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= The Day After Tomorrow ( TV special ) =
The Day After Tomorrow ( also known as Into Infinity in the United Kingdom ) is a 1975 British science @-@ fiction television drama produced by Gerry Anderson between the first and second series of Space : 1999 . Written by Johnny Byrne and directed by Charles Crichton , it stars Brian Blessed , Joanna Dunham and Nick Tate and is narrated by Ed Bishop . The Day After Tomorrow first aired in December 1975 in the United States on NBC , as an episode of an occasional series of after school specials for children , Special Treat . In the UK , it was broadcast on BBC1 as a TV special in December 1976 and December 1977 ; 37 years later , in November 2014 , a revised version was broadcast on BBC Four . The plot of The Day After Tomorrow concerns the interstellar mission of Altares , a science vessel of the future that can travel at the speed of light . From its initial destination of Alpha Centauri , the ship pushes deeper into space ; there , her crew of three adults and two children encounter such phenomena as a meteor shower , a red giant and , finally , a black hole , which pulls the ship into another universe .
Originally commissioned to create a child @-@ friendly introduction to Albert Einstein 's special relativity theory in the form of an exciting action @-@ adventure , Anderson and Byrne conceived The Day After Tomorrow as a television pilot for a potential series and gave it an alternative episode title of " Into Infinity " . Ultimately , Anderson 's limited budget prevented additional episodes from being made . With a cast and crew including veterans of earlier Anderson productions , filming on The Day After Tomorrow ran from July to September 1975 ; this comprised ten days of principal photography and six weeks of special effects shooting . The visuals of Space : 1999 provided inspiration for both Martin Bower , who designed the scale model effects for the special , and production designer Reg Hill , who re @-@ used set elements created for various episodes of that series to build the interiors of Altares . Newcomer Derek Wadsworth collaborated with Steve Coe to compose the theme and incidental music .
Critical reception to The Day After Tomorrow remains mixed . The model effects and music have been praised ; however , commentators have been both favourable and unfavourable in their comparisons of the special 's " psychedelic " images to the visual style employed by film director Stanley Kubrick . Although Byrne 's scriptwriting has been described as " lyrical " , and it has been suggested that The Day After Tomorrow contains homages to the 1960s TV series Lost in Space , the plot has been criticised for a lack of suspense , which critics have generally attributed to the fact that the special is primarily a science education programme . Further criticism has been directed at the acting , with Martin Lev 's performance attracting a particularly negative response . Home video releases of The Day After Tomorrow are limited to one VHS and one DVD , both of which are available only to members of Fanderson , the official Gerry Anderson appreciation society . Author Douglas R. Mason 's novelisation of the special remains unpublished .
= = Plot = =
In the future , the survival of human civilisation is increasingly threatened by rising pollution , environmental damage and the depletion of the Earth 's natural resources . The narrator ( Ed Bishop ) introduces Space Station Delta and the " lightship " Altares – the latter of which is the first Earth spacecraft to " harness the limitless power of the photon " , allowing it to travel at the speed of light : " This could create the effects predicted by Einstein 's Theory of Relativity – effects that could shrink the very fabric of space , distort time , and perhaps alter the structure of the universe as we understand it . "
Altares is due to leave Delta on a mission beyond the Solar System to seek out Earth @-@ like planets for possible colonisation . Due to the effects of time dilation , by which astronauts travelling at near @-@ light speed age far more slowly than people on Earth , the ship will be crewed by two whole " family units " . Arriving in a United Nations shuttle , Doctors Tom and Anna Bowen ( Brian Blessed and Joanna Dunham ) board Altares with their son , David ( Martin Lev ) . Meanwhile , Jane Masters ( Katharine Levy ) leaves her dog , Spring , in the care of station commander Jim Forbes ( Don Fellows ) . Her father , Captain Harry Masters ( Nick Tate ) , engages Altares 's " photon drive " and the vessel starts its 4 @.@ 3 @-@ light @-@ year journey to the star Alpha Centauri , its first scheduled stop . As Altares nears the edge of the Solar System , Jane and David observe how Pluto appears to change colour from blue to red due to the shortening and lengthening of light waves caused by the Doppler effect . Arriving at Alpha Centauri , the crew launch a series of satellites to relay data back to Earth . Having completed their primary objective , the Masters and Bowen families then agree to push deeper into space .
When Altares encounters a star cluster , Anna tells Jane of Einstein 's accomplishments in the areas of special relativity and unified field theory . Shortly after , the ship is hit by a meteor shower that damages various systems and causes the photon drive to re @-@ activate , hurling Altares through space at such velocity that the travellers are knocked out . A fail @-@ safe brings the vessel , now powerless , to a halt within the gravitational field of a red giant on the brink of supernova . Donning a heat suit , Captain Masters risks his life by entering the reactor core in a bid to repair the drive . He succeeds , and Anna and Jane pilot the ship outside the blast radius of the star before it explodes .
Detecting a signal from Delta , which has taken the equivalent of 15 Earth years to reach them , the travellers are able to plot their position and lay in a course home . However , disaster strikes when Altares is caught in the gravity of a black hole that has formed from a collapsed star . The photon drive is unable to provide the faster @-@ than @-@ light speeds necessary to break free ; nevertheless , Anna urges the crew not to give up hope , for she suspects that the object may be a gateway to another universe . Her theory is proven correct when , sustaining the various space @-@ time distortions at the event horizon , Altares safely emerges from the black hole – intact , albeit with no way of returning to Earth . As the vessel and its intrepid crew approach a planet , the narrator concludes , " One thing is sure – this is not the final word . Not the end , but the beginning . A new universe , a new hope ? Only time will tell . "
= = Production = =
In the spring of 1975 , after filming on " Year One " of Space : 1999 had been completed , NBC agent George Heinemann contacted Group Three producer Gerry Anderson with an idea for a new science @-@ fiction TV series . This would comprise seven one @-@ hour episodes designed to teach children about scientific subjects in the format of an entertaining action @-@ adventure . To publicise the series , NBC undertook to distribute information leaflets to schools . Heinemann hired Anderson to produce a TV special that would discuss , as its main topic , the physicist Albert Einstein 's theory of special relativity , which holds that the speed of light cannot be exceeded and remains constant whether an object is still or in motion .
= = = Writing = = =
By 1975 , Group Three Productions had received no assurance from its distributor , ITC Entertainment , that a second series of Space : 1999 would be commissioned . With the possibility of cancellation looming , Anderson and his scriptwriter , Space : 1999 script editor Johnny Byrne , conceived the special that would become The Day After Tomorrow as the pilot episode of a prospective new series . If successful , the pilot , titled " Into Infinity " , would be followed by additional episodes – the series itself to be named The Day After Tomorrow . Ultimately , Anderson was unsuccessful in securing the funding needed to make a full series , and The Day After Tomorrow : " Into Infinity " remains a self @-@ contained science @-@ fiction drama .
In preparation for his work on the special , Anderson researched Einstein 's achievements ; in his authorised biography , he admitted that he did not understand any of the physicist 's theories . Byrne 's script directed that E = mc2 – the Einsteinian formula that relates mass to energy – appear on @-@ screen at intervals . Of the ending , it commented that , " it 's a universe not only stranger than we imagine , but stranger than we can imagine . " Although special relativity provides the main scientific and educational focus of the programme , The Day After Tomorrow also examines time dilation – an effect whereby time decelerates at a rate proportional to that of the acceleration of an object . For the crew of Altares , a ship capable of travelling at the speed of light , the mission to Alpha Centauri is measured in years , while whole decades pass on Earth . To encourage children to explore the topics in their own time ( and thereby develop their research skills ) , Byrne wrote the characters in such a way that they provide only partial explanations of special relativity and related subjects .
= = = Casting = = =
Most of the cast of The Day After Tomorrow had appeared in or otherwise contributed to earlier Anderson productions . Nick Tate , who had appeared as the supporting character of Alan Carter in Year One of Space : 1999 , played the Captain of Altares , Harry Masters . His contract awarded him third place in the credits . Brian Blessed and Joanna Dunham , starring as the husband @-@ and @-@ wife duo of Doctors Tom and Anna Bowen , and billed above Tate , had both appeared in guest roles – Blessed in the episode " Death 's Other Dominion " , Dunham in " Missing Link " .
In the role of Space Station Delta Commander Jim Forbes was Don Fellows , who had played an uncredited voice part in Space : 1999 's first episode , " Breakaway " . Ed Bishop had voiced the character of Captain Blue in Anderson 's late @-@ 1960s puppet series Captain Scarlet and the Mysterons before taking on in the lead role of Commander Ed Straker in the live @-@ action UFO . Neither Martin Lev nor Katherine Levy had any previous acting experience , although the filming of The Day After Tomorrow at Pinewood Studios coincided with that of Alan Parker 's musical comedy Bugsy Malone , in which Lev played the role of gangster Dandy Dan . Byrne 's dog , Bones , appeared as the Masters ' pet , Spring .
= = = Filming = = =
Principal photography was conducted over ten days in July 1975 at Pinewood Studios in Buckinghamshire on a budget of £ 105 @,@ 000 . The special effects sequences required a further six weeks ' filming at Bray Studios in Berkshire ; production ended in September . During the filming of Space : 1999 's " Year Two " , Group Three re @-@ used a number of props from The Day After Tomorrow as a cost @-@ saving measure . The production staff included several Anderson regulars who had contributed to the earlier series – among them effects director Brian Johnson , editor David Lane and cinematographer Frank Watts . Charles Crichton , whose credits included eight episodes of Space : 1999 , returned to direct The Day After Tomorrow . As Barry Gray was busy with other commitments , the task of composing the theme music fell to newcomer Derek Wadsworth , who also collaborated with Steve Coe to produce the incidental music and would subsequently compose for Year Two of Space : 1999 . Professor John Taylor served as scientific adviser on the production .
In the absence of Bob Bell and Keith Wilson , who were working on The New Avengers and Star Maidens , the role of production designer was taken up by Reg Hill . The set designs for the Altares interiors were the first that Hill had presented to Anderson since the making of the Supermarionation series Fireball XL5 in 1961 . To realise Hill 's concepts , the production team adapted parts of the Ultra Probe set created for the Space : 1999 episode " Dragon 's Domain " , along with various set elements that had appeared in other episodes . Working on the mistaken assumption that his commissions were to appear in Space : 1999 , uncredited effects technician Martin Bower took inspiration from the appearance of spaceships featured in the earlier series in designing and building scale models of the lightship Altares . A small , three @-@ foot ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) model appears in long shots ; a larger , six @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) version , fitted with gas @-@ powered rocket jets to simulate exhaust and a high @-@ powered light to represent the photon drive , was used for close @-@ ups . To construct the 10 @-@ foot ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) model of Space Station Delta , Bower revamped the SS Daria prop first seen in " Mission of the Darians " . The United Nations shuttle model was 2 @.@ 5 feet ( 0 @.@ 76 m ) long .
= = Broadcast = =
In the United States , The Day After Tomorrow aired on 9 December 1975 on NBC as the third episode of Special Treat . In the United Kingdom , it was first broadcast on 11 December 1976 on BBC1 .
Fearing that the use of both the " Day After Tomorrow " and " Into Infinity " titles would confuse British audiences ( as The Day After Tomorrow was to air not as a pilot , but as a special on UK television ) , the BBC edited the opening titles to delete the former . In any case , the removal of the episode title , " Into Infinity " , would have been more difficult ; while the series title appears against a simple starfield , the episode title is superimposed on a moving model shot of the lift that transfers the Bowen and Masters families from Space Station Delta to Altares during the programme 's opening scenes . Consequently , The Day After Tomorrow was listed in Radio Times magazine and other British media exclusively under the title of " Into Infinity " .
The Day After Tomorrow had its first UK repeat on BBC1 on 6 December 1977 . In 1997 , the BBC deleted the master tape from its archives but retained an edited copy for possible future repeats . Clips of The Day After Tomorrow ( as well as the Space : 1999 episode " Black Sun " ) were featured in " Black Holes " , a 1997 edition of the Channel 4 documentary series Equinox .
Under the title of The Day after Tomorrow : Into Infinity , a new version was screened in the UK on 9 November 2014 on BBC Four . This revised version ( with edited end credits to facilitate the inclusion of the Anderson Entertainment logo ) was introduced by Professor Brian Cox of the University of Manchester , who stated that he had been a fan of The Day after Tomorrow since childhood and praised the programme for its scientific accuracy .
= = Reception = =
Chris Bentley , author of The Complete Gerry Anderson : The Authorised Episode Guide , notes similarities between The Day After Tomorrow and the Fireball XL5 episode " Faster Than Light " , whose plot concerns the problems encountered by the crew of spacecraft when it accelerates to light speed . Elizabeth Howell , a science journalist , argues that the programme is remarkable for its depiction of space exploration " in the colonisation sense , rather than Star Wars and its descendants who show space as a spot to be conquered . " She comments further that the themes are " strangely timeless ... the true , unknown part hits you at the very end . " In a review published in TV Zone magazine in 2002 , Andrew Pixley praised the acting , music and direction in general , writing that the film " oozes with the charm associated with the golden era of Anderson . " However , criticising other aspects , he argued that " it is the fundamental concept that falls flat . Rather than making physics a palatable piece of escapist hokum , the format is dragged down to the level of a scantily @-@ illustrated physics textbook ... something isn 't quite right . "
Vincent Law , in a review published in the Gerry Anderson @-@ centric fanzine Andersonic , considers The Day After Tomorrow an " oddity " and an " uncharacteristically lacklustre entry in the Anderson canon " , commenting that the programme " cracks along at a fair old pace , but the educational content does tend to deaden the first half of the story and limits the room for character development . " Although he credits the production for " getting its science lesson across in a superficial way " , he expresses a negative view of the narration , remarking that " at times Ed [ Bishop ] comes across like a presenter of one of those old schools programmes from the 70s , just imparting a string of dry facts . " He believes that Jane is the only character who develops over the course of the special . The adults , by contrast , are " pretty much peripheral " , while David can be considered a " miniature Spock " who " lurks around the ship either brandishing his slide rule , threatening to calculate something , or staring out of the porthole ( a nice touch ! ) dribbling about pulsars . "
Law believes that the general standard of production design and special effects is lower than that of Space : 1999 , expressing satisfaction with the scale models but suggesting that " the slow @-@ motion filming and wobbly mirror effects are more in keeping with Blake 's 7 . " He views the " info dump " opening titles as a weak imitation of the Space : 1999 introduction , and the multiple appearances of the E = mc2 equation as confusing . Certain props ( such as the slide rule ) and design elements ( such as punched cards ) also come under criticism from Law , who questions whether a futuristic " lightship " would be equipped with such relatively primitive technology . Although he suggests that the plot device of the accident @-@ prone Altares reflects the shifting public perception of space exploration in the 1970s ( " a time when optimism in the space programme was on the wane " ) , Law regards such design elements as indicative of the manner in which The Day After Tomorrow " has stood the test of time less well than other series . "
Commenting on his online blog , literary critic John Kenneth Muir praises Johnny Byrne 's " lyrical " scriptwriting , judges Brian Johnson 's effects to be " top @-@ notch for the era " , and deems Frank Watts ' filming " stunning " . For Muir , the message of the special implies a " high @-@ tech , science @-@ minded update of the whole Lost in Space format " , while the plot effectively mixes elements of the " claustrophobic " and " action @-@ packed " with " psychedelic " elements such as the descent into the black hole , a subject on which he alludes to the work of Stanley Kubrick : the sequence is " a Kubrickian wonder , a montage dominated by double images , slow @-@ motion photography and the use of a creepy distortion lens . Pretty powerful stuff for a kids ' show . " Law , meanwhile , considers the faster @-@ than @-@ light shots to be the special 's best effects , and compares the black hole sequence unfavourably to the closing act of Kubrick 's 1968 film 2001 : A Space Odyssey : " Kubrick 's Star @-@ Gate it is not . "
Arguing that The Day After Tomorrow is " kinda like Kubrick 's 2001 : A Space Odyssey ... for kids " , science @-@ fiction writer and reviewer Christopher Mills expresses disappointment with the effect of the black hole itself , but describes the fall into the anomaly as " very colourful " . However , in contrast with Muir , he views the sequences set inside Altares during the descent as " a bit of a hoot " , directing particular criticism at the actors ' exaggerated gesticulations . Commenting that the plot contains " plenty of wonky pseudo @-@ science and insanely improbable coincidences " , Mills also recalls his fascination at " how ' British ' ... the characters [ are ] , facing each new peril with remarkable calm and ' stiff upper lip ' stoicism . By the time they 're caught in the clutches of the ominous black hole , they 're apparently so resigned to being jerked around by the universe that they just hold hands and calmly await their fate . "
Muir suggests that the feel of The Day After Tomorrow is " a little more colourful ( less minimalist ) in colour and costume than Space : 1999 's sterling Year One " , with such elements as Wadsworth 's " hard @-@ hitting , hard @-@ driving musical score " livening up the proceedings . The music has also received praise from Law , who notes a " dynamic pace " , as well as Anderson himself . Muir summarises the final product as a " Year One @-@ style ' awe and mystery of space ' narrative , but one conveyed in the more colourful @-@ looking or -sounding Year Two fashion " , and a " time capsule of once @-@ state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art science fiction " . To Law , it is " half @-@ forgotten experiment which is now perhaps only of interest to aficionados " , but " an interesting look at what might have been " if Anderson had been able to produce a full series . Mills interprets it as a " solid little piece of 70s juvenile sci @-@ fi " that is perhaps " not quite as ' scientifically accurate ' as it pretends to be , but fun " .
= = Other media = =
In 1997 , the British Board of Film Classification ( BBFC ) awarded The Day After Tomorrow a U certificate . Fanderson , the official Gerry Anderson fan club , retains the home video distribution rights . Licensed releases of The Day After Tomorrow are limited to a 1997 VHS and a 2002 DVD , both of which are exclusive merchandise available to Fanderson members only . Space Police ( a pilot that inspired the series Space Precinct ) is also included on the DVD , which presents both films in digitally remastered form . In addition to Region 0 and dual PAL @-@ NTSC coding , it contains special features such as production and design photographs . Both the VHS and the DVD include the opening titles as originally presented prior to the 1976 BBC edits . In his 2002 review , Andrew Pixley praised Fanderson for the professionalism of the release , describing it as " excellent " .
Science @-@ fiction writer Douglas R. Mason , an author of several Space : 1999 novels , wrote a novelisation of Johnny Byrne 's script for The Day After Tomorrow . Mason 's publisher , Futurama Publications , had originally intended to release additional books , since Anderson had conceived The Day After Tomorrow as the pilot episode for a prospective TV series . When Anderson abandoned this idea , Futurama cancelled Mason 's novelisation , which currently remains unpublished .
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= Richard Cordray =
Richard Cordray ( born May 3 , 1959 ) is an American lawyer and Democratic Party politician who currently serves as the first Director of the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau . Prior to his appointment in January 2012 , Cordray served in various positions in the State of Ohio .
A Marshall Scholar at the University of Oxford from 1981 to 1983 , Cordray was editor @-@ in @-@ chief of the University of Chicago Law Review and subsequently served as a law clerk for Judge Robert Bork on the U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit , and after that , Justice Anthony Kennedy of the Supreme Court of the United States . In 1987 he became an undefeated five @-@ time Jeopardy ! champion .
Cordray was elected to the Ohio House of Representatives in 1990 . After redistricting , Cordray decided to run for the United States House of Representatives in 1992 but was defeated . The following year he was appointed by the Ohio Attorney General as the first Solicitor General of Ohio . His experience as Solicitor led to his appearance before the United States Supreme Court to argue six cases , where he had previously clerked . Following Republican victories in Ohio statewide elections in 1994 , Cordray left his appointed position and entered the private practice of law . While in private practice he unsuccessfully ran for Ohio Attorney General in 1998 and the United States Senate in 2000 . He was elected Franklin County treasurer in 2002 and re @-@ elected in 2004 before being elected Ohio State Treasurer in 2006 .
Cordray was elected Ohio Attorney General in November 2008 to fill the remainder of the unexpired term ending January 2011 . In 2010 , Cordray lost his bid for re @-@ election to former U.S. Senator Mike DeWine . On July 17 , 2011 , President Barack Obama announced he would nominate Cordray to lead the United States Consumer Financial Protection Bureau . On January 4 , 2012 , the White House announced that it would make a recess appointment of Cordray to the post . On July 16 , 2013 , the U.S. Senate confirmed Cordray to a five @-@ year term as Director in a 66 – 34 vote .
= = Early life , education , and early law career = =
Cordray was raised in Grove City , Ohio , where he attended public schools . While attending Grove City High School , Cordray became a champion on the high school quiz show In The Know and worked for minimum wage at McDonald 's . He graduated from high school in 1977 as co @-@ valedictorian of his class . His first job in politics was as an intern for United States Senator John Glenn as a junior at Michigan State University 's James Madison College . Cordray earned Phi Beta Kappa honors and graduated summa cum laude with a BA in Legal & Political Theory in 1981 . As a Marshall Scholar , he earned an MA with first class honours in Economics from the University of Oxford and earned a Varsity Blue in basketball in 1983 . At the University of Chicago Law School , where he earned his Juris Doctor with honors in 1986 , he served as editor @-@ in @-@ chief of the University of Chicago Law Review . After starting work as a law clerk at the U.S. Supreme Court , he came back to his high school to deliver the commencement speech for the graduating class in 1988 .
Cordray began his career clerking for Judge Robert Bork and Supreme Court associate justices Byron White and Anthony Kennedy . After clerking for White in 1987 – 1988 , he was hired by the international law firm Jones Day to work in its Cleveland office .
= = Early political career ( 1990 – 1995 ) = =
He also taught various courses at The Ohio State University Moritz College of Law and at Georgetown University .
= = = Ohio House of Representatives = = =
In 1990 Cordray ran for an Ohio State House of Representatives seat , in the 33rd District ( southern and western Franklin County ) , against six @-@ term incumbent Republican Don Gilmore . Unopposed for the Democratic nomination , he defeated Gilmore by an 18 @,@ 573 – 11 @,@ 944 ( 61 – 39 % ) margin .
= = = 1992 congressional election = = =
In 1991 the state Apportionment Board , controlled by a 3 – 2 Republican majority despite the party 's 61 – 38 minority in the state House of Representatives , redrew state legislative districts following the results of the 1990 Census , in the hope of retaking control of the state House . The new boundaries created nine districts each with two resident incumbent Democrats , pairing Cordray with the twenty @-@ two @-@ year incumbent Mike Stinziano . Unable to be elected in another district due to a one @-@ year residency requirement , Cordray opted not to run for re @-@ election . Instead , he decided to run for Ohio 's 15th congressional district in the 1992 U.S. House of Representatives elections , a seat being vacated by retiring thirteen @-@ term Republican Chalmers Wylie , and being challenged by Republican Deborah D. Pryce .
Cordray won the Democratic nomination over Bill Buckel by an 18 @,@ 731 – 5 @,@ 329 ( 78 – 22 % ) margin , following the withdrawal of another candidate , Dave Sommer . Cordray 's platform included federal spending cuts , term limits for Congress and a line @-@ item veto for the president . When Pryce announced that she would vote to support abortion rights , Linda S. Reidelbach entered the race as an independent . Thus , the general election was a three @-@ way affair , with Pryce taking a plurality of 110 @,@ 390 votes ( 44 @.@ 1 % ) , Cordray taking 94 @,@ 907 votes ( 37 @.@ 9 % ) and Linda Reidelbach taking 44 @,@ 906 votes ( 17 @.@ 9 % ) .
= = = Ohio Solicitor General = = =
While in private practice in 1993 , Cordray co @-@ wrote a legal brief for the Anti @-@ Defamation League , in a campaign supported by Ohio 's attorney general , for the reinstatement of Ohio 's hate crime laws . This was considered by the U.S. Supreme Court , but not ruled on because of its similarity to a previous Wisconsin ruling .
In 1993 the government of Ohio created the office of state solicitor general to handle the state 's appellate work . The state solicitor , appointed by the Ohio attorney general , is responsible for cases that are to be argued before the Ohio Supreme Court and the United States Supreme Court . Until 1998 , the Solicitor worked without any support staff . Cordray , who had earlier worked for a summer in the office of the United States solicitor general , was the first Solicitor to be appointed , in September 1993 . He held the position until he resigned after Ohio Attorney General Lee Fisher was defeated by Betty Montgomery in 1994 . His cases before the Supreme Court included Wilson v. Layne ( 526 U.S. 603 ( 1999 ) ) and Hanlon v. Berger ( 526 U.S. 808 ( 1999 ) ) . Though he lost his first case , he won his second case , which garnered a substantial amount of media attention for its consideration of the constitutionality of media ride @-@ alongs with police . Other cases included Household Credit Services v. Pfennig ( 541 U.S. 232 ( 2004 ) ) , Brown v. Legal Foundation of Washington ( 538 U.S. 216 ( 2003 ) ) , Demore v. Kim ( 538 U.S. 510 ( 2003 ) ) , and Groh v. Ramirez ( 540 U.S. 551 ( 2004 ) ) .
Cordray contested the Ku Klux Klan 's right to erect a cross at the Ohio Statehouse after the state 's Capitol Square Review and Advisory Board denied the Klan 's request during the 1993 Christmas holiday . He argued that the symbolic meaning of the cross was different from the Christmas tree and menorah , which the state permits . The Klan prevailed in the 6th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals on December 21 , 1993 , and erected a 10 @-@ foot ( 3 m ) cross the following day . The same board denied the Klan a permit to rally on Martin Luther King Day ( January 15 , 1994 ) due to the group 's failure to pay a $ 15 @,@ 116 bill from its Oct. 23 rally and its refusal to post a bond to cover expenses for the proposed rally . When the same 6th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals overturned the decision to deny the 1994 permit , the state chose not to appeal . The following year the Klan again applied to erect a cross for the Christmas holiday season , and the 6th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals concurred with the prior ruling . The United States Supreme Court did not agree to hear arguments on the topic until a few weeks after Cordray resigned from his solicitor general position . After his resignation in 1994 he several times represented the federal government in the U.S. Supreme Court : two of Cordray 's appearances before were by appointment of the Democratic Bill Clinton Justice Department and two were by the Republican George W. Bush Justice Department .
Cordray was granted a ruling by the Ohio Supreme Court that lower courts could not grant a stay of execution for a death row inmate . At the same time , Fisher , Cordray 's boss , sought a referendum to mandate that appeals in death penalty cases be made directly to the Supreme Court . In 1994 the 6th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals in Steffen v. Tate ( 39 F.3d 622 1994 ) limited death row inmates to a single federal appeal and said that federal courts cannot stay an execution if the case is still in a state court .
= = Latter political career ( 1995 – 2007 ) = =
In early 1996 , Cordray was elected to the Ohio Democratic Party Central Committee from the 15th district by a 5 @,@ 472 – 1 @,@ 718 margin over John J. Kulewicz .
In late 1996 Cordray , who was in private practice at the time , was a leading contender and finalist for a United States Attorney position during the second term of the Clinton Administration , along with Kent Markus and Sharon Zealey . Zealey was eventually selected .
= = = 1998 Ohio Attorney General election = = =
During the 1998 election for Ohio attorney general , Cordray ran unopposed in the Democratic primary but was defeated , 62 % – 38 % , by one @-@ term Republican incumbent Betty Montgomery .
= = = 2000 U.S. Senate election = = =
Cordray entered the U.S. Senate elections in a race that began as a three @-@ way contest for the Democratic nomination to oppose first @-@ term Republican incumbent Mike DeWine . The three @-@ way race was unusual since the three candidates ( Cordray , Rev. Marvin McMickle , and Ted Celeste ) were encouraged to campaign together in order to promote name recognition , conserve resources and lessen infighting . Ohio Democratic party leaders believed Cordray was better suited for an Ohio Supreme Court seat and urged him to drop out of the Senate race . Despite the Ohio Democrats not endorsing any candidate in the primary election , the entry of Dan Radakovich as a fourth competitor , and the anticipated entry of former Mayor of Cincinnati and television personality Jerry Springer , Cordray persisted in his campaign . Celeste , the younger brother of former Ohio governor Dick Celeste , won with 369 @,@ 772 votes . He was trailed by McMickle ( the only black Senate candidate in the country in 2000 ) with 204 @,@ 811 votes , Cordray with 200 @,@ 157 , and Radakovich with 69 @,@ 002 .
= = = Franklin County Treasurer = = =
Cordray was unopposed in the May 7 , 2002 , primary election for the Democratic nomination as Franklin County treasurer . He defeated Republican incumbent Wade Steen , who had been appointed in May 2001 to replace Bobbie M. Hall . The election was close , unofficially 131 @,@ 199 – 128 @,@ 677 ( 50 @.@ 5 % – 49 @.@ 5 % ) , official margin of victory 3 @,@ 232 . Cordray was the first Democrat to hold the position since 1977 , and he assumed office on December 9 , 2002 , instead of after January 1 because he was filling Hall 's unexpired term .
In the 2004 race for re @-@ election , the Franklin County Republican party made no endorsement , but Republican Jim Timko challenged Cordray . Cordray defeated him and was elected to a four @-@ year term by a 272 @,@ 593 – 153 @,@ 625 ( 64 % – 36 % ) margin .
As Franklin County treasurer , Cordray focused on four major initiatives : collection of delinquent tax revenue through a tax lien certificate sale , creation of a land bank , personal finance education , and the development of a community outreach program . He managed a portfolio that averages $ 650 million and consistently beat its benchmarks , and he set new records for delinquent tax collection in Franklin County , which was the only Ohio county with a AAA credit rating . He also served as president of the Board of Revision and chair of the Budget Commission . In 2005 , Cordray was named the national " County Leader of the Year " by American City & County magazine .
= = Statewide office ( 2007 – 2011 ) = =
= = = Ohio Treasurer = = =
In the 2006 Democratic party primary election for state treasurer he was set to face Montgomery County Treasurer Hugh Quill who filed an entry , but in the end , he was unopposed . He defeated Republican nominee Sandra O 'Brien for state treasurer in the 2006 election . Cordray succeeded Jennette Bradley in a near @-@ statewide sweep by the Democratic Party . Cordray noted that when he assumed statewide office , Ohio was challenged with restoring public trust after the misdeeds of former Ohio Governor Bob Taft . Referring to what in a similar way would be required to follow Ohio Attorney General Marc Dann and his interim successor Nancy Rogers he said : " ... we have been patiently rebuilding the public trust there [ in the state government ] and I think it would be a very similar task there in the Attorney General 's office . "
= = = Ohio Attorney General = = =
= = = = 2008 election = = = =
Cordray announced his 2008 candidacy for Ohio state attorney general on June 11 , 2008 . He was endorsed by Ohio Governor Ted Strickland . The vacancy in the office of the attorney general was created by the May 14 , 2008 , resignation of Marc Dann who was embroiled in a sex scandal . Several leading Republican party contenders such as Montgomery , Jim Petro , DeWine , Maureen O 'Connor , and Rob Portman declined to enter the race . Cordray 's opponents in the race were Michael Crites ( Republican ) , and Robert M. Owens ( Independent ) . Cordray had a large financial advantage over his opponents with approximately 30 times as much campaign financing as Crites . Crites ' campaign strategies included attempts to link Cordray with Dann — an association The Columbus Dispatch called into question — and promoting himself as having more years of prosecutorial experience . Cordray asserted that he managed the state 's money safely despite the turbulence of the financial crisis of 2007 – 2008 .
Ohio statewide offices are regularly contested every four years in the midterm election years . 2008 is Class 2 senatorial election year , and Ohio is a state with class 1 and class 3 senators . Thus , the Attorney General race was the only non @-@ presidential race in the 2008 election aside from contests for two seats on the Ohio Supreme Court . Cordray defeated Republican Mike Crites , 57 % -38 % .
= = = = Tenure = = = =
Bank of America
In July 2009 , Denny Chin , a judge on the United States district court for the Southern District of New York , granted lead plaintiff status to a group of five public pension funds for investor class @-@ action lawsuits against the Bank of America Corporation over its acquisition of Merrill Lynch & Company . The claim is that Bank of America misled investors about Merrill 's financial well @-@ being prior to the January 1 , 2009 acquisition despite awareness that Merrill was headed toward a significant loss that amounted to $ 15 @.@ 84 billion in its fourth quarter . The suit also alleges that significant bonus payments were concealed .
The curious dealings led to congressional hearings about why the merger commenced without any disclosures . In September 2009 , Cordray , on behalf of Ohio 's largest public employee pension funds ( State Teachers Retirement System of Ohio and the Ohio Public Employees Retirement System ) , the Teacher Retirement System of Texas and pension funds from Sweden and the Netherlands , filed suit alleging that Bank of America , its directors and four executives ( Bank of America Chief Executive Kenneth Lewis , Bank of America Chief Financial Officer Joe Price , accounting chief Neil Cotty and former Merrill chairman and CEO John Thain ) acted to conceal Merrill 's growing losses from shareholders voted to approve the deal the prior December .
Prior to the filing the five funds had filed individual complaints , but the September filing of an amended complaint joined the actions with Cordray representing the lead plaintiff . The amended complaint includes details about conversations and communications between Bank of America and Merrill Lynch executives that were revealed in media reports , congressional testimony and investigations by the Securities and Exchange Commission . The filing is an attempt to recover losses endured when Bank of America 's share price fell after the transaction . The damages are sought from Bank of America , individual executives , the bank 's board of directors , including any insurers that cover directors ' legal liabilities . Among the specifics of the claim are that Bank of America agreed to allow Merrill Lynch to pay as much as $ 5 @.@ 8 billion in undisclosed year @-@ end discretionary bonuses to executives and employees and that Bank of America and Merrill Lynch executives were aware of billions of dollars in losses suffered by Merrill Lynch in the two months before the merger vote but failed to disclose them .
Bid rigging case
In April 2010 , he reached a 1 billion dollar settlement with American International Group ( AIG ) , one of four remaining named defendants ( along with Marsh & McLennan , Hartford Financial Services and Chubb Corp. ) , in a 2007 antitrust case regarding business practices between 2001 and 2004 . The settlement is to be divided among 26 Ohio universities , cities and schools . Zurich Financial Services settled in 2006 . Cordray believes that Marsh was the organizing company for the illegal practices and notes that a trial could commence in 2011 . AIG admitted no wrongdoing and that the settlement was to avoid risks and prolonged expenses .
= = = = 2010 election = = = =
On November 2 , 2010 , Cordray lost his re @-@ election bid to former U.S. senator Mike DeWine by two points .
Cordray was repeatedly mentioned as a potential 2014 candidate for Governor of Ohio . However , he upon being confirmed to a five @-@ year term to head the CFPB , he was effectively eliminated from contention .
= = Consumer Financial Protection Bureau ( 2012 – present ) = =
On Wednesday , December 15 , 2010 , Special Advisor to President Barack Obama , Elizabeth Warren announced that she had selected Richard Cordray to lead the enforcement arm of the newly created United States Consumer Financial Protection Bureau ( CFPB ) . She added that " Richard Cordray has the vision and experience to help us build a team that ensures every lender in the marketplace is playing by the rules . " In announcing his appointment to this position Cordray also stated that he intends to once again run for statewide office in Ohio in 2014 . Cordray described the opportunity to The Wall Street Journal as a chance to resume " ... in many ways doing on a 50 @-@ state basis the things I cared most about as a state attorney general , with a more robust and a more comprehensive authority . "
On July 17 , 2011 , Cordray was selected over Warren as the head of the entire CFPB . However , his nomination was immediately in jeopardy because 44 Senate Republicans had previously vowed to derail any nominee in order to push for a decentralized structure to the organization . This was part of a pattern of conflict between Republicans in the Senate and the Obama administration that had led to record numbers of blocked and failed nominations . On July 21 , 2011 , Senator Richard Shelby wrote an op @-@ ed article for The Wall Street Journal affirming continued opposition ( that went back to a May 5 letter to the President ) to a centralized structure , noting that both the Securities Exchange Commission and Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation had executive boards and that the CFPB should be no different . Politico interpreted Shelby 's statements as saying that Cordray 's nomination was " Dead on Arrival " . In October , as the nomination continued to be on hold , the National Association of Attorneys General endorsed Cordray . On December 8 , 2011 , the Senate failed to secure cloture on Cordray 's nomination . The final vote was 53 @-@ 45 , with 50 out of 51 Democrats voting for cloture , and 45 out of 47 Republicans voting against .
On January 4 , 2012 , a White House communications director announced in a tweet that President Obama would be giving Cordray a recess appointment to the post , bypassing the Senate . The move was criticized by Republican senators , who argued that Congress had not officially been in recess , and that Obama did not have the authority to bypass Congressional approval . Writing for The New Republic , Timothy Noah , a supporter of Cordray , wrote , " As someone who strongly supported a recess appointment for Richard Cordray to run the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau , I 'm confused as to why President Obama chose to act today . ... The trouble is that the Senate isn 't in recess . "
The United States Supreme Court unanimously vacated Cordray 's recess appointment as unconstitutional as the U.S. Senate was not in recess . On January 24 , 2013 , Obama renominated Cordray to the Director of the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau position .
Amid a push by Senate Democrats in July 2013 to eliminate the filibuster for all executive @-@ branch nominees , senators struck a deal to pave the way for a final , up @-@ or @-@ down vote on Cordray 's nomination . With that senators voted 71 – 29 on July 16 , 2013 to invoke cloture on Cordray 's nomination . The U.S. Senate confirmed Cordray in a 66 – 34 vote on July 16 , 2013 .
= = Personal life = =
Cordray was born in Columbus , Ohio , the middle child between brothers Frank , Jr. and Jim . He was married in 1992 to Margaret " Peggy " Cordray , a law professor at Capital University Law School . The Cordrays have twins , a daughter and son , and currently reside near Grove City , Ohio . His father retired as an Orient Developmental Center program director for mentally retarded residents after 43 years of service . His mother , from Dayton , Ohio , died in 1980 @.@ was a social worker , teacher and founder of Ohio 's first foster grandparent program for individuals with developmental disabilities . Richard Cordray carried the Olympic Flame through Findlay , Ohio , as part of the nationwide torch relay to the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta , Georgia and has served as a member of the Advisory Board for the Friends of the Homeless and part of Al Gore 's select group known as Leadership ' 98 .
= = = Appearances on Jeopardy ! = = =
Cordray has the distinction of being an undefeated five @-@ time champion and Tournament of Champions semifinalist on Jeopardy ! In 1987 , he won $ 45 @,@ 303 from the show , which he used to pay law school debt , to pay taxes and to buy a used car . The total winnings came from $ 40 @,@ 303 in prize money during his five @-@ contest streak and $ 5 @,@ 000 for a first round win on the Tournament of Champions . His campaign for public office in 1990 precluded him from participating in the Super Jeopardy ! elimination tournament of champions . ABC , the network that carried the tournament , had a policy against political contestants appearing on the show ( excluding Celebrity Jeopardy ! ) . He did , however , compete in the Battle of the Decades tournament , appearing in the show aired February 5 , 2014 , but finished second to aerospace consultant Tom Nosek . Because of his duties as a federal employee , however , he turned down the $ 5 @,@ 000 consolation money he won in the match .
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= Merritt A. Edson =
Major General Merritt Austin Edson ( April 25 , 1897 – August 14 , 1955 ) , known as " Red Mike " , was a general in the United States Marine Corps . Among the decorations he received were the Medal of Honor , two Navy Crosses , the Silver Star , and two Legions of Merit . He is best known by Marines for the defense of Lunga Ridge during the Guadalcanal Campaign in World War II .
He received a commission as a second lieutenant in the Marines in October 1917 , and served in France and Germany in World War I. After the war he held several positions until going to flight school in 1922 . After graduating flight school and being designated a Naval Aviator , he performed several assignments in Central America and China . It was in Central America where he received his first Navy Cross and the Nicaraguan Medal of Merit with Silver Star .
When World War II started Edson was sent as the Commanding officer of the Marine Raiders and earned his second Navy Cross on Tulagi . When his unit was sent to fight on Guadalcanal , Edson led his men in fighting for which he would later receive the Medal of Honor .
After World War II Edson held several commands until retiring from the Marine Corps August 1 , 1947 . After retirement he had several jobs including the Director of the National Rifle Association .
= = Early years = =
Edson was born in Rutland , Vermont but grew up in Chester , Vermont and after graduating from high school he attended the University of Vermont for two years . On June 27 , 1916 he left college as a member of the First Vermont National Guard Regiment and was sent to Eagle Pass , Texas , for duty on the Mexican border . He returned to the University in September 1916 , but joined the Marine Corps Reserve on June 26 , the following year .
= = Early career = =
He was commissioned a second lieutenant in the Marine Corps on October 9 , 1917 and in September of the next year he sailed for France with the 11th Marines . This regiment saw no combat , but during the last six months of his European tour , he commanded Company D , 15th Separate Marine Battalion , which had been organized for the express purpose of assisting in the holding of a plebiscite in Schleswig @-@ Holstein , Germany . Owing to the failure of the United States to ratify the Treaty of Versailles , this mission , however , was never carried out .
Following the end of World War I , he was assigned to several positions that would qualify him for the high commands he was to hold in later years . He was promoted to first lieutenant on June 4 , 1920 and spent two years at Marine Barracks , Quantico , Virginia , as the Adjutant @-@ Registrar of the Marine Corps Institute , after which he was sent on a short tour in Louisiana guarding the mail . His interest in military aviation prompted him to apply for flight training at NAS Pensacola , Florida and he earned his gold wings as a Naval Aviator in 1922 . Soon after , he was ordered to the Marine Air Station at Guam where he had his introduction to the semitropical islands of the Marianas with which his name was later to become so closely linked .
Upon returning to the United States in 1925 , he first took an extensive course in advanced aviation tactics with the U.S. Army Air Service at Kelly Field , Texas , and then attended the Company Officers ' Course at Marine Corps Base Quantico , Virginia . He graduated with the highest grades ever attained by any student up to that time . For physical reasons , however , he had to give up his flying status in 1927 and continue his career as a ground officer . He was then assigned to duty as Ordnance Officer at the Philadelphia Navy Yard .
= = Central America and China = =
Late in the same year , he was ordered to sea duty as Commanding Officer of the Marine Detachment on the USS Denver ( CL @-@ 16 ) and was promoted to captain on December 21 , 1927 . During service in Central American waters , his detachment was ashore in Nicaragua during the period February 1928 - 1929 . In command of 160 hand picked and specially trained Marines , he fought twelve separate engagements with the Sandino @-@ led bandits and denied them the use of the Poteca and Coco River valleys . Here , he received his first Navy Cross for actions in which " his exhibition of coolness , intrepidity , and dash so inspired his men that superior forces of bandits were driven from their prepared positions and severe losses inflicted upon them . " From a grateful Nicaraguan government , he was also awarded the Nicaraguan Medal of Merit with Silver Star .
In September 1929 , he returned to the United States and was assigned as tactics instructor to fledgling Marine lieutenants at The Basic School in Philadelphia . Upon detachment from that duty , he became Ordnance and War Plans Officer at the Philadelphia Depot of Supplies for the next four years .
This ordnance duty was not new to him since he had been closely associated with the development of small arms marksmanship within the Marine Corps . In 1921 , he had been a firing member of the winning Marine Corps Team at the National Matches at Camp Perry , Ohio . In 1927 , 1930 , and 1931 , he served with the rifle and pistol teams as assistant coach . During the regional matches of 1932 and 1933 , he acted as team coach and captain , respectively . Upon the resumption of the National Matches in 1935 , he was captain of the Marine Corps national rifle and pistol teams of 1935 and 1936 , winning the national trophies in both years .
After short tours at Marine Corps Recruit Depot Parris Island and Marine Corps Headquarters in Washington , D.C. , he was enrolled in the Senior Officers ' Course at the Marine Corps Schools , Quantico , Virginia in 1936 . He was promoted to major on February 9 , 1936 . Foreign duty as operations officer with the 4th Marines in Shanghai , China from 1937 to 1939 , enabled him to observe closely Japanese military operations .
His second tour of duty at Marine Corps Headquarters began in May 1939 when , as Inspector of Target Practice , he was in a position to stress the importance of every Marine being highly skilled with his own individual arm . He was promoted to lieutenant colonel on April 1 , 1940 .
= = World War II = =
= = = Raider Battalion = = =
In June 1941 , he was again transferred to Quantico , to command the 1st Battalion , 5th Marines , which was redesignated the 1st Separate Battalion in January 1942 . The training exercises which he conducted in the succeeding months with Navy high speed transports ( APDs ) led to the organization of the 1st Marine Raider Battalion in early 1942 . This unit was the prototype of every Marine Raider battalion formed throughout the war . He was promoted to colonel on May 21 , 1942 .
Colonel Edson 's introduction to the Pacific theater of operations began with the overseas training of his raider command in American Samoa . On August 7 , 1942 , his raiders , together with the 2nd Battalion , 5th Marines , landed on Tulagi , British Solomon Islands . Two days of severe fighting secured this strategic island in the Battle of Tulagi . After his battalion relocated to Guadalcanal they conducted raids on Savo Island and at Tasimboko , on Guadalcanal . He was awarded a Gold Star in lieu of a second Navy Cross for his successful conduct of the Tulagi operation .
= = = Guadalcanal = = =
The battle he is best known for was the defense of Lunga Ridge on Guadalcanal September 13 – 14 , 1942 . His Raider Battalion , with two companies of the 1st Parachute Battalion attached , were sent to a ridge line a short distance south of Henderson Field . Here , they were supposed to get a short rest but Japanese forces unexpectedly attacked the position on the first evening , penetrating the left center of his line of resistance , forcing a withdrawal to a reserve position .
Approximately 800 Marines withstood the repeated assaults of more than 2 @,@ 500 Japanese on the " Bloody Ridge " , as it came to be called . To the men of the 1st Raider Battalion , however , who sustained 256 casualties , it became " Edson 's Ridge " , in high honor of the officer who " was all over the place , encouraging , cajoling , and correcting as he continually exposed himself to enemy fire . " His nickname , " Red Mike " , originating from his red beard worn in Nicaragua days , was also his code name during this battle . From then on he was known by all as " Red Mike " . It was for this action — the Battle of Edson 's Ridge — that he received the Medal of Honor .
After Edson 's Ridge , he was placed in command of the 5th Marine Regiment . In this capacity , he was one of the primary leaders in the Matanikau actions from September 23 to October 9 , 1942 . He also commanded the 5th Marines during the Battle for Henderson Field and until the regiment was withdrawn from Guadalcanal , along with the rest of the 1st Marine Division , in November 1942 . Shortly after , another officer stated " that officers and men would willingly follow him anywhere — the only problem was to keep up with him " . A combat correspondent testified that " he is not a fierce Marine . In fact he appears almost shy . Yet Colonel Edson is probably among the five finest combat commanders in all the United States armed forces . " It was also said that he was not readily given to a show of emotion but when his personal runner of several months ' service was killed at the Matanikau River on Guadalcanal , witnesses said he " cried like a baby " , and later stated that the man could never be replaced .
= = = Higher commands & more battles = = =
In August 1943 , he was named Chief of Staff of the 2nd Marine Division , which was then preparing for the invasion of Tarawa . He prepared an estimate of the situation for this operation which proved to be surprisingly accurate and has since become a classic in Marine Corps military literature . For this action , he received the Legion of Merit and was promoted to brigadier general ( December 1 , 1943 ) . Later , he was appointed Assistant Division Commander of the 2d Marine Division and participated in this capacity in the capture of Saipan and Tinian . The Silver Star was awarded him for these operations .
Brigadier General Edson became Chief of Staff , Fleet Marine Force , Pacific and in October 1944 was awarded a Gold Star in lieu of a second Legion of Merit . Duty as Commanding General , Service Command , Fleet Marine Force , Pacific , rounded out 44 months of continuous service in the war zone . When a young officer asked him when he might expect to be rotated back to the United States , BGen Edson replied , " When the war 's over ; when the job 's done . "
= = Retirement = =
In December 1945 , he was assigned to the Office of the Chief of Naval Operations and , in February 1947 , to Marine Corps Headquarters . Retirement from active duty came at the age of 50 years and after more than 30 years in the military service of his country . He was promoted to major general at the time of his retirement on August 1 , 1947 .
Following retirement from the Marine Corps he became the first Commissioner of the Vermont State Police , organizing the force partially from an older organization of motor vehicle officers . He established the organization on a semi @-@ military basis which has since been adopted by other states .
In July 1951 , after returning to Washington , D.C. he became Executive Director of the National Rifle Association where his major efforts in that post were stimulating the interest of Americans in rifle marksmanship . Concurrently , he campaigned vigorously for a Marine Corps adequate both in size and strength for its many commitments .
He died on August 14 , 1955 , in Washington , D.C. , by his own hand , having committed suicide by carbon monoxide poisoning in the garage next to his Washington , D.C. home while serving in the NRA post . At the time of his death , in addition to his duties at the Rifle Association , he was the Navy representative on the Defense Advisory Committee on Prisoner of War Problems . This group recommended the standards of conduct for American prisoners of war that were later adopted and issued as the Code of Conduct for all American servicemen .
He was buried at Arlington National Cemetery and his grave can be found in section 2 , lot 4960 @-@ 2 .
= = Awards = =
Major General Edson 's decorations included :
= = = Medal of Honor citation = = =
The President of the United States takes pleasure in presenting the MEDAL OF HONOR to
COLONEL MERRITT A. EDSON
UNITED STATES MARINE CORPS
for service as set forth in the following CITATION :
For extraordinary heroism and conspicuous intrepidity above and beyond the call of duty as Commanding Officer of the 1st Marine Raider Battalion , with Parachute Battalion attached , during action against enemy Japanese forces in the Solomon Islands on the night of 13 – 14 September 1942 . After the airfield on Guadalcanal had been seized from the enemy on August 8 , Col. Edson , with a force of 800 men , was assigned to the occupation and defense of a ridge dominating the jungle on either side of the airport . Facing a formidable Japanese attack which , augmented by infiltration , had crashed through our front lines , he , by skillful handling of his troops , successfully withdrew his forward units to a reserve line with minimum casualties . When the enemy , in a subsequent series of violent assaults , engaged our force in desperate hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat with bayonets , rifles , pistols , grenades , and knives , Col. Edson , although continuously exposed to hostile fire throughout the night , personally directed defense of the reserve position against a fanatical foe of greatly superior numbers . By his astute leadership and gallant devotion to duty , he enabled his men , despite severe losses , to cling tenaciously to their position on the vital ridge , thereby retaining command not only of the Guadalcanal airfield , but also of the 1st Division 's entire offensive installations in the surrounding area .
/ S / Franklin D. Roosevelt
= = = First Navy Cross citation = = =
Citation :
The Navy Cross is presented to Merritt Austin Edson , Captain , U.S. Marine Corps , for extraordinary heroism on August 7 , 1928 , while in command of a Marine patrol on the Coco River , en route to Poteca . Captain Edson upon encountering a force of bandits entrenched upon both sides of the river , personally led his advance guard against the enemy , engaging in hand @-@ to @-@ hand conflict with them , and by his exhibition of coolness , intrepidity , and dash , so inspired his men that the superior force of bandits were driven from their prepared position , and severe losses inflicted upon them .
= = = Second Navy Cross citation = = =
Citation :
The President of the United States takes pleasure in presenting a Gold Star in lieu of a Second Award of the Navy Cross to Merritt Austin Edson ( 0 @-@ 257 ) , Colonel , U.S. Marine Corps , for extraordinary heroism and devotion to duty while serving as Commanding Officer of the Tulagi Combat Group during the landing assault and seizure of enemy Japanese @-@ held Tulagi Island , British Solomon Islands , 7 to August 9 , 1942 . In personal command of the FIRST Marine Raider Battalion during the initial operation , Colonel Edson advanced the attack of his Battalion and its supporting units with such skill , courage and aggressiveness that he was an inspiration to the entire Combat Group and was directly responsible for the capture of Tulagi Island . His gallant conduct throughout this hazardous action was in keeping with the highest traditions of the United States Naval Service .
= = Other honors = =
In addition to the Medal of Honor and his other military awards , Edson also received several marksmanship awards including the Distinguished Rifleman Badge in 1927 .
= = = Edson Range = = =
A part of Camp Pendleton ’ s Stuart Mesa area was named Edson Range in his honor in 1964 . Edson range was built to replace the one at Camp Matthews in La Jolla . The range is used for teaching marksmanship training to recruits from Marine Corps Recruit Depot San Diego . On October 28 , 2008 more than 200 volunteers unveiled a monument in honor of Major General Edson during a ceremony at Edson Range . The volunteers used rocks and recycled [ ammunition ] stripper clips and brass shells from throughout Edson Range in the cement when making the monument .
= = = USS Edson ( DD @-@ 946 ) = = =
The USS Edson ( DD @-@ 946 ) was a Forrest Sherman @-@ class destroyer of the United States Navy . The Edson was laid down December 3 , 1956 by Bath Iron Works Corporation , Bath , Maine and launched January 4 , 1958 . The ship was sponsored by Mrs. M. A. Edson , widow of General Edson . It was commissioned November 7 , 1958 , with Commander Thomas J. Moriarty in command .
= = = Edson Hall = = =
Edson hall , the location of the Communications School at Marine Corps Base Quantico in Virginia , is dedicated to Edson as a result of his role as a vocal proponent of the criticality of communications in combat .
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= Bert Bell =
De Benneville " Bert " Bell ( February 25 , 1895 – October 11 , 1959 ) was the National Football League ( NFL ) commissioner from 1945 until his death in 1959 . As commissioner , he introduced competitive parity into the NFL to improve the league 's commercial viability and promote its popularity , and he helped make the NFL the most financially sound sports enterprise and preeminent sports attraction in the United States ( US ) . He was posthumously inducted into the charter class of the Pro Football Hall of Fame .
Bell played football at the University of Pennsylvania , where as quarterback , he led his team to an appearance in the 1917 Rose Bowl . After being drafted into the US Army during World War I , he returned to complete his collegiate career at Penn and went on to become an assistant football coach with the Quakers in the 1920s . During the Great Depression , he was an assistant coach for the Temple Owls and a co @-@ founder and co @-@ owner of the Philadelphia Eagles .
With the Eagles , Bell led the way in cooperating with the other NFL owners to establish the National Football League Draft in order to afford the weakest teams the first opportunity to sign the best available players . He subsequently became sole proprietor of the Eagles , but the franchise suffered financially . Eventually , he sold the team and bought a share in the Pittsburgh Steelers . During World War II , Bell astutely argued against the league suspending operations until the war 's conclusion .
After the war , he was elected NFL commissioner and sold his ownership in the Steelers . As commissioner , he implemented a proactive anti @-@ gambling policy , negotiated a merger with the All @-@ America Football Conference ( AAFC ) , and unilaterally crafted the entire league schedule with an emphasis on enhancing the dramatic effect of late @-@ season matches . During the Golden Age of Television , he tailored the game 's rules to strengthen its appeal to mass media and enforced a policy of blacking out local broadcasts of home contests to safeguard ticket receipts . Amid criticism from franchise owners and under pressure from Congress , he unilaterally recognized the NFLPA and facilitated in the development of the first pension plan for the players . He survived to oversee the " Greatest Game Ever Played " and to envision what the league would become in the future .
= = Early life ( 1895 – 1932 ) = =
Bell was born de Benneville Bell , on February 25 , 1895 , in Philadelphia to John C. Bell and Fleurette de Benneville Myers . His father was an attorney who served a term as the Pennsylvania Attorney General . His older brother , John C. , Jr . , was born in 1892 . Bert 's parents were very wealthy , and his mother 's lineage predated the American Revolutionary War . His father , a Quaker of the University of Pennsylvania ( class of 1884 ) during the early days of American football , accompanied him to his first football game when Bell was six years old . Thereafter , Bell regularly engaged in football games with childhood friends .
In 1904 , Bell matriculated at the Episcopal Academy , the Delancey School from 1909 to 1911 and then the Haverford School until 1914 . About this time , his father was installed as athletics director at Penn and helped form the National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) . At Haverford , Bell captained the school 's football , basketball , and baseball teams , and " was awarded The Yale Cup [ for being ] ' The pupil who has done the most to promote athletics in the school . ' " Although he excelled at baseball , his devotion was to football . His father , who was named a trustee at Penn in 1911 , said of Bell 's plans for college , " Bert will go to Penn or he will go to hell . "
= = = University of Pennsylvania ( 1914 – 1919 ) = = =
Bell entered Penn in the fall of 1914 as an English major and joined Phi Kappa Sigma . In a rare occurrence for a sophomore , he became the starting quarterback for Penn 's coach George H. Brooke . On the team , he also was as a defender , punter , and punt returner . After the team 's 3 – 0 start , Bell temporarily shared possession of his quarterbacking duties until he subsequently reclaimed them later in the season , as Penn finished with a record of 3 – 5 – 2 .
Prior to Penn 's 1916 season , his mother died while he was en route to her bedside . Nevertheless , he started the first game for the Quakers under new coach Bob Folwell , but mixed results left him platooned for the rest of the season . Penn finished with a record of 7 – 2 – 1 . However , the Quakers secured an invitation to the 1917 Rose Bowl against the Oregon Ducks . Although the best offensive gain for Penn during their 20 – 14 loss to Oregon was a 20 @-@ yard run by Bell , he was replaced late in the game at quarterback after throwing an interception .
In the 1917 season , Bell led Penn to a 9 – 2 record . Afterwards , he registered with a Mobile Hospital Unit of the US Army for World War I and was deployed to France in May 1918 . As a result of his unit participating in hazardous duty , it received a congratulatory letter for bravery from General John J. Pershing , and Bell was promoted to first sergeant . After the war , Bell returned to the United States in March 1919 . He returned to Penn as captain of the team in the fall and again performed erratically . The Quakers finished 1919 with a 6 – 2 – 1 record . Academically , his aversion to attending classes forced him to withdraw from Penn without a degree in early 1920 . His collegiate days ended with his having been a borderline All @-@ American , but this period of his life had proven that he " possessed the qualities of a leader . "
= = = Early career ( 1920 – 1932 ) = = =
Bell assembled the Stanley Professionals in Chicago in 1920 , but he disbanded it prior to playing any games because of negative publicity received by Chicago due the Black Sox Scandal . He joined John Heisman 's staff at Penn as an assistant coach in 1920 , and Bell would remain there for several years . At Penn , he was well regarded as a football coach , and after its 1924 season , he drew offers for , but declined , head @-@ coaching assignments at other universities . At least as early as 1926 , his avocation was socializing and frequenting Saratoga Race Course , where he counted as friends Tim Mara , Art Rooney , and George Preston Marshall . In 1928 , Bell tendered his resignation at Penn in protest over the emphasis of in @-@ season scrimmages during practices by Lud Wray , a fellow assistant coach . Bell 's resignation was accommodated prior to the start of the 1929 season .
Bell was then an employee of the Ritz @-@ Carlton in Philadelphia . At one point , he tried his hand as a stock broker and lost $ 50 @,@ 000 ( presently , $ 689 @,@ 050 ) during the Wall Street Crash of 1929 . His father bailed him out of his deprivation , and he returned to working at the Ritz . From 1930 until 1932 , he was a backfield coach for the Temple Owls football team . In 1932 , Marshall tried to coax Bell into buying the rights to a NFL franchise , but Bell disparaged the league and ridiculed the idea . When Pop Warner was hired to coach Temple for the 1933 season , Warner chose to hire his own assistants and Bell was let go .
= = NFL career = =
= = = Philadelphia Eagles ( 1933 – 1940 ) = = =
By early 1933 , Bell 's opinion on the NFL had changed , and he wanted to become an owner of a team based in Philadelphia . After being advised by the NFL that a prerequisite to a franchise being rendered in Philadelphia was that the Pennsylvania Blue Laws would have to be mollified , he was the force majeure in lobbying to getting the laws deprecated . He borrowed funds from Frances Upton , partnered with Wray , and he procured the rights to a franchise in Philadelphia which he christened as the Philadelphia Eagles .
After the inaugural 1933 Philadelphia Eagles season , Bell married Upton at St. Madeleine Sophie Roman Catholic Church in Philadelphia . Days later , his suggestion to bestow the winner of the NFL championship game with the Ed Thorp Memorial Trophy was affirmed . In 1934 , the Eagles finished with a 4 – 7 record , The Eagles ' inability to seriously challenge other teams made it difficult to sell tickets , and his failure to sign a talented college prospect led him to adduce that the only way to bring stability to the league was to institute a draft to ensure the weakest teams had an advantage in signing the preeminent players . In 1935 , his proposal for a draft was accepted , and in February 1936 , the first draft kicked off , at which he acted as Master of Ceremonies . Later that month , his first child , Bert Jr . , was born .
In the Eagles ' first three years , the partners exhausted $ 85 @,@ 000 ( presently , $ 1 @,@ 449 @,@ 484 ) , and at a public auction , Bell became sole owner of the Eagles with a bid of $ 4 @,@ 500 ( presently , $ 76 @,@ 737 ) . Austerity measures forced him to supplant Wray as head coach of the Eagles , wherein Bell led the Eagles to an 1 – 11 finish , their worst record ever ( as of the 2016 season ) . In December , an application for a franchise in Los Angeles was obstructed by Bell and Pittsburgh Steelers owner Rooney as they deemed it too far of a distance to travel for games . During the Eagles ' 2 @-@ 8 @-@ 1 1937 season , his second child , John " Upton " , was born . In the Eagles ' first profitable season , 1938 , they posted a 5 – 6 record . The Eagles finished 1 – 9 – 1 in 1939 and 1 – 10 in 1940 .
= = = Pittsburgh Steelers ( 1940 – 1945 ) = = =
In December 1940 , Bell conciliated the sale of Rooney 's Steelers to Alexis Thompson , and then Rooney acquired half of Bell 's interest in the Eagles . In a series of events known as the Pennsylvania Polka , Rooney and Bell exchanged their entire Eagles roster and their territorial rights in Philadelphia to Thompson for his entire Steelers roster and his rights in Pittsburgh . Ostensibly , Rooney had provided assistance to Bell by rewarding him with a 20 % commission on the sale of the Steelers . Bell became the Steelers head coach and Rooney became the general manager .
During the training camp of the Pittsburgh 's inaugural season with the nickname Steelers , Bell was buoyant with optimism about the team 's prospect , but he became crestfallen after Rooney denigrated the squad and flippantly remarked that they looked like the " [ s ] ame old Steelers " ( SOS ) . After losing the first two games of the 1941 season , Rooney compelled Bell into resigning as head coach . Bell 's coaching career ended with a 10 – 46 – 2 record , and for coaches with at least five years in the NFL , it is the worst record ever ( as of the 2012 season ) . His first daughter and last child , Jane Upton , was born several months after the season 's conclusion .
By 1943 , 40 % of the NFL rosters had been drafted into the United States Armed Forces for World War II . The resulting difficulty in fielding a full @-@ strength squad led some owners to recommend the league should shut down until the war ended . Bell auspiciously argued against this as he feared they might not be able to resume operations easily after the war , and since Major League Baseball was continuing unabated , then they should also .
Throughout Bell 's affiliation with the Steelers , he suffered monetarily and Rooney bought an increasing allotment of the franchise from him . Compounding Bell 's problems , Arch Ward organized the All @-@ America Football Conference ( AAFC ) in 1944 to displace the NFL 's sovereignty in professional football . Ward 's AAFC promptly began luring players to join the league , which resulted in salaries being driven up drastically . In Bill Dudley 's contract proceedings with the Steelers , he attributed Bell 's anxiety during the negotiations to the rivalry from the AAFC . Furthermore , by the end of 1945 , the Steelers were in their most economically perilous situation in its history .
= = = NFL commissioner ( 1946 – 1959 ) = = =
= = = = Election , Hapes @-@ Filchock , and the NFL schedule ( 1946 – 1948 ) = = = =
Elmer Layden was appointed the first NFL commissioner in 1941 , but Ward appeared as dictating his hiring . Layden tendered his resignation for personal reasons January 1946 . Bell , who was not well respected in Pittsburgh , was elected to replace him . He received a three @-@ year contract at $ 20 @,@ 000 ( $ 242 @,@ 696 ) per year , and transacted a sale of his stake in the Steelers to Rooney , albeit for a price Bell did not construe was full @-@ value . He was then immediately placed at the center of a controversy wherein the owners denied Dan Reeves permission to relocate the Cleveland Rams to Los Angeles . Bell moderated a settlement , and , as a result , the Los Angeles Rams were formed . As a precondition to the Rams leasing the Los Angeles Coliseum , they signed Kenny Washington , which marked the beginning of the end of racial segregation on the field , but also caused " ' all hell to break loose ' " amidst the owners .
The drawing up of a regular season schedule had been a perennial source of contention among the NFL owners since the league 's inception . The crux of the problem was the scheduling of games meant weighing the interest of owners who , early in the season , wanted their franchises to confront teams that drew the largest crowds , versus owners who wanted to play the weaker franchises to pad their team 's win @-@ loss record . The resultant impasse coerced the owners , in 1946 , to confer upon Bell the sole discretion in developing the league 's schedule . He utilized this responsibility to , early in the season , pit the weaker teams against other weak teams , and the strong teams against other strong teams . His goal was to augment game attendances by keeping the difference in team standings to a minimum as deep into the season as possible .
On the eve of the 1946 championship game , Bell was notified that Merle Hapes and Frank Filchock of the New York Giants had been implicated in a bribing scandal . Filchock was sanctioned by Bell to play in the game but Hapes was suspended . At the next NFL owners ' meeting , Bell was worried the repercussions from this event would lead to his firing . However he was pleasantly surprised to learn that his contract would be elevated to five years at $ 30 @,@ 000 per year . Reinvigorated with renewed support , he persuaded the owners to allow him to put sudden @-@ death overtime into the playoffs .
Subsequently , he wrote an anti @-@ gambling resolution into the league constitution , which empowered him with the ability to permanently ban any NFL associated personnel for betting on a game or for withholding information on a game being possibly fixed . Furthermore , to obstruct gamblers from getting inside information , he secreted the names of officials he would assign to games , and he directed each team to promulgate a precursory injury report which listed anyone who might not participate in a game . Eventually , he lobbied to get every state in the US to criminalize the fixing of sporting events and put employees on the payroll of the NFL to investigate potential betting scams .
= = = = AAFC @-@ NFL merger ( 1948 – 1950 ) = = = =
The NFL 's struggle against the AAFC generated stress on wages , attendance , marketing , and by 1949 , it had prevented the NFL for showing a profit for three consecutive years . Bell and representatives from both leagues met to attempt a merger , but their efforts were fruitless . In an unrelated matter , he apprised the owners that attendance records had shown televising games locally had a negative impact on the sale of home tickets . Nevertheless , he actualized the NFL 's first television contract — the 1949 championship game . Simultaneously , he dealt with a lawsuit from Bill Radovich , who had been blacklisted for leaving the Lions and gaining employment with the AAFC . Bell and the owners were advised by John C. Jr. that this lawsuit was potentially not winnable , and the ramifications from the outcome of the case weighed heavily on Bell .
One of the primary impediments in an AAFC @-@ NFL merger was the supposed violation of " territorial rights " claimed by Marshall . Eventually , Bell gathered enough support to effectuate a compromise with the AAFC . In late 1949 , the leagues merged , and Bell would stay on as commissioner with his contract extended from five to ten years as three AAFC teams ( the Cleveland Browns , San Francisco 49ers , and Baltimore Colts ) were subsumed . Seeking to capitalize on the publicity of the residual rivalry , he utilized " exquisite dramatic " and business sense and allocated the 1950 opening game to a contest between the 1949 champion Eagles versus the perennial AAFC champion Browns . Feeling financially secure after the merger , he purchased his first home for himself and his family in Narberth , Pennsylvania .
= = = = Marketing of the NFL ( 1950 – 1956 ) = = = =
In 1950 , Bell originated a blackout rule into the NFL which forbid all teams to televise their home games within a 75 @-@ mile radius of their stadium – except for the Rams . Consequently , the United States Department of Justice ( DOJ ) opened an investigation into a violation of the Sherman Antitrust Act . Ensuingly , the Rams attendance for 1950 dropped off by 50 % , and this signaled a potential financial disaster . In 1951 , he licensed the DuMont Television Network to air the championship games for the next five years , and he stipulated that teams were free to develop their own television contracts independently .
However , preceding 1951 season , he reimposed the blackout rule on all teams in the league . The DOJ filed suit over this and Bell publicly retorted , " You can 't give fans a game for free on TV and also expect them to go to the ballpark " ; nevertheless , the suit was ordered to trial for January 1952 . After the 1951 season ended , he gained unilateral control over the setting of a television strategy for the NFL . He negotiated a deal with DuMont , which granted it the rights to nationally broadcast one regular season game every week , and he directed that the income from this contract was to be shared equally between all the teams . In the DOJ 's case , the judge ruled that the blackout policy was legal , but both Bell , and the franchises collectively , were enjoined from negotiating a TV contract ; Bell was ecstatic . Later that year , Bell forced one of the owners of the Cleveland Browns to sell all of his shares in the team after Bell determined the owner had bet on Browns ' football games . Although he hated to fly , at some indeterminate point , he visited the training camps of every team and lectured on the danger gamblers posed to the league .
Bell authorized a Pro Bowl to be held at the end of each season in order to showcase the talents of the best players . But in the early 1950s , on the field activities sometimes denigrated to borderline assault and battery with teams ' star players being viciously targeted by opposing players . He answered charges the league was too savage by saying , " ' I have never seen a maliciously dirty football player in my life and I don 't believe there are any . ' " Nevertheless , he ordered broadcasts to follow a strict rule of conduct whereby TV announcers would not be permitted to criticize the game , and neither fights , nor injuries , could be televised by virtue in his belief that announcers were " ' salesman for professional football [ and ] we do not want kids believing that engaging in fights is the way to play football . ' "
Bell was criticized for censoring TV broadcasts , a charge he dismissed as not pertinent because he believed he was not impeding the print media but only advertising a product . After CBS and NBC gained the rights to broadcast the games in 1956 , he advised the franchises to avoid criticizing the games or the officials , and forewarned that TV would give " ' us our greatest opportunity to sell the NFL and everyone must present to the public the greatest games ... combined with the finest sportsmanship . ' " This relationship with television was the beginning of the NFL 's rise to becoming America 's most popular sport .
= = = = Compromise with the NFLPA ( 1956 – 1957 ) = = = =
In Radovich v. National Football League , the Supreme Court ruled in Radovich 's favor and declared the NFL was subject to antitrust laws , and the implication was that the legality of the draft and reserve clause were dubious . Bell pressed a case in the media that the NFL should be exempted from antitrust regulations and proffered the league was a sport and not a business . He invited an investigation from Congress with respect to the court 's ruling . The House Judiciary committee , chaired by Emanuel Celler — who believed the draft was illegal and should be abolished , convened in July 1957 to discuss the ramifications of the Radovich decision . Red Grange and Bell testified at the committee 's solicitation and argued the draft was essential to the sport 's success . Representatives of the NFLPA contradicted these statements and said the draft and the reserve clause were anti @-@ labor , and it seemed as if Congress was going to accept their position . Faced with Congressional opposition , Bell formally recognized the NFLPA and declared he would negotiate with its representatives .
However , Bell was speaking only for himself and without the auspices of the owners . At the next owners ' meeting , Rooney admonished they either had to recognize the NFLPA or remove Bell as commissioner . In order to do this , they had to agree in a vote that required a super @-@ majority . Bell unsuccessfully attempted to persuade the owners to permit the NFLPA to act as a bargaining agent for the players . However , he did reach a compromise with the owners to get them to acquiesce to some of the NFLPA 's requests for salary standards and health benefits .
= = = = Final days ( 1958 – 1959 ) = = = =
For the 1958 season , the durations of timeouts was extended from 60 to 90 seconds and Bell mandated officials call a few TV timeouts during each game — a change which triggered criticism from sportswriters . The 1958 championship game became the first NFL championship game decided in overtime and it was considered to be the greatest football game ever played . The game further increased football 's marketability to television advertising , and the drama associated with overtime was the catalyst . Years later , after witnessing Bell openly crying after the game , Raymond Berry attributed it to Bell 's realization of the impact the game would have on the prevalence of the sport .
The death of Mara in February 1959 unsettled Bell and he experienced a heart attack later that month . He converted to Catholicism in the summer of 1959 because of the lifelong urging of his wife , Mara 's death , and his enduring friendship with Rooney , a practicing Catholic . Bell was advised by his doctor to avoid going to football games , to which he quipped , " I 'd rather die watching football than in my bed with my boots off . " Bell and his children attended an Eagles game at Franklin Field on October 11 , 1959 . The Eagles held complimentary box seats for him and guests to watch the game , but he preferred to buy his own tickets and sit with the other fans . Sitting behind the end zone during the fourth quarter of the game , he suffered a heart attack and died later that day .
Afterwards , he was remembered as " a man of buoyant joviality , with a rough and ready wit , laughter and genuine humility and honesty , clearly innocent of pretense and [ pretension ] . " His funeral was held at Narberth 's St. Margaret Roman Catholic Church and Monsignor Cornelius P. Brennan delivered the eulogy , as close friends and admirers attended the mass . Dominic Olejniczak and all the extant owners of the NFL franchises were pallbearers . Bell was interred at Calvary Cemetery in West Conshohocken , Pennsylvania .
= = Legacy and honors = =
Bell was inducted into the Professional Football Hall of Fame , the Penn Athletics Hall of Fame , the Philadelphia Sports Hall of Fame , and Haverford 's Athletic Hall of Fame . The Maxwell Football Club , which he founded in 1937 , has presented the best NFL player of the year with the Bert Bell Award since 1959 . The Bert Bell Benefit Bowl was exhibited in his honor from 1960 through 1969 .
Though his career spanned the desegregation and reintegration of the NFL , as an owner , he never had an African American on any of his teams , but Bert Jr. believed the mere discussion of whether his father was prejudiced was absurd . Bell 's handling of the merger with the AAFC was acclaimed as a personal triumph . Although he did not have the wherewithal to prevent the wholesale betting on games , he was proactive in ensuring games were not tampered with by gamblers , and he created the foundation of the contemporary NFL anti @-@ gambling policy .
Bell was criticized as being too strict with his refusal to let sold @-@ out games to be televised locally . Nevertheless , his balancing of television broadcasts against protecting game attendance made the NFL the " healthiest professional sport in America " , and he was the " leading protagonist in pro football 's evolution into America 's major sport . " He had understood that the league needed a cooperative television contract with revenue @-@ sharing , but he failed to overcome the obstacles to achieve it . He was portrayed by sportswriters as ensuring the owners treated the players fairly , and his decision to recognize the NFLPA in the face of adversity from owners was a " master stroke " in thwarting Congressional intervention . After he initiated terms for a pension plan with the players in 1959 , little progress was made with the NFLPA , however , the first players ' pension plan @-@ the Bert Bell National Football League Retirement Plan , was approved in 1962 .
Bell 's implementation of the draft did not show immediate results , but it was " the single greatest contributor to the [ league ] ' s prosperity " in its first eighty @-@ four years . His original version of the draft was later ruled unconstitutional , but his anchoring of the success of the league to competitive balance has been " hailed by contemporaries and sports historians " . Bell had often said , " [ o ] n any given Sunday , any team in the NFL can beat any other team . "
= = Head coaching record = =
= = = NFL = = =
= = Published works = =
Bell , Bert , " The Money Game . " Liberty Magazine , XIII ( November 28 , 1936 ) , pp. 59 – 60 .
Bell , Bert , " Offensive Football . " Popular Football , ( Winter 1941 ) , p . 111 .
Bell , Bert , " This is Commissioner Bell Speaking . " Pro Football Illustrated , XII ( 1952 ) , pp. 60 – 63 .
Bell , Bert ; with Martin , Paul , " Do the Gamblers Make a Sucker Out of You ? . " Saturday Evening Post , CCXXI ( November 6 , 1948 ) , p . 28 .
Bell , Bert ; with Pollock , Ed , " Let 's Throw Out the Extra Point . " Sport , XV ( October 1953 ) , p . 24 – 25 .
Bell , Bert ( 1957 ) . The Story of Professional Football in Summary . Bala Cynwyd , PA : National Football League .
= = = Primary materials = = =
Lyons , Robert S. ( 2010 ) . On Any Given Sunday , A Life of Bert Bell . Philadelphia : Temple University Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 59213 @-@ 731 @-@ 2
= = = Secondary materials = = =
When Pride Still Mattered , A Life of Vince Lombardi , by David Maraniss , 1999 , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 618 @-@ 90499 @-@ 0
Organized Professional Team Sports : Part 1 . United States House Committee on the Judiciary I , Subcommittee on Antitrust ( 1957 ) .
Organized Professional Team Sports : Part 3 . United States House Committee on the Judiciary III , Subcommittee on Antitrust ( 1957 ) .
District Judge Allan Kuhn Grim ( 1953 @-@ 11 @-@ 12 ) . " United States v. National Football League , 116 F. Supp . 319 – Dist . Court , ED Pennsylvania 1953 " .
Algeo , Matthew ( 2006 ) . Last Team Standing . Philadelphia : Da Capo Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 306 @-@ 81472 @-@ 3
Berry , Robert C. ; with Gould , William B. and Staudohar , Paul D. ( 1986 ) . Labor Relations in Professional Sports . Dover , MA : Auburn House Pub . Co . ISBN 0 @-@ 86569 @-@ 137 @-@ 1
Brown , Paul ; with Clary , Jack ( 1979 ) . PB , the Paul Brown Story . New York : Atheneum .
Carroll , Bob ; with Gershman , Michael , Neft , David , and Thorn , John ( 1999 ) . Total Football : The Official Encyclopedia of the National Football League . New York : HarperCollins . ISBN 0 @-@ 06 @-@ 270174 @-@ 6
Carroll , John M. ( 1999 ) . Red Grange and the Rise of Modern Football . Urbana , IL : University of Illinois Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 252 @-@ 02384 @-@ 6
Claassen , Harold ( Spike ) ( 1963 ) . The History of Professional Football . Englewood Cliffs , NJ : Prentice @-@ Hall , Inc .
Coenen , Craig R. ( 2005 ) . From Sandlots to the Super Bowl : The National Football League , 1920 – 1967 . Knoxville , TN : The University of Tennessee Press . ISBN 1 @-@ 57233 @-@ 447 @-@ 9
Daley , Arthur ( 1963 ) . Pro Football 's Hall of Fame . New York : Grosset and Dunlap .
Danzig , Allison ( 1956 ) . The History of American Football : Its Great Teams , Players , and Coaches . Englewood Cliffs , NJ : Prentice @-@ Hall , Inc .
Davis , Jeff ( 2005 ) . Papa Bear , The Life and Legacy of George Halas . New York : McGraw @-@ Hill ISBN 0 @-@ 07 @-@ 146054 @-@ 3
DeVito , Carlo ( 2006 ) . Wellington : the Maras , the Giants , and the City of New York . Chicago : Triumph Books . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 57243 @-@ 872 @-@ 9
Didinger , Ray ; with Lyons , Robert S. ( 2005 ) . The Eagles Encyclopedia . Philadelphia : Temple University Press . ISBN 1 @-@ 59213 @-@ 449 @-@ 1
Gifford , Frank ; with Richmond , Peter ( 2008 ) . The Glory Game : How the 1958 NFL Championship Changed Football Forever . New York : Harper Collins . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 06 @-@ 171659 @-@ 1
Herskowitz , Mickey ( 1990 ) . The Golden Age of Pro Football . Dallas : Taylor Publishing Company . ISBN 0 @-@ 87833 @-@ 751 @-@ 2
Hession , Joseph ( 1987 ) . The Rams : Five Decades of Football . San Francisco : Foghorn Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 935701 @-@ 40 @-@ 0
Hibner , John Charles ( 1993 ) . The Rose Bowl , 1902 – 1929 . Jefferson , NC : McFarland & Company , Inc . Publishers . ISBN 0 @-@ 89950 @-@ 775 @-@ 1
King , Joe ( 1958 ) . Inside Pro Football . Englewood Cliffs , NJ : Prentice @-@ Hall , Inc .
Layden , Elmer ; with Snyder , Ed ( 1969 ) . It Was a Different Game : The Elmer Layden Story . Englewood Cliffs , NJ : Prentice @-@ Hall , Inc .
LaBlanc , Michael L. ; with Ruby , Mary K. ( 1994 ) . Professional Sports Team Histories : Football . Detroit : Gale Research Inc . ISBN 0 @-@ 8103 @-@ 8861 @-@ 8
Levy , Alan H. ( 2003 ) . Tackling Jim Crow , Racial Segregation in Professional Football . Jefferson , NC : McFarland and Co . , Inc . ISBN 0 @-@ 7864 @-@ 1597 @-@ 5
Littlewood , Thomas B. ( 1990 ) . Arch : A Promoter , not a Poet : The Story of Arch Ward . Ames , IA : Iowa State University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 8138 @-@ 0277 @-@ 6
Lomax , Michael E. ( April 2001 ) . " Conflict and Compromise : The Evolution of American Professional Football 's Labour Relations 1957 – 1966 " ( PDF ) . Football Studies 4 ( 1 ) : 5 – 39 .
MacCambridge , Michael ( 2005 ) . America 's Game . New York : Anchor Books . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 307 @-@ 48143 @-@ 6
MacCambridge , Michael ( 2009 ) . ESPN College Football Encyclopedia : The Complete History of the Game . New York : ESPN Books , Inc . ISBN 1 @-@ 4013 @-@ 3703 @-@ 1
Marquis , Albert Nelson ( 1934 ) . Who 's Who in America : A Biographical Dictionary of Notable Living Men and Women of the United States , Vol . , 18 , 1934 – 1935 , Two Years . Chicago : The A. N. Marquis Company .
Maule , Tex ( 1964 ) . The Game ; The Official Picture History of the National Football League . New York : Random House
Oriard , Michael ( 2007 ) . Brand NFL : Making and Selling America 's Favorite Sport . Chapel Hill : The University of North Carolina Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8078 @-@ 3142 @-@ 7
Patton , Phil ( 1984 ) . Razzle @-@ Dazzle : The Curious Marriage of Television and Professional Football . Garden City , NY : The Dial Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 385 @-@ 27879 @-@ 9
Paul , William Henry ( 1974 ) . The Gray @-@ Flannel Pigskin : Movers and Shakers of Pro Football . Philadelphia : Lippincott .
