left the Jadar detachment and joined the more aggressive Račić or the Partisans .
Račić signed a mutual cooperation agreement against the occupation forces with the commander of the Podrinje Partisans , Nebojša Jerković . Due to its lack of action against the Germans and puppet government , the Jadar Chetnik Detachment became quite isolated . Their leadership realised that the Partisans were getting stronger with each success against the occupiers , and the Chetnik position was becoming relatively weaker due to their inaction . Misita 's decision to attack Loznica was a consequence of the cooperation agreement Račić signed with the Partisans .
= = Battle = =
At the time of the attack on Loznica , the Jadar Chetnik Detachment consisted of a large number of poorly organised peasants , drawn mainly from the villages around the town . The Germans had established strongpoints in the gymnasium , Vuk Karadžić Cultural Centre , and the " Laze Hajduković " cafe . The attack commenced at 07 : 00 , with Misita in the vanguard . He was killed at the head of his troops while throwing hand grenades at German positions . Many of the Germans surrendered in the face of the Chetnik assault . During the battle , Misita 's Chetniks suffered 18 killed and four wounded , while the Germans incurred several killed and wounded and 93 captured . The remaining Germans fled in the direction of Banja Koviljača . The wounded Germans were taken to hospital , and the rest of the captured troops were escorted to the monastery , and treated humanely .
At the same time as the Jadar Chetniks were attacking Loznica , Račić 's Cer detachment attacked the village of Bogatić in accordance with the Chetnik @-@ Partisan agreement . The gendarmes had been reinforced by the 6th Company of the German 750th Infantry Regiment with artillery support . On the second day of the attack , the garrison was reinforced by the 7th Company of the 750th Infantry Regiment arriving from Sremska Mitrovica , and an additional platoon sent from Šabac . After two days fighting , Račić 's Chetniks withdrew to Cer mountain with considerable losses , after which they marched to Loznica to join the Jadar Chetniks .
= = Aftermath and legacy = =
Following its capture , the Chetniks established a command post in the town and mobilised the populace . Supporters of the Partisans formed a local unit and directed workers into the fields and a nearby mine . The Partisans also set up a workshop in the town to manufacture hand grenades . After their failed attack on Bogatić , the two Chetnik detachments decided to attack Banja Koviljača . Launched on 1 September , this attack was initially unsuccessful . After being reinforced by the Podrinje Partisans , the town was captured in the early hours of 6 September . In the meantime , other elements of the Podrinje Partisan Detachment had expelled the German garrison and collaborationist gendarmes from Bogatić on 3 September . On 6 October 1941 , Loznica was re @-@ occupied during the German Mačva operation .
Josip Broz Tito 's biographer Vladimir Dedijer described Misita 's death as a great loss for the uprising . On 31 August 2008 , the deputy speaker of the Serbian National Assembly , Božidar Delić of the Serbian Radical Party , dedicated a plaque to Misita in the Vuk Karadžić Square in Loznica . One of the people present was the man that had applied for the plaque to be installed , Božidar Panić , who had idolised Misita in his youth , and had lit a candle for him every year .
= = = Books = = =
= = = Journals = = =
= = = Websites = = =
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= Imperial Gift =
The Imperial Gift was the donation of aircraft from British surplus stocks after the First World War to the Dominions : Canada , Australia , New Zealand , South Africa and the Empire of India . On 29 May 1919 , the British Cabinet agreed to give 100 aircraft to each of these countries plus replacements for aircraft donated by these countries to Britain during the war . These aircraft formed the core of newly established air forces in several of the countries .
In Canada the 100 Imperial Gift aircraft supplemented by another 20 and other related spares , supplies and equipment were used to establish the Canadian Air Force from 1920 and the later Royal Canadian Air Force from 1924 . Australia 's 100 aircraft , supplemented by an additional 28 and related supplies and other equipment were used to establish the Royal Australian Air Force in 1921 . New Zealand initially refused the Imperial Gift but later accepted a reduced allotment of 34 aircraft . Most were loaned to private aviation companies , but were returned to the government in the mid @-@ 1920s to constitute the New Zealand Permanent Air Force . South Africa 's 100 Imperial Gift aircraft and related items , supplemented by another 13 , led to the establishment of the South African Air Force in 1920 . The colonial government of India accepted 100 aircraft but did not use them to establish their own air force . Twenty were allocated to the Royal Air Force ( RAF ) in India , while 80 were used by various civil government departments or sold to commercial and private operators .
= = Background = =
Following the First World War , the Royal Air Force had an estimated 20 @,@ 000 surplus aircraft or more , many still in production at the end of the war . Sir Hugh Trenchard , Chief of the Air Staff , argued for the establishment of air forces in the Dominions . He further argued that a coordinated uniform approach to organising and equipping these air forces was essential to facilitate the air component of the defence of the empire . This proposal was taken up by the Secretary of State for Air , John Edward Bernard Seely , who described it as being " an opportunity of giving assistance to Dominions which will be valued by them and which should be of great use in the general interest of the defence of the Empire by Air . " The British Cabinet approved the proposal on 29 May 1919 , though it chose to widen it by offering aircraft to the colonial governments as well as those of the Dominions . These governments were notified of the offer on 4 June .
= = Canada = =
While 22 @,@ 812 Canadian military personnel had served in the Royal Flying Corps ( RFC ) , Royal Naval Air Service ( RNAS ) and RAF , Canadian air services were not created and did not operate as an independent military force until nearly the end of the war . With 1 Squadron and 2 Squadron of the Canadian Air Force established at Upper Heyford in Britain during August 1918 and the Royal Canadian Naval Air Service , established for home defence in September 1918 , Canadian units had only reached operational status by the end of hostilities and never saw combat .