Pervin , Lawrence A. ( 2009 ) . Football 's New York Giants . Jefferson , NC : McFarland and Company , Inc . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 7864 @-@ 4268 @-@ 3
Peterson , Robert W. ( 1997 ) . Pigskin : The Early Years of Pro Football . New York : Oxford University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 507607 @-@ 9
Piascik , Andy ( 2007 ) . The Best Show in Football : The 1946 – 1955 Cleveland Browns . Lanham , MD : Taylor Trade Publishing . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 58979 @-@ 360 @-@ 6
Powers , Ron ( 1984 ) . Supertube : The Rise of Television Sports . New York : Coward @-@ McCann . ISBN 0 @-@ 698 @-@ 11253 @-@ 9
Rader , Benjamin G. ( 1984 ) . In its Own Image : How Television Has Transformed Sports . New York : The Free Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 02 @-@ 925700 @-@ X
Rathet , Mike ; with Smith , Don R. ( 1984 ) . Their Deeds and Dogged Faith . New York : Balsam Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 917439 @-@ 02 @-@ 3
Ratterman , George ; with Deindorfer , Robert G. ( 1962 ) . Confessions of a Gypsy Quarterback ; Inside the Wacky World of Pro Football . New York : Coward @-@ McCann , Inc .
Riger , Robert ; with Maule , Tex ( 1960 ) . The Pros . New York : Simon and Schuster .
Rooney , Dan ; with Halaas , David F. and Masich , Andrew E. ( 2007 ) . My 75 Years with the Pittsburgh Steelers and the NFL . Cambridge , MA : Da Capo Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 7867 @-@ 2603 @-@ 5
Rothe , Anna ; with Prodrick , Elizabeth ( 1951 ) . " Bert Bell " in Current Biography : Who 's News and Why 1950 . New York : The H.W. Wilson Company .
Ruck , Rob ; with Patterson , Maggie Jones and Weber , Michael P. ( 2010 ) . Rooney : A Sporting Life . Lincoln , NB : University of Nebraska Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8032 @-@ 2283 @-@ 0
Smith , Myron J. Jr . ( 1993 ) . Professional Football : The Official Pro Football Hall of Fame Bibliography . Westport , CT : Greenwood Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 313 @-@ 28928 @-@ X
Staudohar , Paul D. ( 1986 ) . The Sports Industry and Collective Bargaining . Ithaca , NY : ILR Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 87546 @-@ 117 @-@ 4
Sullivan , George ( 1968 ) . Pro Football 's All Time Greats . New York : G. P. Putnam 's Sons .
Summerall , Pat ; with Levin , Michael ( 2010 ) . Giants : What I Learned about Life from Vince Lombardi and Tom Landry . Hoboken , NJ : John Wiley & Sons , Inc . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 470 @-@ 90908 @-@ 9
Umphlett , Wiley Lee ( 1992 ) . Creating the Big Game : John W. Heisman and the Invention of American Football . Westport , CT : Greenwood Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 313 @-@ 28404 @-@ 0
Westcott , Rich ( 2001 ) . A Century of Philadelphia Sports . Philadelphia : Temple University Press . ISBN 1 @-@ 56639 @-@ 861 @-@ 4
Whittingham , Richard ( 2002 ) . What a Game They Played : An Inside Look at the Golden Era of Pro Football . Lincoln , NB : University of Nebraska Press , Inc . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8032 @-@ 9819 @-@ 4
Williams , Pete ( 2006 ) . The Draft : A Year Inside the NFL 's Search for Talent . New York : St. Martin 's Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 312 @-@ 35438 @-@ 1
Willis , Chris ( 2010 ) . The Man Who Built the National Football League : Joe F. Carr . Lanham , MD : Scarecrow Press , Inc . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8108 @-@ 7669 @-@ 9
Yost , Mark ( 2006 ) . Tailgating , Sacks and Salary Caps . Chicago : Kaplan Publishing . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 4195 @-@ 2600 @-@ 8
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= Matsalu National Park =
Matsalu National Park ( previously Matsalu Nature Reserve , Estonian : Matsalu rahvuspark , often just Matsalu ) is a nature reserve and national park situated in Lääne County , Estonia . Matsalu National Park spans an area of 486 @.@ 1 km2 ( 187 @.@ 7 sq mi ) , comprising Matsalu Bay , the Kasari River delta , the village of Matsalu and surrounding areas .
Matsalu Bay ( Estonian : Matsalu laht ) is one of the most important wetland bird areas in Europe , due to its prime position on the East Atlantic Flyway . Large numbers of migratory birds use Matsalu as a staging area . Every spring over two million waterfowl pass Matsalu , of which around 1 @.@ 6 million are long @-@ tailed ducks .
Matsalu National Park is a home for a number of endangered species , many of which are listed in the Estonian IUCN Red List , including the white @-@ tailed eagle of the highest conservation category , a lot of bird species of the second and third protection categories , 22 strongly protected plant species , the natterjack toad , and ten species of mammals of the second conservation category .
= = Description = =
Matsalu National Park covers a total area of 486 @.@ 1 km2 ( 187 @.@ 7 sq mi ) , encompassing Matsalu Bay along with the delta of the Kasari River and its surrounding areas — floodplains , coastal meadows , reedbeds , woodlands , wooded meadows , and the section of Väinameri around the mouth of the bay , which includes more than 50 islands . 224 @.@ 3 km2 ( 86 @.@ 6 sq mi ) of the protected area is terrestrial and 261 @.@ 8 km2 ( 101 @.@ 1 sq mi ) is aquatic . Matsalu Bay is shallow , brackish and rich in nutrients . The bay is 18 km ( 11 @.@ 2 mi ) long and 6 km ( 3 @.@ 7 mi ) wide , but has an average depth of only 1 @.@ 5 metres ( 5 ft ) and a maximum depth of 3 @.@ 5 m ( 11 ft ) . Water salinity is approximately 0 @.@ 7 per mil . Shoreline length of the bay is about 165 km ( 102 @.@ 5 mi ) . The bay 's shoreline lacks high banks and is populated mostly with shingle shores , with muddy and overgrown reed in the innermost , sheltered part of the bay .
Kasari River is the biggest of several rivers that run into Matsalu Bay . The delta of the Kasari River is not in its natural condition due to dredging between 1930 and 1960 ; the alluvial meadow of the delta ( 40 km2 ( 15 sq mi ) ) , most of which is actively managed , is one of the biggest open wet meadows in Europe . Reeds and rushes surrounding the main channel expand westwards up to 100 m ( 328 ft ) every year . Annual inflow into the Matsalu Bay from the Kasari River exceeds the volume of the bay itself approximately eight times ; average seasonal variation of the Kasari River exceeds 1 @.@ 7 metres ( 6 ft ) . The rivers carry large quantities of nutrient @-@ rich sediments into the bay from an over 3 @,@ 500 km2 ( 1 @,@ 350 sq mi ) drainage basin . The sediments are deposited in river estuaries , allowing reedbeds to expand .
A total of 282 bird species have been recorded in Matsalu , among which 175 are nesting and 33 are transmigrant waterfowl . 49 species of fish and 47 species of mammals are registered in the area of the nature reserve , along with 772 species of vascular plants .
Every spring over two million waterfowl pass Matsalu , including 10 @,@ 000 — 20 @,@ 000 Bewick 's swans , 10 @,@ 000 greater scaups , common goldeneyes , tufted ducks , goosanders and many others . A colony of up to 20 @,@ 000 barnacle geese , over 10 @,@ 000 greylag geese and thousands of waders stop on the coastal pastures in spring . The most numerous birds of passage ( around 1 @.@ 6 million ) are long @-@ tailed ducks . Approximately 35 @,@ 000 — 40 @,@ 000 ducks feed in the reedbeds in spring . In autumn , about 300 @,@ 000 migratory waterfowl pass Matsalu . The wetland is the biggest autumn stopping ground of common cranes in Europe . The highest recorded number of cranes at the park has been 23 @,@ 000 .
= = History = =
Scientific research in Matsalu started around 1870 , when Valerian Russow , the curator of the Natural History Museum of the University of Tartu , gave a short overview of birds near Matsalu Bay . Between 1928 and 1936 Eerik Kumari researched birds in Matsalu and suggested a creation of the bird protection area there in 1936 . In 1939 , parts of the bay ( Virtsu @-@ Puhtu ) were protected for mud used in mud @-@ baths .
Research in Matsalu became regular in 1945 , when the Institute of Botany and Zoology of the Estonian Academy of Sciences established a research base in Penijõe . Matsalu Nature Reserve was founded in 1957 , mainly to protect nesting , moulting and migratory birds . The first permanent workers ( administrators and scientists ) started in 1958 and the Penijõe research base became the administrative centre of the newly created nature reserve . The Estonian Bird Ringing Centre ( Estonian : Rõngastuskeskus ) , the coordinator of bird ringing in Estonia , is also located in Penijõe .
In 1976 , Matsalu was included in the list of wetlands of international importance under the International Convention on the Protection of Wetlands ( Ramsar Convention ) . The European Diploma of Protected Areas was awarded to Matsalu Nature Reserve in 2003 by the Council of Europe , in recognition of the park 's success in preserving the diversity of habitats and the numerous species of birds and other biota groups in the nature reserve . Matsalu is the only nature reserve in Estonia to hold the European Diploma . The diploma was extended for five years in 2008 .
In 2004 , Matsalu Nature Reserve , along with surrounding areas , became Matsalu National Park . Matsalu has seven bird @-@ watching towers ( Penijõe , Kloostri , Haeska , Suitsu , Jugasaare , Küdeva and Keemu ) and three hiking trails .
= = Matsalu International Nature Film Festival = =
Matsalu International Nature Film Festival ( Estonian : Matsalu loodusfilmide festival ) is held every autumn in the nearby town of Lihula . The festival is organized by the non @-@ profit organization MTÜ Matsalu Loodusfilmide Festival , which was set up in late 2003 . In February 2010 , MTÜ Matsalu Loodusfilmide Festival partnered with the Estonian State Forest Management Centre ( RMK ) and will jointly organize the film festivals in the future .
The first Matsalu Nature Film Festival was held between October 3 and October 5 , 2003 , in Lihula with a competitive program of 23 films from 7 countries . More than 2 @,@ 500 people visited the festival that year . The second festival was held between September 23 , and September 25 , 2004 , with participants from 14 countries , a competitive program of 35 films and around 5 @,@ 000 visitors . The third festival took place between September 22 and September 25 , 2005 , with a competitive program of 39 films from 16 countries and over 7 @,@ 000 visitors . The fourth festival , held between September 21 and September 24 in 2006 , had 21 participating countries and 41 competing films . The fifth Matsalu Nature Film Festival was held between September 19 and September 23 , 2007 , and had more than 7 @,@ 000 visitors . Organizers admit that as the festival is held on a nature reserve , it cannot grow much larger in a little town and therefore plan to bring mostly European nature documentaries to the festival , at the same time not forgetting the human @-@ related topics .
In 2007 , organizers of the Matsalu International Nature Film Festival received the Environmental Award of the Year from the Estonian Ministry of Environment . The ministry pointed out persistent and successful organization of the film festival over the years , which has popularized nature protection and contributed significantly to environmental awareness .
= = Images = =
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= 1956 Atlantic hurricane season =
The 1956 Atlantic hurricane season featured a low number of tropical cyclones , although every tropical storm and hurricane affected land . There were twelve tropical storms , a third of which became hurricanes . One of the hurricanes strengthened to the equivalent of a major hurricane , which is a Category 3 or greater on the Saffir @-@ Simpson scale . The strongest hurricane of the season was Betsy , which was also the most damaging storm of the season : it destroyed 15 @,@ 000 houses and left $ 40 million in damage in Puerto Rico . Betsy was also the deadliest of the season , having killed 18 people in the French West Indies , two from a shipwreck in the Caribbean Sea , and 16 in Puerto Rico . Tropical Storm Dora struck Mexico in September and killed 27 people .
The season officially started on June 15 , although an unnamed storm developed about a week prior over the western North Atlantic Ocean . A later storm that formed over the Gulf of Mexico on June 12 alleviated drought conditions in the south @-@ central United States . Hurricane Anna developed in late July and hit Mexico . Tropical storms Carla and Ethel both formed near the Bahamas and moved northeastward until dissipating . The lone hurricane that hit the contiguous United States was Hurricane Flossy . One of the final storms of the year , Greta , was an unusually large hurricane that produced high waves from Florida to the Lesser Antilles . It developed in the western Caribbean and moved across much of the southeastern United States , causing $ 24 @.@ 8 million in damage and 15 deaths . There were also several tropical depressions , as well as one subtropical cyclone , in the season .
= = Season summary = =
The season officially began on June 15 , the date that the Weather Bureau office in Miami , Florida , under the direction of Gordon Dunn , began daily monitoring of all tropical disturbances and cyclones across the northern Atlantic Ocean . The agency had access to the Hurricane Hunters , a fleet of aircraft that obtain data by flying into storms . The Weather Bureau , in collaboration with other agencies , began a five – year project in 1956 to obtain and analyze data on the structure of hurricanes . The season officially ended on November 15 .
There were a total of twelve tropical storms during the season , five of which were unnamed . Of all the storms , four were hurricanes . Compared to the average activity from the previous two decades , the season 's activity was below normal despite average sea surface temperatures and a normal number of tropical waves . Instead , the inactivity was the result of the subtropical ridge being located further south than normal , which decreased the atmospheric instability across much of the basin . Such a pattern was different from the more active 1954 and 1955 seasons . Several tropical depressions formed that did not attain tropical storm status , many of which formed beneath an unfavorable upper @-@ level trough .
The season 's activity was reflected with a cumulative accumulated cyclone energy ( ACE ) rating of 54 , which is categorized as being " below normal " . ACE is , broadly speaking , a measure of the power of the hurricane multiplied by the length of time it existed , so storms that last a long time , as well as particularly strong hurricanes , have high ACEs . ACE is only calculated for full advisories on tropical systems at or exceeding 34 knots ( 39 mph , 63 km / h ) or tropical storm strength . Subtropical cyclones are excluded from the total .
= = Storms = =
= = = Tropical Storm One = = =
= = = Tropical Storm Two = = =
In early June , a trough extended from the Gulf of Mexico to the western Atlantic Ocean . On June 12 , the interaction between the trough and a tropical wave spawned a tropical depression in the Bay of Campeche . The newly developed tropical cyclone tracked northward , quickly intensifying into a tropical storm . It attained peak winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) on June 13 , although it never developed a well @-@ defined circulation . In addition , it had characteristics of both a tropical and extratropical cyclone , with cooler air aloft . Late on June 13 , the storm made landfall near Cocodrie , Louisiana , and its lowest pressure of 1 @,@ 001 millibars ( 29 @.@ 56 inHg ) was measured over land , suggesting it did not weaken substantially after landfall . After moving inland , it dissipated on June 15 over Arkansas .
As the storm moved ashore , it did not develop rainbands , unlike other tropical cyclones . The heaviest rainfall occurred in a 100 mi ( 160 km ) region east of where it moved ashore . Precipitation fell across the entire United States gulf coast , and the highest rainfall total was 8 @.@ 89 in ( 226 mm ) in Golden Meadow , Louisiana . The rains were beneficial to farmers , due to drought conditions persisting in the region . The storm produced higher than normal tides , peaking at 4 @.@ 7 ft ( 1 @.@ 4 m ) in Biloxi , Mississippi ; this was the highest since the 1947 Fort Lauderdale hurricane . The tides left damage to the Freeport Sulphur Company , as well as to boats , beaches , and piers . Three people died after their boat capsized , and there was another death after a driver skidded off the Lake Pontchartrain Causeway . A barge in the lake became disabled due to the storm and caused light damage to the causeway . Sustained winds during the storm 's passage peaked at 55 mph ( 89 km / h ) near Grand Isle , Louisiana , and a boat reported a gust of 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) near Pilottown , Louisiana . Damage was estimated at $ 50 @,@ 000 .
= = = June tropical depression = = =
Shortly after the previous storm dissipated , another tropical depression developed on June 17 from a trough , about 500 mi ( 800 km ) east of the southern Florida coast . Although it briefly produced wind gusts of 40 mph ( 64 km / h ) , it never intensified beyond tropical depression status , and it dissipated on June 18 .
= = = July tropical depression = = =
A weak circulation developed late on July 4 beneath a cold mid @-@ level trough in the Gulf of Mexico . It moved north @-@ northwestward , and hit near Pensacola , Florida on July 6 . It dissipated on July 9 . Although it never intensified beyond tropical depression status , the system produced wind gusts of 47 mph ( 76 km / h ) in Panama City , Florida . As it moved ashore , the depression dropped heavy amounts of precipitation , with a total of 14 @.@ 22 in ( 361 mm ) reported in Whatley , Alabama . The rains washed away or eroded several highways and bridges , and also resulted in some agricultural damage . A train line from Mobile to Birmingham , Alabama , was washed out near Suggsville . Overall the damage was estimated at $ 503 @,@ 000 , and there were no associated deaths .
= = = Hurricane Anna = = =
A westward @-@ moving tropical wave traversed the Lesser Antilles on July 20 . It moved across the Caribbean , and its thunderstorms increased on July 23 while passing south of Cuba and beneath a high pressure area . There is evidence that it could have developed a circulation on July 24 before it struck the Yucatán Peninsula . It is confirmed to have developed into a tropical depression on July 25 in the Bay of Campeche . As it continued west @-@ northwestward , it rapidly intensified into Tropical Storm Anna , and before moving ashore in Mexico near Ozuluama , Veracruz , on July 26 it attained hurricane status . Peak winds reached 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) , although Anna rapidly dissipated on July 27 as it moved further inland . The high winds wrecked several homes in poor regions of Tampico , Tamaulipas , while rainfall of 2 @.@ 5 in ( 64 mm ) resulted in flooding . The high winds severed telegraph lines from Tampico to San Luis Potosí . The same area was affected by several hurricanes in the previous year . Damage totaled around $ 50 @,@ 000 , and there were no deaths .
= = = Hurricane Betsy = = =
A tropical wave moved off the coast of Africa on August 4 . It developed into Tropical Storm Betsy developed on August 9 to the east of the Lesser Antilles . It rapidly developed into a 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) hurricane before striking Guadeloupe with a minimum central pressure of 979 mb ( 28 @.@ 91 inHg ) . There , Betsy heavily damaged 1 @,@ 000 houses and left severe crop destruction , and led to 18 deaths . As Betsy continued into the northeastern Caribbean , it capsized a ship , killing its crew of two . On August 12 , a slightly weakened Betsy struck southeastern Puerto Rico near Maunabo with winds of 100 mph ( 155 km / h ) and quickly crossed the island . Damage was heaviest where it moved ashore and in the territory 's central portion . 15 @,@ 023 houses were destroyed by Betsy , and multiple locations reported heavy crop damage , including Camuy , which reported a complete loss of the corn crop .
After exiting Puerto Rico , Betsy strengthened steadily as it headed generally northwestward , becoming a major hurricane on August 13 while centered north of the Turks and Caicos Islands . It attained peak winds of 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) the next day to the east of the Bahamas . Betsy later turned northeastward , attaining its lowest central pressure of 954 mbar ( 28 @.@ 17 inHg ) on August 17 . It later became extratropical early on August 18 . The remnants dissipated two days later to the north of the Azores . Hurricane Betsy was the first hurricane to be observed from the San Juan radar , and also resulted in the first hurricane warning on the island that was released on television . The hurricane left $ 40 million in damage and 16 deaths , which prompted the declaration of a federal disaster area . Locally the hurricane was known as the Santa Clara Hurricane .
= = = August tropical depression = = =
A vigorous tropical wave spawned a tropical depression on August 28 near the Cape Verde islands . As it passed through the islands , the depression produced a minimum central pressure of 1 @,@ 004 mbar ( 29 @.@ 6 inHg ) on the island of Sal . Ships in the area reported winds as strong as 46 mph ( 74 km / h ) . The depression maintained a general westward track , eventually dissipating on September 6 to the northeast of the Lesser Antilles .
= = = Tropical Storm Carla = = =
The origins of Tropical Storm Carla were from a tropical wave that spawned a depression near the Bahamas on September 7 . It moved generally to the north , intensifying to a tropical storm the following day . An upper @-@ level low located to the northeast of Carla produced hostile conditions that prevented significant strengthening , and Carla had a structure which resembled a subtropical storm . An approaching cold front turned the storm to the northeast , and despite the unfavorable atmosphere , Carla intensified , reaching peak winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) late on September 9 . The interaction between the storm and a high pressure system over the Great Lakes yielded a strong pressure gradient that produced gale force winds over New England . After Carla passed to the north of Bermuda , it became extratropical on September 10 , according to HURDAT — the official hurricane database — and the annual report in the Monthly Weather Review . As a post @-@ tropical cyclone , ex @-@ Carla strengthened to 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) before weakening and dissipating by September 16 .
= = = Tropical Storm Dora = = =
On September 10 , a tropical depression developed over the Bay of Campeche . Later that day , Hurricane Hunters observed winds of tropical storm force , indicating that the depression had become Tropical Storm Dora , with winds of about 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) . Dora moved generally westward due to a ridge to its north . A reconnaissance flight on September 11 estimated hurricane @-@ force winds , but reanalysis assessed these as being unrepresentative of Dora 's true strength . Early on September 12 , Dora peaked at 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) shortly before striking land near Tuxpan with a minimum central pressure of 1 @,@ 000 mb ( 29 @.@ 53 inHg ) . It quickly dissipated early the next day , although the storm produced heavy rains across the region . The deluge caused a landslide as well as flooding , including along a river near San Andrés Tuxtla . In Puebla , there were 13 deaths and 20 injuries after a bus crashed into a washed out portion of the highway from Tuxpan to Mexico City . Overall , Dora caused 27 deaths in the country , but minor damage .
= = = Tropical Storm Ethel = = =
On September 11 , a tropical depression developed along the southern end of a quasi @-@ stationary cold front over Grand Exuma Island in the Bahamas . It moved to the northeast and encountered cold air from the north . This resulted in significant instability that allowed in quick strengthening . A Hurricane Hunters flight on September 12 reported winds of 76 mph ( 122 km / h ) in the storm 's northeast quadrant ; as a result , the depression was upgraded to Tropical Storm Ethel . The flight observed a well @-@ developed eye 20 mi ( 32 km ) in diameter , although they only observed hurricane @-@ force winds in one quadrant . Reassessment , however , discounted the observations of hurricane @-@ force winds from the aircraft as being unrepresentative of Ethel 's strength , and analyzed that Ethel peaked at 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) late on September 12 , with the lowest pressure reported being 999 mbar ( 29 @.@ 50 inHg ) . Shortly after reaching peak intensity , Ethel began weakening and dissipated on September 14 to the southwest of Bermuda .
= = = September tropical depression = = =
A vigorous tropical depression moved through the Cape Verde islands on September 13 , although the complete history of the cyclone is unknown . It dissipated before affecting the Lesser Antilles .
= = = Hurricane Flossy = = =
The origin of Flossy is uncertain ; one possibility is it developed from a system in the eastern Pacific , and the other is from a disturbance moving through the Caribbean . A tropical depression formed on September 20 just east of the Yucatán Peninsula and headed northwest across the landmass . Upon entering the Gulf of Mexico on September 22 , it quickly intensified into Tropical Storm Flossy . Continuing to intensify , the storm turned to the north and attained hurricane status on September 23 . Bearing winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) , Flossy struck near Venice , Louisiana , on September 24 after turning to the northeast , crossing the Mississippi River Delta . The hurricane again moved into the Gulf of Mexico , continuing to the northeast and intensifying further until moving ashore near Miramar Beach , Florida , on September 25 as a strong Category 1 hurricane with winds of 90 mph ( 150 km / h ) and a minimum pressure of 974 mbar ( 28 @.@ 76 inHg ) . Later that day , Flossy became extratropical over Georgia after weakening into a tropical storm . The extratropical remnants moved through the southeast United States and emerged from North Carolina into the western Atlantic on September 27 . The storm was last observed on October 3 , near southernmost Newfoundland .
Flossy was the only hurricane of the season to strike the United States . Winds in Louisiana reached 84 mph ( 135 km / h ) , although an oil rig offshore Grand Isle reported a gust of 95 mph ( 153 km / h ) . The storm dropped heavy rainfall along its path , peaking at 16 @.@ 7 in ( 420 mm ) in Golden Meadow , Louisiana . The rainfall and the hurricane 's accompanying storm surge caused widespread flooding and beach erosion in southeast Louisiana . The flooding surmounted the eastern seawall in New Orleans , submerging an area of 2 @.@ 5 sq mi ( 6 @.@ 5 km2 ) . Across the region , the resulting flooding drowned cattle and caused heavy crop damage . Hurricane Flossy left about $ 27 @.@ 8 million in damage ( 1956 USD ) , mostly from crop damage , as well as 15 deaths . The rainfall extended through the Mid @-@ Atlantic states , which alleviated drought conditions .
= = = October South Atlantic depression = = =
On October 9 , a tropical depression developed about 1 @,@ 300 mi ( 2 @,@ 100 km ) east of Puerto Rico . Ships in the area reported winds as strong as 45 mph ( 72 km / h ) , although the system dissipated within 24 hours .
= = = October Mid @-@ Atlantic depression = = =
On October 10 , another tropical depression formed further to the north of the previous storm . It possibly developed from the same tropical wave that spawned the previous depression , although they were not the same system . The depression maintained a general northward movement throughout its duration , dissipating on October 12 .
= = = Tropical Storm Nine = = =
= = = Tropical Storm Ten = = =
A low pressure area formed along a dissipating cold front to the north of Puerto Rico . The system moved westward , developing some tropical characteristics by October 13 . The next day , the system became a tropical storm over the Straits of Florida . On October 15 , it crossed over South Florida near Homestead with winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) . The storm was never fully tropical , as its winds and precipitation extended far away from the center . The storm intensified further over the Florida peninsula , peaking at 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) early on October 16 . After affecting Florida , the storm crossed the western Atlantic and moved across the Outer Banks . The storm became extratropical on October 17 , and the next day it was absorbed by another extratropical storm .
The storm produced significant rainfall in a 50 mi ( 80 km ) region of Florida . The highest total in the state was 16 @.@ 28 in ( 414 mm ) in Kissimmee . There , the rains caused flash flooding that entered over 200 houses . The flooding flooded three state highways , and also left portions of Okeechobee inaccessible after reporting the heaviest rainfall in eight years . Large tomato fields were inundated , resulting in some crop damage . In portions of the state , the rains were beneficial due to previously dry conditions . The storm spawned a tornado in North Miami that injured one person . Damage throughout Florida was estimated at $ 3 million , mostly in the Kissimmee area . In addition , two surfers drowned during the storm . Precipitation extended as far north as New Jersey , and coastal areas experienced high tides and gusty winds .
= = = Hurricane Greta = = =
The intertropical convergence zone spawned a tropical depression on October 31 a short distance to south of easternmost Cuba . The system tracked northward and crossed over eastern Cuba , and the system initially had characteristics of an extratropical cyclone . It eventually acquired tropical features and intensified into Tropical Storm Greta on November 1 . A high pressure area east of the Mid @-@ Atlantic states caused the depression to turn to the south on November 2 and loop to the southeast . Later that day the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Greta to the northeast of the Bahamas . It attained hurricane status on November 4 while maintaining a large size ( in fact , becoming one of the largest tropical cyclones known in the Atlantic basin ) ; such strengthening is unusual in storms moving in a southeast trajectory . Greta turned to the east and later northeast , reaching its peak of 100 mph ( 155 km / h ) late on November 4 due to the energy transfer between levels of the atmosphere . Cooler waters caused subsequent weakening and gradual loss of tropical characteristics , and Greta transitioned into an extratropical storm on November 6 , dissipating the next day .
The extremely large size of Greta , in conjunction with the high pressure system to its north , produced strong winds and high waves across a large area of the western Atlantic . In Puerto Rico , waves of 20 ft ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) left heavy damage and killed one person who did not heed an evacuation order . Waves reached 25 ft ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) in the French West Indies , which destroyed 80 % of the structures at the port in Basse @-@ Terre , Guadeloupe . Further west , high waves left heavy damage in and around the beaches of Jacksonville , Florida . Overall damage was estimated at about $ 3 @.@ 58 million .
= = = Tropical Storm Twelve = = =
= = Storm names = =
The following names were used for named storms ( tropical storms and hurricanes ) that formed in the North Atlantic in 1956 . Storms were named Anna , Betsy , Carla , Dora , Ethel , Flossy and Greta for the first time in 1956 .
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= KMFDM =
KMFDM ( originally Kein Mitleid Für Die Mehrheit , " loosely " translated by the band as " no pity for the majority " ) is an industrial band led by German multi @-@ instrumentalist Sascha Konietzko , who founded the group in 1984 as a performance art project .
The group 's earliest incarnation included German drummer En Esch and British vocalist Raymond Watts , the latter of whom left and rejoined the group several times over its history . The trio recorded the band 's earliest albums in Germany before Konietzko and Esch moved to the United States , where they found much greater success with seminal industrial record label Wax Trax ! . German guitarist Günter Schulz joined in 1990 ; both he and Esch continued with the band until KMFDM broke up in 1999 . Konietzko resurrected KMFDM in 2002 ( Esch and Schulz declined to rejoin ) on Metropolis Records , and by 2005 he had assembled a consistent line @-@ up that included American singer Lucia Cifarelli , British guitarists Jules Hodgson and Steve White , and British drummer Andy Selway . Konietzko and Cifarelli moved back to Germany in 2007 , while the rest of band stayed in the U.S. In addition to these core members , dozens of other musicians have worked with the group across its nineteen studio albums and two dozen singles , with sales totaling in excess of two million records worldwide .
Critics consider KMFDM to be one of the first bands to bring industrial music to mainstream audiences , though Konietzko refers to the band 's music as " The Ultra @-@ Heavy Beat " . The band incorporates heavy metal guitar riffs , electronic music , samples , and both male and female vocals in its music , which encompasses a variety of styles including industrial rock and electronic body music . The band is fiercely political , with many of its lyrics taking stands against violence , war , and oppression . KMFDM normally tours at least once after every major release , and band members are known for their accessibility to and interaction with fans , both online and at concerts . Members , singly or working together and with other musicians , have recorded under many other names , primarily Watts ' Pig , Konietzko 's Excessive Force , and Esch and Schulz 's Slick Idiot .
= = History = =
= = = Origin ( 1984 ) = = =
KMFDM was officially founded in Paris , France , on February 29 , 1984 , as a performance art project between Sascha Konietzko and German painter and multimedia artist Udo Sturm at the opening of an exhibition of young European artists at the Grand Palais . The first show consisted of Sturm playing an ARP 2600 synthesizer , Konietzko playing vacuum cleaners and bass guitars with their amplifiers spread throughout the building , and four Polish coal miners ( whom Konietzko had met at a bordello ) pounding on the foundations of the Grand Palais .
= = = = Name = = = =
KMFDM is an initialism for the nonsensical and grammatically incorrect German phrase Kein Mehrheit Für Die Mitleid , which literally translates as " no majority for the pity " , but is typically given the loose translation of " no pity for the majority " . In the original phrase , the articles preceding the nouns Mehrheit and Mitleid are inflected for the wrong gender , as the proper declension would be Keine Mehrheit für das Mitleid . Swapping the two nouns yields the grammatically correct Kein Mitleid für die Mehrheit , which translates directly as " no pity for the majority " . In a 2003 interview , Konietzko explained the origins of the phrase :
" On the morning of February 29th , 1984 I woke up and went down to breakfast at a hotel in Paris . We had a show that night opening for an exhibition for young European artists . ... we needed a motto for the night so that we could make up some fliers and post them around . There was a German newspaper on the table and so I started cutting out words and threw them all into a cap . We picked a few of them out and it read " Kein Mehrheit Für Die Mitleid " . It 's kinda improper German in regards to its translation but in the DA @-@ DA @-@ esque [ sic ] mindset of the early morning it made perfect sense . So when I was on my way back to Hamburg I 'd mentioned it to Raymond [ Watts ] . He liked it but he was having difficulty pronouncing it correctly . So finally he said , ' Why don 't you just call it KMFDM ? ' So that was it . We were KMFDM . "
= = = Early years in Germany ( 1984 – 89 ) = = =
Sturm left early on , but Konietzko continued performing , at one point having twenty people in his troupe , which by then was engaged in antics such as fire eating and throwing entrails at audiences . Konietzko then returned to Hamburg , where he joined up with Peter Missing in his new band Missing Foundation . Drummer Nicklaus Schandelmaier , who had recently moved to Hamburg from Frankfurt , also joined the group , and took the stage name En Esch . Although the group did some live performances , Konietzko and Esch dropped out of Missing Foundation before any recordings were made and went back to work as KMFDM , collaborating with Hamburg @-@ based studio owner Raymond Watts .
Cassette copies of the band 's first album , Opium , began circulating through the underground clubs and bars of Hamburg in 1984 . KMFDM released its next album , What Do You Know , Deutschland ? , in December 1986 . It was recorded from 1983 to 1986 , with some of the songs recorded by Konietzko and Watts before Esch was a member of the band , and indeed , before the band officially existed . Skysaw Records gave the album a second UK release in 1987 and introduced the band to visual artist Aidan Hughes , usually credited as Brute ! . Hughes redesigned the album 's cover , and went on to design almost every KMFDM album cover .
Watts left the group after working on just three songs on 1988 's Don 't Blow Your Top to start his own project , Pig . After working the Hamburg underground music scene and releasing albums on European labels , the band began its long @-@ standing relationship with Wax Trax ! Records when Don 't Blow Your Top was licensed to the label for US distribution . The album was produced by Adrian Sherwood , and was described by AllMusic critic Dave Thompson as " [ highlighting ] the producer as much as the band " .
= = = Success in America ( 1990 – 94 ) = = =
KMFDM recorded and released its fourth album , UAIOE , in early 1989 for distribution in both the U.S. and Europe , arrived in America for the first time on December 16 , and commenced touring the U.S. with Ministry . During KMFDM 's first US tour , band members started using the phrase " Kill Motherfucking Depeche Mode " for the acronym to tease journalists who did not understand German . The band signed directly to Wax Trax ! to distribute its fifth album , Naïve , which was recorded in Europe and featured the debut of guitarist Günter Schulz , known at the time as Svetlana Ambrosius . A remix of the album 's title track was the group 's first hit , reaching No. 21 on Billboard 's Dance / Club Play Songs Chart in March 1991 .
Konietzko moved to Chicago in 1991 , and Esch followed a year later . KMFDM quickly became a part of the Chicago industrial music scene that included Ministry , My Life with the Thrill Kill Kult , and Revolting Cocks . Konietzko later remarked , " We came from Germany and we all had to have day jobs and work our asses off to afford to be KMFDM and all of a sudden were in the states and were selling thousands of thousands of [ sic ] fucking records ! "
The band 's next club hit was " Split " , which was released in June 1991 and reached No. 46 on Billboard 's Dance / Club Play Songs Chart in July . During 1991 , Konietzko collaborated with Buzz McCoy of My Life With the Thrill Kill Kult to record an album under the name Excessive Force entitled Conquer Your World . Konietzko and Esch then began work on their halves of the intended sixth album , Apart , which was eventually released as two separate albums . Esch 's half became his solo album , Cheesy , while the official KMFDM album used Konietzko 's material and was renamed Money . This album spawned two more club hits in 1992 : " Vogue " , which reached No. 19 on the Billboard Dance / Club Play Songs Chart in April , and the title track , which reached No. 36 on that same chart in July .
After touring in 1992 with drummer Chris Vrenna , the then @-@ core of KMFDM ( Konietzko , Esch , Schulz , and second guitarist Mark Durante ) returned to Chicago and found that Wax Trax ! had filed Chapter 11 bankruptcy to begin corporate reorganization in November 1992 . The band went into the studio in 1993 as a group to record its seventh album , Angst , which sold more than 100 @,@ 000 copies over the next two years . Esch said after the album 's release , " I like this album way more . Money was done in a hurry , and I was doing a major Pigface tour , so I didn 't have much influence on the album . I really like Angst . I 'm totally down with it . We 've tried to involve guitar players , we tried to be like a real band , especially in the creative kind of aspect . " After the release of Angst , Wax Trax ! / TVT Records launched a promotion in which fans were encouraged to devise as many alternate meanings for KMFDM as possible , with more than a thousand submissions resulting .
Konietzko released a second album under the Excessive Force moniker in 1993 entitled Gentle Death . KMFDM received its first exposure to the mainstream with its single " A Drug Against War " . Despite the band 's anti @-@ MTV stance , the video of " A Drug Against War " received airplay on MTV and was shown on the MTV cartoon Beavis and Butt @-@ head . The track " Light " reached No. 31 on the Billboard Dance / Club Play Songs Chart in May 1994 .
The song " Liebeslied " from Naïve originally contained an unlicensed sample of " O Fortuna " from Carl Orff 's Carmina Burana . Orff 's publisher threatened the band with legal action , and the album was withdrawn from production in 1993 . A new version of the album , entitled Naïve / Hell to Go , was released the following year . It contained new mixes of several songs , including a version of " Liebeslied " with the offending sample removed .
Wax Trax ! was saved from bankruptcy by an infusion of funds from TVT Records , and in March 1994 announced plans to release the compilation set Black Box – Wax Trax ! Records : The First 13 Years , which includes the KMFDM songs " Virus " and " Godlike " , two songs which Thompson called " defining " .
= = = Peak popularity ( 1994 – 99 ) = = =
The mid @-@ to @-@ late 1990s were KMFDM 's most successful years in terms of album sales and mainstream awareness . Konietzko moved to Seattle in 1994 , while Esch moved to New Orleans . Watts rejoined the band to work on its eighth album , Nihil , which peaked at No. 16 on the Billboard Heatseekers chart and sold over 120 @,@ 000 copies . It marked the first contributions by drummer Bill Rieflin , who worked with the band on its next five albums . Nihil featured KMFDM 's most widely known song , " Juke Joint Jezebel " , versions of which appeared on both the Bad Boys and Mortal Kombat soundtracks , the latter of which peaked at No. 10 on the Billboard 200 and sold over 1 @.@ 8 million copies .
Commenting on the rotating cast of musicians shortly after Nihil 's release , Konietzko said , " It 's as if En and I are the suns and the other musicians at the time come and revolve around us . " Regarding the duo 's dynamic , Konietzko said , " En Esch and myself have always been the cornerstone of KMFDM 's existence . And we are diametrically opposed as writers . The angsty stuff generally comes from him . The poppy , hard stuff comes from me . " Esch commented in 1994 , " Sascha and myself are different , of course . But that 's why we can still make things happen . Our best and worst qualities are contrary . To put it simply , he 's more organized and stable , I 'm more complicated and abstract . "
In late 1995 , close friend and president of Chicago 's Wax Trax ! Jim Nash died of an illness complicated by AIDS , and Seattle became the official headquarters of KMFDM . Watts toured with KMFDM throughout 1995 in support of Nihil , but then left the group to return to recording under the Pig moniker . Esch also separated from the group , and Xtort was created in 1996 almost entirely without his input . Konietzko instead brought in a number of other industrial artists such as Chris Connelly to assist with the album . Xtort was the first KMFDM album to chart on the Billboard 200 and the highest @-@ charting and best @-@ selling album in the band 's history , reaching No. 92 and selling more than 200 @,@ 000 copies . " Power " , the album 's first single , was the most heavily promoted song in the band 's history , with almost 100 @,@ 000 copies included in a free Wax Trax ! sampler album in mid @-@ 1996 . Konietzko later said Xtort was his favorite album of the 1990s .
Esch returned for the Symbols album , which was released in 1997 and featured Abby Travis and Skinny Puppy 's Nivek Ogre . Symbols reached No. 137 on the Billboard 200 . Its first track , " Megalomaniac " , was featured in the film Mortal Kombat : Annihilation , and was the first song from its soundtrack to receive radio airplay . Tim Skold , formerly of the band Shotgun Messiah , made his first appearance as a band member , writing lyrics and performing vocals on " Anarchy " . Looking back on Symbols in 2002 , Konietzko said , " I listened to the Symbols album and heard exactly why KMFDM broke up in the first place . It told me the story of what went wrong . There were maybe two ( good ) songs on that album and the others were just a bunch of compromising tug @-@ of @-@ wars . That was something I was not going to do again . "
The band released a pair of compilation albums in 1998 . The first , Retro , was a greatest hits compilation which included most of the singles released up until Xtort . The second , Agogo , was a collection of rarities and previously unreleased tracks , including a cover of U2 's " Mysterious Ways " .
= = = Adios ( 1999 ) = = =
The album Adios was written and performed almost exclusively by Konietzko and Skold . Ogre again provided vocals , as did German musician Nina Hagen . Originally the fulfillment of the band 's ten record contract with Wax Trax ! / TVT , Adios later signaled the breakup of the band itself , which Esch 's and Schulz 's limited participation foreshadowed .
KMFDM disbanded , albeit temporarily , on January 22 , 1999 , with only Konietzko and Skold remaining together . Konietzko said the split was due to " lots of stress and pressure , as well as differences in vision and drive " . Esch said " There was a lot of negative energy between Sascha and Günter Schulz and myself and we all decided on the phone to call the band quits . " Adios was released three months later , and reached No. 189 on the Billboard 200 . Its title track was called " a bitter goodbye " .
In the wake of the Columbine High School massacre , it was revealed that lyrics to KMFDM songs ( " Son of a Gun " , " Stray Bullet " , " Waste " ) were posted on the website of shooter Eric Harris , and that the date of the massacre , April 20 , coincided with both the release date of the album Adios and the birthday of Adolf Hitler . Some journalists were quick to jump on the apparent connection of the massacre to violent entertainment and Nazism , though one wrote , " Lyrically , the band has written some songs that could easily be misconstrued by anyone lacking an ear for irony and looking for an excuse to commit violence . " In response , Konietzko issued a statement :
" First and foremost , KMFDM would like to express their deep and heartfelt sympathy for the parents , families and friends of the murdered and injured children in Littleton . We are sick and appalled , as is the rest of the nation , by what took place in Colorado yesterday .
" KMFDM are an art form — not a political party . From the beginning , our music has been a statement against war , oppression , fascism and violence against others . While some of the former band members are German as reported in the media , none of us condone any Nazi beliefs whatsoever . "
= = = MDFMK , Slick Idiot , and reformation ( 2000 – 02 ) = = =
After the group disbanded , Schulz and Esch formed the band Slick Idiot , while Konietzko and Skold regrouped as MDFMK , adding singer Lucia Cifarelli to form a trio . MDFMK released one self @-@ titled album with Republic / Universal Records , and toured North America . After being released from his contract with Universal due to a disagreement over who would produce the next album , Konietzko said he called Metropolis Records and asked if they 'd be interested in signing KMFDM . The label agreed , although at the time only Konietzko himself was certain to participate .
KMFDM reformed in 2002 with Konietzko , Skold , Cifarelli , and former collaborators Watts and Rieflin , due to " public demand " according to Konietzko , who said at the time , " I talked with the usual KMFDM suspects to see if they were interested , and what we came up with was something better than what we had before . " Recalled Esch in 2009 , " I was happy about my new creative freedom at that time and so I refused the concept of a fast reunion of the original KMFDM . " Konietzko said of the reformed band , " Not only is it fun again , but it 's devoid of all the personal confrontations due to egos and fractions that were once a part of the band , " but said , " I really miss En Esch , " in 2003 . KMFDM released its first album in three years , Attak , in March 2002 . The album was on the Billboard Independent Albums Chart for four weeks , peaking at No. 11 .
= = = New line @-@ up ( 2003 – 07 ) = = =
Skold left after Attak to join Marilyn Manson . Over the next few years , Watts ' bandmates from Pig joined KMFDM one by one . Jules Hodgson had already done guitar work for 2002 's Attak . Andy Selway first played drums for KMFDM on WWIII in 2003 , and Steve White contributed to 2005 's Hau Ruck after touring with the band . All three , along with Watts and Cifarelli , were mentioned as band members on " Intro " , the final track on WWIII , although that was to be the last album on which Watts performed . WWIII was on Billboard 's Dance / Electronic Albums Chart for seven weeks , and peaked at No. 3 .
Opium was re @-@ released in 2002 as KMFDM001 on the band 's new label , KMFDM Records , and a collection of songs recorded between 1984 – 86 was released in 2004 . Shortly after the release of WWIII , Konietzko began work on the soundtrack for 2004 's Spider @-@ Man 2 video game . Hau Ruck performed about as well WWIII , appearing on Billboard 's Dance / Electronic Albums Chart for eight weeks but only hitting No. 5 . Unlike WWIII , Hau Ruck showed up on the Billboard Independent Albums chart for a single week at No. 48 . A companion EP , Ruck Zuck , was released in 2006 .
Konietzko took a new approach for Tohuvabohu , released in 2007 . " Principally in the past , there used to be 2 people that would start songs : me and Jules . On this record I said to the other 2 guys , Andy ( Selway ) and Steve ( White ) , ' Why don 't you guys come up with something ? ' " Tohuvabohu was on Billboard 's Dance / Electronic Albums Chart for just three weeks and peaked at No. 4 . It appeared on the Independent Albums Chart for one week at No. 29 . Tohuvabohu also had a companion , Brimborium , a full length remix album released in 2008 that barely made it onto Billboard 's Dance / Electronic Albums Chart , hitting No. 20 for a single week .
Metropolis Records announced in mid @-@ 2006 it would reissue KMFDM 's entire Wax Trax ! -era studio album back catalog , which had been out of print since the early 2000s . The albums were released in chronological order in groups of two or three from September 2006 to May 2007 . Konietzko said the remastering was done over concerns about losing the rights to the back catalog after TVT defaulted on a loan , explaining , " The original agreement was that the catalog would have reverted back to me in 2008 , anyway , but TVT and Rykodisc were thinking of just making a KMFDM compilation , which would have eliminated my catalog , and I didn 't want that . " Konietzko commented in 2006 that the current line @-@ up was the best he had worked with , and said in a separate interview that his former bandmates were " looking at me for handouts " . Konietzko announced in October 2007 that he was packing up and moving back to Germany in the next three months .
= = = Back in Germany ( 2007 – present ) = = =
Following the Finnish school shootings of 2007 and 2008 , media reports again attempted to draw a connection between the shooters and the band , and noted that both listed KMFDM among their favorite bands . In an interview with Norwegian broadcaster NRK shortly after the 2008 incident , Konietzko responded to these claims by saying the recent shootings were a by @-@ product of the copycat mentality and the Finnish shooters ' desire to emulate the lifestyles and actions of the Columbine shooters . " One of my biggest concerns immediately following this incident [ the Columbine shooting ] was that there would be copycats repeating such things in the future , as there often are when people commit heinous crimes and acts of violence . I was , unfortunately , right . "
KMFDM re @-@ released all of its old singles and hard @-@ to @-@ find tracks from before the 1999 breakup in a series of three double albums called Extra — Vol . 1 , Vol . 2 , and Vol . 3 — in mid @-@ 2008 . KMFDM Records released Skold vs. KMFDM in early 2009 , which was a collaboration that Skold and Konietzko conducted over the Internet while on separate continents from June to October 2008 . A follow @-@ up is planned , but is not a high priority .
KMFDM 's sixteenth studio album , Blitz , released in March 2009 , showcased further collaboration with Skold , but less input from the band members not living in Germany . It reached No. 4 on Billboard 's Dance / Electronic Albums Chart , and was on the chart for four weeks . Its companion remix album , Krieg , was released in early 2010 . Two compilation albums , Würst and Greatest Shit , were released in September that same year .
On December 14 , 2010 , the official KMFDM website was changed to include a single image with the text " All Systems Have Been Ripped . The Internet Has Been Shut Down . " A new song titled " Rebels in Control " became available for listening and download on the site , posted in support of Julian Assange with regards to the controversy over WikiLeaks .
Former band members Durante , Esch , Schulz , and Watts appeared with Mona Mur at the April 2011 Wax Trax ! Retrospectacle in Chicago , a charity event celebrating the industrial music label . The group performed KMFDM songs from the Wax Trax ! era , including " Juke Joint Jezebel " , " Godlike , " Brute " , and " Don 't Blow Your Top " . Konietzko expressed a desire to perform with the current band line @-@ up , but was turned down by event organizers .
KMFDM released WTF ? ! in April 2011 , featuring what Konietzko called " a slew of guest musicians " including Rieflin , Koichi Fukuda , Free Dominguez , and William Wilson . The album 's first single , " Krank " , charted in both Germany and the United States . WTF ? ! was on Billboard 's Dance / Electronic Albums Chart for one week at No. 8 .
Work on KMFDM 's eighteenth album began in February 2012 . Titled Kunst , it was released on February 26 , 2013 . The band toured the United States in March and Europe in April 2013 . KMFDM reissued Opium and WWIII in October 2013 .
On May 24 , 2014 , Konietzko announced on the band 's Facebook page that a new album , entitled Our Time Will Come , would be released on October 14 , 2014 . A new live album entitled We Are KMFDM and a single called " Genau ( The German in You ) " were also announced . Our Time Will Come was released on October 14 , 2014 , on both CD and vinyl .
= = Musical style = =
KMFDM 's earliest output was performance art , as Konietzko incorporated not only visuals such as burning beds and exploding televisions , but also non @-@ musical devices used as instruments , e.g. vacuum cleaners . The 1980s albums featured heavy use of sampling and studio manipulations , and the primary instruments used were synthesizers and drum machines . Konietzko has cited T.Rex , David Bowie , and Frank Zappa as inspiration in the early stages of KMFDM . Before forming the band , he listened to punk music and " true industrial " bands such as Throbbing Gristle .
The band 's music has been described as industrial , industrial rock , industrial metal , and techno @-@ industrial . While recognized along with Ministry , Nine Inch Nails , and Skinny Puppy as pioneers in introducing industrial music to mainstream audiences , KMFDM describes its sound as " The Ultra @-@ Heavy Beat " . Konietzko once stated , " If I was to give myself a label it would be industrial @-@ alternative @-@ electronic @-@ crossover @-@ rock and danceabilly . "
The band has made heavy use of guitars since its inception , and pioneered their use during the band 's early days in Germany . Although not a metal fan , Konietzko said his " infatuation with ripping off metal licks " stemmed from his experiments with E @-@ mu 's Emax sampler in late 1986 , adding , " What I always hated most about heavy metal was that the best riffs came only once and were never repeated . So the fascination , actually , was to sample a great riff , loop it , and play it over and over again . " While the album Don 't Blow Your Top was more sparse in content , due to the influence of producer Sherwood , it was the exception rather than the rule . Ministry founder and frontman Al Jourgensen , on tour with the band in 1989 , described KMFDM as " a battalion of guitars marching through Europe . "
KMFDM 's music has since been a fusion of electronic and heavy metal , with occasional elements of dub , as well as orchestral samples and live horns . Many songs feature prominent backing vocals by female singers such as Dorona Alberti , Travis , and Cifarelli . Many of the musicians who have played in the band are multi @-@ instrumentalists , so there is a degree of versatility and freedom in the music .
Many albums feature one or more songs in which the band lampoons itself , notably in the lyrics to " Sucks " and " Inane " . The band 's " cynical detachment " has been compared to Steely Dan . Lyrics often express political concerns and call for the rejection of and resistance to terrorism , violence , oppression , censorship , and war . In the 1995 song " Terror " , Konietzko specifically warns , " Fundamentalist forces are undermining the integrity of liberal and democratic political structures " . Samples of news broadcasts and speeches by political leaders are sometimes featured in songs . Konietzko has said that while the 2003 album WWIII is critical of then @-@ president George W. Bush , who was sampled extensively for the album , " It 's not an anti @-@ Bush record per se , it 's an anti @-@ stupidity record " , and , " If we had a message , it would be : Think for Yourself and Don 't Believe the Bullshit . "
= = Reception = =
As of July 2007 , KMFDM had sold approximately two million records worldwide . Critics have been widely positive of KMFDM , though less enthusiastic about the band 's earliest work . What Do You Know , Deutschland ? was called " less energetic " and Don 't Blow Your Top was called " a little flimsy " in comparison to later albums by AllMusic critics Andy Hinds and Vincent Jeffries , respectively . UAIOE , when the band 's sound began to develop , was called " more assured " by Hinds and " more representative of KMFDM 's true motives " by Thompson , who added that KMFDM 's guitar @-@ heavy sound inspired Ministry 's own embrace of the instrument after the bands toured together in 1990 .
The first major breakthrough in the band 's critical reception was 1990 's Naïve , called " one of their strongest releases " by Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic , " brilliant " by fellow AllMusic critic Ned Raggett , " superb " by Hinds , and " the most fun ' industrial dance ' album ever " by Spin critic Chuck Eddy . The subsequent albums released in the 1990s were described as some of the band 's strongest by AllMusic critic Greg Prato , with their metal guitars , industrial beats , and dance floor sensibilities praised by Ira Robbins and CMJ New Music Monthly critic Heidi MacDonald . Michael Saunders of the Boston Globe said of the band : " It 's a small field , but KMFDM is tops in it : makers of dense , danceable , post @-@ industrial torrents of noise . The German band specializes in fabricating aural assaults that can be intimidating to the uninitiated . " MacDonald said in 1996 , " With Ministry gone grindcore , Skinny Puppy just gone , and Nine Inch Nails a brand name , KMFDM is now the standard bearer of industrial " , though Erlewine and Hinds felt the band was losing some steam towards the end of the decade .
Greg Rule declared in 1999 , after its temporary disbandment , that KMFDM had " produced nine high @-@ impact records that have earned them a large , loyal fanbase strewn across the planet . " Erlewine called the band " one of Wax Trax 's first industrial superstars " , " an underground sensation " , and " one of the major industrial bands of the ' 90s . " Most of the band 's albums released in the 21st century have been well @-@ received , although Prato and ReGen Magazine 's Ilker Yücel have commented on the sameness from one album to the next . Recent albums Blitz and WTF ? ! have been described as moving in an electronic , less guitar @-@ focused direction by Trey Spencer of Sputnikmusic and AllMusic 's David Jeffries .
= = Touring and fanbase = =
KMFDM has released on average an album every year and a half , and usually tours at least once in support of each album . At most concert venues , KMFDM mingles with the fans before and after the show to sign autographs , pose for photos , and answer questions . Konietzko , who keeps in contact with fans via e @-@ mail and the band 's website , and band representatives have experimented with ways for fans to interact more directly . KMFDM launched " Horde " in 2002 , an exclusive fan club which gave members the opportunity to attend a private meet @-@ and @-@ greet with the band before every show , and allowed access to members @-@ only music and footage online . A featurette on the Horde fan club appears on the WWIII Live 2003 DVD .
In the 2004 Fankam project , an audience member was selected at each concert to record that night 's show , as well as some back @-@ stage antics , with a hand @-@ held digital video camera . The resulting footage was incorporated into the following year 's 20th Anniversary World Tour DVD , which included fan photos submitted to the KMFDM official website . KMFDM encouraged fans to call a special " FanPhone " and leave a voice message in March 2007 . The song " Superpower " from 2007 's Tohuvabohu includes sound @-@ clips from these messages . The band used the Fankam project again for its 2011 " Kein Mitleid " tour in the United States .
= = = List of tours = = =
All tours featured KMFDM headlining , except where noted .
= = Album artwork = =
KMFDM has a long @-@ standing relationship with commercial artist Aidan " Brute ! " Hughes , who creates the artwork adorning almost all of the band 's albums and singles , which has been called " one of rock music 's most memorable cover art collections " . Hughes ' artwork is featured in KMFDM 's music videos for " A Drug Against War " and " Son of a Gun " , and on the band 's promotional t @-@ shirts . Art critic Brian Sherwin said Hughes is probably best known for the collection of KMFDM artwork he has created .
All of his work , which has been called " striking " , shares a distinct visual style inspired by Golden Age comic artists , Russian Constructivists , Italian Futurists , and woodcut artists . In an interview with Sherwin , Hughes stated , " KMFDM have cornered the market in industrial post @-@ modern angst and so my work reflects that . " Hughes said that initially he based his work on the music , which caused " artistic block " . Konietzko gave him more freedom to use whatever themes he wished , resulting in the cover to Money , which Hughes said " was based upon my disillusionment with the street lifestyle I was experiencing at the time , and the art carries with it the implication that no matter what temptation lies in your path , you still gotta pay ! "
The only studio album covers not designed by Hughes are Opium , which consists of a black and white photo , and Nihil , which was designed by Francesca Sundsten , wife of drummer Rieflin .
= = Members = =
= = = Official line @-@ up = = =
The official line @-@ up of KMFDM consists of :
Sascha Konietzko – vocals , guitar , bass , programming , keyboards , synthesizer , percussion
Lucia Cifarelli – vocals , keyboards
Jules Hodgson – guitar , bass , keyboards
Andy Selway – drums
Steve White – guitar
= = = Key former members = = =
En Esch – vocals , drums , guitar , programming
Raymond Watts – vocals , programming
Günter Schulz – guitar , programming
Mark Durante – guitar , steel guitar
Tim Skold – vocals , guitar , bass , drums , programming
= = Discography = =
= = = Studio albums = = =
= = Associated acts = =
Members of KMFDM have either founded , fronted , or supported a score of other bands throughout the band 's history , before , during , or after working in KMFDM .
Shotgun Messiah – Tim Sköld ( 1985 – 93 )
Pig – Raymond Watts ( 1988 – present ) ( Pig members Jules Hodgson , Andy Selway , and Steve White joined KMFDM in 2002 and 2003 ) , Günter Schulz ( touring guitarist 2006 – present )
Pigface – Bill Rieflin ( 1990 – 93 ) , En Esch ( 1990 – 93 , 1999 – 2005 ) , Schulz ( 1999 – 2005 )
Excessive Force – Sascha Konietzko , Esch , Schulz , Mark Durante ( 1991 – 93 )
Esch released two solo albums : Cheesy in 1993 and Spänk in 2014 .
Schaft – Watts ( 1994 )
Drill – was fronted by Lucia Cifarelli prior to her involvement MDFMK and KMFDM . ( 1995 – 96 )
Skold ( 1996 – present ) – Sköld has released material as a solo artist .
MDFMK – Formed by Konietzko , Skold , and Cifarelli during KMFDM 's hiatus ( 2000 – 01 )
Slick Idiot – Formed by Esch and Schulz following the 1999 break @-@ up of KMFDM ( 2001 – present )
Marilyn Manson – Skold ( 2002 – 2009 )
Schwein – Watts , Konietzko , Cifarelli ( 2001 )
Cifarelli released the solo album From the Land of Volcanos in 2003 .
Schulz – Schulz 's solo project ( 2004 – 06 )
R.E.M. – Rieflin ( 2004 – 11 )
KGC – Konietzko , Cifarelli ( 2006 )
Gare du Nord – Dorona Alberti ( 2006 – present )
Mona Mur & En Esch – Esch 's collaboration with German vocalist Mona Mur ( 2007 – present )
The Spittin ' Cobras – Hodgson , Selway ( 2009 – present )
PROLET • KULT ( 2011 ) – A solo album released by Konietzko under the name OK • ZTEIN • OK .
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= Imperial Trans @-@ Antarctic Expedition =
The Imperial Trans @-@ Antarctic Expedition ( 1914 – 17 ) , also known as the Endurance Expedition , is considered the last major expedition of the Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration . Conceived by Sir Ernest Shackleton , the expedition was an attempt to make the first land crossing of the Antarctic continent . After the conquest of the South Pole by Roald Amundsen in 1911 , this crossing remained , in Shackleton 's words , the " one great main object of Antarctic journeyings " . The expedition failed to accomplish this objective , but became recognised instead as an epic feat of endurance .
Shackleton had served in the Antarctic in Captain Scott 's Discovery Expedition , 1901 – 04 , and had led the British Antarctic Expedition , 1907 – 09 . In this new venture he proposed to sail to the Weddell Sea and to land a shore party near Vahsel Bay , in preparation for a transcontinental march via the South Pole to the Ross Sea . A supporting group , the Ross Sea party , would meanwhile establish camp in McMurdo Sound , and from there lay a series of supply depots across the Ross Ice Shelf to the foot of the Beardmore Glacier . These depots would be essential for the transcontinental party 's survival , as the group would not be able to carry enough provisions for the entire crossing . The expedition required two ships : Endurance under Shackleton for the Weddell Sea party , and Aurora , under Aeneas Mackintosh , for the Ross Sea party .
Endurance became beset in the ice of the Weddell Sea before reaching Vahsel Bay , and drifted northward , held in the pack ice , throughout the Antarctic winter of 1915 . Eventually the ship was crushed and sunk , stranding its 28 @-@ man complement on the ice . After months spent in makeshift camps as the ice continued its northwards drift , the party took to the lifeboats to reach the inhospitable , uninhabited Elephant Island . Shackleton and five others then made an 800 @-@ mile ( 1 @,@ 287 km ) open @-@ boat journey in the James Caird to reach South Georgia . From there , Shackleton was eventually able to mount a rescue of the men waiting on Elephant Island and bring them home without loss of life . On the other side of the continent , the Ross Sea party overcame great hardships to fulfil its mission . Aurora was blown from her moorings during a gale and was unable to return , leaving the shore party marooned without proper supplies or equipment . Nevertheless , the depots were laid , but three lives were lost before the party 's eventual rescue .
= = Preparations = =
= = = Origins = = =
Despite the public acclaim that had greeted Shackleton 's achievements during the Nimrod Expedition in 1907 – 09 , the explorer was unsettled , becoming — in the words of British skiing pioneer Sir Harry Brittain — " a bit of a floating gent " . By 1912 his future Antarctic plans depended on the results of Scott 's Terra Nova Expedition , which had left Cardiff in July 1910 , and on the concurrent Norwegian expedition led by Roald Amundsen . The news of Amundsen 's conquest of the South Pole reached Shackleton on 11 March 1912 , to which he responded : " The discovery of the South Pole will not be the end of Antarctic exploration " . The next work , he said , would be " a transcontinental journey from sea to sea , crossing the pole " . He was aware that others were in the field pursuing this objective . On 11 December 1911 , a German expedition under Wilhelm Filchner had sailed from South Georgia , intending to penetrate deep into the Weddell Sea and establishing a base from which he would cross the continent to the Ross Sea . In late 1912 Filchner returned to South Georgia , having failed to land and set up his base . However , his reports of possible landing sites in Vahsel Bay , at around 78 ° latitude , were noted by Shackleton , and incorporated into his developing expedition plans .
News of the deaths of Captain Scott and his companions on their return from the South Pole reached London in February 1913 . Against this gloomy background Shackleton initiated preparations for his proposed journey . He solicited financial and practical support from , among others , Tryggve Gran of Scott ’ s expedition , and the former Prime Minister Lord Rosebery , but received no help from either . Gran was evasive , and Rosebery blunt : " I have never been able to care one farthing about the Poles " . Shackleton got support , however , from William Speirs Bruce , leader of the Scottish National Antarctic Expedition of 1902 – 04 , who had harboured plans for an Antarctic crossing since 1908 , but had abandoned the project for lack of funds . Bruce generously allowed Shackleton to adopt his plans , although the eventual scheme announced by Shackleton owed little to Bruce . On 29 December 1913 , having acquired his first promises of financial backing — a £ 10 @,@ 000 grant from the British Government — Shackleton made his plans public , in a letter to The Times .
= = = Shackleton 's plan = = =
Shackleton called his new expedition the Imperial Trans @-@ Antarctic Expedition , because he felt that " not only the people of these islands , but our kinsmen in all the lands under the Union Jack will be willing to assist towards the carrying out of the ... programme of exploration . " To arouse the interest of the general public , Shackleton issued a detailed programme early in 1914 . The expedition was to consist of two parties and two ships . The Weddell Sea party would travel in the Endurance and continue to the Vahsel Bay area , where fourteen men would land of whom six , under Shackleton , would form the Transcontinental Party . This group , with 69 dogs , two motor sledges , and equipment " embodying everything that the experience of the leader and his expert advisers can suggest " , would undertake the 1 @,@ 800 @-@ mile ( 2 @,@ 900 km ) journey to the Ross Sea . The remaining eight shore party members would carry out scientific work , three going to Graham Land , three to Enderby Land and two remaining at base camp .
The Ross Sea party would set up its base in McMurdo Sound , on the opposite side of the continent . After landing they would lay depots on the route of the transcontinental party as far as the Beardmore Glacier , hopefully meeting that party there and assisting it home . They would also make geological and other observations .
= = = Finance = = =
Shackleton estimated that he would need £ 50 @,@ 000 ( current value £ 4 @,@ 327 @,@ 000 ) to carry out the simplest version of his plan . He did not believe in appeals to the public : " ( they ) cause endless book @-@ keeping worries " . His chosen method of fund @-@ raising was to solicit contributions from wealthy backers , and he had begun this process early in 1913 , with little initial success . The first significant encouragement came in December 1913 , when the Government offered him £ 10 @,@ 000 , provided he could raise an equivalent amount from private sources . The Royal Geographical Society , from which he had expected nothing , gave him £ 1 @,@ 000 — according to Huntford , Shackleton , in a grand gesture , advised them that he would only need to take up half of this sum . Lord Rosebery , who had previously expressed his lack of interest in polar expeditions , gave £ 50 . In February 1914 The New York Times reported that playwright J. M. Barrie – a close friend of Captain Scott – had confidentially donated $ 50 @,@ 000 ( about £ 10 @,@ 000 ) . With time running out , contributions were eventually secured during the spring and early summer of 1914 . Dudley Docker of the Birmingham Small Arms Company ( BSA ) gave £ 10 @,@ 000 , wealthy tobacco heiress Janet Stancomb @-@ Wills gave a " generous " sum ( the amount was not revealed ) , and , in June , Scottish industrialist Sir James Caird donated £ 24 @,@ 000 ( current value £ 2 @,@ 080 @,@ 000 ) . Shackleton informed the Morning Post that " this magnificent gift relieves me of all anxiety " .
Shackleton now had the money to proceed . He acquired , for £ 14 @,@ 000 ( current value £ 1 @,@ 210 @,@ 000 ) , a 300 @-@ ton barquentine called Polaris , which had been built for the Belgian explorer Adrien de Gerlache for an expedition to Spitsbergen . This scheme had collapsed and the ship became available . Shackleton changed her name to Endurance , reflecting his family motto " By endurance we conquer " . For a further £ 3 @,@ 200 ( current value £ 277 @,@ 000 ) , he acquired Douglas Mawson ’ s expedition ship Aurora , which was lying in Hobart , Tasmania . This would act as the Ross Sea party 's vessel .
How much money Shackleton raised to meet the total costs of the expedition ( later estimated by the Daily Mail to be around £ 80 @,@ 000 , is uncertain , since the size of the Stancomb @-@ Wills donation is not known . Money was a constant problem for Shackleton , who as an economy measure halved the funding allocated to the Ross Sea party , a fact which the party ’ s commander Aeneas Mackintosh only discovered when he arrived in Australia to take up his duties . Mackintosh was forced to haggle and plead for money and supplies to make his part of the expedition viable . Shackleton had , however , realised the revenue @-@ earning potential of the expedition . He sold the exclusive newspaper rights to the Daily Chronicle , and formed the Imperial Trans Antarctic Film Syndicate to take advantage of the film rights .
= = Personnel = =
According to legend , Shackleton posted an advertisement in a London paper , stating : " Men wanted for hazardous journey . Low wages , bitter cold , long hours of complete darkness . Safe return doubtful . Honour and recognition in event of success . " Searches for the original advertisement have proved unsuccessful , and the story is generally regarded as apocryphal . Shackleton received more than 5 @,@ 000 applications for places on the expedition , including a letter from " three sporty girls " who suggested that if their feminine garb was inconvenient they would " just love to don masculine attire . " Eventually the crews for the two arms of the expedition were trimmed down to 28 apiece , including William Bakewell , who joined the ship in Buenos Aires , his friend Perce Blackborow who stowed away when his application was turned down , and several last @-@ minute appointments made to the Ross Sea party in Australia . A temporary crewman was Sir Daniel Gooch , grandson of the renowned railway pioneer of the same name , who stepped in to help Shackleton as a dog handler at the last moment and signed up for an able seaman 's pay . Gooch agreed to sail with Endurance as far as South Georgia .
As his second @-@ in @-@ command , Shackleton chose Frank Wild , who had been with him on both the Discovery and Nimrod expeditions , and was one of the Furthest South party in 1909 . Wild had just returned from Mawson ’ s Australian Antarctic Expedition . To captain Endurance Shackleton had wanted John King Davis , who had commanded Aurora during the Australian Antarctic Expedition . Davis refused , thinking the enterprise was " foredoomed " , so the appointment went to Frank Worsley , who claimed to have applied to the expedition after learning of it in a dream . Royal Navy Chief Petty Officer Tom Crean , who had been awarded the Albert Medal for saving the life of Lieutenant Evans on the Terra Nova Expedition , took leave from the navy to sign on as Endurance 's Second Officer ; another experienced Antarctic hand , Alfred Cheetham , became Third Officer . Two Nimrod veterans were assigned to the Ross Sea party : Mackintosh who commanded it , and Ernest Joyce . Shackleton had hoped that the Aurora would be staffed by a naval crew , and had asked the Admiralty for officers and men , but was turned down . After pressing his case , Shackleton was given one officer from the Royal Marines , Captain Thomas Orde @-@ Lees , who was Superintendent of Physical Training at the Marines training depot .
The scientific staff of six accompanying Endurance comprised the two surgeons , Alexander Macklin and James McIlroy ; a geologist , James Wordie ; a biologist , Robert Clark ; a physicist Reginald James ; and Leonard Hussey , a meteorologist who would eventually edit Shackleton ’ s expedition account South . The visual record of the expedition was the responsibility of its photographer Frank Hurley and its artist George Marston . The final composition of the Ross Sea party was hurried . Some who left Britain for Australia to join Aurora resigned before it departed for the Ross Sea , and a full complement of crew was in doubt until the last minute . Within the party only Mackintosh and Joyce had any previous Antarctic experience ; Mackintosh had lost an eye as the result of an accident during the Nimrod expedition and had gone home early .
= = Expedition = =
= = = Weddell sea party = = =
= = = = Voyage through the ice = = = =
Endurance , without Shackleton ( who was detained in England by expedition business ) , left Plymouth on 8 August 1914 , heading first for Buenos Aires . Here Shackleton , who had travelled on a faster ship , rejoined the expedition . Hurley also came on board , together with Bakewell and the stowaway , Blackborow , while several others left the ship or were discharged . On 26 October the ship sailed for the South Atlantic , arriving in South Georgia on 5 November . Shackleton 's original intention was that the crossing would take place in the first season , 1914 – 15 . Although he soon recognised the impracticality of this , he neglected to inform Mackintosh and the Ross Sea party of his change of plan . According to the Daily Chronicle 's correspondent Ernest Perris , a cable intended for Macintosh was never sent .
After a month @-@ long halt in the Grytviken whaling station , Endurance departed for the Antarctic on 5 December . Two days later Shackleton was disconcerted to encounter pack ice as far north as 57 ° 26 ′ S , forcing the ship to manoeuvre . During the following days there were more tussles with the pack , which on 14 December was thick enough to halt the ship for 24 hours . Three days later the ship was stopped again . Shackleton commented : " I had been prepared for evil conditions in the Weddell Sea , but had hoped that the pack would be loose . What we were encountering was fairly dense pack of a very obstinate character " .
Endurance 's progress was frustratingly slow , until on 22 December leads opened up and the ship was able to continue steadily southward . This continued for the next two weeks , taking the party deep into the Weddell Sea . Further delays then slowed progress after the turn of the year , before a lengthy run south during 7 – 10 January 1915 brought them close to the 100 @-@ foot ( 30 m ) ice walls which guarded the Antarctic coastal region of Coats Land . This territory had been discovered and named by William Speirs Bruce in 1904 , during the Scottish National Antarctic Expedition . On 15 January Endurance came abreast of a great glacier , the edge of which formed a bay which appeared a good landing place . However , Shackleton considered it too far north of Vahsel Bay for a landing , " except under pressure of necessity " — a decision he would later regret . On 17 January the ship reached a latitude of 76 ° 27 ′ S , where land was faintly discernible . Shackleton named it Caird Coast , after his principal backer . Bad weather forced the ship to shelter in the lee of a stranded iceberg .
They were now close to Luitpold Land , discovered by Filchner in 1912 , at the southern end of which lay their destination , Vahsel Bay . Next day , the ship was forced north @-@ westward for 14 miles ( 23 km ) , resuming in a generally southerly direction before being stopped altogether . The position was 76 ° 34 ′ S , 31 ° 30 ′ W. After ten days of inactivity the ship ’ s fires were banked , to save fuel . Strenuous efforts were made to release her ; on 14 February Shackleton ordered men on to the ice with ice @-@ chisels , prickers , saws and picks , to try and force a passage , but the labour proved futile . Shackleton did not at this stage abandon all hope of breaking free , but was now contemplating the " possibility of having to spend a winter in the inhospitable arms of the pack " .
= = = = Drift of Endurance = = = =
On 21 February 1915 Endurance , still held fast , drifted to her most southerly latitude , 76 ° 58 ′ S. Thereafter she began moving with the pack in a northerly direction . On 24 February Shackleton realised that they would be held in the ice throughout the winter , and ordered ship ’ s routine abandoned . The dogs were taken off board and housed in ice @-@ kennels or " dogloos " , and the ship ’ s interior was converted to suitable winter quarters for the various groups of men — officers , scientists , engineers , and seamen . A wireless apparatus was rigged , but their location was too remote to receive or transmit signals .
Shackleton was aware of the recent example of Wilhelm Filchner 's ship , the Deutschland , which had become icebound in the same vicinity three years earlier . After Filchner 's attempts to establish a land base at Vahsel Bay failed , his ship Deutschland was trapped on 6 March 1912 , about 200 miles ( 320 km ) off the coast of Coats Land . Six months later , at latitude 63 ° 37 ’ , the ship broke free , then sailed to South Georgia apparently none the worse for its ordeal . Shackleton thought that a similar experience might allow Endurance to make a second attempt to reach Vahsel Bay in the following Antarctic spring .
In February and March the rate of drift was very slow . At the end of March Shackleton calculated that the ship had travelled a mere 95 miles ( 153 km ) since 19 January . However , as winter set in the speed of the drift increased , and the condition of the surrounding ice changed . On 14 April Shackleton recorded the nearby pack " piling and rafting against the masses of ice " — if the ship was caught in this disturbance " she would be crushed like an eggshell " . In May , as the sun set for the winter months , the ship was at 75 ° 23 ′ S , 42 ° 14 ′ W , still drifting northwards . It would be at least four months before spring brought the chance of an opening of the ice , and there was no certainty that Endurance would break free in time to attempt a return to the Vahsel Bay area . Shackleton now considered the possibility of finding an alternative landing ground on the western shores of the Weddell Sea , if that coast could be reached . " In the meantime " , he wrote , " we must wait " .
In the dark winter months of May , June and July , Shackleton was concerned to maintain fitness , training and morale . Although the scope for activity was limited , the dogs were exercised ( and on occasion raced competitively ) , men were encouraged to take moonlight walks , and aboard ship there were attempted theatricals . Special occasions such as Empire Day ( 24 May ) were duly celebrated . The first signs of the ice breaking up occurred on 22 July . On 1 August , in a south @-@ westerly gale with heavy snow , the ice floe began to disintegrate all around the ship , the pressure forcing masses of ice beneath the keel and causing a heavy list to port . The position was perilous ; Shackleton wrote : " The effects of the pressure around us was awe @-@ inspiring . Mighty blocks of ice [ ... ] rose slowly till they jumped like cherry @-@ stones gripped between thumb and finger [ ... ] if the ship was once gripped firmly her fate would be sealed " . This danger passed , and the succeeding weeks were quiet . During this relative lull the ship drifted into the area where , in 1823 , Captain Benjamin Morrell of the sealer Wasp reported seeing a coastline which he identified as " New South Greenland " . There was no sign of any such land ; Shackleton concluded that Morrell had been deceived by the presence of large icebergs .
On 30 September the ship sustained what Shackleton described as " the worst squeeze we had experienced " . Worsley described the pressure as like being " thrown to and fro like a shuttlecock a dozen times " . On 24 October , the starboard side was forced against a large floe , increasing the pressure until the hull began to bend and splinter , so that water from below the ice began to pour into the ship . When the timbers broke they made noises which sailors later described as being similar to the sound of " heavy fireworks and the blasting of guns " . The supplies and three lifeboats were transferred to the ice , while the crew attempted to shore up the boat 's hull and pump out the incoming sea , but after a few days , on 27 October 1915 , and in freezing temperatures below − 15 ° F ( − 25 ° C ) , Shackleton gave the order to abandon ship . The position at abandonment was 69 ° 05 ′ S , 51 ° 30 ′ W. The wreckage remained afloat , and over the following weeks the crew salvaged further supplies and materials , including Hurley 's photographs and cameras that had initially been left behind . From around 550 plates Hurley chose the best 150 , the maximum that could be carried , and smashed the rest .
= = = = Camping on the ice = = = =
With the loss of the ship the transcontinental plans were abandoned , and the focus shifted to that of survival . Shackleton 's intention now was to march the crew westward , to one or other of several possible destinations . His first thought was for Paulet Island , where he knew there was a hut containing a substantial food depot , because he had ordered it 12 years earlier while organising relief for Otto Nordenskiöld ’ s stranded Swedish expedition . Other possibilities were Snow Hill Island , which had been Nordenskiöld ’ s winter quarters and which was believed to contain a stock of emergency supplies , or Robertson Island . Shackleton believed that from one of these islands they would be able to reach and cross Graham Land , and get to the whaling outposts in Wilhelmina Bay . He calculated that on the day Endurance was abandoned they were 346 miles from Paulet Island . Worsley calculated the distance to Snow Hill Island to be 312 miles ( 500 km ) , with a further 120 miles ( 190 km ) to Wilhelmina Bay . He believed the march was too risky ; they should wait until the ice carried them to open water , and then escape in the boats . Shackleton overruled him .
Before the march could begin , Shackleton ordered the weakest animals to be shot , including the carpenter Harry McNish 's cat , Mrs. Chippy , and a pup which had become a pet of the surgeon Macklin . The company set out on 30 October 1915 , with two of the ship 's lifeboats carried on sledges . Problems quickly arose , as the condition of the sea ice around them worsened . According to Hurley the surface became " a labyrinth of hummocks and ridges " , in which barely a square yard was smooth . In three days the party managed to travel barely two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) , and on 1 November Shackleton abandoned the march ; they would make camp and await the break @-@ up of the ice . They gave the name " Ocean Camp " to the flat and solid @-@ looking floe on which their aborted march had ended , and settled down to wait . Parties continued to revisit the Endurance wreck , which was still drifting with the ice a short distance from the camp . More of the abandoned supplies were retrieved until , on 21 November 1915 , the ship finally slipped beneath the ice .
The ice was not drifting fast enough to be noticeable , although by late November the speed was up to seven miles a day . By 5 December they had passed 68 ° S , but the direction was turning slightly east of north . This was taking them to a position from which it would be difficult to reach Snow Hill Island , although Paulet Island , further north , remained a possibility . It was about 250 miles ( 400 km ) away , and Shackleton was anxious to reduce the length of the lifeboat journey that would be necessary to reach it . Therefore , on 21 December he announced a second march , to begin on 23 December .
Conditions , however , had not improved since the earlier attempt . Temperatures had risen and it was uncomfortably warm , with men sinking to their knees in soft snow as they struggled to haul the boats through the pressure ridges . On 27 December ship ’ s carpenter Harry McNish rebelled and refused to work . He argued that Ship ’ s Articles had lapsed since Endurance ’ s sinking , and that he was no longer under orders . Shackleton ’ s firm remonstrance finally brought the carpenter to heel , but the incident was never forgotten . Two days later , with only seven and a half miles ’ ( 12 km ) progress achieved in seven back @-@ breaking days , Shackleton called a halt , observing : " It would take us over three hundred days to reach the land " . The crew put up their tents and settled into what Shackleton called " Patience Camp " , which would be their home for more than three months .
Supplies were now running low . Hurley and Macklin were sent back to Ocean Camp to recover food that had been left there to lighten the sledging teams ’ burden . On 2 February 1916 Shackleton sent a larger party back , to recover the third lifeboat . Food shortages became acute as the weeks passed , and seal meat , which had added variety to their diet , now became a staple as Shackleton attempted to conserve the remaining packaged rations . In January , all but two teams of the dogs ( whose overall numbers had been depleted by mishaps and illness in the preceding months ) were shot on Shackleton ’ s orders , because the dogs ' requirements for seal meat were excessive . The final two teams were shot on 2 April , by which time their meat was a welcome addition to the rations . Meanwhile , the rate of drift became erratic ; after being held at around 67 ° for several weeks , at the end of January there was a series of rapid north @-@ eastward movements which , by 17 March , brought Patience Camp to the latitude of Paulet Island , but 60 miles ( 97 km ) to its east . " It might have been six hundred for all the chance we had of reaching it across the broken sea @-@ ice " , Shackleton recorded .
The party now had land more or less continuously in sight . The peak of Mount Haddington on James Ross Island remained in view as the party drifted slowly by . They were too far north for Snow Hill or Paulet Island to be accessible , and Shackleton 's chief hopes were now fixed on two remaining small islands at the northern extremity of Graham Land . These were Clarence Island and Elephant Island , around 100 miles ( 160 km ) due north of their position on 25 March . He then decided that Deception Island might be a better target destination . This lay far to the west , towards the South Shetland Islands chain , but Shackleton thought it might be attainable by island @-@ hopping . Its advantage was that it was sometimes visited by whalers , and might contain provisions , whereas Clarence Island and Elephant Island were desolate and unvisited . To reach any of these destinations would require a perilous journey in the lifeboats , once the floe upon which they were drifting finally broke up . Earlier , the lifeboats had been named after the expedition ’ s three chief financial sponsors : James Caird , Dudley Docker and Stancomb Wills .
= = = = Lifeboat journey to Elephant Island = = = =
The end of Patience Camp was signalled on the evening of 8 April , when the floe suddenly split . The camp now found itself on a small triangular raft of ice ; a break @-@ up of this would mean disaster , so Shackleton readied the lifeboats for the party ’ s enforced departure . He had now decided they would try , if possible , to reach the distant Deception Island because a small wooden church had been reportedly erected for the benefit of whalers . This could provide a source of timber that might enable them to construct a seaworthy boat . At 1 pm on 9 April the Dudley Docker was launched , and an hour later all three boats were away . Shackleton himself commanded the James Caird , Worsley the Dudley Docker , and navigating officer Hubert Hudson was nominally in charge of the Stancomb Wills , though because of his precarious mental state the effective commander was Tom Crean .
The boats were surrounded by ice , dependent upon leads of water opening up , and progress was perilous and erratic . Frequently the boats were tied to floes , or dragged up on to them , while the men camped and waited for conditions to improve . Shackleton was wavering again between several potential destinations , and on 12 April rejected the various island options and decided on Hope Bay , at the very tip of Graham Land . However , conditions in the boats , in temperatures sometimes as low as − 20 ° F ( − 30 ° C ) , with little food and regular soakings in icy seawater , were wearing the men down , physically and mentally . Shackleton therefore decided that Elephant Island , the nearest of the possible refuges , was now the most practical option .
On 14 April the boats lay off the south @-@ east coast of Elephant Island , but could not land as the shore consisted of perpendicular cliffs and glaciers . Next day the James Caird rounded the eastern point of the island , to reach the northern lee shore , and discovered a narrow shingle beach . Soon afterwards , the three boats , which had been separated during the previous night , were reunited at this landing place . It was apparent from high tide markings that this beach would not serve as a long @-@ term camp , so the next day Wild and a crew set off in the Stancomb Wills to explore the coast for a safer site . They returned with news of a long spit of land , seven miles ( 11 km ) to the west . With minimum delay the men returned to the boats and transferred to this new location , which they later christened Cape Wild .
= = = = Voyage of the James Caird = = = =
Elephant Island was remote , uninhabited , and rarely visited by whalers or any other ships . If the party was to return to civilization it would be necessary to summon help . The only realistic way this could be done was to adapt one of the lifeboats for an 800 @-@ mile ( 1 @,@ 300 km ) voyage across the Southern Ocean , to South Georgia . Shackleton had abandoned thoughts of taking the party on the less dangerous journey to Deception Island , because of the poor physical condition of many of his party . Port Stanley in the Falkland Islands was closer than South Georgia , but could not be reached , as this would require sailing against the strong prevailing winds .
Shackleton selected the boat party : himself , Worsley as navigator , Crean , McNish , John Vincent and Timothy McCarthy . On instructions from Shackleton , McNish immediately set about adapting the James Caird , improvising tools and materials . Frank Wild was to be left in charge of the Elephant Island party , with instructions to make for Deception Island the following spring , should Shackleton not return . Shackleton took supplies for only four weeks , knowing that if land had not been reached within that time the boat would be lost .
The 22 @.@ 5 @-@ foot ( 6 @.@ 85 m ) James Caird was launched on 24 April 1916 . The success of the voyage depended on the pin @-@ point accuracy of Worsley 's navigation , using observations that would have to be made in the most unfavourable of conditions . The prevailing wind was helpfully north @-@ west , but the heavy sea conditions quickly soaked everything in icy water . Soon ice settled thickly on the boat , making her ride sluggishly . On 5 May a north @-@ westerly gale almost caused the boat 's destruction as it faced what Shackleton described as the largest waves he had seen in twenty @-@ six years at sea . On 8 May South Georgia was sighted , after a 14 @-@ day battle with the elements that had driven the boat party to their physical limits . Two days later , after a prolonged struggle with heavy seas and hurricane @-@ force winds to the south of the island , the party struggled ashore at King Haakon Bay .
= = = = South Georgia crossing = = = =
The arrival of the James Caird at King Haakon Bay was followed by a period of rest and recuperation , while Shackleton pondered the next move . The populated whaling stations of South Georgia lay on the northern coast . To reach them would mean either another boat journey around the island , or a land crossing through its unexplored interior . The condition of the James Caird , and the physical state of the party , particularly Vincent and McNish , meant that the crossing was the only realistic option .
After five days the party took the boat a short distance eastwards , to the head of a deep bay which would be the starting point for the crossing . Shackleton , Worsley and Crean would undertake the land journey , the others remaining at what they christened " Peggotty Camp " , to be picked up later after help had been obtained from the whaling stations . A storm on 18 May delayed their start , but by two o 'clock the following morning the weather was clear and calm , and an hour later the crossing party set out .
Without a map , the route they chose was largely conjectural . By dawn they had ascended to 3 @,@ 000 feet ( 910 m ) and could see the northern coast . They were above Possession Bay , which meant they would need to move eastward to reach their intended destination of Stromness . This meant the first of several backtrackings that would extend the journey and frustrate the men . At the close of that first day , needing to descend to the valley below them before nightfall , they risked everything by sliding down a mountainside on a makeshift rope sledge . There was no question of rest — they travelled on by moonlight , moving upwards towards a gap in the next mountainous ridge . Early next morning , 20 May , seeing Husvik Harbour below them , they knew that they were on the right path . At seven o 'clock in the morning they heard the steam whistle sound from Stromness , " the first sound created by an outside human agency that had come to our ears since we left Stromness Bay in December 1914 " . After a difficult descent , which involved passage down through a freezing waterfall , they at last reached safety .
Shackleton wrote afterwards : " I have no doubt that Providence guided us ... I know that during that long and racking march of thirty @-@ six hours over the unnamed mountains and glaciers it seemed to me often that we were four , not three " . This image of a fourth traveller — echoed in the accounts of Worsley and Crean — was taken up by T. S. Eliot in his poem The Waste Land .
= = = = Rescue = = = =
Shackleton 's first task , on arriving at the Stromness station , was to arrange for his three companions at Peggoty Camp to be picked up . A whaler was sent round the coast , with Worsley aboard to show the way , and by the evening of 21 May all six of the James Caird party were safe .
It took four attempts before Shackleton was able to return to Elephant Island to rescue the party stranded there . He first left South Georgia a mere three days after he had arrived in Stromness , after securing the use of a large whaler , The Southern Sky , which was laid up in Husvik Harbour . Shackleton assembled a volunteer crew , which had it ready to sail by the morning of 22 May . As the vessel approached Elephant Island they saw that an impenetrable barrier of pack ice had formed , some 70 miles ( 110 km ) from their destination . The Southern Sky was not built for ice breaking , and retreated to Port Stanley in the Falkland Islands .
On reaching Port Stanley , Shackleton informed London by cable of his whereabouts , and requested that a suitable vessel be sent south for the rescue operation . He was informed by the Admiralty that nothing was available before October , which in his view was too late . Then , with the help of the British Minister in Montevideo , Shackleton obtained from the Uruguayan government the loan of a tough trawler , Instituto de Pesca No. 1 , which started south on 10 June . Again the pack thwarted them . In search of another ship , Shackleton , Worsley and Crean travelled to Punta Arenas , in Chile , where they met Allan MacDonald , the British owner of the schooner Emma . McDonald equipped this vessel for a further rescue attempt , which left on 12 July , but with the same negative result — the pack defeated them yet again . Shackleton later named a glacier after McDonald on the Brunt Ice Shelf in the Weddell Sea . After problems arose in identifying this glacier , a nearby ice rise was renamed the McDonald Ice Rumples .
By now it was mid @-@ August , more than three months since Shackleton had left Elephant Island . Shackleton begged the Chilean Government to lend him Yelcho , a small steam tug that had assisted Emma during the previous attempt . The Government agreed , and on 25 August Yelcho , captained by Luis Pardo , set out for Elephant Island . This time , as Shackleton records , providence favoured them . The seas were open , and the ship was able to approach close to the island , in thick fog . At 11 : 40 am on 30 August the fog lifted , the camp was spotted and , within an hour , all the Elephant Island party were safely aboard , bound for Punta Arenas .
= = = = On Elephant Island = = = =
After Shackleton left with the James Caird , Frank Wild took command of the Elephant Island party , some of whom were in a low state , physically or mentally : Lewis Rickinson had suffered a suspected heart attack ; Blackborow was unable to walk , due to frostbitten feet ; Hudson was mentally depressed . The priority for the party was a permanent shelter against the rapidly approaching southern winter . On the suggestion of Marston and Lionel Greenstreet , a hut ( nicknamed the " Snuggery " ) was improvised by upturning the two boats and placing them on low stone walls , to provide around five feet of headroom . By means of canvas and other materials the structure was made into a crude but effective shelter .
Wild initially estimated that they would have to wait one month for rescue , and refused to allow long @-@ term stockpiling of seal and penguin meat because this , in his view , was defeatist . This policy led to sharp disagreements with Thomas Orde @-@ Lees . Orde @-@ Lees was not a popular man , and his presence apparently did little to improve the morale of his companions , unless it was by way of being the butt of their jokes .
As the weeks extended well beyond his initial optimistic forecast , Wild established and maintained routines and activities to relieve the tedium . A permanent lookout was kept for the arrival of the rescue ship , cooking and housekeeping rotas were established , and there were hunting trips for seal and penguin . Concerts were held on Saturdays , and anniversaries celebrated , but there were growing feelings of despondency as time passed with no sign of the ship . The toes on Blackborow 's left foot became gangrenous from frostbite , and on 15 June had to be amputated by the surgeons Macklin and James McIlroy in the candle @-@ lit hut . Using the very last of the chloroform that had survived in the medical supplies , the whole procedure took 55 minutes , and was a complete success .
By 23 August , it seemed that Wild ’ s no @-@ stockpiling policy had failed . The surrounding sea was dense with pack ice that would halt any rescue ship , food supplies were running out and no penguins were coming ashore . Orde @-@ Lees wrote : " We shall have to eat the one who dies first [ ... ] there ’ s many a true word said in jest " . Wild ’ s thoughts were now turning seriously to the possibility of a boat trip to Deception Island — he planned to set out on 5 October , in the hoping of meeting a whaling ship — when , on 30 August 1916 , the ordeal ended suddenly with the appearance of Shackleton and Yelcho .
= = = Ross Sea Party = = =
Aurora left Hobart on 24 December 1914 , having been delayed in Australia by financial and organizational problems . The arrival in McMurdo Sound on 15 January 1915 was later in the season than planned , but the party ’ s commander Aeneas Mackintosh made immediate plans for a depot @-@ laying journey on the Ross Ice Shelf , since he understood that Shackleton hoped to attempt the crossing during that first season . Neither the men nor the dogs were acclimatised , and the party was , as a whole , very inexperienced in ice conditions . The first journey on the ice resulted in the loss of ten of the party ’ s 18 dogs and a frostbitten and generally demoralised shore party ; a single , incomplete depot was their only achievement .
On 7 May Aurora , anchored at the party 's Cape Evans headquarters , was wrenched from her moorings during a gale and carried with drifting ice far out to sea . Unabled to return to McMurdo Sound , she remained captive in the ice for nine months until on 12 February 1916 , having travelled a distance of around 1 @,@ 600 miles ( 2 @,@ 600 km ) , she reached open water and limped to New Zealand . She carried with her the greater part of the shore party ’ s fuel , food rations , clothing and equipment , although the sledging rations for the depots had been landed ashore . To continue with its mission the stranded shore party had to re @-@ supply and re @-@ equip itself from the leftovers from earlier expeditions , notably Captain Scott ’ s Terra Nova Expedition which had been based at Cape Evans a few years earlier . They were thus able to begin the second season ’ s depot @-@ laying on schedule , in September 1915 .
In the following months the required depots were laid , at one @-@ degree intervals across the Ross Ice Shelf to the foot of the Beardmore Glacier . On the return journey from the glacier the party was attacked by scurvy ; Arnold Spencer @-@ Smith , the expedition ’ s chaplain and photographer , collapsed and died on the ice . The remainder of the party reached the temporary shelter of Hut Point , a relic of the Discovery Expedition at the southern end of McMurdo Sound , where they slowly recovered . On 8 May 1916 Mackintosh and Victor Hayward decided to walk across the unstable sea ice to Cape Evans , were caught in a blizzard , and were not seen again . The survivors eventually reached Cape Evans , but then had to wait for eight further months . Finally , on 10 January 1917 the repaired and refitted Aurora , whose departure from New Zealand had been delayed by lack of money , arrived to transport them back to civilization ; . Shackleton accompanied the ship as a supernumerary officer , having been denied command by the governments of New Zealand , Australia and Great Britain who had jointly organised and financed the Ross Sea party 's relief .
= = Return to civilization , and aftermath = =
The rescued party , having had its last contact with civilization in 1914 , was unaware of the course of the World War . News of Shackleton 's safe arrival in the Falklands briefly eclipsed war news in the British newspapers on 2 June 1916 . The expedition returned home in piecemeal fashion , at a critical stage in the war , without the normal honours and civic receptions . When Shackleton himself finally arrived in England on 29 May 1917 , after a short American lecture tour , his return was barely noticed .
Despite McNish 's efforts on the in preparing and sailing on James Caird voyage , his prior insubordination meant that , on Shackleton ’ s recommendation , he was one of four men denied the Polar Medal ; the others whose contributions fell short of Shackleton 's expected standards were John Vincent , William Stephenson and Ernest Holness . Most of the members of the expedition returned to take up immediate active military or naval service . Before the war ended two — Tim McCarthy of the open boat journey and the veteran Antarctic sailor Alfred Cheetham — had been killed in action , and Ernest Wild of the Ross Sea party had died of typhoid while serving in the Mediterranean . Several others were severely wounded , and many received decorations for gallantry . Following a propaganda mission in Buenos Aires , Shackleton was employed during the last weeks of the war on special service in Murmansk , with the Army rank of Major . This occupied him until March 1919 . He thereafter organised one final Antarctic expedition , the Shackleton – Rowett Expedition on Quest , which left London on 17 September 1921 . From the Endurance crew , Wild , Worsley , Macklin , McIlroy , Hussey , Alexander Kerr , Thomas McLeod and cook Charles Green , all sailed with Quest .
Shackleton died of a heart attack on 5 January 1922 , while Quest was anchored at South Georgia . After his death the original programme , which had included an exploration of Enderby Land , was abandoned . Wild led a brief cruise which brought them into sight of Elephant Island . They anchored off Cape Wild , and were able to see the old landmarks , but sea conditions made it impossible for them to land .
It would be more than 40 years before the first crossing of Antarctica was achieved , by the Commonwealth Trans @-@ Antarctic Expedition , 1955 – 58 . This expedition set out from Vahsel Bay , following a route which avoided the Beardmore Glacier altogether , and bypassed much of the Ross Ice Shelf , reaching McMurdo Sound via a descent of the Skelton Glacier . The entire journey took 98 days .
Films and documentaries about the Imperial Trans @-@ Antarctic Expedition include the 2002 two @-@ part television drama Shackleton , written and directed by Charles Sturridge , with Kenneth Branagh as Shackleton . In preparation for his role , Branagh spent six weeks in the Antarctic . In 2013 PBS screened a three @-@ part documentary that recreates the James Caird voyage using a replica lifeboat and original materials .
= = Films = =
South . ( 1919 ) . Frank Hurley 's original documentary film of the Endurance voyage
The Endurance : Shackleton 's Legendary Antarctic Expedition . 2000 film directed by George Butler ; a retelling of the story .
Shackleton 's Antarctic Adventure Reconstruction , filmed in 1999 and 2000
Great Adventurers : Ernest Shackleton – To The End Of The Earth Documentary film from 1999
Shackleton ( TV film ) Two @-@ part television film from 2001 starring Kenneth Branagh as Ernest Shackleton
|
= Tiger Woods =
Eldrick Tont " Tiger " Woods ( born December 30 , 1975 ) is an American professional golfer who is among the most successful golfers of all time . He has been one of the highest @-@ paid athletes in the world for several years .
Following an outstanding amateur and two @-@ year college golf career , Woods turned professional at age 20 in late summer 1996 . By April 1997 he had already won his first major , the 1997 Masters , in a record @-@ breaking performance , winning the tournament by 12 strokes and pocketing $ 486 @,@ 000 . He first reached the number one position in the world rankings in June 1997 . Through the 2000s , Woods was the dominant force in golf , spending 264 weeks from August 1999 to September 2004 and 281 weeks from June 2005 to October 2010 as World Number One .
From December 2009 to early April 2010 , Woods took leave from professional golf to focus on his marriage after he admitted infidelity , but he and his wife Elin Nordegren eventually divorced . His many extramarital indiscretions were revealed by several different women , through many worldwide media sources . This was followed by a loss of golf form , and his ranking gradually fell to a low of No. 58 in November 2011 . He ended a career @-@ high winless streak of 107 weeks when he captured the Chevron World Challenge in December 2011 . After winning the Arnold Palmer Invitational on March 25 , 2013 , he ascended to the No.1 ranking once again , holding the top spot until May 2014 . Woods had back surgery ( microdiscectomy ) in April 2014 and September 2015 and has struggled since to regain his dominant form . By March 29 , 2015 , Woods had fallen to # 104 , outside of the top 100 for the first time since the week prior to his first Tour title win in 1996 . In May 2016 , Woods dropped out of the world top 500 for the first time in his professional career .
Woods has broken numerous golf records . He has been World Number One for the most consecutive weeks and for the greatest total number of weeks of any golfer . He has been awarded PGA Player of the Year a record eleven times , the Byron Nelson Award for lowest adjusted scoring average a record eight times , and has the record of leading the money list in ten different seasons . He has won 14 professional major golf championships , the second @-@ highest of any player ( Jack Nicklaus leads with 18 ) , and 79 PGA Tour events , second all time behind Sam Snead , who had 82 wins . He has more career major wins and career PGA Tour wins than any other active golfer . He is the youngest player to achieve the career Grand Slam , and the youngest and fastest to win 50 tournaments on tour . Additionally , Woods is only the second golfer , after Nicklaus , to have achieved a career Grand Slam three times . Woods has won 18 World Golf Championships , and won at least one of those events in each of the first 11 years after they began in 1999 . Woods and Rory McIlroy are the only golfers to win both The Silver Medal and The Gold Medal at The Open Championship .
= = Background and family = =
Woods was born in Cypress , California , to Earl ( 1932 – 2006 ) and Kultida ( Tida ) Woods ( born 1944 ) . He is the only child of their marriage ; however , he does have two half @-@ brothers , Earl Jr . ( born 1955 ) and Kevin ( born 1957 ) , and a half @-@ sister , Royce ( born 1958 ) from the 18 @-@ year marriage of Earl Woods and his first wife , Barbara Woods Gray .
Kultida ( née Punsawad ) , originally from Thailand ( where Earl had met her on a tour of duty in 1968 ) , is of mixed Thai , Chinese , and Dutch ancestry , making her an Asian American . Earl , a retired lieutenant colonel and Vietnam War veteran , was of mostly African American and traces of European descent . Earl 's grandmother was " the prettiest blonde you ever saw " and Earl 's mother Maude Carter was of light skin . Some suggest possible Native American and Chinese ancestry . Tiger refers to his ethnic make @-@ up as " Cablinasian " ( a syllabic abbreviation he coined from Caucasian , Black , American Indian , and Asian ) .
Woods ' first name , Eldrick , was coined by his mother because it began with " E " ( for Earl ) and ended with " K " ( for Kultida ) . His middle name Tont is a traditional Thai name . He was nicknamed Tiger in honor of his father 's friend Col. Vuong Dang Phong , who had also been known as Tiger .
Woods has a niece , Cheyenne Woods , who played for Wake Forest University 's golf team and turned professional in 2012 , making her pro debut in the LPGA Championship .
= = Early life and amateur golf career = =
Woods grew up in Orange County , California . He was a child prodigy , introduced to golf before the age of two , by his athletic father Earl , a single @-@ figure handicap amateur golfer who had been one of the earliest African @-@ American college baseball players at Kansas State University . In 1978 , Tiger putted against comedian Bob Hope in a television appearance on The Mike Douglas Show . At age three , he shot a 48 over nine holes over the Cypress Navy course , and at age five , he appeared in Golf Digest and on ABC 's That 's Incredible . Before turning seven , Tiger won the Under Age 10 section of the Drive , Pitch , and Putt competition , held at the Navy Golf Course in Cypress , California . In 1984 at the age of eight , he won the 9 – 10 boys ' event , the youngest age group available , at the Junior World Golf Championships . He first broke 80 at age eight . He went on to win the Junior World Championships six times , including four consecutive wins from 1988 to 1991 .
Woods ' father Earl wrote that Tiger first defeated him at the age of 11 years , with Earl trying his best . Earl lost to Tiger every time from then on . Woods first broke 70 on a regulation golf course at age 12 .
Woods ' first major national junior tournament was the 1989 Big I , when he was 13 years old . Woods was paired with pro John Daly , then relatively unknown , in the final round ; the event 's format placed a professional with each group of juniors who had qualified . Daly birdied three of the last four holes to beat Woods by only one stroke . As a young teenager , Woods first met Jack Nicklaus in Los Angeles at the Bel @-@ Air Country Club , when Nicklaus was performing a clinic for the club 's members . Woods was part of the show , and impressed Nicklaus and the crowd with his skills and potential . Earl Woods had researched in detail the career accomplishments of Nicklaus , and had set his young son the goals of breaking those records .
While attending Western High School in Anaheim at the age of 15 , Woods became the youngest @-@ ever U.S. Junior Amateur champion ( a record which stood until it was broken by Jim Liu in 2010 ) . He was named 1991 's Southern California Amateur Player of the Year ( for the second consecutive year ) and Golf Digest Junior Amateur Player of the Year . In 1992 , he defended his title at the U.S. Junior Amateur Championship , becoming the first multiple winner ; competed in his first PGA Tour event , the Nissan Los Angeles Open ( he missed the 36 @-@ hole cut ) ; and was named Golf Digest Amateur Player of the Year , Golf World Player of the Year , and Golfweek National Amateur of the Year .
The following year , Woods won his third consecutive U.S. Junior Amateur Championship ; he remains the event 's only three @-@ time winner . In 1994 , at the TPC at Sawgrass in Florida , he became the youngest @-@ ever winner of the U.S. Amateur Championship , a record he held until 2008 when it was broken by Danny Lee . He was a member of the American team at the 1994 Eisenhower Trophy World Amateur Golf Team Championships ( winning ) , and the 1995 Walker Cup ( losing ) .
Woods graduated from Western High School in 1994 at age 18 , and was voted " Most Likely to Succeed " among the graduating class . He had starred for the high school 's golf team under coach Don Crosby .
Woods overcame difficulties with stuttering as a boy . This was not known until he wrote a letter to a boy who contemplated suicide . Woods wrote , " I know what it 's like to be different and to sometimes not fit in . I also stuttered as a child and I would talk to my dog and he would sit there and listen until he fell asleep . I also took a class for two years to help me , and I finally learned to stop . "
= = College golf career = =
Woods was recruited very heavily by college golf powers , and chose Stanford University , the 1994 NCAA Division I champions . He enrolled at Stanford in the fall of 1994 under a golf scholarship , winning his first collegiate event , the 40th Annual William H. Tucker Invitational , that September . He selected a major in economics , and was nicknamed " Urkel " by college teammate Notah Begay III . In 1995 , he successfully defended his U.S. Amateur title at the Newport Country Club in Rhode Island and was voted Pac @-@ 10 Player of the Year , NCAA First Team All @-@ American , and Stanford 's Male Freshman of the Year ( an award that encompasses all sports ) .
At age 19 , Woods participated in his first PGA Tour major , the 1995 Masters Tournament , and tied for 41st as the only amateur to make the cut . At age 20 in 1996 , he became the first golfer to win three consecutive U.S. Amateur titles and won the NCAA individual golf championship . In winning the Silver Medal as leading amateur at The Open Championship , he tied the record for an amateur aggregate score of 281 . He left college after two years and turned professional . In 1996 , Woods moved out of California , stating in 2013 that it was due to the state 's tax rate .
= = Professional career = =
Woods became a professional golfer in August 1996 , and immediately signed deals with Nike , Inc. and Titleist that ranked as the most lucrative endorsement contracts in golf history at that time . Woods was named Sports Illustrated 's 1996 Sportsman of the Year and PGA Tour Rookie of the Year . In April 1997 , he won his first major , the Masters , becoming the tournament 's youngest @-@ ever winner . Two months later , he set the record for the fastest @-@ ever ascent to No. 1 in the Official World Golf Rankings . After a lackluster 1998 , Woods finished the 1999 season with eight wins , including the PGA Championship , a feat not achieved since 1974 .
In 2000 , Woods achieved six consecutive wins , the longest winning streak since Ben Hogan did it in 1948 . One of these was the 2000 U.S. Open , where he broke or tied nine tournament records in what Sports Illustrated called " the greatest performance in golf history , " in which Woods won the tournament by a 15 @-@ stroke margin and earned a check for $ 800 @,@ 000 . At age 24 , he became the youngest golfer to achieve the Career Grand Slam . At the end of 2000 , Woods had won nine of the twenty PGA Tour events he entered and had broken the record for lowest scoring average in tour history . He was named the Sports Illustrated Sportsman of the Year , the only athlete to be honored twice , and was ranked by Golf Digest magazine as the twelfth @-@ best golfer of all time .
Woods ' victory in the 2001 Masters Tournament made him the first player to hold all four major professional golf titles at the same time , although not in the same calendar year . Following a stellar 2001 and 2002 in which Woods continued to dominate the tour , Woods ' career hit a " slump " . He did not win a major in 2003 or 2004 . In September 2004 , Vijay Singh overtook Woods in the Official World Golf Rankings , ending Woods ' record streak of 264 weeks at # 1 .
Woods rebounded in 2005 , winning six official PGA Tour money events and reclaiming the top spot in July after swapping it back and forth with Singh over the first half of the year .
In 2006 , Woods began dominantly , winning his first two PGA tournaments but failing to capture his fifth Masters championship in April . Following the death of his father in May , Woods took a nine @-@ week hiatus from the tour and appeared rusty upon his return at the U.S. Open , missing the cut at Winged Foot . However , he quickly returned to form and ended the year by winning six consecutive tour events . At the season 's close , with 54 wins and 12 majors wins , Woods had broken the tour records for both total wins and total majors wins over eleven seasons .
Woods continued to excel in 2007 and the first part of 2008 . In April 2008 , he underwent knee surgery and missed the next two months on the tour . Woods returned for the 2008 U.S. Open , where he struggled the first day but ultimately claimed a dramatic victory over Rocco Mediate , after which Mediate said , " This guy does things that are just not normal by any stretch of the imagination , " and Kenny Perry added , " He beat everybody on one leg . " Two days later , Woods announced that he would miss the remainder of the season due to further knee surgery , and that his knee was more severely damaged than previously revealed , prompting even greater praise for his U.S. Open performance . Woods called it " my greatest ever championship . " In Woods ' absence , TV ratings for the remainder of the season suffered a huge decline from 2007 .
Upon Woods ' much @-@ anticipated return in 2009 , he performed well , including a spectacular performance at the 2009 Presidents Cup , but failed to win a major , the first year since 2004 that he had not done so . After his marital infidelities came to light and received massive media coverage at the end of 2009 ( see further details below ) , Woods announced in December that he would be taking an indefinite break from competitive golf . In February 2010 , he delivered a televised apology for his behavior . During this period , several companies ended their endorsement deals with Woods .
Woods returned to competition in April at the 2010 Masters Tournament , where he finished in a tie for fourth place . He followed the Masters with poor showings at the Quail Hollow Championship and the Players Championship , where he withdrew in the fourth round citing injury . Shortly afterward , Hank Haney , Woods ' coach since 2003 , resigned the position ; he was replaced in August by Sean Foley . The rest of the season went badly for Woods , who failed to win a single event for the first time since turning professional , while nevertheless finishing the season ranked No. 2 in the world .
Woods ' performance continued to suffer in 2011 , taking its toll on his ranking . After falling to No. 7 in March , he rebounded to No. 5 with a strong showing at the 2011 Masters Tournament , where he tied for fourth place . Due to leg injuries incurred at the Masters , he missed several summer events ; in July he fired his longtime caddy Steve Williams , replacing him temporarily with friend Bryon Bell . After returning to tournament play in August , Woods continued to falter , and his ranking gradually fell to a low of # 58 . He rose to No. 50 in mid @-@ November after a third @-@ place finish at the Emirates Australian Open , and broke his winless streak with a victory at December 's Chevron World Challenge .
Woods began his 2012 season with two tournaments ( the Abu Dhabi HSBC Golf Championship and the AT & T Pebble Beach National Pro @-@ Am ) where he started off well , but struggled on the final rounds . Following the WGC @-@ Accenture Match Play Championship , where he was knocked out in the second round by missing a 5 @-@ foot putt , Woods revised his putting technique and tied for second at the Honda Classic , with the lowest final round score in his PGA Tour career . After a short time off due to another leg injury , Woods won the Arnold Palmer Invitational , his first win on the PGA Tour since the BMW Championship in September 2009 . Following several dismal performances , Woods notched his 73rd PGA Tour win at the Memorial Tournament in June , tying Jack Nicklaus in second place for most PGA Tour victories ; a month later , Woods surpassed Nicklaus with a win at the AT & T National , to trail only Sam Snead , who had 82 PGA wins .
2013 would bring a return of Woods ' dominating play . He won the Farmers Insurance Open in January 2013 by four shots for his 75th PGA Tour win . It was the seventh time he had won the event . In March , he won the WGC @-@ Cadillac Championship , also for the seventh time , giving him his 17th WGC title and first since 2009 . Two weeks later , he won the Arnold Palmer Invitational , winning the event for a record @-@ tying 8th time . The win moved him back to the top of the world rankings . To commemorate that achievement , Nike was quick to launch an ad with the tagline " winning takes care of everything " .
On April 13 , 2013 , Woods was up for disqualification from the 2013 Masters Tournament over claims he took an illegal drop after his third shot on the par @-@ 5 15th hole bounced off of the pin and into the water . After further review , Woods was assessed a two @-@ stroke penalty for the drop and not disqualified . He finished T4 in the event . Woods won The Players Championship in May 2013 , his second career win at the event , notching his fourth win of the 2013 season . It was the quickest he had ever gotten to four wins in any season in his professional career .
Woods had a poor showing at the 2013 U.S Open as a result of an elbow injury sustained at The Players Championship . In finishing at + 13 , he recorded his worst score ever as a professional and finished 12 strokes behind winner Justin Rose . After a prolonged break because of the injury , during which he missed the Greenbrier Classic and his own AT & T National , he returned at the Open Championship at Muirfield . Despite being in contention all week and beginning the final round only two stokes behind Lee Westwood , he struggled with the speed of the greens and could only manage a 3 @-@ over @-@ par 74 which left him tied for 6th place , five strokes behind eventual winner Phil Mickelson . Two weeks later , Woods returned to form at the WGC @-@ Bridgestone Invitational , recording his 5th win of the season and 8th win at the event in its 15 @-@ year history . His second round 61 matched his record score on the PGA Tour and could easily have been a 59 were it not for some short missed birdie putts on the closing holes . This gave him a seven stroke lead which he held on to for the rest of the tournament . Woods would never contend at the PGA Championship at Oak Hill Country Club and would come short of winning a major for the 5th full season , only contending in two of the four majors in 2013 .
After a slow start to 2014 , Woods injured himself during the Honda Classic and was unable to finish , withdrawing after 13 holes of the final round citing back pain . He subsequently competed in the WGC @-@ Cadillac Championship but was visibly in pain during much of the last round . He was forced to skip the Arnold Palmer Invitational at the end of March 2014 and , on April 1 , announced that he would miss the Masters Tournament for the first time since 1994 after undergoing a microdiscectomy . Woods returned at the Quicken Loans National in June , however he stated that his expectations for the week were low . He would struggle with nearly every aspect of his game and miss the cut . He next played at The Open Championship , contested at Hoylake , where Woods had won eight years prior . Woods fired a brilliant 69 in the first round to put himself in contention , but shot 77 on Friday and would eventually finish 69th . Despite his back pain , he played at the 2014 PGA Championship where he failed to make the cut . On August 25 , 2014 , Woods and his swing coach Sean Foley parted ways . In the four years under Foley , he won eight times but no majors . He had previously won eight majors with Harmon and six with Haney . Woods said there is currently no timetable to find a replacement swing coach .
On February 5 , 2015 , Woods withdrew from the Farmers Insurance Open after another back injury . Woods stated on his website that it was unrelated to his previous surgery and was taking a break from golf until his back healed . He returned for the 2015 Masters Tournament , finishing in a tie for 17th . In the final round , Woods injured his wrist after his club hit a tree root . He later stated that a bone popped out of his wrist , but he adjusted it back into place and finished the round . Woods then missed the cut at the 2015 U.S. Open and Open Championship , the first time ever Woods missed the cut at consecutive majors , finishing near the bottom of the leaderboard both times . He finished tied for 18th at the Quicken Loans National on August 2 . In late August 2015 , Woods played quite well at the Wyndham Championship finishing the tournament at 13 @-@ under , only four strokes behind the winner , and tied for 10th place . Woods offered only a brief comment on the speculation that he was still recovering from back surgery , saying it was " just my hip " but offering no specifics .
In late March 2016 , Woods announced that he would miss the Masters Tournament while recovering from a back surgery ( microdiscectomy ) that took place on September 16 , 2015 . ( He had also missed the 2014 Masters due to a back problem . ) " I 'm absolutely making progress , and I 'm really happy with how far I 've come , " he explained in a statement . " But I still have no timetable to return to competitive golf . " However , he did attend the Masters Champions Dinner on April 5 , 2016 .
= = = Honors = = =
On August 20 , 2007 , California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger and First Lady Maria Shriver announced that Woods would be inducted into the California Hall of Fame . He was inducted December 5 , 2007 at The California Museum for History , Women and the Arts in Sacramento .
He has been named " Athlete of the Decade " by the Associated Press in December 2009 . He has been named Associated Press Male Athlete of the Year a record @-@ tying four times , and is the only person to be named Sports Illustrated 's Sportsman of the Year more than once .
Since his record @-@ breaking win at the 1997 Masters Tournament , golf 's increased popularity is commonly attributed to Woods ' presence . He is credited by some sources for dramatically increasing prize money in golf , generating interest in new PGA tournament audiences , and for drawing the largest TV ratings in golf history .
= = = Endorsements = = =
During the first decade of his professional career , Woods was the world 's most marketable athlete . Shortly after his 21st birthday in 1996 , he began signing endorsement deals with numerous companies , including General Motors , Titleist , General Mills , American Express , Accenture , and Nike , Inc . In 2000 , he signed a 5 @-@ year , $ 105 million contract extension with Nike . It was the largest endorsing deal ever signed by an athlete at that time . Woods ' endorsement has been credited with playing a significant role in taking the Nike Golf brand from a " start @-@ up " golf company earlier in the past decade , to becoming the leading golf apparel company in the world , and a major player in the equipment and golf ball market . Nike Golf is one of the fastest growing brands in the sport , with an estimated $ 600 million in sales . Woods has been described as the " ultimate endorser " for Nike Golf , frequently seen wearing Nike gear during tournaments , and even in advertisements for other products . Woods receives a percentage from the sales of Nike Golf apparel , footwear , golf equipment , golf balls , and has a building named after him at Nike 's headquarters campus in Beaverton , Oregon .
In 2002 , Woods was involved in every aspect of the launch of Buick 's Rendezvous SUV . A company spokesman stated that Buick was happy with the value of Woods ' endorsement , pointing out that more than 130 @,@ 000 Rendezvous vehicles were sold in 2002 and 2003 . " That exceeded our forecasts , " he was quoted as saying , " It has to be in recognition of Tiger . " In February 2004 , Buick renewed Woods ' endorsement contract for another five years , in a deal reportedly worth $ 40 million .
Woods collaborated closely with TAG Heuer to develop the world 's first professional golf watch , released in April 2005 . The lightweight , titanium @-@ construction watch , designed to be worn while playing the game , incorporates numerous innovative design features to accommodate golf play . It is capable of absorbing up to 5 @,@ 000 Gs of shock , far in excess of the forces generated by a normal golf swing . In 2006 , the TAG Heuer Professional Golf Watch won the prestigious iF product design award in the Leisure / Lifestyle category .
Woods also endorses the Tiger Woods PGA Tour series of video games ; he has done so since 1999 . In 2006 , he signed a six @-@ year contract with Electronic Arts , the series ' publisher .
In February 2007 , along with Roger Federer and Thierry Henry , Woods became an ambassador for the " Gillette Champions " marketing campaign . Gillette did not disclose financial terms , though an expert estimated the deal could total between $ 10 million and $ 20 million .
In October 2007 , Gatorade announced that Woods would have his own brand of sports drink starting in March 2008 . " Gatorade Tiger " was his first U.S. deal with a beverage company and his first licensing agreement . Although no figures were officially disclosed , Golfweek magazine reported that it was for five years and could pay him as much as $ 100 million . The company decided in early fall 2009 to discontinue the drink due to weak sales .
In July 2011 , Woods appeared on a 15 @-@ second Japanese television commercial , endorsing a heat back rub by Kowa Co . , the Vantelin Kowa rub . Details of the deal , which was made in late 2010 , were not disclosed .
In October 2012 , it was announced that Woods had signed an exclusive endorsement deal with Fuse Science , Inc , a sports nutrition firm .
A case was initiated against Bruce Matthews ( the owner of Gotta Have It Golf , Inc . ) and others in 1997 by Woods and fellow golfer Arnold Palmer in the effort to stop the unauthorized sale of their images and alleged signatures in the memorabilia market . Matthews and associated parties counterclaimed that Woods and his company , ETW Corporation , committed several acts including breach of contract , breach of implied duty of good faith , and violations of Florida 's Deceptive and Unfair Trade Practices Act . Palmer was also named in the counter @-@ suit , accused of violating the same licensing agreement in conjunction with his company Arnold Palmer Enterprises .
On March 12 , 2014 , a Florida jury found in favor of Gotta Have It on its breach of contract and other related claims , rejected ETW 's counterclaims , and awarded Gotta Have It $ 668 @,@ 346 in damages . The award may end up exceeding $ 1 million once interest has been factored in , though the ruling may be appealed .
= = = Accumulated wealth = = =
According to Golf Digest , Woods made $ 769 @,@ 440 @,@ 709 from 1996 to 2007 , and the magazine predicted that by 2010 , Woods would pass one billion dollars in earnings . In 2009 , Forbes confirmed that Woods was indeed the world 's first athlete to earn over a billion dollars in his career ( before taxes ) , after accounting for the $ 10 million bonus Woods received for the FedEx Cup title . The same year , Forbes estimated his net worth to be $ 600 million , making him the second richest " African American " behind only Oprah Winfrey . In 2015 , Woods ranked ninth in Forbes ' list of world 's highest @-@ paid athletes , being the top among " Asian Americans " or the fourth among " African Americans " .
= = = Tiger @-@ proofing = = =
Early in Woods ' career , a small number of golf experts expressed concern about his impact on the competitiveness of the game and the public appeal of professional golf . Sportswriter Bill Lyon of Knight @-@ Ridder asked in a column , " Isn 't Tiger Woods actually bad for golf ? " ( though Lyon ultimately concluded that he was not ) . At first , some pundits feared that Woods would drive the spirit of competition out of the game of golf by making existing courses obsolete and relegating opponents to simply competing for second place each week .
A related effect was measured by economist Jennifer Brown of the University of California , Berkeley who found that other golfers played worse when competing against Woods than when he was not in the tournament . The scores of highly skilled ( exempt ) golfers are nearly one stroke higher when playing against Woods . This effect was larger when he was on winning streaks and disappeared during his well @-@ publicized slump in 2003 – 04 . Brown explains the results by noting that competitors of similar skill can hope to win by increasing their level of effort , but that , when facing a " superstar " competitor , extra exertion does not significantly raise one 's level of winning while increasing risk of injury or exhaustion , leading to reduced effort .
Many courses in the PGA Tour rotation ( including Major Championship sites like Augusta National ) have added yardage to their tees in an effort to reduce the advantage of long hitters like Woods , a strategy that became known as " Tiger @-@ Proofing " . Woods said he welcomed the change , in that adding yardage to courses did not affect his ability to win .
= = Career achievements = =
Woods has won 79 official PGA Tour events , including 14 majors . He is 14 – 1 when going into the final round of a major with at least a share of the lead . He has been heralded as " the greatest closer in history " by multiple golf experts . He owns the lowest career scoring average and the most career earnings of any player in PGA Tour history .
Woods victory at the 2013 Players Championship also marked a win in his 300th PGA Tour start . He also won golf tournaments in his 100th ( in 2000 ) and 200th ( in 2006 ) tour starts .
Woods has spent the most consecutive and cumulative weeks atop the world rankings . He is one of five players ( along with Gene Sarazen , Ben Hogan , Gary Player , and Jack Nicklaus ) to have won all four professional major championships in his career , known as the Career Grand Slam , and was the youngest to do so . Woods is the only player to have won all four professional major championships in a row , accomplishing the feat in the 2000 – 2001 seasons .
PGA Tour wins ( 79 )
European Tour wins ( 40 )
Japan Golf Tour wins ( 2 )
Asian Tour wins ( 1 )
PGA Tour of Australasia wins ( 1 )
Other professional wins ( 16 )
Amateur wins ( 21 )
= = = Major championships = = =
= = = = Wins ( 14 ) = = = =
1 Defeated May in three @-@ hole playoff by 1 stroke : Woods ( 3 @-@ 4 @-@ 5 = 12 ) , May ( 4 @-@ 4 @-@ 5 = 13 ) 2 Defeated DiMarco with birdie on first extra hole3 Defeated Mediate with a par on 1st sudden death hole after 18 @-@ hole playoff was tied at even par
= = = = Results timeline = = = =
LA
= Low amateur
DNP =
did not play
CUT
= missed the half @-@ way cut
WD =
withdrew
" T " indicates a tie for a place
Green background for wins . Yellow background for top @-@ 10 .
= = = Summary = = =
Most consecutive cuts made – 39 ( 1996 U.S. Open – 2006 Masters )
Longest streak of top @-@ 10s – 8 ( 1999 U.S. Open – 2001 Masters )
= = = World Golf Championships = = =
= = = = Wins ( 18 ) = = = =
1 Won on the first hole of a sudden @-@ death playoff2 Won on the seventh hole of a sudden @-@ death playoff3 Won on the second hole of a sudden @-@ death playoff4 Won on the fourth hole of a sudden @-@ death playoff
= = = = Results timeline = = = =
1 Canceled following the September 11 attacks .
DNP
= did not play
QF , R16 , R32 , R64 =
Round in which player lost in match play
WD
= withdrew
NT =
No tournament
" T " = tied
Green background for wins . Yellow background for top @-@ 10 .
Note that the HSBC Champions did not become a WGC event until 2009 .
= = = PGA Tour career summary = = =
* As of the 2015 season .
= = Playing style = =
When Woods first joined the professional tour in 1996 , his long drives had a large impact on the world of golf . However , when he did not upgrade his equipment in the following years ( insisting upon the use of True Temper Dynamic Gold steel @-@ shafted clubs and smaller steel clubheads that promoted accuracy over distance ) , many opponents caught up to him . Phil Mickelson even made a joke in 2003 about Woods using " inferior equipment " , which did not sit well with Nike , Titleist or Woods . During 2004 , Woods finally upgraded his driver technology to a larger clubhead and graphite shaft , which , coupled with his clubhead speed , made him one of the Tour 's lengthiest players off the tee once again .
Despite his power advantage , Woods has always focused on developing an excellent all @-@ around game . Although in recent years he has typically been near the bottom of the Tour rankings in driving accuracy , his iron play is generally accurate , his recovery and bunker play is very strong , and his putting ( especially under pressure ) is possibly his greatest asset . He is largely responsible for a shift to higher standards of athleticism amongst professional golfers , and is known for putting in more hours of practice than most .
From mid @-@ 1993 , while he was still an amateur , until 2004 , Woods worked almost exclusively with leading swing coach Butch Harmon . From mid @-@ 1997 , Harmon and Woods fashioned a major redevelopment of Woods ' full swing , achieving greater consistency , better distance control , and better kinesiology . The changes began to pay off in 1999 . From March 2004 to 2010 , Woods was coached by Hank Haney , who worked on flattening his swing plane . Woods continued to win tournaments with Haney , but his driving accuracy dropped significantly . Haney resigned in May 2010 and was replaced by Sean Foley .
Mike " Fluff " Cowan served as Woods ' caddy from the start of his professional career until Tiger fired him in March 1999 . He was replaced by Steve Williams , who became a close friend of Woods and is often credited with helping him with key shots and putts . In June 2011 , Woods fired Williams and replaced him with friend Bryon Bell on an interim basis . Joe LaCava , a former caddy of both Fred Couples and Dustin Johnson , was hired by Woods shortly after , and has remained Woods ' caddie since then .
= = Equipment = =
As of 2013 WGC @-@ Bridgestone Invitational :
Driver : Nike VRS Covert 2 @.@ 0 ( 9 @.@ 5 @-@ degree ; Mitsubishi Diamana White Board 73X shaft )
Fairway Woods : Nike VR _ S Covert 15 ° 3 @-@ wood and Nike VR _ S Covert 19 ° 5 @-@ wood with Mitsubishi Diamana Blueboard 103x shaft
Irons : Nike VR Pro Blades ( 2 @-@ PW ) ( Tiger will put his 5 @-@ wood or 2 @-@ iron in the bag depending upon the course setup and conditions ) . All irons are 1 @-@ degree upright , have D4 swingweight , standard size Tour Velvet grips and True Temper Dynamic Gold X @-@ 100 shafts .
Wedges : Nike VR Pro ( 56 and 60 @-@ degree ; True Temper Dynamic Gold S400 shafts )
Putter : Nike Method 001
Ball : Nike ONE Tour D ( with " Tiger " imprint )
Golf Glove : Nike Dri @-@ FIT Tour glove
Golf Shoes : Nike TW ' 14
Driver club cover : Frank , a plush tiger head club cover created by his mother . Frank has appeared in several commercials .
= = Other ventures = =
= = = Tiger Woods Foundation = = =
The Tiger Woods Foundation was established in 1996 by Woods and his father Earl , with the primary goal of promoting golf among inner @-@ city children . The foundation has conducted junior golf clinics across the country , and sponsors the Tiger Woods Foundation National Junior Golf Team in the Junior World Golf Championships . As of December 2010 , TWF employed approximately 55 people .
The foundation operates the Tiger Woods Learning Center , a $ 50 million , 35 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot facility in Anaheim , California , providing college @-@ access programs for underserved youth . The TWLC opened in 2006 and features seven classrooms , extensive multi @-@ media facilities and an outdoor golf teaching area . The center has since expanded to four additional campuses : two in Washington , D.C. ; one in Philadelphia ; and one in Stuart , Florida .
The foundation benefits from the annual Chevron World Challenge and AT & T National golf tournaments hosted by Woods . In October 2011 , the foundation hosted the first Tiger Woods Invitational at Pebble Beach . Other annual fundraisers have included the concert events Block Party , last held in 2009 in Anaheim , and Tiger Jam , last held in 2011 in Las Vegas after a one @-@ year hiatus .
= = = Tiger Woods Design = = =
In November 2006 , Woods announced his intention to begin designing golf courses around the world through a new company , Tiger Woods Design . A month later , he announced that the company 's first course would be in Dubai as part of a 25 @.@ 3 million @-@ square @-@ foot development , The Tiger Woods Dubai . The Al Ruwaya Golf Course was initially expected to finish construction in 2009 . As of February 2010 , only seven holes had been completed ; in April 2011 , The New York Times reported that the project had been shelved permanently . In 2013 , the partnership between Tiger Woods Design and Dubai Holding was dissolved .
Tiger Woods Design has taken on two other courses , neither of which has materialized . In August 2007 , Woods announced The Cliffs at High Carolina , a private course in the Blue Ridge Mountains near Asheville , North Carolina . After a groundbreaking in November 2008 , the project suffered cash flow problems and suspended construction . A third course , in Punta Brava , Mexico , was announced in October 2008 , but incurred delays due to issues with permits and an environmental impact study . Construction on the Punta Brava course has not yet begun .
The problems encountered by these projects have been credited to factors including overly optimistic estimates of their value ; declines throughout the global economy , particularly the U.S. crash in home prices ; and decreased appeal of Woods following his 2009 infidelity scandal .
= = = Writings = = =
Woods wrote a golf instruction column for Golf Digest magazine from 1997 to February 2011 . In 2001 he wrote a best @-@ selling golf instruction book , How I Play Golf , which had the largest print run of any golf book for its first edition , 1 @.@ 5 million copies .
= = Personal life = =
= = = Marriage and children = = =
In November 2003 , Woods became engaged to Elin Nordegren , a Swedish former model and daughter of former minister of migration Barbro Holmberg and radio journalist Thomas Nordegren . They were introduced during The Open Championship in 2001 by Swedish golfer Jesper Parnevik , who had employed her as an au pair . They married on October 5 , 2004 , at the Sandy Lane resort in Barbados , and lived at Isleworth , a community in Windermere , a suburb of Orlando , Florida . In 2006 , they purchased a $ 39 @-@ million estate in Jupiter Island , Florida , and began constructing a 10 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot home ; Woods moved there in 2010 following the couple 's divorce , which was finalized August 23 , 2010 .
Woods ' and Nordegren 's first child , a daughter named Sam Alexis Woods , was born in 2007 . Woods chose the name because his own father had always called him Sam . Their son , Charlie Axel Woods , was born in 2009 .
= = = Infidelity scandal and fallout = = =
On November 25 , 2009 , The National Enquirer published a story claiming that Woods had an extramarital affair with New York City nightclub manager Rachel Uchitel , a claim she denied . Two days later , around 2 : 30 a.m. on November 27 , Woods left home in his Cadillac Escalade SUV and , while still on his street , collided with a fire hydrant , a tree , and several hedges . He was treated for minor facial lacerations and received a ticket for careless driving . Following intense media speculation about the accident , Woods released a statement on his website taking sole responsibility for the accident , calling it a " private matter " and crediting his wife for helping him from the car . On November 30 , Woods announced that he would not be appearing at his own charity golf tournament , the Chevron World Challenge , nor any other tournaments in 2009 , due to his injuries .
On December 2 , following Us Weekly 's prior day reporting of a purported mistress and subsequent release of a voicemail message allegedly left by Woods for the woman , Woods released a further statement ; there , he admitted " transgressions " and apologized to " all of those who have supported [ him ] over the years " , while reiterating his and his family 's right to privacy . Over the next few days , more than a dozen women claimed in various media outlets to have had affairs with Woods . On December 11 , he released a third statement admitting to infidelity and apologizing again , as well as announcing that he would be taking " an indefinite break from professional golf . "
In the days and months following Woods ' admission of infidelity , several companies re @-@ evaluated their relationships with him . Accenture , AT & T , Gatorade and General Motors completely ended their sponsorship deals , while Gillette suspended advertising featuring Woods . TAG Heuer dropped Woods from advertising in December 2009 and officially ended their deal when his contract expired in August 2011 . The magazine Golf Digest suspended Woods ' monthly column beginning with the February 2010 issue . In contrast , Nike continued to support Woods , as did Electronic Arts , which was working with Woods on the game Tiger Woods PGA Tour Online . A December 2009 study estimated the shareholder loss caused by Woods ' affairs to be between $ 5 billion and $ 12 billion .
On February 19 , 2010 , Woods gave a televised statement in which he said he had been in a 45 @-@ day therapy program since the end of December . He again apologized for his actions . " I thought I could get away with whatever I wanted to , " he said . " I felt that I had worked hard my entire life and deserved to enjoy all the temptations around me . I felt I was entitled . Thanks to money and fame , I didn 't have to go far to find them . I was wrong . I was foolish . " He said he did not know yet when he would be returning to golf . He announced a few weeks later on March 16 that he would be returning at the 2010 Masters Tournament on April 8 .
Woods and Nordegren divorced on August 23 , 2010 .
= = = Other = = =
From childhood , Woods was raised as a Buddhist , and he actively practiced this faith from childhood until well into his adult professional golf career . In a 2000 article , Woods was quoted as saying he " believes in Buddhism ... Not every aspect , but most of it . " He has attributed his deviations and infidelity to his losing track of Buddhism . He said , " Buddhism teaches me to stop following every impulse and to learn restraint . Obviously I lost track of what I was taught . "
Woods is registered to vote as an independent . In January 2009 , Woods delivered a speech commemorating the military at the We Are One : The Obama Inaugural Celebration at the Lincoln Memorial . In April 2009 , Woods visited the White House while in the Washington , D.C. , area promoting the golf tournament he hosts , the AT & T National .
Woods underwent laser eye surgery in 1999 . Before this surgery , Woods ' eyesight was minus 11 . He considered the surgery a big help in his career and a good alternative to the glasses and contact lenses . He immediately started winning tour events after the surgery . He received money from TLC Laser Eye Centers to endorse them . In 2007 , he had a second laser eye surgery when his vision began to deteriorate again .
On March 18 , 2013 , Woods announced that he and skier Lindsey Vonn were dating . They split up in May 2015 .
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= French battleship Suffren =
Suffren was a pre @-@ dreadnought battleship of the French Navy , launched in July 1899 . She was named after French Vice Admiral Pierre André de Suffren de Saint Tropez . The ship was originally intended to be a modified version of the Iéna design with more firepower and better armour . Before World War I Suffren had an eventful career as she twice collided with French ships and twice had propeller shafts break . She was quickly sent to the Dardanelles after the beginning of the war to reinforce British forces already there .
Suffren joined the British ships in multiple bombardments of the Ottoman fortifications at the mouth of the Dardanelles . She was moderately damaged during the major action of 18 March 1915 and had to be sent to Toulon for repairs . Upon their completion she returned to provide gunfire support for the Allied forces during the Gallipoli Campaign . The ship provided covering fire as the Allies withdrew from the peninsula and accidentally sank one of the evacuation ships . After repairs she was assigned to the French squadron assigned to prevent any interference by the Greeks with Allied operations on the Salonica front . While en route to Lorient for a refit Suffren was torpedoed off Lisbon on 26 November 1916 and sunk with all hands .
= = Design and description = =
To save time Suffren was only intended to be an updated version of Iéna with modest improvements in armament and armour , but the number of improvements grew as the project was discussed by the Naval Council ( French : Conseil des travaux de la Marine ) so that she was essentially a new design , only retaining some of Iéna 's layout . The biggest changes were the mounting of the bulk of the secondary armament in turrets , rather than Iéna 's casemates , and the constant thickness of the waterline belt armour compared to Iéna 's belt which thinned towards the ends of the ship . Stowage of shells for the main armament also increased from 45 to 60 rounds per gun .
= = = General characteristics = = =
Suffren was slightly larger than Iéna being 125 @.@ 91 metres ( 413 ft 1 in ) long overall . She had a beam of 21 @.@ 42 metres ( 70 ft 3 in ) and a draft of 7 @.@ 39 metres ( 24 ft 3 in ) forward and 8 @.@ 22 metres ( 27 @.@ 0 ft ) aft . She was only slightly heavier than the Iéna and displaced 12 @,@ 432 metric tons ( 12 @,@ 236 long tons ) at normal displacement , and 12 @,@ 892 metric tons ( 12 @,@ 690 long tons ) at full load . Suffren was only 3 @.@ 55 metres ( 11 ft 8 in ) longer and displaced over 700 metric tons ( 700 long tons ) more than the earlier ship . She was fitted with bilge keels to reduce her rolling .
= = = Propulsion = = =
Suffren used three Indret vertical triple expansion steam engines , one engine per shaft . The centre shaft drove a three @-@ bladed screw propeller and the wing propellers were four @-@ bladed . Each propeller was 4 @.@ 39 metres ( 14 ft 5 in ) in diameter . The engines were powered by 24 Niclausse boilers that had a working pressure of 18 kg / cm2 ( 1 @,@ 765 kPa ; 256 psi ) . The engines were rated at 16 @,@ 200 indicated horsepower ( 12 @,@ 100 kW ) and produced 16 @,@ 809 ihp ( 12 @,@ 534 kW ) and gave a top speed of 17 @.@ 91 knots ( 33 @.@ 17 km / h ; 20 @.@ 61 mph ) on sea trials , just slightly less than her designed speed of 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) . The ship carried a maximum of 1 @,@ 233 metric tons ( 1 @,@ 214 long tons ) of coal which allowed her to steam for 3 @,@ 086 nautical miles ( 5 @,@ 715 km ; 3 @,@ 551 mi ) at a speed of 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) . 52 @.@ 15 metric tons ( 51 @.@ 33 long tons ) of fuel oil was carried to be sprayed on the coal to improve its burn rate . The ship 's 80 V electrical power was provided by two 600 @-@ ampere and three 1200 @-@ ampere dynamos .
= = = Armament = = =
Like the Iéna which preceded her , the Suffren carried her main armament of four 40 @-@ calibre Canon de 305 mm Modèle 1893 / 96 guns in two twin @-@ gun turrets , one each fore and aft . The guns had a maximum elevation of 15 ° . They fired 340 @-@ kilogram ( 750 lb ) projectiles at the theoretical rate of one round per minute . They had a muzzle velocity of 780 metres per second ( 2 @,@ 600 ft / s ) which gave a range of 12 @,@ 000 metres ( 13 @,@ 000 yd ) at maximum elevation . Suffren carried 60 rounds for each gun .
The ship 's secondary armament consisted of ten 45 @-@ calibre Canon de 164 mm Modèle 1893 guns . Six of these were carried in single turrets on each side of the superstructure and the remaining four were mounted in individual casemates below them on the 1st Deck . The casemates were sponsoned out over the tumblehome of the sides . The guns fired 52 @-@ kilogram ( 115 lb ) shells at a muzzle velocity of 865 metres per second ( 2 @,@ 840 ft / s ) to a maximum range of 9 @,@ 000 metres ( 9 @,@ 800 yd ) . Their theoretical rate of fire was between two and three rounds per minute . She carried 1906 shells for these guns . Suffren also carried eight 45 @-@ calibre Canon de 100 mm Modèle 1893 guns in shielded mounts on the shelter deck and on the superstructure . These guns fired a 12 @-@ kilogram ( 26 lb ) projectile at 710 metres per second ( 2 @,@ 300 ft / s ) , which could be trained up to 20 ° for a maximum range of 9 @,@ 500 metres ( 10 @,@ 400 yd ) . Their theoretical maximum rate of fire was six rounds per minute , but only three rounds per minute sustained . The ship carried 2264 shells for these guns .
Twenty 50 @-@ calibre Canon de 47 mm Modèle 1885 Hotchkiss guns were mounted as anti @-@ torpedo boat guns . They were mounted in the fighting tops and on the superstructure . They fired a 1 @.@ 49 @-@ kilogram ( 3 @.@ 3 lb ) projectile at 610 metres per second ( 2 @,@ 000 ft / s ) to a maximum range of 4 @,@ 000 metres ( 4 @,@ 400 yd ) . Their theoretical maximum rate of fire was fifteen rounds per minute , but only seven rounds per minute sustained . Suffren carried 15 @,@ 000 rounds for these 47 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) guns . Two 37 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) Modèle 1885 Hotchkiss guns were mounted on the upper bridge . They fired a shell weighing about .48 kilograms ( 1 @.@ 1 lb ) at a muzzle velocity of about 610 m / s ( 2 @,@ 000 ft / s ) to a range about 3 @,@ 200 metres ( 3 @,@ 500 yd ) . Their rate of fire was about 25 rounds per minute .
Four 450 mm ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes were also carried . Two tubes were submerged , abaft the forward turret , and fixed at a 30 ° angle to the beam . The two above @-@ water tubes had a central pivot and limited traverse . Twelve reserve Modèle 1892 torpedoes were carried , of which eight were combat models .
= = = Armour = = =
Suffren had a complete waterline armour belt of Harvey armour that was 2 @.@ 5 metres ( 8 ft 2 in ) high and 300 millimetres ( 11 @.@ 8 in ) thick . The lower edge of this belt was a uniform 120 millimetres ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) in thickness . The upper armour belt protected the casemates and was 110 millimetres ( 4 @.@ 3 in ) thick . The maximum thickness of the armoured deck was 60 millimetres ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) and the fore and aft armoured transverse bulkheads were 110 mm thick .
The main turret armour was 290 millimetres ( 11 @.@ 4 in ) in thickness with a 50 @-@ millimetre ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) roof and the barbettes were protected by 250 mm ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) of armour . The armour for the secondary turrets ranged from 102 millimetres ( 4 @.@ 0 in ) thick at the front to 192 millimetres ( 7 @.@ 6 in ) at the rear . The conning tower had walls 224 – 274 millimetres ( 8 @.@ 8 – 10 @.@ 8 in ) thick and its communications tube was protected by 150 millimetres ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) of armour .
= = Construction and service = =
= = = Prewar = = =
Suffren , named after the French admiral Pierre André de Suffren de Saint @-@ Tropez , was ordered on 21 April 1898 from the Arsenal de Brest . She was laid down on 5 January 1899 and launched on 25 July of the same year . Her fitting @-@ out was delayed by late delivery of fittings and armour from July 1900 . Suffren began her sea trials in November 1903 , but was not commissioned until 3 February 1904 . On 18 August 1903 she participated in a gunnery trial with the pre @-@ dreadnought Masséna off Île Longue . A mild steel plate 55 centimetres ( 21 @.@ 7 in ) thick , measuring 225 by 95 centimetres ( 7 ft 5 in by 3 ft 1 in ) , was attached to the side of Suffren 's forward turret to determine the resistance of an armour plate to a large @-@ calibre shell . Masséna anchored 100 metres ( 330 ft ) away from Suffren and fired a number of 305 @-@ millimetre ( 12 in ) shells at the plate . The first three were training shells that knocked splinters off the armour plate . The last two shells , fired with full charges , cracked the plate , but Suffren 's turret was fully operational , as was her Germain electrical fire @-@ control system and the six sheep placed in the turret were unharmed . One splinter struck Masséna above her armour belt and left a 15 @-@ centimetre sized hole in her hull . Another 50 @-@ kilogram ( 110 lb ) splinter landed within a few metres of the Naval Minister , Camille Pelletan , who was observing the trials .
When Suffren commissioned on 3 February 1904 she was assigned to the Mediterranean Squadron and became the flagship of its commander Vice Admiral Gourdon a few days later on 10 February . In April she carried the President of France , Émile Loubet on a state visit to Naples . As time went by several defects were revealed in service , including the weakness of the underpowered capstan which was barely capable of raising the anchor in waters 15 – 20 metres ( 49 – 66 ft ) deep . Another problem was that the centre engine and its propeller shaft tended to overheat excessively . During fleet exercises off the Îles des Hyères on 5 February 1906 Suffren rammed the submarine Bonite when the latter miscalculated the fleet 's movements while manoeuvring into firing position . Bonite rose to periscope depth less than 30 metres ( 98 ft ) in front of Suffren , but the latter managed to turn quickly enough while Bonite was crash @-@ diving that Suffren struck Bonite a glancing blow . This was enough , however , to breach two compartments abreast the ship 's starboard engine room and she had to be docked at Toulon for emergency repairs . Bonite 's bow was crushed and several of her ballast tanks were ripped open . Only by rapidly dropping her weighted keel was the submarine able to avoid sinking . No casualties were suffered by either vessel .
During the summer of 1906 Suffren 's above @-@ water torpedo tubes were removed . She was drydocked adjacent to Iéna on 12 March 1907 at Toulon when the latter ship 's magazine exploded . Burning fragments started a small fire aboard Suffren , but she was not otherwise damaged by the explosion . In early 1908 a 2 @-@ metre ( 6 ft 7 in ) Barr and Stroud rangefinder was mounted on the navigation bridge . During manoeuvres off Golfe @-@ Juan on 13 August 1908 the ship 's port propeller shaft broke and the propeller fell off in water 26 metres ( 85 ft ) deep . While a new shaft was ordered from Indret , Iéna 's corresponding shaft was used with such success that the ship 's engineers requested to keep it in place and save the new shaft as a spare . This proposal was rejected by the Naval Ministry and the offending shaft was exchanged . The opportunity was also taken to successfully rework the centre propeller shaft 's mounting so that it would overheat less often . In November 1910 the starboard propeller shaft broke and the propeller was lost in deep water . No shaft was immediately available so Suffren had to wait three months for repairs . In the meantime , however , her boilers were overhauled . On 14 February 1911 the port anchor chain broke , killing one sailor and injuring two others . During another fleet exercise on 28 May 1914 Suffren suddenly lost power and was struck by the battleship Démocratie . She was only lightly damaged with her port anchor and hawsepipe carried away .
= = = World War I = = =
Shortly after the war began Suffren was fitted with additional Barr and Stround rangefinders near the bridge . Two of these were mounted on transverse rails fore and aft of the bridge . The after bulkhead was removed and the two 100 @-@ millimetre ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) guns on the side of the superstructure were moved one deck lower . On 26 September 1914 Suffren and the battleship Vérité were ordered to the Dardanelles to assist British ships in blockading the Dardanelles to prevent any sortie by the German battlecruiser SMS Goeben and the light cruiser SMS Breslau back into the Mediterranean . On 3 November the two French pre @-@ dreadnoughts joined British ships bombarding the Ottoman fortifications at the mouth of the Dardanelles . The short , eleven @-@ minute , bombardment by the French did little damage , but alerted the Ottomans that their defences there required strengthening . On 16 November Suffren sailed for Toulon for a lengthy refit .
Suffren returned to the Dardanelles on 9 January 1915 and became the flagship of the squadron of four French battleships , commanded by Rear @-@ Admiral Émile Guépratte . She bombarded the Turkish fort of Kum Kale , on the Asian side of the strait on 19 February . Bouvet assisted Suffren by sending firing corrections via radio while Gaulois provided counter @-@ battery fire to suppress the Ottoman coastal artillery . Late in the day the British pre @-@ dreadnought HMS Vengeance was bombarding the fort at Orhaniye Tepe on the Asiatic side of the strait and began taking heavy fire as she approached the fort . The British battlecruiser HMS Inflexible attempted to suppress the Ottoman coast @-@ defense guns to allow Vengeance to extricate herself , but was unsuccessful . Suffren and Gaulois had to combine their fire with that of Inflexible before Vengeance could successfully withdraw . Suffren fired thirty 305 @-@ millimetre shells and 227 164 @-@ millimetre shells during the day .
Suffren also participated in a more limited way in the bombardment of 25 February against the same targets , but this was far more successful as Suffren and the other ships moved as close as 3 @,@ 000 yards ( 2 @,@ 700 m ) to the forts . On 2 March the French squadron bombarded targets in the Gulf of Saros , at the base of the Gallipoli Peninsula . On 7 March the French squadron attempted to suppress the Turkish guns while British battleships bombarded the fortifications . Admiral Guépratte and his squadron returned to the Gulf of Saros on 11 March where they again bombarded Turkish fortifications .
They returned to assist in the major attack on the fortifications planned for 18 March . British ships made the initial entry into the Dardanelles , but the French ships passed through them to engage the forts at closer range . Shortly after having done so Suffren was under heavy fire and was struck no less than 14 times in 15 minutes . Most did no significant damage , including a 24 @-@ centimetre ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) that bounced off the after 305 @-@ millimetre turret , but one 24 @-@ centimetre shell ricocheted off the port midships 164 @-@ millimetre turret and ripped the roof off the port casemate , killing the entire gun crew . Some flaming debris dropped into that gun 's magazine and started a fire , but it was quickly flooded to prevent an explosion . Another shell tore a hole 80 millimetres ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) across in the bow which flooded the base of the forward turret . While the French Squadron was withdrawing pursuant to Admiral de Robeck 's order Bouvet struck a mine and sank in 55 seconds . Suffren lowered her admiral 's barge , her only intact boat , and rescued 75 men before she had to escort the badly @-@ damaged Gaulois away from the Dardanelles . The latter was taking on water by the bow and had to be beached on one of the Rabbit Islands at the entrance of the Dardanelles before she sank .
Suffren was ordered to escort Gaulois to Toulon via Malta on 25 March . Two days later the ships encountered a storm and were forced to seek refuge in the Bay of Navarin . Suffren arrived at Toulon on 3 April and was repaired by 20 May when she returned to the Dardanelles to provide gunfire support for the troops ashore . She remained in the area until she fired her last mission on 31 December . Upon returning to her anchorage at Kefalos , on the island of Kos , she collided with , and sank , the British steamer Saint Oswald , a horse transport involved in the evacuation from Gallipoli , and was badly damaged . Suffren arrived in Toulon on 20 January 1916 for repairs which were done by April . That month she joined the French squadron of six pre @-@ dreadnoughts assigned to prevent any interference by the Greeks with Allied operations on the Salonica front . On 9 July Suffren became flagship of the squadron when Patrie departed for a refit at Toulon . On 7 October Patrie , Démocratie , and Suffren entered the harbour of Eleusina prepared to fire on the Greek pre @-@ dreadnoughts Kilkis , Limnos and the cruiser Elli , but things were resolved peacefully and the French ship returned to their harbour .
Suffren was originally intended to refit at the naval base at Bizerte , but the location was switched when the dockyard at Lorient informed the Naval Staff that it had room for her . On 15 November the ship departed to recoal at Bizerte which she reached on 18 November . She sailed on 20 November for Gibraltar ; heavy weather en route delayed her arrival until 23 November . Suffren recoaled and departed Gibraltar the following day , without an escort . On the morning of 26 November , roughly 50 nautical miles ( 92 @.@ 6 km ; 57 @.@ 5 mi ) off the Portuguese coast near Lisbon , she was torpedoed by the German submarine SM U @-@ 52 , en route to the Austro @-@ Hungarian naval base at Cattaro . The torpedo detonated a magazine and Suffren sank within seconds , taking her entire crew of 648 with her . U @-@ 52 searched the scene but found no survivors .
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= Floorless Coaster =
A Floorless Coaster is a type of steel roller coaster manufactured by Bolliger & Mabillard where riders sit with no floor underneath them allowing their feet to swing freely just above the track . Development of the Floorless Coaster began between 1995 and 1996 with Medusa ( now known as Bizarro ) at Six Flags Great Adventure opening on April 2 , 1999 , making it the world 's first Floorless Coaster . Floorless Coasters also tend to have 3 to 7 inversions incorporated in the layout of the coaster . Recently , Bolliger & Mabillard have used floorless trains on their Dive Coasters , such as Griffon and SheiKra . Though they contain floorless trains , the coasters are still not considered Floorless Coasters as B & M classifies them as another model . Also , Maurer Söhne have designed their own version of the Floorless Coaster , a variant of their X @-@ Car called X @-@ Car Floorless , but currently do not have any installations .
= = History = =
According to Walter Bolliger , development of the Floorless Coaster began between 1995 and 1996 . In 1999 , the world 's first Floorless Coaster opened at Six Flags Great Adventure as Medusa . In 2009 , the coaster was renamed Bizarro and re @-@ themed . After the success of Bolliger & Mabillard 's prototype Floorless Coaster , SeaWorld , Cedar Fair , Six Flags , and independent parks , Janfusun Fancyworld , Parque Warner Madrid , Tivoli Gardens , and Ocean Park Hong Kong have built other coasters of this model at their parks . There are currently 14 Floorless Coasters in operation with Dominator being the only one relocated to another park .
= = Design = =
The design of a Floorless Coaster has one main difference from traditional steel roller coasters around the world : it has no floors between the seats . While a train is in the station , a floor is used only for loading and unloading purposes . Because the front row has nothing in front of it to stop riders from walking over the edge of the station , a gate is placed in front of the train to prevent this from happening . Once all the over @-@ the @-@ shoulder restraints are locked , the floor separates into several pieces and moves underneath the station . The gate then opens , allowing the train to move forward . When the train returns to the station , the floor is brought back up and the gate is closed as the next riders board the roller coaster . Aside from the station , a Floorless Coaster has several inversions similar to B & M 's Sitting Coaster 's .
= = Installations = =
Bolliger & Mabillard has built thirteen Floorless Coasters with an additional roller coaster converted from a Stand @-@ up Coaster . The roller coasters are listed in order of opening dates .
* Converted from a Stand @-@ up Coaster to a Floorless Coaster .
Note : Although some Dive Coasters ( such as SheiKra and Griffon ) feature floorless trains , they are not considered Floorless Coasters .
= = Similar rides = =
Maurer Söhne , a German roller coaster and steel manufacturer , has developed their own version of the Floorless Coaster called the X @-@ Car Floorless . The car is the same as the original X @-@ Car with the only difference being that there is no floor during the ride . As of 2012 , no X @-@ Car Floorless roller coasters have been manufactured .
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= Katy Perry =
Katheryn Elizabeth Hudson ( born October 25 , 1984 ) , known professionally as Katy Perry , is an American singer and songwriter . After singing in church during her childhood , she pursued a career in gospel music as a teenager . Perry signed with Red Hill Records and released her debut studio album Katy Hudson under her birth name in 2001 , which was commercially unsuccessful . She moved to Los Angeles the following year to venture into secular music after Red Hill ceased operations and she subsequently began working with producers Glen Ballard , Dr. Luke , and Max Martin . After adopting the stage name Katy Perry and being dropped by The Island Def Jam Music Group and Columbia Records , she signed a recording contract with Capitol Records in April 2007 .
Perry rose to fame in 2008 with the release of the singles " I Kissed a Girl " – which sparked controversy for its homosexual themes – and " Hot n Cold " from her second album , a pop rock record titled One of the Boys . Her third album , Teenage Dream ( 2010 ) , ventured into disco , and contained the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 chart @-@ topping singles " California Gurls " , " Teenage Dream " , " Firework " , " E.T. " , and " Last Friday Night ( T.G.I.F. ) " as well as the number @-@ three single " The One That Got Away " . The album became the first by a female artist to produce five number @-@ one songs in the U.S. , and the second overall after Michael Jackson 's album Bad . In March 2012 , she re @-@ issued the album as Teenage Dream : The Complete Confection , which produced the songs " Part of Me " and " Wide Awake " . Her fourth album , Prism , was released in 2013 , and is influenced by pop and dance . She became the first artist with multiple videos to reach one billion views on Vevo with the videos for its songs " Roar " and " Dark Horse " .
Perry has received many awards , including four Guinness World Records , and been included in the Forbes list of " Top @-@ Earning Women In Music " ( 2011 – 15 ) . Her estimated net worth as of 2016 is $ 125 million . She is one of the best @-@ selling musical artists of all time , having sold 100 million records globally throughout her career . In film , she released an autobiographical documentary titled Katy Perry : Part of Me in 2012 , and voiced Smurfette in the 2011 film The Smurfs and its sequel in 2013 .
= = Life and career = =
= = = 1984 – 98 : Early life = = =
Katheryn Elizabeth Hudson was born in Santa Barbara , California , to Pentecostal pastors Mary Christine ( née Perry ) and Maurice Keith Hudson . Her parents are born again Christians , each having turned to God after a " wild youth " . Perry has English , German , Irish , and Portuguese ancestry . Through her mother , she is a niece of film director Frank Perry . She has a younger brother named David , who is a singer , and an older sister , Angela . From ages 3 to 11 , Perry often moved across the country as her parents set up churches before settling again in Santa Barbara . Growing up , she attended religious schools and camps , including Paradise Valley Christian School in Arizona and Santa Barbara Christian School in California during her elementary years . Her family struggled financially , sometimes using food stamps and eating from the food bank intended to feed the congregation at her parents ' church .
Growing up , Perry and her siblings were not allowed to eat Lucky Charms as the term " luck " reminded their mother of Lucifer , and had to call deviled eggs " angeled eggs " . Perry primarily listened to gospel music , as secular music was generally discouraged in the family 's home . She discovered popular music through CDs she sneaked from her friends . While not strictly identifying as religious , Perry has stated , " I pray all the time – for self @-@ control , for humility . " Following her sister Angela , Perry began singing by practicing with her sister 's cassette tapes . She performed the tracks in front of their parents , who suggested she take vocal lessons . She began training at age 9 , and was incorporated into her parents ' ministry , singing in church from ages 9 to 17 . At 13 , Perry was given her first guitar for her birthday , and publicly performed songs she wrote . She tried to " be a bit like the typical Californian girl " while growing up , and started rollerskating , skateboarding , and surfing as a teenager . David described her as a tomboy during her adolescence . She took dancing lessons and learned how to swing , Lindy Hop , and jitterbug .
= = = 1999 – 2006 : Career beginnings = = =
During her freshman year of high school , Perry completed her General Educational Development ( GED ) requirements at age 15 , and left Dos Pueblos High School to pursue a musical career . She briefly studied Italian opera at the Music Academy of the West in Santa Barbara . Her singing caught the attention of rock artists Steve Thomas and Jennifer Knapp from Nashville , Tennessee , who brought her there to improve her writing skills . In Nashville , she started recording demos and learned how to write songs and play guitar . After signing with Red Hill Records , Perry recorded her debut album , a gospel record titled Katy Hudson . She released the album on March 6 , 2001 , and went on tour that year as part of Phil Joel 's Strangely Normal Tour . Katy Hudson received positive reviews from critics , though was commercially unsuccessful and sold an estimated 200 copies before the label ceased operations in December . Transitioning from gospel music to secular music , Perry started writing songs with producer Glen Ballard , and moved to Los Angeles at age 17 . In 2003 , she briefly performed as Katheryn Perry to avoid confusion with actress Kate Hudson . She later adopted the stage name Katy Perry , using her mother 's maiden name .
In 2004 , Perry signed to Ballard 's label , Java , which was then affiliated with The Island Def Jam Music Group . She began work on a solo record , but the record was shelved after Java was dropped . Ballard then introduced Perry to Tim Devine , an A & R executive at Columbia Records , and she was signed as a solo artist . Over the course of the next two years , Perry wrote and recorded material for her Columbia debut , and worked with songwriters including Desmond Child , Greg Wells , Butch Walker , Scott Cutler / Anne Previn , The Matrix , Kara DioGuardi , and Max Martin and Dr. Luke . In addition , after Devine suggested they become a " real group " , she recorded with the Matrix . Perry was dropped from Columbia in 2006 as her record neared completion . After she was dropped from Columbia , Perry worked at an independent A & R company called Taxi Music .
Perry had minor success prior to her breakthrough . One of the songs she had recorded for her album with Ballard , " Simple " , was featured on the soundtrack to the 2005 film The Sisterhood of the Traveling Pants . She provided backing vocals on Mick Jagger 's song " Old Habits Die Hard " , which was included on the soundtrack to the 2004 film Alfie . In September 2004 , Blender named Perry " The Next Big Thing " . She recorded background vocals on P.O.D. ' s single " Goodbye for Now " and was featured at the end of its music video in 2006 . That year , Perry also appeared in the music video for " Learn to Fly " by Carbon Leaf , and played the love interest of her then @-@ boyfriend , Gym Class Heroes lead singer Travie McCoy , in the band 's music video for " Cupid 's Chokehold " .
= = = 2007 – 09 : Breakthrough with One of the Boys = = =
After Columbia dropped Perry , Angelica Cob @-@ Baehler , then a publicity executive at the label , brought Perry 's demos to Virgin Records chairman Jason Flom . Flom was convinced that she could be a breakthrough star and she was signed to Capitol Records in April 2007 . The label arranged for her to work with Dr. Luke in order to add an " undeniable smash " to her existing material . Perry and Dr. Luke co @-@ wrote the songs " I Kissed a Girl " and " Hot n Cold " for her second album One of the Boys . A campaign was started with the November 2007 release of the video to " Ur So Gay " , aimed at introducing her to the music market . A digital EP led by " Ur So Gay " was later released to create interest . Madonna helped publicize the song by praising the track on the JohnJay & Rich radio show in April 2008 , stating it was her " favorite song " . In March 2008 , Perry made a cameo appearance as a club singer in the Wildfire episode " Life 's Too Short " , and appeared as herself during a photo shoot in June on The Young and the Restless for the show 's magazine Restless Style .
Perry released her first single with Capitol , " I Kissed a Girl " , on April 28 , 2008 , as the lead single from One of the Boys . The first station to pick up the song was WRVW in Nashville , who were inundated with enthusiastic calls the first three days they played it . The track reached number one on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 . One of the Boys , released on June 17 , garnered mixed critical reviews and reached number nine on the U.S. Billboard 200 . The album went on to sell 7 million copies worldwide . " Hot n Cold " was released in September and became the album 's second successful single , reaching number three on the Billboard Hot 100 , while topping charts in Germany , Canada , the Netherlands , and Austria . Later singles " Thinking of You " and " Waking Up in Vegas " were released in 2009 and reached the top 30 of the Hot 100 . The Matrix 's self @-@ titled debut album , which Perry had recorded with the band in 2004 , was released onto iTunes on January 27 , 2009 , as a result of her solo success .
After finishing the Warped Tour 2008 , Perry hosted the 2008 MTV Europe Music Awards in November 2008 , where she won the award for Best New Act . She embarked on her first headlining world tour , the Hello Katy Tour , from January to November 2009 to support One of the Boys . On August 4 , 2009 , she performed as opening act for one date of the band No Doubt 's Summer Tour 2009 . Perry also hosted the 2009 MTV Europe Music Awards in November 2009 , becoming the first person to host two consecutive ceremonies . On July 22 , 2009 , Perry recorded a live album titled MTV Unplugged , which featured acoustic performances of five tracks from One of the Boys , as well as two new songs , " Brick by Brick " and " Hackensack " . It was released on November 17 , 2009 . Perry also appeared on two singles with other artists ; she was featured on a remix of Colorado @-@ based band 3OH ! 3 's song " Starstrukk " in September 2009 , and on a duet with Timbaland entitled " If We Ever Meet Again " , from his album Shock Value II , in January 2010 . The Guinness World Records recognized her in its 2010 edition as the " Best Start on the U.S. Digital Chart by a Female Artist " , for digital single sales of over two million copies .
" I Kissed a Girl " created controversy among both religious groups and LGBT groups . The former criticized its homosexual themes while the latter accused her of using bi @-@ curiosity to sell records . In response to speculation that her parents opposed her music and career , Perry told MTV that they had no problems with her success . After her relationship with McCoy ended in December 2008 , Perry met her future husband Russell Brand in the summer of 2009 while filming a cameo appearance for his film Get Him to the Greek . Her scene , in which the two kiss , does not appear in the film . She began dating Brand after meeting him again that September at the 2009 MTV Video Music Awards . The couple became engaged on December 31 , 2009 , while vacationing in Rajasthan , India .