In 1919 , when the Canadian Air Board Director of Flying Operations , Lieutenant Colonel Robert Leckie studied the types that were being offered , he specified aircraft that would be suitable for civil operations as the peacetime force would undertake a number of roles that involved surveillance , fire @-@ fighting and mapping . Although combat aircraft were offered from the large stock of surplus aircraft , Canada 's share of the Imperial Gift mainly consisted of the following 114 " multi @-@ purpose " aircraft , although a small number of fighters were also included :
62 × Avro 504 trainers
23 × Airco / de Havilland DH @-@ 4 ( 10 ) and Airco / de Havilland DH @-@ 9A ( 12 ) bombers
12 × Royal Aircraft Factory SE.5a fighters
8 × Felixstowe F.3 ( patrol flying boat )
2 × Curtiss H.16 ( patrol flying boat )
2 × Bristol F.2b Fighter two seat fighter
2 × Sopwith Snipe fighters
1 × Fairey IIIc ( patrol seaplane )
The final deliveries included six non @-@ rigid airships , several kite balloons and additional aircraft , including two Royal Aircraft Factory B.E.2C , and single examples of Royal Aircraft Factory F.E.2D and Vickers F.B.9 , along with some replacement airframes , bringing the total to 120 aircraft . In addition to the aircraft , numerous spares were sent , including engines and ancillary equipment such as cameras and seaplane beaching gear , along with 300 support vehicles consisting of motor transports , trailers and motorcycles . The value of the Imperial Gift was about $ 5 million , more money than the Canadian government spent on aviation from 1919 to 1923 .
The Imperial Gift aircraft formed the basis of the postwar Canadian Air Force ( CAF ) , later the Royal Canadian Air Force . In 1920 , the Canadian Air Board sponsored a project to conduct the first Trans @-@ Canada flight to determine the feasibility of such flights for air mail and passenger services . Rivière du Loup to Winnipeg was flown by Leckie and Major Basil Hobbs in a Felixstowe F.3 and the remainder of the relay was completed using several of the CAF 's DH @-@ 9As . All aircraft were part of the Imperial Gift . Although not considered suitable for the harsh Canadian weather , the Imperial Gift aircraft soldiered on into the 1930s ; the last aircraft in service , an Avro 504K , was retired in 1934 .
= = Australia = =
The Imperial Gift to Australia originally consisted of 100 aircraft , spare engines , tools , motor transport and 13 transportable hangars shipped in over 19 @,@ 000 packing cases . An additional 28 aircraft were provided at the same time to replace aircraft donated by the people of Australia to Great Britain during the First World War . Australia 's aircraft allotment consisted of :
35 × Avro 504K trainers
35 × Royal Aircraft Factory S.E.5a fighters
30 × Airco / de Haviland DH @-@ 9a bombers
28 × Airco / de Haviland DH @-@ 9 bombers
On 30 June 1919 , the Australian Army Service Corps recommended the creation of a temporary " Australian Air Corps " ( AAC ) formed into two wings ( one wing to meet the needs of the Navy and the other for the Army ) . The Imperial Gift enabled the formation of the Royal Australian Air Force on 31 March 1921 . An Air Board , answering to the Minister for Defence , would administer the new service .
Imperial Gift aircraft were shipped to Australia in 1919 , assembled upon delivery in 1920 and served for up to 10 years . The Airco / de Haviland DH @-@ 9a ( A1 @-@ 17 / F2779 ) was the longest serving Imperial Gift aircraft , being written off on 4 February 1930 . The only original surviving Imperial Gift aircraft in Australia are an Avro 504K ( A3 @-@ 4 / H2174 ) , stored at the Treloar Technology Centre ( Canberra ) and an S.E.5a ( A2 @-@ 4 / C1916 ) , in the collection of the Australian War Memorial , exhibited in the ANZAC Hall of the main Australian War Memorial displays .
= = New Zealand = =
At first New Zealand refused the offer , but later accepted 34 aircraft and 42 aero engines :
21 × Avro 504K trainers
9 × Airco / de Haviland DH @-@ 9 bombers
2 × Bristol F.2b Fighter two seat fighters
2 × Airco / de Haviland DH @-@ 4 bombers
The F.2bs , DH @-@ 4s and one Avro 504K were retained for government use , and the balance were issued on loan as transports and training aircraft to civil aviation companies between 1920 and 1924 . By the mid @-@ 1920s , all of the private firms involved had collapsed , and surviving aircraft were taken back by the government to constitute the New Zealand Permanent Air Force .
All Imperial Gift aircraft in military service were either wrecked , scrapped or burnt and nothing has survived .
= = South Africa = =
South Africa was the second country after Britain to establish an air force independent from army or naval control on 1 February 1920 . The South African Air Force 's ( SAAF ) share of the Imperial Gift was :
48 × Airco / de Haviland DH @-@ 9 bombers
30 × Avro 504 trainers
22 × Royal Aircraft Factory SE.5a fighters
10 × Airco / de Haviland DH @-@ 4 bombers
The 10 DH @-@ 4s were war loss replacements sponsored by the Over @-@ Seas Club of London . An additional DH @-@ 9 was donated by the city of Birmingham . The SAAF 's initial fleet was completed by two Royal Aircraft Factory B.E.2s left over from Allister Miller 's wartime recruitment campaign and handed over to the Union Defence Force in October 1919 . According to author Dave Becker , there is no record of the B.E.2s ever being used after 1919 .
The ancillary equipment and materials from the donation included 20 steel hangars , 30 portable wood and canvas Bessonneau hangars , radio and photographic equipment , complete engine and airframe workshops with tools , trucks , tenders , trailers , 50 @,@ 000 gallons of engine oils and 20 @,@ 000 gallons of paints , varnishes and dope . The total value of the donation was estimated at £ 2 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 .
An offer of four Type Zero airships was turned down due to doubts about their usability above 6 @,@ 000 feet and the expense of replacing the envelopes , which were estimated to have a useful life of only three months in the harsh South African sunshine .
The first batch of aircraft arrived in South Africa in September 1919 at the Artillery Depot at Roberts Heights , Pretoria where an Air Depot was established on 1 January 1920 . The combined facility was then known as the Aircraft and Artillery Depot .
Two Avro 504s were sold for £ 1 @,@ 563 @-@ 11s @-@ 8d to the South African Aerial Transport Company in 1920 .
A 23 @.@ 5 morgen ( 20 @.@ 1 hectare ) piece of land two miles east of Roberts Heights was acquired for an aerodrome and named Zwartkop after a nearby hill . No. 1 Flight was formed at Zwartkop Air Force Station on 26 April 1920 , equipped with DH @-@ 9s . After the formation of a second flight , 1 Squadron was established in early 1922 .