= = = 2010 – 12 : Teenage Dream and marriage = = =
After serving as a guest judge on American Idol , Perry released " California Gurls " featuring rapper Snoop Dogg on May 7 , 2010 . The song was the lead single from her third studio album , Teenage Dream , and reached number one on the Billboard Hot 100 in June . She also served as a guest judge on The X Factor UK later that month before releasing the album 's second single , " Teenage Dream " , in July . " Teenage Dream " reached number one on Billboard in September . Released on August 24 , 2010 , the album debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 . It received mixed reviews from music critics , and has since sold 6 million copies globally . In October , " Firework " was released as the album 's third single . It became the album 's third consecutive number one on the Hot 100 on December 8 , 2010 .
A remixed version of " E.T. " featuring rapper Kanye West was released as the fourth single from Teenage Dream on February 16 , 2011 . It topped the Hot 100 chart for five non @-@ consecutive weeks , making Teenage Dream the ninth album in history to produce four number one singles on the Hot 100 . " Last Friday Night ( T.G.I.F. ) " followed as the fifth single in June , and Perry became the first female artist to achieve five number @-@ one Hot 100 songs from one album when the single topped that chart on August 17 , and the second artist after Michael Jackson with his album Bad . For this record , she received an honorary American Music Award in November 2011 and a 2013 Guinness World Record . On September 7 , she set a new record by becoming the first artist to spend 69 consecutive weeks in the top ten of the Hot 100 . In October , " The One That Got Away " was released as the album 's sixth single . The song peaked at number three on the Hot 100 and number two in Canada . On February 13 , 2012 , Capitol released the lead single from Teenage Dream : The Complete Confection , " Part of Me " , which debuted at number one on the Hot 100 and became Perry 's seventh single overall to top the chart . Teenage Dream : The Complete Confection was released on March 23 . " Wide Awake " was released on May 22 as the re @-@ release 's second single , peaking at number two on the Hot 100 and number one in Canada and New Zealand . On January 5 , she was named the sixth best @-@ selling digital artist in the United States , with sales of 37 @.@ 6 million units according to Nielsen SoundScan . That month , she became the first artist to have four songs sell over 5 million digital units .
Perry embarked on her second tour , the California Dreams Tour , in support of Teenage Dream from February 2011 to January 2012 . The tour grossed $ 59 @.@ 5 million globally and won her the award for Best Live Act at the 2011 MTV Europe Music Awards . On September 23 , 2011 , she performed on the opening day of the 2011 Rock in Rio festival along with Elton John , Claudia Leitte , and Rihanna . In September 2010 , Perry was scheduled to appear on the 41st @-@ season premiere of Sesame Street . After her scene was uploaded to YouTube , viewers criticized Perry 's exposed cleavage . Four days before the scheduled airing , Sesame Workshop announced that the segment would not air on television , but would still be available to watch online . Perry subsequently mocked the controversy on Saturday Night Live , where she was a musical guest and wore an Elmo @-@ themed shirt showing large amounts of cleavage during one skit .
In December 2010 , Perry played Moe Szyslak 's girlfriend in the live @-@ action segment from a Christmas episode of The Simpsons titled " The Fight Before Christmas " . In February 2011 , she made a guest appearance on the How I Met Your Mother episode " Oh Honey " , playing a woman known as Honey . The role won her the People 's Choice Award for Favorite TV Guest Star in January 2012 . She made her film debut in the 3D family motion picture The Smurfs as Smurfette on July 29 , 2011 . The film was a financial success worldwide , while critics gave mostly negative reviews . She hosted Saturday Night Live on December 10 , 2011 , with Robyn as the episode 's musical guest . Perry 's work on the episode received generally positive reviews from critics , who praised her performance in the episode 's digital short featuring her and Andy Samberg . In March 2012 , she guest starred as a prison security guard named Rikki on the Raising Hope episode " Single White Female Role Model " . On July 5 , 2012 , Perry 's autobiographical documentary Katy Perry : Part of Me was released to theaters through Paramount Pictures . The film received positive reviews and grossed $ 32 @.@ 7 million worldwide at the box office .
Perry began to venture into business when she endorsed her first fragrance , Purr , in November 2010 . Her second fragrance , Meow ! , was released in December 2011 . Both perfumes were released through Nordstrom department stores . Electronic Arts recruited her to promote their new expansion pack for The Sims 3 : Showtime , before releasing a separate stuff pack featuring Perry @-@ inspired furniture , outfits , and hairstyles , titled The Sims 3 : Katy Perry 's Sweet Treats , in June 2012 . The following month , she became the spokesperson and ambassador for Popchips and made an investment in the company . Billboard dubbed her as their " Woman of the Year " for 2012 .
She married Russell Brand on October 23 , 2010 , in a traditional Hindu ceremony near the Ranthambhore tiger sanctuary in Rajasthan . Brand announced on December 30 , 2011 , that they were divorcing after 14 months of marriage . Perry later stated that conflicting career schedules and his desire to have children before she was ready led to the end of their marriage , and that he never spoke to her again after sending a text message that he was divorcing her while Brand asserted that he divorced her due to her commercial success and reluctance to engage in activism . She was initially distraught over their divorce , and said that she contemplated suicide . After the marriage ended in 2012 , Perry began a relationship with singer John Mayer that August .
= = = 2013 – 15 : Prism and Super Bowl XLIX halftime show = = =
In November 2012 , Perry began work on her fourth album , Prism . She told Billboard , " I know exactly the record I want to make next . I know the artwork , the coloring and the tone " and " I even know what type of tour I 'm doing next . I 'll be very pleased if the vision I have in my head becomes a reality . " Although she told L 'Uomo Vogue in June 2012 that she planned to have " darker elements " in Prism following the end of her marriage , Perry revealed to MTV during the 2013 MTV Video Music Awards that she changed the album 's direction after periods of self @-@ reflection . She commented " I felt very prismatic " , which inspired the album 's name . " Roar " was released as the lead single from Prism on August 10 , 2013 . It was promoted at the MTV Video Music Awards and reached number one on the Billboard Hot 100 . " Unconditionally " was released as the second single from Prism on October 16 , 2013 , and peaked at number 14 in the United States .
Prism was released on October 18 , 2013 , and has sold 4 million copies as of August 2015 . It received positive reviews from critics and debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 chart . Four days later , Perry performed the songs from the album at the iHeartRadio Theater in Los Angeles . " Dark Horse " was released as the album 's third single on December 17 , 2013 , and became her ninth U.S. number @-@ one single on January 29 , 2014 . In 2014 , " Birthday " and " This Is How We Do " followed as the album 's fourth and fifth singles , and reached the top 25 on the Hot 100 . Prior to ending her relationship with Mayer in February 2014 , she recorded and co @-@ wrote a duet with him titled " Who You Love " for his album Paradise Valley . The song was released on August 12 , 2013 . Perry 's third headlining tour , The Prismatic World Tour , began in May 2014 and concluded in October 2015 . It grossed $ 204 @.@ 3 million worldwide and won Perry the award for " Top Package " at the 2014 Billboard Touring Awards . She also performed at the 2015 Rock in Rio festival on September 27 , 2015 .
On November 23 , 2014 , the NFL announced that Perry would perform at the Super Bowl XLIX halftime show on February 1 , 2015 . Lenny Kravitz and Missy Elliott served as special guests for the show . Two days after the halftime show , the Guinness World Records announced that Perry 's performance garnered 118 @.@ 5 million viewers in the United States , and became the most watched and highest rated show in Super Bowl history . The viewership was higher than the game itself , which was viewed by an audience of 114 @.@ 4 million .
The International Federation of the Phonographic Industry ( IFPI ) ranked her fifth on the list of Top Global Recording Artists of 2013 . On June 26 , 2014 , she was declared the Top Certified Digital Artist Ever by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for certified sales of 72 million digital singles in the United States . In May 2014 , a portrait of Perry by painter Mark Ryden was featured in his exhibition " The Gay 90s " , and shown at the Kohn Gallery in Los Angeles . Along with several other artists , she also recorded a cover version of the song " Daisy Bell ( Bicycle Built for Two ) " on a limited @-@ edition concept album to accompany the exhibition . That month , a portrait of Perry by artist Will Cotton was included in the United States National Portrait Gallery . On November 23 , 2015 , Perry starred in H & M 's holiday advertising campaign , for which she wrote and recorded a song titled " Every Day Is a Holiday " .
On June 17 , 2014 , Perry announced that she had founded her own record label under Capitol Records , titled Metamorphosis Music . Ferras was the first artist to get signed to her label , and Perry served as an executive producer on his self @-@ titled EP . She also recorded a duet with him on the EP , titled " Legends Never Die " .
Outside of her music career , Perry reprised her role as Smurfette in The Smurfs 2 , which was released in theaters on July 31 , 2013 . Like its predecessor , The Smurfs 2 was a financial success but was panned by critics . In March 2014 , she made a guest appearance playing herself in the episode " Blisteritos Presents Dad Academy Graduation Congraduritos Red Carpet Viewing Party " of the Kroll Show . Killer Queen was released as her third fragrance in August 2013 through Coty , Inc . In January 2014 , she became a guest curator of Madonna 's Art for Freedom initiative . In March 2015 , she appeared in Brand : A Second Coming , a documentary following her ex @-@ husband Russell Brand 's transition from comedy work to activism , and released a concert film titled Katy Perry : The Prismatic World Tour through Epix , which took place during her tour of the same name . Perry also made a cameo appearance in the music video for Madonna 's song " Bitch I 'm Madonna " in June 2015 . The following month , she released another fragrance with Coty , entitled Mad Potion . In September 2015 , she appeared in the documentaries Katy Perry : Making of the Pepsi Super Bowl Halftime Show , which followed Perry 's preparation for her Super Bowl performance , and Jeremy Scott : The People 's Designer , which followed the life and career of designer Jeremy Scott . Perry released a mobile app titled Katy Perry Pop in December 2015 through Glu Mobile where her character helps players become famous musicians . She described it as " the most fun , colorful world that helps guide your musical dreams " . She later appeared as herself in the film Zoolander 2 , which was released in February 2016 .
= = = 2016 : New music = = =
In May 2016 , Perry confirmed she was working on new music . She recorded an anthem for NBC Sports 's coverage of the 2016 Summer Olympics titled " Rise " , which was released on July 14 , 2016 . Perry chose to release it as a standalone track rather than save it for an album " because now more than ever , there is a need for our world to unite " . NBC also felt is message spoke " directly to the spirit of the Olympics and its athletes " for its inspirational themes . The song debuted at number one in Australia and number eleven in the United States .
= = Artistry = =
= = = Influences = = =
During the early stages of her career , Perry 's musical style gravitated towards gospel and she aspired to be as successful as Amy Grant . At the age of 15 , she heard Queen 's " Killer Queen , " which inspired her to pursue a career in music . She cites the band 's frontman , Freddie Mercury , as her biggest influence and expressed how the " combination of his sarcastic approach to writing lyrics and his ' I don 't give a fuck ' attitude " inspired her music . She paid homage to the band by naming her third fragrance Killer Queen . Perry described The Beach Boys and their album Pet Sounds as having a considerable influence on her music : " Pet Sounds is one of my favorite records and it influenced pretty much all of my songwriting . All of the melody choices that I make are because of Pet Sounds . " The singer also holds the Beatles ' album The Beatles in high esteem , and described these two albums as " the only things I listened to for probably two years straight . "
Perry cites Alanis Morissette and her 1995 album Jagged Little Pill as a significant musical inspiration , and opted to work with Morissette 's frequent collaborator Ballard as a result . Perry stated , " Jagged Little Pill was the most perfect female record ever made . There 's a song for anyone on that record ; I relate to all those songs . They 're still so timeless . " Additionally , Perry borrows influence from Flaming Red by Patty Griffin and 10 Cent Wings by Jonatha Brooke . Perry intends to become " more of a Joni Mitchell " , releasing folk and acoustic music . Perry 's autobiographical documentary Katy Perry : Part of Me was largely influenced by Madonna : Truth or Dare . She admires Madonna 's ability to reinvent herself , saying " I want to evolve like Madonna " , and has credited Madonna for inspiring her to make Prism " darker " than her previous material .
Perry names Björk as an influence , particularly admiring her " willingness to always be taking chances " . Other musicians who have influenced Perry include ABBA , The Cardigans , Ace of Base , Cyndi Lauper , CeCe Peniston , C + C Music Factory , Black Box , Crystal Waters , Mariah Carey , Pink , and Gwen Stefani . " Firework " was inspired by a passage in the book On the Road by Jack Kerouac in which the author compares people who are full of life to fireworks that shoot across the sky and make people watch in awe . Her second concert tour , the California Dreams Tour , was reminiscent of Alice 's Adventures in Wonderland and The Wonderful Wizard of Oz . She also credits the 1996 movie The Craft for being the influence behind her song " Dark Horse " , and Eckhart Tolle 's book The Power of Now for influencing Prism .
= = = Musical style and themes = = =
While Perry 's music incorporates pop , rock , and disco , Katy Hudson contains gospel . Her subsequent releases , One of the Boys and Teenage Dream , involve themes of sex and love . One of the Boys is a pop rock record , while Teenage Dream features disco influences . Perry 's fourth album , Prism , is significantly influenced by dance and pop music . Lyrically , the album addresses relationships , self @-@ reflection , and everyday life . Many of her songs , particularly on Teenage Dream , reflect on love between teenagers ; W described the album 's sexual innuendos as " irresistible hook @-@ laden melodies " . Self @-@ empowerment is a common theme in Perry 's music .
Perry identifies as a " singer @-@ songwriter masquerading as a pop star " and maintains that honest songwriting is very important to her . She told Marie Claire : " I feel like my secret magic trick that separates me from a lot of my peers is the bravery to be vulnerable and truthful and honest . I think you become more relatable when you 're vulnerable . " Kristen Wiig commented that " as easy , breezy , and infectious as Perry 's songs can be , beneath the surface lurks a sea of mixed emotions , jumbled motives , and contradictory impulses complicated enough to fill a Carole King record . " According to Greg Kot of Chicago Tribune , " being taken seriously may be Perry 's greatest challenge yet . " The New York Times labeled her " the most potent pop star of the day – her hits are relatable with just a hint of experimentation " . Randall Roberts of Los Angeles Times criticized her use of idioms and metaphors in her lyrics and for frequent " clichés " . Throughout her career , Perry has co @-@ written songs recorded by other artists , including Selena Gomez & the Scene , Jessie James , Kelly Clarkson , Lesley Roy , Britney Spears , Iggy Azalea , and Nicki Minaj .
= = = Voice = = =
Perry has a contralto vocal range . Her singing has received both praise and criticism . Betty Clarke of The Guardian commented that her " powerful voice is hard @-@ edged " while Rob Sheffield from Rolling Stone described Perry 's vocals on Teenage Dream as " processed staccato blips " . Darren Harvey of musicOMH compared Perry 's vocals on One of the Boys to Alanis Morissette 's , both possessing a " perky voice shifting octaves mid @-@ syllable " . Alex Miller from NME felt that " Perry 's problem is often her voice " on One of the Boys , stating that " somewhere along the line someone convinced her she was like , well , a ballsy rock chick " . Conversely , Bernadette McNulty from The Daily Telegraph praised her " rock chick voice " in a review of a concert promoting Prism .
= = Public image = =
Perry is considered a sex symbol ; GQ labelled her a " full @-@ on male fantasy " , while Elle described her body " as though sketched by a teenage boy " . Vice described her as a " ' serious ' popstar / woman / sex symbol " . She was placed at number one on the Maxim Hot 100 in 2010 as the " most beautiful woman in the world " , with editor Joe Levy describing her as a " triple – no quadruple – kind of hot " . Men 's Health readers voted her the " sexiest woman of 2013 " . In November 2010 , Perry told Harper 's Bazaar that she was proud of and satisfied with her figure .
Perry 's fashion often incorporates humor , bright colors , and food @-@ related themes such as her trademark spinning peppermint swirl dress . Vogue described her as " never exactly one to shy away from the outrageous or the extreme in any realm " , while Glamour named her the " queen of quirk " . In February 2009 , Perry told Seventeen that her fashion style was " a bit of a concoction of different things " and stated she enjoyed humor in her clothing . She has also described herself as having " multipersonality disorder " for fashion . Perry lists Gwen Stefani , Shirley Manson , Chloë Sevigny , Daphne Guinness , Natalie Portman , and the fictional character Lolita as her style icons .
On social media , Perry surpassed Justin Bieber as the most followed person on Twitter in November 2013 . She won the 2015 Guinness World Record for most Twitter followers , and became the first person to gain 90 million followers on the site in July 2016 . Forbes writer Dorothy Pomerantz commended Perry on her social media usage , saying " Perry makes excellent use of Twitter , talking to her fans and sharing funny photos and videos in a way that makes them all feel like Perry is their best buddy . " Keith Caulfield of Billboard stated that she is " the rare celebrity who seems to have enormous popularity but genuine ground @-@ level interaction with her adoring KatyCats . "
In 2011 , Forbes ranked Perry third on their " Top @-@ Earning Women In Music " list with earnings of $ 44 million and fifth on their 2012 list with $ 45 million . She subsequently ranked seventh on the 2013 Forbes list for " Top @-@ Earning Women In Music " with $ 39 million earned , and fifth on their 2014 list with $ 40 million . With earnings of $ 135 million , Forbes also ranked Perry number one on their 2015 " Top @-@ Earning Women In Music " list as well as the " World 's Highest @-@ Paid Musicians " and declared her the highest earning female celebrity in 2015 , placing her at number 3 on the Forbes Celebrity 100 list . In June 2016 , Forbes estimated her net worth was $ 125 million .
= = Other ventures = =
= = = Philanthropy = = =
Perry has supported various charitable organizations and causes during her career . She has contributed to organizations aimed at improving the lives and welfare of children in particular . In April 2013 , she joined UNICEF to assist children in Madagascar with education and nutrition . On December 3 , 2013 , she was officially named a UNICEF Goodwill Ambassador , " with a special focus on engaging young people in the agency 's work to improve the lives of the world 's most vulnerable children and adolescents . " She arranged for a portion of the money generated from tickets to her Prismatic World Tour to go to UNICEF . In September 2010 , she helped build and design the Boys Hope / Girls Hope foundation shelter for youth in Baltimore , Maryland along with Raven @-@ Symoné , Shaquille O 'Neal , and the cast of Extreme Makeover : Home Edition .
She has also supported children 's education and well @-@ being . In May 2014 , Perry and a selection of other artists recorded a cover version of the song " Daisy Bell ( Bicycle Built for Two ) " for a concept album to accompany painter Mark Ryden 's art exhibition , titled " The Gay 90s " . All profits from sales of the album were donated to the charity Little Kids Rock , which supports musical education in underprivileged elementary schools . In June 2014 , she teamed up with Staples Inc. for a project entitled " Make Roar Happen " which donated $ 1 million to DonorsChoose , an organization that supports teachers and funds classroom resources in public schools . In May 2016 , she worked with UNICEF to improve child care quality in Vietnam , hoping to " break the cycle of poverty and drastically improve children 's health , education and well @-@ being " . The following month , UNICEF announced that Perry would receive the Audrey Hepburn Humanitarian Award " for her work as a UNICEF Goodwill Ambassador in support of the world 's most vulnerable children " at their annual Snowflake Ball in November .
Perry has supported organizations aimed at aiding people suffering with diseases including cancer and HIV / AIDS . During the 2008 Warped Tour , she had a cast made of her breasts to raise money for the Keep A Breast Foundation . She hosted and performed at the We Can Survive concert along with Bonnie McKee , Kacey Musgraves , Sara Bareilles , Ellie Goulding , and duo Tegan and Sara at the Hollywood Bowl in Los Angeles , California , on October 23 , 2013 . The concert 's profits were donated to Young Survival Coalition , an organization aiding breast cancer in young women . In June 2009 , she designed an item of clothing for H & M 's " Fashion Against AIDS " campaign , which raises money for HIV / AIDS awareness projects .
The proceeds from Perry 's single " Part of Me " were donated to the charity MusiCares , which helps musicians in times of need . During her California Dreams Tour , she raised over $ 175 @,@ 000 for the Tickets @-@ For @-@ Charity fundraiser . The money was divided between three charities : the Children 's Health Fund ( CHF ) , Generosity Water , and The Humane Society of the United States . On her 27th birthday , Perry set up a donations page for the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Auckland , and set up a similar page benefiting the David Lynch Foundation for her 28th birthday . On March 29 , 2014 , she helped raise $ 2 @.@ 4 million for the Museum of Contemporary Art in Los Angeles along with other celebrities such as Ryan Seacrest , Pharrell Williams , Tim Allen , Lisa Edelstein , and Riley Keough .
= = = Politics = = =
Perry is a gay rights activist . She supported Stonewall during their " It gets better ..... today " campaign to prevent homophobic bullying , and dedicated the music video to her song " Firework " to the It Gets Better Project . Perry told Do Something in November 2008 she was proud to be a gay activist , saying " I 've always been a very open @-@ minded person , but I definitely believe in equality . " She confirmed that she voted against Proposition 8 , an amendment ( ultimately ruled unconstitutional ) that legally defined marriage as a union solely between a man and a woman in California . In June 2012 , Perry expressed her hopes for LGBT equality , commenting " hopefully , we will look back at this moment and think like we do now concerning [ other ] civil rights issues . We 'll just shake our heads in disbelief , saying , ' Thank God we 've evolved . ' That would be my prayer for the future . " In December 2012 , Perry was awarded the Trevor Hero Award by The Trevor Project for her work and activism on behalf of LGBT youth . She identifies as a feminist , and appeared in April 2013 in a video clip for the " Chime For Change " campaign that aims to spread female empowerment . She has also said that America 's lack of free health care drove her " absolutely crazy " . Following the shooting at the Pulse nightclub in Orlando in June 2016 , Perry and nearly 200 other artists and executives in music signed an open letter organized by Billboard addressed to United States Congress demanding increased gun control in the United States .
Through Twitter and by performing at his rallies , Perry supported President Barack Obama in his run for re @-@ election and praised his support for same @-@ sex marriage and equality . She performed at three rallies for Obama , in Los Angeles , Las Vegas , and Wisconsin , singing a rendition of " Let 's Stay Together " as well as a number of her songs . During her Las Vegas performance she wore a dress made to replicate a voting ballot , with Obama 's box filled in . On Twitter , she encouraged her followers to vote for Obama . In August 2013 , Perry voiced criticism of Tony Abbott , then a candidate for Prime Minister of Australia , due to his opposition to gay marriage and told Abbott , " I love you as a human being but I can 't give you my vote . " In April 2014 , she publicly supported Marianne Williamson in her campaign for California 's 33rd congressional district by attending a political press event . Perry has also endorsed former Secretary of State Hillary Clinton for president in 2016 , and contributed $ 2 @,@ 700 to Clinton 's campaign . She performed at a rally for Clinton in Iowa in October 2015 , and alongside Elton John at a fundraising concert for Clinton in New York City in March 2016 . Perry will speak at the 2016 Democratic National Convention in Philadelphia to endorse Hilliary Clinton .
= = Achievements = =
Throughout her career , Perry has won five American Music Awards , fourteen People 's Choice Awards , and four Guinness World Records . In September 2012 , Billboard dubbed her the " Woman of the Year " . From May 2010 to September 2011 , she spent a record @-@ breaking total of 69 consecutive weeks in the top ten of the Billboard Hot 100 . Teenage Dream became the first album by a female artist to produce five number @-@ one Billboard Hot 100 singles , and the second album overall after Michael Jackson 's Bad . She has accumulated a total of nine number @-@ one singles on the Hot 100 , her most recent being " Dark Horse " . In June 2015 , her music video for " Dark Horse " became the first video by a female artist to reach 1 billion views on Vevo . The following month , her music video for " Roar " reached 1 billion views on Vevo , making her the first artist to have multiple videos with 1 billion views .
Perry was declared the Top Global Female Recording Artist of 2013 by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry ( IFPI ) . According to Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , she is the third best @-@ selling digital singles artist in the United States , with certified sales of 83 @.@ 5 million digital singles including on @-@ demand streaming . Her songs " Firework " , " E.T. " , " California Gurls " , " Hot n Cold " , " Roar " , and " Dark Horse " have each sold over 5 million digital copies . Throughout her career , Perry has sold 100 million records globally , and is one of the best @-@ selling musical artists of all time .
= = Discography = =
Katy Hudson ( 2001 )
One of the Boys ( 2008 )
Teenage Dream ( 2010 )
Prism ( 2013 )
= = Filmography = =
The Smurfs ( 2011 )
Katy Perry : Part of Me ( 2012 )
The Smurfs 2 ( 2013 )
Brand : A Second Coming ( 2015 )
Katy Perry : The Prismatic World Tour ( 2015 )
Katy Perry : Making of the Pepsi Super Bowl Halftime Show ( 2015 )
Jeremy Scott : The People 's Designer ( 2015 )
Zoolander 2 ( 2016 )
= = Tours = =
Headlining
Hello Katy Tour ( 2009 )
California Dreams Tour ( 2011 – 12 )
The Prismatic World Tour ( 2014 – 15 )
Co @-@ headlining
Strangely Normal Tour ( 2001 )
Warped Tour ( 2008 )
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= History of Liverpool F.C. ( 1959 – 85 ) =
The history of Liverpool Football Club from 1959 to 1985 covers the period from the appointment of Bill Shankly as manager of the then @-@ Second Division club , to the Heysel Stadium disaster and its aftermath .
Overhauling the team during his first year at Liverpool , Shankly released 24 players and converted a boot storage room into a meeting place where he and his coaches discussed strategy . The club won the Second Division title in 1961 – 62 and were promoted to the First Division . Two seasons later , Liverpool won their first League championship since 1946 – 47 , thereby qualifying for participation in European competition for the first time . The following season , Liverpool won their first FA Cup . Further League championships followed in 1965 – 66 and 1972 – 73 . 1973 saw them win their first European trophy — the UEFA Cup . The following season was Shankly 's last , in which the club won the FA Cup once more .
Shankly 's assistant Bob Paisley took over in 1974 ; his first season in charge saw Liverpool finish second , before winning the League championship and UEFA Cup the following season . Three European Cups and four League championships followed before Paisley retired at the end of 1982 – 83 , to be replaced by his assistant , Joe Fagan .
Liverpool won a treble of trophies during Fagan 's first season as manager , winning the League championship for the third year in succession , the Football League Cup for the fourth year in succession and a fourth European Cup . The following season , the club was involved in one of the worst disasters to occur at a football stadium . Before the start of the 1985 European Cup Final against Juventus , Liverpool fans breached a fence separating the two groups of supporters , and charged the Juventus fans . The resulting weight of people caused a retaining wall to collapse , killing 39 fans , mostly Italians . The incident became known as the Heysel Stadium disaster and resulted in the expulsion of English clubs from European competition for five years .
= = 1959 – 65 : Rebuilding = =
Huddersfield Town 's Bill Shankly was appointed Liverpool manager midway through the 1959 – 60 season . He was approached by Liverpool chairman Tom Williams , who asked Shankly if he would like to manage " the best club in the country " , to which he replied , " Why , is Matt Busby packing up ? " A perceived lack of ambition at Huddersfield Town and the potential at Liverpool led Shankly to accept the offer . When he arrived , the club was in the Second Division , having played at this level since relegation in 1953 – 54 . During his first season in charge , Shankly gave debuts to two players : Ian Callaghan , who would go on to become the club 's record appearance maker , and Roger Hunt , the club 's future leading goalscorer in the League .
Despite their introduction , Shankly 's impact was not immediate , as the club finished the season in third place , outside the promotion spots . Shankly had been musing on which players to keep and which to move on , and he eventually decided that 24 players should be released ; by the end of his first season they had all left the club . Shankly retained the existing backroom staff , and converted a boot storage room into a meeting place where he and his coaches could discuss strategy . The Boot Room , as it came to be known , was to be an integral part of the club 's future success . Bob Paisley was clear on the significance of the Boot Room : " You got a more wide @-@ ranging discussion in the Boot Room than the boardroom . What went on was kept within those four walls . There was a certain mystique about the place . "
The club again finished third the following season , despite a run of 14 games without defeat ; 5 defeats in the opening 11 matches had cost Liverpool the chance of promotion . Shareholder John Moores believed the club needed to spend more money on players to be successful and encouraged chairman T. V. Williams to do so . The following season , Shankly signed Ian St John from Motherwell and Ron Yeats from Dundee United . Shankly was confident his signings would be a success , challenging the board of directors to " sack me if they can 't play . " St John and Yeats helped the club win promotion to the First Division ; they won the Second Division with 62 points , and were unbeaten at their home ground Anfield all season . Liverpool were back in the First Division for the first time in eight years in 1962 – 63 . Despite an uneasy start , they were in fifth place by March 1963 , after a 13 @-@ match unbeaten run . Liverpool 's form suffered following their 1 – 0 loss to Leicester City in the FA Cup semi @-@ final , and a poor run of results including a 7 – 2 defeat to Tottenham Hotspur saw the club finish the season in eighth place .
The following season , Shankly signed Peter Thompson from Preston North End as he could play wide on the right @-@ hand side of midfield . Liverpool started 1963 – 64 poorly , garnering only nine points from the first nine games . A 2 – 1 victory over Everton , their first win over their local rivals since 1950 , instigated Liverpool 's move up the table . They won 47 points from their next 30 games to secure their sixth League championship . Success led to the average attendance at Anfield increasing to more than 50 @,@ 000 . The fans also became more vocal , and it was around this time that the fans on the Kop adopted You 'll Never Walk Alone as their anthem .
Liverpool 's League championship qualified them to participate in European competition for the first time , in the 1964 – 65 European Cup . For their second round tie against Belgian team Anderlecht , Shankly decided to change from red shirts , white shorts and socks to an all @-@ red kit . Shankly felt the players would be more intimidating to the opposition as a result . Liverpool reached the semi @-@ final , but were beaten by Italian club Internazionale . The tie was not without controversy ; Shankly felt that the referee showed bias towards Internazionale , as he had allowed questionable goals by the Italians to stand . Liverpool 's form in the European Cup carried over into the FA Cup , in which they reached the final against Leeds United . The game was goalless for the first 90 minutes , but Liverpool took the lead in extra time , courtesy of a goal by Hunt . Leeds equalised shortly afterwards , but a St John goal secured a 2 – 1 victory for Liverpool , and their first FA Cup triumph . Liverpool 's form in cup competitions did not translate to their performance in the League , as the defence of their championship ended with the club finishing in seventh place .
= = 1965 – 70 : Stability = =
Victory in the FA Cup meant Liverpool would participate in the European Cup Winners ' Cup during 1965 – 66 . They went one stage further than the previous season , as they reached the final , facing German team Borussia Dortmund . The two sides were level at 1 – 1 at the end of 90 minutes and the match went into extra time . Liverpool were unable to score and conceded a goal to Dortmund , who won the match 2 – 1 . Shankly was unimpressed with his team 's performance , stating : " We didn 't play well and we gave away two silly goals . " Their defence of the FA Cup ended in the third round , after defeat to Chelsea . Their lack of success in cup competitions was offset by regaining the League championship on the last day of April 1966 when they beat Chelsea , courtesy of two goals from Hunt .
The next few seasons were not as successful . A return to the European Cup in 1966 – 67 saw Liverpool eliminated 7 – 3 on aggregate by Dutch side Ajax in the second round . The League campaign was equally disappointing , as the team finished the season in fifth place , winning only 2 of their last 11 games . One significant event during the season was the arrival of future captain Emlyn Hughes from Blackpool for a £ 65 @,@ 000 fee . The 1967 – 68 season started well , with Liverpool league leaders through much of September , October and November 1967 . An accumulation of matches due to participation in the Inter @-@ Cities Fairs Cup , FA Cup and Football League Cup impacted negatively on Liverpool 's League form . They finished the season in third place behind champions Manchester City . The 59 games Liverpool played during the season did not result in success . The furthest the club progressed in any competition was the quarter @-@ final of the FA Cup .
The following season saw an improvement in League form , but there was no reward . Poor performances in the cup competitions meant Liverpool had less fixture congestion than the previous season , but that did not translate into a League championship as they finished in second place , six points behind Leeds United . Shankly 's team was beginning to age , and several players had moved on or retired . Gerry Byrne , who had been the club 's left back for 12 seasons , retired after making 333 appearances . Shankly now had the task of replacing the players in his squad . He started the process with the purchase of Hughes and then Ray Clemence the season before , but his signings did not always work out . Tony Hateley joined for a club record fee of £ 96 @,@ 000 from Chelsea , but injury and poor form meant he was sold to Coventry City after a year . During the 1968 – 69 season Shankly signed Alun Evans for £ 100 @,@ 000 from Wolverhampton Wanderers , a record fee for a teenager at the time . Despite a good start , Evans suffered a series of injuries that cut his career short .
The 1969 – 70 season was the beginning of a transitional period for Liverpool , as players such as Hunt , St John and Yeats made their last appearances for the club . A sixth @-@ round loss to Watford in the FA Cup convinced Shankly that some of his older players should be moved on . Liverpool nevertheless started the season well , and were unbeaten in their first ten League matches until a 1 – 0 defeat to Manchester United . They were unable to maintain their early season form and finished in fifth place . Success in the other cup competitions was not forthcoming , as Liverpool exited in the early rounds of the Football League Cup and Inter @-@ Cities Fairs Cup .
= = 1970 – 75 : Transition = =
Shankly 's new squad began to take shape during 1970 – 71 , with many of the young players he had signed playing in the first team . As a result , the average age of the team was 22 . Players such as Clemence , Steve Heighway , Alec Lindsay and Larry Lloyd , began to establish themselves in the team . John Toshack was also signed from Cardiff City to replace Hunt . Liverpool were unable to improve upon the previous season 's League position , finishing in fifth place , but they had more success in cup competitions . They reached the semi @-@ finals of the Inter @-@ Cities Fairs Cup , but lost to Leeds United over two @-@ legs . Liverpool progressed to the final of the FA Cup , and played Arsenal . Although Liverpool took the lead in extra time after a goalless 90 minutes , Arsenal won 2 – 1 to complete a League and cup double .
Before the final against Arsenal , Shankly signed Kevin Keegan from Scunthorpe United . Keegan became a key player for Liverpool and his impact was immediate , as he scored 12 minutes into his Liverpool debut . The addition of Keegan almost helped Liverpool regain the League championship . They went into the final day of the season a point behind Derby County , who had already finished their campaign , but were unable to secure the victory they needed against Arsenal , finishing in third place . The 1972 – 73 season was when Shankly 's new Liverpool team delivered , winning the League and the club 's first European trophy , the UEFA Cup . They started the season well and were top of the League after a 5 – 0 victory over Sheffield United . They maintained that position throughout the remainder of the season , securing the League championship after a 0 – 0 draw against Leicester City . It was the club 's eighth League title , equalling the record held by Arsenal . Further success followed in the UEFA Cup , as the club reached the final against German team Borussia Mönchengladbach . A 3 – 0 victory in the first leg and a 2 – 0 loss in the second leg meant Liverpool won the tie 3 – 2 on aggregate , claiming their first European trophy . They became the first English team to win the League and a European trophy in the same season .
John Smith became chairman in 1973 ; his appointment was based around his business experience , with the idea of developing of a more corporate approach to the club 's decision making . He believed in continuity and ended the club 's policy of changing chairman every three years . The biggest development at Anfield in recent years occurred in 1973 , as the old Main Stand was demolished and a new one constructed . The stand was officially opened by the Duke of Kent on 10 March 1973 . Their triumph in the League meant Liverpool would compete in the 1973 – 74 European Cup . They were not as successful as the previous season and were eliminated in the second round by Yugoslav team Red Star Belgrade . Liverpool made a poor start to their League campaign , losing early on to Coventry City and Derby County , as opposed to Leeds United , who were unbeaten in their first 29 games of the season . Liverpool reduced the gap , but a poor end to the season , in which they won only one of their last eight matches , meant they finished second to Leeds . Despite their lack of success in other competitions , Liverpool reached the final of the FA Cup , beating Newcastle United 3 – 0 to win the cup for the second time . Shankly bought Ray Kennedy from Arsenal at the end of the season , which was his last act as Liverpool manager . He resigned soon afterwards , citing the need for a break , and was replaced by his assistant Bob Paisley .
Shankly continued to turn up at Melwood , the club 's training ground , where the players still referred to him as ' boss ' . Reluctantly , Paisley asked him to stay away from training , in order to assert his authority as manager . Liverpool started 1974 – 75 well ; they were unbeaten in their first six League matches , and recorded their biggest ever win when they beat Strømsgodset 11 – 0 in the 1974 – 75 European Cup Winners ' Cup . Liverpool were nevertheless knocked out by Hungarian side Ferencváros on the away goals rule in the next round . The club 's participation in domestic cup competitions ended early as well , being eliminated in the fourth round in the FA Cup and Football League Cup . Liverpool 's good start to the season in the League was not sustained and they eventually finished in second place . Paisley made some important signings during the course of the season . He signed Phil Neal , Terry McDermott and Jimmy Case , who would become regulars in the successful team that Paisley was to build .
= = 1975 – 81 : Sustained success = =
The 1975 – 76 season did not start well , as Liverpool lost 2 – 0 to Queens Park Rangers in their first match . Their form had not improved by mid @-@ October 1975 , by which time they had won only six of their first twelve matches . Liverpool 's form picked up in the second half of the season ; a late @-@ season run in which they dropped only one point in nine matches left them a point behind Queens Park Rangers going into their final match . Victory over Wolverhampton Wanderers would secure the League championship as Queens Park Rangers had already finished their league campaign . The match did not start well , and Liverpool were a goal behind at half @-@ time , but won the match 3 – 1 with three second @-@ half goals to win the League championship . Liverpool were eliminated early from the FA Cup and League Cup but fared better in Europe , progressing to the final of the UEFA Cup . A 4 – 3 aggregate victory over Belgian team Club Brugge meant the club won the trophy for the second time .
Before the start of 1976 – 77 , Keegan revealed Liverpool 's primary aim was to flourish in Europe : " There 's a tremendous ambition among all the lads to win the European Cup . We 've won everything else in the last five years and there 's a feeling that the European Cup is going to be next . " Liverpool started the season in good form , losing only 2 of their first 16 games in the League , a run that put them top by September 1976 . A blip during the Christmas period , which included a 5 – 1 defeat to Aston Villa , did not prevent Liverpool from winning their tenth League championship . Liverpool were again successful in Europe , reaching the final of the European Cup for the first time and beating Borussia Mönchengladbach 3 – 1 to become the champions of Europe . Paisley 's team were denied a treble of trophies when they lost the FA Cup final to Manchester United .
Keegan had been sold to German club Hamburg for a £ 500 @,@ 000 fee before the start of 1977 – 78 . Paisley signed Kenny Dalglish from Celtic as Keegan 's replacement . His impact was immediate , as he scored 20 goals in 42 league games . Dalglish scored the winning goal in Liverpool 's 1 – 0 victory over Club Brugge in the 1978 European Cup Final , as the club retained the trophy , becoming the first British team to do so . Despite their success in Europe , Liverpool were unsuccessful in domestic competitions . They finished seven points behind Nottingham Forest in the League , who were also their opponents in the 1978 Football League Cup Final . After ending 0 – 0 the match went to a replay , which Nottingham Forest won 1 – 0 .
Liverpool began 1978 – 79 in contrasting fashion . They were drawn against Nottingham Forest in the first round of the European Cup and were eliminated after a 2 – 0 aggregate defeat . There was also an early exit from the League Cup , as they lost 1 – 0 to Sheffield United in the second round . But those setbacks were offset by Liverpool 's start in the League ; they won their first six games and did not lose until their twelfth — a 1 – 0 loss to Everton . Their form continued over the season and they won the League , finishing eight points ahead of Nottingham Forest . Their performance in the League broke several records ; the 68 points they gained surpassed the 67 earned by Leeds United in 1968 – 69 . The 16 goals conceded was another record .
Liverpool retained the League championship in the following season . Despite early defeats to Southampton and Nottingham Forest , they were top by January 1980 and stayed there for the remainder of the season . A 4 – 1 victory over Aston Villa in the penultimate game of the season secured the League championship . Key to the club 's success was their home form ; they were unbeaten at Anfield all season , and only conceded eight goals . Their impressive form in the League did not translate to Europe , as Liverpool were knocked out in the first round of the European Cup by Soviet team Dinamo Tbilisi . They fared better in the FA Cup and League Cup , but were unable to progress past the semi @-@ final stage in either competition . During the season , Liverpool became the first British club to wear the name of a sponsor , Hitachi , on their shirts . Chairman John Smith was clear about the club 's need for extra income : " The days are gone when a club like ours can control its destiny on the money coming through the turnstiles . "
The 1980 – 81 season was a contrast to previous seasons as the club struggled in the League , but excelled in cup competitions . Despite losing 8 games , the same as eventual winners Aston Villa , Liverpool drew 17 to finish in fifth place , their worst position for 16 years . Liverpool 's form in the cups was much better ; an early elimination in the FA Cup withstanding , they reached the finals of the Football League Cup and European Cup . They won the Football League Cup for the first time , beating West Ham United 2 – 1 in a replay after the final ended in a draw . Real Madrid were Liverpool 's opponents in the 1981 European Cup Final , and they won the competition for the third time , courtesy of an Alan Kennedy goal in a 1 – 0 victory .
= = 1981 – 85 : Triumph and tragedy = =
Following their fifth @-@ place League finish the previous season , Liverpool were eager to regain the League championship . Their goalkeeper , Clemence , had signed for Tottenham Hotspur , and was replaced by Bruce Grobbelaar . Liverpool did not perform well in their early games , losing their first match and drawing several others . Their poor form continued , and by the end of December 1981 they had won only 6 of 17 games , and were in the bottom half of the League . Their form in the second half of the season improved , and a run of 11 successive wins towards the end of the season meant they won the League with four points more than Ipswich Town . Liverpool retained the League championship in 1982 – 83 , winning the title 11 points ahead of Watford . Liverpool were eliminated from the FA Cup and European Cup in the fifth round and quarter @-@ final respectively , but were successful in the Football League Cup . A 2 – 1 victory over Manchester United in the final meant Liverpool won the competition for the third year in succession . Before the start of the season , Paisley had announced his intention to retire from management aged 64 . Paisley had won six League championships , three European Cups and League Cups during his reign , making him the most successful manager in the club 's history . He was replaced by his assistant Joe Fagan .
Liverpool continued their success into 1983 – 84 , as they won three competitions to secure a unique treble . The club began the campaign indifferently , but by November 1983 they were top of the table and stayed there to win the League three points ahead of Southampton . As a result , they equalled the record of three consecutive League championships held by Huddersfield Town and Arsenal . Key to their success was striker Ian Rush , who scored 32 goals over the league campaign , and a further 13 in other competitions . Liverpool again reached the final of the Football League Cup , where they faced Everton . A 0 – 0 draw in the first match at Wembley Stadium meant that the match was replayed at Maine Road the following week . A Graeme Souness goal secured a 1 – 0 victory and the club 's fourth successive League Cup triumph . Liverpool performed well in Europe , reaching the final of the European Cup . They faced Italian team Roma at their home stadium , the Stadio Olimpico . A 1 – 1 draw after 90 minutes and extra time meant the match went to a penalty shoot @-@ out , which Liverpool won . Alan Kennedy scored the winning penalty after Grobbelaar had distracted Roma player Francesco Graziani , causing him to miss his own penalty .
Fagan 's second season in charge was less successful , as Liverpool failed to win trophy for the first time in nine years . The defence of their League championship was all but over in October 1984 when Liverpool were in the relegation places . The club 's form picked up afterwards , but they were unable to catch Everton and finished 13 points behind in second place . Their defence of the Football League Cup ended in the third round and Fagan 's team played no further part in the FA Cup , after defeat to Manchester United at the semi @-@ final . Liverpool did fare better in Europe , reaching their fifth European Cup final . Before the match against Juventus at the Heysel Stadium commenced , Liverpool fans had breached a fence separating the two sets of supporters . As the Juventus fans fled to safety , the accumulation of people against a perimeter wall caused it to collapse , killing 39 fans , most of whom were Italians . The collapse of the wall led to rioting by Juventus fans at the other end of the ground . As a result , the match was delayed by two hours , but was played regardless , as it was feared its abandonment would lead to further violence . Juventus won the final 1 – 0 .
In the aftermath of the match , the blame for the Heysel Stadium disaster was laid on the Liverpool fans . UEFA official Günter Schneider stated , " Only the English fans were responsible . Of that , there is no doubt . " As a result , The Football Association withdrew English clubs from European competition , and two days later UEFA banned English clubs for " an indeterminate period of time " . A condition was added , stipulating that Liverpool would serve another three @-@ year ban once the ban on English clubs was lifted . Fagan had decided to retire before the match ; he felt the team needed rebuilding and he was not the ideal man to do this with his 64th birthday approaching . He was replaced by Dalglish , who became the club 's first player @-@ manager .
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= Gregor MacGregor =
General Gregor MacGregor ( 24 December 1786 – 4 December 1845 ) was a Scottish soldier , adventurer and confidence trickster who from 1821 to 1837 attempted to draw British and French investors and settlers to " Poyais " , a fictional Central American territory he claimed to rule as " Cazique " . Hundreds invested their savings in supposed Poyaisian government bonds and land certificates , while about 250 emigrated to MacGregor 's invented country in 1822 – 23 to find only an untouched jungle ; over half of them died . MacGregor 's Poyais scheme has been called one of the most brazen confidence tricks in history .
From the Clan Gregor , MacGregor was an officer in the British Army from 1803 to 1810 , and served in the Peninsular War . He joined the republican side in the Venezuelan War of Independence in 1812 , quickly became a general and over the next four years operated against the Spanish on behalf of both Venezuela and its neighbour New Granada — his successes included a difficult month @-@ long fighting retreat through northern Venezuela in 1816 . Under a mandate from revolutionary agents to conquer Florida from the Spanish , MacGregor captured Amelia Island in 1817 and there proclaimed a short @-@ lived " Republic of the Floridas " . He then oversaw two calamitous operations in New Granada during 1819 that each ended with him abandoning British volunteer troops under his command .
On his return to Britain in 1821 , MacGregor claimed that King George Frederic Augustus of the Mosquito Coast in the Gulf of Honduras had created him Cazique of Poyais , which he described as a developed colony with an existing community of British settlers . When the British press reported on MacGregor 's deception following the return of fewer than 50 survivors in late 1823 , some of his victims leaped to his defence , insisting that the general had been let down by those he had put in charge of the emigration party . A French court tried MacGregor and three others for fraud in 1826 after he attempted a variation on the scheme there , but convicted only one of his associates . Acquitted , MacGregor attempted lesser Poyais schemes in London over the next decade . In 1838 he moved to Venezuela , where he was welcomed back as a hero . He died in Caracas in 1845 , aged 58 , and was buried with full military honours in Caracas Cathedral .
= = Early life = =
= = = Family and childhood = = =
Gregor MacGregor was born on Christmas Eve 1786 at his family 's ancestral home of Glengyle , on the north shore of Loch Katrine in Stirlingshire , Scotland , the son of Daniel MacGregor , an East India Company sea captain , and his wife Ann ( née Austin ) . The family was Roman Catholic and part of the Clan Gregor , whose proscription by King James VI and I in 1604 had been repealed only in 1774 . During the proscription the MacGregors had been legally ostracised to the extent that they were forbidden to use their own surname — many of them , including Gregor 's celebrated great @-@ great @-@ uncle Rob Roy , had participated in the Jacobite risings of 1715 and 1745 . MacGregor would assert in adulthood that a direct ancestor of his had survived the Darien scheme of 1698 , the ill @-@ fated Scottish attempt to colonise the Isthmus of Panama . Gregor 's grandfather , also called Gregor and nicknamed " the Beautiful " , served with distinction in the British Army under the surname Drummond , and subsequently played an important role in the clan 's restoration and rehabilitation into society .
Little is recorded of MacGregor 's childhood . After his father 's death in 1794 , he and his two sisters were raised primarily by his mother with the help of various relatives . MacGregor 's biographer David Sinclair speculates that he would probably have spoken mainly Gaelic during his early childhood , and learned English only after starting school around the age of five @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half . MacGregor would claim in later life to have studied at the University of Edinburgh between 1802 and 1803 ; records of this do not survive as he did not take a degree , but Sinclair considers it plausible , citing MacGregor 's apparent sophistication and his mother 's connections in Edinburgh .
= = = British Army = = =
MacGregor joined the British Army at 16 , the youngest age it was possible for him to do so , in April 1803 . His family purchased him a commission as an ensign in the 57th ( West Middlesex ) Regiment of Foot , probably for around £ 450 . MacGregor 's entrance to the military coincided with the start of the Napoleonic Wars following the breakdown of the Treaty of Amiens . Southern England was fortified to defend against a possible French invasion ; the 57th Foot was at Ashford , Kent . In February 1804 , after less than a year in training , MacGregor was promoted without purchase to lieutenant — an advancement that usually took up to three years . Later that year , after MacGregor had spent some months in Guernsey with the regiment 's 1st Battalion , the 57th Foot was posted to Gibraltar .
MacGregor was introduced to Maria Bowater , the daughter of a Royal Navy admiral , around 1804 . Maria commanded a substantial dowry and , apart from her by @-@ now @-@ deceased father , was related to two generals , a member of parliament and the botanist Aylmer Bourke Lambert . Gregor and Maria married at St Margaret 's Church , Westminster in June 1805 and set up home in London , at the residence of the bride 's aunt . Two months later , having rejoined the 57th Foot in Gibraltar , MacGregor bought the rank of captain for about £ 900 , choosing not to wait the seven years such a promotion might take without purchase . The 57th Foot remained in Gibraltar between 1805 and 1809 . During this time MacGregor developed an obsession with dress , rank insignia and medals that made him unpopular in the regiment ; he forbade any enlisted man or non @-@ commissioned officer to leave his quarters in anything less than full dress uniform .
In 1809 the 57th Foot was sent to Portugal as reinforcements for the Anglo @-@ Portuguese Army under the Duke of Wellington , during his second attempt to drive the French out of Spain during the Peninsular War . MacGregor 's regiment disembarked at Lisbon about three months into the campaign , on 15 July . By September it was garrisoning Elvas , near the frontier with Spain . Soon thereafter MacGregor was seconded to the 8th Line Battalion of the Portuguese Army , where he served with the rank of major from October 1809 to April 1810 . According to Michael Rafter , author of a highly critical 1820 biography of MacGregor , this secondment came after a disagreement between MacGregor and a superior officer , " originally of a trivial nature " , that intensified to such an extent that the young captain was forced to request discharge . This was promptly granted . MacGregor formally retired from the British service on 24 May 1810 , receiving back the £ 1 @,@ 350 he had paid for the ranks of ensign and captain , and returned to Britain . The 57th Foot 's actions at the Battle of Albuera on 16 May 1811 would earn it considerable prestige and the nickname " the Die @-@ Hards " — MacGregor would thereafter make much of his association .
= = = Edinburgh to Caracas = = =
On his return to Britain the 23 @-@ year @-@ old MacGregor and his wife moved into a house rented by his mother in Edinburgh . There he assumed the title of " Colonel " , wore the badge of a Portuguese knightly order and toured the city in an extravagant and brightly @-@ coloured coach . After failing to attain high social status in Edinburgh , MacGregor moved back to London in 1811 and began styling himself " Sir Gregor MacGregor , Bart. " , falsely claiming to have succeeded to the MacGregor clan chieftainship ; he also alluded to family ties with a selection of dukes , earls and barons . This had little bearing on reality but MacGregor nevertheless created an air of credible respectability for himself in London society .
In December 1811 , Maria MacGregor died . At a stroke MacGregor lost his main source of income and the support of the influential Bowater family . His choices were , Sinclair suggests , limited : announcing his engagement to another heiress so soon after Maria 's death might draw embarrassing public protests from the Bowaters , and returning home to farm the MacGregor lands in Scotland would be in his mind unacceptably dull . His only real experience was military , but the manner of his exit from the British Army would make a return there awkward at best .
MacGregor 's interest was aroused by the colonial revolts against Spanish rule in Latin America , particularly Venezuela , where seven of the ten provinces had declared themselves an independent republic in July 1811 , starting the Venezuelan War of Independence . The Venezuelan revolutionary General Francisco de Miranda had been feted in London society during his recent visit , and may have met MacGregor . Noting the treatment London 's highest circles gave to Miranda , MacGregor formed the idea that exotic adventures in the New World might earn him similar celebrity on his homecoming . He sold the small Scottish estate he had inherited from his father and grandfather and sailed for South America in early 1812 . On the way he stopped in Jamaica , where according to Rafter he was tempted to settle among the planters and traders , but " having no introductory letters to that place , he was not received into society " . After a comfortable sojourn in Kingston , he sailed for Venezuela and disembarked there in April 1812 .
= = South America = =
= = = Venezuela , under Miranda = = =
MacGregor arrived in the Venezuelan capital Caracas a fortnight after much of the city had been destroyed by an earthquake . With swathes of the country under the control of advancing royalist armies , the revolutionary government was losing support and starting to fracture . MacGregor dropped his pretended Scottish baronetcy , reasoning that it might undermine the republican credentials he hoped to establish , but continued to style himself " Sir Gregor " on the basis that he was , he claimed , a Knight of the Portuguese Order of Christ . He offered his services directly to Miranda in Caracas . As a former British Army officer — from the famous " Die @-@ Hards " , no less — he was received with alacrity and given command of a cavalry battalion with the rank of colonel . In his first action , MacGregor and his cavalry routed a royalist force west of Maracay , between Valencia and Caracas . Subsequent engagements were less successful , but the republican leaders were still pleased with the glamour they perceived this dashing Scottish officer to give their cause .
MacGregor married Doña Josefa Antonia Andrea Aristeguieta y Lovera , daughter of a prominent Caracas family and a cousin of the revolutionary Simón Bolívar , in Maracay on 10 June 1812 . By the end of that month Miranda had promoted MacGregor to brigadier @-@ general , but the revolutionary cause was failing ; in July , after the royalists took the key port of Puerto Cabello from Bolívar , the republic capitulated . In the chaos that ensued Miranda was captured by the Spanish while the remnants of the republican leadership , including MacGregor with Josefa in tow , were evacuated to the Dutch island of Curaçao aboard a British brig , the Sapphire . Bolívar joined them there later in the year .
= = = New Granada ; defence of Cartagena = = =
With Miranda imprisoned in Spain , Bolívar emerged as the new leader of the Venezuelan independence movement . He resolved that they would have to take some time to prepare before returning to the mainland . Growing bored in Curaçao , MacGregor decided to offer his services to General Antonio Nariño 's republican armies in Venezuela 's western neighbour , New Granada . He escorted Josefa to lodgings in Jamaica , then travelled to Nariño 's base at Tunja in the eastern Andes . Miranda 's name won the Scotsman a fresh commission in the service of New Granada , with command of 1 @,@ 200 men in the Socorro district near the border with Venezuela . There was little action in this sector ; Nariño 's forces were mainly engaged around Popayán in the south @-@ west , where the Spanish had a large garrison . Rafter reports positively on MacGregor 's conduct in Socorro , writing that " by the introduction of the European system of tactics , [ he ] considerably improved the discipline of the troops " , but some under his command disliked him . An official in Cúcuta , the district capital , expressed utter contempt for MacGregor in a letter to a friend : " I am sick and tired of this bluffer , or Quixote , or the devil knows what . This man can hardly serve us in New Granada without heaping ten thousand embarrassments upon us . "
While MacGregor was in the New Granadian service , Bolívar raised a force of Venezuelan exiles and local troops in the port of Cartagena , and captured Caracas on 4 August 1813 . The royalists quickly rallied and crushed Bolívar 's second republic in mid @-@ 1814 . Nariño 's New Granadian nationalists surrendered around the same time . MacGregor withdrew to Cartagena , which was still in revolutionary hands , and at the head of native troops destroyed hamlets , local infrastructure and produce to prevent the Spanish from using them . A Spanish force of about 6 @,@ 000 landed in late August 1815 and , after repeatedly failing to overcome the 5 @,@ 000 defenders , deployed to subdue the fortress by blockade . Sinclair records that MacGregor played an " honourable , though not conspicuous " part in the defence . By November there remained in Cartagena only a few hundred men capable of fighting . The defenders resolved to use the dozen gunboats they had to break through the Spanish fleet to the open sea , abandoning the city to the royalists ; MacGregor was chosen as one of the three commanders of this operation . On the night of 5 December 1815 the gunboats sailed out into the bay , blasted their way through the smaller Spanish vessels and , avoiding the frigates , made for Jamaica . All the gunboats escaped .
= = = Venezuela , under Bolívar = = =
The British merchant class in Jamaica that had shunned MacGregor on his first arrival in 1812 now welcomed him as a hero . The Scotsman entertained many dinner parties with embellished accounts of his part in the Cartagena siege , leading some to understand that he had personally headed the city 's defence . One Englishman toasted the " Hannibal of modern Carthage " . Around New Year 1816 , MacGregor and his wife made their way to Santo Domingo ( today the Dominican Republic ) , where Bolívar was raising a new army . Bolívar received MacGregor back into the Venezuelan Army with the rank of brigadier @-@ general , and included him in an expeditionary force that left Aux Cayes ( now Les Cayes ) on 30 April 1816 . MacGregor took part in the capture of the port town of Carúpano , as second @-@ in @-@ command of Manuel Piar 's column , but is not mentioned in the record of the battle prepared by Bolívar 's staff . After the Spanish were driven from many central Venezuelan towns , MacGregor was sent to the coast west of Caracas to recruit native tribesmen in July 1816 . On 18 July , eight days after the numerically superior royalists countered and broke Bolívar 's main force at La Cabrera , MacGregor resolved to retreat hundreds of miles east to Barcelona .
Two pursuing royalist armies harried MacGregor constantly as he retreated across country , but failed to break his rearguard . With no carts and only a handful of horses , the Scotsman was forced to leave his wounded where they fell . Late on 27 July MacGregor 's way east was obstructed by a royalist force at Chaguaramas , south of Caracas and about a third of the distance to Barcelona . MacGregor led his men in a furious charge that prompted a Spanish retreat back into Chaguaramas , then continued towards Barcelona . The Spanish remained in the town until 30 July , giving MacGregor two days ' head start , and caught up with him only on 10 August . The Scotsman deployed his 1 @,@ 200 men , mostly native archers , behind a marsh and a stream — the Spanish cavalry were bogged down in the marsh , while the archers repelled the infantry with volleys of arrows . After three hours MacGregor charged and routed the royalists . MacGregor 's party was helped the rest of the way east to Barcelona by elements of the main revolutionary army . They arrived on 20 August 1816 , after 34 days ' march .
In Rafter 's view , this marked " the zenith of MacGregor 's celebrity " in South America . He had , according to his biographer Frank Griffith Dawson , " led his troops with brilliant success " ; Sinclair agrees , calling the march a " remarkable feat " demonstrating " genuine military skill " . With Bolívar back in Aux Cayes , overall command of the republican armies in Venezuela had been given to Piar . MacGregor and Piar had several disagreements over the next two months regarding the strategic conduct of the war — according to the American historian David Bushnell , the Scottish general probably " r [ an ] afoul of personal and factional rivalries within the patriot camp " . In early October 1816 MacGregor left with Josefa for Margarita Island , about 24 miles ( 39 km ) off eastern Venezuela , where he hoped to enter the service of General Juan Bautista Arismendi . Soon afterwards he received an acclamatory letter from Bolívar : " The retreat which you had the honour to conduct is in my opinion superior to the conquest of an empire ... Please accept my congratulations for the prodigious services you have rendered my country " . MacGregor 's march to Barcelona would remain prominent in the South American revolutionary narrative for years .
= = = Florida republic ; Amelia Island affair = = =
Arismendi proposed to MacGregor that capturing one of the ports in East or West Florida , which were then Spanish colonies , might provide an excellent springboard for republican operations elsewhere in Latin America . MacGregor liked the idea and , after an abortive attempt to recruit in Haiti , sailed with Josefa to the United States to raise money and volunteers . In early 1817 , soon after he left , a further congratulatory letter from Bolívar arrived in Margarita , promoting MacGregor to divisional general , awarding him the Orden de los Libertadores ( Order of the Liberators ) and asking him to return to Venezuela . MacGregor remained ignorant of this for two years . On 31 March 1817 , in Philadelphia , MacGregor received a document from three men calling themselves the " deputies of free America " — Lino de Clemente , Pedro Gual and Martin Thompson , each of whom claimed to speak for one or more of the Latin American republics — in which the Scottish general was called upon to take possession of " both the Floridas , East and West " as soon as possible . Florida 's proposed fate was not specified ; MacGregor presumed that the Floridians , who were mostly of non @-@ Spanish origin , would seek US annexation and that the US would quickly comply . He thus expected at least covert support from the US government .
In the Mid @-@ Atlantic states , South Carolina and particularly Savannah , Georgia , MacGregor raised not only several hundred armed men for this enterprise , but also $ 160 @,@ 000 by the sale of " scripts " to investors , promising them fertile acres in Florida or their money back with interest . He determined to first attack Amelia Island , an anarchic community of pirates and other criminals containing about 40 % of East Florida 's population ( recorded as 3 @,@ 729 in 1815 ) . Expecting little to no resistance from the tiny Spanish garrison there , MacGregor left Charleston with fewer than 80 men , mostly US citizens , in one ship . He led the landing party personally on 29 June 1817 , with the words : " I shall sleep either in hell or Amelia tonight ! " The Spanish commander at Fort San Carlos , with 51 men and several cannon , vastly overestimated the size of MacGregor 's force and surrendered without either side firing a shot .
Few of Amelia 's residents came out to support MacGregor , but at the same time there was little resistance ; most simply left for mainland Florida or Georgia . MacGregor raised a flag showing a green cross on a white field — the " Green Cross of Florida " — and issued a proclamation on 30 June urging the island 's inhabitants to return and support him . This was largely ignored , as was a second proclamation in which MacGregor congratulated his men on their victory and exhorted them to " free the whole of the Floridas from Tyranny and oppression " . Morale among the troops plummeted when MacGregor prohibited looting . MacGregor announced a " Republic of the Floridas " under a government headed by himself , attempted to tax the local pirates ' booty at an " admiralty court " , and tried to raise money by seizing and selling dozens of slaves found on the island . Most of his recruits were still in the US ; American authorities prevented most of them from leaving port , and MacGregor was able to muster only 200 on Amelia . His officers clamoured for an invasion of mainland Florida , but he insisted they did not have enough men , arms or supplies . Bushnell suggests that MacGregor 's backers in the US may have promised him more support in these regards than they ultimately provided . Eighteen men sent to reconnoitre around St Augustine in late July 1817 were variously killed , wounded or captured by the Spanish . Discipline among MacGregor 's troops — paid first in " Amelia dollars " he had printed , and later not at all — disintegrated .
As Spanish forces congregated on the mainland opposite Amelia , MacGregor and most of his officers decided on 3 September 1817 that the situation was hopeless and that they would abandon the venture . MacGregor announced to the men that he was leaving , explaining vaguely that he had been " deceived by my friends " , and turned command over to one of his subordinates , a former Pennsylvania congressman called Jared Irwin . With an angry crowd looking on and hurling insults at him , MacGregor boarded the Morgiana with his wife on 4 September . He waited offshore for a few days , then left on the schooner Venus on 8 September 1817 . Two weeks later the MacGregors arrived at Nassau in the Bahamas , where MacGregor arranged the striking of commemorative medallions bearing the Green Cross motif and the Latin inscriptions Amalia Veni Vidi Vici ( " Amelia , I Came , I Saw , I Conquered " ) and Duce Mac Gregorio Libertas Floridarium ( " Liberty for the Floridas under the leadership of MacGregor " ) . He made no attempt to repay those who had funded the Amelia expedition . Irwin 's troops defeated two Spanish assaults and were then joined by 300 men under Louis @-@ Michel Aury , who held Amelia for three months before surrendering to American forces who held the island " in trust for Spain " until the Florida Purchase in 1819 .
Press reports of the Amelia Island affair were wildly inaccurate , partly because of misinformation disseminated by MacGregor himself — his sudden departure , he claimed , was because he had sold the island to Aury for $ 50 @,@ 000 . Josefa gave birth to her and MacGregor 's first child , a boy named Gregorio , in Nassau on 9 November 1817 . The owner of the Venus , an ex @-@ captain of the British Corps of Colonial Marines called George Woodbine , pointed to the British Legions being raised by the Latin American revolutionaries in London , and suggested that MacGregor could recruit and command such a force himself . Excited by the idea of leading British troops again after years in command of colonials , tribesmen and miscellaneous adventurers , MacGregor sailed for home with Josefa and Gregorio and landed in Dublin on 21 September 1818 . He thence made his way back to London .
= = = Porto Bello = = =
The third Venezuelan republic 's envoy in the British capital borrowed £ 1 @,@ 000 for MacGregor to engage and transport British troops for service in Venezuela , but the Scotsman squandered these funds within a few weeks . A London financier , an old friend of MacGregor 's called Thomas Newte , took responsibility for the envoy 's debt on the condition that the general instead take troops to New Granada . MacGregor funded his expedition through the sale of commissions at rates cheaper than those offered by the British Army , and assembled enlisted men through a network of recruiters across the British Isles , offering volunteers huge financial incentives . MacGregor sailed for South America on 18 November 1818 aboard a former Royal Navy brigantine , renamed the Hero ; 50 officers and over 500 troops , many of them Irish , followed the next month . They were critically under @-@ equipped , having virtually no arms or munitions .
The men came close to mutiny at Aux Cayes in February 1819 when MacGregor failed to produce the 80 silver dollars per man on arrival promised by his recruiters . MacGregor persuaded South American merchants in Haiti to support him with funds , weapons and ammunition , but then procrastinated and gave the order to sail for the island of San Andrés , off the Spanish @-@ controlled Isthmus of Panama , only on 10 March . Going first to Jamaica to arrange accommodation for Josefa and Gregorio , MacGregor was almost arrested there on charges of gun @-@ running . He joined his troops on San Andrés on 4 April . The delay had led to renewed dissension in the ranks that the stand @-@ in commander Colonel William Rafter had difficulty containing . MacGregor restored morale by announcing that they would set out to attack Porto Bello on the New Granadian mainland the following day .
Colonel Rafter disembarked with 200 men near Porto Bello on 9 April , outflanked a roughly equal force of Spanish defenders during the night , and marched into Porto Bello without a fight on 10 April . MacGregor , watching from one of the ships with Woodbine — to whom he had given the rank of colonel — quickly came ashore when he sighted Rafter 's signal of victory , and , as usual , issued a flowery proclamation : " Soldiers ! Our first conquest has been glorious , it has opened the road to future and additional fame . " Rafter urged MacGregor to march on Panama , but MacGregor did not make much in the way of plans to continue the campaign . He devoted most of his attention to the particulars of a new chivalric order of his design , the emblem of which would be a Green Cross . The troops became mutinous again after more promised money failed to materialise — MacGregor eventually paid each man $ 20 , but this did little to restore discipline .
The lack of patrolling by MacGregor 's troops allowed the Spanish to march straight into Porto Bello early on 30 April 1819 . MacGregor was still in bed when the Spaniards found his riflemen drilling in the main square and opened fire . Awoken by the noise , MacGregor threw his bed and blankets from the window onto the beach below and jumped out after them , then attempted to paddle out to his ships on a log . He passed out and would probably have drowned had he not been picked up and brought aboard the Hero by one of his naval officers . MacGregor would claim that on regaining consciousness he immediately raised his standard over the Hero , then despatched runners to Rafter ordering him not to surrender . The version of events favoured by Sinclair is that Rafter received orders to this effect only after he had himself contacted MacGregor on the Hero . Rafter , in the fort with 200 men , kept up a steady barrage and waited for his commander to fire on the royalists from the ships — but to the colonel 's astonishment MacGregor instead ordered his fleet to turn about and made for the high seas . Abandoned , Colonel Rafter and the remnants of MacGregor 's army had no choice but to surrender ; most of the surviving officers and troops entered miserable existences in captivity . Rafter was ultimately shot with 11 other officers for conspiring to escape .
= = = Rio de la Hacha = = =
Making his way first to San Andrés , then Haiti , MacGregor conferred invented decorations and titles on his officers and planned an expedition to Rio de la Hacha in northern New Granada . He was briefly delayed in Haiti by a falling @-@ out with his naval commander , an officer called Hudson . When the naval officer fell ill , MacGregor had him put ashore , seized the Hero — which Hudson owned — and renamed her El MacGregor , explaining to the Haitian authorities that " drunkenness , insanity and mutiny " by his captain had forced him to take the ship . MacGregor steered the hijacked brigantine to Aux Cayes , then sold her after she was found to be unseaworthy . Waiting for him in Aux Cayes were 500 officers and enlisted men , courtesy of recruiters in Ireland and London , but he had no ships to carry them and little in the way of equipment . This was remedied during July and August 1819 , first by the arrival of his Irish recruiter Colonel Thomas Eyre with 400 men and two ships — MacGregor gave him the rank of general and the Order of the Green Cross — and then by the appearance of war materiel from London , sent by Thomas Newte on a schooner named Amelia .
MacGregor bombastically announced his intention to liberate New Granada , but then hesitated . The lack of action , rations or pay for weeks prompted most of the British volunteers to go home . MacGregor 's force , which had comprised 900 men at its peak ( including officers ) , had dwindled to no more than 250 by the time he directed the Amelia and two other vessels to Rio de la Hacha on 29 September 1819 . His remaining officers included Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Michael Rafter , who had bought a commission with the hope of rescuing his brother William . After being driven away from Rio de la Hacha harbour by cannon on 4 October , MacGregor ordered a night landing west of the town and said that he would take personal command once the troops were ashore . Lieutenant @-@ Colonel William Norcott led the men onto the beach and waited there two hours for MacGregor to arrive , but the general failed to appear . Attacked by a larger Spanish force , Norcott countered and captured the town . MacGregor still refused to leave the ships , convinced that the flag flying over the fort must be a trick ; even when Norcott rowed out to tell him to come into port , MacGregor would not step ashore for over a day . When he did appear , many of his soldiers swore and spat at him . He issued another lofty proclamation , recalled by Rafter as an " aberration of human intellect " , at the foot of which MacGregor identified himself as " His Majesty the Inca of New Granada " .
Events went largely as they had done earlier in the year at Porto Bello . MacGregor abstained from command in all but name , and the troops descended into a state of confused drunkenness . " General MacGregor displayed so palpable a want of the requisite qualities which should distinguish the commander of such an expedition , " Rafter wrote , " that universal astonishment prevailed amongst his followers at the reputation he had for some time maintained . " As Spanish forces gathered around the town , Norcott and Rafter decided the situation was hopeless and left on a captured Spanish schooner on 10 October 1819 , taking with them five officers and 27 soldiers and sailors . MacGregor convened his remaining officers the next day and , giving them promotions and Green Cross decorations , exhorted them to help him lead the defence . Immediately afterwards he went to the port , ostensibly to escort Eyre 's wife and two children to safety on a ship . After putting the Eyres on the Lovely Ann , he boarded the Amelia and ordered the ships out to sea just as the Spanish attacked . General Eyre and the troops left behind were all killed .
MacGregor reached Aux Cayes to find news of this latest debacle had preceded him , and he was shunned . A friend in Jamaica , Thomas Higson , informed him through letters that Josefa and Gregorio had been evicted , and until Higson 's intervention had sought sanctuary in a slave 's hut . MacGregor was wanted in Jamaica for piracy and so could not join his family there . He similarly could not go back to Bolívar , who was so outraged by MacGregor 's recent conduct that he accused the Scotsman of treason and ordered his death by hanging if he ever set foot on the South American mainland again . MacGregor 's whereabouts for the half year following October 1819 are unknown . Back in London in June 1820 , Michael Rafter published his highly censorious account of MacGregor 's adventures , Memoirs of Gregor M 'Gregor , dedicating the book to his brother Colonel William Rafter and the troops abandoned at Porto Bello and Rio de la Hacha . In his summary Rafter speculated that following the latter episode MacGregor was " politically , though not naturally dead " — " to suppose " , he wrote , " that any person could be induced again to join him in his desperate projects , would be to conceive a degree of madness and folly of which human nature , however fallen , is incapable " .
= = Poyais scheme = =
= = = Cazique of Poyais = = =
MacGregor 's next known location is at the court of King George Frederic Augustus of the Mosquito Coast , at Cape Gracias a Dios on the Gulf of Honduras in April 1820 . The Mosquito people , descendants of shipwrecked African slaves and indigenous people , shared the historic British antipathy towards Spain , and the British authorities in the region had crowned their most powerful chieftains as " kings " since the 17th century . These were kings in little more than name , with no effective control over the country they ostensibly led ; Britain crowned and protected them simply so they could declare the area to be under Mosquito sovereignty and thereby obstruct Spanish claims . There had been a modest British settlement on the coast around the Black River ( now the Río Sico ) , but this had been evacuated following the Anglo @-@ Spanish Convention of 1786 . By the 1820s the most visible sign of prior colonisation was a small graveyard overgrown by the jungle .
On 29 April 1820 , George Frederic Augustus signed a document granting MacGregor and his heirs a substantial swathe of Mosquito territory — 8 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 acres ( 12 @,@ 500 square miles ; 32 @,@ 375 square kilometres ) , an area larger than Wales — in exchange for rum and jewellery . The land was pleasing to the eye but unfit for cultivation and could sustain little in the way of livestock . Its area was roughly a triangle with corners at Cape Gracias a Dios , Cape Camarón and the Black River 's headwaters . MacGregor dubbed this area " Poyais " after the natives of the highlands around the Black River 's source , the Paya or " Poyer " people ( today called the Pech ) , and in mid @-@ 1821 appeared back in London calling himself the Cazique of Poyais — " Cazique " , a Spanish @-@ American word for a native chief , being equivalent in MacGregor 's usage to " Prince " . He claimed to have been created such by the Mosquito king , but in fact both the title and Poyais were of his own invention .
Despite Rafter 's book , London society remained largely unaware of MacGregor 's failures over the past few years , but remembered successes such as his march to Barcelona ; similarly his association with the " Die @-@ Hards " of the 57th Foot was recalled , but his dubious early discharge was not . In this climate of a constantly shifting Latin America , where governments rose , fell and adopted new names from year to year , it did not seem so implausible that there might be a country called Poyais or that a decorated general like MacGregor might be its leader . The Cazique became " a great adornment for the dinner tables and ballrooms of sophisticated London " , Sinclair writes — rumours abounded that he was partially descended from indigenous royalty . His exotic appeal was enhanced by the arrival of the striking " Princess of Poyais " , Josefa , who had given birth to a girl named Josefa Anna Gregoria at MacGregor 's sister 's home in Ireland . The MacGregors received countless social invitations , including an official reception at Guildhall from the Lord Mayor of London .
MacGregor said that he had come to London to attend King George IV 's coronation on the Poyers ' behalf , and to seek investment and immigrants for Poyais . He claimed to have inherited a democratic system of government there , with a basic civil service and military . To those interested MacGregor showed what he said was a copy of a printed proclamation he had issued to the Poyers on 13 April 1821 . He therein announced the 1820 land grant , his departure for Europe to seek investors and colonists — " religious and moral instructors ... and persons to guide and assist you " — and the appointment of Brigadier @-@ General George Woodbine to be " Vice @-@ Cazique " during his absence . " POYERS ! " , the document concluded , " I now bid you farewell for a while ... I trust , that through the kindness of Almighty Providence , I shall be again enabled to return amongst you , and that then it will be my pleasing duty to hail you as affectionate friends , and yours to receive me as your faithful Cazique and Father . " There is no evidence that such a statement was ever actually distributed on the Mosquito Coast .
So began what has been called one of the most brazen confidence tricks in history — the Poyais scheme . MacGregor devised a tricameral parliament and other convoluted constitutional arrangements for Poyais , drew up commercial and banking mechanisms , and designed distinctive uniforms for each regiment of the Poyaisian Army . His imaginary country had an honours system , landed titles , a coat of arms — doubly supported by Poyers and unicorns — and the same Green Cross flag he had used in Florida . By the end of 1821 Major William John Richardson had not only accepted MacGregor 's fantasy as true but become an active ally , providing his attractive estate at Oak Hall , Wanstead to be a British base for the supposed Poyaisian royal family . MacGregor gave Richardson the Order of the Green Cross , commissioned him into the Poyaisian " Royal Regiment of Horse Guards " and appointed him chargé d 'affaires of the Poyaisian legation at Dowgate Hill in the City of London — the top representative of Poyais in Britain . Richardson 's letter of credence from " Gregor the First , Sovereign Prince of the State of Poyais " was presented to George IV . MacGregor had Poyaisian offices set up in London , Edinburgh and Glasgow to sell impressive @-@ looking land certificates — initially hand @-@ written , but later printed — to the general public , and to co @-@ ordinate prospective emigrants .
= = = Land of opportunity = = =
The consensus among MacGregor 's biographers is that Britain in the early 1820s could hardly have suited him and his Poyais scheme better . Amid a general growth in the British economy following the Battle of Waterloo and the end of the Napoleonic Wars , interest rates were dropping and the British government bond , the " consol " , offered rates of only 3 % per annum on the London Stock Exchange . Those wanting a higher return invested in more risky foreign debt . After continental European bonds were popular in the immediate post @-@ Waterloo years , the Latin American revolutions brought a raft of new alternatives to the London market , starting with the £ 2 million loan issued for Gran Colombia ( incorporating both New Granada and Venezuela ) in March 1822 . Bonds from Colombia , Peru , Chile and others , offering interest rates as high as 6 % per annum , made Latin American securities extremely popular on the London market — a trend on which a nation like the Poyais described by MacGregor would be ideally positioned to capitalise .
MacGregor mounted an aggressive sales campaign . He gave interviews in the national newspapers , engaged publicists to write advertisements and leaflets , and had Poyais @-@ related ballads composed and sung on the streets of London , Edinburgh and Glasgow . His proclamation to the Poyers was distributed in handbill form . In mid @-@ 1822 there appeared in Edinburgh and London a 355 @-@ page guidebook " chiefly intended for the use of settlers " , Sketch of the Mosquito Shore , Including the Territory of Poyais — ostensibly the work of a " Captain Thomas Strangeways " , aide @-@ de @-@ camp to the Cazique , but actually written either by MacGregor himself or by accomplices .
The Sketch mostly comprised long , reprinted tracts from older works on the Mosquito Coast and other parts of the region . The original material ranged from misleading to outright made up . MacGregor 's publicists described the Poyaisian climate as " remarkably healthy ... agree [ ing ] admirably with the constitution of Europeans " — it was supposedly a spa destination for sick colonists from the Caribbean . The soil was so fertile that a farmer could have three maize harvests a year , or grow cash crops such as sugar or tobacco without hardship ; detailed projections at the Sketch 's end forecast profits of millions of dollars . Fish and game were so plentiful that a man could hunt or fish for a single day and bring back enough to feed his family for a week . The natives were not just co @-@ operative but intensely pro @-@ British . The capital was St Joseph , a flourishing seaside town of wide paved boulevards , colonnaded buildings and mansions , inhabited by as many as 20 @,@ 000 . St Joseph had a theatre , an opera house and a domed cathedral ; there was also the Bank of Poyais , the Poyaisian houses of parliament and a royal palace . Reference was made to a " projected Hebrew colony " . The Sketch went so far as to claim the rivers of Poyais contained " globules of pure gold " .
This was almost all fiction , but MacGregor 's calculation that official @-@ looking documents and the printed word would convince many people proved correct . The meticulous detail in the leather @-@ bound Sketch , and the cost of having it printed , did much to dispel lingering doubts . Poyaisian land certificates at two shillings and threepence per acre , roughly equivalent to a working man 's daily wage at the time , were perceived by many as an attractive investment opportunity . There was enough demand for the certificates that MacGregor was able to raise the price to two shillings and sixpence per acre in July 1822 , then gradually to four shillings per acre , without diminishing sales ; according to MacGregor , about 500 had bought Poyaisian land by early 1823 . The buyers included many who invested their life savings . MacGregor became , to quote one 21st @-@ century financial analyst , the " founding father of securities fraud " .
Alongside the land certificate sales , MacGregor spent several months organising the issue of a Poyaisian government loan on the London Stock Exchange . As a precursor to this he registered his 1820 land grant at the Court of Chancery on 14 October 1822 . Sir John Perring , Shaw , Barber & Co . , a London bank with a fine reputation , underwrote a £ 200 @,@ 000 loan , secured on " all the revenues of the Government of Poyais " including the sale of land , and offered provisional certificates or " scrip " for the Poyaisian bonds on 23 October . The bonds were in denominations of £ 100 , £ 200 and £ 500 , and offered at a marked @-@ down purchase price of 80 % . The certificate could be acquired for 15 % , with the rest due over two instalments on 17 January and 14 February 1823 . The interest rate was 6 % per annum . If the Poyaisian issue successfully emulated its Colombian , Peruvian and Chilean counterparts , MacGregor stood to amass a fortune .
= = = Eager settlers = = =
For settlers , MacGregor deliberately targeted his fellow Scots , assuming that as a Scotsman himself they would be more likely to trust him . Their emigration served to reassure potential investors in the Poyaisian bonds and land certificates firstly that the country was real , and secondly that it was being developed and would provide monetary returns . In Sinclair 's assessment , this aspect of the scheme " turn [ ed ] what would have been an inspired hoax into a cruel and deadly one " . Tamar Frankel posits in her analysis that , at least to some degree , MacGregor " probably believed his own story " and genuinely hoped to forge these people into a Poyaisian society . MacGregor told his would @-@ be colonists that he wished to see Poyais populated with Scots as they possessed the necessary hardiness and character to develop the new country . Alluding to the rivalry with England and the Darien episode — which , he stressed , had involved a direct ancestor of his — MacGregor suggested that in Poyais they might right this historic wrong and salvage Scottish pride . Skilled tradesmen and artisans were promised free passage to Poyais , supplies , and lucrative government contracts . Hundreds , mostly Scots , signed up to emigrate — enough to fill seven ships . They included a City of London banker named Mauger ( who was to head the Bank of Poyais ) , doctors , civil servants , young men whose families had bought them commissions in the Poyaisian Army and Navy , and an Edinburgh cobbler who accepted the post of Official Shoemaker to the Princess of Poyais .