The SAAF Museum 's Pretoria branch is housed in six of the original steel hangars .
= = India = =
India 's share of the Imperial Gift was :
60 × Airco / de Haviland DH @-@ 9 bombers
40 × Avro 504 trainers
Unlike other recipients , India did not use the gift to establish a national air force . The RAF in India received 20 Avro 504 airframes for military use . The rest went to various colonial government departments and entities , or were sold to commercial and private operators .
The remains of three DH @-@ 9s were discovered in 1995 in disused elephant stables at the palace of the Maharajah of Bikaner . Taken to the Imperial War Museum ( IWM ) in the UK , parts of all three were used to restore one of the aircraft , with the addition of an engine the IWM had in storage . It is on display at the IWM 's Duxford facility .
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= Operation Pleshet =
Operation Pleshet ( Hebrew : מִבְצָע פְּלֶשֶׁת , Mivtza Pleshet , lit . " Operation Philistia " ) , named after the geographical region where it took place , was an Israeli military operation during the 1948 Arab – Israeli War . It was carried out from May 29 to June 3 , 1948 , in the Isdud / Ad Halom area of the southern front , against the Egyptian Army . The aim of the operation was to capture Isdud and stop the Egyptian advance northwards . While only the June 2 – 3 engagements are officially named Operation Pleshet , the events immediately preceding are historiographically joined with it .
The preceding events consisted of an aerial bombardment , followed by small @-@ scale Israeli harassment of the Egyptian lines , and later a ground assault ( Operation Pleshet ) . The original plan was to attack on June 1 – 2 , but this was canceled due to an impending ceasefire , and re @-@ attempted on June 2 – 3 . The Israelis , under the Givati Brigade 's umbrella command , attacked in two main forces : one from the north ( 3 companies ) and one from the south ( 4 reinforced companies ) . The Israelis had little intelligence on their enemy and were forced to retreat . They failed to capture territory , and suffered heavy casualties . However , following the operation , Egypt changed its strategy from offensive to defensive , thus halting their advance northwards .
Two unsettled historiographic debates exist revolving around the operation : whether the Egyptians were intending to advance toward Tel Aviv , which most historians agree was not the case ; and whether the operation was a turning point on the Israeli southern front . Traditional Israeli historiography , supported by early Arab accounts , maintains that it was a turning point , while later Arab sources , and New Historians , dispute this .
= = Background = =
Prior to the founding of the State of Israel , the Yishuv leadership anticipated an attack by regular Arab armies , of which Egypt 's was the strongest in terms of manpower , arms and equipment . As such , Plan Dalet took stopping a potential Egyptian attack into account , and the Ad Halom ( Sukrir ) dual bridge over the Lakhish River was blown up as part of Operation Barak on May 12 . In the eyes of the Givati command , this part of the operation was of marginal importance . A platoon from the 54th Battalion , two mules and 300 kilograms of explosives were allocated for it . The mules fled the scene , and the explosives were divided among the soldiers , who delivered them to the bridge . It took two attempts to destroy it , as some of the explosives did not work the first time .
The original bridge was built over the Lakhish River ( Wadi Sukrir / Wadi Fakhira ) during the Roman period , and re @-@ built by the Ottoman Empire at the end of the 19th century . A parallel railway bridge was added when the coastal railway ( Lebanon – Egypt ) was laid . After numerous armed raids in the area during the 1936 – 1939 Arab revolt in Palestine , the British authorities set up a series of pillboxes in the area , one of them next to the bridges .
Egypt invaded the newly declared State of Israel on May 15 , 1948 . Their strength was approximately one division , commanded by Major General Ahmed Ali al @-@ Mwawi . Their advance was three @-@ pronged : The main column moved north through what is today the Gaza Strip and attacked Kfar Darom , another column went east toward Beersheba , and a third attacked kibbutz Nirim . On May 17 , a small force split off from Beersheba to link up with more Egyptian forces at Auja al @-@ Hafir , on May 19 the main column attacked Yad Mordechai , and on May 20 , the main force in Beersheba set out to link with the Jordanian Arab Legion in Hebron .
On May 21 , Cairo sent an urgent message to its units in Palestine , saying " we want al @-@ Majdal today " . Following the Israeli Operation Bin Nun , on May 25 , the Jordanian Arab Legion pressured the Egyptians to move northwards to the Ramla – Aqir – Yibna area , in order to connect later with the legion at Bab al @-@ Wad . Doing so would divide the Israeli forces into two — the Negev , and the rest of Israel . The Egyptian commander al @-@ Mwawi , was opposed to such a move , but the leadership in Cairo dismissed his worries , and on May 28 ordered a quarter of his total combat forces to move north from Majdal .
Gamal Abdel Nasser wrote in his memoirs that already by May 25 , the Egyptian forces were spread so thin that they had no mobile reserves to assault a Jewish force , and considered it strange that they would be ordered to allocate a major contingent to fight in an unfamiliar area . Following @-@ up his victory in the Battle of Yad Mordechai on May 23 – 24 , al @-@ Mwawi pushed north along the coast , bypassing the relatively well @-@ defended Israeli village of Nitzanim . His column was reinforced by sea near Majdal , where he sent part of his force to the Majdal – Hebron road , hoping it would be able to link with another column , under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Abd el @-@ Aziz , south of Jerusalem . Reduced to about 2 @,@ 500 men , al @-@ Mwawi resumed his march northwards . Brigadier General Muhammad Naguib was put in charge of the column by al @-@ Mwawi , because the original commander was on vacation in Egypt .
On the afternoon of May 29 , 1948 , the observation post in Nitzanim spotted an Egyptian column , including tanks , armoured fighting vehicles and artillery moving north up the coastal road . The figure it reported at 16 : 45 was about 1 @,@ 300 vehicles , although Yehoshua Goldrat , the operations officer of the Givati Brigade , being familiar with Egyptian formations , estimated that it was a brigade with about 500 vehicles . Estimates from the General Staff stood at 200 vehicles and 2 @,@ 000 – 3 @,@ 000 soldiers . At the time , the Israeli decision makers did not know where the Egyptians were headed . They envisioned one of three possibilities : A march on Tel Aviv , about 40 kilometers ( 25 mi ) northwards — the view adopted by David Ben @-@ Gurion ; an attempt to connect to the Transjordanian Arab Legion in the Hebron area and capture the Negev — proposed by Nahum Sarig of the Negev Brigade ; or an attempt to connect with the remaining Arab forces in Lydda and Ramla .
The IDF command did not see the forces in the western Negev as sufficient to fully stop an Egyptian invasion , wherever it was headed , and ordered an operation to stop or delay the advancing column . The command also feared that the Arab forces would try to create facts on the ground before the impending UN @-@ imposed ceasefire . The two Arab forces that were considered a threat were the Iraqis in the Triangle ( Jenin – Nablus – Tulkarm ) and the Egyptians at Majdal – Isdud . Thus , Golani and Carmeli were to attack Jenin , Alexandroni was to harass Tulkarm , and Givati was to attack Isdud .
= = Prelude = =
At 11 : 00 on May 29 , the Egyptian 2nd Battalion passed through Isdud , and at 12 : 00 – 13 : 00 , the 9th Battalion took the village itself , their progress hampered only by occasional machine gun fire from Nitzanim . Later on the same day , the 2nd Battalion stopped at the Lakhish River , about 3 km ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) north of Isdud . The Egyptians began preparations to cross the river by erecting a Bailey bridge . Volunteers from Sudan and Saudi Arabia also joined the Isdud position .
Shimon Avidan , the commander of the Givati Brigade , which was responsible for the southern Shephelah area ( including most southern Israeli villages at the time ) , asked to allocate forces to stop or hinder the Egyptian advance . A number of 65 mm Napoleonchik cannons were given to Givati , and units from the Palmach 's Negev Brigade were poised to assist it , despite a severe shortage of manpower and munitions in the brigade . On May 28 , Czech technicians at the Ekron Airbase finished assembling four Avia S @-@ 199 planes ( a Messerschmitt variant ) brought from Czechoslovakia , which were meant to harass the Egyptian air force base at El Arish , thus forming the IDF 's first fighter squadron . Despite being untested , the Chief of Operations Yigael Yadin ordered the planes to assist Avidan 's forces . According to Lou Lenart , an American pilot who flew one of the fighters , Avidan told the pilots that Givati " were desperate because between the Egyptian army of ten thousand men with several hundred vehicles and Tel Aviv stood only about 250 Israeli soldiers . The Egyptians were so confident of victory that they were lined up bumper to bumper behind the bridge " .
= = = Airstrike = = =
At 18 : 00 , the four fighter planes left Ekron to bomb and strafe the Egyptian lines concentrated near the bridge . Each plane had two 70 kilograms ( 150 lb ) bombs , two 13 mm machine guns and two 20 mm cannons . The pilots were Lou Lenart , Mordechai Alon ( Kalibansky ) , Ezer Weizmann and Eddie Cohen , in that order . The attack was disorganized , and the damage it did was minimal . Lenart came from the north and dropped his bombs in the middle of Isdud . He them circled and strafed the Egyptians from the southeast and then the north again , before his cockpit was hit and he decided to return to Ekron . According to him , the cannons ceased to fire after the first ten rounds , and he began to smell cordite . Alon also made three runs , on a large concentration of vehicles south of Isdud . He returned to Ekron through the sea . Weizmann circled and attacked the Egyptians from the south , then the west , and then the south again . His cannons stopped firing after one round .
The Egyptian army unleashed its full anti @-@ aircraft arsenal and hit Alon 's plane , but he managed to crash @-@ land unharmed at 20 : 05 , performing a ground loop . Weizmann landed at 20 : 15 . Eddie Cohen , a volunteer pilot from South Africa , crashed and died , although it is unknown whether he was hit by anti @-@ aircraft fire , or a technical problem caused the plane to malfunction . A report by Dan Tolkovsky , the Israeli Air Force operations officer at the time , stated that Cohen likely attempted to land at the Hatzor Airbase instead of Ekron , where eyewitnesses saw a burning plane crashing in the distance . He was the first Israeli Air Force KIA , and was buried in Tel Aviv ( Nahalat Yitzhak ) after his remains were found at the end of 1949 .
Even so , the Egyptians were caught by complete surprise and the attack had a profound psychological effect . This was the first time that such aircraft had been used . The Arab armies had previously had complete air superiority and had no knowledge of the existence of fighter aircraft in the Israeli Air Force . An intercepted Egyptian radio message stated : " We have been heavily attacked by enemy aircraft , we are dispersing " . The official Egyptian report assessed that there were only two airplanes , and that they were Spitfires . According to Ezer Weizmann , the airplanes had not been tested before the attack , and there was no evidence that they could fly or fire their weapons . However , the pilots considered this a minor issue in light of the fact that they were making history by being the first to fly Israeli fighter planes . The combination of the appearance of the IAF , the introduction of Israeli artillery , the Israeli defenses and the threat to his flank convinced al @-@ Mwawi to stop . He concluded that his forces were overstretched and that his positions needed to be consolidated . He left Brigadier General Muhammad Naguib in command of Isdud and ordered him to dig in .
= = = Operations on May 30 – June 1 = = =
Between May 29 and June 2 , the Israel Defense Forces constantly bombarded the Egyptians in Isdud with Napoleonchik cannons and Givati patrols harassed the Egyptian lines . The 51st Battalion was tasked with laying mines along the main road near Isdud , Yavne and Hill 69 . The 3rd Company of the 53rd Battalion , commanded by Yosef Geva , was tasked with harassing the enemy lines , while the 1st Company of the 54th Battalion , commanded by Aryeh Kotzer , was ordered to assault several targets . In his book In the Fields of Philistia , Uri Avnery , who participated in the battles , wrote of the harassment operation that during those days the Egyptians were fearing an Israeli attack and were firing in all directions and launching flares in hopes of discovering their enemy .