Leadership of the Cazique 's first emigration party was given to an ex @-@ British Army officer , Hector Hall , who was commissioned into the Poyaisian " 2nd Native Regiment of Foot " with the rank of lieutenant @-@ colonel , and created " Baron Tinto " with a supposed 12 @,@ 800 @-@ acre ( 20 @-@ square @-@ mile ; 52 @-@ square @-@ kilometre ) estate . Hall would sail with 70 emigrants on the Honduras Packet , a vessel MacGregor had encountered in South America . MacGregor saw them off from London on 10 September 1822 , entrusting to Mauger 5 @,@ 000 Bank of Poyais dollar notes produced by the Bank of Scotland 's official printer . " The new world of their dreams suddenly became a very real world as the men accepted the Cazique 's dollar notes , " Sinclair writes . " The people who had bought land , and who had planned to take their savings with them in coin , were also delighted to exchange their gold for the legal currency of Poyais . " After MacGregor spoke briefly to each of the settlers to wish them luck , he and Hall exchanged salutes and the Honduras Packet set sail , flying the Green Cross flag .
A second emigrant ship — the Kennersley Castle , a merchantman docked at Leith , near Edinburgh — was hired by MacGregor in October 1822 , and left Leith on 22 January 1823 with almost 200 emigrants aboard . MacGregor again saw the settlers off , coming aboard to see that they were well quartered ; to their delight , he announced that since this was the maiden emigrant voyage from Scotland to Poyais , all the women and children would sail free of charge . The Cazique was rowed back to shore to rousing cheers from his colonists . The ship 's captain Henry Crouch fired a six @-@ gun broadside salute , hoisted the supposed flag of Poyais , then steered the ship out of port .
While claiming royal status as Cazique , MacGregor attempted to dissociate himself from the Latin American republican movement and his former comrades there , and from late 1822 made discreet overtures towards the Spanish government regarding co @-@ operation in Central America . The Spanish paid him little notice . The Poyaisian bonds ' price remained fairly steady until they were crippled by developments elsewhere in the market during November and December 1822 . Amid the general instability in South America , the Colombian government suggested that its London agent might have exceeded his authority when he arranged the £ 2 million loan . When this representative suddenly died , the frantic buying of South American securities was abruptly replaced by equally restless selling . The Cazique 's cash flow was all but wiped out when most of those who had bought the Poyaisian scrip did not make the payments due in January . While the price of the Colombian bonds steadied and eventually rose again , the Poyaisian securities never recovered ; by late 1823 they were traded for less than 10 % of their face value .
= = = Disappointment = = =
The Honduras Packet reached the Black River in November 1822 . Bemused to find a country rather different from the Sketch 's descriptions , and no sign of St Joseph , the emigrants set up camp on the shore , assuming that the Poyaisian authorities would soon contact them . They sent numerous search parties inland ; one , guided by natives who recognised the name St Joseph , found some long @-@ forgotten foundations and rubble . Hall quickly came to the private conclusion that MacGregor must have duped them , but reasoned that announcing such concerns prematurely would only demoralise the party and cause chaos . A few weeks after their arrival , the captain of the Honduras Packet abruptly and unilaterally sailed away amid a fierce storm ; the emigrants found themselves alone apart from the natives and two American hermits . Comforting the settlers with vague assurances that the Poyaisian government would find them if they just stayed where they were , Hall set out for Cape Gracias a Dios , hoping to make contact with the Mosquito king or find another ship . Most of the emigrants found it impossible to believe that the Cazique had deliberately misled them , and posited that blame must lie elsewhere , or that there must have been some terrible misunderstanding .
The second set of colonists disembarked from the Kennersley Castle in late March 1823 . Their optimism was quickly extinguished . Hall returned in April with disheartening news : he had found no ship that could help and , far from considering them any responsibility of his , King George Frederic Augustus had not even been aware of their presence . The Kennersley Castle having sailed , MacGregor 's victims could count on no assistance in the near future . The emigrants had brought ample provisions with them , including medicines , and had two doctors among them , so they were not in a totally hopeless situation , but apart from Hall none of the military officers , government officials or civil servants appointed by MacGregor made any serious attempt to organise the party .
Hall returned to Cape Gracias a Dios several times to seek help , but did not explain his constant absences to the settlers — this exacerbated the general confusion and anger , particularly when he refused to pay the wages promised to those supposedly on Poyaisian government contracts . With the coming of the rainy season insects infested the camp , diseases such as malaria and yellow fever took hold , and the emigrants sank into utter despair . James Hastie , a Scottish sawyer who had brought his wife and three children with him , later wrote : " It seemed to be the will of Providence that every circumstance should combine for our destruction . " The would @-@ be royal shoemaker , who had left a family in Edinburgh , shot himself .
The settlers were discovered in early May 1823 by the Mexican Eagle , a schooner from British Honduras carrying the Chief Magistrate of Belize , Marshal Bennet , to the Mosquito king 's court . Seven adult male colonists and three children had died , and many more were sick . Bennet informed them that Poyais did not exist and that he had never heard of this Cazique they spoke of . He advised them to return with him to British Honduras , as they would surely die if they stayed where they were . The majority preferred to wait for Hall to come back , hopefully with news of passage back to Britain . About half a week later Hall returned with the Mosquito king , who announced that MacGregor 's land grant was revoked forthwith . He had never granted MacGregor the title of Cazique , he said , nor given him the right to sell land or raise loans against it ; the emigrants were in fact in George Frederic Augustus 's territory illegally and would have to leave unless they pledged allegiance to him . All the settlers left except for about 40 who were too weakened by disease to make the journey .
Transported aboard the cramped Mexican Eagle — the lack of space necessitated three trips — the emigrants were in miserable shape when they reached Belize , and in most cases had to be carried from the ship . The weather in British Honduras was even worse than that at the Black River , and the colony 's authorities , doctors and residents could do little to help the new arrivals . Disease spread rapidly among the settlers and most of them died . The colony 's superintendent , Major @-@ General Edward Codd , opened an official investigation to " lay open the true situation of the imaginary State of Poyais and ... the unfortunate emigrants " , and sent word to Britain of the Poyais settlers ' fate . By the time the warning reached London , MacGregor had five more emigrant ships on the way ; Royal Navy vessels intercepted them . The surviving colonists variously settled in the United States , remained in British Honduras , or sailed for home aboard the Ocean , a British vessel that left Belize on 1 August 1823 . Some died during the journey back across the Atlantic . Of the roughly 250 who had sailed on the Honduras Packet and the Kennersley Castle , at least 180 had perished . Fewer than 50 ever returned to Britain .
= = = Poyais scheme in France = = =
MacGregor left London shortly before the small party of Poyais survivors arrived home on 12 October 1823 — he told Richardson that he was taking Josefa to winter in Italy for the sake of her health , but in fact his destination was Paris . The London press reported extensively on the Poyais scandal over the following weeks and months , stressing the colonists ' travails and charging that MacGregor had orchestrated a massive fraud . Six of the survivors — including Hastie , who had lost two of his children during the ordeal — claimed that they were misquoted in these articles , and on 22 October signed an affidavit insisting that blame lay not with MacGregor but with Hall and other members of the emigrant party . " [ W ] e believe that Sir Gregor MacGregor has been worse used by Colonel Hall and his other agents than was ever a man before , " they declared , " and that had they have done their duty by Sir Gregor and by us , things would have turned out very differently at Poyais " . MacGregor asserted that he himself had been defrauded , alleged embezzlement by some of his agents , and claimed that covetous merchants in British Honduras were deliberately undermining the development of Poyais as it threatened their profits . Richardson attempted to console the Poyais survivors , vigorously denied the press claims that the country did not exist , and issued libel writs against some of the British newspapers on MacGregor 's behalf .
In Paris , MacGregor persuaded the Compagnie de la Nouvelle Neustrie , a firm of traders that aspired to prominence in South America , to seek investors and settlers for Poyais in France . He concurrently intensified his efforts towards King Ferdinand VII of Spain — in a November 1823 letter the Cazique proposed to make Poyais a Spanish protectorate . Four months later he offered to lead a Spanish campaign to reconquer Guatemala , using Poyais as a base . Spain took no action . MacGregor 's " moment of greatest hubris " , Matthew Brown suggests in his biographical portrait , came in December 1824 when , in a letter to the King of Spain , he claimed to be himself " descendent of the ancient Kings of Scotland " . Around this time Josefa gave birth to the third and final MacGregor child , Constantino , at their home in the Champs @-@ Élysées . Gustavus Butler Hippisley , a friend of Major Richardson and fellow veteran of the British Legions in Latin America , accepted the Poyais fantasy as true and entered MacGregor 's employ in March 1825 . Hippisley wrote back to Britain refuting " the bare @-@ faced calumnies of a hireling press " ; in particular he admonished a journalist who had called MacGregor a " penniless adventurer " . With Hippisley 's help , MacGregor negotiated with the Nouvelle Neustrie company , whose managing director was a Frenchman called Lehuby , and agreed to sell the French company up to 500 @,@ 000 acres ( 781 square miles ; 2 @,@ 023 square kilometres ) in Poyais for its own settlement scheme ; " a very clever way of distancing himself " , Sinclair comments , as this time he would be able to say honestly that others were responsible and that he had merely made the land available .
Lehuby 's company readied a ship at Le Havre and began to gather French emigrants , of whom about 30 obtained passports to travel to Poyais . Discarding the idea of co @-@ operation with Spain , MacGregor published a new Poyaisian constitution in Paris in August 1825 , this time describing it as a republic — he remained head of state , with the title Cazique — and on 18 August raised a new £ 300 @,@ 000 loan through Thomas Jenkins & Company , an obscure London bank , offering 2 @.@ 5 % interest per annum . No evidence survives to suggest that the relevant bonds were issued . The Sketch was condensed and republished as a 40 @-@ page booklet called Some Account of the Poyais Country . French government officials became suspicious when an additional 30 people requested passports to travel to this country they had never heard of , and ordered the Nouvelle Neustrie company 's ship to be kept in port . Some of the would @-@ be emigrants became concerned themselves and made complaints to the police , which led to the arrest of Hippisley and MacGregor 's secretary Thomas Irving in Paris in the early hours on 4 September 1825 . Lehuby 's ship never left Le Havre , and his colonists gradually dispersed .
= = = 1826 acquittal of fraud = = =
MacGregor went into hiding in the French provinces , while Lehuby fled to the southern Netherlands . Hippisley and Irving were informed on 6 September that they were being investigated for conspiracy to defraud , and to sell titles to land they did not own . Both insisted that they were innocent . They were taken that evening to La Force Prison . MacGregor was arrested after three months and brought to La Force on 7 December 1825 . He speculated to his confederates that the charges against them must be the result of some abrupt change of policy by France , or of some Spanish intrigue calculated to undermine Poyaisian independence . The three men remained imprisoned without trial while the French attempted to extradite Lehuby from the Netherlands . Attempting to re @-@ associate himself and Poyais with the republican movement in Latin America , MacGregor issued a French @-@ language declaration from his prison cell on 10 January 1826 , claiming that he was " contrary to human rights , held prisoner ... for reasons of which he is not aware " and " suffering as one of the founders of independence in the New World " . This attempt to convince the French that he might have some kind of diplomatic immunity did not work . The French government and police simply ignored the announcement .
The three Britons were brought to trial on 6 April 1826 . Lehuby , still in the Netherlands , was tried in absentia . The Crown prosecution 's case was seriously hampered by his absence , particularly because many key documents were with him in the Netherlands . The prosecutor alleged a complex conspiracy between MacGregor , Lehuby and their associates to profit personally from a fraudulent land concession and loan prospectus . MacGregor 's lawyer , a Frenchman called Merilhou , asserted that if anything untoward had occurred , the missing managing director should be held culpable ; there was no proof of a conspiracy , he said , and MacGregor could have been himself defrauded by Lehuby . The prosecutor conceded that there was insufficient evidence to prove his case , complimented MacGregor for co @-@ operating with the investigation fairly and openly , and withdrew the charges . The three judges confirmed the defendants ' release — " a full and perfect acquittal " , Hippisley would write — but days later the French authorities succeeded in having Lehuby extradited , and the three men learned they would have to stand trial again .
The fresh trial , scheduled for 20 May , was postponed when the prosecutor announced that he was not ready . The delay gave MacGregor and Merilhou time to prepare an elaborate , largely fictional 5 @,@ 000 @-@ word statement purporting to describe the Scotsman 's background , activities in the Americas , and total innocence of any endeavour to defraud . When the trial finally began on 10 July 1826 , Merilhou was present not as MacGregor 's defence counsel but as a witness for the prosecution , having been called as such because of his links with the Nouvelle Neustrie company . Merilhou entrusted MacGregor 's defence to a colleague called Berville , who read the 5 @,@ 000 @-@ word submission in full before the court . " Maître Merilhou , as the author of the address the court had heard , and Maître Berville , as the actor who read the script , had done their work extremely well , " Sinclair writes ; Lehuby was convicted of making false representations regarding the sale of shares , and sentenced to 13 months ' imprisonment , but the Cazique was found not guilty on all charges , while the imputations against Hippisley and Irving were stricken from the record .
= = = Return to Britain ; lesser Poyais schemes = = =
MacGregor quickly moved his family back to London , where the furore following the Poyais survivors ' return had died down . In the midst of a serious economic downturn , some investors had subscribed to the £ 300 @,@ 000 Poyais loan issued by Thomas Jenkins & Company — apparently believing the assertion of the Cazique 's publicists that the previous loans had defaulted only because of embezzlement by one of his agents . MacGregor was arrested soon after his arrival back in Britain , and held at Tothill Fields Bridewell in Westminster for about a week before being released without charge . He initiated a new , less ornate version of the Poyais scheme , describing himself simply as the " Cacique of the Republic of Poyais " . The new Poyaisian office at 23 Threadneedle Street made none of the claims to diplomatic status the old Poyaisian legation at Dowgate Hill had done .
MacGregor persuaded Thomas Jenkins & Company to act as brokers for an £ 800 @,@ 000 loan , issued on 20 @-@ year bonds at 3 % interest , in mid @-@ 1827 . The bonds , produced at nominal values of £ 250 , £ 500 and £ 1 @,@ 000 , did not become popular . An anonymous handbill was circulated in the City of London , describing the previous Poyais loans and warning readers to " Take Care of your Pockets — Another Poyais Humbug " . The loan 's poor performance compelled MacGregor to pass most of the unsold certificates to a consortium of speculators for a small sum . Sinclair stresses that the Poyais bonds were perceived as " humbug " not because MacGregor 's hoax had been fully unravelled , but simply because the prior securities had failed to deliver profitable returns . " Nobody thought to question the legitimacy of Poyais itself " , he elaborates . " Some investors had begun to understand that they were being fleeced , but almost none realised how comprehensively . "
Other variants on the Poyais scheme were similarly unsuccessful . In 1828 MacGregor began to sell certificates entitling the holders to " land in Poyais Proper " at five shillings per acre . Two years later King Robert Charles Frederic , who had succeeded his brother George Frederic Augustus in 1824 , issued thousands of certificates covering the same territory and offered them to lumber companies in London , directly competing with MacGregor . When the original investors demanded their long @-@ overdue interest , MacGregor could only pay with more certificates . Other charlatans soon caught on and set up their own rival " Poyaisian offices " in London , offering land debentures in competition with both MacGregor and the Mosquito king . By 1834 MacGregor was back in Scotland and living in Edinburgh . He paid some unredeemed securities by issuing yet another series of Poyaisian land certificates . Two years later he published a constitution for a smaller Poyaisian republic , centred on the region surrounding the Black River , and headed by himself as President . It was clear , however , that " Poyais had had its day , " as Sinclair puts it . An attempt by MacGregor to sell some land certificates in 1837 marks the last record of any Poyais scheme .
= = Return to Venezuela , and death = =
Josefa MacGregor died at Burghmuirhead , near Edinburgh , on 4 May 1838 . MacGregor almost immediately left for Venezuela , where he resettled in Caracas and in October 1838 applied for citizenship and restoration to his former rank in the Venezuelan Army , with back pay and a pension . He stressed his travails on Venezuela 's behalf two decades earlier and asserted that Bolívar , who had died in 1830 , had effectively deported him ; he described several unsuccessful requests to return and being " [ forced to ] remain outside the Republic ... by causes and obstacles out of my control " while losing his wife , two children and " the best years of my life and all my fortune " .
The Defence Minister Rafael Urdaneta , who had served alongside MacGregor during the Aux Cayes expedition of 1816 , asked the Senate to look upon the Scotsman 's application favourably as he had " enlisted in our ranks from the very start of the War of Independence , and ran the same risks as all the patriots of that disastrous time , meriting promotions and respect because of his excellent personal conduct " — MacGregor 's contributions had been " heroic with immense results " . President José Antonio Páez , another former revolutionary comrade , approved the application in March 1839 .
MacGregor was duly confirmed as a Venezuelan citizen and divisional general in the Venezuelan Army , with a pension of one @-@ third of his salary . He settled in the capital and became a respected member of the local community . After his death at home in Caracas on 4 December 1845 , he was buried with full military honours in Caracas Cathedral , with President Carlos Soublette , Cabinet ministers and the military chiefs of Venezuela marching behind his coffin . Obituaries in the Caracas press extolled General MacGregor 's " heroic and triumphant retreat " to Barcelona in 1816 and described him as " a valiant champion of independence " . " There was not a word about Amelia Island , Porto Bello or Rio de la Hacha , and there was no reference to the Cazique of Poyais , " Sinclair concludes . The part of today 's Honduras that was supposedly called Poyais remains undeveloped in the 21st century . Back in Scotland , at the MacGregor graveyard near Loch Katrine , the clan memorial stones make no mention of Gregor MacGregor or the country he invented .
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= Elle Bishop =
Eleanor Zoe Bishop , mostly known as Elle , is a fictional character on the NBC series Heroes . She is portrayed by Kristen Bell . Elle appeared as one of the new characters introduced in Season Two and according to contract , would continue on the series for at least 13 episodes into Season Three .
Elle is introduced in the episode " Fight or Flight " as an agent of the Company , an organization whose primary purpose is to identify , monitor and study those individuals with special abilities . The daughter of Company head Bob Bishop , she possesses the power to generate and manipulate electricity . Elle is portrayed as mentally unstable , which is attributed to extensive " testing " condoned by her father to research her abilities when she was young .
= = Concept and creation = =
In 2007 , following the cancellation of Veronica Mars , actress Kristen Bell had voiced interest in appearing on Heroes because she was a fan . In July 2007 , during a train ride back from the San Diego Comic Con with Heroes actors Zachary Quinto and Masi Oka , and writers from the series , the writers had mentioned that if Bell " ever want [ ed ] to come on Heroes , give us [ writers ] a call " , to which Bell said she would love to . Announced in August 2007 , Bell was to portray Elle , a " mysterious young lady " with an " awesome power " for a total of thirteen episodes . Heroes creator Tim Kring and the writers had created the character of Elle with the idea that she was a " cautionary tale " of what could happen if the other characters had known of their abilities for the duration of their lives as Elle did . Kring pitched Bell the idea for the character " which she loved " and soon they were " off and running . " The casting of Bell , as Kring explains , " was not easy to pull off , " but because of the large ensemble cast of the series and multiple story arcs , " we found a way to jump into a small window in [ Bell ’ s ] schedule . "
The character Elle was created long before Bell was cast ; however , Kring noted " when you do cast an actor ... you try to tailor that character a little closer to who the actor is . So it 's hard to know when one starts to influence the other " .
= = Appearances = =
= = = Main series = = =
= = = = Generations = = = =
Elle 's first chronological appearance is in " Four Months Ago ... " . During this time , the Company made Peter Petrelli their willing prisoner and in those months he was held , Elle seems to have developed a cute crush on him . Peter confesses that he likes the little jolts which Elle gives him as a tease and kisses her . She confides in Peter that she has lived in the Company 's holding facility for 16 years . She also admits to being diagnosed as a sociopath ; she explains at age six , she accidentally set her grandmother 's house on fire and , at age eight , caused a major blackout in Ohio . She also says that she spent her ninth birthday in a glass room with an IV of lithium in her arm . She also explains that she has never been on a date and has never been swimming . When he escapes from the facility , Elle is upset and angry to the point that she blasts Peter , setting him ablaze during his escape . She then chases after Adam Monroe while the Haitian goes after Peter .
Elle first appears in the episode " Fight or Flight " searching for Peter in Ireland . Peter has no recollection of his past and is staying with the owner of Wandering Rocks Pub , Ricky . Elle questions Rick about Peter 's whereabouts and when he pretends not to know Peter , she kills him with a large bolt of electricity on her way out the door . Later on , during a telephone conversation with Bob Bishop , her father and Company head , she dismisses the murder as trivial and insists she can find Peter . However , she is pulled off the assignment , much to her frustration .
In " Cautionary Tales " , Elle comes back to the United States . Former Company employee Noah Bennet captures Elle for collateral , as Bob had captured his daughter , Claire . He ties Elle 's hands to a chair and ties her bare feet together and puts them in a metal dog bath which is full with water . Elle tries to use her abilities while in the dog bath , but she shocks herself . During this time , Noah tells Elle that Bob allowed the Company to perform tests on her which had begun as early as the age of seven . This included subjecting her to high doses of electricity , which scarred her emotionally for life . Elle has no recollection of the tests , and Noah suggests the Haitian had a role in causing Elle to forget her experiences . After an agreement is made , she is reunited with Bob and Claire momentarily reunited with Noah . However , Elle attacks Claire and West as they leave . She tries to attack Noah , but he shoots Elle in the arm before she can hurt him or anyone else . As it seems Noah is going to kill Bob , Mohinder Suresh , a scientist working with Noah and the Company , shoots and kills Noah . Elle leaves with Bob and Mohinder , giving Bob a look of distrust .
In the episode " Truth & Consequences " , Bob chastises Elle for allowing West and Claire to escape . He then assigns Elle to perform surveillance on Claire and her family as they prepare to leave town . Claire , however , spots Elle from a distance , leading to a physical confrontation , which leads Claire to threaten to expose the Company
Elle 's last appearance in season two is in " Powerless " . Her father reprimands her for her mistakes ; to redeem herself , she attempts to re @-@ capture the now powerless Sylar for the Company . She uses her ability to confront Sylar in Mohinder 's research lab , but Sylar is armed with a gun and shoots at Elle . Sylar manages to slip away , leaving Elle unharmed . She comes out somewhat defeated , but is informed by Mohinder that if not for her arrival , Sylar would have killed him , Maya Herrera and Molly Walker . He says the three of them owe her their lives , to which she replies , " Cool " .
The episode marked Bell 's previously expressed interest in performing in scenes with the character Sylar , as she and Zachary Quinto had been good friends for almost ten years . Bell had said that she " would love to see him and Elle face off one day " . In November 2007 , Bell and Quinto filmed scenes at a restaurant in Los Angeles , which was set as a " New Jersey Diner " and had involved police and paramedics . The filmed scenes are part of the untold stories which are a special feature of the season 2 DVD set .
= = = = Villains = = = =
Returning in the episode , " The Butterfly Effect " , following her failure to stop Sylar , Elle seeks assistance from Noah Bennet . He is detained in Level 5 , a high security ward for the Company 's most dangerous prisoners . However , Sylar is already there , having killed her father . He attempts to take her ability , but the pain of being scalped causes her to involuntarily release a massive electrical surge . This knocks Sylar out , but also disables security for the entire facility , allowing the prisoners to escape . Elle is later fired by Angela Petrelli , the new head of the Company , who tells Elle that the only reason the Company kept her was because of her father 's influence .
In the episode " Eris Quod Sum " , Elle makes her way to Claire 's house to seek help from Noah , having lost control of her ability . She attacks Claire out of anger , but is subdued when Lyle throws water on her . She is told that an organization called Pinehearst could help her with her condition , so Claire agrees to escort her there . They reach Pinehearst just in time to see Peter Petrelli thrown from a seventh story window . Claire takes him away from the building , but Elle refuses to leave after learning from Peter that they can take her powers away .
In the episode " Villains " , Elle 's life a year earlier is explored , revealing that she had been partnered with Noah Bennet at one point . The two are assigned to watch Sylar ( still Gabriel Gray ) in order to discover how he transfers abilities . Elle saves Gabriel after he attempts to kill himself out of guilt for killing his first victim . She is told to befriend him , and Gabriel develops an attraction to her that suppresses his hunger . Using a list of people with abilities Gabriel had compiled , Noah arranges to introduce Gabriel to one of them to see his power in action . However , Elle does not agree with the plan , revealing she has developed feelings for Gabriel . She reluctantly goes along with it when Noah threatens to fire her.They then introduce Gabriel to Trevor , an evolved human with a kinetic projection ability . Her repeated references to Trevor being " special " anger Gabriel , and he orders her to leave while he kills Trevor . Elle is left with guilt as she caused an event that helped to create " Sylar " .
In the following episode , " It 's Coming " , set in the present , Arthur Petrelli , head of Pinehearst , arranges for Sylar to speak with Elle . His aim is to have Sylar use his latent empathic abilities to take powers , rather than doing so through killing . Elle is chained to the floor in a metal room , still in pain from her ability . She repeatedly attacks him , furious at Sylar for her father 's murder , eventually begging him to kill her so that her pain will go away . He forgives her for turning him into a monster and convinces her to forgive herself for her crimes , wanting to take away her pain without killing her . At that moment , Elle 's pain disappears and she regains control of her ability . Likewise , Sylar is able to absorb her power . The two appear to rekindle their old feelings for each other as Elle teaches Sylar how to use her ability .
In " The Eclipse Part I " , she and Sylar are sent to retrieve Claire who is revealed to be the catalyst , the unknown part of the formula that would allow someone to produce abilities . On assignment , Elle challenges Sylar and he shows her that he can still be a killer , and not just a " daddy 's boy " by killing a rental car assistant . Eventually , they find Claire and Noah , and a fight ensues , however , Elle and Sylar find themselves powerless ; the result of the eclipse . Elle aims a gun at Noah but Claire jumps in and takes the bullet . Noah knocks Elle out and dislocates Sylar 's arm , while he escapes with injured Claire . After awakening , Sylar explains to a shocked Elle that losing his abilities is a bit of a relief . She tells him that they can 't just take what they want anymore , then Sylar retorts and grabs Elle , kissing her passionately . Outside , Noah aims a rifle at them .
In " The Eclipse Part II " , Sylar and Elle sleep together but then are confronted by Noah . Elle is shot in the thigh in the ensuing struggle . Both Elle and Sylar flee while Noah follows Elle 's blood trail to a grocery store . There , Elle and Sylar plan to ambush Noah in the rear of the store . Sylar pushes Elle into a cargo elevator , in an attempt to hide her from Noah . Elle watches as Noah slits Sylar 's throat with a box cutter . When the eclipse ends , their abilities are returned and Sylar is revived . He and Elle go to the Bennet residence and overcome Noah and Claire while holding Claire 's mother , Sandra , hostage . Suddenly , Hiro teleports in and takes both Sylar and Elle to Coste Verde beach , leaving them there before disappearing . Sylar and Elle kiss , and he explains that he and Elle are " damaged goods " and that they will " never change " . Sylar then begins to slice Elle 's skull open .
In the following episode " Our Father " , Sylar , covered in Elle 's blood , is shown pouring lighter fluid on Elle 's body . He painfully says , " Goodbye Elle , " then sets her ablaze with the electric ability he inherited from her .
= = = = Redemption = = = =
In the episode " Tabula Rasa " , Elle is seen in flashbacks as Sylar witnesses his real memories reflecting in the Hall of Mirrors .
In " The Art of Deception " , Matt reverts Sylar 's memories of his kills , including the ones of Elle .
= = = In Heroes graphic novels = = =
Elle also appears in the Heroes webcomics . Her appearances in the online series occur before her introduction on the television series . Elle 's first webcomic appearance is in " Elle 's First Assignment , Part 1 " , which reveals her first assignment for the Company . Elle monitors Claire Bennet , posing as a student at Union Wells High School . After following Claire home , Elle ends up confronting Eden McCain . The incident is broken up by Noah Bennet , who informs Elle that he doesn 't " want [ Elle ] hanging around [ his ] daughter any more " . In Part 2 , she finds out about the tape of Claire testing her power and tries to take it from Zach . She is stopped by the Haitian and Mr Bennet , who find out about the tape as well . Elle also appears in " The Man With Too Much Brains " to recruit the original webcomic character Matt Neuenberg to the Company . She also was teamed up with Thompson Jr. to capture Donna Dunlap , a woman with enhanced vision in " Donna 's Big Date , Part 1 " , and she was among the agents that try to capture Echo DeMille at Lake Arrowhead , where he managed to convert Elle 's electricity into soundwaves , in " Going Postal " . She is also referred in " Faces , Part 1 " to have helped Thompson Jr. and Penny Logan taking down The Croatian .
In " Sum Quod Sum " , it is revealed that she has lost control of her ability since leaving the Company , so she has gone to London to find help from Claude . After she tracks him down , he confronts her but then runs away . It begins raining , and Elle decides to take advantage of it . She releases an electrical charge , which travels through the water on the ground and into Claude , but she , too , is knocked unconscious in the process . Claude and his friends , Abigail and Lee , carry her to his place and he begins to show Elle the source of her problem . Things get ugly when Elle accidentally shocks Abigail , which leads them to fight each other ; Abigail 's force field redirects Elle 's lightning towards Lee , so Elle stops and then is asked to leave the place . Although Claude asks her to stay , she prefers to look for the help of Noah , so she goes to Costa Verde and attacks Lyle while waiting for his father .
In " From the Files of Primatech : 1991 " , the childhood 's background of Elle is further explained : how she started a blackout in Athens , Ohio that took out three other counties . Elle 's mother sent her to his father , Bob , to New York to deal with her . Bob asked the help of Charles Deveaux , who recommended taking a fatherly approach , but ended up taking Dr. Zimmerman 's advice : treat Elle as any other posthuman and test her abilities . During one of these tests , Bob tried to calm the weeping Elle turning her drinking straw into gold , but this backfired as it allowed Elle to accidentally shock her father . After this , Elle escaped and Bob enlisted Noah Bennet to go after her . Noah eventually found Elle at an arcade and anticipating her attack , he wore latex gloves . Elle quickly electrified a machine making it toss balls at Noah , so she could escape . When Noah followed Elle through a mini @-@ golf course , she electrified a mini @-@ windmill , making it throw blades at Noah . Finally , Elle was cornered ; Noah promised her Bob would be proud if she came back with him . Once back at Primatech , Bob locked Elle up while discussing the situation with Kaito and Noah . Angela brought a young Haitian to mind @-@ wipe Elle to forget what just happened and enjoy her 9th birthday cake .
= = Powers and abilities = =
Elle has the ability to generate and manipulate electricity , discharging and directing it as electrical arcs . She has been shown being able to weld a lock , blast objects , knock people unconscious , and even kill a man . She is not entirely immune to the electricity she produces , however , as shown when she is drenched in water and attempts to create electricity — she gives herself an electric shock , causing great pain .
Elle has endured a series of testing by the Company during her childhood that measured the extent of her power . Bob had stated that Elle was in a " different league " when comparing her to Claire . When inquiring about her abilities , Elle was able to learn from Noah Bennet that the Company had wanted to record the extent of her abilities ( whether she could power a flashlight , a street lamp , or an entire city block ) and Bob had often prompted to continue the tests further , even after Elle had passed out .
Her ability is shown to respond to her emotions . After Bob 's death , mourning Elle loses control over her ability and her body starts to produce electricity at any time ( Sum Quod Sum graphic novels ) ; this makes Elle unable to stay close to electrical devices such as computers and even a plane . She claims to live in constant pain ( Eris Quod Sum ) . This ends when Sylar helps her forgive herself ( It 's Coming ) .
= = Characteristics = =
When Kristen Bell was cast , she noted that with Elle it would be " unclear whether she 's good or bad " . In " Four Months Ago ... " , Elle admits to being diagnosed as a sociopath and previous to that , she had displayed sadistic behavior as a result of testing done to her as a child . Bell explains , " Bodies are not able to take that much electricity and pain , and so Elle 's psychologically a little off her rocker . " She is able to kill without apparent remorse , although in one instance , she reacts defensively when Mohinder asks her how many have died by her hand .
During an interview with thescifiworld.net , Tim Kring described Elle as " a little off " , and Bell added that Elle is " a little messed up in the head " and a highly conflicted individual who does not have the ability to decipher between right and wrong . Because of that , Bell explains that Elle comes off as more of a victim . Bell also explains that Elle is one of the few characters with abilities that embrace their power and is almost on the verge of being addicted to her ability . Elle " enjoys the emotional power it gives her over other people " . She is described as one who is " always out to get what she wants " and someone who " doesn ’ t have many boundaries " . Bell describes Elle as a vixen who " feels like she has a romantic connection to everybody " , and in a few episodes , Elle is shown displaying a great deal of affection to men and flirting with both Peter Petrelli and Mohinder Suresh .
Bell noted the similarities between Elle and the character Claire Bennet , saying that they " relate to each other " and " are two sides of the same coin " because , while Elle 's father sanctioned testing on her , supposedly causing her mental instability , Noah kept Claire hidden , preventing Claire from experiencing the same childhood that " really messed [ Elle ] up " . Bell has said in interviews that in later episodes of Heroes , " You 'll find out that Elle holds the key to Claire 's future " and that Elle has " a [ present ] with Peter and a past with Claire 's dad and a future with Claire " .
= = Reception = =
With the cancellation of Veronica Mars , Variety reported that attaining Bell was a " major , major coup for NBC " because of how in @-@ demand the actress was . Universal Media Studios ' Katherine Pope noted that " many studios [ were ] chasing [ Bell ] in both film and TV " and that Pope was happy that Bell " chose to star in our show . " When Bell was cast , Tim Kring explained that because she had known several of the cast members for years as well as some of the writers , it " was already like part of the family by the time we cast her . "
In an interview with Bell , Eric Goldman of IGN commented on Bell 's " eagerly awaited debut " on the series . Matt Roush of TV Guide reported on Bell becoming a series regular on Heroes , and stated he " like [ s ] her more and more , especially as we see the tragic dimension of how Elle has been so cruelly used by her ' daddy , ' Bob , and is much more than the flirty assassin we first met . " Bruce Fretts , also of TV Guide , said that Bell 's portrayal of Elle was responsible for " sparking Heroes to life . " He explains that " [ i ] n just a few scenes ... [ Bell is able to ] juice up the slumping sophomore drama " and her " live @-@ wire performance turned Chapter 5 into this season 's strongest episode yet . " However , because of the large ensemble cast , Matthew Gilbert of Slate.com commented that Season Two of Heroes was " even more overpopulated than the last , expanding from a rabble to a veritable global riot of Dubiously Gifted Ones . "
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= 1932 Florida – Alabama hurricane =
The 1932 Florida – Alabama hurricane was a tropical cyclone that made two separate landfalls on the United States , causing devastation in affected areas . The third named storm and hurricane of the 1932 Atlantic hurricane season , it developed from a tropical disturbance north of Hispaniola on August 26 . Slowly moving towards the west @-@ northwest , the system intensified to tropical storm strength before making landfall on South Florida early on August 30 . After crossing the Florida peninsula and entering the Gulf of Mexico , the system reached peak intensity as a Category 1 hurricane , before subsequently making its final landfall near the Mississippi – Alabama border on September 1 . Over land , the hurricane weakened , and after becoming an extratropical cyclone on September 2 , merged with another extratropical system over Quebec on September 4 .
At the storm 's initial landfall in southern Florida , heavy rains and strong winds caused extensive damage to crops , particularly to avocado and citrus . As the strengthening hurricane moved to the northwest through the Gulf of Mexico , it generated strong surf that caused severe damage to coastal areas across western Florida . At its second landfall , hurricane force winds were produced across a wide swath of the coast . Agricultural lands in coastal regions of Mississippi and Alabama were damaged by strong winds and heavy rain . The hurricane caused one indirect death and $ 228 @,@ 500 in total damages across its path .
= = Meteorological history = =
A tropical disturbance was first noted southeast of Puerto Rico on September 24 . Moving to the northwest at 10 mph ( 15 km / h ) , the area of disturbed weather eventually crossed the island . The Atlantic HURDAT database first lists the system as a tropical depression at 1800 UTC on September 26 while located north of Haiti , with maximum sustained winds of 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) . Steadily intensifying , the depression intensified to tropical storm strength at 1800 UTC on August 27 . The strengthening tropical storm passed to the south of Andros Island during the evening of August 29 , before making its first landfall 35 mi ( 55 km ) south of Miami , Florida on Key Largo at 0400 UTC the next day as a strong , compact tropical storm with winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) . A weather station located at the Fowey Rocks Light recorded a peak wind gust of 89 mph ( 143 km / h ) . In the Atlantic hurricane reanalysis project , it was evidenced that the storm may have been a hurricane upon landfall on Florida . After slightly weakening over land , the tropical storm entered the Gulf of Mexico in the early morning hours of August 30 , while located 30 mi ( 48 km ) south of Fort Myers .
After entering the gulf , the tropical storm proceeded to organize , strengthening into hurricane intensity early on August 31 . As it curved more towards the north , the hurricane eventually made landfall near the Mississippi – Alabama border , west of Fort Morgan , Alabama , with maximum sustained winds of 85 mph ( 137 km / h ) , a Category 1 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane scale . A ship located offshore of Mobile , Alabama recorded a minimum barometric pressure of 979 mbar ( 28 @.@ 9 inHg ) . After making landfall , the hurricane gradually weakened over land as it curved towards the northeast , weakening to tropical storm strength at 1200 UTC on September 1 . The weakening system transitioned into an extratropical cyclone over northern Mississippi the following day , after subsequently developing frontal boundaries . The extratropical system strengthened slightly as it accelerated towards the northeast , but was later absorbed by a larger extratropical system over Quebec by 1800 UTC on September 4 .
= = Preparations , impact , and aftermath = =
= = = Florida = = =
Prior to the storm 's first landfall in southern Florida , the Weather Bureau issued hurricane warnings beginning on August 29 for areas of Florida 's east coast from Palm Beach south to Key West , while storm warnings were issued from Key West to Boca Grande on the peninsula 's western coast . Electrical power was purposely stopped in Miami as a precautionary measure prior to the storm 's landfall . Two Red Cross officials were sent to Miami to monitor the area during the storm 's passage . Other relief agencies were also preparing supplies in the event of an emergency . In Pahokee and Belle Glade , an estimated 2 @,@ 000 people evacuated to Okeechobee , fearing a repeat of the 1928 Okeechobee hurricane .
Most of the damage associated with the tropical storm 's first landfall in Florida was confined south of 27 ° N. Recently planted seed beds were washed away by heavy rains associated with the storm . A Miami weather station reported 10 @.@ 24 in ( 260 mm ) of rain in a 24 @-@ hour period ending on August 30 , setting a record for that station . A portion of the MacArthur Causeway , which connects Miami to Miami Beach , was washed out due to the winds , but did not affect traffic . Rainfall in St. Petersburg measured 3 @.@ 79 in ( 96 mm ) , while Fort Myers measured 6 @.@ 52 in ( 166 mm ) of rain . The heavy rains also flooded streets in parts of Sarasota , Florida , and strong winds caused minor power outages . Communication lines between Fort Myers and Everglades , Florida also went down during the storm . Strong winds were responsible for destroying 2 – 25 % of avocado and citrus trees along the path of the tropical storm . Grapefruit crops also suffered loses due to strong winds . Firefighters in Hollywood were forced to stop extinguishing a fire after winds damaged their equipment . The fire would eventually cause $ 20 @,@ 000 in damages . Offshore , a 60 ft ( 18 m ) long boat that was towed out of Biscayne Bay for dredging operations partially sank due to the rough seas .
Before the hurricane 's second landfall , another hurricane warning was issued for portions of the state , for areas of the coast from Panama City westward . Boats from Naval Air Station Pensacola were taken to nearby bayous ahead of the storm . Other ships were also sheltered as a precautionary measure . As the hurricane moved towards the Gulf Coast region , the hurricane caused strong storm surge and generated rough seas , disrupting coastal and marine activities . In Madeira Beach , the passing hurricane caused above @-@ average tides that moved 15 – 20 ft ( 4 @.@ 6 – 6 @.@ 1 m ) further inland than normal . Offshore , two fishing boats attempting to cross Tampa Bay had to be rescued after they became stranded in the rough seas generated by the tropical storm . In Dog Island , nine people were rescued from the Cuban schooner Asturias after it washed up on the island shore . Off of Apalachicola , nine fishing boats sunk due to the waves . The tide height offshore Apalachicola at the time was 4 @.@ 5 ft ( 1 @.@ 4 m ) above average , causing damage to small craft moored at the wharves . The strong surf alone was responsible for about $ 1 @,@ 000 in damages . Strong storm surge off of Pensacola caused water levels that were the highest in the area in several years . Sections of a pier at Pensacola Beach were washed away by the strong waves . Five fishermen were initially reported drowned after their fishing boat struck a reef and was swamped by the storm surge in Pensacola Bay . However , the men were later reported safe at a coast guard life saving station . The misreport was likely due a lack of communication with the station . Another three men went missing after they departed in a small boat in aid of another boat offshore Pensacola .
Inland effects of the hurricane 's second landfall in Florida were mostly confined to areas of the Florida Panhandle west of Apalachicola . Cotton crops in Okaloosa and Escambia counties were damaged due to the wind and rain effects of the hurricane . Numerous pears were also blown off of trees by the strong winds . The highest rainfall totals in the panhandle region were concentrated around the Panama City area , where rain totals were estimated to be in excess of 5 in ( 130 mm ) . Property damage in Pensacola was relatively minor , and was limited to awnings , windows , and signboards . In Pensacola Beach , communications were disrupted due to the storm . A 12 – year old boy in Pensacola died after touching an active electric wire that had fallen during the storm . Total damages in the Pensacola area were estimated to amount to around $ 100 @,@ 000 .
= = = Mississippi and Alabama = = =
Hurricane warnings were posted by the Weather Bureau for the entire Alabama coast , and portions of the Mississippi coast from Biloxi eastward prior to the storm . Merchants in potentially affected areas prepared their stores ahead of the hurricane . The potential storm surge threat forced boats in Biloxi to be taken to shelter in a nearby landlocked harbor .
Hurricane force winds were felt in both states when the storm made landfall . Pear and pecan trees were severely damaged by the strong winds caused by the hurricane , while orange trees were defoliated along coastal regions . Winds also extensively damaged cotton and corn crops . Heavy rains also helped to damage crops . Rainfall peaked at 9 @.@ 1 in ( 230 mm ) in Mobile , Alabama . Other reports of at least 3 in ( 76 mm ) of rain were common along the Mississippi – Alabama border . Sections of the Mobile waterfront were submerged by the hurricane 's storm surge . The high surf also flooded Bayou LaBatre and Bayou Coden in Mobile . Total property damage in the city amounted to $ 105 @,@ 000 in damages . In Gulfport , Mississippi , damage was confined primarily to trees , communication lines , and small craft . Further inland , the hurricane spawned an F2 tornado 3 mi ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) southwest of Troy , Alabama on September 1 . The tornado destroyed two homes and several barns and injured four people in its 6 mi ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) path , causing $ 2 @,@ 500 in damages .
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= Architecture in modern Scotland =
Architecture in modern Scotland encompasses all building in Scotland , between the beginning of the twentieth century and the present day . The most significant architect of the early twentieth century was Charles Rennie Mackintosh , who mixed elements of traditional Scottish architecture with contemporary movements . Estate house design declined in importance in the twentieth century . In the early decades of the century , traditional materials began to give way to cheaper modern ones . After the First World War modernism and the office block began to dominate building in the major cities and attempts began to improve the quality of urban housing for the poor , resulted in a massive programme of council house building . The Neo @-@ Gothic style continued in to the twentieth century but the most common forms in this period were plain and massive Neo @-@ Romanesque buildings .
After the Second World War , brutalist tower blocks were adopted as a solution and this period saw the building of new towns , including Glenrothes and Cumbernauld , but the social and building problems of these constructions soon became apparent . The creation of new towns and council house estates necessitated the rapid supply of new churches . From the 1980s Scottish architecture began to recover its reputation , with new buildings like that created to house the Burrell Collection in Glasgow and more recently the Scottish Parliament Building in Edinburgh . There has also been urban regeneration , involving the replacement and renovation of existing buildings and landscapes . The 1980s saw the growth of speculative house building by developers and the introduction of English brick and half @-@ timbered vernacular styles to Scotland . As the production of state sponsored housing subsided in the 1970s there was a return to conservatism in church design , but there were some original and post @-@ modern designs from the 1980s .
= = Glasgow style and the early twentieth century = =
The most significant Scottish architect of the early twentieth century , having a considerable influence on European architecture , was Charles Rennie Mackintosh ( 1868 – 1928 ) . He mixed elements of the Scots baronial , Arts and Crafts Movement and the Art Nouveau to produce elegant modern buildings . His major work included The Willow Tearooms in Sauchiehall Street , Glasgow ( 1903 ) , Glasgow School of Art ( 1897 – 1909 ) and Hill House , Helensburgh ( 1902 – 04 ) . The influence of Mackintosh 's Glasgow style can be seen in the work of architects like James Salmon ( 1873 – 1924 ) , whose designs included the heavily glass @-@ fronted , Art Nouveau " Hatrack " ( 1899 – 1902 ) on Vincent Street and the Lion Chambers , Hope Street ( 1904 – 05 ) , an early example of reinforced concrete construction .
Estate house design declined in importance in the twentieth century . An exception was the work undertaken by John Kinross ( 1855 – 1955 ) . Beginning with the reconstruction of Thurston House , Dunbar , from 1890 , he undertook a series of major country house designs . The most important was Manderston House ( 1901 – 03 ) , built for James Miller in the Adam style . Skibo Castle was rebuilt for industrialist Andrew Carnegie ( 1899 – 1903 ) by Ross and Macbeth . English architect C. H. B. Quennell designed a neo @-@ Georgian mansion at Altmore ( 1912 – 14 ) for the owner of a Moscow department store . There was a lull in building after the First World War and social change undermined the construction of rural country houses .
In the twentieth century the distinctive Scottish use of stone architecture declined as it was replaced by cheaper alternatives such as Portland cement , concrete , and mass @-@ production brick . Stone would however be retained as a material for some housing stock in Edinburgh , Aberdeen and Dumfries , and would undergo revivals . In the twentieth century private architecture was increasingly client driven . James Robert Rhind ( 1854 – 1918 ) , the son of David Rhind , was successful in the competition for new libraries to be constructed in Glasgow following Andrew Carnegie 's gift of £ 100 @,@ 000 to the city in 1901 . His designs were selected for seven libraries , allowing him to demonstrate his individual interpretation of Edwardian Baroque architecture . Rhind 's libraries were all built with locally quarried sandstone , which blended in with the existing tenement neighbourhoods . His landmark buildings were greatly enhanced by his liberal use of columns , domes and sculpted features . James Miller ( 1860 – 1947 ) is noted for his Scottish railway stations , such as his 1901 – 05 extensions to Glasgow Central railway station , and the spectacular Wemyss Bay railway station on the Firth of Clyde .
= = Early modernism = =
After the First World War , Miller and his chief designer Richard Gunn ( 1889 – 1933 ) along with others , adapted to the growing needs of the office block . In Glasgow , with its central gridiron plan , this followed the practice in the United States of filling up entire blocks and building steel framed buildings as high as the fire marshal would allow , as in the heavily American @-@ influenced Union Bank building ( 1924 ) at St Vincent Street . From the mid @-@ twentieth century , public architecture became more utilitarian , as part of the impulse to produce a comprehensive welfare state . Thomas S. Tait ( 1882 – 1954 ) was among the most important modernist architects of the era , using pyramidal stepped designs for buildings like the St Andrew 's House , Edinburgh ( 1935 – 39 ) built for the Scottish Office , and the 1939 " Tower of Empire " for the Empire Exhibition , Scotland 1938 , held in Bellahouston Park , Glasgow . There was a lull in building after the First World War and social change undermined the construction of rural country houses . Isolated examples included the houses that combined modern and traditional elements , designed by Basil Spence and built at Broughton Place ( 1936 ) and Gribloch ( 1937 – 9 ) . After World War Two a shortage of building materials further reduced the number of large luxury houses . Isolated examples included Logan House , designed by David Style in the 1950s . In the 1960s there was Basil Hughes 's design at Snaigow for the earl of Cadogan and the remodelling of Gask House by Claude Phillimore . This period also saw considerable restoration of existing houses .
During the First World War the government became increasingly aware of Scotland 's housing problems , particularly after the Glasgow rent strike of 1915 . A royal commission of 1917 reported on the " unspeakably filthy privy @-@ middens in many of the mining areas , badly constructed incurably damp labourers ' cottages on farms , whole townships unfit for human occupation in the crofting counties and islands ... groups of lightless and unventilated houses in the older burghs , clotted masses of slums in the great cities " . The result was a massive programme of council house building . Many early council houses were built on greenfield sites away from the pollution of the city , often constructed of semi @-@ detached homes or terraced cottages . Knightswood , north @-@ west of Glasgow , was built as a show piece from 1923 – 29 , with a library , social centre and seven shopping " parades " . In the 1930s schemes tended to be more cheaply built , like Blackhill , Glasgow , with a thousand houses built as two and three story tenements . These building schemes were designed to rehouse those displaced by urban slum clearance , by which thousands of tenements were demolished . However , often crammed into poor land near railways or gasworks , they soon became notorious . A survey of 1936 found that almost half of Scotland 's houses were still inadequate .
The Neo @-@ Gothic style that had become almost universal for church building in the late nineteenth century continued in to the twentieth , with examples including L. G. Thomson 's Reid Memorial Church , Edinburgh ( 1929 – 33 ) . However , the most common forms in this period were plain and massive Neo @-@ Romanesque buildings . Protestant examples included H. O. Tarbolton 's Bangour Village Church ( 1924 – 30 ) and Roman Catholic examples included Reginald Fairlie 's Immaculate Conception Church , Fort William ( 1933 – 34 ) . The reunification of the Church of Scotland in 1929 removed much of the need for new Presbyterian church @-@ building , which was replaced by a tendency towards renovating nineteenth @-@ century churches . The main tendency in church design in the 1930s was a move towards classicism . There were isolated large classical Protestant commissions , such as Bristo Baptist Church , Edinburgh ( 1933 – 35 ) , but the major buildings in this form were in the Catholic Church where there was a movement towards worshipper @-@ centred basilican plans , after the pontificate of Pius X ( 1903 – 14 ) . This movement reached its peak in the 1960s after the Second Vatican Council . The leading figure in pursuing this style was Giacomo Antonio ( Jack ) Coia of Gillespie , Kidd & Coia . From the later 1920s he pursued a brick style of Catholic architecture . Coia 's first church , St Anne 's , Dennistoun ( 1931 ) , utilised the engineering techniques of Beaux @-@ Arts architecture , resulting in a broad , centralised space , with narrow arcades rather than aisles , with a monumental facade of red @-@ brick . He used a more linear plan in subsequent designs , including St Patrick , Greenock ( 1934 – 35 ) . Coia 's partner T. Warnett Kennedy 's temporary , open @-@ roofed Catholic chapel at the Empire Exhibition ( 1938 ) was fronted by a Mackintosh @-@ like grid of metalwork , and with his St Peter in Chains Church , Ardrossan ( 1938 ) , with austere walls and towers , showed the influence of the " abstract compositions " of contemporary Swedish architecture and pointed to the future influence of modernism .
= = Post @-@ war brutalism = =
In the post @-@ war period Scotland continued to produce important architects , including James Stirling ( 1926 – 92 ) , who , with James Gowan ( 1923 – ) designed the Flats at Ham Common , London ( 1955 – 58 ) , considered a landmark in the development of modernist , brutalist residential planning , a style which would have a profound impact in Scotland . Their later work , almost all of it outside Scotland , would be highly influential on an international scale .
The main thrust of post @-@ war planning would be one of clearance and rebuilding , beginning in Paisley , where from 1955 the populations of districts were decanted , the buildings demolished and rebuilding began , resulting , in the first district , George Street / Canal Street , in low flats in render and reused rubble around landscaped courtyards , with a 15 @-@ storey tower at one end . As the post @-@ war desire for urban regeneration gained momentum it would focus on the tower block , championed in Glasgow by David Gibson , convener of the city housing committee . Projects like the brutalist Red Road Flats originally offered hope of a new beginning and an escape from the overcrowded nineteenth @-@ century tenements of the city , but lacked a sufficient infrastructure and soon deteriorated . They also made extensive use of asbestos as a fire retardant , leading to long term health problems for builders and residents . Robert Matthew ( 1906 – 75 ) and Basil Spence ( 1907 – 76 ) were responsible for redeveloping the Gorbals in Glasgow , for demolitions at the University of Edinburgh and the stark rebuilding typified by the David Hume Tower ( 1960 – 63 ) . The new confidence of this period can also be seen in infrastructure projects , of which the Forth Road Bridge ( opened 1962 ) was a key example .
Another solution adopted in Scotland was the building of new towns like Glenrothes ( 1948 ) and Cumbernauld ( 1956 ) , designed to take excess population from the cities . These used a new low , dense pattern of community design , with terraced cottages and low flats . Cumbernauld was praised for its architecture when first built , but the uncompleted centre and the layout of the town in general , were receiving heavy criticism by the twenty @-@ first century : its modernist architecture described by one resident as " the lego fantasy of an unhappy child " . The brutalist tendency in comprehensive Scottish urban planning would be derided by critics for its " tabula rasa planning " and " architect 's arrogance " .
The creation of new towns and council house estates necessitated the rapid supply of new churches . The austerity , shortage of materials and need for rapid building , discouraged the development of innovative design . This was accompanied by the rejection by most architects of traditional forms in favour of " international modernism " , characterised by simple outlines , uncluttered internal spaces , absence of colour , and flat roofs . The Catholic Church , whose traditional membership was most affected by the changes in housing , was the first to react to this situation , creating 76 new parishes between 1845 and 1960 in the west of the country alone . The Baptist and Episcopalian churches followed close behind , particularly in the new towns . Within the Church of Scotland , the closeness of congregation and clergy was expressed in the domestic plainness of 1950s dual @-@ use hall churches , as at Reiach 's Kildrum Parish Church , Cumbernauld ( completed 1962 ) , a steel framed building , clad in timber and brick with a flat roof . Of 129 buildings erected by the Church of Scotland between 1948 and 1959 , 108 were on this basic pattern .
= = Postmodernism : 1980s to the present = =
From the 1980s there was a backlash against the statism and compressive nature of modernist architecture . Instead there was a move towards a form of post @-@ modernism that looked to a clash of styles with a renewed emphasis on visual aesthetics that invoked classicism . There was also a combination of the private and the public . This movement against modernism also included renewed influence by the Scots baronial and Mackintosh @-@ inspired designs ; these can be seen respectively in the Scandic Crown Hotel ( 1988 – 89 ) in the Old Town in Edinburgh and the National Library Causewayside Building ( 1985 – 87 , extended 1993 – 94 ) . The most significant figure in the development of architecture in Scotland from the 1980s was the academic Charles McKean . He was secretary and treasurer of the Royal Incorporation of Architects in Scotland ( RIAS ) from 1979 to 1995 . He argued against motorway expansion and the production of grey , colourless monoliths . Early private works influenced by these ideas included the D. & D. Warehouse , Centre Street and the Bank of Pakistan in Sauchiehall Street , both in Glasgow . Public structures included the building to house the Burrell Collection in Glasgow ( 1981 ) and the Glasgow Sheriff Court ( 1980 – 86 ) .
Since the 1990s there has been a return to some elements of modernism , particularly in major public building projects . Recent major public buildings include the Scottish Exhibition and Conference Centre , Glasgow ( 1997 ) , designed by Norman Foster ( 1935 – ) and known for its segmented , curving roof as " the Armadillo " , and the many striking modern buildings along the side of the River Clyde , such as the Glasgow Science Centre , IMAX Cinema and Glasgow Tower ( 2001 ) , which is the highest in Scotland . The most important public building of the early twenty @-@ first century is the Scottish Parliament Building in Edinburgh , designed by Enric Miralles ( 1955 – 2000 ) and opened in 2004 , with a design that recalls upturned fishing boats . There have been increasing attempts to preserve much of what survives from Scotland 's architectural heritage , including the great buildings and monuments , but also the classically influenced houses of towns like Edinburgh and Glasgow and the surviving tenements , many of which have been renovated , restored from the black fronts created by pollution to their original pink and honeyed sandstone , and brought up to modern standards of accommodation . Urban regeneration has also been attempted in areas of post @-@ industrial decline , like the Merchant City in Glasgow , which was returned to housing from the 1980s , with warehouse loft conversions , and , more recently , the waterfront in Edinburgh , resulting in a return of resident populations to major urban centres .
The 1980s saw the growth of speculative house building by developers . These introduced English brick and half @-@ timbered vernacular styles to Scotland , which had been largely unknown before this period . Many were small and built to minimum standards with little regard to energy or environmental issues . Sales of council houses were popular in Scotland and until the mid @-@ 1990s as , unlike in England , local authorities could use the whole of their capital receipts for development . Under the Scottish Assembly , Scottish Homes was abolished and replaced by Communities Scotland in 2001 , which had a responsibility to provide affordable housing and environmental improvement . In 2011 it was in turn replaced by the Scottish Housing Regulator , whose remit includes Scottish local authority landlords .
As the production of state sponsored housing subsided in the 1970s , there was a return to conservatism in church design , which may have reflected a loss of confidence in the churches as attendances rapidly declined . M. Glendinning , R. MacInnes and A. MacKechnie have identified a " post @-@ Coia " style emerging in this period . The limited number of new buildings , some replacing existing churches , tended to be produced by building companies using laminated timber beams , exposed brickwork and pyramidal roofs to produce utilitarian , if aesthetically unadventurous , constructions . From the late 1980s there were some original designs , including St Mary the Virgin , in Port Glasgow ( 1984 ) by Frank Burnet , Bell and Partners ; St Anthony 's Catholic church in Kirriemuir ( 1987 ) , by James F. Stephen Architects ; and the replacement church at St Joseph 's Catholic Church , Faifley ( 1997 ) by Jacobsen and French . There was also the postmodern design of St John Ogalvy Catholic Church , Irvine ( 1982 ) , and the nearby Girdle Toll parish church ( 1992 ) , which was converted from a farmhouse .
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= Ankylosaurus =
Ankylosaurus ( / ˌæŋkəloʊˈsɔːrəs / ANG @-@ kə @-@ lo @-@ SAWR @-@ əs ) is a genus of armored dinosaur . Fossils of Ankylosaurus have been found in geological formations dating to the very end of the Cretaceous Period , between about 68 – 66 million years ago , in western North America , making it among the last of the non @-@ avian dinosaurs . It was named by Barnum Brown in 1908 , and the only species classified in the genus is A. magniventris . The genus name means " fused lizard " and the specific name means " great belly " . A handful of specimens have been excavated to date , but a complete skeleton has not been discovered . Though other members of Ankylosauria are represented by more extensive fossil material , Ankylosaurus is often considered the archetypal member of its group .
The largest known ankylosaurid , Ankylosaurus measured up to 6 @.@ 25 m ( 20 @.@ 5 feet ) in length , 1 @.@ 7 m ( 5 @.@ 6 feet ) in height , and weighed 6 tonnes ( 13 @,@ 000 lb ) . It was a quadrupedal animal , with a broad , robust body . It had a wide , low skull , with two horns pointing backwards from the back of the head , and two horns below these that pointed backwards and down . The front part of the jaws were covered in a beak , with rows of small , leaf @-@ shaped teeth further behind it . It was covered in armor plates , or osteoderms , with bony half @-@ rings covering the neck , and had a large club on the end of its tail . Bones in the skull and other parts of the body were fused , increasing their strength , and this feature is the source of the genus name .
Ankylosaurus is a member of the family Ankylosauridae , and its closest relatives appear to be Anodontosaurus and Euoplocephalus . Ankylosaurus is thought to have been a slow moving animal , able to make quick movements when necessary . Its broad muzzle indicates it was a non @-@ selective browser . Sinuses and nasal chambers in the snout may have been for heat and water balance or played a role in vocalization . The tail club is thought to have been used in defense against predators or in intraspecific combat . Ankylosaurus has been found in the Hell Creek , Lance , and Scollard formations , but appears to have been rare in its environment . Although it lived alongside a nodosaurid ankylosaur , their ranges and ecological niches do not appear to have overlapped , and Ankylosaurus may have inhabited upland areas . Ankylosaurus also lived alongside dinosaurs such as Tyrannosaurus , Triceratops , and Edmontosaurus .
= = Description = =
Ankylosaurus is the largest known ankylosaurid dinosaur , estimated to have been up to 6 @.@ 25 m ( 20 @.@ 5 feet ) long , 1 @.@ 5 m ( 4 @.@ 9 feet ) wide , and 1 @.@ 7 m ( 5 @.@ 6 feet ) tall at the hip . This length has been proposed by American palaeontologist Kenneth Carpenter , and is based on the largest known skull ( specimen NMC 8880 ) , which is 64 @.@ 5 cm ( 25 @.@ 4 inches ) long and 74 @.@ 5 cm ( 29 @.@ 3 inches ) wide . The smallest known skull ( specimen AMNH 5214 ) is 55 @.@ 5 cm ( 21 @.@ 9 inches ) long and 64 @.@ 5 cm ( 25 @.@ 4 inches ) wide , and this specimen is estimated to have been 5 @.@ 4 m ( 17 @.@ 7 feet ) long and around 1 @.@ 4 m ( 4 @.@ 6 feet ) tall . Other authors have proposed a body length of 7 m ( 23 feet ) , 8 – 9 m ( 26 @.@ 2 – 29 @.@ 5 ft ) , or more than 9 m ( 29 @.@ 5 feet ) . The weight of the animal has been estimated at 6 tonnes ( 13 @,@ 000 lb ) .
The structure of much of the skeleton of Ankylosaurus , including most of the pelvis , tail and feet , is still unknown . It was quadrupedal , and its hind limbs were longer than the forelimbs . The scapula ( shoulder blade ) and coracoid ( a rectangular bone connected to the lower end of the scapula ) of specimen AMNH 5895 were fused , and had entheses ( connective tissue ) for various muscle attachments . The scapula was 61 @.@ 5 cm ( 24 @.@ 2 inches ) long . The humerus ( upper arm bone ) was short and very broad , and about 54 cm ( 21 inches ) long in specimen AMNH 5214 . The femur ( thigh bone ) was very robust , and 67 cm ( 26 inches ) long in AMNH 5214 . While the feet of Ankylosaurus are incompletely known , the hindfeet probably had three toes , as is the case in related animals .
The cervical vertebrae of the neck had broad neural spines that increased in height towards the body . The front part of the neural spines had well developed entheses , which was common among adult dinosaurs , and indicates the presence of large ligaments which helped support the massive head . The dorsal vertebrae of the back had centra ( or bodies ) that were short relative to their width , and their neural spines were short and narrow . The dorsal vertebrae were tightly spaced , which limited the downwards movement of the back . The neural spines had ossified ( turned to bone ) tendons , which also overlapped some of the vertebrae . The ribs of the last four back vertebrae were fused to them , and the ribcage was very broad in this part of the body . The ribs had scars that show where muscles attached to them . The caudal vertebrae of the tail had centra that were slightly amphicoelous , meaning they were concave on both sides . The interlocked zygapophyses ( articular processes ) of the caudal vertebrae formed a V @-@ shape when seen from above .
= = = Skull = = =
The three known Ankylosaurus skulls differ in various details , but this is thought to be the result of taphonomy ( changes happening during fossilisation of the remains ) and individual variation . The skull was low and triangular in shape , wider than it was long . It had a broad beak on the premaxillae . The orbits ( eye sockets ) were almost round to slightly oval and did not face directly sideways , because the skull tapered towards the front . Crests above the orbits merged into the upper squamosal horns ( their shape has been described as " pyramidal " ) , which pointed backwards to the sides from the back of the skull . The crest and horn were probably separate elements originally , as seen in the related Pinacosaurus and Euoplocephalus . Below the upper horns , jugal horns were present , which pointed backwards and down . The horns may have originally been osteoderms ( armor plates ) that fused to the skull . However , the scale pattern on the skull surface was instead the result of remodelling of the skull . This obliterated the sutures between skull elements , which is common for adult ankylosaurs . The scale pattern of the skull was variable between specimens , though some details are shared ; it had a diamond @-@ shaped scale ( internarial scale ) at the font of the snout , two squamosal osteoderms above the orbit , and a ridge of scales at the back of the skull .
The snout of Ankylosaurus was arched and truncated at the front , and the nostrils were ellipse @-@ shaped and faced sideways , unlike in many other ankylosaurids where they faced the front or upwards . This was because the sinuses were expanded to the sides of the premaxilla bone , to a larger extent than seen in other ankylosaurs . The nostrils also had an intranarial septum , which separated the nasal passage from the sinus . Each side of the snout had five sinuses , four of which expanded in to the maxilla bone . The nasal cavities or chambers of Ankylosaurus were elongated and separated by a septum at the midline , which divided the inside of the snout in two mirrored halves . The septum had two openings , including the choanae ( internal nostrils ) .
The maxillae expanded to the sides , giving the impression of a bulge , which may have been due to the sinuses inside . The maxillae had a ridge which may have been the attachment site for fleshy cheeks ; the presence of cheeks in ornithischians is controversial , but some nodosaurid ankylosaurs had armor plates that covered the cheek region , which may have been embedded in the flesh . Specimen AMNH 5214 has 34 @-@ 35 dental alveoli ( tooth sockets ) in the maxilla , which was more teeth than any other ankylosaurid . The tooth rows in the maxillae of this specimen are about 20 cm ( 8 inches ) long . Each aveoli had a foramen ( opening ) near its side wherein a replacement tooth could be seen . The back of the skull was broad and low .
Compared to other ankylosaurs , the mandible of Ankylosaurus was low in proportion to its length , and the tooth row was almost straight instead of arched , when seen from the side . The mandibles are only completely preserved in the smallest specimen ( AMNH 5214 ) and are about 41 cm ( 16 inches ) long . The incomplete mandible of the largest specimen ( NMC 8880 ) is the same length . AMNH 5214 has 35 dental alveoli in the left dentary and 36 in the right . The predentary bone of the tip of the mandibles has not yet been found . Like other ankylosaurs , Ankylosaurus had small , phylliform ( leaf @-@ shaped ) teeth , which were compressed sideways . The teeth were mostly taller than they were wide , and were very small in relation to the size of the skull . Some teeth from behind in the tooth row curved backwards , and tooth crowns were usually flatter on one side than the other . Ankylosaurus teeth are diagnostic and can be distinguished from the teeth of other ankylosaurids based on their smooth sides . The denticles were large , their number ranging from six to eight on the front part of the tooth , and five to seven behind .
= = = Armor = = =
A prominent feature of Ankylosaurus was its armor , consisting of knobs and plates of bone known as osteoderms or scutes embedded in the skin . These have not been found in articulation , so their exact placement on the body is unknown , though inferences can be made based on related animals . The osteoderms ranged from 1 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 inches ) in diameter to 35 @.@ 5 cm ( 14 @.@ 0 inches ) in length , and also varied in shape . The osteoderms of Ankylosaurus were generally thin walled and hollowed on the underside . Compared to Euoplocephalus , the osteoderms of Ankylosaurus were smoother in texture . The osteoderms covering the body were very flat , though with a low keel at one margin . In contrast , the nodosaurid Edmontonia had high keels , stretching from one margin to the other on the midline of its osteoderms . Ankylosaurus had some smaller osteoderms with a keel across the midline . Some osteoderms without keels may have been placed above the hip region , as in Euoplocephalus . Flattened , pointed plates resemble those on the sides of the tail of Saichania . Osteoderms with oval keels could have been placed on the upper side of the tail or the side of the limbs . Small osteoderms and ossicles likely occupied the space between the larger ones .
Like other ankylosaurids , Ankylosaurus had cervical half @-@ rings ( armor plates on the neck ) , but these are only known from fragments , making their exact arrangement uncertain . Carpenter suggested that when seen from above , the plates would have been paired , and created an inverted V @-@ shape across the neck , with the midline gap probably being filled with small ossicles ( round bony scutes ) to allow for movement . He believed the width of this armor belt was too wide to have fitted solely on the neck , and that it covered the base of the neck and continued onto the shoulder region . Paleontologists Victoria M. Arbour and Philip J. Currie disagreed with Carpenter 's interpretation , and pointed out that the cervical half @-@ ring fragments of specimen AMNH 5895 did not fit together in the way proposed by Carpenter ( though this could be due to breakage ) . They instead suggested that the fragments represented the remains of two cervical half @-@ rings , which formed two semi @-@ circular plates of armor around the upper part of the neck , as in the closely related Anodontosaurus and Euoplocephalus .
The tail club of Ankylosaurus was composed of two large osteoderms , with a row of small osteoderms at the midline , and two small osteoderms at the tip . As only the tail club of specimen AMNH 5214 is known , the range of variation between individuals is unknown . The tail club of AMNH 5214 is 450 mm ( 18 in ) wide . The last seven tail vertebrae formed the " handle " of the tail club . These vertebrae were in contact , with no cartilage between them , and sometimes co @-@ ossified , which made them immobile . Ossified tendons attached to the vertebrae in front of the tail club , and these features together helped strengthen it .
= = History of discovery = =
In 1906 , an American Museum of Natural History expedition led by paleontologist Barnum Brown discovered the type specimen of Ankylosaurus magniventris ( AMNH 5895 ) in the Hell Creek Formation , near Gilbert Creek , Montana . The specimen ( found by collector Peter Kaisen ) consisted of the upper part of a skull , two teeth , part of the shoulder girdle , cervical , dorsal , and caudal vertebrae , ribs , and more than thirty osteoderms . Brown scientifically described the animal in 1908 ; the genus name is derived from the Greek words ' αγκυλος / ankulos ( ' bent ' or ' crooked ' ) , referring to the medical term ankylosis , the stiffness produced by the fusion of bones in the skull and body , and σαυρος / sauros ( ' lizard ' ) . The name can be translated as " fused lizard " , " stiff lizard " , or " curved lizard " . The type species name magniventris is derived from the Latin magnus ( ' great ' ) and venter ( ' belly ' ) , referring to the great width of the animal 's body .
The skeletal reconstruction accompanying the 1908 description restored the missing parts in a fashion similar to Stegosaurus , and Brown likened the result to the extinct armored mammal Glyptodon . Contrary to modern depictions , Brown 's reconstruction showed a strongly arched back , while the tail club was missing as it was unknown at the time . Brown also reconstructed the armor plates in parallel rows running down the back ; this arrangement , however , was purely hypothetical . In a 1908 review of Brown 's Ankylosaurus description , American palaeontologist Samuel Wendell Williston criticised the skeletal reconstruction as being based on too scanty remains , and claimed that Ankylosaurus was merely a synonym of the genus Stegopelta , which Williston had named in 1905 . Williston also stated that a skeletal reconstruction of the related Polacanthus by Hungarian palaeontologist Franz Nopcsa was a better example of how ankylosaurs would have appeared in life . The claim of synonymy was not accepted by other researchers , and the two genera are now considered distinct .
Brown had collected seventy @-@ seven osteoderms while excavating a Tyrannosaurus specimen in the Lance Formation of Wyoming in 1900 . He mentioned these osteoderms ( specimen AMNH 5866 ) in his description of Ankylosaurus , but thought they belonged to the Tyrannosaurus instead . Palaeontologist Henry Fairfield Osborn also expressed this view when he described the Tyrannosaurus specimen as the now invalid genus Dynamosaurus in 1905 . Later examination has shown them to be similar to those of Ankylosaurus , and that Brown had compared them with some Euoplocephalus osteoderms , which had been erroneously catalogued as belonging to Ankylosaurus at the AMNH .
In 1910 , another AMNH expedition led by Brown discovered an Ankylosaurus specimen ( AMNH 5214 ) in the Scollard Formation by the Red Deer River in Alberta , Canada . This specimen included a complete skull , mandibles , the first and only tail club known of this genus , as well as ribs , vertebrae , limb bones , and armor . In 1947 , fossil collectors Charles M. Sternberg and T.P. Channey collected a skull and mandible ( specimen NMC 8880 ) , a kilometre ( 0 @.@ 6 miles ) north of where the 1910 specimen was found . This is the largest known Ankylosaurus skull , but is badly preserved . A section of caudal vertebrae ( specimen CCM V03 ) was discovered in the 1960s , in the Powder River drainage , Montana , also part of the Hell Creek Formation . In addition to these five incomplete specimens , many other isolated osteoderms and teeth have been found .
In 1990 , American palaeontologist Walter P. Coombs pointed out that the teeth of two skulls referred to A. magniventris differed from those of the holotype specimen in some details , and though he expressed a " considerate temptation " to name a new species of Ankylosaurus for these , he refrained from doing so , as the range of variation in the species was not completely documented . He also raised the possibility that the two teeth associated with the holotype specimen perhaps did not belong to it , as they were found in matrix within the nasal chambers . Kenneth Carpenter accepted the teeth as belonging to A. magniventris and that all specimens belonged to the same species , noting that the teeth of other ankylosaurs are highly variable .
Most of the known Ankylosaurus specimens were not scientifically described at length , though several palaeontologists planned to do so , until Carpenter redescribed the genus in 2004 . Carpenter noted that Ankylosaurus has become the archetypal member of its group , and the best known ankylosaur in popular culture , perhaps due to a life @-@ sized reconstruction of the animal being featured at the 1964 World 's Fair in New York City . Many traditional popular depictions show Ankylosaurus in a squatting posture and with a huge tail club being dragged over the ground . Modern reconstructions , however , show the animal with a more upright limb posture and with the tail being held clear off the ground . Likewise , large spines projecting sidewards from the body are present in many traditional depictions , but are actually only known in nodosaurids while being unknown in ankylosaurids .
= = Classification = =
Brown considered Ankylosaurus so distinct that he made it the type genus of a new family , Ankylosauridae ( members of which are called ankylosaurids ) , typified by massive , triangular skulls , short necks , stiff backs , broad bodies , and osteoderms . He also classified Palaeoscincus ( only known from teeth ) , and Euoplocephalus ( then only known from a partial skull and osteoderms ) as part of the family . Due to the fragmentary remains , Brown was unable to fully distinguish between Euoplocephalus and Ankylosaurus . Only having few , incomplete members of the family to compare with , he believed the group was part of the suborder Stegosauria . In 1923 , Osborn coined the name Ankylosauria ( members of which are called ankylosaurs or ankylosaurians ) , thereby placing the ankylosaurids in their own suborder .
Ankylosauria and Stegosauria are now grouped together within the clade Thyreophora . This group first appeared in the Sinemurian age , and survived for 135 million years , until disappearing in the Maastrichtian . They were widespread and inhabited a broad range of environments . As more complete specimens and new genera have been discovered , theories about ankylosaurian interrelatedness have become more complex , and hypotheses have often changed between studies . In addition to Ankylosauridae , Ankylosauria has been divided into the families Nodosauridae , and sometimes Polacanthidae ( these families lacked tail clubs ) . Ankylosaurus is considered part of the subfamily Ankylosaurinae ( members of which are called ankylosaurines ) within Ankylosauridae . Ankylosaurus appears to be most closely related to Anodontosaurus and Euoplocephalus . The following cladogram is based on a 2015 phylogenetic analysis of the Ankylosaurinae conducted by Arbour and Currie :
Since Ankylosaurus and other Late Cretaceous North American ankylosaurids grouped with Asian genera ( in a tribe the authors named Ankylosaurini ) , Arbour and Currie suggested that earlier North American ankylosaurids had gone extinct by the late Albian or Cenomanian ages of the Middle Cretaceous . Ankylosaurids thereafter recolonised North America from Asia during the Campanian or Turonian ages of the Late Cretaceous , and diversified there again , leading to genera such as Ankylosaurus , Anodontosaurus , and Euoplocephalus . This explains a 30 million year gap in the fossil record of North American ankylosaurids between these ages .
= = Palaeobiology = =
= = = Feeding = = =
Like other ornithischians , Ankylosaurus was herbivorous . Its wide muzzle was adapted for non @-@ selective low @-@ browse cropping . The teeth of Ankylosaurus were worn on the face of the crowns , rather than on the tip of the crowns , as in nodosaurid ankylosaurs . In 1982 , Carpenter ascribed two very small teeth to baby Ankylosaurus , which originate from the Lance and Hell Creek Formations and measure 3 @.@ 2 to 3 @.@ 3 mm in length , respectively . The smaller tooth is heavily worn , leading Carpenter to suggest that ankylosaurids in general or at least the babies did not swallow their food whole but employed some sort of chewing .
A specimen of Pinacosaurus preserves large paraglossalia ( triangular bones or cartilages located in the tongue ) which show signs of muscular stress , and it is thought this was a common feature of ankylosaurs . Some researchers have suggested that ankylosaurs relied heavily on muscular tongues and hyobranchia ( tongue bones ) when feeding , since their teeth were fairly small and were replaced at a relatively slow rate . Some modern salamanders have similar tongue bones , and use prehensile tongues to pick up food .
In 1969 , Austrian paleontologist Georg Haas concluded that despite the large size of ankylosaur skulls , the associated musculature was relatively weak . He also thought jaw movement was limited to up and down movements . Extrapolating from this , Haas suggested that ankylosaurs ate relatively soft non @-@ abrasive vegetation . However , later research on Euoplocephalus indicates that forward and sideways jaw movement was possible in these animals , the skull being able to withstand considerable forces . Though ankylosaurs may not have fed on fibrous and woody plants , they may have had a more varied diet , including tough leaves and pulpy fruits . Based on the broadness of the ribcage , Ankylosaurus may have digested through a hindgut fermentation system like modern herbivorous lizards , which have several chambers in their enlarged colon .
= = = Airspaces and senses = = =
In 1977 , Polish paleontologist Teresa Maryańska proposed that the complex sinuses and nasal cavities of ankylosaurs may have lightened the weight of the skull , housed a nasal gland , or acted as a chamber for vocal resonance . Carpenter rejected these hypotheses , arguing that tetrapod animals make sounds through the larynx , not the nostrils , and that reduction in weight was minimal , as the spaces only accounted for a small percent of the skull volume . He also considered a gland unlikely , and noted that the sinuses may not have had any specific function .
A 2011 study of the nasal passages of Euoplocephalus supported their function as a heat and water balancing system , noting the extensive blood vessel system and an increased surface area for the mucosa membrane ( used for heat and water exchange in modern animals ) . The researchers also supported the loops acting as a resonance chamber , comparable to the enlongated nasal passages of saiga antelope and looping trachea of cranes and swans . Reconstructions of the inner ear suggest adaptation to hearing at low frequencies , such as the low @-@ toned resonant sounds possibly produced by the nasal passages . They disputed the possibility that the looping is related to olfaction ( sense of smell ) as the olfactionary region is pushed to the sides of the main airway .
The shape of the nasal chambers of Ankylosaurus indicate that airflow was unidirectional , ( looping through the lungs during inhalation and exhalation ) , although it may also have been bidirectional in the posterior nasal chamber , which directed air past the olfactory lobes . The enlarged olfactory region of ankylosaurids indicates a well @-@ developed sense of smell , and the position of the orbits of Ankylosaurus suggest some stereoscopic vision .
= = = Limb movements = = =
Reconstructions of ankylosaur forelimb musculature made by Coombs in 1978 suggest that the forelimbs bore the majority of the animal 's weight , and were adapted for high force delivery on the front feet , possibly for food gathering . In addition , Coombs suggested that ankylosaurs may have been capable diggers , though the hoof @-@ like structure of the manus would have limited fossorial activity . Ankylosaurs were likely to have been slow @-@ moving and sluggish animals , though they may have been capable of quick movements when necessary .
= = = Defense = = =
The osteoderms of ankylosaurids were thin in comparison to those of other ankylosaurs , and appear to have been strengthened by randomly distributed cushions of collagen fibers . These were structurally similar to Sharpey 's fibers , and were embedded directly into the bone tissue , a feature unique to ankylosaurids . This would have provided the ankylosaurids with an armor covering which was both lightweight and highly durable , being resistant to breakage and penetration by the teeth of predators . In addition to protection , Carpenter suggested in 1982 that the heavily @-@ vascularized armor may have had a role in thermoregulation as in modern crocodilians .
The tail club of Ankylosaurus seems to have been an active defensive weapon , capable of producing enough of an impact to break the bones of an assailant . The tendons of the tail were partially ossified and were not very elastic , allowing great force to be transmitted to the club when it was used as a weapon . Coombs suggested in 1979 that several hindlimb muscles would have controlled the swinging of the tail , and that violent thrusts of the club would have been able to break the metatarsal bones of large theropods .
A 2009 study estimated that ankylosaurids could swing their tails at 100 degrees laterally and the mainly cancellous clubs would have a lowered moment of inertia and been effective weapons . However , the study also found that while large ankylosaurid tail clubs were capable of breaking bones , medium and small clubs were not . Despite the feasibility of tail swinging , the researchers could not determine whether ankylosaurids used their clubs for defense against potential predators , in intraspecific combat or both . In 1993 , Tony Thulborn proposed that the tail club of ankylosaurids primarily acted as a decoy for the head , as he thought the tail too short and inflexible to have an effective reach ; the " dummy head " would lure a predator close to the tail , where it could be stricken . Carpenter has rejected this idea , as tail club shape is highly variable among ankylosaurids , even in the same genus .
= = Palaeoecology = =
Ankylosaurus existed between 68 and 66 million years ago , in the final , or Maastrichtian , stage of the Late Cretaceous Period . It was among the last dinosaur genera that appeared before the Cretaceous – Paleogene extinction event . The type specimen is from the Hell Creek Formation of Montana , while other specimens have been found in the Lance Formation of Wyoming and the Scollard Formation in Alberta , Canada , all of which date to the end of the Cretaceous . Fossils of Ankylosaurus are rare in these sediments , and the distribution of its remains suggest that it was restricted to the uplands of the formations , rather than the coastal lowlands . Another ankylosaur , an indeterminate nodosaur ( formerly referred to as Edmontonia sp . ) , is also found in the same formations , but the range of the two genera does not seem to have overlapped . Their remains have so far not been found in the same localities , and the nodosaur appears to have inhabited the lowlands . The narrow muzzle of the nodosaur suggests it had a more selective diet than Ankylosaurus , further indicating ecological separation .
The Hell Creek , Lance and Scollard Formations represent different sections of the western shore of the Western Interior Seaway that divided western and eastern North America during the Cretaceous . They represent a broad coastal plain , extending westward from the seaway to the newly formed Rocky Mountains . These formations are composed largely of sandstone and mudstone , which have been attributed to floodplain environments . The Hell Creek is the best studied of these ancient environments . At the time , this region was subtropical , with a warm and humid climate . Many plant species were supported , primarily angiosperms , with less common conifers , ferns and cycads . An abundance of fossil leaves found at dozens of different sites indicates that the area was largely forested by small trees . Ankylosaurus shared its environment with dinosaurs including the ceratopsids Triceratops and Torosaurus , the hypsilophodont Thescelosaurus , the hadrosaurid Edmontosaurus , an indeterminate nodosaur , the pachycephalosaurian Pachycephalosaurus , and the theropods Struthiomimus , Ornithomimus , Troodon , and Tyrannosaurus .
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= Ryse : Son of Rome =
Ryse : Son of Rome is a third @-@ person action @-@ adventure hack and slash video game developed by Crytek Frankfurt and published by Microsoft Studios . It was released on November 22 , 2013 as an exclusive launch title for the Xbox One , but was released on October 10 , 2014 for Microsoft Windows by Crytek and Deep Silver . Set in an alternate version of Rome , Ryse follows the life of the Roman centurion Marius Vitus as he becomes one of the leaders in the Roman Legion . Gameplay revolves around Marius using his sword to strike enemies and shield to deflect attacks . Execution sequences are also featured in the game , which are quick @-@ time events that serve as an extension to combat . The game 's combat emphasizes on " flow " , a term referring to a player 's ability to move on to fight against another enemy upon defeating an enemy with few limitations in between . The game features a cooperative multiplayer mode , which tasks players to fight against waves of enemies in maps that are changing dynamically .
The game 's development began in 2006 . Originally it was set to be a first @-@ person Kinect @-@ only title for the Xbox 360 . However , the team later made three new prototypes , and redesigned to become a third @-@ person hack and slash game , with Kinect serving a diminished role . The development of the game was originally handled by Crytek Budapest , but was later transferred to Crytek 's headquarters in Frankfurt , Germany . Revealed as Codename : Kingdom at Electronic Entertainment Expo 2010 , the game was reintroduced as Ryse : Son of Rome at E3 2013 . It was among one of the six projects developed simultaneously by Crytek .
Ryse : Son of Rome received a mixed critical reaction from reviewers upon launch , being praised for its visuals , story and high production values but criticized for its repetitive and simple gameplay . Cevat Yerli , CEO of Crytek , added that he was not satisfied with the sales of the game . Upon launch , the game was supported with several multiplayer @-@ focused downloadable content , but the originally planned Challenge Editor was cancelled .
= = Gameplay = =
Ryse : Son of Rome is an action @-@ adventure hack and slash game played in a third @-@ person perspective . Players assume control of Marius Vitus , a Roman general who is on a quest to avenge his murdered family . Throughout the game , players gain access to weapons that can be used to assault enemies or defend themselves . For instance , players are equipped with a sword that can be used to strike and kill enemies , and a shield that can be used to deflect enemies ' attack and break their defense . The strength of each attack can be decided by players . In addition to melee @-@ based combat , the game features spears and javelins , which serve as ranged weapons .
The game 's combat puts emphasis on " flow " , a term referring to a player 's ability to move on to fight against another enemy upon defeating and killing an enemy with few limitations in between . Combat is combo @-@ based , and rewards are given to players who are able to build a long combo . Marius can block attacks to break enemy combos to counterattack .
When players deal enough damage to an enemy , they can activate an execution sequence . Once the execution sequence has been initiated , enemies involved in the execution are highlighted automatically with colors by the game , and players can perform a series of quick time events by pressing the appropriate buttons . These execution sequences serve to grant additional resources to players , depending on how well the execution is performed . At any time prior to initiating an execution , the player can select one of four categories of executions to perform upon weakened enemies ; the selected type of execution determines the type of resource that will be granted when an enemy is executed . Upon completing a successful execution sequence , players are granted the type of execution that was selected . There are four perks available for players . One boosts the player 's damage for a short period after the execution ; one refills the player 's Focus bar ; one allows players to regain lost health , and the last significantly boosts the amount of experience points received from the kill . These experience points can be used to purchase upgrades for various attributes , such as health , damage , or Focus bar capacity , and to unlock additional execution moves . The game still automatically completes and finishes these execution sequences when players fail to press the highlighted buttons , but provides a much smaller reward . Lining up two or more weakened enemies in close proximity allows the player to perform a double execution sequence , which greatly increases the reward granted .
In several segments of the game , Marius is involved in large @-@ scale battles . Players are tasked to co @-@ operate with , or command , other non @-@ playable characters to defeat large numbers of enemies . The game features Kinect voice integration , in which players can issue commands to other characters to provide assistance , such as calling in arrows or catapults .
There is also a co @-@ operative multiplayer mode , in which two players team up to accomplish various challenges and fight against waves of increasingly difficult enemies in the Roman Colosseum , a gladiator arena setting . The environments of the Colosseum change dynamically in a match to add variety to the mode . Players can gain access to increasingly advanced armor and weapons as they progress through these multiplayer matches . Microtransactions are also featured , allowing players to purchase in @-@ game upgrades with real @-@ life currency .
= = Plot = =
Ryse : Son of Rome is set in an alternate version of Rome . The game 's tutorial section depicts Marius leading the defense of Rome against oncoming Celtic barbarians led by Boudica . Marius hands a small , nondescript sack to a subordinate with the instructions to display it from an elevated position , then helps secure the Roman emperor , Nero , in a private safe room . At the emperor 's behest he begins to tell his story ; the rest of the game is an extended flashback depicting Marius ' story up to this point .
Marius begins his story as a soldier having just successfully completed his training , who is about to leave Rome to serve his duty in the relatively sedate II Legion , holding a post in peaceful Alexandria . Just before his deployment , he enjoys a return to his family in Rome and the adulation of his father Leontius , a former general and current member of the Roman Senate . Marius ' visit is cut short by a barbarian incursion ; a running battle through the streets of Rome results in the death of his parents and younger sister . Commander Vitallion , a friend and former comrade of the slain Leontius , transfers Marius to his XIV Legion , and promises Marius vengeance for his murdered family . Vitallion leads the XIV Legion to Britain , but the fleet is ambushed off the coast ; Marius leads the counter @-@ attack , rallying the surviving Roman troops and nearly single @-@ handedly preventing the destruction of the remainder of the fleet , which impresses Vitallion . Marius is promoted to Centurion .
After receiving reports of a rebellion at York , Marius heads north to aid the defeated legion stationed there . Upon capturing King Oswald and his daughter Boudica , Basilius , the son of the Emperor , reveals that his brother Commodus has been captured by the barbarians , whose whereabouts are unknown . Basilius , threatens and forces King Oswald into revealing the location of Commodus , who has been traded to the fearsome men north of Hadrian 's Wall . Basilius orders Vitallion and Marius to retrieve him . After crossing the border into Caledonia , the party is ambushed , Vitallion is taken hostage by barbarians , and Marius is separated from his legion . Marius makes his way into the enemy camp , freeing and rallying captured Roman soldiers along the way . He kills the barbarian leader Glott and rescues Commodus and Vitallion from being burned inside a giant Wicker man .
Commodus continues to intimidate Oswald and murders him , causing a breakdown in negotiations . Meanwhile , Marius realizes that the band of barbarians he encountered years ago had invaded Rome and slain his father at Nero 's instigation as a means of eliminating a political rival . Furthermore , the Celts , led by a just @-@ escaped Boudica , lay siege to York , with XIV Legion tasked with defending it until Commodus can escape . In the end , Marius sacrifices himself to buy time for the final ships to sail , but is resurrected by the goddess Summer , who tasks him with taking on the mantle of Damocles , a legendary Roman general who was abandoned to his enemies for political expediency . In that guise , Summer tells him to avenge his family and comrades , and save Rome .
" Damocles " takes advantage of Emperor Nero and his sons ' interest in the gladiator sports , and enters the gladiatorial ludi to confront Nero and his sons directly . His demonstration of martial skill gains him the sponsorship of Nero 's son Basilius , and Marius is then able to slay Basilius during a private audience , where he is also informed by a captive Oracle Priestess that Nero can only be killed by his own sword . After this , Marius confronts Commodus in the Colosseum itself , emerging victorious after a series of unfair battles . As " Damocles " and Nero jointly call for each other 's deaths , Marius escapes , meeting up with Vitallion . According to Vitallion , Boudica has gathered enough barbarian support to storm Rome itself . Vitallion agrees to help Marius put an end to Nero 's destructive rule . Their efforts are successful , but Vitallion is slain by Boudica during the attack . Marius takes up the command and defeats her in turn , though his victory is tempered by their shared realization that they are both victims in Nero 's power plays .
This brings Marius to the " present day " of the game 's narrative : he gives the small sack , containing Boudica 's severed head , to his subordinate , escorts Nero to his safe room , and tells his tale . Nero , who has since deduced that Marius is Damocles , flees deeper into his bolt hole . As Marius gives chase , he is temporarily distracted by Aquilo , the god of the north wind , who has been aiding Nero and whose stated goal is to cause the collapse of Rome . However , Summer helps Marius claim the victory , and Marius tosses both Nero and himself off a parapet , where Nero is impaled on the sword of his own statue , fulfilling the Oracle 's prophecy . Marius falls to the ground and dies from his wounds as Summer and Aquilo both vanish .
The story ends with the barbarians retreating from Rome , disheartened by the loss of their leader , and with Marius being posthumously hailed as a hero for his efforts to fend off their attacks .
= = Development = =
Ryse : Son of Rome was originally developed by Crytek Budapest . In 2004 , Crytek released its debut title Far Cry , and in 2006 , Microsoft Studios released Xbox 360 and was working on a prototype for Kinect called " Project Natal " . Ideas for Ryse originated in 2006 by Crytek 's CEO Cevat Yerli , who was eager to expand the studio , and wanted the studio to work on multiple projects simultaneously . Early work and concept development began shortly afterwards , with Crytek working on a pair of fantasy games that were set in the same Medieval universe . They were Kings , a massively multiplayer online role @-@ playing game , and Kingdoms , a first @-@ person action role @-@ playing game . They hoped that with Kingdoms , they could create an " up @-@ close " and " visceral " experience .
Crytek then pitched the game to different publishers , and eventually , in 2009 , the company pitched the two projects to Microsoft . According to Nick Button @-@ Brown , the general manager at Crytek , the game was not functional at that time , and only served to prove to the publisher that a first @-@ person melee game was fun for players . The representative from Microsoft , Phil Spencer , admired Crytek 's intention to expand , and thought that Microsoft 's games line up for the Xbox 360 was lacking a first @-@ person melee @-@ combat game . As a result , they accepted to publish Kingdoms , and rejected Kings . The two companies agreed that the project would be a natural fit for Microsoft 's yet @-@ to @-@ be @-@ announced Kinect .
It was originally revealed as Codename : Kingdoms during Microsoft 's E3 2010 press conference , along with the announcement that the game was being developed by Crytek . During the Microsoft Press Conference at E3 2011 , Ryse was announced as a Kinect @-@ only title . The announcement entailed a prerendered trailer with minor gameplay footage . The gameplay footage featured players using their own body gestures to control the protagonist to fight against enemies , and perform actions like sword wielding , blocking attacks with a shield , and head @-@ butting . The trailer served as a test for Crytek to see whether the general audience liked the Kinect features or not .
In early 2011 , the game 's direction was shifted from building a world of " high fantasy " to building a realistic ancient Rome , and the development of the game was shifted from Crytek Budapest to Crytek 's headquarter in Frankfurt , Germany . The Budapest office was significantly downsized afterwards , and its focus was shifted to develop smartphone games . It became one of six projects the company was working on . Development of the game continued after its E3 2011 reveal . Different experiments were carried out for the game to see what elements would work and what would not . A team at Crytek Frankfurt proposed to turn the game to an on @-@ rail interactive movie , which the team believed was suitable for Kinect 's features and would able to showcase the power of CryEngine . The idea was later scrapped .
During the game 's development , the team worried that the game may be too tiring for players , and that Kinect may not able to detect their movements accurately , leading to frustration . As a result , the team developed three prototypes for the game . The first prototype allowed players to play the entire game with Kinect , the second one tasks players to play the game with a Xbox 360 controller , with Kinect features , while the third one completely removed the Kinect features . Crytek eventually chose the second prototype , and shifted the game 's perspective to become a third @-@ person video game . In June 2012 , Phil Spencer , corporate VP of Microsoft Studios , maintained that the game was still in development. and added that Kinect will only be " part of the game " . With the changes in the game 's control scheme , the game 's focus also changed , with the team aiming to create a cinematic and character @-@ focused experience for players . The change also extended the game 's development process , and eventually , in May 2013 , Ryse was confirmed to be a launch title for Microsoft 's next game console , Xbox One . In June 2013 at the E3 Microsoft Conference , Crytek showed a gameplay video . Kinect was no longer part of the active battle but had a diminished role by providing squad commands through speech and gesture . The team at Crytek decided to make it a launch title instead of delaying it for further polishing , as they considered the launch of Xbox One an " emotional " event and wanted to be a part of it .
Ryse 's combat puts lots of focuses on " flow " and crowd control . As a result , the team introduced a rhythm @-@ styled combat which is similar to that of Batman : Arkham Asylum . The flow was described to be one of the most important part in the game 's mechanics , and the artificial intelligence of enemies were designed to break and disrupt players ' flow . The team later chose to introduce the execution mechanics as they found that the combat was proven to be too difficult for players , and that the execution mechanics provided an easier way for players to defeat enemies . The game also focused on precision and timing , tasking players to hit enemies at the correct time and position to gain greater rewards . The developer also hoped that players will use creativity when dealing with enemies . A concept called " mashing to mastery " was introduced in Ryse , in which the game 's combat was designed to be accessible for newcomers and be challenging for hardcore players . In order to achieve the " mashing to mastery " mechanic , the team introduced the execution mechanic , which is a series of quick @-@ time events , as the team at Crytek hoped that it would make these scene more rewarding to players , as well as allowing the flow of combat to continue .
Ryse 's intention was to build a cinematic story . The team put emphasis on building the game 's protagonist , Marius Vitus , who was described as a character with three different sides . The game 's cinematic director , Peter Gornstein , considered that adding personalities to characters as one of the most important features in creating a good story , as it allows players to care for and emphasize the character . He also hoped that the character is consistent throughout the game . As a result , the team developed transition sequences , in which gameplay can fluidly transit to cinematic . The game also put emphasis on the protagonist 's motion capture . To achieve this , the team collaborated with The Imaginarium Studios to develop the cinematic and motion @-@ capture technology for the game . According to Yerli , having good motion capture technology can help " create the ultimate emotion " . The game 's camera was originally set to be controlled by artificial intelligence , drawing inspirations from Seven Samurai and Children of Men , but the idea was later scrapped and a dynamic camera was designed to replace it . The camera was also made closer to the playable character than other hack and slash games , as they hoped that they could show a " claustrophobic brutality " from it . According to Crytek , having a close up camera has always been the game 's core element .
The developers claim to have drawn much of the inspiration for the game 's combat and tactics from " ... the innumerable Roman campaigns that led to the modern concept of total war " . Fifteen hero level characters were given full motion capture with the same detail as Marius . Unlike Crytek 's previous projects , the game is set in ancient Rome , a place which the developer thought was underrepresented in video games . The game also features different Renaissance @-@ inspired imagery . In order to create an accurate environment , the team visited different locations in Rome . While the game is set in Rome , its story is not entirely historically accurate . Crytek described it as a " historical mash @-@ up " , in which the team selected their favourite historical events and put them together into the game .
Crytek contracted Ruffian Games to develop a competitive multiplayer mode for Ryse , but the feature was later cut from the final game . Despite that , a co @-@ operative multiplayer mode was introduced , and tasked players to fight against waves of increasingly difficult human enemies . The team originally hoped to add sea battles and animals to the game , but after internal testing , these features were removed . A Xbox SmartGlass feature called the Challenge Editor was set to be introduced to the game after its launch . It allowed players to create custom challenges for the game 's co @-@ operative multiplayer . However , Crytek announced that the development of this feature had been ceased in February 2014 .
The game 's music is composed by Borislav Slavov and Peter Antovszki , Crytek 's in @-@ house composers . Slavov had previously led the soundtrack development of Crysis 3 and Warface . The soundtrack development began in February 2013 , right after the completion of Crysis 3 . Slavov considered composing the music for Ryse a great challenge for him , as he had to compose 250 minutes of music within a short time frame . Crytek also hired an external composer , Tilman Silescu , to help compose the music for the game .
= = = Release = = =
Ryse was originally revealed as a Xbox 360 title that was set to be released in early 2011 . Revealed at E3 2010 as Codename Kingdom , the game missed its release window , and its official name was revealed during E3 2011 as Ryse . It was reintroduced as Ryse : Son of Rome at Microsoft 's press conference at E3 2013 with a gameplay demo . The game served as a launch title for the Xbox One , and was released on November 22 , 2013 . The season pass , featuring different in @-@ game bonuses and items , was released on the same day . The game was supported with downloadable content upon launch . Mars ’ Chosen , Morituri Pack , Duel of Fates Pack , and Colosseum Pack were released from 2013 to 2014 and featured new maps and modes for the multiplayer portion of the game . A Legendary Collection , which featured the base game , the game 's seasonal pass , and all the additional content released for the game , was released on October 7 , 2014 .
On August 7 , 2014 , Crytek announced that Ryse would be released for the PC platform in the fall of 2014 . This version of the game is stated to support 4K resolution and included previously released downloadable content . The PC version was released on October 10 , 2014 . Crytek published the digital version of the PC version of the game , while Deep Silver published the retail version .
= = Reception = =
Ryse : Son of Rome received mixed reviews . Aggregating review websites GameRankings and Metacritic gave the Xbox One version 64 @.@ 30 % based on 47 reviews and 60 / 100 based on 77 reviews and the Microsoft Windows version 63 @.@ 20 % based on 10 reviews and 61 / 100 based on 27 reviews .
The game 's visuals received critical acclaim . Brian Albert from IGN thought that Ryse would be the perfect title for people to show off their console due to its high graphical quality . He also praised the game 's wide variety of environments and fluid character animation . However , he criticized the game 's boss @-@ design . Hollander Cooper from GamesRadar strongly praised the game 's graphics and the level of detail . Simon Miller from VideoGamer.com thought that the game fulfilled its purpose as an Xbox One launch title , and demonstrated the power of the console . Andrew Reiner from Game Informer considered that the game 's cinematic as " towering achievements of visual design " . Brad Shoemaker from Giant Bomb thought that the graphics had successfully surprised players .
The game 's gameplay received polarized reception . Marc Camron from Electronic Gaming Monthly called it " basic " , and thought that despite the fluid and smooth combat , and the addition of the reward system which added a layer of strategy to the game , the game 's execution system hindered the flow of the game by slowing down the overall pace of combat . He added that the game 's combat lacked complexity and depth , and was too repetitive for players to enjoy . Albert also thought that the combat system was too basic . In addition , he noted the repetitive pattern of enemies . He also criticized the game 's over @-@ emphasis on graphics , which led to the simple gameplay . Cooper thought that the game 's combat was satisfying , and thought that the game 's swordplay had successfully captured the sense of weight and impact . However , he also considered the system repetitive . Reiner criticized the execution sequences , which he considered excessive and over @-@ simplistic . Shoemaker also thought that the game lacked both variety and depth . Mark Walton from GameSpot thought that the game design was too linear , and that the game discouraged any form of exploration .
The game 's story also received praise from critics . Camron praised the game 's voice @-@ acting and setting , which he thought was " intriguing " . However , he thought that the narrative was too basic , and missed many details that could have further improved the game 's story . Albert admired the game 's story , and thought that it was handled with great care . He added that the game 's plot was easy for players to follow , even though the game features multiple unexpected twists . Cooper described the game 's narrative as surprising , adding that the later part of the game successfully added personalities to both the game 's heroes and villains . However , Walton called the game 's script as " laughable " and said that the dialogue made the plot unbelievable for players .
Critics had divided opinions on the game 's multiplayer . Camron thought that it was a nice addition to the game , even though he thought it lacked the complexity a multiplayer mode should have , and that it failed to extend the game 's longevity . Miller echoed this statement , and thought that the multiplayer mode failed to hook players . Walton thought that players would not return the mode after experiencing it once , and he described the mode as " bland " . Albert , in contrast , considered the mode a unique addition to the game , and thought that it had successfully added some strategy elements to the game . Chris Carter from Destructoid thought that the multiplayer mode was better than the game 's main campaign . He described it as a " pleasant surprise " .
The amount of content featured in the game received mixed reviews . Miller thought that the game only revolved around one idea , which led to its simplistic gameplay . Camron and Cooper thought that the campaign was too short for most players . Shoemaker thought that for a full @-@ priced game , it lacked content . Reiner furthered criticized the game 's low replay value . Carter advocated that players purchase the game when its price dropped . He added that while the game features lots of ideas , most of them failed to deliver .
While no exact sales figure was revealed , Yerli expressed his disappointment with the sales of Ryse for the Xbox One in August 2014 , blaming the low sales of the Xbox One .
= = = Controversy = = =
A Federal Trade Commission investigation uncovered an undisclosed paid endorsement deal between Microsoft Studios and Machinima Inc . Microsoft Studios paid for fake organic reviews , and bound Machinima Inc. to “ not portray [ Microsoft ] , the Xbox One , or the Launch Titles in a negative manner ” . Ryse : Son of Rome was specifically listed in the FTC document as being one of the titles to receive fake reviews , and price quotes for these reviews range between $ 15 @,@ 000 and $ 30 @,@ 000 .
= = Sequel = =
According to Yerli , Ryse : Son of Rome is not a " one @-@ off " title and will serve as the beginning of a new franchise . However , several reports claimed that Ryse 2 was cancelled because of a conflict between Crytek and Microsoft over who would own the rights to the franchise . In exchange for funding Ryse 2 's development , Microsoft wanted to take over the Ryse intellectual property . Crytek would not agree to these terms , so the project was cancelled . Cevat Yerli , however , denied that the game was cancelled in an interview with Eurogamer , adding that the relationship between Microsoft and Crytek remained strong and positive . Ryse was among one of the last titles developed by Crytek before the company entered financial crisis and re @-@ construction . The new Crytek is focused on developing free @-@ to @-@ play games and being a " game service " instead of a video game developer . Despite this , Ryse is still an intellectual property owned by Crytek .
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= Zong massacre =
The Zong massacre was the mass murder of 133 enslaved Africans by the crew of the slave ship Zong in the days following 29 November 1781 . The ship was owned by the Gregson slave @-@ trading syndicate , based in Liverpool , which participated in the Atlantic slave trade . As was common business practice , they had taken out insurance on the lives of the slaves as cargo . When the ship ran low on potable water following navigational mistakes , the crew threw slaves overboard into the sea to drown , partly in order to ensure the survival of the rest of the ship 's inhabitants , and in part to cash in on the insurance on the slaves , thus not losing money on the slaves which would have died from the lack of drinking water .
After the slave ship reached port at Black River , Jamaica , the owners of the Zong made a claim to their insurers for the loss of the slaves . When the insurers refused to pay , the resulting court cases ( Gregson v Gilbert ( 1783 ) 3 Doug . KB 232 ) held that in some circumstances , the deliberate killing of slaves was legal and that insurers could be required to pay for the slaves ' deaths . The judge , Lord Chief Justice , the Earl of Mansfield , ruled against the syndicate owners in this case , due to new evidence being introduced suggesting the captain and crew were at fault .
Following the first trial , freed slave Olaudah Equiano brought news of the massacre to the attention of the anti @-@ slavery campaigner Granville Sharp , who worked unsuccessfully to have the ship 's crew prosecuted for murder . Because of the legal dispute , reports of the massacre received increased publicity , stimulating the abolitionist movement in the late 18th and early 19th centuries ; the Zong events were increasingly cited as a powerful symbol of the horrors of the Middle Passage of slaves to the New World .
The non @-@ denominational Society for Effecting the Abolition of the Slave Trade was founded in 1787 . The next year Parliament passed the first law regulating the slave trade , to limit the number of slaves per ship . The massacre has also inspired works of art and literature . It was commemorated in London in 2007 , among events to mark the bicentenary of the British Slave Trade Act 1807 , which abolished the African slave trade . A monument to the killed slaves of the Zong was installed at Black River , Jamaica , their intended port .
= = The Zong = =
The Zong was originally named Zorg ( meaning " Care " in Dutch ) by its owners , the Middelburgsche Commercie Compagnie . It operated as a slave ship based in Middelburg , Netherlands , and made a voyage in 1777 , delivering slaves to the coast of Suriname , South America . The Zong was a " square stern ship " of 110 tons burden . It was captured by a British 16 @-@ gun ship named Alert on 10 February 1781 . By 26 February , the Alert and Zong arrived at Cape Coast Castle , in modern @-@ day Ghana , which was maintained and staffed , along with other forts and castles , by the Royal African Company . The Castle was used as the regional headquarters of the RAC .
In early March 1781 , the Zong was purchased by the master of the William , on behalf of a syndicate of Liverpool merchants . The members of the syndicate were Edward Wilson , George Case , James Aspinall and William , James and John Gregson . William Gregson had an interest in 50 slaving voyages between 1747 and 1780 . He served as mayor of Liverpool in 1762 . By the end of his life , vessels in which Gregson had a financial stake had carried 58 @,@ 201 enslaved people from Africa to slavery in the Americas .
The Zong was paid for with bills of exchange , and the 244 slaves already on board were part of the transaction . The ship was not insured until after it started its voyage . The insurers , a syndicate from Liverpool , underwrote the ship and slaves for up to £ 8 @,@ 000 , approximately half the slaves ' potential market value . The remaining risk was borne by the owners .
= = = Crew = = =
The Zong was the first command of Luke Collingwood , formerly the surgeon on the William . While Collingwood lacked experience in navigation and command , ship 's surgeons were typically involved in selecting slaves for purchase in Africa , so their medical expertise supported the determination of " commodity value " for a captive . If the surgeon rejected a captive , that individual suffered " commercial death , " being of no value and was liable to be killed by African handlers . Sometimes these killings happened in the presence of the surgeon . It is likely that Collingwood had already witnessed the mass @-@ murder of slaves . As the historian Jeremy Krikler commented , this may have prepared him psychologically to condone the massacre which took place on the Zong . The Zong 's first mate was James Kelsall , who had also served on the William .
The vessel 's only passenger , Robert Stubbs , was a former captain of slave ships . In early 1780 he was appointed by the African Committee of the Royal African Company , as the governor of Anomabu , a British fortification near Cape Coast Castle in Ghana . This position made him also vice @-@ president of the RAC Council of the Castle . Due to his ineptitude and enmity incurred with John Roberts , governor of the Castle , Stubbs was forced out of the governorship of Anomabu by the RAC Council after nine months . Witness statements gathered by the African Committee of the RAC , accused him of being a semi @-@ literate drunkard who mismanaged the slave @-@ trading activities of the fort . Stubbs was aboard to return to Britain ; Collingwood may have thought his earlier experience on slave ships would be useful .
The Zong had a 17 @-@ man crew when it left Africa , which was far too small to maintain adequate sanitary conditions on the ship . Mariners willing to risk disease and slave rebellions on slave ships were difficult to recruit within Britain and were harder to find for a vessel captured from the Dutch off the coast of Africa . The Zong was manned with remnants of the previous Dutch crew , the crew of the William and with unemployed sailors hired from the settlements along the African coast .
= = The Middle Passage = =
The Zong had taken on more than twice the number of people that it could safely transport , when it sailed from Accra with 442 enslaved people on 18 August 1781 . In the 1780s , British @-@ built ships typically carried 1 @.@ 75 enslaved people per ton of the ship 's capacity ; on the Zong , the ratio was 4 @.@ 0 per ton . A British slave ship of the period would carry around 193 enslaved and it was extremely unusual for a ship of the Zong 's relatively small size to carry so many .
After taking on drinking water at São Tomé , the Zong began its voyage across the Atlantic Ocean to Jamaica on 6 September . On 18 or 19 November , the ship neared Tobago in the Caribbean but failed to stop there to replenish its water supplies .
It is unclear who , if anyone , was in charge of the ship at this point . The captain Luke Collingwood had been gravely ill for some time . The man who would normally have replaced him , first mate James Kelsall , had been previously suspended from duty following an argument on 14 November . Robert Stubbs had captained a slave ship several decades earlier and he temporarily commanded the Zong in Collingwood 's absence but he was not a registered member of the vessel 's crew . According to historian James Walvin , the breakdown of the command structure on the ship might explain why subsequent navigational errors were committed and why checks on supplies of drinking water were not made .
= = = Massacre = = =
On 27 or 28 November , the crew sighted Jamaica at a distance of 27 nautical miles ( 50 km ; 31 mi ) but misidentified it as the French colony of Saint @-@ Domingue on the island of Hispaniola . The Zong continued on its westward course , leaving Jamaica behind . This mistake was recognised only after the ship was 300 miles ( 480 km ) leeward of the island . Overcrowding , malnutrition , accidents and disease had already killed several mariners and approximately 62 enslaved Africans . James Kelsall later claimed that there was only four days ' water remaining on the ship , when the navigational error was discovered and Jamaica was still 10 – 13 sailing days away .
If the enslaved died onshore , the Liverpool ship @-@ owners would have had no redress from their insurers . Similarly , if the slaves died a " natural death " ( as the contemporary term put it ) at sea , then insurance could not be claimed . If some slaves were jettisoned in order to save the rest of the " cargo " or the ship , then a claim could be made under the notion of " general average " . The ship 's insurance covered the loss of slaves at £ 30 a head .
On 29 November , the crew assembled to consider the proposal that some of the slaves should be thrown overboard . James Kelsall later claimed that he had disagreed with the plan at first but it was soon unanimously agreed . On 29 November , 54 women and children were thrown through cabin windows into the sea . On 1 December , 42 male slaves were thrown overboard ; 36 slaves followed in the next few days . Another ten , in a display of defiance at the inhumanity of the slavers , jumped into the sea . Having heard the shrieks of the victims as they were thrown into the water , one slave requested that the remaining Africans be denied all food and drink rather than be thrown into the sea . This request was ignored by the crew . The account of the King 's Bench trial reports that one slave managed to climb back onto the ship .
The crew claimed that the slaves had been jettisoned because the ship did not have enough water to keep all the slaves alive for the rest of the voyage . This claim was later disputed , as the ship had 420 imperial gallons ( 1 @,@ 900 l ) of water left when it arrived in Jamaica on 22 December . An affidavit later made by Kelsall , stated that on 1 December , when 42 slaves were killed , it rained heavily for more than a day , allowing six casks of water ( sufficient for eleven days ) to be collected .
= = = Subsequent history of the Zong = = =
On 22 December 1781 , the Zong arrived at Black River , Jamaica , with 208 enslaved people on board , less than half the number taken from Africa . The enslaved people sold for an average price of £ 36 each . The Jamaican Vice @-@ Admiralty court upheld the legality of the British capture of the Zong from the Dutch , and the syndicate renamed the ship Richard of Jamaica . Luke Collingwood died three days after the Zong reached Jamaica , two years before the 1783 court proceedings about the case .
= = Legal proceedings = =
When the news of the Zong 's voyage reached Britain , the ship 's owners claimed compensation from their insurers for the loss of the slaves . The insurers refused to honour the claim and were taken to court by the Liverpool syndicate . The logbook of the Zong went missing after the ship reached Jamaica , two years before the hearings started . The legal proceedings provide almost all the documentary evidence about the massacre but there is no formal record of the first trial other than what is referred to in the appeals hearing . The ship 's insurers claimed that the log had been deliberately destroyed , which the Gregson syndicate denied .
Almost all the surviving source material is of questionable reliability . The two witnesses who gave evidence , Robert Stubbs and James Kelsall , were strongly motivated to exonerate themselves from blame . It is possible that the figures concerning the number of slaves killed , the amount of water that remained on the ship and the distance beyond Jamaica that the Zong had mistakenly sailed are inaccurate .
= = = First trial = = =
Legal proceedings began when the insurers refused to compensate the owners of the Zong . The dispute was initially tried at the Guildhall in London on 6 March 1783 , with the Lord Chief Justice , the Earl of Mansfield , overseeing the trial before a jury . Mansfield was previously the judge in Somersett 's Case in 1772 , which concerned the legality of keeping slaves in Britain . He had ruled that slavery had never been established by statute in Britain and was not supported by common law .
Robert Stubbs was the only witness in the first Zong trial and the jury found in favour of the owners , under an established protocol in maritime insurance that considered slaves as cargo . On 19 March 1783 , Olaudah Equiano , a freed slave , told the anti @-@ slave @-@ trade activist Granville Sharp of the events aboard the Zong and a newspaper soon carried a lengthy account , reporting that the captain had ordered the slaves killed in three batches . Sharp sought legal advice the next day , about the possibility of prosecuting the crew for murder .
= = = King 's Bench appeal = = =
The insurers of the Zong applied to the Earl of Mansfield to have the previous verdict set aside and for the case to be tried again . A hearing was held at the Court of King 's Bench in Westminster Hall from 21 – 22 May 1783 , before Mansfield and two other King 's Bench judges , Mr Justice Buller and Mr Justice Willes . The Solicitor General , John Lee , appeared on behalf of the Zong 's owners , as he had done previously in the Guildhall trial . Granville Sharp was also in attendance , together with a secretary he had hired to take a written record of the proceedings .
Summing up the verdict reached in the first trial , Mansfield said that the jury ,
had no doubt ( though it shocks one very much ) that the Case of Slaves was the same as if Horses had been thrown over board ... The Question was , whether there was not an Absolute Necessity for throwing them over board to save the rest , [ and ] the Jury were of opinion there was ...
Collingwood had died in 1781 soon after the ship reached Jamaica and the only witness of the Zong massacre to appear at Westminster Hall was passenger Robert Stubbs , although a written affidavit by first mate James Kelsall was made available to the lawyers . Stubbs claimed that there was " an absolute Necessity for throwing over the Negroes " , because the crew feared all the slaves would die if they did not throw some into the sea . The insurers of the Zong argued that Collingwood had made " a Blunder and Mistake " in sailing beyond Jamaica and that the slaves had been killed so their owners could claim compensation . They alleged that Collingwood did this , because he did not want his first voyage as a slave ship captain to be unprofitable .
John Lee responded by saying that the slaves " perished just as a Cargo of Goods perished " and were jettisoned for the greater good of the ship . The insurers ' legal team replied that Lee 's argument could never justify the killing of innocent people ; each of the three addressed issues of humanity in the treatment of the slaves and said that the actions of the Zong 's crew were nothing less than murder . As historian James Walvin has argued , it is possible that Granville Sharp directly influenced the strategy of the insurers ' legal team .
At the hearing , new evidence was heard , that heavy rain had fallen on the ship on the second day of the killings but a third batch of slaves was killed after that . This led Mansfield to order another trial , because the rainfall meant that the killing of those slaves , after the water shortage had been eased , could not be justified in terms of the greater necessity of saving the ship and the rest of its human cargo . One of the justices in attendance also said that this evidence invalidated the findings of the jury in the first trial , as the jury had heard testimony that the water shortage resulted from the poor condition of the ship , brought on by unforeseen maritime conditions , rather than from errors committed by its captain . Mansfield concluded that the insurers were not liable for losses resulting from errors committed by the Zong 's crew .
There is no evidence that another trial was held on this issue . Despite Granville Sharp 's efforts , no member of the crew was prosecuted for the murder of the slaves . A summary of the appeal on the Zong case , was eventually published in the nominate reports prepared from the contemporaneous manuscript notes of Sylvester Douglas , Baron Glenbervie , and others . It was published in 1831 as Gregson v Gilbert ( 1783 ) 3 Doug . KB 232 .
= = = Mansfield 's motivations = = =
Jeremy Krikler has argued that Mansfield wanted to ensure that commercial law remained as helpful to Britain 's overseas trade as possible and as a consequence was keen to uphold the principle of " general average " , even in relation to the killing of humans . This principle holds that a captain who jettisons part of his cargo in order to save the rest can claim for the loss from his insurers . For Mansfield to have found in favour of the insurers would have greatly undermined this idea . The revelation that rain had fallen during the period of the killings enabled Mansfield to order a retrial , while leaving the notion of " general average " intact . He emphasised that the massacre would have been legally justified and the owners ' insurance claim would have been valid , if the water shortage had not arisen from mistakes made by the captain .
Krikler comments that Mansfield 's conclusions ignored the ruling precedent of his predecessor , Matthew Hale , that the killing of innocents in the name of self @-@ preservation was unlawful . This ruling was to prove important a century later in R v Dudley and Stephens , which also concerned the justifiability of acts of murder at sea . Mansfield also failed to acknowledge another important legal principle — that no insurance claim can be legal if it arose from an illegal act .
= = Effect on the abolitionist movement = =
Granville Sharp campaigned to raise awareness of the massacre , writing letters to newspapers , the Lords Commissioners of Admiralty and the Prime Minister ( the Duke of Portland ) . Neither Portland nor the Admiralty sent him a reply . The first Zong trial in March 1783 , had been reported only by a single London newspaper but it provided details of events . Little about the massacre appeared in print before 1787 . The newspaper article in March 1783 was the first public report of the massacre , and it was published nearly 18 months after the event .
Despite these setbacks , Sharp 's efforts did have some success . In April 1783 , he sent an account of the Zong massacre to William Dillwyn , a Quaker , who had asked to see evidence that was critical of the slave trade . The London Yearly Meeting of the Society of Friends decided shortly after to begin campaigning against slavery , and a petition signed by 273 Quakers was submitted to parliament in July 1783 . Sharp also sent letters to Anglican bishops and clergy and to those already sympathetic to the abolitionist cause .
The immediate effect of the Zong massacre on public opinion was limited , demonstrating — as the historian of abolitionism Seymour Drescher has noted — the challenge that the early abolitionists faced . Following Sharp 's efforts , the Zong massacre became an important topic in abolitionist literature and the massacre was discussed in works by Thomas Clarkson , Ottobah Cugoano , James Ramsay and John Newton . These accounts often omitted the names of the ship and its captain , thereby creating , in the words of Srividhya Swaminathan , " a portrait of abuse that could be mapped onto any ship in the Middle Passage " .
The Zong killings offered a powerful example of the horrors of the slave trade , stimulating the development of the abolitionist movement in Britain , which dramatically expanded in size and influence in the late 1780s . In 1787 , the Society for the Abolition of the Slave Trade was founded .
Parliament received numerous petitions against the slave trade and examined the issue in 1788 . With strong support by Sir William Dolben , who had toured a slave ship , it passed the Slave Trade Act 1788 ( Dolben 's Act ) , which was its first legislation to regulate the slave trade . It restricted the number of slaves that could be transported , to reduce problems of overcrowding and poor sanitation . Its renewal in 1794 included an amendment that limited the scope of insurance policies concerning slaves , rendering illegal such generalised phrases that promised to insure against " all other Perils , Losses , and Misfortunes . " ( The Zong owners ' representatives had highlighted such a phrase in seeking their claim at the King 's Bench hearing . ) The act had to be renewed annually and Dolben led these efforts , speaking frequently to parliament in opposition to slavery . The Slave Trade Act of 1799 was passed to make these provisions permanent .
Abolitionists , notably William Wilberforce , continued their effort to end the slave trade . Britain passed the Slave Trade Act 1807 , which prohibited the Atlantic slave trade , and the Royal Navy enforced the Blockade of Africa . The United States also prohibited the Atlantic slave trade in 1808 and helped intercept illegal slave ships at sea , predominately after 1842 .
In 1823 , the Anti @-@ Slavery Society was founded in Britain , dedicated to abolishing slavery throughout the British Empire , later achieved through the Slavery Abolition Act 1833 . The massacre on the Zong was frequently cited in abolitionist literature in the 19th century ; in 1839 , Thomas Clarkson published his History of the Rise , Progress , and Accomplishment of the Abolition of the African Slave Trade , which included an account of the Zong killings .
Clarkson 's book had an important influence on the artist J. M. W. Turner , who displayed a painting at the Royal Academy summer exhibition in 1840 entitled The Slave Ship . The painting depicts a vessel , from which a number of manacled slaves have been thrown into the sea , to be devoured by sharks . Some of the details in the painting , such as the shackles worn by the slaves , appear to have been influenced by the illustrations in Clarkson 's book . The painting was shown at an important time in the movement to abolish slavery worldwide , as the Royal Academy exhibition opened one month before the first World Anti @-@ Slavery Convention in London . The painting was admired by its owner , John Ruskin . It has been described by the 20th @-@ century critic Marcus Wood as one of the few truly great depictions in Western art of the Atlantic slave trade .
= = In modern culture = =
The Zong has inspired several works of literature . Fred D 'Aguiar 's novel Feeding the Ghosts ( 1997 ) tells the story of an enslaved African who survives being thrown overboard from the Zong . In the novel , the journal of the slave — Mintah — is lost , unlike that of Granville Sharp . According to the cultural historian Anita Rupprecht , this signifies the silencing of African voices about the massacre .
M. NourbeSe Philip 's 2008 poetry book , Zong ! is based on the events surrounding the massacre and uses the account of the King 's Bench hearing as its source .
Margaret Busby 's play An African Cargo , staged by Nitro theatre company at Greenwich Theatre in 2007 , dealt with the massacre and the 1783 trials , making use of the legal transcripts .
An episode of the television programme Garrow 's Law ( 2010 ) is loosely based on the legal events arising from the massacre . The historical William Garrow did not take part in the case , and because the Zong 's captain died shortly after arriving in Jamaica , his appearance in court for fraud is also fictional .
= = = 2007 abolition commemorations = = =
In 2007 , a memorial stone was erected at Black River , Jamaica , near where the Zong would have landed . A sailing ship representing Zong was sailed to Tower Bridge in London in March 2007 to commemorate the 200th anniversary of the Abolition of the Slave Trade Act , at a cost of £ 300 @,@ 000 . The vessel housed depictions of the Zong massacre and the slave trade . It was accompanied by HMS Northumberland , with an exhibition on board commemorating the role of the Royal Navy in the suppression of the slave trade after 1807 .
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= Einsteinium =
Einsteinium is a synthetic element with symbol Es and atomic number 99 . It is the seventh transuranic element , and an actinide .
Einsteinium was discovered as a component of the debris of the first hydrogen bomb explosion in 1952 , and named after Albert Einstein . Its most common isotope einsteinium @-@ 253 ( half life 20 @.@ 47 days ) is produced artificially from decay of californium @-@ 253 in a few dedicated high @-@ power nuclear reactors with a total yield on the order of one milligram per year . The reactor synthesis is followed by a complex process of separating einsteinium @-@ 253 from other actinides and products of their decay . Other isotopes are synthesized in various laboratories , but at much smaller amounts , by bombarding heavy actinide elements with light ions . Owing to the small amounts of produced einsteinium and the short half @-@ life of its most easily produced isotope , there are currently almost no practical applications for it outside of basic scientific research . In particular , einsteinium was used to synthesize , for the first time , 17 atoms of the new element mendelevium in 1955 .
Einsteinium is a soft , silvery , paramagnetic metal . Its chemistry is typical of the late actinides , with a preponderance of the + 3 oxidation state ; the + 2 oxidation state is also accessible , especially in solids . The high radioactivity of einsteinium @-@ 253 produces a visible glow and rapidly damages its crystalline metal lattice , with released heat of about 1000 watts per gram . Difficulty in studying its properties is due to einsteinium @-@ 253 's conversion to berkelium and then californium at a rate of about 3 % per day . The isotope of einsteinium with the longest half life , einsteinium @-@ 252 ( half life 471 @.@ 7 days ) would be more suitable for investigation of physical properties , but it has proven far more difficult to produce and is available only in minute quantities , and not in bulk . Einsteinium is the element with the highest atomic number which has been observed in macroscopic quantities in its pure form , and this was the common short @-@ lived isotope einsteinium @-@ 253 .
Like all synthetic transuranic elements , isotopes of einsteinium are very radioactive and are considered highly dangerous to health on ingestion .
= = History = =
Einsteinium was first identified in December 1952 by Albert Ghiorso and co @-@ workers at the University of California , Berkeley in collaboration with the Argonne and Los Alamos National Laboratories , in the fallout from the Ivy Mike nuclear test . The test was carried out on November 1 , 1952 at Enewetak Atoll in the Pacific Ocean and was the first successful test of a hydrogen bomb . Initial examination of the debris from the explosion had shown the production of a new isotope of plutonium , 244
94Pu , which could only have formed by the absorption of six neutrons by a uranium @-@ 238 nucleus followed by two beta decays .
<formula>
At the time , the multiple neutron absorption was thought to be an extremely rare process , but the identification of 244
94Pu indicated that still more neutrons could have been captured by the uranium nuclei , thereby producing new elements heavier than californium .
Ghiorso and co @-@ workers analyzed filter papers which had been flown through the explosion cloud on airplanes ( the same sampling technique that had been used to discover 244
94Pu ) . Larger amounts of radioactive material were later isolated from coral debris of the atoll , which were delivered to the U.S. The separation of suspected new elements was carried out in the presence of a citric acid / ammonium buffer solution in a weakly acidic medium ( pH ≈ 3 @.@ 5 ) , using ion exchange at elevated temperatures ; fewer than 200 atoms of einsteinium were recovered in the end . Nevertheless , element 99 ( einsteinium ) , namely its 253Es isotope , could be detected via its characteristic high @-@ energy alpha decay at 6 @.@ 6 MeV . It was produced by the capture of 15 neutrons by uranium @-@ 238 nuclei followed by seven beta @-@ decays , and had a half @-@ life of 20 @.@ 5 days . Such multiple neutron absorption was made possible by the high neutron flux density during the detonation , so that newly generated heavy isotopes had plenty of available neutrons to absorb before they could disintegrate into lighter elements . Neutron capture initially raised the mass number without changing the atomic number of the nuclide , and the concomitant beta @-@ decays resulted in a gradual increase in the atomic number :
<formula>
Some 238U atoms , however , could absorb another two neutrons ( for a total of 17 ) , resulting in 255Es , as well as in the 255Fm isotope of another new element , fermium . The discovery of the new elements and the associated new data on multiple neutron capture were initially kept secret on the orders of the U.S. military until 1955 due to Cold War tensions and competition with Soviet Union in nuclear technologies . However , the rapid capture of so many neutrons would provide needed direct experimental confirmation of the so @-@ called r @-@ process multiple neutron absorption needed to explain the cosmic nucleosynthesis ( production ) of certain heavy chemical elements ( heavier than nickel ) in supernova explosions , before beta decay . Such a process is needed to explain the existence of many stable elements in the universe .
Meanwhile , isotopes of element 99 ( as well as of new element 100 , fermium ) were produced in the Berkeley and Argonne laboratories , in a nuclear reaction between nitrogen @-@ 14 and uranium @-@ 238 , and later by intense neutron irradiation of plutonium or californium :
<formula>
These results were published in several articles in 1954 with the disclaimer that these were not the first studies that had been carried out on the elements . The Berkeley team also reported some results on the chemical properties of einsteinium and fermium . The Ivy Mike results were declassified and published in 1955 .
In their discovery of the elements 99 and 100 , the American teams had competed with a group at the Nobel Institute for Physics , Stockholm , Sweden . In late 1953 – early 1954 , the Swedish group succeeded in the synthesis of light isotopes of element 100 , in particular 250Fm , by bombarding uranium with oxygen nuclei . These results were also published in 1954 . Nevertheless , the priority of the Berkeley team was generally recognized , as its publications preceded the Swedish article , and they were based on the previously undisclosed results of the 1952 thermonuclear explosion ; thus the Berkeley team was given the privilege to name the new elements . As the effort which had led to the design of Ivy Mike was codenamed Project PANDA , element 99 had been jokingly nicknamed " Pandamonium " but the official names suggested by the Berkeley group derived from two prominent scientists , Albert Einstein and Enrico Fermi : " We suggest for the name for the element with the atomic number 99 , einsteinium ( symbol E ) after Albert Einstein and for the name for the element with atomic number 100 , fermium ( symbol Fm ) , after Enrico Fermi . " Both Einstein and Fermi died before the names were announced . The discovery of these new elements was announced by Albert Ghiorso at the first Geneva Atomic Conference held on 8 – 20 August 1955 . The symbol for einsteinium was first given as " E " and later changed to " Es " by IUPAC .
= = Characteristics = =
= = = Physical = = =
Einsteinium is a synthetic , silvery @-@ white , radioactive metal . In the periodic table , it is located to the right of the actinide californium , to the left of the actinide fermium and below the lanthanide holmium with which it shares many similarities in physical and chemical properties . Its density of 8 @.@ 84 g / cm3 is lower than that of californium ( 15 @.@ 1 g / cm3 ) and is nearly the same as that of holmium ( 8 @.@ 79 g / cm3 ) , despite atomic einsteinium being much heavier than holmium . The melting point of einsteinium ( 860 ° C ) is also relatively low – below californium ( 900 ° C ) , fermium ( 1527 ° C ) and holmium ( 1461 ° C ) . Einsteinium is a soft metal , with the bulk modulus of only 15 GPa , which value is one of the lowest among non @-@ alkali metals .
Contrary to the lighter actinides californium , berkelium , curium and americium which crystallize in a double hexagonal structure at ambient conditions , einsteinium is believed to have a face @-@ centered cubic ( fcc ) symmetry with the space group Fm3m and the lattice constant a |
= 575 pm . However , there is a report of room @-@ temperature hexagonal einsteinium metal with a =
398 pm and c = 650 pm , which converted to the fcc phase upon heating to 300 ° C.
The self @-@ damage induced by the radioactivity of einsteinium is so strong that it rapidly destroys the crystal lattice , and the energy release during this process , 1000 watts per gram of 253Es , induces a visible glow . These processes may contribute to the relatively low density and melting point of einsteinium . Further , owing to the small size of the available samples , the melting point of einsteinium was often deduced by observing the sample being heated inside an electron microscope . Thus the surface effects in small samples could reduce the melting point value .
The metal is divalent and has a noticeably high volatility . In order to reduce the self @-@ radiation damage , most measurements of solid einsteinium and its compounds are performed right after thermal annealing . Also , some compounds are studied under the atmosphere of the reductant gas , for example H2O + HCl for EsOCl so that the sample is partly regrown during its decomposition .
Apart from the self @-@ destruction of solid einsteinium and its compounds , other intrinsic difficulties in studying this element include scarcity – the most common 253Es isotope is available only once or twice a year in sub @-@ milligram amounts – and self @-@ contamination due to rapid conversion of einsteinium to berkelium and then to californium at a rate of about 3 @.@ 3 % per day :
<formula>
Thus , most einsteinium samples are contaminated , and their intrinsic properties are often deduced by extrapolating back experimental data accumulated over time . Other experimental techniques to circumvent the contamination problem include selective optical excitation of einsteinium ions by a tunable laser , such as in studying its luminescence properties .
Magnetic properties have been studied for einsteinium metal , its oxide and fluoride . All three materials showed Curie – Weiss paramagnetic behavior from liquid helium to room temperature . The effective magnetic moments were deduced as 10 @.@ 4 ± 0 @.@ 3 µB for Es2O3 and 11 @.@ 4 ± 0 @.@ 3 µB for the EsF3 , which are the highest values among actinides , and the corresponding Curie temperatures are 53 and 37 K.
= = = Chemical = = =
Like all actinides , einsteinium is rather reactive . Its trivalent oxidation state is most stable in solids and aqueous solution where it induced pale pink color . The existence of divalent einsteinium is firmly established , especially in solid phase ; such + 2 state is not observed in many other actinides , including protactinium , uranium , neptunium , plutonium , curium and berkelium . Einsteinium ( II ) compounds can be obtained , for example , by reducing einsteinium ( III ) with samarium ( II ) chloride . The oxidation state + 4 was postulated from vapor studies and is yet uncertain .
= = = Isotopes = = =
Nineteen nuclides and three nuclear isomers are known for einsteinium with atomic weights ranging from 240 to 258 . All are radioactive and the most stable nuclide , 252Es , has a half @-@ life of 471 @.@ 7 days . Next most stable isotopes are 254Es ( half @-@ life 275 @.@ 7 days ) , 255Es ( 39 @.@ 8 days ) and 253Es ( 20 @.@ 47 days ) . All of the remaining isotopes have half @-@ lives shorter than 40 hours , and most of them decay within less than 30 minutes . Of the three nuclear isomers , the most stable is 254mEs with half @-@ life of 39 @.@ 3 hours .
= = = Nuclear fission = = =
Einsteinium has a high rate of nuclear fission that results in a low critical mass for a sustained nuclear chain reaction . This mass is 9 @.@ 89 kilograms for a bare sphere of 254Es isotope , and can be lowered to 2 @.@ 9 by adding a 30 centimeter thick steel neutron reflector , or even to 2 @.@ 26 kilograms with a 20 cm thick reflector made of water . However , even this small critical mass greatly exceeds the total amount of einsteinium isolated thus far , especially of the rare 254Es isotope .
= = = Natural occurrence = = =
Because of the short half @-@ life of all isotopes of einsteinium , any primordial einsteinium , that is einsteinium that could possibly be present on the Earth during its formation , has decayed by now . Synthesis of einsteinium from naturally occurring actinides uranium and thorium in the Earth crust requires multiple neutron capture , which is an extremely unlikely event . Therefore , most einsteinium is produced on Earth in scientific laboratories , high @-@ power nuclear reactors , or in nuclear weapons tests , and is present only within a few years from the time of the synthesis . The transuranic elements from americium to fermium , including einsteinium , occurred naturally in the natural nuclear fission reactor at Oklo , but no longer do so . Einsteinium was observed in Przybylski 's Star in 2008 .
= = Synthesis and extraction = =
Einsteinium is produced in minute quantities by bombarding lighter actinides with neutrons in dedicated high @-@ flux nuclear reactors . The world 's major irradiation sources are the 85 @-@ megawatt High Flux Isotope Reactor ( HFIR ) at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory in Tennessee , U.S. , and the SM @-@ 2 loop reactor at the Research Institute of Atomic Reactors ( NIIAR ) in Dimitrovgrad , Russia , which are both dedicated to the production of transcurium ( Z > 96 ) elements . These facilities have similar power and flux levels , and are expected to have comparable production capacities for transcurium elements , although the quantities produced at NIIAR are not widely reported . In a " typical processing campaign " at Oak Ridge , tens of grams of curium are irradiated to produce decigram quantities of californium , milligram quantities of berkelium ( 249Bk ) and einsteinium and picogram quantities of fermium .
The first microscopic sample of 253Es sample weighing about 10 nanograms was prepared in 1961 at HFIR . A special magnetic balance was designed to estimate its weight . Larger batches were produced later starting from several kilograms of plutonium with the einsteinium yields ( mostly 253Es ) of 0 @.@ 48 milligrams in 1967 – 1970 , 3 @.@ 2 milligrams in 1971 – 1973 , followed by steady production of about 3 milligrams per year between 1974 and 1978 . These quantities however refer to the integral amount in the target right after irradiation . Subsequent separation procedures reduced the amount of isotopically pure einsteinium roughly tenfold .
= = = Laboratory synthesis = = =
Heavy neutron irradiation of plutonium results in four major isotopes of einsteinium : 253Es ( α @-@ emitter with half @-@ life of 20 @.@ 03 days and with a spontaneous fission half @-@ life of 7 × 105 years ) ; 254mEs ( β @-@ emitter with half @-@ life of 38 @.@ 5 hours ) , 254Es ( α @-@ emitter with half @-@ life of about 276 days ) and 255Es ( β @-@ emitter with half @-@ life of 24 days ) . An alternative route involves bombardment of uranium @-@ 238 with high @-@ intensity nitrogen or oxygen ion beams .
Einsteinium @-@ 247 ( half @-@ life 4 @.@ 55 minutes ) was produced by irradiating americium @-@ 241 with carbon or uranium @-@ 238 with nitrogen ions . The latter reaction was first realized in 1967 in Dubna , Russia , and the involved scientists were awarded the Lenin Komsomol Prize .
The isotope 248Es was produced by irradiating 249Cf with deuterium ions . It mainly decays by emission of electrons to 248Cf with a half @-@ life of 25 ( ± 5 ) minutes , but also releases α @-@ particles of 6 @.@ 87 MeV energy , with the ratio of electrons to α @-@ particles of about 400 .
<formula>
The heavier isotopes 249Es , 250Es , 251Es and 252Es were obtained by bombarding 249Bk with α @-@ particles . One to four neutrons are liberated in this process making possible the formation of four different isotopes in one reaction .
<formula>
Einsteinium @-@ 253 was produced by irradiating a 0 @.@ 1 – 0 @.@ 2 milligram 252Cf target with a thermal neutron flux of ( 2 – 5 ) × 1014 neutrons · cm − 2 · s − 1 for 500 – 900 hours :
<formula>
= = = Synthesis in nuclear explosions = = =
The analysis of the debris at the 10 @-@ megaton Ivy Mike nuclear test was a part of long @-@ term project . One of the goals of which was studying the efficiency of production of transuranium elements in high @-@ power nuclear explosions . The motivation for these experiments was that synthesis of such elements from uranium requires multiple neutron capture . The probability of such events increases with the neutron flux , and nuclear explosions are the most powerful man @-@ made neutron sources , providing densities of the order 1023 neutrons / cm2 within a microsecond , or about 1029 neutrons / ( cm2 · s ) . In comparison , the flux of the HFIR reactor is 5 × 1015 neutrons / ( cm2 · s ) . A dedicated laboratory was set up right at Enewetak Atoll for preliminary analysis of debris , as some isotopes could have decayed by the time the debris samples reached the mainland U.S. The laboratory was receiving samples for analysis as soon as possible , from airplanes equipped with paper filters which flew over the atoll after the tests . Whereas it was hoped to discover new chemical elements heavier than fermium , none of these were found even after a series of megaton explosions conducted between 1954 and 1956 at the atoll .
The atmospheric results were supplemented by the underground test data accumulated in the 1960s at the Nevada Test Site , as it was hoped that powerful explosions conducted in confined space might result in improved yields and heavier isotopes . Apart from traditional uranium charges , combinations of uranium with americium and thorium have been tried , as well as a mixed plutonium @-@ neptunium charge , but they were less successful in terms of yield and was attributed to stronger losses of heavy isotopes due to enhanced fission rates in heavy @-@ element charges . Product isolation was problematic as the explosions were spreading debris through melting and vaporizing the surrounding rocks at depths of 300 – 600 meters . Drilling to such depths to extract the products was both slow and inefficient in terms of collected volumes .
Among the nine underground tests that were carried between 1962 and 1969 , the last one was the most powerful and had the highest yield of transuranium elements . Milligrams of einsteinium that would normally take a year of irradiation in a high @-@ power reactor , were produced within a microsecond . However , the major practical problem of the entire proposal was collecting the radioactive debris dispersed by the powerful blast . Aircraft filters adsorbed only about 4 × 10 − 14 of the total amount , and collection of tons of corals at Enewetak Atoll increased this fraction by only two orders of magnitude . Extraction of about 500 kilograms of underground rocks 60 days after the Hutch explosion recovered only about 1 × 10 − 7 of the total charge . The amount of transuranium elements in this 500 @-@ kg batch was only 30 times higher than in a 0 @.@ 4 kg rock picked up 7 days after the test which demonstrated the highly non @-@ linear dependence of the transuranium elements yield on the amount of retrieved radioactive rock . Shafts were drilled at the site before the test in order to accelerate sample collection after explosion , so that explosion would expel radioactive material from the epicenter through the shafts and to collecting volumes near the surface . This method was tried in two tests and instantly provided hundreds kilograms of material , but with actinide concentration 3 times lower than in samples obtained after drilling . Whereas such method could have been efficient in scientific studies of short @-@ lived isotopes , it could not improve the overall collection efficiency of the produced actinides .
Although no new elements ( apart from einsteinium and fermium ) could be detected in the nuclear test debris , and the total yields of transuranium elements were disappointingly low , these tests did provide significantly higher amounts of rare heavy isotopes than previously available in laboratories .
= = = Separation = = =
Separation procedure of einsteinium depends on the synthesis method . In the case of light @-@ ion bombardment inside a cyclotron , the heavy ion target is attached to a thin foil , and the generated einsteinium is simply washed off the foil after the irradiation . However , the produced amounts in such experiments are relatively low . The yields are much higher for reactor irradiation , but there , the product is a mixture of various actinide isotopes , as well as lanthanides produced in the nuclear fission decays . In this case , isolation of einsteinium is a tedious procedure which involves several repeating steps of cation exchange , at elevated temperature and pressure , and chromatography . Separation from berkelium is important , because the most common einsteinium isotope produced in nuclear reactors , 253Es , decays with a half @-@ life of only 20 days to 249Bk , which is fast on the timescale of most experiments . Such separation relies on the fact that berkelium easily oxidizes to the solid + 4 state and precipitates , whereas other actinides , including einsteinium , remain in their + 3 state in solutions .
Separation of trivalent actinides from lanthanide fission products can be done by a cation @-@ exchange resin column using a 90 % water / 10 % ethanol solution saturated with hydrochloric acid ( HCl ) as eluant . It is usually followed by anion @-@ exchange chromatography using 6 molar HCl as eluant . A cation @-@ exchange resin column ( Dowex @-@ 50 exchange column ) treated with ammonium salts is then used to separate fractions containing elements 99 , 100 and 101 . These elements can be then identified simply based on their elution position / time , using α @-@ hydroxyisobutyrate solution ( α @-@ HIB ) , for example , as eluant .
Separation of the 3 + actinides can also be achieved by solvent extraction chromatography , using bis- ( 2 @-@ ethylhexyl ) phosphoric acid ( abbreviated as HDEHP ) as the stationary organic phase , and nitric acid as the mobile aqueous phase . The actinide elution sequence is reversed from that of the cation @-@ exchange resin column . The einsteinium separated by this method has the advantage to be free of organic complexing agent , as compared to the separation using a resin column .
= = = Preparation of the metal = = =
Einsteinium is highly reactive and therefore strong reducing agents are required to obtain the pure metal from its compounds . This can be achieved by reduction of einsteinium ( III ) fluoride with metallic lithium :
EsF3 + 3 Li → Es + 3 LiF
However , owing to its low melting point and high rate of self @-@ radiation damage , einsteinium has high vapor pressure , which is higher than that of lithium fluoride . This makes this reduction reaction rather inefficient . It was tried in the early preparation attempts and quickly abandoned in favor of reduction of einsteinium ( III ) oxide with lanthanum metal :
Es2O3 + 2 La → 2 Es + La2O3
= = Chemical compounds = =
= = = Oxides = = =
Einsteinium ( III ) oxide ( Es2O3 ) was obtained by burning einsteinium ( III ) nitrate . It forms colorless cubic crystals , which were first characterized from microgram samples sized about 30 nanometers . Two other phases , monoclinic and hexagonal , are known for this oxide . The formation of a certain Es2O3 phase depends on the preparation technique and sample history , and there is no clear phase diagram . Interconversions between the three phases can occur spontaneously , as a result of self @-@ irradiation or self @-@ heating . The hexagonal phase is isotypic with lanthanum ( III ) oxide where the Es3 + ion is surrounded by a 6 @-@ coordinated group of O2 − ions .
= = = Halides = = =
Einsteinium halides are known for the oxidation states + 2 and + 3 . The most stable state is + 3 for all halides from fluoride to iodide .
Einsteinium ( III ) fluoride ( EsF3 ) can be precipitated from einsteinium ( III ) chloride solutions upon reaction with fluoride ions . An alternative preparation procedure is to exposure einsteinium ( III ) oxide to chlorine trifluoride ( ClF3 ) or F2 gas at a pressure of 1 – 2 atmospheres and a temperature between 300 and 400 ° C. The EsF3 crystal structure is hexagonal , as in californium ( III ) fluoride ( CfF3 ) where the Es3 + ions are 8 @-@ fold coordinated by fluorine ions in a bicapped trigonal prism arrangement .
Einsteinium ( III ) chloride ( EsCl3 ) can be prepared by annealing einsteinium ( III ) oxide in the atmosphere of dry hydrogen chloride vapors at about 500 ° C for some 20 minutes . It crystallizes upon cooling at about 425 ° C into an orange solid with a hexagonal structure of UCl3 type , where einsteinium atoms are 9 @-@ fold coordinated by chlorine atoms in a tricapped trigonal prism geometry . Einsteinium ( III ) bromide ( EsBr3 ) is a pale @-@ yellow solid with a monoclinic structure of AlCl3 type , where the einsteinium atoms are octahedrally coordinated by bromine ( coordination number 6 ) .
The divalent compounds of einsteinium are obtained by reducing the trivalent halides with hydrogen :
2 EsX3 + H2 → 2 EsX2 + 2 HX , X = F , Cl , Br , I
Einsteinium ( II ) chloride ( EsCl2 ) , einsteinium ( II ) bromide ( EsBr2 ) , and einsteinium ( II ) iodide ( EsI2 ) have been produced and characterized by optical absorption , with no structural information available yet .
Known oxyhalides of einsteinium include EsOCl , EsOBr and EsOI . They are synthesized by treating a trihalide with a vapor mixture of water and the corresponding hydrogen halide : for example , EsCl3 + H2O / HCl to obtain EsOCl .
= = = Organoeinsteinium compounds = = =
The high radioactivity of einsteinium has a potential use in radiation therapy , and organometallic complexes have been synthesized in order to deliver einsteinium atoms to an appropriate organ in the body . Experiments have been performed on injecting einsteinium citrate ( as well as fermium compounds ) to dogs . Einsteinium ( III ) was also incorporated into beta @-@ diketone chelate complexes , since analogous complexes with lanthanides previously showed strongest UV @-@ excited luminescence among metallorganic compounds . When preparing einsteinium complexes , the Es3 + ions were 1000 times diluted with Gd3 + ions . This allowed reducing the radiation damage so that the compounds did not disintegrate during the period of 20 minutes required for the measurements . The resulting luminescence from Es3 + was much too weak to be detected . This was explained by the unfavorable relative energies of the individual constituents of the compound that hindered efficient energy transfer from the chelate matrix to Es3 + ions . Similar conclusion was drawn for other actinides americium , berkelium and fermium .
Luminescence of Es3 + ions was however observed in inorganic hydrochloric acid solutions as well as in organic solution with di ( 2 @-@ ethylhexyl ) orthophosphoric acid . It shows a broad peak at about 1064 nanometers ( half @-@ width about 100 nm ) which can be resonantly excited by green light ( ca . 495 nm wavelength ) . The luminescence has a lifetime of several microseconds and the quantum yield below 0 @.@ 1 % . The relatively high , compared to lanthanides , non @-@ radiative decay rates in Es3 + were associated with the stronger interaction of f @-@ electrons with the inner Es3 + electrons .
= = Applications = =
There is almost no use for any isotope of einsteinium outside of basic scientific research aiming at production of higher transuranic elements and transactinides .
In 1955 , mendelevium was synthesized by irradiating a target consisting of about 109 atoms of 253Es in the 60 @-@ inch cyclotron at Berkeley Laboratory . The resulting 253Es ( α , n ) 256Md reaction yielded 17 atoms of the new element with the atomic number of 101 .
The rare isotope einsteinium @-@ 254 is favored for production of ultraheavy elements because of its large mass , relatively long half @-@ life of 270 days , and availability in significant amounts of several micrograms . Hence einsteinium @-@ 254 was used as a target in the attempted synthesis of ununennium ( element 119 ) in 1985 by bombarding it with calcium @-@ 48 ions at the superHILAC linear accelerator at Berkeley , California . No atoms were identified , setting an upper limit for the cross section of this reaction at 300 nanobarns .
<formula>
Einsteinium @-@ 254 was used as the calibration marker in the chemical analysis spectrometer ( " alpha @-@ scattering surface analyzer " ) of the Surveyor 5 lunar probe . The large mass of this isotope reduced the spectral overlap between signals from the marker and the studied lighter elements of the lunar surface .
= = Safety = =
Most of the available einsteinium toxicity data originates from research on animals . Upon ingestion by rats , only about 0 @.@ 01 % einsteinium ends in the blood stream . From there , about 65 % goes to the bones , where it remains for about 50 years , 25 % to the lungs ( biological half @-@ life about 20 years , although this is rendered irrelevant by the short half @-@ lives of einsteinium isotopes ) , 0 @.@ 035 % to the testicles or 0 @.@ 01 % to the ovaries – where einsteinium stays indefinitely . About 10 % of the ingested amount is excreted . The distribution of einsteinium over the bone surfaces is uniform and is similar to that of plutonium .
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= True Blue ( Madonna album ) =
True Blue is the third studio album by American singer @-@ songwriter Madonna , released on June 30 , 1986 , by Sire Records . She co @-@ wrote and co @-@ produced the entire album with Stephen Bray and Patrick Leonard . Deemed Madonna 's most girlish album , True Blue deals with her visions of love , work , dreams as well as disappointments , and was inspired by her then husband Sean Penn , to whom Madonna dedicated the album . Musically , the songs on the album took a different direction from her previous endeavours , incorporating classical music in order to engage an older audience who had been skeptical of her music .
The album features instrumentation from acoustic guitars , drums , synthesizers and Cuban musical instruments . The topic for the songs range from love , freedom , and in the case of " Papa Don 't Preach " , social issues like teenage pregnancy . After its release , True Blue received generally positive reviews from critics , who complimented the album as the archetype of the late 1980s and early 1990s pop albums . They also praised the fact that Madonna 's voice sounded stronger than it did on her previous efforts , while commending Madonna 's skills as a singer , songwriter and entertainer .
True Blue was an immediate global success , reaching number one in then record @-@ breaking 28 countries across the world , including Australia , Canada , France , Germany , the United Kingdom and the United States . It spent 34 consecutive weeks at the top of the European Top 100 Albums chart , longer than any other album in history . It became the world 's top @-@ selling album of 1986 , as well as the best @-@ selling album of the 1980s by a female artist . With estimated sales of over 25 million copies worldwide , True Blue remains one of the best @-@ selling albums of all time . All five singles released from the album reached the top five on the Billboard Hot 100 , with " Live to Tell " , " Papa Don 't Preach " , and " Open Your Heart " peaking at number one .
The album was promoted on Madonna 's second concert tour , the Who 's That Girl World Tour , which visited cities of North America , Europe and Asia in 1987 . True Blue is credited as being the album which established Madonna 's position as the biggest female artist of the 1980s , rivaling male musicians Michael Jackson and Prince . The album 's singles and their accompanying music videos have sparked debates among scholars and social groups . She became the first female artist to receive the Video Vanguard Award at the 1986 MTV Video Music Awards in recognition of her impact on popular culture . The album also gave her first appearance on the Guinness Book of World Records .
= = Background and development = =
On March 6 , 1986 , at the Kensington Roof Gardens in London , during a press conference for Shanghai Surprise , Madonna confirmed that she was working on a new album named Live to Tell , which would be later changed to True Blue . She again collaborated with Stephen Bray who had worked on her previous album Like a Virgin , and began to work with Patrick Leonard for the first time . Madonna wrote or co @-@ wrote every song on the album , although writing involvement on some songs such as " Papa Don 't Preach " and " Open Your Heart " was limited to adding lyrics . She was also credited with co @-@ producing every track . The album was recorded from December 1985 to April 1986 , during the first year of Madonna 's marriage to American actor Sean Penn . She dedicated the album to Penn saying , " This is dedicated to my husband , the coolest guy in the universe . " With this album Madonna tried to appeal to an older audience who had previously been sceptical of her music by experimenting with her image , adopting a more ' traditional ' look , and incorporating classical music in her songs .
Deemed Madonna 's most girlish album yet , True Blue deals with Madonna 's view of love , work and dreams as well as disappointments . According to Madonna , True Blue takes its title from a favorite expression of her then husband Sean Penn and his very pure vision of love . The album was a direct tribute to him as well and was inspired by her " unabashed valentine " for Penn . Most of the songs on the album reflect this idea . Each song on True Blue was developed separately . The album 's first track , " Papa Don 't Preach " , was written by Brian Elliot , who described it as " a love song , maybe framed a little bit differently " . The song is based on teenage gossip Elliot heard outside his studio , which had a large front window that doubled as a mirror where schoolgirls from the North Hollywood High School in Los Angeles regularly stopped to fix their hair and chat .
" Open Your Heart " was the first recorded cut for the album , as early as December 1985 and ultimately made it to the final released tracklist ; it was originally intended for Cyndi Lauper . The third track " White Heat " was dedicated to actor James Cagney and named after the film of the same name from 1949 . Two quotations from the original soundtrack were included in the song . The fourth track " Live to Tell " was originally written by Patrick Leonard for the soundtrack of Paramount 's romantic drama film Fire with Fire , but after the company declined it , Leonard showed the song to Madonna . She decided to use it for At Close Range , the new film of her then @-@ husband , actor Sean Penn . Madonna made a demo of the song and , when the film 's director , James Foley , heard it he asked Leonard to write the score for the film , as suggested by Madonna .
True Blue was the first album where Madonna included Spanish themes as evident in the song " La Isla Bonita " . The song was previously written for Michael Jackson 's Bad album , but he had turned it down . While working with Leonard on the album , Madonna accepted it in Jackson 's place and re @-@ wrote the song 's lyrics , thus earning herself a co @-@ writing credit . Madonna described the song as her tribute to the " beauty and mystery of Latin American people " . Originally intended as the first single , " Love Makes the World Go Round " closes the album and was first performed at Live Aid a year earlier in July 1985 . The song recalled the antiwar music of the sixties .
= = Composition = =
Musically True Blue was a different direction for Madonna . Her previous efforts had her singing in a high pitched voice . With this album , Madonna toned it down for a more bubblegum @-@ pop voice . The songs on the album reflect this and a number of instruments were used in the songs to bring out the different moods which the lyrics emphasized . " Papa Don 't Preach " features acoustic , electric , and rhythm guitars , keyboards , and string arrangements . The song samples Beethoven 's Appassionata sonata . A continuous percussion filled structure was used in " Open Your Heart " . " White Heat " ' s sampling of the film 's quotation was included with speech and gunshots . It is an uptempo dance song with synth bass and double @-@ tracked vocals supported by male voices in the chorus .
On ballads like " Live to Tell " there is background instrumentation from a keyboard , a synthesizer , a funk guitar and a mix of synthesized and real drumming . " Where 's the Party " is a standard Madonna dance track with arrangements of bass drums , synthesizer , clattering rhythms and a remixed approach to the whole composition . The title track featured instrumentation from a rhythm guitar , a synthesizer , keyboards , and drums for the bassline , with a backing track that employed a chord progression commonly used in doo @-@ wop Cuban drums and Spanish guitar , maracas and harmonicas are used in " La Isla Bonita " . " Jimmy Jimmy " has an early sixties pop influence and the lyrics were a tribute to pop star James Dean .
Lyrically True Blue reflects Madonna 's ideas about love . " Where 's the Party " tells about a working girl enjoying her day on the dance @-@ floor after work . " Jimmy Jimmy " talks about Madonna 's admiration for the neighbourhood bad boy . Other songs like the Spanish " La Isla Bonita " and " Love Makes the World Go Round " have lyrics dealing with escapism from normal life with the latter talking about anti @-@ war and anti @-@ poverty and using Latin drums and samba influenced rhythms . The lyrics of " White Heat " deal with firmness and Madonna included Clint Eastwood 's infamous " make my day " quote in the song . " Papa Don 't Preach " , dealt with lyrics talking about a young woman who tells her father that she is pregnant out of wedlock , but is going to keep her baby .
" Live to Tell " portraits the complexity of deceit and mistrust . The song also is about childhood scars and had an extreme emotional pitch , achieving it in a divine sense . The title track had Madonna talking about romance and 1950s inspired girl group pop . The lyrics of " True Blue " are constructed in a verse @-@ chorus form , with the theme being Madonna 's feelings for Sean Penn ; she even uses the 1929 archaic love word " dear " in the line " Just think back and remember , dear " . Madonna expressed her sexual desires in the lyrics of the song " Open Your Heart " and described the beauty of a Latin paradise in " La Isla Bonita " .
= = Packaging = =
The album cover , shot by photographer Herb Ritts , is one of Madonna 's most recognizable pictures . It features a picture of Madonna from the neck up . The main colors in the picture are gray , white and various shades of blue to reinforce the album 's title . Madonna positioned herself in an elegant pose while wearing pale make up with red lips , tilting back her neck in a swan like pose . Jeri Heiden , who was working at Warner Bros. art department , was given the task of editing the photos and making them compatible for appearance in an album cover . She had to work with a total of 60 rolls of photos , each of size 35 mm . Heiden ordered about 30 to 40 test prints from Ritts ' studio and made recommendations based on it . Several images from the photo shoot were considered for the album cover , some of which later became the single covers for " Papa Don 't Preach " , " True Blue " and " Open Your Heart " . The final photo was selected by Madonna , Heiden and Jeff Ayeroff , creative director of Warner Bros. at that time .
After the final photo was selected , Heiden commissioned two different versions of the album cover . The original image was taken in black @-@ and @-@ white , and Heiden experimented with a variety of treatments of the photo , to go along with the album 's title , and finally arrived at the blue toned , hand tinted version of the image . The LP and CD album cover is a cropped image of a longer picture including torso , more of which is seen in the cover of the cassette tape edition , and was also included as a fold @-@ out poster in the initial pressings of the LP . A poster of Madonna , mirroring the cover art , was included within the vinyl versions of the album .
In the US and Canada , the cover did not have any logo , but in the European nations , they were sold with Madonna 's name and album title on the cover . Heiden explained in an interview with Aperture magazine that they thought it would be " cool " to use a shrink wrap on the US covers , so that when one took it off , there would only be the photo of Madonna . For the European nations , Warner felt that the name was needed on the cover , as they did not want to take chance with Madonna 's popularity there . The back sleeve and the booklet inside featured the song titles in Heiden 's own handwriting . About cropping the image for the cassette and the vinyl versions , Heiden said : " I think the image became more interesting cropped into a square — and at that time we always started with the album cover configuration . It was like she was floating — her clothing was not visible . She took on the appearance of a marble statue — Goddess like . In the vertical cropping you see her leather jacket and the wall , and it becomes more typical , editorial , earthly . "
According to Lucy O 'Brien , author of Madonna : Like an Icon , the album artwork was on @-@ par with Andy Warhol 's concept of pop art . She felt that the image was a mixture of innocence and idealism , while incorporating 1950s @-@ style Technicolor and hand tinted color , characteristic of Warhol 's silkscreen printed design , prevalent in the 1960s . Jeri Heiden , the album 's cover designer , commented , " She was already highly aware of the value of her image and was in control of it . After I took the photo , it appeared as if she was floating — her clothing was not visible . She took on the appearance of a marble statue , goddess @-@ like . " O 'Brien felt that the artwork heralded the arrival of a new Madonna , while drawing on the enduring appeal of her celluloid icon Marilyn Monroe . " With this picture , Madonna made explicit the connection between Warhol and herself , the vivid nexus between pop art and commerce . The late 1980s marked a new era of the pop artist as a brand , and Madonna became the first one to exploit this . "
Erica Wexler from Spin described Madonna on the cover as " like a cobra basking in the hot sun , Madonna on the cover of her new album stretches her profile lasciviously . " Author J. Randy Taraborrelli commented in Madonna : An Intimate Biography , that the album cover indicated how True Blue was a vehicle of growth for Madonna . He felt that the " washed out color photograph " of her with head tilted back and eyes closed was " understated " , especially when compared to the sexier poses she had been associated in the past . The album 's inner sleeve did not feature any photographs , and instead was dedicated to album credits and the song lyrics , since Madonna wanted to be represented by her songs on True Blue , not her image . Billboard listed the cover at rank 34 on their article about the " 50 Greatest Album Covers " , describing it as a striking image of the singer .
= = Promotion = =
= = = Live performance = = =
Prior to the album 's release , Madonna premiered " Love Makes the World Go Round " at the 1985 Live Aid concert . The rest of the album 's tracks were included on the setlist of her 1987 Who 's That Girl World Tour except " Jimmy Jimmy " which remains still the only song from the album Madonna did not perform on any live appearance . It was her second concert tour and promoted True Blue alongside the film project Who 's That Girl . It was Madonna 's first world tour , reaching Asia , North America and Europe . Musically and technically superior to her previous Virgin Tour , the Who 's That Girl tour incorporated multimedia components to make the show more appealing .
Madonna trained herself physically with aerobics , jogging and weight @-@ lifting , to cope with the choreography and the dance routines . For the costumes , she collaborated with designer Marlene Stewart , expanding on the idea of bringing her popular video characters to life onstage , reworking scenes from " True Blue " , " Open Your Heart " , " Papa Don 't Preach " and " La Isla Bonita " . The stage was huge , with four video screens , multimedia projectors and a flight of stairs in the middle . Leonard became the music director and encouraged Madonna to go with the idea of rearranging her older songs and presenting them in a new format . Madonna named the tour ' Who 's That Girl ' , after looking up at a gigantic image of herself projected on a screen on the stage during rehearsals .
The show consisted of seven costume changes , with song @-@ and @-@ dance routines and theatrics with an encore consisting of the title song " Who 's That Girl " and " Holiday " . The tour also addressed social causes like AIDS , during " Papa Don 't Preach " . Who 's That Girl was critically appreciated , with reviewers commenting on the extravagant nature of the concert and complimenting Madonna for her dancing , costume changes and dynamic pacing . Who 's That Girl was a commercial success , grossing a total of U.S. $ 25 million , with Madonna playing in front of 1 @.@ 5 million people over the course of the tour . According to Pollstar , it was the second top female concert tour of 1987 , behind Tina Turner 's Break Every Rule Tour .