Of the preparations , he wrote :
On the night of May 30 , the 54th Battalion 's 1st Company attacked the area around Isdud 's railway station , but was outgunned and had to retreat with four wounded . According to the company 's report , the food that was given to them was rotten and further deteriorated the soldiers ' ability to fight . On May 31 , the Egyptian radio described the attack as a victory , and claimed hundreds of dead Israelis . The 3rd Company was unsuccessful , as intelligence on precise Egyptian positions was sparse , while the company gave its position away quickly . An Egyptian mortar scored a direct hit on one of the company 's squads , which caused casualties and panic . One of the soldiers ran for cover , but lost direction , and ended up in Isdud . He walked around the village unnoticed and found a chance to return to Givati , and provided the command with invaluable information for the operation .
On May 30 , the General Staff ordered the creation of a new battalion in Givati , the 57th , that would consist of about 200 Irgunists . A hundred rifles for the battalion were provided by Givati , with 50 – 80 more provided by the General Staff . The brigade commander Avidan also created two new companies , one in the 54th Battalion , and one in the 55th , consisting of 80 persons each . These combined forces were tasked with the mission of capturing the Arab Yibna ( May 31 ) , although the attack never materialized because the battalion took off completely unprepared , lost its way , and returned to its starting position . Also on May 30 , four light planes set out from Sde Dov Airport to bomb the area of Isdud , although only one Rapide pilot spotted his target . He could not tell if any of the bombs actually exploded .
The General Staff issued an order to attack the Egyptian positions with a force three battalions strong ( from the Givati and Palmach 's Negev brigades ) . The attack was meant to take place on the night of June 1 – 2 , and at about midnight the units involved took up positions from which the assault was meant to take off . The 51st Battalion set up positions in the Yavne – Gan Yavne – Hatzor area , the 53rd Battalion — in the Be 'er Tuvia – Kfar Warburg area , and the 54th entered a company into the Gedera – Bashit area . At the last minute , the General Staff cancelled the order because of an imminent ceasefire . The ceasefire did not take effect however , and the attack was postponed to the night of June 2 – 3 . The Egyptians discovered the original plan , and were prepared to engage the Israeli forces .
= = = Cancelled attack on June 1 – 2 and subsequent reorganizations = = =
The Israeli General Staff called for a full @-@ scale assault on the Egyptian positions , but backed out at the last minute due to ceasefire talks . The General Staff 's order , sent among others to the Givati , 7th and Negev brigades , estimated that the Egyptian forces consisted of 2 @,@ 000 troops between Ashdod and the bridges to the north . The order called for the annihilation of the force on the night of June 1 – 2 , first by staging a major attack on the supply lines , and later by assaulting and capturing Isdud . The command was officially given to Givati . The forces outlined were : seven Givati companies ( of them three from the Irgun ) , three infantry companies and one Jeep regiment from Negev , three companies from Yiftach , a 65 mm artillery battery , and 4 @.@ 2 " and 25 @-@ pounder platoons . The order also said , however , and if all forces and equipment were not assembled by zero hour , Givati would have to do with the forces that were mustered .
Immediately upon receiving the order , Shimon Avidan called an emergency meeting at Hatzor . Yehoshua Goldrat , the only officer in the brigade who had experience from the British Army operating a combined force of infantry , armor , artillery and air , wrote the operational order . The order was in English , as Goldrat was not fluent in Hebrew , and was handed out to the battalion commanders on June 1 . The battalion commanders translated the document into Hebrew for the company commanders . According to the plan , six companies ( 3 Palmach and 3 Irgun ) would attack the Egyptians from the south . Three companies ( 2 from the 52nd and one from the 51st battalions ) would attack from the north , and two companies ( one from the 53rd Battalion and one from Irgun ) would prevent a retreat to the east . A company from the 53rd Battalion would block reinforcement from Majdal . Only senior officers knew of the full plans however . Simha Shiloni , commander of the Palmach forces ( Negev Beasts Battalion ) , commented that his forces came exhausted and completely unprepared to the assembly points , and he had given consent for their deployment only after being assured that they would serve as the operational reserve ( the plan in fact called for these forces to lead the southern assault ) .
Zero hour was set for 03 : 00 on the night of June 1 – 2 , but at the last moment an order came down to cancel the attack . This was a significant blow to the troops ' morale , especially because before the operation , Abba Kovner , the culture officer of Givati , made a speech claiming that the attack would be an historic moment when the IDF would annihilate the Egyptian forces . Shraga Gafni , in his book The Good Sapper Alex , and Uri Avnery in In the Fields of Philistia , provided excerpts from the speech :
Tonight for the first time you will hear the wrath of our airplanes and the thunder of our cannons ... because the goal is not to capture a single village or territory , but to destroy the Egyptian column ... The air force , artillery and infantry this time will act together ... Everything that could possibly have been prepared , was .
Orders were immediately issued ( at 06 : 00 ) to start new preparations . Under the new ones , two companies from the 51st Battalion were to base themselves in Hatzor and Barqa , respectively . The 52nd Battalion was to prepare at Camp Bilu ( next to Kfar Bilu ) . The 53rd Battalion was to put two companies in Be 'er Tuvia , two platoons in Negba , and one in Kfar Warburg . Two companies from the 54th were to be placed at Tel Nof ( Eqron Airbase ) . Six platoons from the 55th were to be based between al @-@ Maghar and al @-@ Qubayba . The 8th Brigade was to be based between Gat , Gal On and Nitzanim , as well as remaining in the Gedera – Bashit area . A battalion was also temporarily transferred from Kiryati to Givati ( now referred to as the 56th ) , preparing in Abu Shusha and Hulda . The 57th Battalion ( Irgun ) was to be placed in Zarnuqa . Of the Negev Brigade , two companies would be in Camp Julis and one in Camp Beit Daras . Finally , the artillery forces were to keep their former positions , as well as taking new ones in Bitzaron .
On the same day , the Egyptian forces also changed the disposition of their forces , moving the 9th Battalion to the Ad Halom bridge , the 2nd to Isdud itself , and the 1st to Iraq Suwaydan and Faluja . Heavy machine gun and armored units were dispersed in between . Staff soldiers and those who manned Bren carriers took positions together with regular infantry soldiers . The Israeli side did not know of this development , but was aware that they had been detected in the previous night 's preparations . The army was against attacking Isdud soon , but the order was given by the political echelon . The attack was expected to be a tactical failure ; Avraham Ayalon writes that it could have succeeded if only the southern Egyptian force in Isdud itself was attacked , but attributes that lack of such a plan to the inexperience of the command and the heterogeneous nature of the Israeli force , which according to him could not have pulled off such an offensive .
The new IDF plans put forth for the June 2 – 3 operation were slightly changed from the original . These included 1 @,@ 150 fighters , as opposed to 1 @,@ 300 in the initial plan . The forces consisted of the following : two Palmach companies from the Beersheba Battalion and one from the Negev Beasts Battalion , under Yohanan Zariz , a light vehicle company , two companies from the 54th Battalion and one from the 51st , under Zvi Zur , three Irgun companies , a reinforced company and platoon from the 53rd Battalion and eight artillery pieces ( six Napoleonchiks and two 4 @.@ 2 " mortars ) . Another light vehicle company would be in the operational reserve . Against them were placed Egypt 's 2nd Brigade , including the 2nd and 9th Battalions , three medium gun platoons , the brigade headquarters , and 12 pieces of artillery .
= = Operation = =
The operation officially began when a lone Israeli S @-@ 199 bombed Egyptian positions in Isdud at 18 : 00 on June 2 . Five light planes — two Fairchild 24s , two Rapides and one Bonanza — also made bombing runs between 20 : 25 and 21 : 30 . The bombardment did not make an impression on the readying Israeli soldiers , and in light of the noise created by the Egyptian anti @-@ aircraft guns , the Israelis considered that the plane was lucky to have survived the run . In addition , the troops were exhausted , not having had proper sleep in the four days preceding the operation . At 22 : 00 , the Israeli forces started moving against the Egyptian positions .
A soldier from the 54th Battalion said of the airstrike :
= = = Northern effort = = =
The forces that were to attack the Isdud bridge ( today Ad Halom ) set out from Gan Yavne at 22 : 20 : the 3rd Company of the 51st Battalion ( commanded by Yosef " Yosh " Harpaz ) , a mixed company from the 54th ( from the 2nd and 3rd companies ) under Asher Dromi , and the 54th 's 1st Company under Aryeh Kotzer . The overall commander was Zvi Zur , who was accompanied by the battalion staff , soldiers from a light vehicle company , and from the 54th 's 3rd Company . According to plan , Zur was meant to flank the Egyptians from the west and achieve surprise . When they reached Wadi Fakhira however , about 700 m from the Egyptian position , it proved difficult to cross and caused a significant delay .
The movement was discovered at about 00 : 30 on June 3 , and Zur 's force lost the element of surprise . The Egyptian position that engaged the Israelis had two companies , but Harpaz , the 51st 's 3rd Company 's commander , underestimated the force and reported that it contained only one platoon . Zur decided to regroup in the wadi and ordered Aryeh Kotzer 's 1st Company to stay and engage the Egyptians at the spot where they were originally discovered and assault the pillbox there , while the rest of the forces would try a turning movement .
Kotzer estimated that a frontal assault against the Egyptians would be useless , as they were dug in on both sides of the pillbox . In complete darkness , the 1st Company made its way south through the wadi hoping to avoid enemy fire from superior positions and weapons until they were close enough to respond . At 03 : 00 , the Israeli artillery barrage started , but did not do significant damage and only alerted all Egyptian positions to the Israeli presence . The only Israeli unit close to engagement at the time was Kotzer 's company . About 100 m away from the Egyptian defense line , they stepped into an ambush and the leading squad was eliminated . Kotzer ordered the machine gunners to climb to the east bank of the wadi to provide cover for a counterattack , and this move also led to Israeli casualties . The counterattack was difficult and only destroyed some small Egyptian entrenchments .
Even though some of his soldiers came within 60 meters of the pillbox , after 19 of them ( over a third ) were killed and the sun began rising in the horizon , Kotzer decided to retreat , unable to receive official permission due to communication problems . He ordered all of his troops to collect the wounded and any weapons they could carry , helping with the task himself . The dead were left in the field , including the medics ( not a single medic survived ) . The injured were brought under fire into the wadi and at about 07 : 00 the force made its way to an unoccupied two @-@ storey building on the east bank . After the Egyptians started shelling the building with mortars , Kotzer 's company began to move towards Gan Yavne .
A soldier who witnessed the events stated :
Zur 's maneuver sent Israel 's forces into unknown territory , and they encountered an Egyptian entrenchment that caught them unawares . His original plan was to send Yosef Harpaz and the 3rd Company and then Dromi 's company , but when fire was opened on Harpaz 's men ( at approximately 04 : 00 ) , Zur ordered him to execute a frontal assault . Harpaz decided to do this in three single @-@ platoon waves : the first two would attack the Egyptians , while the third would provide cover for the forces . The first platoon was inexperienced and had never fought against Egypt 's army . After advancing , they encountered what were probably Bren carriers , which their commander reported were tanks . Harpaz then sent the second , more experienced , platoon of 15 men , who were also able to better utilize the cover fire . Eventually , the first platoon fled from the battlefield without being ordered to do so and the attack was only two platoons strong . However , this still assisted Aryeh Kotzer on the other side of the Egyptian positions to evacuate his injured troops .
At dawn , after his attacked failed to overtake any major positions , Zur decided to withdraw , for the first time in his life . He ordered Harpaz 's company , which had the most casualties , to go first , and at 06 : 00 told Dromi 's company to follow . Harpaz 's company had five men missing in action , four of whom were picked up by Dromi 's people . One of Dromi 's platoons remained on top of a sand dune to provide cover fire for the retreat . Meanwhile , the rest of the company made its way under the road and the railway through culverts . On the eastern side , Dromi met Harpaz . They sent the cover platoon home with the injured , and remained in their place to wait for Zur . Their lookout also spotted Kotzer 's retreating company and Harpaz requested artillery cover using the only working communication device they had . The Napoleonchiks missed their targets , but deterred the Egyptians , who stopped following Kotzer .