Two concerts from the tour were later released on music video , Who 's That Girl : Live in Japan ( 1987 ) , which was exclusive to the Japanese market and Ciao Italia : Live from Italy ( 1988 ) which was released internationally . Taraborrelli commented that " Many female artists behave like a diva for a period when they reach superstar status , and the ' Who 's That Girl ? ' tour marked the beginning of Madonna 's . " The tour is also noted for giving rise to the new Madonna persona , a stronger and more intelligent sexual image of her former self which had given rise to the term Madonna wannabe . A statue of Madonna , wearing a conical bra was erected in her name , at the center of the town of Pacentro in Italy , where her ancestors used to live .
= = = Singles = = =
" Live to Tell " was the first single released from the album in March 1986 . The song was the second ballad for Madonna after " Crazy for You " , and was used in the film At Close Range which starred her then husband Sean Penn . The song was received positively by critics with most of them calling it " her best ballad to date " as well as a " tremendous ballad that rewrites the rules of adult contemporary crossover " . " Live to Tell " became Madonna 's third number one single on the Billboard Hot 100 and her second number @-@ one that is featured in a film after " Crazy for You " . It also became a success internationally reaching the top ten in Canada , France , the Netherlands , Switzerland , and the United Kingdom .
" Papa Don 't Preach " was released as the second single in June 1986 . It was critically appreciated with most of them declaring it as " the stand @-@ alone song " from the album , also that " with songs like ' Papa Don 't Preach ' , Madonna made the transition from pop tart to consummate artist , joining the ranks of 80s icons like Michael Jackson and Prince . " The song became Madonna 's fourth number @-@ one single in the U.S. and also reached the top spot in Canada , Ireland , Italy , and the United Kingdom .
" True Blue " was released as the album 's third single in September 1986 . It is a dance @-@ pop song inspired by the Motown 's girl groups from the 1960s . Critics generally received the song as a light @-@ hearted , fun track having a 50 's feeling to it , although some critics believed that it was " sassless and neutered " as compared to the other songs on the record , and that " True Blue " is " a song that is merely cute and not really up to being the title track of an album " . The song became another top ten hit for Madonna reaching number three on the Billboard Hot 100 chart , and peaked at number one in Ireland and the United Kingdom .
" Open Your Heart " was the fourth single from the album released in November 1986 . The song was appreciated critically with critics comparing it with sweeter post @-@ Motown valentine songs , and " perfect " for dancefloor strut . The song became Madonna 's fifth number @-@ one single on the Billboard Hot 100 chart . Internationally , it became a top ten hit in several European countries including Belgium , Ireland , Italy , the Netherlands , and the United Kingdom .
" La Isla Bonita " was released as the fifth and final single in February 1987 . The song describes Madonna as a tourist who prays " that the days would last , they went so fast " . The first line refers to an island called San Pedro although this has not been clearly stated by Madonna in any interview . The song received positive response with critics calling it one of Madonna 's greatest , most influential songs as well as the best song on the album . " La Isla Bonita " was a worldwide hit , reaching number one in Canada , France , Germany , and the United Kingdom , while reaching a peak of four on the Billboard Hot 100 chart .
= = Critical reception = =
True Blue received generally positive reviews from music critics . Jon Pareles , in a review for The New York Times , said that True Blue reprised the themes of fidelity in its songs and complimented her addition of a tinge of real world storytelling in her songs , making her reach the " fringes of the permissible " . Stephen Holden in another review complimented the album and said that " Madonna goes heavy on heart in this record " . In a Rolling Stone review , Davitt Sigerson stated that Madonna was " singing better than ever " . The album 's songs were described as " catchy " , but Sigerson also commented on the lack of " outstanding tracks " . He ultimately stated that True Blue is a " sturdy , dependable , lovable new album " which " remains faithful to her past while shamelessly rising above it " .
Stephen Thomas Erlewine , in a review for AllMusic , declared it as " one of the great dance @-@ pop albums , a record that demonstrates Madonna 's true skills as a songwriter , record @-@ maker , provocateur , and entertainer through its wide reach , accomplishment , and sheer sense of fun . " He also felt that Madonna 's endeavors in True Blue made it " [ brilliant ] , using the music to hook in critics . " Erlewine found that the songs on the album had a poignant mixture of topics , which further solidied its popularity . Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine called the album " the supreme archetype for late ' 80s and early ' 90s pop music . [ ... ] Time stamped with ' 80s @-@ era keyboard and drum synths , True Blue , though chockfull of hits , is the most dated of Madonna 's albums . " He praised the album 's songs for being more mature than " Material Girl " , and said that the album " includes some of Madonna 's greatest , most influential hits ( the robust " Open Your Heart " and the timeless " La Isla Bonita " ) , but it 's also home to some of her biggest clunkers . " Michael Paoletta from Billboard commented in 2001 that nearly 20 years after its debut , the album is still irresistible .
Entertainment Weekly reviewer Jim Farber said " Though Madonna 's third project finds her adding to her palette with Spanish pop ( " La Isla Bonita " ) and messing with our heads with its seeming anti @-@ abortion song ( " Papa Don 't Preach " ) . Also notable for ' Live to Tell , ' her best ballad to date " . Robert Christgau was less impressed , accusing Madonna of pandering to the " lowest common denominator " of young listeners with ambiguous lyrics and over @-@ promotion . Robert Hilburn from Los Angeles Times stated that " True Blue isn 't revolutionary music , but it is imaginative , highly energized pop that recognizes the limitations and pleasures of Top 40 fare . " Erica Wexler from Spin commented that " True Blue is Madonna 's rite of passage between pop adolescence and a harsher adult world . With all her contrivances and the delighted tunes that I can 't exorcise from my head , her mystique is still explained by the young beefcake who told me , ' I love to pump iron to Madonna ' . "
= = Commercial response = =
In the United States , True Blue debuted at number 29 on the Billboard 200 and reached number one on the issue dated August 16 , 1986 . It stayed on the top position for five consecutive weeks and on the chart for a total of 82 weeks . The album also reached a peak of number 47 on the Top R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums chart . True Blue was certified seven times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for shipment of over seven million units , making it Madonna 's third best @-@ selling album in the United States , behind Like a Virgin ( 1984 ) and The Immaculate Collection ( 1990 ) . After the advent of the Nielsen SoundScan era in 1991 , the album sold a further 404 @,@ 000 copies . In Canada , the album debuted at number 73 on the RPM albums chart for the issue of July 5 , 1986 . The album climbed rapidly upwards and reached number one on the issue dated August 9 , 1986 . It stayed at the top for nine weeks and was present on the chart for 77 weeks . True Blue was certified diamond by the Canadian Recording Industry Association ( CRIA ) for shipment of one million copies .
True Blue was also a commercial success in Asia and Oceania . In Japan , the album peaked at number two on the Oricon LP chart . At the 1987 Japan Gold Disc Awards held by the Recording Industry Association of Japan ( RIAJ ) , True Blue received " Album of the Year Pop Solo " and " Grand Prix Album of the Year " , which was given for the year 's best @-@ selling international album , while Madonna was honored the " Artist of the Year " for the year 's best @-@ selling international artist . In Hong Kong , True Blue was certified platinum by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry . In Australia , the album topped the Kent Music Report albums chart on the issue date of August 4 , 1986 , staying there for two weeks . It was certified four times platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for shipment of 280 @,@ 000 copies . It also reached number one in New Zealand albums chart and was certified five times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) for shipment of 75 @,@ 000 copies .
True Blue achieved its biggest commercial reception in European countries , where it topped the European Top 100 Albums chart for 34 consecutive weeks — a record that has yet to be broken — from issue dated July 19 , 1986 to March 7 , 1987 . In the United Kingdom , True Blue opened at the top of the UK Albums Chart on July 12 , 1986 , making it the first album by American artist to debut at number one in British chart history . It remained at the summit for six weeks and on the chart for a total of 85 weeks . True Blue was the best @-@ selling album of 1986 in the United Kingdom . The British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) certified it seven times platinum for shipment of 2 @.@ 1 million copies and as of October 2014 , it has sold 1 @.@ 997 million copies , the highest sales for any of Madonna 's studio albums . True Blue also topped the albums chart in France and was certified diamond by the Syndicat National de l 'Édition Phonographique ( SNEP ) for shipment of one million copies . Actual sales of the album in the country stand at 1 @,@ 353 @,@ 100 copies . In Germany , the album peaked at number one for eight weeks and was certified two times platinum by the Bundesverband Musikindustrie ( BVMI ) for shipment of one million copies .
= = Legacy = =
Stephen Thomas Erlewine noted that " True Blue is the album where Madonna truly became ' Madonna the Superstar ' — the endlessly ambitious , fearlessly provocative entertainer that knew how to outrage , spark debates , get good reviews — and make good music while she 's at it . " Mark Savage from BBC stated that True Blue is the album which cemented Madonna 's reputation as the ' First Lady of Pop ' . Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine said that with the album " Madonna made the transition from pop tart to consummate artist , joining the ranks of ' 80s icons like Michael Jackson and Prince . " Similarly , Robert C. Sickels , the author of 100 Entertainers Who Changed America : An Encyclopedia of Pop Culture Luminaries , wrote that the album " cemented Madonna 's place as the most popular female musical star of the 1980s , shining alongside male pop icons like Prince and Michael Jackson . "
Regarding Madonna 's influence on the record industry and younger artists , Debbie Gibson 's then manager Doug Breitbart commented : " Madonna has brought back a really strong , melodic component to pop music . She has a very youth @-@ oriented , up , bubbly , fun sound . " Slant Magazine listed the album at number 60 on their list of " The 100 Best Albums of the 1980s " and stated that " True Blue was the album on which it became readily apparent that Madonna was more than just a flash @-@ in @-@ the @-@ pan pop star . " They added , " It 's when she began manipulating her image — and her audience — with a real sense of clarity and purpose and made sure she had quality songs to back up her calculation and world @-@ dominating ambition . "
The global success of True Blue marked the first time Madonna entering the Guinness Book of World Records in its 1988 edition , where she was dubbed as the most successful singer for 1986 . The album also held the record for number one in the most countries , topping the album charts in a total of 28 countries around the world . True Blue was later included in the 1991 edition of Guinness Book of World Records as the biggest selling album by a woman , with copies sold of more than 17 million until October 1990 . Becoming the world 's top @-@ selling album of 1986 and the biggest selling album of the 1980s by woman , True Blue also remains one of the best @-@ selling albums of all time with sales of more than 25 million copies worldwide .
The second single from the album , " Papa Don 't Preach " faced criticism as well as support from groups concerned with pregnancy and abortion for its theme of a girl getting pregnant and then deciding to continue the pregnancy rather than ending it . Alfred Moran who was the executive director of Planned Parenthood of New York City , criticized the song , fearing that it would undermine efforts to promote birth control among adolescents and that it would encourage teenage pregnancy . Susan Carpenter @-@ McMillan who was the president of Feminists for Life ( FFL ) in the U.S. , accepted the song 's theme as being pro @-@ life and said that " abortion is readily available on every street corner for young women . Now what Madonna is telling them is , hey , there 's an alternative . " In a New York Times interview , Madonna commented on the events happening surrounding the song :
" Papa Don 't Preach " is a message song that everyone is going to take the wrong way . Immediately they 're going to say I am advising every young girl to go out and get pregnant . When I first heard the song , I thought it was silly . But then I thought , wait a minute , this song is really about a girl who is making a decision in her life . She has a very close relationship with her father and wants to maintain that closeness . To me it 's a celebration of life . It says , ' I love you , father , and I love this man and this child that is growing inside me ' . Of course , who knows how it will end ? But at least it starts off positive . "
True Blue also made social impact through its music videos , as author John E. Semonche observed in his book Censoring Sex that Madonna pushed the envelope of what could be shown on television which resulted in increase of her popularity . The music video for " Open Your Heart " was a subject of analysis among scholars for its concept of the stereo @-@ typical male gaze and voyeurism . She appeared as a stripper in the video , who escapes with a young boy from the strip parlour in the end . MTV had some reservations initially before airing the video , which was later resolved after a meeting with Warner Officials . Feminist writer Susan Bordo reacted negatively to the video , saying that the leering and pathetic men in the cubicles and Madonna 's escape with the boy is " cynically and mechanically tacked on [ as ] a way of claiming trendy status for what is just cheesecake — or , perhaps , pornography " . Author Donn Welton pointed out that the usual power relationship between the " voyeuristic male gaze and object " is destabilized by the portrayal of the male patrons of the peep show as leering and pathetic .
Author Douglas Kellner noted that the multiculturalism in her music videos and her culturally transgressive moves " turned out to be highly successful moves that endeared her to large and varied youth audiences . " In the fall of 1986 , Sire Records held Madonna 's " Make My Video " contest that involved MTV viewers to make their own videos for " True Blue " . Thousands of viewers submitted their recorded tapes which were mainly made using home @-@ made video equipment and featured themselves or relatives as the actors . MTV publicist Peter Danielson said that many of the submissions featured teenagers imitating Madonna . Her Spanish look in the music video for " La Isla Bonita " became popular and appeared in the fashion trends at that time in the form of boleros and layered skirts accessorizing with rosary beads and crucifix like the video . In recognition of her impact on popular culture through her music videos , Madonna was honored with the Video Vanguard Award at the 1986 MTV Video Music Awards , only four years into her career . She became the first female artist to receive such career achievement from MTV .
= = Track listings = =
Notes
^ a signifies a remixer and additional producer
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the album 's liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications and sales = =
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= Banat Bulgarians =
The Banat Bulgarians ( Banat Bulgarian : palćene or banátsći balgare ; common Bulgarian : банатски българи , banatski balgari ; Romanian : Bulgari bănățeni ; Serbian : Банатски Бугари , Banatski Bugari ) are a distinct Bulgarian minority group which settled in the 18th century in the region of the Banat , which was then ruled by the Habsburgs and after World War I was divided between Romania , Serbia , and Hungary . Unlike most other Bulgarians , they are Roman Catholic by confession and stem from groups of Paulicians and Roman Catholics from modern northern and northwestern Bulgaria .
Banat Bulgarians speak a distinctive codified form of the Eastern Bulgarian vernacular with much lexical influence from the other languages of the Banat . Although strongly acculturated to the Central European region , they have preserved their Bulgarian identity . Since the Liberation of Bulgaria in 1878 , many have returned to Bulgaria and founded separate villages there .
= = Population = =
The official Romanian census states that 6 @,@ 468 people of Bulgarian origin inhabit the Romanian part of the Banat . The Serbian census of 2002 recognized 1 @,@ 658 Bulgarians in Vojvodina , the autonomous province that covers the Serbian part of the Banat . Bulgarian researchers estimate that 12 @,@ 000 Banat Bulgarians live in Romania and 3 @,@ 000 in Serbia .
The earliest and most important centres of the Banat Bulgarian population are the villages of Dudeştii Vechi ( Stár Bišnov ) and Vinga , both today in Romania , but notable communities also exist in Romania in Breştea ( Bréšća ) , Colonia Bulgară ( Telepa ) and Denta ( Dénta ) , and the cities of Timişoara ( Timišvár ) and Sânnicolau Mare ( Smikluš ) , as well as in Serbia in the villages of Ivanovo , Konak ( Kanak ) , Jaša Tomić ( Modoš ) , and Skorenovac ( Gjurgevo ) .
In Bulgaria , returning Banat Bulgarians populated the villages of Asenovo , Bardarski Geran , Dragomirovo , Gostilya , and Bregare , among others , in some of which they coexist or coexisted with Banat Swabians , other Bulgarian Roman Catholics , and Eastern Orthodox Bulgarians .
= = = Historical population = = =
According to various censuses and estimates , not always accurate , the number of the Banat Bulgarians varied as follows :
= = History = =
= = = Origin and migration north of the Danube = = =
The Bulgarian Roman Catholic community in the north @-@ western ore @-@ mining town of Chiprovtsi and surrounding villages was possibly established in the Middle Ages by " Saxon " miners , who later migrated elsewhere or were assimilated . In 1688 , the members of the community organized the unsuccessful Chiprovtsi Uprising against the Ottoman rule of Bulgaria . The uprising was suppressed due to organizational flaws and the halting of the Austrian offensive against the Ottomans . Around 300 families of the surviving Catholics fled north of the Danube to Oltenia , initially settling in Craiova , Râmnicu Vâlcea , and other cities , where their existing rights were confirmed by Wallachian Prince Constantin Brâncoveanu . Some moved to south @-@ western Transylvania , founding colonies in Vinţu de Jos ( 1700 ) and Deva ( 1714 ) and receiving privileges such as civil rights and tax exemption .
After Oltenia was occupied by Austria in 1718 , the status of the Bulgarians in the region improved again , as an imperial decree of 1727 allowed them the same privileges as their colonies in Transylvania . This attracted another wave of migration of Bulgarian Catholics , about 300 families from the formerly Paulician villages of central northern Bulgaria . They settled in Craiova between 1726 and 1730 , but did not receive the same rights as the colonists from Chiprovtsi .
The Habsburgs were forced to withdraw from Oltenia in 1737 in the wake of a new war with the Ottoman Empire . The Bulgarians fled from this new Ottoman occupation and settled in the Austrian @-@ ruled Banat to the northwest . The Austrian authorities allowed them to found the villages of Stár Bišnov in 1738 and Vinga ( or Theresiopolis ) in 1741 . In 1744 , a decree of Maria Theresa of Austria again confirmed their privileges received in Oltenia .
= = = Austrian and Hungarian rule = = =
Around a hundred Paulicians from the region of Svishtov and Nikopol migrated to the Banat from 1753 to 1777 . The existing Bulgarian population quickly spread throughout the region from the late 18th to the second quarter of the 19th century . They settled in around 20 villages and towns in search of better economic conditions , specifically their need for arable land . Such colonies include those in Modoš ( 1779 ) , Kanak and Stari Lec ( 1820 ) , Belo Blato ( 1885 ) , Bréšća , Dénta , and Banatski Dvor ( 1842 ) , Telepa ( 1846 ) , Gjurgevo ( 1866 ) , and Ivanovo ( 1867 ) .
After they settled , the Banat Bulgarians began to take care of their education and religion . The Neo @-@ Baroque church in Stár Bišnov was built in 1804 and the imposing Neo @-@ Gothic church in Vinga in 1892 . Until 1863 , Banat Bulgarians held liturgies in Latin and " Illyric " . Illyric was a strain of Croatian which had spread in the communities before they migrated to the Banat . However , with their cultural revival in the mid @-@ 19th century , their vernacular was gradually introduced in the church . The revival also led to the release of their first printed book , Manachija kathehismus za katolicsanske Paulichiane , in 1851 . " Illyric " was also substituted with Banat Bulgarian in education in 1860 ( officially in 1864 ) . In 1866 , Jozu Rill codified the dialect with his essay Bálgarskotu pravopisanj .
After the Ausgleich of 1867 , the Hungarian authorities gradually intensified the Magyarization of the Banat . Until World War I , they imposed Hungarian as the main language of education .
= = = Interwar Romanian and Serbian Banat = = =
After World War I , Austria @-@ Hungary was dissolved and Banat was divided between Romania and Serbia . Most Banat Bulgarians became citizens of the Kingdom of Romania , but many fell inside the Kingdom of Yugoslavia .
In Greater Romania , the Banat Bulgarians ' identity was distinguished in censuses and statistics . The main language of education was changed to Romanian and the Bulgarian schools were nationalized . A Romanian geography book of 1931 describes the Bulgarians in the county of Timiș @-@ Torontal as " foreigners " , and their national dress as " not as beautiful " as the Romanian one , but in general the Banat Bulgarians were more favourably treated than the larger Eastern Orthodox Bulgarian minority in interwar Romania .
The Kingdom of Yugoslavia denied the existence of any Bulgarian minority , whether in the Vardar Banovina , the Western Outlands , or the Banat . Official post @-@ World War I statistics provide no data about the number of the Banat Bulgarians . In comparison with the Eastern Orthodox Bulgarians in Yugoslavia , the Banat Bulgarians were treated better by the Yugoslav authorities , although Serbo @-@ Croatian was the only language of education .
In the 1930s , the Banat Bulgarians in Romania entered a period of cultural revival led by figures such as Ivan Fermendžin , Anton Lebanov , and Karol Telbis ( Telbizov ) . These new cultural leaders emphasized the Bulgarian identity at the expense of the identification as Paulicians and Roman Catholics , establishing contacts with the Bulgarian government and other Bulgarian communities in Romania , particularly that in Dobruja . The organs of this revival were the newspaper Banatsći balgarsći glasnić ( Banat Bulgarian Voice ) , issued between 1935 and 1943 , and the annual Banatsći balgarsći kalendar ( Banat Bulgarian Calendar ) , issued from 1936 to 1940 . There was a plan to celebrate the 200th anniversary of the settlement in the Banat which was the most significant manifestation by Banat Bulgarians in that period . It was partially spoiled by the Romanian authorities , but still attracted much attention among intellectuals in Bulgaria . The Bulgarian Agrarian Party , a section of the National Peasants ' Party , was founded in 1936 on the initiative of Karol Telbizov and Dr. Karol Manjov of Stár Bišnov , with Petar Telbisz as its chairman , and the Bulgarian National Society in the Banat , also headed by Telbisz , was established in 1939 .
Bulgaria and Yugoslavia improved their relations in the 1930s , leading to indirect recognition of the Banat Bulgarian minority by the Yugoslav government . Still , the Banat Bulgarian revival was much less perceivable in the Serbian Banat . The Banat Bulgarian population in Yugoslavia was only partially affected by the work of Telbizov , Lebanov , and the other cultural workers in the Romanian Banat .
= = = Emigration to Hungary , the United States and Bulgaria = = =
Some Banat Bulgarians migrated again , mainly to Hungary and the United States . According to Bulgarian data from 1942 , 10 @,@ 000 Banat Bulgarians lived in Hungary , mainly in the major cities , but this number is most likely overestimated . Members of the Banat Bulgarian community in Hungary include several deputies to the National Assembly , such as Petar Dobroslav , whose son László Dobroslav ( László Bolgár ) was a diplomat , and Georgi Velčov .
During the Interwar period , the Banat Bulgarian communities in Romania were among those experiencing the greatest emigration to the USA , particularly in the 1920s and 1930s . An organized Bulgarian community was established in Lone Wolf , Oklahoma , where the Banat Bulgarians were mostly farmers .
A significant number of Banat Bulgarians returned to Bulgaria , beginning in the 1880s and 1890s . They founded several villages in Pleven Province , Vratsa Province and Veliko Tarnovo Province and received privileges , as per the law of 1880 , for the settlement of unpopulated lands . They introduced superior agricultural technologies to the country and fully applied their farming experience . Their religious life was partly determined by the clashes between the dominant Eastern Orthodoxy and the minority Catholicism , and cultural conflicts with other Roman Catholic communities which they lived with in several villages , such as the Banat Swabians and the Bulgarian Paulicians from Ilfov .
= = = World War II and later = = =
On the eve of World War II , the authoritarian regime of Carol II of Romania and the fascist government under Ion Antonescu widely discriminated against the Bulgarian minority in the Romanian Banat . Bulgarians were often deprived of property and land , subjected to anti @-@ Bulgarian propaganda , and their villages had to shelter Romanian and Aromanian refugees from Northern Transylvania and Southern Dobruja .
In May 1941 , the Bulgarians in the Romanian Banat contributed to the release of ethnic Bulgarian prisoners of war from the Yugoslav Army , captured by the Axis , from a camp near Timișoara . Communicating with the Bulgarian state , Banat Bulgarian leaders headed by Anton Lebanov negotiated the prisoners ' release and transportation to Bulgaria , after the example of the release of captured Hungarian soldiers from the Yugoslav Army . They temporarily accommodated these Bulgarians from Vardar Macedonia and the Serbian Banat and provided them with food until they could be taken to Bulgaria .
The Serbian Banat was conquered by Nazi Germany on 12 April 1941 , and was occupied for much of the war . In late 1942 , the German authorities allowed Bulgarian minority classes to be created in the Serbian schools in Ivanovo , Skorenovac , Konak , Belo Blato , and Jaša Tomić . However , the sudden change in the war and German withdrawal from the Banat forced education in Bulgarian to be discontinued after the 1943 – 44 school year .
After the war , Banat Bulgarians in Romania and Yugoslavia were ruled by communist regimes . In the Romanian Banat , some were deported in the Bărăgan deportations in 1951 , but most of those were allowed to return in 1956 – 57 . A Bulgarian school was founded in Dudeștii Vechi in 1948 , and in Vinga in 1949 . Others followed in Breștea , Colonia Bulgară , and Denta , but these were briefly closed or united with the Romanian schools after 1952 , and Bulgarian remained an optional subject .
The Constitution of Romania of 1991 allowed Bulgarians in the Romanian Banat parliamentary representation through the minority party of the Bulgarian Union of the Banat — Romania ( Balgarskotu družstvu ud Banát — Rumanija ) , led formerly by Karol @-@ Matej Ivánčov and as of 2008 by Nikola Mirkovič , and Bulgarian remained an optional subject in the schools .
In post @-@ war Yugoslavia , the existence of a Banat Bulgarian minority was formally recognized , but they were not given the same rights as the larger Bulgarian minority in eastern Serbia . Unlike other minorities in Vojvodina , they were not allowed education in their mother tongue , only Serbo @-@ Croatian .
= = Language = =
The vernacular of the Bulgarians of Banat can be classified as a Paulician dialect of the Eastern Bulgarian group . A typical feature is the " ы " ( * y ) vowel , which can either take an etymological place or replace " i " . Other characteristic phonological features are the " ê " ( wide " e " ) reflex of the Old Church Slavonic yat and the reduction of " o " into " u " and sometimes " e " into " i " : puljé instead of pole ( " field " ) , sélu instead of selo ( " village " ) , ugništi instead of ognište ( " fireplace " ) . Another characteristic feature is the palatalization of final consonants , which is typical for other Slavic languages , but found only in non @-@ standard dialects in Bulgarian ( Bulgarian den ( " day " ) sounds like and is written as denj ) .
Lexically , the language has borrowed many words from languages such as German ( such as drot from Draht , " wire " ; gáng from Gang , " anteroom , corridor " ) , Hungarian ( vilánj from villany , " electricity " ; mozi , " cinema " ) , Serbo @-@ Croatian ( stvár from stvar , " item , matter " ; ráčun from račun , " account " ) , and Romanian ( šedinca from ședință , " conference " ) due to the close contacts with the other peoples of the multiethnical Banat and the religious ties with other Roman Catholic peoples . Banat Bulgarian also has some older loanwords from Ottoman Turkish and Greek , which it shares with other Bulgarian dialects ( e.g. hirgjén from Turkish ergen , " unmarried man , bachelor " ; trandáfer from Greek τριαντάφυλλο triantafyllo , " rose " ) . Loanwords constitute around 20 % of the Banat Bulgarian vocabulary . The names of some Banat Bulgarians are also influenced by Hungarian names , as the Hungarian ( eastern ) name order is sometimes used ( family name followed by given name ) and the female ending " -a " is often dropped from family names . Thus , Marija Velčova would become Velčov Marija .
Besides loanwords , the lexis of Banat Bulgarian has also acquired calques and neologisms , such as svetica ( " icon " , formerly used ikona and influenced by German Heiligenbild ) , zarno ( " bullet " , from the word meaning " grain " ) , oganbalváč ( " volcano " , literally " fire belcher " ) , and predhurta ( " foreword " ) .
The Banat Bulgarian language uses its own script , largely based on the Croatian version of the Latin alphabet ( Gaj 's Latin Alphabet ) , and preserves many features that are archaic in the language spoken in Bulgaria . The language was codified as early as 1866 and is used in literature and press , which distinguishes it from plain dialects .
= = = Alphabet = = =
The following is the Banat Bulgarian Latin alphabet :
= = = Examples = = =
= = Culture = =
Banat Bulgarians have engaged in literary activity since they settled in the Banat . Their earliest preserved literary work is the historical record Historia Domus ( Historia Parochiae Oppidi Ó @-@ Bessenyö , in Diocesi Czanadiensi , Comitatu Torontalensi ) , written in Latin in the 1740s . The codification of the Banat Bulgarian vernacular in 1866 enabled the release of a number of school books and the translation of several important religious works in the mid @-@ 19th century . There was a literary revival in the 1930s , centred around the Banatsći balgarsći glasnić newspaper . Today , the Bulgarian Union of the Banat – Romania issues the biweekly newspaper Náša glás and the monthly magazine Literaturna miselj .
The music of the Banat Bulgarians is classed as a separate branch of Bulgarian folk music , with several verbal and musical peculiarities . While the typically Bulgarian bars have been preserved , a number of melodies display Romanian , Serbian , and Hungarian influences , and the specific Bulgarian Christmas carols have been superseded by urban @-@ type songs . Roman Catholicism has exerted considerable influence , eliminating certain types of songs and replacing them with others . Similarly , Banat Bulgarians have preserved many Bulgarian holidays but also adopted others from other Roman Catholic peoples . One of the most popular holidays is Faršángji , or the Carnival . In terms of dances , Banat Bulgarians have also heavily borrowed from the neighbouring peoples , for example Hungarian csárdás .
The women 's national costume of the Banat Bulgarians has two varieties . The costume of Vinga is reminiscent of those of sub @-@ Balkan cities in Bulgaria ; the one of Stár Bišnov is characteristic of northwestern Bulgaria . The Vinga costume has been particularly influenced by the dress of Hungarians and Germans , but the Stár Bišnov costume has remained more conservative . The Banat Bulgarian women 's costume is perceived as particularly impressive with its crown @-@ like headdress .
= = Notable figures = =
Colonel Stefan Dunjov ( 1815 – 1889 ) – revolutionary , participant in the Hungarian Revolution of 1848 , and member of Giuseppe Garibaldi 's forces during the Italian unification
Eusebius Fermendžin ( 1845 – 1897 ) – historian , high @-@ ranking Franciscan cleric , theologian , polyglot , and active member of the Yugoslav Academy of Sciences and Arts
Leopold Kossilkov ( 1850 – 1940 ) – teacher and writer
Jozu Rill – 19th @-@ century teacher and internationally acclaimed textbook writer ; codified the Banat Bulgarian orthography and grammar in 1866
Carol Telbisz ( 1853 – 1914 ) – long @-@ time mayor of Timişoara ( 1885 – 1914 )
Anton Lebanov ( 1912 – 2008 ) – lawyer , journalist , and poet
Karol Telbizov ( 1915 – 1994 ) – lawyer , journalist , and scientist
Luis Bacalov ( b . 1933 ) — Academy Award @-@ winning Argentine composer
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= Ring of Pietroassa =
The Ring of Pietroassa ( or Buzău torc ) is a gold Torc @-@ like necklace found in a ring barrow in Pietroassa ( now Pietroasele ) , Buzău County , southern Romania ( formerly Wallachia ) , in 1837 . It formed part of a large gold hoard ( the Pietroasele treasure ) dated to between 250 and 400 CE . The ring itself is generally assumed to be of Roman @-@ Mediterranean origin , and features a Gothic language inscription in the Elder Futhark runic alphabet .
The inscribed ring remains the subject of considerable academic interest , and a number of theories regarding its origin , the reason for its burial and its date have been proposed . The inscription , which sustained irreparable damage shortly after its discovery , can no longer be read with certainty , and has been subjected to various attempts at reconstruction and interpretation . Recently , however , it has become possible to reconstruct the damaged portion with the aid of rediscovered depictions of the ring in its original state . Taken as a whole , the inscribed ring may offer insight into the nature of the pre @-@ Christian pagan religion of the Goths .
= = History = =
= = = Origin = = =
The original hoard , discovered within a large ring barrow known as Istriţa hill near Pietroasele , Romania , consisted of 22 pieces , comprising a wide assortment of gold vessels , plates and cups as well as jewelry , including two rings with inscriptions . When first uncovered , the objects were found stuck together by an unidentifiable black mass , leading to the assumption that the hoard might have been covered in some kind of organic material ( e.g. cloth or leather ) prior to being interred . The total weight of the find was approximately 20 kg ( 44 lb . ) .
Ten objects , among them one of the inscribed rings , were stolen shortly after the find was made , and when the remaining objects were recovered , it was discovered that the other ring had been cut into at least four pieces by a Bucharest goldsmith , whereby one of the inscribed characters had become damaged to the point of illegibility . Fortunately , detailed drawings , a cast , and a photograph made by London 's Arundel Society of the ring before it was damaged survive , and the nature of the lost character can be established with relative certainty .
The remaining objects in the collection display a high quality of craftsmanship such that scholars doubt an indigenous origin . Taylor ( 1879 ) , in one of the earliest works discussing the find , speculates that the objects could represent a part of the plunder acquired by Goths in the raids made on the Roman provinces of Moesia and Thrace ( 238 - 251 ) . Another early theory , probably first proposed by Odobescu ( 1889 ) and picked up again by Giurascu ( 1976 ) , identifies Athanaric , pagan king of the Gothic Thervingi , as the likely owner of the hoard , presumably acquired through the conflict with the Roman Emperor Valens in 369 . The Goldhelm catalogue ( 1994 ) suggests that the objects could also be viewed as having been gifts made by Roman leaders to allied Germanic princes .
Recent mineralogical studies performed on the objects indicate at least three geographically disparate origins for the gold ore itself : the Southern Ural Mountains , Nubia ( Sudan ) , and Persia . An indigenous Dacian origin for the ore has been ruled out . Though Cojocaru ( 1999 ) rejects the possibility of Roman imperial coins having been melted down and used for some of the objects , Constantinescu ( 2003 ) comes to the opposite conclusion .
A comparison of mineralogical composition , smelting and forging techniques , and earlier typological analysis indicates that the gold used to make the inscribed ring , classified as Celto @-@ Germanic , is neither as pure as that of the Graeco @-@ Roman , nor as alloyed as that found in the Polychrome Germanic objects . These results seem to indicate that at least part of the hoard — including the inscribed ring — was composed of gold ore mined far north of Dacia , and could therefore represent objects that had been in Gothic possession prior to their southward migration ( see Wielbark culture , Chernyakhov culture ) . While this may cast some doubt on the traditional theory regarding a Roman @-@ Mediterranean origin for the ring , further research is necessary before the origin of the material used in its manufacture can be identified conclusively .
= = = Burial = = =
As with most finds of this type , it remains unclear as to why the objects were placed within the barrow , though several plausible reasons have been proposed . Taylor argues that the ring @-@ barrow in which the objects were found was likely the site of a pagan temple , and that , based on an analysis of the surviving inscription ( see below ) , they were part of a votive hoard indicative of a still @-@ active paganism . Though this theory has been largely ignored , later research , notably that of Looijenga ( 1997 ) , has observed that all of the remaining objects in the hoard possess a " definite ceremonial character " . Particularly noteworthy in this connection is the Patera , or libation dish , which is decorated with depictions of ( probably Germanic ) deities .
Those in favour of viewing the objects as the personal hoard of Athanaric suggest that the gold was buried in an attempt to hide it from the Huns , who had defeated the Gothic Greuthungi north of the Black Sea and began moving down into Thervingian Dacia around 375 . However , it remains unclear why the gold would have remained buried , as Athanaric 's treaty with Theodosius I ( 380 ) enabled him to bring his tribesmen under the protection of Roman rule prior to his death in 381 . Other researchers have suggested that the hoard was that of an Ostrogothic king , with Rusu ( 1984 ) specifically identifying Gainnas , a Gothic general in the Roman army who was killed by the Huns around 400 , as the owner of the hoard . Although this would help explain why the hoard remained buried , it fails to account for the conspicuous ring @-@ barrow having been chosen as the site to hide such a large and valuable treasure .
= = = Date = = =
Various dates for the burial of the hoard have been proposed , largely derived from considerations regarding the origin of the objects themselves and their manner of burial , though the inscription has also been an important factor ( see below ) . Taylor suggests a range from 210 to 250 . In more recent studies , scholars have proposed slightly later dates , with supporters of the Athanaric theory suggesting the end of the 4th century , the date also proposed by Constantinescu , and Tomescu suggesting the early 5th century .
= = Inscription = =
= = = Reconstruction and interpretation = = =
The gold ring bears an Elder Futhark runic inscription of 15 characters , with the 7th ( probably ᛟ / o / ) having been mostly destroyed when the ring was cut in half by thieves . The damaged rune has been the object of some scholarly debate , and is variously interpreted as indicating ᛃ / j / ( Reichert 1993 , Nedoma 1993 ) or possibly ᛋ / s / ( Looijenga 1997 ) . If the photograph of the Arundel Society is to be taken as a guide , then the inscription originally read as follows :
gutaniowi hailag
ᚷᚢᛏᚨᚾᛁᛟᚹᛁ ᚺᚨᛁᛚᚨᚷ
This reading was followed by early scholars , notably Taylor , who translates " dedicated hailag to the temple ō @-@ wī ( h ) of the Goths Gutanī " , and Diculescu ( 1923 ) , who translates " sacred ( hailag ) to the Jove ( iowī , i.e. Thor ) of the Goths gutan ( ī ) " . Düwel ( 2001 ) , commenting upon the same reading , suggests interpreting ᛟ as indicative of ō [ þal ] thus :
gutanī ō [ þal ] wī [ h ] hailag
This , following Krause ( 1966 ) , translates as " sacred wī ( h ) ( and ) inviolable hailag inheritance ō ( þal ) of the Goths gutanī " . Other scholars have interpreted the ᛟ as indicative of a feminine ending : Johnsen ( 1971 ) translates " the holy hailag relic wī ( h ) ( = the [ altar ] ring ) of Gothic priestesses gutaniō " ; Krogmann ( 1978 ) , reading ᛗ / m / for ᚹᛁ / wi / , translates " dedicated hailag to the Gothic Mothers gutaniom ( = female guardian spirits of the Goths ) " ; Antonsen ( 2002 ) translates " sacrosanctum wī ( h ) hailag of gothic women / female warriors gutaniō " . Construing the damaged rune as ᛋ / s / , Looijenga ( 1997 ) reads :
gutanīs wī [ h ] hailag
She comments that gutanīs should be understood as an early form of Gothic gutaneis , " Gothic " , and wī [ h ] as early Gothic weih , " sanctuary " . Following this reading , she translates the whole inscription " Gothic ( object ) . Sacrosanct . " Reichert ( 1993 ) suggests that it is also possible to read the damaged rune as ᛃ / j / , and interprets it as representative of j [ ēra ] , thus :
gutanī j [ era ] wī [ h ] hailag
Reichert translates this as " ( good ) year j ( era ) of the Goths gutanī , sacred wī ( h ) ( and ) inviolable hailag " . Though Düwel ( 2001 ) has expressed doubts regarding the meaning of such a statement , Nordgren ( 2004 ) supports Reichert 's reading , viewing the ring as connected to a sacral king in his role of ensuring an abundant harvest ( represented by ᛃ jera ) . Pieper ( 2003 ) reads the damaged rune as ᛝ / ŋ / , thus :
gutanī [ i ( ng ) ] wi [ n ] hailag
He translates this " [ to ] Ingwin of the Goths . Holy . "
= = = Meaning = = =
Despite the lack of consensus regarding the exact import of the inscription , scholars seem to agree that its language is some form of Gothic and that the intent behind it was religious . Taylor interprets the inscription as being clearly pagan in nature and indicative of the existence of a temple to which the ring was a votive offering . He derives his date for the burial ( 210 to 250 ) from the fact that the Christianizing of the Goths along the Danube is generally considered to have been almost complete within a few generations after their having arrived there in 238 . Though paganism among the Goths did survive the initial conversion phase of 250 to 300 - as the martyring of the converted Christian Goths Wereka , Batwin ( 370 ) and Sabbas ( 372 ) at the hands of the indigenously pagan Goths ( in the latter case Athanaric ) shows - it was weakened considerably in the following years , and the likelihood of such a deposit being made would have been greatly diminished .
MacLeod and Mees ( 2006 ) , following Mees ( 2004 ) , interpret the ring as possibly representing either a " temple @-@ ring " or a " sacred oath @-@ ring " , the existence of which in pagan times is documented in Old Norse literature and archaeological finds . Furthermore , they suggest that the inscription could be proof of the existence of ' mother goddess ' worship among the Goths - echoing the well @-@ documented worship of ' mother goddesses ' in other parts of the Germanic North . MacLeod and Mees also propose that the appearance of both of the Common Germanic terms denoting " holiness " ( wīh and hailag ) may help to clarify the distinction between the two concepts in the Gothic language , implying that the ring was considered holy , not only for its being connected to one or more divinities , but also in and of itself .
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= Itanium =
Itanium ( / aɪˈteɪniəm / eye @-@ TAY @-@ nee @-@ əm ) is a family of 64 @-@ bit Intel microprocessors that implement the Intel Itanium architecture ( formerly called IA @-@ 64 ) . Intel markets the processors for enterprise servers and high @-@ performance computing systems . The Itanium architecture originated at Hewlett @-@ Packard ( HP ) , and was later jointly developed by HP and Intel .
Itanium @-@ based systems have been produced by HP ( the HP Integrity Servers line ) and several other manufacturers . As of 2008 , Itanium was the fourth @-@ most deployed microprocessor architecture for enterprise @-@ class systems , behind x86 @-@ 64 , Power Architecture , and SPARC . The Poulson processor was released on November 8 , 2012 . While Intel said in April 2015 that it continued to work on Poulson 's successor , Kittson , as of February 2016 Poulson was the most recent processor available , Hewlett @-@ Packard was the only customer ; even HP had introduced Xeon @-@ based machines , and it appeared that Kittson would be the last Itanium .
= = History = =
= = = Development : 1989 – 2000 = = =
In 1989 , HP determined that Reduced Instruction Set Computing ( RISC ) architectures were approaching a processing limit at one instruction per cycle . HP researchers investigated a new architecture , later named Explicitly Parallel Instruction Computing ( EPIC ) , that allows the processor to execute multiple instructions in each clock cycle . EPIC implements a form of very long instruction word ( VLIW ) architecture , in which a single instruction word contains multiple instructions . With EPIC , the compiler determines in advance which instructions can be executed at the same time , so the microprocessor simply executes the instructions and does not need elaborate mechanisms to determine which instructions to execute in parallel . The goal of this approach is twofold : to enable deeper inspection of the code at compile time to identify additional opportunities for parallel execution , and to simplify processor design and reduce energy consumption by eliminating the need for runtime scheduling circuitry .
HP believed that it was no longer cost @-@ effective for individual enterprise systems companies such as itself to develop proprietary microprocessors , so it partnered with Intel in 1994 to develop the IA @-@ 64 architecture , derived from EPIC . Intel was willing to undertake a very large development effort on IA @-@ 64 in the expectation that the resulting microprocessor would be used by the majority of enterprise systems manufacturers . HP and Intel initiated a large joint development effort with a goal of delivering the first product , Merced , in 1998 .
During development , Intel , HP , and industry analysts predicted that IA @-@ 64 would dominate in servers , workstations , and high @-@ end desktops , and eventually supplant RISC and Complex Instruction Set Computing ( CISC ) architectures for all general @-@ purpose applications . Compaq and Silicon Graphics decided to abandon further development of the Alpha and MIPS architectures respectively in favor of migrating to IA @-@ 64 .
Several groups developed operating systems for the architecture , including Microsoft Windows , OpenVMS , Linux , and UNIX variants such as HP @-@ UX , Solaris , Tru64 UNIX , and Monterey / 64 ( the last three were canceled before reaching the market ) . By 1997 , it was apparent that the IA @-@ 64 architecture and the compiler were much more difficult to implement than originally thought , and the delivery of Merced began slipping . Technical difficulties included the very high transistor counts needed to support the wide instruction words and the large caches . There were also structural problems within the project , as the two parts of the joint team used different methodologies and had slightly different priorities . Since Merced was the first EPIC processor , the development effort encountered more unanticipated problems than the team was accustomed to . In addition , the EPIC concept depends on compiler capabilities that had never been implemented before , so more research was needed .
Intel announced the official name of the processor , Itanium , on October 4 , 1999 . Within hours , the name Itanic had been coined on a Usenet newsgroup , a reference to Titanic , the " unsinkable " ocean liner that sank in 1912 . " Itanic " has since often been used by The Register , and others , to imply that the multibillion @-@ dollar investment in Itanium — and the early hype associated with it — would be followed by its relatively quick demise .
= = = Itanium ( Merced ) : 2001 = = =
By the time Itanium was released in June 2001 , its performance was not superior to competing RISC and CISC processors . Itanium competed at the low @-@ end ( primarily 4 @-@ CPU and smaller systems ) with servers based on x86 processors , and at the high end with IBM 's POWER architecture and Sun Microsystems ' SPARC architecture . Intel repositioned Itanium to focus on high @-@ end business and HPC computing , attempting to duplicate x86 's successful " horizontal " market ( i.e. , single architecture , multiple systems vendors ) . The success of this initial processor version was limited to replacing PA @-@ RISC in HP systems , Alpha in Compaq systems and MIPS in SGI systems , though IBM also delivered a supercomputer based on this processor . POWER and SPARC remained strong , while the 32 @-@ bit x86 architecture continued to grow into the enterprise space , building on economies of scale fueled by its enormous installed base .
Only a few thousand systems using the original Merced Itanium processor were sold , due to relatively poor performance , high cost and limited software availability . Recognizing that the lack of software could be a serious problem for the future , Intel made thousands of these early systems available to independent software vendors ( ISVs ) to stimulate development . HP and Intel brought the next @-@ generation Itanium 2 processor to market a year later .
= = = Itanium 2 : 2002 – 2010 = = =
The Itanium 2 processor was released in 2002 , and was marketed for enterprise servers rather than for the whole gamut of high @-@ end computing . The first Itanium 2 , code @-@ named McKinley , was jointly developed by HP and Intel . It relieved many of the performance problems of the original Itanium processor , which were mostly caused by an inefficient memory subsystem . McKinley contained 221 million transistors ( of which 25 million were for logic ) , measured 19 @.@ 5 mm by 21 @.@ 6 mm ( 421 mm2 ) and was fabricated in a 180 nm , bulk CMOS process with six layers of aluminium metallization .
In 2003 , AMD released the Opteron , which implemented its own 64 @-@ bit architecture ( AMD64 ) . Opteron gained rapid acceptance in the enterprise server space because it provided an easy upgrade from x86 . Intel responded by implementing x86 @-@ 64 in its Xeon microprocessors in 2004 .
Intel released a new Itanium 2 family member , codenamed Madison , in 2003 . Madison used a 130 nm process and was the basis of all new Itanium processors until Montecito was released in June 2006 .
In March 2005 , Intel announced that it was working on a new Itanium processor , codenamed Tukwila , to be released in 2007 . Tukwila would have four processor cores and would replace the Itanium bus with a new Common System Interface , which would also be used by a new Xeon processor . Later that year , Intel revised Tukwila 's delivery date to late 2008 .
In November 2005 , the major Itanium server manufacturers joined with Intel and a number of software vendors to form the Itanium Solutions Alliance to promote the architecture and accelerate software porting . The Alliance announced that its members would invest $ 10 billion in Itanium solutions by the end of the decade .
In 2006 , Intel delivered Montecito ( marketed as the Itanium 2 9000 series ) , a dual @-@ core processor that roughly doubled performance and decreased energy consumption by about 20 percent .
Intel released the Itanium 2 9100 series , codenamed Montvale , in November 2007 . In May 2009 , the schedule for Tukwila , its follow @-@ on , was revised again , with release to OEMs planned for the first quarter of 2010 .
= = = Itanium 9300 ( Tukwila ) : 2010 = = =
The Itanium 9300 series processor , codenamed Tukwila , was released on February 8 , 2010 , with greater performance and memory capacity .
The device uses a 65 nm process , includes two to four cores , up to 24 MB on @-@ die caches , Hyper @-@ Threading technology and integrated memory controllers . It implements double @-@ device data correction , which helps to fix memory errors . Tukwila also implements Intel QuickPath Interconnect ( QPI ) to replace the Itanium bus @-@ based architecture . It has a peak interprocessor bandwidth of 96 GB / s and a peak memory bandwidth of 34 GB / s . With QuickPath , the processor has integrated memory controllers and interfaces the memory directly , using QPI interfaces to directly connect to other processors and I / O hubs . QuickPath is also used on Intel processors using the Nehalem microarchitecture , making it probable that Tukwila and Nehalem will be able to use the same chipsets . Tukwila incorporates four memory controllers , each of which supports multiple DDR3 DIMMs via a separate memory controller , much like the Nehalem @-@ based Xeon processor code @-@ named Beckton .
= = = Itanium 9500 ( Poulson ) : 2012 = = =
The Itanium 9500 series processor , codenamed Poulson , is the follow @-@ on processor to Tukwila and was released on November 8 , 2012 . According to Intel , it skips the 45 nm process technology and uses a 32 nm process technology ; it features eight cores , has a 12 @-@ wide issue architecture , multithreading enhancements , and new instructions to take advantage of parallelism , especially in virtualization . The Poulson L3 cache size is 32 MB . L2 cache size is 6 MB , 512 I KB , 256 D KB per core . Die size is 544 mm ² , less than its predecessor Tukwila ( 698 @.@ 75 mm ² ) .
At ISSCC 2011 , Intel presented a paper called , " A 32nm 3 @.@ 1 Billion Transistor 12 @-@ Wide @-@ Issue Itanium Processor for Mission Critical Servers . " Given Intel 's history of disclosing details about Itanium microprocessors at ISSCC , this paper most likely refers to Poulson . Analyst David Kanter speculates that Poulson will use a new microarchitecture , with a more advanced form of multi @-@ threading that uses as many as two threads , to improve performance for single threaded and multi @-@ threaded workloads . Some new information was released at Hot Chips conference .
New information presents improvements in multithreading , resilency improvements ( Intel Instruction Replay RAS ) and few new instructions ( thread priority , integer instruction , cache prefetching , data access hints ) .
In Intel 's Product Change Notification ( PCN ) 111456 @-@ 01 , it listed 4 models of Itanium 9500 series CPU , which was later removed in a revised document . The parts were later listed in Intel 's Material Declaration Data Sheets ( MDDS ) database . Intel later posted Itanium 9500 reference manual .
The models are :
= = = Kittson = = =
Rumours of a successor to Poulson coded @-@ name Kittson began to circulate in 2012 – 13 , at first associated with a forthcoming 22 nm shrink , later walked @-@ back in the face of declining Itanium sales to a less @-@ ambitious 32 nm node . Intel has never confirmed the formal specifications for Kittson , but has confirmed that it continues to work on the project as recently as April 2015 . Meanwhile , the aggressively multicore Xeon E7 platform has begun to displace Itanium @-@ based solutions in the Intel roadmap. on 2016 @-@ 07 @-@ 21 HPE announced in Computer World that Kittson would be released mid @-@ 2017
= = Market share = =
In comparison with its Xeon family of server processors , Itanium has never been a high @-@ volume product for Intel . Intel does not release production numbers . One industry analyst estimated that the production rate was 200 @,@ 000 processors per year in 2007 .
According to Gartner Inc . , the total number of Itanium servers ( not processors ) sold by all vendors in 2007 , was about 55 @,@ 000 . ( It is unclear whether clustered servers counted as a single server or not . ) This compares with 417 @,@ 000 RISC servers ( spread across all RISC vendors ) and 8 @.@ 4 million x86 servers . IDC reports that a total of 184 @,@ 000 Itanium @-@ based systems were sold from 2001 through 2007 . For the combined POWER / SPARC / Itanium systems market , IDC reports that POWER captured 42 % of revenue and SPARC captured 32 % , while Itanium @-@ based system revenue reached 26 % in the second quarter of 2008 . According to an IDC analyst , in 2007 , HP accounted for perhaps 80 % of Itanium systems revenue . According to Gartner , in 2008 , HP accounted for 95 % of Itanium sales . HP 's Itanium system sales were at an annual rate of $ 4.4Bn at the end of 2008 , and declined to $ 3.5Bn by the end of 2009 , compared to a 35 % decline in UNIX system revenue for Sun and an 11 % drop for IBM , with an x86 @-@ 64 server revenue increase of 14 % during this period .
In December 2012 , IDC released a research report stating that Itanium server shipments would remain flat through 2016 , with annual shipment of 26 @,@ 000 systems ( a decline of over 50 % compared to shipments in 2008 ) .
= = Hardware support = =
= = = Systems = = =
By 2006 , HP manufactured at least 80 % of all Itanium systems , and sold 7 @,@ 200 in the first quarter of 2006 . The bulk of systems sold were enterprise servers and machines for large @-@ scale technical computing , with an average selling price per system in excess of US $ 200 @,@ 000 . A typical system uses eight or more Itanium processors .
By 2012 , only a few manufacturers offered Itanium systems , including HP , Bull , NEC , Inspur and Huawei . In addition , Intel offered a chassis that could be used by system integrators to build Itanium systems .
By 2015 , only HP supplied Itanium @-@ based systems .
= = = Chipsets = = =
The Itanium bus interfaces to the rest of the system via a chipset . Enterprise server manufacturers differentiate their systems by designing and developing chipsets that interface the processor to memory , interconnections , and peripheral controllers . The chipset is the heart of the system @-@ level architecture for each system design . Development of a chipset costs tens of millions of dollars and represents a major commitment to the use of the Itanium . IBM created a chipset in 2003 , and Intel in 2002 , but neither of them developed chipsets to support newer technologies such as DDR2 or PCI Express . Currently chipsets for Itanium supporting such technologies are manufactured by HP , Fujitsu , SGI , NEC , and Hitachi .
The " Tukwila " Itanium processor model had been designed to share a common chipset with the Intel Xeon processor EX ( Intel 's Xeon processor designed for four processor and larger servers ) . The goal was to streamline system development and reduce costs for server OEMs , many of which develop both Itanium- and Xeon @-@ based servers . However , in 2013 this goal was pushed back to " evaluated for future implementation opportunities " .
= = Software support = =
Itanium is or was supported by the following operating systems :
Windows family
Windows XP 64 @-@ Bit Edition ( unsupported )
Windows Server 2003 ( unsupported )
Windows Server 2008 ( only " Mainstream support " has ended )
Windows Server 2008 R2 ( only " Mainstream support " has ended , but means can 't be bought ; not supported in successor : Windows Server 2012 )
Linux distributions
Debian ( dropped in 8 " Jessie " )
Gentoo
SUSE 's SLES ( dropped support in SLES 12 )
Red Hat Enterprise Linux ( dropped support in RHEL 6 )
TurboLinux
FreeBSD ( support status : " Tier 2 through FreeBSD 10 . Unsupported after . " )
NetBSD ( Development branch only )
HP @-@ UX 11i , an Intel 64 ( x86 @-@ 64 ) port was proposed , but later canceled .
OpenVMS I64 , an Intel 64 ( x86 @-@ 64 ) port is being developed .
NonStop OS , an Intel 64 ( x86 @-@ 64 ) port was developed .
Bull GCOS 8
NEC ACOS @-@ 4
Microsoft announced that Windows Server 2008 R2 would be the last version of Windows Server to support the Itanium , and that it would also discontinue development of the Itanium versions of Visual Studio and SQL Server . Likewise , Red Hat Enterprise Linux 5 ( first released in March 2007 ) was the last Itanium edition of Red Hat Enterprise Linux and Canonical 's Ubuntu 10 @.@ 04 LTS ( released in April 2010 , now discontinued ) was the last supported Ubuntu release on Itanium . HP will not be supporting or certifying Linux on Itanium 9300 ( Tukwila ) servers .
In late September 2012 , NEC announced a return from IA64 to the previous NOAH line of proprietary mainframe processors , now produced in a quad @-@ core variant on 40 nm , called NOAH @-@ 6 .
HP sells a virtualization technology for Itanium called Integrity Virtual Machines .
To allow more software to run on the Itanium , Intel supported the development of compilers optimized for the platform , especially its own suite of compilers . Starting in November 2010 , with the introduction of new product suites , the Intel Itanium Compilers were no longer bundled with the Intel x86 compilers in a single product . Intel offers Itanium tools and Intel x86 tools , including compilers , independently in different product bundles . GCC , Open64 and Microsoft Visual Studio 2005 ( and later ) are also able to produce machine code for Itanium . According to the Itanium Solutions Alliance over 13 @,@ 000 applications were available for Itanium @-@ based systems in early 2008 , though Sun has contested Itanium application counts in the past . The ISA also supported Gelato , an Itanium HPC user group and developer community that ported and supported open source software for Itanium .
= = = Emulation = = =
Emulation is a technique that allows a computer to execute binary code that was compiled for a different type of computer . Before IBM 's acquisition of QuickTransit in 2009 , application binary software for IRIX / MIPS and Solaris / SPARC could run via type of emulation called " dynamic binary translation " on Linux / Itanium . Similarly , HP implemented a method to execute PA @-@ RISC / HP @-@ UX on the Itanium / HP @-@ UX via emulation , to simplify migration of its PA @-@ RISC customers to the radically different Itanium instruction set . Itanium processors can also run the mainframe environment GCOS from Groupe Bull and several x86 operating systems via instruction set simulators .
= = Competition = =
Itanium is aimed at the enterprise server and high @-@ performance computing ( HPC ) markets . Other enterprise- and HPC @-@ focused processor lines include Oracle 's and Fujitsu 's SPARC processors and IBM 's POWER microprocessors . Measured by quantity sold , Itanium 's most serious competition comes from x86 @-@ 64 processors including Intel 's own Xeon line and AMD 's Opteron line . Since 2009 , most servers were being shipped with x86 @-@ 64 processors .
In 2005 , Itanium systems accounted for about 14 % of HPC systems revenue , but the percentage has declined as the industry shifted to x86 @-@ 64 clusters for this application .
An October 2008 Gartner report the Tukwila processor stated that " ... the future roadmap for Itanium looks as strong as that of any RISC peer like Power or SPARC . "
= = Supercomputers and high @-@ performance computing = =
An Itanium @-@ based computer first appeared on the list of the TOP500 supercomputers in November 2001 . The best position ever achieved by an Itanium 2 based system in the list was # 2 ( while now all systems have dropped off the list ) , achieved in June 2004 , when Thunder ( LLNL ) entered the list with an Rmax of 19 @.@ 94 Teraflops . In November 2004 , Columbia entered the list at # 2 with 51 @.@ 8 Teraflops , and there was at least one Itanium @-@ based computer in the top 10 from then until June 2007 . The peak number of Itanium @-@ based machines on the list occurred in the November 2004 list , at 84 systems ( 16 @.@ 8 % ) ; by June 2012 , this had dropped to one system ( 0 @.@ 2 % ) , and no Itanium system remained on the list in November 2012 .
= = Processors = =
= = = Released processors = = =
The Itanium processors show a progression in capability . Merced was a proof of concept . McKinley dramatically improved the memory hierarchy and allowed Itanium to become reasonably competitive . Madison , with the shift to a 130 nm process , allowed for enough cache space to overcome the major performance bottlenecks . Montecito , with a 90 nm process , allowed for a dual @-@ core implementation and a major improvement in performance per watt . Montvale added three new features : core @-@ level lockstep , demand @-@ based switching and front @-@ side bus frequency of up to 667 MHz .
= = = Future processors = = =
During the HP vs. Oracle support lawsuit , court documents unsealed by Santa Clara County Court judge revealed in 2008 , Hewlett @-@ Packard had paid Intel Corp. around $ 440 million to keep producing and updating Itanium microprocessors from 2009 to 2014 . In 2010 , the two companies signed another $ 250 million deal , which obliged Intel to continue making Itanium central processing units for HP 's machines until 2017 . Under the terms of the agreements , HP has to pay for chips it gets from Intel , while Intel launches Tukwila , Poulson , Kittson and Kittson + chips in a bid to gradually boost performance of the platform .
= = = = Kittson = = = =
Kittson is planned to follow Poulson . Kittson , like Poulson , will be manufactured using Intel 's 32 nm process . Few other details are known beyond the existence of the codename and the binary and socket compatibility with Poulson and Tukwila , though moving to a common socket with x86 Xeon " will be evaluated for future implementation opportunities " after Kittson .
= = Market reception = =
= = = High @-@ end server market = = =
When first released in 2001 , Itanium 's performance was disappointing compared to better @-@ established RISC and CISC processors . Emulation to run existing x86 applications and operating systems was particularly poor , with one benchmark in 2001 reporting that it was equivalent at best to a 100 MHz Pentium in this mode ( 1 @.@ 1 GHz Pentiums were on the market at that time ) . Itanium failed to make significant inroads against IA @-@ 32 or RISC , and suffered further following the arrival of x86 @-@ 64 systems which offered greater compatibility with older x86 applications .
In a 2009 article on the history of the processor — " How the Itanium Killed the Computer Industry " — journalist John C. Dvorak reported " This continues to be one of the great fiascos of the last 50 years " . Tech columnist Ashlee Vance commented that the delays and underperformance " turned the product into a joke in the chip industry . " In an interview , Donald Knuth said " The Itanium approach ... was supposed to be so terrific — until it turned out that the wished @-@ for compilers were basically impossible to write . "
Both Red Hat and Microsoft announced plans to drop Itanium support in their operating systems due to lack of market interest ; however , other Linux distributions such as Gentoo and Debian remain available for Itanium . On March 22 , 2011 , Oracle Corporation announced that it would no longer develop new products for HP @-@ UX on Itanium , although it would continue to provide support for existing products . Following this announcement , HP sued Oracle for breach of contract , arguing that Oracle had violated conditions imposed during settlement over Oracle 's hiring of former HP CEO Mark Hurd as its co @-@ CEO , requiring the vendor to support Itanium on its software " until such time as HP discontinues the sales of its Itanium @-@ based servers " , and that the breach had harmed its business . In 2012 , a court ruled in favor of HP , and ordered Oracle to resume its support for Itanium . In June 2016 , Hewlett @-@ Packard Enterprise ( the corporate successor to HP 's server business ) was awarded $ 3 billion in damages from the lawsuit .
A former Intel official reported that the Itanium business had become profitable for Intel in late 2009 . By 2009 , the chip was almost entirely deployed on servers made by HP , which had over 95 % of the Itanium server market share , making the main operating system for Itanium HP @-@ UX . On March 22 , 2011 , Intel reaffirmed its commitment to Itanium with multiple generations of chips in development and on schedule .
= = = Other markets = = =
Although Itanium did attain limited success in the niche market of high @-@ end computing , Intel had originally hoped it would find broader acceptance as a replacement for the original x86 architecture .
AMD chose a different direction , designing the less radical x86 @-@ 64 , a 64 @-@ bit extension to the existing x86 architecture , which Microsoft then supported , forcing Intel to introduce the same extensions in its own x86 @-@ based processors . These designs can run existing 32 @-@ bit applications at native hardware speed , while offering support for 64 @-@ bit memory addressing and other enhancements to new applications . This architecture has now become the predominant 64 @-@ bit architecture in the desktop and portable market . Although some Itanium @-@ based workstations were initially introduced by companies such as SGI , they are no longer available .
= = Timeline = =
1989 :
HP begins investigating EPIC .
1994 :
June : HP and Intel announce partnership .
1995 :
September : HP , Novell , and SCO announce plans for a " high volume UNIX operating system " to deliver " 64 @-@ bit networked computing on the HP / Intel architecture " .
1996 :
October : Compaq announces it will use IA @-@ 64 .
1997 :
June : IDC predicts IA @-@ 64 systems sales will reach $ 38bn / yr by 2001 .
October : Dell announces it will use IA @-@ 64 .
December : Intel and Sun announce joint effort to port Solaris to IA @-@ 64 .
1998 :
March : SCO admits HP / SCO Unix alliance is now dead .
June : IDC predicts IA @-@ 64 systems sales will reach $ 30bn / yr by 2001 .
June : Intel announces Merced will be delayed , from second half of 1999 to first half of 2000 .
September : IBM announces it will build Merced @-@ based machines .
October : Project Monterey is formed to create a common UNIX for IA @-@ 64 .
1999 :
February : Project Trillian is formed to port Linux to IA @-@ 64 .
August : IDC predicts IA @-@ 64 systems sales will reach $ 25bn / yr by 2002 .
October : Intel announces the Itanium name .
October : the term Itanic is first used in The Register .
2000 :
February : Project Trillian delivers source code .
June : IDC predicts Itanium systems sales will reach $ 25bn / yr by 2003 .
July : Sun and Intel drop Solaris @-@ on @-@ Itanium plans .
August : AMD releases specification for x86 @-@ 64 , a set of 64 @-@ bit extensions to Intel 's own x86 architecture intended to compete with IA @-@ 64 . It will eventually market this under the name " AMD64 " .
2001 :
June : IDC predicts Itanium systems sales will reach $ 15bn / yr by 2004 .
June : Project Monterey dies .
July : Itanium is released .
October : IDC predicts Itanium systems sales will reach $ 12bn / yr by the end of 2004 .
November : IBM 's 320 @-@ processor Titan NOW Cluster at National Center for Supercomputing Applications is listed on the TOP500 list at position # 34 .
November : Compaq delays Itanium Product release due to problems with processor .
December : Gelato is formed .
2002 :
March : IDC predicts Itanium systems sales will reach $ 5bn / yr by end 2004 .
June : Itanium 2 is released .
2003 :
April : IDC predicts Itanium systems sales will reach $ 9bn / yr by end 2007 .
April : AMD releases Opteron , the first processor with x86 @-@ 64 extensions .
June : Intel releases the " Madison " Itanium 2 .
2004 :
February : Intel announces it has been working on its own x86 @-@ 64 implementation ( which it will eventually market under the name " Intel 64 " ) .
June : Intel releases its first processor with x86 @-@ 64 extensions , a Xeon processor codenamed " Nocona " .
June : Thunder , a system at LLNL with 4096 Itanium 2 processors , is listed on the TOP500 list at position # 2 .
November : Columbia , an SGI Altix 3700 with 10160 Itanium 2 processors at NASA Ames Research Center , is listed on the TOP500 list at position # 2 .
December : Itanium system sales for 2004 reach $ 1.4bn.
2005 :
January : HP ports OpenVMS to Itanium
February : IBM server design drops Itanium support .
June : An Itanium 2 sets a record SPECfp2000 result of 2 @,@ 801 in a Hitachi , Ltd . Computing blade .
September : Itanium Solutions Alliance is formed .
September : Dell exits the Itanium business .
October : Itanium server sales reach $ 619M / quarter in the third quarter .
October : Intel announces one @-@ year delays for Montecito , Montvale , and Tukwila .
2006 :
January : Itanium Solutions Alliance announces a $ 10bn collective investment in Itanium by 2010 .
February : IDC predicts Itanium systems sales will reach $ 6.6bn / yr by 2009 .
June : Intel releases the dual @-@ core " Montecito " Itanium 2 9000 series .
2007 :
April : CentOS ( RHEL @-@ clone ) places Itanium support on hold for the 5 @.@ 0 release .
October : Intel releases the " Montvale " Itanium 2 9100 series .
November : Intel renames the family from Itanium 2 back to Itanium .
2009 :
December : Red Hat announces that it is dropping support for Itanium in the next release of its enterprise OS , Red Hat Enterprise Linux 6 .
2010 :
February : Intel announces the " Tukwila " Itanium 9300 series .
April : Microsoft announces phase @-@ out of support for Itanium .
October : Intel announces new releases of Intel C + + Compiler and Intel Fortran Compiler for x86 / x64 , while Itanium support is only available in older versions .
2011 :
March : Oracle Corporation announces that it will stop developing application software , middleware , and Oracle Linux for the Itanium .
March : Intel and HP reiterate their support of Itanium .
April : Huawei and Inspur announce that they will develop Itanium servers .
2012 :
February : Court papers were released from a case between HP and Oracle Corporation that gave insight to the fact that HP was paying Intel $ 690 million to keep Itanium on life support .
SAP discontinues support for Business Objects on Itanium .
September : In response to a court ruling , Oracle reinstitutes support for Oracle software on Itanium hardware .
2013 :
January : Intel cancels Kittson as a 22 nm shrink of Poulson , moving it instead to its 32 nm process .
November : HP announces that its NonStop servers will start using Intel 64 ( x86 @-@ 64 ) chips .
2014 :
December : HP announces that their next generation of Superdome X and Nonstop X servers would be equipped with Intel Xeon processors , and not Itanium . While HP continues to sell and offer support for the Itanium @-@ based Integrity portfolio , the introduction of a model based entirely on Xeon chips marks the end of an era .
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= German submarine U @-@ 43 ( 1939 ) =
German submarine U @-@ 43 was a Type IXA U @-@ boat of Nazi Germany 's Kriegsmarine during World War II . The keel for U @-@ 43 was laid down in August 1938 at Bremen ; she was launched in May 1939 and commissioned in August .
Between November 1939 and July 1943 , the U @-@ boat conducted 14 combat patrols , sinking 21 merchant ships for a total of 117 @,@ 036 gross register tons ( GRT ) , damaging one ship of 10 @,@ 350 GRT and another of 9 @,@ 131 GRT - enough for it to be declared a total loss .
U @-@ 43 was sunk on 30 July 1943 southwest of the Azores by a torpedo dropped by a United States Navy aircraft ; all 55 hands were lost .
= = Construction = =
U @-@ 43 was ordered for the Kriegsmarine on 21 November 1936 ( as part of Plan Z and in violation of the Treaty of Versailles ) . Her keel was laid down on 15 August 1938 by AG Weser , Bremen as yard number 946 . She was launched on 23 May 1939 and commissioned on 26 August of that same year under the command of Korvettenkapitän Wilhelm Ambrosius .
= = Design = =
As one of the eight original German Type IX submarines , later designated IXA , U @-@ 43 had a displacement of 1 @,@ 032 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 016 long tons ) when at the surface and 1 @,@ 153 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 135 long tons ) while submerged . The U @-@ boat had a total length of 76 @.@ 50 m ( 251 ft ) , a pressure hull length of 58 @.@ 75 m ( 192 ft 9 in ) , a beam of 6 @.@ 51 m ( 21 ft 4 in ) , a height of 9 @.@ 40 m ( 30 ft 10 in ) , and a draught of 4 @.@ 70 m ( 15 ft 5 in ) . The submarine was powered by two MAN M 9 V 40 / 46 supercharged four @-@ stroke , nine @-@ cylinder diesel engines producing a total of 4 @,@ 400 metric horsepower ( 3 @,@ 240 kW ; 4 @,@ 340 shp ) for use while surfaced , two Siemens @-@ Schuckert 2 GU 345 / 34 double @-@ acting electric motors producing a total of 1 @,@ 000 metric horsepower ( 740 kW ; 990 shp ) for use while submerged . She had two shafts and two 1 @.@ 92 m ( 6 ft ) propellers . The boat was capable of operating at depths of up to 230 metres ( 750 ft ) .
The submarine had a maximum surface speed of 18 @.@ 2 knots ( 33 @.@ 7 km / h ; 20 @.@ 9 mph ) and a maximum submerged speed of 7 @.@ 7 knots ( 14 @.@ 3 km / h ; 8 @.@ 9 mph ) . When submerged , the boat could operate for 65 – 78 nautical miles ( 120 – 144 km ; 75 – 90 mi ) at 4 knots ( 7 @.@ 4 km / h ; 4 @.@ 6 mph ) ; when surfaced , she could travel 10 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 19 @,@ 400 km ; 12 @,@ 100 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . U @-@ 43 was fitted with six 53 @.@ 3 cm ( 21 in ) torpedo tubes ( four fitted at the bow and two at the stern ) , 22 torpedoes , one 10 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 13 in ) SK C / 32 naval gun , 180 rounds , and a 3 @.@ 7 cm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) as well as a 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) anti @-@ aircraft gun . The boat had a complement of forty @-@ eight .
= = Service history = =
= = = 1st patrol = = =
Commissioned into the 6th U @-@ boat Flotilla , based at Kiel , U @-@ 43 left for her first combat patrol of the war on 6 November 1939 , sailing around the British Isles and into the Atlantic . There , on 16 November , she attacked the 4 @,@ 915 ton British merchant ship Arlington Court , a straggler from Convoy SL @-@ 7A , en route from Rosario , Argentina to Hull with a cargo of 7 @,@ 340 tons of maize . The ship was hit by a single torpedo 320 nautical miles ( 590 km ; 370 mi ) west @-@ south @-@ west of Start Point in Devon . The crew abandoned ship , the U @-@ boat fired another torpedo , which sank the ship within 30 minutes . Seven of the crew were lost , the survivors were picked up by Dutch and Norwegian freighters . After the attack , U @-@ 43 was hunted by convoy escorts for 20 hours , sustaining some damage from depth charges .
Continuing with her patrol , U @-@ 43 attacked Convoy 14 @-@ BS in the Bay of Biscay , and sank the 4 @,@ 374 ton French merchant ship Arijon on 22 November . Convoy escorts counter @-@ attacked with 23 depth charges , but U @-@ 43 escaped without damage .
Late on 25 November 1939 , about 120 nautical miles ( 220 km ; 140 mi ) west @-@ north @-@ west of Cape Finisterre ( northwest Spain ) , U @-@ 43 attacked the unescorted 2 @,@ 483 ton British collier Uskmouth . Both G7a torpedoes malfunctioned ( a common problem in the early years of the war ) , so the U @-@ boat opened fire with her deck gun . After a while she fired another torpedo , but missed , so recommenced shelling . After firing 149 rounds , U @-@ 43 left the ship on fire and slowly sinking . Two crewmen were killed , while 23 survivors were picked up by an Italian merchant ship .
On the morning of 8 December U @-@ 43 was attacked by an unidentified aircraft and severely damaged . She returned to Wilhelmshaven six days later , on the 14th .
= = = 2nd patrol = = =
After the 6th U @-@ boat Flotilla was disbanded in December 1939 , U @-@ 43 was assigned to the 2nd U @-@ boat Flotilla based in Wilhelmshaven . U @-@ 43 departed from there on 13 March 1940 and sailed along the coast of Norway , north of Scotland , and into the waters west of Ireland , but had no success . The First Watch Officer ( second @-@ in @-@ command of the U @-@ boat ) Oberleutnant zur See Hans @-@ Wilhelm Behrens fell overboard and was lost on 31 March . U @-@ 43 returned to Wilhelmshaven , after 25 days at sea , on 6 April .
= = = 3rd patrol = = =
U @-@ 43 's third voyage began on 12 April 1940 . She patrolled the North Sea and along the Norwegian coast , supporting the invasion of that country . On 22 April she was bombed by two British Hudson aircraft and suffered slight damage . She returned to Wilhelmshaven the next day .
= = = 4th patrol = = =
U @-@ 43 sailed from Wilhelmshaven on 13 May 1940 and out into the Atlantic . Her first attack took place on 28 May , south @-@ west of Land 's End , when she fired a torpedo at the British merchant ship Alca . She missed , and then opened fire with her deck gun . The armed ship returned fire , but neither vessel made any hits ; the U @-@ boat broke off the attack .
U @-@ 43 finally found success on 21 June when she attacked Convoy 65 @-@ X south @-@ west of Figueira da Foz , Portugal , hitting the 8 @,@ 627 ton British tanker Yarraville with a single torpedo . The ship caught fire and sank . Five crew members were killed , the 45 survivors were picked up by a French trawler .
Late on 30 June U @-@ 43 hit the 13 @,@ 376 ton British merchant ship SS Avelona Star with a single torpedo 220 nautical miles ( 410 km ; 250 mi ) northwest of Cape Finisterre . The ship , part of Convoy SL @-@ 36 , was en route from Buenos Aires to London with a cargo of 5 @,@ 630 tons of frozen meat and 1 @,@ 000 tons of oranges . The crew abandoned the ship , which foundered the next day . One crewman was killed in the attack , the 84 survivors were picked up by the British merchant ship Beignon , which was subsequently torpedoed and sunk by U @-@ 30 on 1 July . Three survivors from Avelona Star were killed .
On the evening of 9 July U @-@ 43 sank the unescorted 3 @,@ 944 ton British merchant ship Aylesbury about 200 nautical miles ( 370 km ; 230 mi ) southeast of Ireland . Hit by two torpedoes , the ship sank in 15 minutes . All 35 crew survived .
U @-@ 43 's fourth and final success on her fourth patrol took place on the morning of 17 July when she sank the 3 @,@ 509 @-@ ton British merchant ship Fellside , a straggler from convoy OA @-@ 184 , about 135 nautical miles ( 250 km ; 155 mi ) north @-@ west of Bloody Foreland ( Cnoc Fola ) , Donegal . The U @-@ boat 's first torpedo passed under the vessel , but the second struck the ship and caused her to sink within five minutes . Twelve of the crew were killed , 21 survivors were rescued . U @-@ 43 arrived back at Wilhelmshaven on 22 July after 71 days at sea .
= = = 5th patrol = = =
U @-@ 43 sailed from Wilhelmshaven on 9 September 1940 , stopping at Bergen , Norway for three days before sailing on the 15th for another Atlantic patrol . She sank only one ship , the 5 @,@ 802 ton British merchantman Sulairia , separated from Convoy OB @-@ 217 , on 25 September . The U @-@ boat hit the ship with a single torpedo causing her to sink 356 nautical miles ( 659 km ; 410 mi ) west of Achill Head , County Mayo . One man was lost , the remaining 56 crewmen were picked up by HMCS Ottawa .
U @-@ 43 then made for her new home port at Lorient in France , where the 2nd U @-@ boat Flotilla had relocated in June after the fall of that country , arriving there on 18 October . Her commander , Wilhelm Ambrosius , was promoted to Korvettenkapitän on 1 November , and left U @-@ 43 , going on to take command of the 22nd U @-@ boat Flotilla in January 1941 . Command of the U @-@ boat passed to Oberleutnant zur See Wolfgang Lüth , who would go on to become the second most successful German submarine commander of the war .
= = = 6th patrol = = =
Under her new captain , U @-@ 43 left Lorient on 10 November 1940 and returned to the waters west of Ireland , where she sank three more merchant ships and damaged a fourth .
On the morning of 2 December she attacked Convoy OB @-@ 251 west @-@ south @-@ west of Rockall and sank two ships . Her first victim was the 7 @,@ 113 ton British merchant ship Pacific President , which was hit by two torpedoes and quickly sank with the loss of her crew of 50 men . Forty @-@ five minutes later U @-@ 43 hit the 12 @,@ 247 ton British oil tanker Victor Ross with two torpedoes . A third torpedo was fired five minutes later , but missed , the U @-@ boat evaded a ramming attempt by crash @-@ diving shortly afterwards . However , she persisted and hit the ship with a fourth torpedo 20 minutes later , sinking her . There were no survivors from her 44 crew .
In the evening of 6 December , U @-@ 43 spotted a ship and pursued her for three and a half hours before firing a single torpedo , which missed . The U @-@ boat fired another torpedo 20 minutes later , hitting the unknown ship and sinking her in 63 seconds . The vessel is believed to be the 1 @,@ 902 ton Norwegian merchant ship Skrim , which had lost contact with Convoy OB @-@ 252 two days before in heavy weather and was never seen again .
Finally , on 13 December , U @-@ 43 fired two torpedoes at the unescorted 10 @,@ 350 ton British merchant ship Orari about 450 nautical miles ( 830 km ; 520 mi ) southwest of Ireland . One torpedo hit the ship in the stern . However , U @-@ 43 had no torpedoes left , and the sea was too rough for her to use her deck gun . The crew of the ship managed to plug the hole with tarpaulins , and the ship made it under her own power to the Clyde .
U @-@ 43 returned to Lorient on 17 December 1940 after a patrol of 38 days . On 4 February 1941 , while at Lorient docks , U @-@ 43 was sunk after a valve was accidentally left open , putting the U @-@ boat out of action for the next three months .
= = = 7th patrol = = =
After this enforced absence U @-@ 43 began her next patrol on 11 May 1941 , still under the command of Wolfgang Lüth , who had been promoted to Kapitänleutnant on 1 January . Once again she sailed out into the mid @-@ Atlantic , where she sank three ships .
Early on the morning of 15 May U @-@ 43 opened fire with her deck gun and anti @-@ aircraft guns on the 488 ton French three @-@ masted sailing ship Notre Dame du Châtelet , en route from St. Malo to the Grand Banks of Newfoundland to fish . After being hit by 45 shells the ship sank . Lüth suspected that the vessel was reporting the positions of U @-@ boats to Allied forces , while the 10 survivors thought they had been attacked by a British submarine . They , from her crew of 38 , abandoned ship in two lifeboats . Two were picked up by the Italian submarine Otaria on 23 May .
On the evening of 6 June U @-@ 43 put two torpedoes into the 4 @,@ 802 ton Dutch merchant ship Yselhaven about 600 nautical miles ( 1 @,@ 100 km ; 690 mi ) east of Newfoundland . The ship , separated from Convoy OB @-@ 328 , sank within two minutes . Only 10 of her crew of 34 survived to be rescued by the Finnish merchantman Hammarland on 15 June .
In the early hours of 17 June , U @-@ 43 torpedoed and sank the 2 @,@ 727 ton British merchant ship Cathrine , part of Convoy SL @-@ 76 , which was loaded with 3 @,@ 700 tons of manganese ore , about 250 nautical miles ( 460 km ; 290 mi ) south @-@ west of Cape Clear ( southern Ireland ) . Only three men survived from her crew of 27 ; they spent 33 days in a lifeboat before being found by a British trawler .
U @-@ 43 returned to Lorient on 1 July after a patrol lasting 52 days .
= = = 8th and 9th patrols = = =
U @-@ 43 's next patrol , beginning on 2 August 1941 , took her back out into the mid @-@ Atlantic for 53 days , but she had no success before returning to Lorient on 23 September .
U @-@ 43 went to sea again on 10 November 1941 , this time she was more successful , sinking three ships near the Azores .
Early on the morning of 29 November , U @-@ 43 fired two torpedoes at the 5 @,@ 569 ton British merchant ship Thornliebank , part of Convoy OS @-@ 12 , and loaded with general cargo and munitions , about 240 nautical miles ( 440 km ; 280 mi ) north @-@ north @-@ west of the Azores . Both torpedoes struck the ship , which exploded violently . There were no survivors from the crew of 75 men . Despite being about 1 @,@ 200 metres ( 0 @.@ 75 mi ) distant , debris from the explosion struck the surfaced U @-@ boat , slightly injuring a crewman ; the next day an unfuzed 10 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) shell was found lodged in the conning tower .