Zur was extremely reluctant to withdraw his personal forces . He decided to do so only at 09 : 00 , when it became clear that the other two companies were at a safe distance , and the Egyptians were massing for a counterattack . First , the injured were evacuated , then the rest of the forces made their way back , each squad providing cover for the next . The Egyptian artillery caused the forces to scatter , and the commanders had difficulty diverting them to the general retreat path . After they came to a small grove to the west of the main road , it was discovered that three were missing and 17 injured , who were treated by the only remaining medic . Approximately at noon , Zur 's men met with Dromi and Harpaz , and the working communication device was used to summon vehicles to take the soldiers to Gan Yavne .
= = = Southern effort = = =
Four motorized companies from the Negev Brigade left Be 'er Tuvia . They set up a position of 4 @.@ 2 inch mortars and medium machine guns about midway between Isdud and Beit Daras , to shell Isdud from the southeast . A reinforced company also left Be 'er Tuvia and took up positions between Hill 69 and the military base near Nitzanim to cut off Egyptian reinforcements coming from Majdal . The 57th Battalion ( consisting of Irgun veterans ) left Hatzor to assault Isdud from the northeast . The 53rd Battalion was accompanied by a reinforced platoon of 44 soldiers from the temporary 58th Battalion ( a new recruit unit ) , which made its way to Nitzanim in order to be replaced by a more experienced platoon from the 53rd .
When the Negev forces reached the coastal road , they realized that they could not continue on their vehicles , which could not travel in the sand dunes to the west of the road . The vehicles were therefore left with a platoon to the south of Isdud to block a possible Egyptian retreat . The other soldiers continued on foot into the sand dunes in an attempt to flank the Egyptian positions . On the second try , the Negev forces successfully captured several key points in the village , and destroyed a cannon . Nahum Sarig , the Negev Brigade commander , later wrote that the lack of intelligence on the enemy prevented the Israeli force from continuing its assault , while the Egyptians had time to regroup .
Despite Negev 's achievements , they were also given an order to retreat , as the Israeli command did not wish to fight in broad daylight . The retreating forces had no choice but to use a route similar to the ones they came from , which slowed down their movement . Most of the machine guns that they had brought had broken down in the sandy environment , and could not provide them with cover . They were also carrying a multitude of wounded soldiers . Muhammad Naguib decided to use the armored vehicles in his operational reserve against the retreating forces , fearing a possible cut @-@ off from the rest of the Egyptian forces in Palestine . According to Simha Shiloni , commander of the Negev Beasts battalion , the Israelis , especially the wounded , thought that all was lost when this happened . However , the vehicles stopped eventually as they got bogged down in the sands , and the troops made it back to Nitzanim . Sixteen Israeli soldiers were killed in the retreat .
Meanwhile , the 57th Battalion made its way via Barqa towards Isdud . These troops were meant to serve as a diversionary force . As such , when they reached Wadi al @-@ Jurf , about 750 m ( 820 yd ) from the Egyptian position , they decided not to cross the wadi and instead fired on the Egyptians from the other side . They were too far away however to inflict concrete damage , but also did not suffer any casualties . Nahum Sarig later accused this force of also falsely reporting their positions , undermining the efforts of his Negev Brigade .
On Hill 69 and the coastal road , the 53rd Battalion intercepted and engaged a contingent of Egyptian reinforcements from Majdal . After the battles , the 53rd Battalion reported that at 03 : 00 , they had been ready to ambush possible reinforcements , and at 06 : 00 , an Egyptian convoy of two armored vehicles and 4 other vehicles made their way to Isdud . They were hit by Israeli mines , operated by Avraham Schwarzstein 's platoon ( see Battle of Nitzanim ) , and only two vehicles made it out and back to Majdal . At 09 : 00 the general retreat order was given , and after reaching Nitzanim , Schwarzstein 's platoon set out to assist the Negev forces ' retreat , helping carry the 20 @-@ so casualties . The forces on Hill 69 retreated only at noon to Be 'er Tuvia .
= = Aftermath and significance = =
In all , 45 Israelis were killed , 50 were wounded , and 5 captured by Egypt . Of them , 29 killed and 34 wounded were from Zur 's 54th Company . Egyptian sources reported 15 killed and 30 wounded , although this does not include the casualties suffered by the intercepted reinforcements from Majdal . Even before the final retreating troops came home , the Givati command had issued a new operation order , calling for renewed artillery and air bombardment of Isdud , and small harassment operations . The 57th Battalion , which gained a bad reputation after its failures in Yibna and Isdud , carried out several such successful operations , regaining prestige in the brigade .
While the Israelis suffered a major tactical defeat in Operation Pleshet , it is generally believed in Israel that the strategic goal of the operation — stopping the Egyptian advance — was achieved , unbeknown to the Israeli command at the time . This also allowed the capture of Arab Yibna , where the remaining residents expected the Egyptian Army to reach them , and mostly fled following the battle . Since the United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine line ran between Isdud and Yibna , the outcome of the battle meant that on the coastal strip , the Egyptians had failed to cross over into territory assigned to the State of Israel . The bridge over the Lakhish River has since been known as Ad Halom ( " thus far " ) .
Even though in his 1955 book Egypt 's Destiny , Naguib wrote that his brigade 's successful stand was a glorious victory with few consequences , estimating 450 Israeli dead ( out of a perceived 4 @,@ 000 attackers ) , a logbook captured by Israel during the war revealed that he was extremely worried about the future fate of his forces . He requested immediate assistance , including air support to determine the location of the Israeli cannons , a medevac unit , reinforcements , munitions and communication wires . It is also likely that he believed that the 53rd Battalion 's force blocking the road from Majdal was still in place , and therefore thought that he was surrounded .
Sizable reinforcements — the 6th Battalion — came to Naguib only when his 9th Battalion was poised to attack Nitzanim . Aside from Nitzanim ( June 7 ) , the Egyptian Army shifted its entire concentration on clearing it flanks , successfully clearing a path between Majdal and al @-@ Faluja . The Israeli chronicler and officer Avraham Ayalon wrote that the Israeli retreat from Hill 69 on June 3 , along with the rest of the forces , which he believed unnecessary , was a major contributing factor to the subsequent Egyptian victories .
= = = Historiography = = =
The main points of historiographical dispute about the battle are whether or not the Egyptians were planning to advance northward toward Tel Aviv , and whether or not the battle was one of the turning points of the 1948 Arab – Israeli War . On June 18 , after the first truce of the war took effect , Nahum Sarig said in a staff meeting , attended by the Minister of Defense , that at the time the Egyptian plans were not clear , but that now their plans were to penetrate the Negev . Ben Gurion , on the other hand , noted in his diary that the Egyptians were set on taking Tel Aviv and advancing north . In 1958 , Major General Yitzhak Rabin addressed the issue ; he felt that the Egyptian stop at Isdud was the result of technical difficulties , following fifteen days of continuous movement , including battles along the way . This , Rabin thought , along with ground and aerial counterattacks , eventually delayed their drive on Tel Aviv . Later , he said , the Egyptians tried to make contact with the Jordanian forces at Latrun and , after a failed pincer movement , tried to cut the Negev off from Israel . According to Israeli historian Reuven Aharoni , the battle 's glorification and idealization suited the sentimental needs of the Israeli people . He believes that there is still no definite answer to the question of whether or not the Egyptians planning to drive on to Tel Aviv .
Israeli Arab historian Mustafa Kabha wrote that Egyptian and other Arab historians did not attribute as much importance to the battle as Israeli ones . They ask what the Egyptian objective was , and whether or not it was wise to advance without securing their lines of communication . Abdullah el Tell , commander of the Jordanian Legion in Jerusalem , thought that the Egyptians did not consider the Legion 's needs . Aware of their weaknesses , they did not let anything distract them from reaching Tel Aviv . The Egyptian war log , from 19 : 00 on May 28 , 1948 , showed concern over the lines of communication . Muhammad Nimr al @-@ Hawari wrote that while the Egyptians publicly declared that the target was Tel Aviv , they never actually meant to advance farther than their Isdud fortifications . As evidence , he cited the Egyptian refusal to take the undefended Yibna despite the villagers ' repeated cries for help . Bahjat Abu @-@ Gharbiyeh , one of Abd al @-@ Qadir al @-@ Husayni 's deputies and commander of the Beit Jibrin area , wrote that the Egyptians never had a clear plan , because their leadership were not really interested in a war . Therefore , their efforts were improvised . Kabha concludes that Arab historiography considers the battle the successful realization of a tactical move , designed to serve the actions of the badly coordinated Arab armies .
The Egyptian officer Kamal Ismail ash @-@ Sharif commented in his memoirs that this was a turning point in the war on the Egyptian – Israeli front :
According to the plan created by the Arab countries , the Egyptian Army was meant to advance until Yibna , although as soon as the first Egyptian forces reached Isdud , the enemy concentrated large forces in the area of Rehovot and began a heavy assault on the Egyptian Army . This attack was repelled , but the enemy managed to accomplish at least one goal – pinning down the Egyptian Army to its positions in Isdud . It is not an exaggeration to say that the Jewish attack on Isdud was a turning point in the Egyptian – Israeli war , because from that moment , the Egyptian headquarters was forced to change its plans . Because the Egyptian command would be chasing Zionist gangs , it decided to be content with separating the Negev from the other parts of the country .
Israeli historian David Tal agreed with this view ; Yoav Gelber , when asked about this , commented that the significance of the attack , along with two other major tactical failures — Latrun and Jenin — was in the fact that the initiative passed to the Israeli side , and the Arabs conducted only small assaults after these operations . Scholar Fawaz Gerges noted that the Egyptians originally assumed that the further their army advances , the weaker the Israeli resistance would become .
Unlike traditional Israeli historiography , Arab sources in general do not see it as a turning point in the war . They agree that the Egyptian declarations regarding Tel Aviv as the main strategic objective were ostentatious rather than operative . In his book 1948 , New Historian Benny Morris also disagrees with the traditional Israeli view , and states that portraying the operation as the catalyst for the Egyptian halt is a mistake . However , in a March 15 , 2007 panel of historians , Morris said that at least in the Egyptian expeditionary force , the Israeli attack did lead to a decision to stop advancing .
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= M @-@ 73 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 73 is a north – south state trunkline highway in the Upper Peninsula of the US state of Michigan . It connects with US Highway 2 ( US 2 ) and Highway 55 ( WIS 55 ) at the state line near Iron River . Running through forest , the highway was first designated along with the rest of the state highway system in 1919 . Unchanged since its inception , M @-@ 73 was completely paved by the mid @-@ 1930s .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 73 starts on its southwestern end on a bridge over the Brule River that connects across the state line to WIS 55 in Forest County , Wisconsin . On the Michigan side of the border , the highway runs north away from the river . It runs along the western edge of a section of farm fields before turning eastward to run through them . M @-@ 73 passes to the south of Hagerman , Little Hagerman and Bass lakes , after which it turns northeasterly running north of Stanley Lake . The northern terminus is at US 2 west of downtown Iron River . All of M @-@ 73 is two @-@ lane rural highway through wooded terrain except the section immediately north of the state line which runs along the aforementioned farm .
No part of M @-@ 73 is listed on the National Highway System . In 2009 , the Michigan Department of Transportation conducted a survey to determine the traffic volume along the highway , reported using a metric called average annual daily traffic . The department determined that 890 vehicles a day used the southern half of the highway while 1 @,@ 100 vehicles used the northern section closest to US 2 . In the same surveys , MDOT calculated that , on average , 30 trucks used the roadway daily .
= = History = =
M @-@ 73 was designated by July 1 , 1919 , along with the rest of the initial state trunkline highway system . In 1937 , the highway was completely hard @-@ surfaced for the first time . Its routing has been largely unchanged since designation . The original bridge over the Brule River was built in 1922 . In a joint project with the Wisconsin Department of Transportation ( WisDOT ) , MDOT funded a replacement in 2003 . WisDOT supervised construction of the new span in a project that ran between July 14 and November 4 , 2003 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway is in Iron County .
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