On the evening of 30 November , the 4 @,@ 868 @-@ ton British merchant ship Ashby , a straggler from Convoy OS @-@ 12 , was hit by one of two torpedoes fired by U @-@ 43 , 170 nautical miles ( 310 km ; 200 mi ) south @-@ south @-@ east of Flores in the Azores . The ship sank within four minutes with the loss of 17 of her crew of 50 . The survivors were picked up by the Portuguese destroyer Lima . After the attack the U @-@ boat was depth charged for several hours by convoy escorts , but managed to escape unharmed .
At about 17 : 00 on 1 December 1941 , U @-@ 43 and U @-@ 575 spotted the 7 @,@ 542 ton unescorted and unarmed tanker Astral . Both U @-@ boats gave chase , but after four hours U @-@ 575 , commanded by Kapitänleutnant Günther Heydemann , observed the large American flag painted on her side and abandoned the pursuit . U @-@ 43 continued to follow the neutral ship , firing a torpedo at her around midnight , which missed . The ship immediately began to sail a zigzag evasive course at full speed , but the U @-@ boat had no problem following her in the light of the full moon . The next morning U @-@ 43 hit the Astral with two torpedoes . The ship , loaded with 78 @,@ 200 barrels ( 12 @,@ 430 m3 ) of gasoline and kerosene , exploded and sank within minutes . There were no survivors from her crew of 37 . The Astral was the third of four American merchant ships sunk by U @-@ boats prior to America 's entry into the war .
U @-@ 43 returned to Lorient on 16 December .
= = = 10th patrol = = =
Lüth 's last patrol with the boat began on 30 December 1941 , when U @-@ 43 sailed from Lorient into the mid @-@ Atlantic , where she sank three more ships . The first was the 5 @,@ 246 ton Swedish cargo ship Yngaren , straggling from convoy HX @-@ 168 due to bad weather , about 600 nautical miles ( 1 @,@ 100 km ; 690 mi ) west of Ireland . On the morning of 12 January 1942 the ship was hit by two torpedoes and sank within a minute . Six British passengers and 32 crewmen were lost , the only two survivors were spotted on a raft on 10 February by a British patrol aircraft , which directed a fishing trawler to their position the next day .
Early in the morning of 14 January , U @-@ 43 attacked Convoy ON @-@ 55 south of Iceland and sank the 6 @,@ 641 ton British merchant ship Empire Surf . Only six of the crew of 53 survived to be picked up by HMS Alisma . About two hours later U @-@ 43 attacked the convoy again and sank the 5 @,@ 707 ton Panama @-@ registered American merchant ship Chepo . There were 21 survivors from her 38 crew .
The U @-@ boat then sailed to Kiel , arriving on 22 January . Command of the U @-@ boat passed to her 1.WO , Oberleutnant zur See Hans @-@ Joachim Schwantke , as Lüth left to commission U @-@ 181 .
= = = 11th patrol = = =
U @-@ 43 's first patrol under her new commander began on 4 July 1942 , as she sailed from Kiel via the ' gap ' between Iceland and the Faroe Islands into the mid @-@ Atlantic . However , she achieved no success , and arrived back at Lorient on 15 August after 43 days at sea .
= = = 12th patrol = = =
U @-@ 43 's next patrol was more successful , departing from Lorient on 23 September 1942 , sailing across the Atlantic and into the Gulf of Saint Lawrence .
On the morning of 18 November , U @-@ 43 fired four torpedoes at Convoy SC @-@ 109 and hit the 9 @,@ 131 ton American tanker Brilliant , loaded with 90 @,@ 704 barrels ( 14 @,@ 420 @.@ 8 m3 ) of fuel oil . A 40 @-@ foot ( 12 m ) diameter hole was made in her side , and the cargo caught fire . While some of the crew abandoned ship , those remaining aboard managed to put the fires out ; making only three knots , the ship limped the 300 nautical miles ( 560 km ; 350 mi ) to Bonavista Bay , Newfoundland , arriving on 24 November . Brilliant eventually left Newfoundland on 18 January 1943 under tow , but after two days the ship broke in half . The fore section sank immediately , while the aft section drifted for some days before it was found and the 44 crew rescued . The aft section was taken in tow , but sank the next day . U @-@ 43 arrived back at Lorient on 9 December after a patrol of 78 days .
= = = 13th patrol = = =
U @-@ 43 's first patrol of 1943 began on 9 January , patrolling the waters between the Azores and the West African coast . On 3 March she spotted a vessel , identified it as a British Blue Star Line merchant ship , and hit it with three torpedoes , it sank it within two minutes . Only later did U @-@ 43 learn that it was the 5 @,@ 154 ton German blockade runner Doggerbank , formerly the British Speybank that had been captured by the auxiliary cruiser Atlantis in January 1941 . The ship was carrying 7 @,@ 000 tons of rubber , fats , fish oil , and other raw materials from Yokohama to France ; she was several days ahead of her scheduled arrival date .
U @-@ 43 returned to Lorient on 31 March after 82 days at sea .
= = = 14th patrol = = =
U @-@ 43 's final patrol began when she sailed from Lorient on 13 July 1943 and headed southwest into the Atlantic . On the evening of 19 July , in company with U @-@ 403 in the Bay of Biscay , the two U @-@ boats were attacked by a British Liberator Mk.V bomber of No. 86 Squadron RAF . U @-@ 403 crash @-@ dived immediately , covered by the AA fire of U @-@ 43 , which then dived . The Liberator was slightly damaged and a crewman wounded , but dropped two homing torpedoes . Neither U @-@ boat was damaged and both escaped .
= = = = Sinking = = = =
On 30 July 1943 , U @-@ 43 was attacked again , this time by a Grumman TBF Avenger torpedo bomber from the American escort carrier USS Santee . The aircraft dropped a Mark 24 FIDO Torpedo and sank the U @-@ boat southwest of the Azores , in position 34 ° 57 ′ N 35 ° 11 ′ W. All 55 crew members went down with the submarine .
= = = Wolfpacks = = =
U @-@ 43 took part in 10 wolfpacks , namely .
Rösing ( 12 – 15 June 1940 )
West ( 17 May – 16 June 1941 )
Kurfürst ( 16 – 20 June 1941 )
Grönland ( 10 – 27 August 1941 )
Markgraf ( 27 August – 12 September 1941 )
Steuben ( 14 November – 2 December 1941 )
Wolf ( 13 – 30 July 1942 )
Pirat ( 31 July – 3 August 1942 )
Rochen ( 27 January – 28 February 1943 )
Tümmler ( 1 – 19 March 1943 )
= = Summary of raiding history = =
During her service in the Kriegsmarine , U @-@ 43 sank 21 merchant ships for a total of 117 @,@ 036 GRT , damaged one vessel of 10 @,@ 350 GRT , and another of 9 @,@ 131 GRT - enough for it to be declared a total loss .
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= Coeliac disease =
Coeliac disease , also spelled celiac disease , is an autoimmune disorder affecting primarily the small intestine that occurs in people who are genetically predisposed . Classic symptoms include gastrointestinal problems such as chronic diarrhoea , abdominal distention , malabsorption , loss of appetite , and among children failure to grow normally . This often begins between six months and two years of age . Non @-@ classic symptoms are the most common , especially in people older than two years . There may be mild or absent gastrointestinal symptoms , a wide number of symptoms involving any part of the body , or no obvious symptoms . Coeliac disease was first described in childhood ; however , it may develop at any age . It is associated with other autoimmune diseases , such as diabetes mellitus type 1 and thyroiditis , among others .
Coeliac disease is caused by a reaction to gluten , which are various proteins found in wheat and in other grains such as barley , and rye . Moderate quantities of oats , free of contamination with other gluten @-@ containing grains , are usually tolerated but problems may depend on the type consumed . Upon exposure to gluten , an abnormal immune response may lead to the production of several different autoantibodies that can affect a number of different organs . In the small @-@ bowel this causes an inflammatory reaction and may produce shortening of the villi lining the small intestine ( villous atrophy ) . This affects the absorption of nutrients , frequently leading to anaemia .
Diagnosis is typically made by a combination of blood antibody tests and intestinal biopsies , helped by specific genetic testing . Making the diagnosis is not always straightforward . Frequently , the autoantibodies in the blood are negative and many people have only minor intestinal changes with normal villi . People may have severe symptoms and be investigated for years before a diagnosis is achieved . Increasingly , the diagnosis is being made in people without symptoms as a result of screening . While the disease is caused by a permanent intolerance to wheat proteins , it is usually classified as different from the other forms of wheat allergy .
The only known effective treatment is a strict lifelong gluten @-@ free diet , which leads to recovery of the intestinal mucosa , improves symptoms , and reduced risk of developing complications in most people . If untreated it may result in cancers such as intestinal lymphoma and a slight increased risk of early death . Rates vary between different regions of the world , from as few as 1 in 300 to as many as 1 in 40 , with an average of between 1 in 100 and 1 in 170 people . In developed countries , it is estimated that five out of six cases ( 83 % ) remain undiagnosed , usually because of non @-@ classic , minimal , or absent complaints . Coeliac disease is slightly more common in women than in men . The term " coeliac " is from the Greek κοιλιακός ( koiliakós , " abdominal " ) and was introduced in the 19th century in a translation of what is generally regarded as an ancient Greek description of the disease by Aretaeus of Cappadocia .
= = Signs and symptoms = =
The classic symptoms of coeliac disease include pale , loose , and greasy stool ( steatorrhoea ) and weight loss or failure to gain weight ( in young children ) . More commonly symptoms are subtle or primarily occur in organs other than the bowel itself . It is also possible to have coeliac disease without any symptoms whatsoever . This represents at least in 43 % of the cases in children . Many adults with subtle disease only have fatigue or anaemia .
= = = Gastrointestinal = = =
The diarrhea that is characteristic of coeliac disease is ( chronic ) pale , voluminous , and abnormally malodorous . Abdominal pain and cramping , bloatedness with abdominal distension ( thought to be due to fermentative production of bowel gas ) , and mouth ulcers may be present . As the bowel becomes more damaged , a degree of lactose intolerance may develop . Frequently , the symptoms are ascribed to irritable bowel syndrome ( IBS ) , only later to be recognised as coeliac disease ; a small proportion of people with symptoms of IBS have underlying coeliac disease , and screening for coeliac disease is recommended for those with IBS symptoms .
Coeliac disease leads to an increased risk of both adenocarcinoma and lymphoma of the small bowel ( enteropathy @-@ associated T @-@ cell lymphoma ( EATL ) or other non @-@ Hodgkin 's lymphomas ) . This risk is also higher in first @-@ degree relatives such as siblings , parents , and children . Whether or not a gluten @-@ free diet brings this risk back to baseline is not clear . Long @-@ standing and untreated disease may lead to other complications , such as ulcerative jejunitis ( ulcer formation of the small bowel ) and stricturing ( narrowing as a result of scarring with obstruction of the bowel ) .
= = = Malabsorption @-@ related = = =
The changes in the bowel make it less able to absorb nutrients , minerals , and the fat @-@ soluble vitamins A , D , E , and K.
The inability to absorb carbohydrates and fats may cause weight loss ( or failure to thrive / stunted growth in children ) and fatigue or lack of energy .
Anaemia may develop in several ways : iron malabsorption may cause iron deficiency anaemia , and folic acid and vitamin B12 malabsorption may give rise to megaloblastic anaemia .
Calcium and vitamin D malabsorption ( and compensatory secondary hyperparathyroidism ) may cause osteopenia ( decreased mineral content of the bone ) or osteoporosis ( bone weakening and risk of fragility fractures ) .
Selenium malabsorption in coeliac disease , combined with low selenium content in many gluten @-@ free foods , confers a risk of selenium deficiency ,
Copper and zinc deficiencies have also been associated with coeliac disease .
A small proportion have abnormal coagulation due to vitamin K deficiency and are slightly at risk for abnormal bleeding .
= = = Miscellaneous = = =
Coeliac disease has been linked with a number of conditions . In many cases , it is unclear whether the gluten @-@ induced bowel disease is a causative factor or whether these conditions share a common predisposition .
IgA deficiency is present in 2 @.@ 3 % of people with coeliac disease , and in turn this condition features a tenfold increased risk of coeliac disease . Other features of this condition are an increased risk of infections and autoimmune disease .
Dermatitis herpetiformis , an itchy cutaneous condition , has been linked to a transglutaminase enzyme in the skin , features small @-@ bowel changes identical to those in coeliac disease , and may respond to gluten withdrawal even if no gastrointestinal symptoms are present .
Growth failure and / or pubertal delay in later childhood can occur even without obvious bowel symptoms or severe malnutrition . Evaluation of growth failure often includes coeliac screening .
Pregnancy complications can occur in case of coeliac disease as an intercurrent disease in pregnancy , with significant complications including miscarriage , intrauterine growth restriction , low birthweight and preterm birth .
Hyposplenism ( a small and underactive spleen ) occurs in about a third of cases and may predispose to infection given the role of the spleen in protecting against bacteria .
Abnormal liver function tests ( randomly detected on blood tests ) may be seen .
Coeliac disease is associated with a number of other medical conditions , many of which are autoimmune disorders : diabetes mellitus type 1 , hypothyroidism , primary biliary cirrhosis , microscopic colitis , gluten ataxia , psoriasis , vitiligo , autoimmune hepatitis , dermatitis herpetiformis , primary sclerosing cholangitis , and more .
A more controversial area is a group of diseases in which antigliadin antibodies ( an older and nonspecific test for coeliac disease ) are sometimes detected but no small bowel disease can be demonstrated . Sometimes these conditions improve by removing gluten from the diet . This includes cerebellar ataxia , peripheral neuropathy , schizophrenia , and autism .
= = Cause = =
Coeliac disease is caused by a reaction to gliadin , a prolamin ( gluten protein ) found in wheat , and similar proteins found in the crops of the tribe Triticeae ( which includes other common grains such as barley and rye ) .
= = = Other grains = = =
Wheat subspecies ( such as spelt , durum and Kamut ) and related species ( such as barley , rye and triticale ) also induce symptoms of coeliac disease . A small number of people with coeliac also react to oats . It is most probable that oats produce symptoms due to cross @-@ contamination with other grains in the fields or in the distribution channels . Therefore , oats are generally not recommended . However , many companies assure the ' purity ' of oats , and they are therefore still able to be consumed through these sources .
Other cereals such as corn , millet , sorghum , teff , rice , and wild rice are safe for people with coeliac to consume , as well as noncereals such as amaranth , quinoa , and buckwheat . Noncereal carbohydrate @-@ rich foods such as potatoes and bananas do not contain gluten and do not trigger symptoms .
= = = Risk modifiers = = =
There are various theories as to what determines whether a genetically susceptible individual will go on to develop coeliac disease . Major theories include infection by rotavirus or human intestinal adenovirus . Some research has suggested that smoking is protective against adult @-@ onset coeliac disease .
The eating of gluten early in a baby 's life does not appear to increase the risk of CD but later introduction after 6 months may increase it . There is uncertainty whether breastfeeding reduces risk . Prolonging breastfeeding until the introduction of gluten @-@ containing grains into the diet appears to be associated with a 50 % reduced risk of developing coeliac disease in infancy ; whether this persists into adulthood is not clear . These factors may just influence the timing of onset . Factors that can trigger symptoms include : surgery , pregnancy , infection and emotional stress .
= = Pathophysiology = =
Coeliac disease appears to be multifactorial , both in that more than one genetic factor can cause the disease and in that more than one factor is necessary for the disease to manifest in a person .
Almost all people ( 95 % ) with coeliac disease have either the variant HLA @-@ DQ2 allele or ( less commonly ) the HLA @-@ DQ8 allele . However , about 20 – 30 % of people without coeliac disease have also inherited either of these alleles . This suggests additional factors are needed for coeliac disease to develop ; that is , the predisposing HLA risk allele is necessary but not sufficient to develop coeliac disease . Furthermore , around 5 % of those people who do develop coeliac disease do not have typical HLA @-@ DQ2 or HLA @-@ DQ8 alleles ( see below ) .
= = = Genetics = = =
The vast majority of people with coeliac have one of two types of the HLA @-@ DQ protein . HLA @-@ DQ is part of the MHC class II antigen @-@ presenting receptor ( also called the human leukocyte antigen ) system and distinguishes cells between self and non @-@ self for the purposes of the immune system . The two subunits of the HLA @-@ DQ protein are encoded by the HLA @-@ DQA1 and HLA @-@ DQB1 genes , located on the short arm of the sixth chromosome .
There are seven HLA @-@ DQ variants ( DQ2 and DQ4 – DQ9 ) . Over 95 % of people with coeliac have the isoform of DQ2 or DQ8 , which is inherited in families . The reason these genes produce an increase in risk of coeliac disease is that the receptors formed by these genes bind to gliadin peptides more tightly than other forms of the antigen @-@ presenting receptor . Therefore , these forms of the receptor are more likely to activate T lymphocytes and initiate the autoimmune process .
Most people with coeliac bear a two @-@ gene HLA @-@ DQ2 haplotype referred to as DQ2.5 haplotype . This haplotype is composed of two adjacent gene alleles , DQA1 * 0501 and DQB1 * 0201 , which encode the two subunits , DQ α5 and DQ β2 . In most individuals , this DQ2.5 isoform is encoded by one of two chromosomes 6 inherited from parents ( DQ2.5cis ) . Most coeliacs inherit only one copy of this DQ2.5 haplotype , while some inherit it from both parents ; the latter are especially at risk for coeliac disease as well as being more susceptible to severe complications .
Some individuals inherit DQ2.5 from one parent and an additional portion of the haplotype ( either DQB1 * 02 or DQA1 * 05 ) from the other parent , increasing risk . Less commonly , some individuals inherit the DQA1 * 05 allele from one parent and the DQB1 * 02 from the other parent ( DQ2.5trans ) ( called a trans @-@ haplotype association ) , and these individuals are at similar risk for coeliac disease as those with a single DQ2.5 @-@ bearing chromosome 6 , but in this instance disease tends not to be familial . Among the 6 % of European coeliacs that do not have DQ2.5 ( cis or trans ) or DQ8 ( encoded by the haplotype DQA1 * 03 : DQB1 * 0302 ) , 4 % have the DQ2.2 isoform , and the remaining 2 % lack DQ2 or DQ8 .
The frequency of these genes varies geographically . DQ2.5 has high frequency in peoples of North and Western Europe ( Basque Country and Ireland with highest frequencies ) and portions of Africa and is associated with disease in India , but is not found along portions of the West Pacific rim . DQ8 has a wider global distribution than DQ2.5 and is particularly common in South and Central America ; up to 90 % of individuals in certain Amerindian populations carry DQ8 and thus may display the coeliac phenotype .
Other genetic factors have been repeatedly reported in coeliac disease ; however , involvement in disease has variable geographic recognition . Only the HLA @-@ DQ loci show a consistent involvement over the global population . Many of the loci detected have been found in association with other autoimmune diseases . One locus , the LPP or lipoma @-@ preferred partner gene , is involved in the adhesion of extracellular matrix to the cell surface , and a minor variant ( SNP = rs1464510 ) increases the risk of disease by approximately 30 % . This gene strongly associates with coeliac disease ( p < 10 − 39 ) in samples taken from a broad area of Europe and the US .
The prevalence of coeliac disease genotypes in the modern population is not completely understood . Given the characteristics of the disease and its apparent strong heritability , it would normally be expected that the genotypes would undergo negative selection and to be absent in societies where agriculture has been practised the longest ( compare with a similar condition , Lactose intolerance , which has been negatively selected so strongly that its prevalence went from ~ 100 % in ancestral populations to less than 5 % in some European countries ) . This expectation was first proposed by Simoons ( 1981 ) . By now , however , it is apparent that this is not the case ; on the contrary , there is evidence of positive selection in coeliac disease genotypes . It is suspected that some of them may have been beneficial by providing protection against bacterial infections .
= = = Prolamins = = =
The majority of the proteins in food responsible for the immune reaction in coeliac disease are the prolamins . These are storage proteins rich in proline ( prol- ) and glutamine ( -amin ) that dissolve in alcohols and are resistant to proteases and peptidases of the gut . Prolamins are found in cereal grains with different grains having different but related prolamins : wheat ( gliadin ) , barley ( hordein ) , rye ( secalin ) , corn ( zein ) and as a minor protein , avenin in oats . One region of α @-@ gliadin stimulates membrane cells , enterocytes , of the intestine to allow larger molecules around the sealant between cells . Disruption of tight junctions allow peptides larger than three amino acids to enter circulation .
Membrane leaking permits peptides of gliadin that stimulate two levels of immune response , the innate response and the adaptive ( T @-@ helper cell mediated ) response . One protease @-@ resistant peptide from α @-@ gliadin contains a region that stimulates lymphocytes and results in the release of interleukin @-@ 15 . This innate response to gliadin results in immune @-@ system signalling that attracts inflammatory cells and increases the release of inflammatory chemicals . The strongest and most common adaptive response to gliadin is directed toward an α2 @-@ gliadin fragment of 33 amino acids in length .
The response to the 33mer occurs in most coeliacs who have a DQ2 isoform . This peptide , when altered by intestinal transglutaminase , has a high density of overlapping T @-@ cell epitopes . This increases the likelihood that the DQ2 isoform will bind and stay bound to peptide when recognised by T @-@ cells . Gliadin in wheat is the best @-@ understood member of this family , but other prolamins exist , and hordein ( from barley ) and secalin ( from rye ) may contribute to coeliac disease . However , not all prolamins will cause this immune reaction , and there is ongoing controversy on the ability of avenin ( the prolamin found in oats ) to induce this response in coeliac disease .
= = = Tissue transglutaminase = = =
Anti @-@ transglutaminase antibodies to the enzyme tissue transglutaminase ( tTG ) are found in the blood of the majority of people with classic symptoms and complete villous atrophy , but only in 70 % of the cases with partial villous atrophy and 30 % of the cases with minor mucosal lesions . Tissue transglutaminase modifies gluten peptides into a form that may stimulate the immune system more effectively . These peptides are modified by tTG in two ways , deamidation or transamidation .
Deamidation is the reaction by which a glutamate residue is formed by cleavage of the epsilon @-@ amino group of a glutamine side chain . Transamidation , which occurs three times more often than deamidation , is the cross @-@ linking of a glutamine residue from the gliadin peptide to a lysine residue of tTg in a reaction which is catalysed by the transglutaminase . Crosslinking may occur either within or outside the active site of the enzyme . The latter case yields a permanently covalently linked complex between the gliadin and the tTg . This results in the formation of new epitopes which are believed to trigger the primary immune response by which the autoantibodies against tTg develop .
Stored biopsies from people with suspected coeliac disease have revealed that autoantibody deposits in the subclinical coeliacs are detected prior to clinical disease . These deposits are also found in people who present with other autoimmune diseases , anaemia , or malabsorption phenomena at a much increased rate over the normal population . Endomysial components of antibodies ( EMA ) to tTG are believed to be directed toward cell @-@ surface transglutaminase , and these antibodies are still used in confirming a coeliac disease diagnosis . However , a 2006 study showed that EMA @-@ negative people with coeliac tend to be older males with more severe abdominal symptoms and a lower frequency of " atypical " symptoms , including autoimmune disease . In this study , the anti @-@ tTG antibody deposits did not correlate with the severity of villous destruction . These findings , coupled with recent work showing that gliadin has an innate response component , suggest that gliadin may be more responsible for the primary manifestations of coeliac disease , whereas tTG is a bigger factor in secondary effects such as allergic responses and secondary autoimmune diseases . In a large percentage of people with coeliac , the anti @-@ tTG antibodies also recognise a rotavirus protein called VP7 . These antibodies stimulate monocyte proliferation , and rotavirus infection might explain some early steps in the cascade of immune cell proliferation .
Indeed , earlier studies of rotavirus damage in the gut showed this causes a villous atrophy . This suggests that viral proteins may take part in the initial flattening and stimulate self @-@ crossreactive anti @-@ VP7 production . Antibodies to VP7 may also slow healing until the gliadin @-@ mediated tTG presentation provides a second source of crossreactive antibodies .
Other intestinal disorders may have biopsy that look like coeliac disease including lesions caused by Candida .
= = = Villous atrophy and malabsorption = = =
The inflammatory process , mediated by T cells , leads to disruption of the structure and function of the small bowel 's mucosal lining and causes malabsorption as it impairs the body 's ability to absorb nutrients , minerals and fat @-@ soluble vitamins A , D , E and K from food . Lactose intolerance may be present due to the decreased bowel surface and reduced production of lactase but typically resolves once the condition is treated .
Alternative causes of this tissue damage have been proposed and involve release of interleukin 15 and activation of the innate immune system by a shorter gluten peptide ( p31 – 43 / 49 ) . This would trigger killing of enterocytes by lymphocytes in the epithelium . The villous atrophy seen on biopsy may also be due to unrelated causes , such as tropical sprue , giardiasis and radiation enteritis . While positive serology and typical biopsy are highly suggestive of coeliac disease , lack of response to diet may require these alternative diagnoses to be considered .
= = Diagnosis = =
Diagnosis is often very difficult so that most cases are diagnosed with great delay . There are several tests that can be used . The level of symptoms may determine the order of the tests , but all tests lose their usefulness if the person is already eating a gluten @-@ free diet . Intestinal damage begins to heal within weeks of gluten being removed from the diet , and antibody levels decline over months . For those who have already started on a gluten @-@ free diet , it may be necessary to perform a rechallenge with some gluten @-@ containing food in one meal a day over 6 weeks before repeating the investigations .
= = = Blood tests = = =
Serological blood tests are the first @-@ line investigation required to make a diagnosis of coeliac disease . Its sensitivity correlates with the degree of histological lesions . People who present minor damage of the small intestine may have seronegative findings so many patients with coeliac disease often are missed . In patients with villous atrophy , anti @-@ endomysial ( EMA ) antibodies of the immunoglobulin A ( IgA ) type can detect coeliac disease with a sensitivity and specificity of 90 % and 99 % , respectively . Serology for anti @-@ transglutaminase antibodies ( anti @-@ tTG ) was initially reported to have a higher sensitivity ( 99 % ) and specificity ( > 90 % ) . However , it is now thought to have similar characteristics to anti @-@ endomysial antibody . Both anti @-@ transglutaminase and anti @-@ endomysial antibodies have high sensitivity to diagnose people with classic symptoms and complete villous atrophy , but they are only found in 30 @-@ 89 % of the cases with partial villous atrophy and in less than 50 % of the people who have minor mucosal lesions ( duodenal lymphocytosis ) with normal villi .
Tissue transglutaminase modifies gluten peptides into a form that may stimulate the immune system more effectively . These peptides are modified by tTG in two ways , deamidation or transamidation . Modern anti @-@ tTG assays rely on a human recombinant protein as an antigen. tTG testing should be done first as it is an easier test to perform . An equivocal result on tTG testing should be followed by anti @-@ endomysial antibodies .
Guidelines recommend that a total serum IgA level is checked in parallel , as people with coeliac with IgA deficiency may be unable to produce the antibodies on which these tests depend ( " false negative " ) . In those people , IgG antibodies against transglutaminase ( IgG @-@ tTG ) may be diagnostic .
If all these antibodies are negative , then it should be determined anti @-@ DGP antibodies ( antibodies against deamidated gliadin peptides ) . IgG class anti @-@ DGP antibodies may be useful in people with IgA deficiency . In children younger than two years , anti @-@ DGP antibodies perform better than anti @-@ endomysial and anti @-@ transglutaminase antibodies tests .
Because of the major implications of a diagnosis of coeliac disease , professional guidelines recommend that a positive blood test is still followed by an endoscopy / gastroscopy and biopsy . A negative serology test may still be followed by a recommendation for endoscopy and duodenal biopsy if clinical suspicion remains high .
Historically three other antibodies were measured : anti @-@ reticulin ( ARA ) , anti @-@ gliadin ( AGA ) and anti @-@ endomysial ( EMA ) antibodies . ARA testing , however , is not accurate enough for routine diagnostic use . Serology may be unreliable in young children , with anti @-@ gliadin performing somewhat better than other tests in children under five . Serology tests are based on indirect immunofluorescence ( reticulin , gliadin and endomysium ) or ELISA ( gliadin or tissue transglutaminase , tTG ) .
Antibody testing may be combined with HLA testing if the diagnosis is unclear . TGA and EMA testing are the most sensitive serum antibody tests , but as a negative HLA @-@ DQ type excludes the diagnosis of coeliac disease , testing also for HLA @-@ DQ2 or DQ8 maximises sensitivity and negative predictive values . However , widespread use of HLA typing to rule out coeliac disease is not currently recommended .
= = = Endoscopy = = =
An upper endoscopy with biopsy of the duodenum ( beyond the duodenal bulb ) or jejunum is performed to obtain multiple samples ( four to eight ) from the duodenum . Not all areas may be equally affected ; if biopsies are taken from healthy bowel tissue , the result would be a false negative . Even in the same bioptic fragment , different degrees of damage may be present .
Most people with coeliac disease have a small intestine that appears to be normal on endoscopy before the biopsies are examined . However , five findings have been associated with a high specificity for coeliac disease : scalloping of the small bowel folds ( pictured ) , paucity in the folds , a mosaic pattern to the mucosa ( described as a " cracked @-@ mud " appearance ) , prominence of the submucosa blood vessels , and a nodular pattern to the mucosa .
European guidelines suggest that in children and adolescents with symptoms which are compatible with coeliac disease , the diagnosis can be made without the need for intestinal biopsy if anti @-@ tTG antibodies titres are very high ( 10 times the upper limit of normal ) .
Until the 1970s , biopsies were obtained using metal capsules attached to a suction device . The capsule was swallowed and allowed to pass into the small intestine . After x @-@ ray verification of its position , suction was applied to collect part of the intestinal wall inside the capsule . Often @-@ utilised capsule systems were the Watson capsule and the Crosby – Kugler capsule . This method has now been largely replaced by fibre @-@ optic endoscopy , which carries a higher sensitivity and a lower frequency of errors .
Capsule endoscopy ( CE ) allows identification of typical mucosal changes observed in coeliac disease but has a lower sensitivity compared to regular endoscopy and histology . CE is therefore not the primary diagnostic tool for coeliac disease . However , CE can be used for diagnosing T @-@ cell lymphoma , ulcerative jejunoileitis and adenocarcinoma in refractory or complicated coeliac disease .
= = = Pathology = = =
The classic pathology changes of coeliac disease in the small bowel are categorised by the " Marsh classification " :
Marsh stage 0 : normal mucosa
Marsh stage 1 : increased number of intra @-@ epithelial lymphocytes ( IELs ) , usually exceeding 20 per 100 enterocytes
Marsh stage 2 : proliferation of the crypts of Lieberkühn
Marsh stage 3 : partial or complete villous atrophy and crypt hypertrophy
Marsh stage 4 : hypoplasia of the small intestine architecture
Marsh 's classification , introduced in 1992 , was subsequently modified in 1999 to six stages , where the previous stage 3 was split in three substages . Further studies demonstrated that this system was not always reliable and that the changes observed in coeliac disease could be described in one of three stages :
A representing lymphocytic infiltration with normal villous appearance ;
B1 describing partial villous atrophy ; and
B2 describing complete villous atrophy .
The changes classically improve or reverse after gluten is removed from the diet . However , most guidelines do not recommend a repeat biopsy unless there is no improvement in the symptoms on diet . In some cases , a deliberate gluten challenge , followed by biopsy , may be conducted to confirm or refute the diagnosis . A normal biopsy and normal serology after challenge indicates the diagnosis may have been incorrect .
In untreated coeliac disease , villous atrophy is more common in children younger than three years , but in older children and adults , it is common to find minor intestinal lesions ( duodenal lymphocytosis ) with normal intestinal villi .
= = = Other diagnostic tests = = =
At the time of diagnosis , further investigations may be performed to identify complications , such as iron deficiency ( by full blood count and iron studies ) , folic acid and vitamin B12 deficiency and hypocalcaemia ( low calcium levels , often due to decreased vitamin D levels ) . Thyroid function tests may be requested during blood tests to identify hypothyroidism , which is more common in people with coeliac disease .
Osteopenia and osteoporosis , mildly and severely reduced bone mineral density , are often present in people with coeliac disease , and investigations to measure bone density may be performed at diagnosis , such as dual @-@ energy X @-@ ray absorptiometry ( DXA ) scanning , to identify risk of fracture and need for bone protection medication .
= = = Gluten withdrawal = = =
Although blood antibody tests , biopsies , and genetic tests usually provide a clear diagnosis , occasionally the response to gluten withdrawal on a gluten @-@ free diet is needed to support the diagnosis . Currently , gluten challenge is no longer required to confirm the diagnosis in patients with intestinal lesions compatible with coeliac disease and a positive response to a gluten @-@ free diet . Nevertheless , in some cases , a gluten challenge with a subsequent biopsy may be useful to support the diagnosis , for example in people with a high suspicion for coeliac disease , without a biopsy confirmation , who have negative blood antibodies and are already on a gluten @-@ free diet . Gluten challenge is discouraged before the age of 5 years and during pubertal growth . The alternative diagnosis of non @-@ coeliac gluten sensitivity may be made where there is only symptomatic evidence of gluten sensitivity . Gastrointestinal and extraintestinal symptoms of people with non @-@ coeliac gluten sensitivity can be similar to those of coeliac disease , and improve when gluten is removed from the diet , after coeliac disease and wheat allergy are reasonably excluded .
A careful interpretation of the symptomatic response is needed , as a lack of response in a person with coeliac disease may be due to continued ingestion of small amounts of gluten , either voluntary or inadvertent , or be due to other commonly associated conditions such as small intestinal bacterial overgrowth ( SIBO ) , lactose intolerance , fructose , sucrose , and sorbitol malabsorption , and exocrine pancreatic insufficiency , among others . In untreated coeliac disease , these are often transient conditions derived from the intestinal damage . They normally revert or improve several months after starting a gluten @-@ free diet , but may need temporary interventions such as supplementation with pancreatic enzymes , dietary restrictions of lactose , fructose , sucrose or sorbitol containing foods , or treatment with oral antibiotics in the case of associated bacterial overgrowth . In addition to gluten withdrawal , some people need to follow a low @-@ FODMAPs diet or avoid consumption of commercial gluten @-@ free products , which are usually rich in preservatives and additives ( such as sulfites , glutamates , nitrates and benzoates ) and which might have a role in triggering functional gastrointestinal symptoms .
= = Screening = =
There is significant debate as to the benefits of screening . Some studies suggest that early detection would decrease the risk of osteoporosis and anaemia . In contrast , a cohort study suggested that people with undetected coeliac disease had a beneficial risk profile for cardiovascular disease ( less overweight , lower cholesterol levels ) . There is limited evidence that screen @-@ detected cases benefit from a diagnosis in terms of morbidity and mortality ; hence , population @-@ level screening is not presently thought to be beneficial .
In the United Kingdom , the National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence ( NICE ) recommends screening for coeliac disease in people with newly diagnosed chronic fatigue syndrome and irritable bowel syndrome , as well as in type 1 diabetics , especially those with insufficient weight gain or unexplained weight loss . It is also recommended in autoimmune thyroid disease , dermatitis herpetiformis , and in the first @-@ degree relatives of those with confirmed coeliac disease .
In 2016 the United States Preventative Services Task Force found inadequate evidence for benefits or harms from screening people at any age who do not have symptoms .
Serology has been proposed as a screening measure , because the presence of antibodies would detect some previously undiagnosed cases of coeliac disease and prevent its complications in those people . However , serologic tests have high sensitivity only in people with total villous atrophy and have very low ability to detect cases with partial villous atrophy or minor intestinal lesions . Testing for coeliac disease may be offered to those with commonly associated conditions .
= = Treatment = =
= = = Diet = = =
At present , the only effective treatment is a lifelong gluten @-@ free diet . No medication exists that will prevent damage or prevent the body from attacking the gut when gluten is present . Strict adherence to the diet allows the intestines to heal , leading to resolution of all symptoms in most cases and , depending on how soon the diet is begun , can also eliminate the heightened risk of osteoporosis and intestinal cancer and in some cases sterility . The diet can be cumbersome ; failure to comply with the diet may cause relapse .
Dietitian input is generally requested to ensure the person is aware which foods contain gluten , which foods are safe , and how to have a balanced diet despite the limitations . In many countries , gluten @-@ free products are available on prescription and may be reimbursed by health insurance plans . Gluten @-@ free products are usually more expensive and harder to find than common gluten @-@ containing foods . Since ready @-@ made products often contain traces of gluten , some coeliacs may find it necessary to cook from scratch .
The term gluten @-@ free is generally used to indicate a supposed harmless level of gluten rather than a complete absence . The exact level at which gluten is harmless is uncertain and controversial . A recent systematic review tentatively concluded that consumption of less than 10 mg of gluten per day is unlikely to cause histological abnormalities , although it noted that few reliable studies had been done . Regulation of the label gluten @-@ free varies . In the European Union , the European Commission issued regulations in 2009 limiting the use of " gluten @-@ free " labels for food products to those with less than 20 mg / kg of gluten , and " very low gluten " labels for those with less than 100 mg / kg . In the United States , the FDA issued regulations in 2013 limiting the use of " gluten @-@ free " labels for food products to those with less than 20 ppm of gluten . The current international Codex Alimentarius standard allows for 20 ppm of gluten in so @-@ called " gluten @-@ free " foods . Several organisations , such as the Gluten @-@ Free Certification Organization ( GFCO ) , the Celiac Sprue Association ( CSA ) , and the National Foundation for Celiac Awareness ( NFCA ) , also certify products and companies as gluten @-@ free .
Even while on a diet , health @-@ related quality of life ( HRQOL ) may be lower in people with coeliac disease . Studies in the United States have found that quality of life becomes comparable to the general population after staying on the diet , while studies in Europe have found that quality of life remains lower , although the surveys are not quite the same . Men tend to report more improvement than women . Some have persisting digestive symptoms or dermatitis herpetiformis , mouth ulcers , osteoporosis and resultant fractures . Symptoms suggestive of irritable bowel syndrome may be present , and there is an increased rate of anxiety , fatigue , dyspepsia and musculoskeletal pain .
= = = Refractory disease = = =
Up to 5 % of people have refractory disease , which means they do not improve on a gluten @-@ free diet . This may be because the disease has been present for so long that the intestines are no longer able to heal on diet alone , or because the person is not adhering to the diet , or because the person is consuming foods that are inadvertently contaminated with gluten . If alternative causes have been eliminated , steroids or immunosuppressants ( such as azathioprine ) may be considered in this scenario .
= = Epidemiology = =
Globally coeliac diseases affects between 1 in 100 and 1 in 170 people . Rates , however , vary between different regions of the world from as few as 1 in 300 to as many as 1 in 40 . In the United States it is thought to affect between 1 in 1750 ( defined as clinical disease including dermatitis herpetiformis with limited digestive tract symptoms ) to 1 in 105 ( defined by presence of IgA TG in blood donors ) . Due to variable signs and symptoms it is believed that about 85 % of people affected are undiagnosed . The percentage of people with clinically diagnosed disease ( symptoms prompting diagnostic testing ) is 0 @.@ 05 – 0 @.@ 27 % in various studies . However , population studies from parts of Europe , India , South America , Australasia and the USA ( using serology and biopsy ) indicate that the percentage of people with the disease may be between 0 @.@ 33 and 1 @.@ 06 % in children ( but 5 @.@ 66 % in one study of children of the predisposed Sahrawi people ) and 0 @.@ 18 – 1 @.@ 2 % in adults . Among those in primary care populations who report gastrointestinal symptoms , the rate of coeliac disease is about 3 % . The rate amongst adult blood donors in Iran , Israel , Syria and Turkey is 0 @.@ 60 % , 0 @.@ 64 % , 1 @.@ 61 % and 1 @.@ 15 % , respectively .
People of African , Japanese and Chinese descent are rarely diagnosed ; this reflects a much lower prevalence of the genetic risk factors , such as HLA @-@ B8 . People of Indian ancestry seem to have a similar risk to those of Western Caucasian ancestry . Population studies also indicate that a large proportion of coeliacs remain undiagnosed ; this is due , in part , to many clinicians being unfamiliar with the condition and also due to the fact it can be asymptomatic . Coeliac disease is slightly more common in women than in men . A large multicentre study in the U.S. found a prevalence of 0 @.@ 75 % in not @-@ at @-@ risk groups , rising to 1 @.@ 8 % in symptomatic people , 2 @.@ 6 % in second @-@ degree relatives ( like grandparents , aunt or uncle , grandchildren , etc . ) of a person with coeliac disease and 4 @.@ 5 % in first @-@ degree relatives ( siblings , parents or children ) . This profile is similar to the prevalence in Europe . Other populations at increased risk for coeliac disease , with prevalence rates ranging from 5 % to 10 % , include individuals with Down and Turner syndromes , type 1 diabetes , and autoimmune thyroid disease , including both hyperthyroidism ( overactive thyroid ) and hypothyroidism ( underactive thyroid ) .
Historically , coeliac disease was thought to be rare , with a prevalence of about 0 @.@ 02 % . The reason for the recent increases in the number of reported cases is unclear . It may be at least in part due to changes in diagnostic practice . There also appears to be an approximately 4 @.@ 5 fold true increase that may be due to less exposure to bacteria and other pathogens in Western environments .
= = History = =
Humans first started to cultivate grains in the Neolithic period ( beginning about 9500 BCE ) in the Fertile Crescent in Western Asia , and it is likely that coeliac disease did not occur before this time . Aretaeus of Cappadocia , living in the second century in the same area , recorded a malabsorptive syndrome with chronic diarrhoea , causing a debilitation of the whole body . His " Cœliac Affection " ( coeliac from Greek κοιλιακός koiliakos , " abdominal " ) gained the attention of Western medicine when Francis Adams presented a translation of Aretaeus 's work at the Sydenham Society in 1856 . The patient described in Aretaeus ' work had stomach pain and was atrophied , pale , feeble and incapable of work . The diarrhoea manifested as loose stools that were white , malodorous and flatulent , and the disease was intractable and liable to periodic return . The problem , Aretaeus believed , was a lack of heat in the stomach necessary to digest the food and a reduced ability to distribute the digestive products throughout the body , this incomplete digestion resulting in the diarrhoea . He regarded this as an affliction of the old and more commonly affecting women , explicitly excluding children . The cause , according to Aretaeus , was sometimes either another chronic disease or even consuming " a copious draught of cold water . "
The paediatrician Samuel Gee gave the first modern @-@ day description of the condition in children in a lecture at Hospital for Sick Children , Great Ormond Street , London , in 1887 . Gee acknowledged earlier descriptions and terms for the disease and adopted the same term as Aretaeus ( coeliac disease ) . He perceptively stated : " If the patient can be cured at all , it must be by means of diet . " Gee recognised that milk intolerance is a problem with coeliac children and that highly starched foods should be avoided . However , he forbade rice , sago , fruit and vegetables , which all would have been safe to eat , and he recommended raw meat as well as thin slices of toasted bread . Gee highlighted particular success with a child " who was fed upon a quart of the best Dutch mussels daily . " However , the child could not bear this diet for more than one season .
Christian Archibald Herter , an American physician , wrote a book in 1908 on children with coeliac disease , which he called " intestinal infantilism . " He noted their growth was retarded and that fat was better tolerated than carbohydrate . The eponym Gee @-@ Herter disease was sometimes used to acknowledge both contributions . Sidney V. Haas , an American paediatrician , reported positive effects of a diet of bananas in 1924 . This diet remained in vogue until the actual cause of coeliac disease was determined .
While a role for carbohydrates had been suspected , the link with wheat was not made until the 1940s by the Dutch paediatrician Dr. Willem Karel Dicke . It is likely that clinical improvement of his patients during the Dutch famine of 1944 ( during which flour was scarce ) may have contributed to his discovery . Dicke noticed that the shortage of bread led to a significant drop in the death rate among children affected by coeliac disease from greater than 35 % to essentially zero . He also reported that once wheat was again available after the conflict , the mortality rate soared to previous levels . The link with the gluten component of wheat was made in 1952 by a team from Birmingham , England . Villous atrophy was described by British physician John W. Paulley in 1954 on samples taken at surgery . This paved the way for biopsy samples taken by endoscopy .
Throughout the 1960s , other features of coeliac disease were elucidated . Its hereditary character was recognised in 1965 . In 1966 , dermatitis herpetiformis was linked to gluten sensitivity .
= = Social and culture = =
May has been designated as " Coeliac Awareness Month " by several celiac organizations .
= = = Christian churches and the Eucharist = = =
Speaking generally , the various denominations of Christians celebrate a Eucharist in which a wafer or small piece of sacramental bread from wheat bread is blessed and then eaten . A typical wafer weighs about half a gram . Wheat flour contains around 10 to 13 % gluten , so a single communion wafer may have more than 50 mg of gluten , an amount which will harm the health of many people with coeliac especially if consumed every day ( see Diet above ) .
Many Christian churches offer their communicants gluten @-@ free alternatives , usually in the form of a rice @-@ based cracker or gluten @-@ free bread . These include the United Methodist , Christian Reformed , Episcopal , the Anglican Church ( Church of England , UK ) and Lutheran . Catholics may receive from the Chalice alone , or ask for gluten @-@ reduced hosts ; gluten @-@ free ones however are not considered to still be wheat bread , and hence invalid matter .
= = = = Roman Catholic position = = = =
Roman Catholic doctrine states that for a valid Eucharist , the bread to be used at Mass must be made from wheat . In 2002 , the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith approved German @-@ made low @-@ gluten hosts , which meet all of the Catholic Church 's requirements , for use in Italy ; although not entirely gluten @-@ free , they were also approved by the Italian Celiac Association . Some Catholics with coeliac have requested permission to use rice wafers ; such petitions have always been denied . As Catholic doctrine affirms that Christ is wholly and equally present under both species , it is possible to receive under the species of wine alone .
The issue is more complex for priests . As a celebrant , a priest is , for the fullness of the sacrifice of the Mass , absolutely required to receive under both species . On 24 July 2003 , the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith stated , " Given the centrality of the celebration of the Eucharist in the life of a priest , one must proceed with great caution before admitting to Holy Orders those candidates unable to ingest gluten or alcohol without serious harm . "
By January 2004 , extremely low @-@ gluten Church @-@ approved hosts had become available in the United States , Italy and Australia .
= = = Passover = = =
The Jewish festival of Pesach ( Passover ) may present problems with its obligation to eat matzo , which is unleavened bread made in a strictly controlled manner from wheat , barley , spelt , oats , or rye . This rules out many other grains that are normally used as substitutes for people with gluten sensitivity , especially for Ashkenazi Jews , who also avoid rice . Many kosher @-@ for @-@ Passover products avoid grains altogether and are therefore gluten @-@ free . Potato starch is the primary starch used to replace the grains . Consuming matzo is mandatory on the first night of Pesach only . Jewish law holds that one should not seriously endanger one 's health in order to fulfill a commandment . Thus , a person with severe coeliac disease is not allowed , let alone required , to eat any matzo other than gluten @-@ free matzo . The most commonly used gluten @-@ free matzo is made from oats .
= = Research directions = =
Various other approaches are being studied that would reduce the need of dieting . All are still under development , and are not expected to be available to the general public for a while .
Three main approaches have been proposed as new therapeutic modalities for coeliac disease : gluten detoxification , modulation of the intestinal permeability , and modulation of the immune response .
Using genetically engineered wheat species , or wheat species that have been selectively bred to be minimally immunogenic , may allow the consumption of wheat . This , however , could interfere with the effects that gliadin has on the quality of dough . Alternatively , gluten exposure can be minimised by the ingestion of a combination of enzymes ( prolyl endopeptidase and a barley glutamine @-@ specific cysteine endopeptidase ( EP @-@ B2 ) ) that degrade the putative 33 @-@ mer peptide in the duodenum .
Alternative treatments under investigation include the inhibition of zonulin , an endogenous signalling protein linked to increased permeability of the bowel wall and hence increased presentation of gliadin to the immune system . One inhibitor of this pathway is larazotide acetate , which is currently scheduled for phase 3 clinical trials . Other modifiers of other well @-@ understood steps in the pathogenesis of coeliac disease , such as the action of HLA @-@ DQ2 or tissue transglutaminase and the MICA / NKG2D interaction that may be involved in the killing of enterocytes .
Attempts to modulate the immune response with regard to coeliac disease are mostly still in phase I of clinical testing ; one agent ( CCX282 @-@ B ) has been evaluated in a phase II clinical trial on the basis of small @-@ intestinal biopsies taken from people with coeliac disease before and after gluten exposure .
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= Our Lady Star of the Sea and St Winefride , Amlwch =
Our Lady Star of the Sea and St Winefride , Amlwch is a Roman Catholic church in Amlwch , a town on the island of Anglesey , north Wales . It was built in the 1930s to a design by an Italian architect , Giuseppe Rinvolucri , using reinforced concrete . The church is in the shape of an upturned boat , reflecting Amlwch 's maritime heritage , and is dedicated to Our Lady , Star of the Sea ( a title of St Mary ) and St Winefride , a Welsh saint .
The church is a Grade II * listed building , a designation given to " particularly important buildings of more than special interest " , because it is a " remarkable inter @-@ war church " , built to " a highly unusual and experimental design " . The Twentieth Century Society has called it " a rare and unique church " , and it has also been called " one of Britain 's most avant @-@ garde churches " .
= = Location and history = =
The church is on the A5025 road , about 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) to the west of Amlwch , a town on the north coast of Anglesey , Wales . It is dedicated to St Mary ( under the title Our Lady , Star of the Sea ) and to St Winefride , a 7th @-@ century Welsh noblewoman who is also venerated at St Winefride 's Well , Flintshire . Construction of the church began in 1932 , when the foundations were excavated . It was completed in 1937 , and the church was consecrated in the same year . The architect was Giuseppe Rinvolucri , an Italian engineer from Piedmont , who settled in Conwy , north Wales , because his English wife was suffering from tuberculosis . His specialist field was the design of Roman Catholic churches , and other – more conventional – examples of his work can be found in Abergele and Porthmadog , also in north Wales .
The church is part of Caernarfon Deanery within the Diocese of Wrexham . As of 2012 , the parish priest is Father Michael Ryan , of the Missionary Oblates of Mary Immaculate . The parish of Amlwch also includes the churches of St David , Cemaes Bay , and Our Lady of Lourdes , Benllech .
Damage from the weather and deterioration in the concrete meant that the church closed for worship in 2004 , requiring worshippers to attend services elsewhere on Anglesey . Demolition was a possibility in 2006 . An appeal launched raised the estimated £ 1 @.@ 2 million to £ 1 @.@ 4 million necessary for repairs , which included replacing the roof coverings , redecorating internally and externally , and repairing the steps . An application for planning permission for the work was submitted in May 2008 to the Isle of Anglesey County Council . An application for a grant of £ 840 @,@ 000 from the Heritage Lottery Fund was rejected on 18 March 2009 , with the committee concerned about the proposed new extension ( terming it " inappropriate " ) , although recognising the " high heritage merit " of the proposal . Cadw ( the Welsh Assembly Government body responsible for the built heritage of Wales ) made a grant of £ 150 @,@ 000 in 2007 ; the National Churches Trust made a grant of £ 10 @,@ 000 in June 2010 ; and other bodies and individuals made donations to the appeal . The church reopened after its restoration on 1 May 2011 with a Mass celebrated by the Bishop of Wrexham , Edwin Regan .
= = Architecture and fittings = =
Built of reinforced concrete , the building is designed in the style of an upturned boat , and the design has a " nautical theme " with elements such as porthole windows . This is a deliberate reference to Amlwch 's history as a port town and its position on the coast . The church has six concrete parabolic arch " ribs " along the outside , with portholes on the base plinth between each rib .
The main entrance is at the south end of the church at the top of some stone steps on either side . A window ( shaped , like all the others in the church , like a star ) set in mosaic is positioned above the door , and there is a stone cross at the top of the facade . The concrete of the church is dressed with stone on the south side , nearest the main road . The ribs on the outside are visible inside the building ; in between them , there are patterns of lights and coloured marble panels on the lower parts of the interior walls . The vestry is to the rear of the church , and there is a parish hall , built from masonry , underneath the church . The altar was replaced in 1995 and again on the reopening of the church in 2011 , when a carved crucifix , which was brought to Amlwch from a former convent in Liverpool , was also dedicated . The porch houses a sepulchral slab , dating from the latter half of the 13th century .
= = Assessment = =
The church is a Grade II * listed building – the second @-@ highest of the three grades of listing , designating " particularly important buildings of more than special interest " . It was given this status on 12 December 2000 , and has been listed as " a remarkable inter @-@ war church " . Cadw describes it as " striking and individual " , and " a highly unusual and experimental design which exploits the plastic qualities of its constructional material to create a powerfully expressive religious building . "
A 2006 guide to the churches of Anglesey describes it as " a very impressive building " , that " must surely be the most unusual church in Anglesey . " A 2009 guide to the buildings of north Wales describes it as " a piece of Italian architectural daring " . Referring to the French structural engineer Eugène Freyssinet , who worked with concrete , the guide rhetorically asks , " What inspired this Futurist church , closer to Freyssinet 's 1920s airship hangars at Orly , Paris , than to Catholic church design , and so unlike the conservatism of Anglesey building ? " Writing before the church reopened , the heritage writer and journalist Simon Jenkins has said that the church was worth a visit for the exterior alone , even though it was closed . He noted the " sweeping parabolic arches , perhaps inspired by airship hangars or by upturned boats in Amlwch harbour " , as well as the " bold gable with sloping sides " at the west end , concluding " This church must be saved . " It has also been described as " one of Britain 's most avant @-@ garde churches " . The Twentieth Century Society has said that it is " by far [ Rinvolucri 's ] best work " , calling it " a rare and unique church " . It noted the " highly individual interpretation of its seaside setting " , with a " strikingly modern " parabolic design and a " monumental almost pyramidal aesthetic " at the entrance . A 2011 guide to religious buildings in Wales ( written before the church reopened ) described it as " most unusual " , but added that the fittings were " not worthy of the building " . It also noted one writer 's words that " no Catholic church ( nor any church of another denomination ) built in Britain between the wars has the frankly radical character of Amlwch . "
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= Hyōgo @-@ ku , Kobe =
Hyogo ( 兵庫区 , Hyōgo @-@ ku ) is one of nine wards of Kobe in Japan . It has an area of 14 @.@ 56 km2 and a population of 106 @,@ 322 ( as of January 1 , 2015 ) .
The area 's location with a natural harbour near the Akashi Strait which links Osaka Bay and the Seto inland sea has been an important location throughout the history of Japan . The capital of Japan was located in the area for a short period in the 12th century . Today the area is an important manufacturing zone .
The modern ward of Hyogo was formed as Sōsai @-@ ku ( 湊西区 , , lit . " Minato West Ward " ) when the City of Kobe adopted the system of wards in 1931 . Its name was changed to Hyogo in 1933 and its current boundaries were settled in 1971 . The floral emblem of the ward is the pansy .
= = Etymology = =
The literal meaning of the two kanji that make up the name Hyogo is " weapons warehouse " . From the Heian period , the area was also known as Ōwada @-@ no @-@ Tomari ( 大輪田泊 , Ōwada @-@ no @-@ tomari ) .
= = History = =
= = = Pre Edo period = = =
The features of the natural harbour around Wadamisaki peninsula has meant the port in Hyogo has been an important gateway to the Seto inland sea since the 8th century Nara period . In the 12th century , in the latter part of the Heian period , Taira no Kiyomori recognized the strategic benefit of the location and developed the harbor , including the building of Kyogashima ( ja : 経が島 ) , a man @-@ made island completed in 1173 and described as 37 hecatres in size in the The Tale of the Heike . Kiyomori , the de facto ruler of Japan between 1160 and 1180 , moved his official residence to Fukuhara , in what is modern @-@ day Hyogo . Fukuhara became the capital of Japan for a brief period near the end of Kiyomori 's rule . A monument erected shortly after his death , the Kiyomori @-@ zuka , stands in the gardens of a shrine opposite Kiyomori Bridge , also named in his honour .
= = = Edo @-@ Meiji periods = = =
During the Edo period Hyogo was within the Yatabe District of Settsu Province . Although Japan was placed under isolation by the ruling Tokugawa shogunate , Hyogo Port remained an important route for domestic trade . Given its importance , Hyogo Port was under the direct administration of the Shogunate via the Osaka machi @-@ bugyō . In 1868 , at the end of the Edo period , Hyogo port was one of the first to be opened to foreign vessels , ending Japan 's 250 @-@ year long isolation .
As part of the Shogunate 's efforts to protect Japan from Western colonial forces , the defence of Hyogo Port was upgraded with the construction of the Wadamisaki Battery , one of six land batteries built around Osaka Bay under the design of Count Katsu Kaishū . It was completed in 1864 after 18 months of construction at a cost of 25 @,@ 000 ryō . The outer enceinte was built of granite from the Shiwaku Islands and the inner two @-@ storey structure was made of keyaki ( Japanese elm ) wood harvested from the Nunobiki and Tekkai Mountains in Kobe . In 1921 the battery was the first place in Hyogo Prefecture to be designated as a historic site by the prefectural government .
Also , the Wadamisaki Lighthouse was completed in 1871 under the guidance of the " father of Japanese lighthouses " , Englishman Richard Henry Brunton , who was brought to Japan by the Shogunate under an 1867 agreement with the United Kingdom to build five western @-@ style lighthouses around Osaka Bay . The original lighthouse , which was first illuminated in 1872 , was a wooden octagonal structure . This was replaced with a 17m tall , three @-@ story , steel hexagonal structure in 1884 . The steel lighthouse was moved to the Suma Kaihin ( Seaside ) Park in Suma @-@ ku in 1967 and in September 1998 it was registered as a national tangible cultural asset under the name Old Wadamisaki Lighthouse ( 旧和田岬灯台 , Kyū @-@ Wadamisaki Tōdai ) .
= = = Modern period = = =
On 1 September 1931 the city of Kobe was the 6th city in Japan to adopt the system of dividing the city into wards . The area of the previous Hyogo town which lay west of the Minato River became Sōsai @-@ ku ( 湊西区 , , lit . " Minato West Ward " ) . The area of Hyogo town which lay east of the Minato River became part of Sōtō @-@ ku ( 湊東区 , , lit . " Minato East Ward " ) . On 1 January 1933 Sōsai 's name was changed to Hyogo in recognition of the area 's historic name .
= = = Bombing during World War II = = =
The concentration of military and industrial manufacturing facilities including Kobe Steel , Kawanishi Aircraft Company Kawasaki Aircraft Industries and the Kawasaki and Mitsubishi Shipyards made the city of Kobe a primary target of bombing by the United States during World War II . It suffered the highest fatality rate of the five major Japanese cities ( the others being Tokyo , Yokohama , Nagoya and Osaka ) .
The first attack upon Kobe was by one B @-@ 25 bomber as a part of the Dolittle Raid on 18 April 1942 . With Japan 's success in expanding its territory through south @-@ east Asia at the time , an attack by foreign aircraft was not expected at the time and it was reported that some residents even waved flags at the plane as it flew overhead , thinking it was a Japanese aircraft . One resident of Hyogo ward was the only fatality of the bombing of Kobe on that day .
In 1945 the United States changed tactics from strategic bombing of military sites to indiscriminate bombing of cities , including the use of incendiary cluster bombs . The first successful firebombing raid against Japan was an attack on Kobe on 4 February 1945 . The bombing was centred upon Hyogo and Minato wards .
With the final attack upon eastern Kobe in June 1945 , the United States command determined that Kobe had been destroyed to the extent that further attacks upon the city were not required . By the end of the war , Kobe had suffered more than 8 @,@ 000 deaths due to the air raids . Hyogo suffered the highest toll in terms of both lives lost and buildings destroyed .
= = = 1995 Kobe Earthquake = = =
At 5 : 46 on 17 January 1995 the Great Hanshin earthquake ( 阪神 ・ 淡路大震災 , Hanshin Awaji daishinsai ) ( also known as the Kobe earthquake ) devastated Kobe and the surrounding cities of the Hanshin region . Along with buildings that collapsed due to the earthquake , large areas of wooden houses and buildings burnt uncontrolled for many days , particularly in Nagata and Hyogo wards . A total of 6 @,@ 434 people died in the earthquake , of which the city of Kobe recorded fire as the cause of death of 528 people .
Infrastructure in Hyogo was also significantly damaged by the earthquake . The underground Daikai Station collapsed and brought down National Route 28 that runs above it . The loss of lives and infrastructure saw Hyogo lose a significant portion of its population ; the ward 's population has failed to return to its 1994 level twenty years later .
= = Geography = =
Hyogo is bounded by Osaka Bay to the south , Kita Ward to the north , Nagata Ward to the west and Chūō Ward to the east . It features the eastern portion of a network of canals named the " Hyogo Canals " ( Hyogo Unga ) in the south , and its northern border is at the base of the Rokko mountains .
= = = Hyogo Canals = = =
The Hyogo Unga is the generic name for the network of five canals located along the southern coast of Hyogo and Nagata Wards , facing Osaka Bay . The canals have a total length of 6 @,@ 470 metres and total area of almost 34 hectares , making it one of the largest canal netowrks in Japan . They were first planned in the 1870s and completed in December 1899 .
The five canals are :
Niigawa Canal – The first canal to be completed , it was built between 1874 and 1876 .
Hyogo Canal
Hyogo Feeder Canal
Karumojima Canal – The longest canal at 2,200m .
Shinminatogawa Canal – The shortest canal at 320m .
= = = Boundary changes = = =
Sōsai @-@ ku was one of seven wards established when the system of wards was adopted by the city on 1 September 1931 . Following the name change to Hyogo in 1933 , the next change occurred on 1 May 1945 when the city restructured the wards , with Hyogo expanded to include Minato @-@ ku , the western portion of Sōtō @-@ ku , and the portion of Hayashida @-@ ku that lay east of the Hyogo Canals .
On 1 March 1947 the city of Kobe expanded due to the merger of the town of Arima and nine other villages from the districts of Muko , Arima and Akashi . Of these , Arima town and the villages Yamada in Muko and Arino in Arima District became a part of Hyogo ward . On 1 July 1951 the villages of Hata , Dōjō and Ōzō that were located in Arima District merged into Kobe and Hyogo ward . On 15 October 1955 Nagao village in Arima merged into Kobe and Hyogo ward . This was followed by the village Ōgo of Minō District on 1 February 1958 . This expansion northwards made Hyogo the largest of Kobe 's wards in size , encompassing 256.4km2 of Kobe 's 557km2 .
On 1 August 1973 the area of Hyogo north of the Rokko mountains , consisting of all of the former villages from the districts of Arima , Minō and Muko , were split from Hyogo to create the new Kita @-@ ku . This reduced Hyogo to its current size of 14 @.@ 56 km2 .
= = Economy = =
= = = Industry = = =
Hyogo is one of the main industrial areas of Kobe . Fujitsu Ten is headquartered within the ward , and other large corporations including Kawasaki Heavy Industries , Mitsubishi Electric and Mitsubishi Heavy Industries have manufacturing facilities in Hyogo . In particular , railcars for the bullet train are manufactured in Hyogo by Kawasaki .
= = Arts and culture = =
= = = Temples and shrines = = =
= = = = Buddhist temples = = = =
As well as several monuments to Kiyomori , Hyogo is also the location of Nōfuku @-@ ji temple , home of the Hyogo Daibutsu , an 11 @-@ metre tall statue of Buddha .
= = = = Shinto shrines and festivals = = = =
Yanagihara Ebisu Shrine is in the centre of Hyogo , close to Hyogo Station . It hosts the Tōka @-@ Ebisu Festival ( 十日恵比寿大祭 , Tōka @-@ Ebisu Taisai , " 10th Day Ebisu Grand Festival " ) , an annual festival held from 9 to 11 January in honour of Ebisu , the Shinto god of commerce . At the event people pray for success in their business , the health and safety of their family , and success in studies and obtaining employment . Tōka @-@ Ebisu is the most important cultural event in Hyogo throughout the year .
A yakuyoke festival ( 厄除大祭 , yakuyoke taisai ) is held annually from 18 to 19 January at two Hachiman shrines within Hyogo , the Minatogawa Hachiman Shrine and Misaki Hachiman Shrine . People who are approaching an " unlucky age " ( yakudoshi ) attend the shrine during the two days in order to undergo a yakuharai ritual to ward off unlucky spirits .
= = = = Other places of worship = = = =
A Soka Gakkai church is located in the Misaki neighbourhood , close to the eastern end of the Hyogo canal . A Jehovah 's Witnesses church is also located in the Misaki @-@ Honmachi neighbourhood .
= = = Entertainment = = =
The Shinkaichi area in eastern Hyogo , with its numerous cinemas , theatres and restaurants , was known as the " Western Asakusa " in the period before World War II .
= = Sports = =
Misaki Park Stadium is the home of the Vissel Kobe professional soccer and Kobelco Steelers professional rugby teams . The stadium hosted matches during the 2002 FIFA World Cup and will also be one of the hosts of the 2019 Rugby World Cup .
It was built on the site of the former Kobe Central Stadium , which occupied the location from 1970 until 1999 . At the time of its construction , the Central Stadium was the first rectangular ball sports stadium built in Japan with lighting for night matches . It hosted one of the groups 1979 FIFA World Youth Championship as well as a quarter final and semi final of the tournament . The Kobe Keirin Stadium previously occupied the site and was in use from 1949 until 1960 .
= = Government = =
Hyogo is administered by the Hyogo ward office , which is located next to Minatogawa Station and Minatogawa Park . The Hyogo Police Station of the Hyogo Prefectural Police is located in the same vicinity and is responsible for policing the ward ( excluding the marine areas that fall within the Kobe Water Police 's jurisdiction ) . It maintains 14 kōban ( " police boxes " ) within the ward and a substation near Hyogo Station .
The ward is represented by 5 councilors in the 69 @-@ seat Kobe City council assembly . In the April 2015 unified local elections , two candidates from the Liberal Democratic Party and one each from the Komeito , Communist and Innovation / Democratic ( joint endorsement ) were elected to the council . Takashi Moriya , an LDP member elected to his sixth term in the council , was subsequently elected by the council 's members to serve as the council 's chairman .
Hyogo has two representatives on the 89 @-@ seat Hyogo Prefectural Assembly . At the April 2015 election Issei Matsuda of the Komeito Party was elected to his fourth term and Shigetoshi Fukushima of the Liberal Democratic Party was elected to his first term .
At the national level , the wards of Hyogo , Nagata and Kita form Hyogo No.2 District in the House of Representatives . Kazuyoshi Akaba of the Komeito Party has represented the district from 1993 to 2009 and again from 2012 until present , most recently elected to his 7th term in the December 2014 general election . Upon his return to the Diet in 2012 Akaba served as a Senior Vice @-@ Minister for Economy , Trade and Industry and Senior Vice @-@ Minister for the Cabinet Office in Prime Minister Shinzo Abe 's second cabinet from December 2012 until September 2014 . Voter turnout at the December 2014 general election was 45 @.@ 7 % of Hyogo 's 89 @,@ 848 eligible voters , the second lowest percentage in Kobe and below the national turnout rate of 52 @.@ 66 % . Electors in Hyogo also vote to elect members to the House of Representatives as part of the Kinki proportional representation block . For the House of Councillors , Hyogo is within the Hyogo at @-@ large district , which covers the entire prefecture and elects a total of 4 councilors , while residents also vote for the national PR block .
= = Education = =
The following educational institutions are located in Hyogo :
= = = High schools = = =
Kobe Technical High School ( operated by the Hyogo Prefectural Government )
Hyogo Technical High School ( operated by the Hyogo Prefectural Government )
Kobe Gakuin University High School ( operated by Kobe Gakuin University )
Kusunoki Senior High School ( operated by the City of Kobe )
Shinko Senior High School ( operated by the City of Kobe )
= = = Junior high schools = = =
All junior high schools in Hyogo are operated by the City of Kobe :
= = = Elementary schools = = =
All elementary schools in Hyogo are operated by the City of Kobe :
= = = Special education = = =
Kobe Yuusei Special Education School : A school for physically and mentally handicapped children , it has classes for children from kindergarten to high school .
= = Infrastructure = =
= = = Transportation = = =
= = = = Rail = = = =
Hyogo is served by the JR Kobe Line and Wadamisaki spur line , the Kaigan and Seishin @-@ Yamate lines of the Kobe Municipal Subway , Shintetsu Arima Line of the Kobe Electric Railway , and the Tozai Line ( which carries Hankyu , Hanshin and Sanyo services ) .
= = = = Road = = = =
Japan National Route 2 is the main arterial road through the area . Route 3 ( Kobe Route ) of the Hanshin Expressway runs above National Route 2 and the Yanagihara entrance / exit ramp provides a connection point . Other highways that run through the ward include National Routes 28 and 428 .
= = = Utilities = = =
Water utilities in the ward are under the responsibility of the Kobe city water bureau . The Okuhirano Water Purification Plant , located in Kusudani @-@ cho in the north of the ward , was opened in 1900 and was the 7th modern waterworks plant to be constructed in Japan . It occupies a 65,000m2 site and is capable of processing 60,000m3 of water per day . The Kobe Water Science Museum is also located on the site .
Hyogo Post Office is the main office of Japan Post within the ward . It is located in Daikaidōri , in the centre of the ward , and operates a further 19 offices within the ward .
= = = Wholsale market = = =
The Kobe City Central Wholesale Market ( ja : 神戸市中央卸売市場 ) is located on Nakanojima Island , in the southeastern corner of the ward . The market was first built in Hyogo port in 1932 and was the fifth such market to be opened in Japan . The market sells seafood , fruit and vegetables via wholesale and auction , and operates a further two markets in Nagata and Higashinada wards . There are restaurants and retail shops on site and an Aeon shopping mall is planned to open opposite the market in September 2016 . The Chūō @-@ Ichibamae Station of the Kaigan subway line is located beneath the market .
= = Notable people = =
Takeo Azuma ( 1878 @-@ unknown ) - silent film actor
Kazume Iritani ( 1961- ) - rakugo musician
Karumogawa Shinjiro ( 1886 @-@ unknown ) - sumo wrestler
Hide Kawanishi ( 1894 @-@ 1965 ) - printmaker and painter
Kazuki Kuriyama ( 1963- ) - songwriter and producer
Atsuhiro Mitsuhara ( 1980- ) - baseball player
Nobuo Okishio ( 1927 @-@ 2003 ) - economics professor
Shiko Saito ( 1901 @-@ 1961 ) - actor
Takatōriki Tadashige ( 1967- ) - sumo wrestler
上原みなみ ( 1969- ) - television presenter and Kobe city councillor
Miyuki Utsumi ( 1957- ) - singer
Knock Yokoyama ( 1932 @-@ 2007 ) - comedian and politician
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= Scarygirl =
Scarygirl ( also stylized as ScaryGirl ) is an adventure @-@ platformer video game for the Xbox 360 's Xbox Live Arcade , PlayStation 3 's PlayStation Network and the personal computer . Prior to being adapted as a console and PC game , Scarygirl was a graphic novel by Nathan Jurevicius , a Flash game , and a downloadable title for the PlayStation Portable . Developed by TikGames and published by Square Enix , Scarygirl was released on January 18 , 2012 with an ESRB rating of 10 + .
Scarygirl places the player in control of a girl who is sent from her home to a far @-@ away city on a rescue mission . The girl is able to jump , grapple , and hover her way though seven game worlds , either alone or with another player in a cooperative multiplayer mode . Combat is handled through combining strings of light and heavy attacks , with grapple @-@ based attacks becoming available once enemies take enough damage . Roundly praised for Jurevicius ' art , ScaryGirl received otherwise mixed reviews upon its release . Critics found fault with both the control scheme and its combat system , although boss battles did receive some praise .
= = Gameplay = =
Scarygirl is a side @-@ scrolling adventure game with platforming and action components . Players control the protagonist Scarygirl as she navigates and fights through twenty @-@ one stages spread across seven distinct worlds . The game uses a 2.5D visual style and employs parallax scrolling to create visual depth .
Outside of combat , Scargirl navigates the game world by running , jumping , gliding , and using her tentacle arm to grapple onto objects . Scarygirl eventually gains access to a feather attachment that can replace the hook on her tentacle arm , allowing Scarygirl to hover and reach otherwise inaccessible locations . Stages contain deadly traps that have to be avoided , often by grappling over them , and most stages contain at least two paths through the stage , although after choosing one the option to backtrack and take the other route exists . Crystals , which can be used to purchase combat upgrades for both combat and exploration , and heart fragments , which increase Scarygirl 's maximum health , are scattered throughout stages . In order to get all of the crystals and heart fragments , players will have to traverse both paths through stages that have more than one path .
In combat , Scarygirl has light and heavy attacks , which can be strung together to form combos . Heavy attacks have the ability to launch enemies in the air . After enemies take a certain amount of damage , they can be grappled and thrown or used to bludgeon other enemies . Additional moves are available for purchase using crystals , such as a grappling attack that heals Scarygirl or an attack that turns Scarygirl 's tentacle into a club with a smashing attack . Additional weapons , which replace the hook at the end of Scarygirl 's tentacle arm , are also available for purchase , and include an anchor and a fan . Scarygirl charges a meter when she attacks , and is able to enter a " Rage Mode " once it is fully charged . In rage mode Scarygirl gains the ability to eat enemies , restoring her own health in the process .
Scarygirl does not have an online component , but does support two player cooperative multiplayer . The second player is able to drop in or out of the game at any time , and plays as Bunniguru . Bunniguru is faster than Scarygirl and has a different , martial arts inspired , set of moves in combat , but lacks Scarygirl 's ability to grapple .
= = Plot = =
In the game , the player controls Scarygirl , a young girl with an eye patch , a sewn @-@ shut mouth and a hook @-@ capped tentacle for one arm . The girl , an orphan , was raised and cared for by Blister , an intelligent , mustached octopus that built the girl a tree house to live in . Plagued by recurring nightmares that featured a mysterious man , the girl consults Bunnyguru , a rabbit that lives in the bottom of the tree where the girl makes her home . Bunniguru offers a vision of a city far away from the girl 's home . The girl is then sent by Blister into a forest to investigate why the Tree of Life is losing its leaves , where she discovers that one of the keepers of the forest has been kidnapped and taken to the city from Bunnyguru 's vision , and becomes tasked with seeing to the keeper of the forest 's safe return .
= = Reception = =
Scarygirl received mixed reviews upon its release . The game received a Metacritic score of 66 for the PlayStation 3 and a 63 for the Xbox 360 . Critics praised the game 's visuals , with Nathan Meunier of GamesRadar stating that the game " really stands out " as one of the " more visually impressive and creatively designed downloadable offerings " in recent years . Peter Eykemans of IGN wrote that " the art highlights the journey " and that " the overall aesthetics are beautiful " . Edge Magazine , in a highly critical review , called the game " successful only as an interactive showcase of Jurevicius ' art " . Simon Parkin of Eurogamer , in a review that was much kinder to the game overall , also called the art and animation " the strongest aspects of the game " . Several reviewers compared the game 's visuals to the style developed by Tim Burton .
The gameplay itself was viewed in a significantly harsher light . Several critics took issue with the controls , which were viewed as imprecise , both in the platforming and in the combat phases of the game . Reviewers took issue with various parts of the combat system . Several reviewers found combat against large groups of enemies to be frustrating . Jason Venter of GameSpot singled out a specific combat stage taking place on an airship as particularly demonstrative of the game 's shortcomings in combat , calling the scenario " cheap " . Venter did , however , have praise for the game 's boss battles , which he described as " a nice change of pace because victory relies more on pattern memorization and intuition than manic combat " . Edge Magazine echoed the praise for the boss battles , and both reviews lamented that such segments were not more common .
Reviews were mixed on the co @-@ op mode . While reviewers praised Bunnyguru 's martial arts @-@ inspired moveset , they did not like Bunnyguru 's inability to grapple , which limits the second player 's utility in some situations . Edge Magazine also complained that even when there were two players playing , the camera would always center on Scarygirl , even if that meant that Bunnyguru wound up off screen . Reviews were also mixed for the exploration and collection aspects of the game . Parkin of Eurogamer described these aspects by stating that : " Branching paths through levels add the illusion of depth but , for players who wish to collect 100 per cent of the gems in a stage , trekking backwards and forwards through a level is an inelegant slog " . Peter Eykemans of IGN found that the game 's branching paths created difficulty for players seeking to gain a rating of " perfection " , but goes on to recommend the game to people that enjoy searching for collectables .
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= The World 's Greatest Tag Team =
The World 's Greatest Tag Team is a professional wrestling tag team , which also used the name Wrestling 's Greatest Tag Team . The team consisted of Charlie Haas and Shelton Benjamin . Originally formed in World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) , they started out captained by Kurt Angle , during which time they were known as Team Angle . They also wrestled for several other independent promotions .
Haas and Benjamin made their debut on the SmackDown ! brand in December 2002 , and won the WWE Tag Team Championship in February 2003 . After losing the championship in May , Haas and Benjamin were fired from Team Angle , and changed their name to The Best Damn Tag Team Period , before settling on The World 's Greatest Tag Team . They won the championship back in July , and their second reign lasted for two months . They continued to compete on SmackDown ! , until March 2004 , when Benjamin was moved to the Raw brand as part of the Draft Lottery .
The team reformed in December 2006 on the Raw brand , and competed against numerous teams , although they were unsuccessful in winning the World Tag Team Championship . The team was split again in November 2007 , when Benjamin moved to the ECW brand , but later reformed briefly back on SmackDown in May 2009 . In 2010 , the team reformed on the independent circuit , and began competing regularly for Ring of Honor ( ROH ) , where they are former two @-@ time ROH World Tag Team Champions .
= = History = =
= = = World Wrestling Entertainment = = =
= = = = Initial run ( 2002 – 2004 ) = = = =
The tag team made their debut on the December 26 , 2002 edition of WWE 's SmackDown ! . Paul Heyman introduced Benjamin and Haas under the name Team Angle as a " gift " to his top client Kurt Angle . Team Angle quickly involved themselves in a scripted rivalry with Chris Benoit and Edge , defeating them on January 30 , 2003 to become the number one contenders for the WWE Tag Team Championship .
The following week , on February 6 , they won the WWE Tag Team Championship by defeating Los Guerreros . They continued their rivalry with Benoit , facing him and Brock Lesnar at No Way Out in a handicap match , where they teamed with their mentor Angle in a losing effort . After a successful title defense at WrestleMania XIX against Los Guerreros and the team of Chris Benoit and Rhyno , Team Angle lost the championship to Eddie Guerrero and his new partner Tajiri at Judgment Day on May 18 in a ladder match . Shortly afterwards , on June 12 , Angle confronted Benjamin and Haas about the losing streak they had been in for a couple of weeks , and , after they blamed him for losing the Tag Team Championship and began to question his leadership , he fired them both from Team Angle . For a few weeks they wrestled against Angle , both in singles matches and in tag team matches .
Soon after the breakup , Benjamin and Haas referred to themselves as The Best Damn Tag Team Period and then The Self @-@ Proclaimed World 's Greatest Tag Team , or The World 's Greatest Tag Team for short . They went on to recapture the WWE Tag Team Championship from Eddie Guerrero and Tajiri on July 3 . Following their win , they competed against the teams of Rey Mysterio and Billy Kidman and The APA , before losing the championship to the reformed Los Guerreros team two months later on September 18 . After their loss The World 's Greatest Tag Team continued competing against Los Guerreros in an attempt to regain the championship , but were unsuccessful .
In early 2004 , The World 's Greatest Tag Team began a scripted rivalry with The APA , and beat them at the No Way Out pay @-@ per @-@ view . Following their loss , The World 's Greatest Tag Team mocked The APA , leading to The APA attacking them . Both the team of Scotty Too Hotty and Rikishi and the Basham Brothers also got involved in the brawl , leading to a fatal four @-@ way match at WrestleMania XX for the WWE Tag Team Championship . At WrestleMania , Scotty Too Hotty and Rikishi retained the championship .
= = = = Split ( 2004 – 2006 ) = = = =
The group stayed together until March 22 , 2004 when , during the Draft Lottery , Benjamin was drafted to the Raw brand , breaking up The World 's Greatest Tag Team . On the Raw brand Benjamin was quickly added to the WWE Intercontinental Championship picture , first challenging for it at Bad Blood in June 2004 against Randy Orton . He eventually won the championship at Taboo Tuesday in October by defeating Chris Jericho , and held the championship for approximately eight months , eventually losing it to Carlito in June 2005 . He held the championship twice more during 2006 .
After Benjamin 's draft , Haas gained Miss Jackie as a valet and teamed with Rico to win the WWE Tag Team Championship on April 22 , 2004 . After a brief spell in singles competition , Haas joined forces with Hardcore Holly briefly , before being released from WWE in July 2005 . Haas wrestled in the independent circuit for nearly a year , wrestling in Jersey All Pro Wrestling and other independent promotions before returning to WWE on the Raw brand in April 2006 .
= = = = Reformation on Raw ( 2006 – 2008 ) = = = =
On April 17 , 2006 , Haas returned to WWE as part of the Raw brand , defeating his former tag team partner , Benjamin , the very same night . On the December 4 episode of Raw , after Benjamin pinned Super Crazy , Haas entered the ring , berated Crazy , and celebrated with a bewildered Benjamin . The next week , Benjamin announced The World 's Greatest Tag Team was officially back in a segment with Cryme Tyme . They defeated The Highlanders in a match later that same night . They then started a scripted rivalry with Cryme Tyme , but were largely unsuccessful , including a tag team turmoil match at New Year 's Revolution . They finally pinned Cryme Tyme , however , ending their undefeated streak , on the January 29 , 2007 episode of Raw .
On April 2 , The World 's Greatest Tag Team was unsuccessful in defeating the team of Ric Flair and Carlito , but defeated them in a rematch on April 16 when Haas distracted Carlito , allowing Benjamin to gain the win . They won again two weeks later when Carlito turned on Flair , attacking him and allowing The World 's Greatest Tag Team to win via countout . They then challenged the Hardy Boyz for the World Tag Team Championship at One Night Stand in a ladder match , but were unsuccessful .
Following this , The World 's Greatest Tag Team began a rivalry with Paul London and Brian Kendrick after losing to the duo in their debut match on Raw . A few weeks later , London defeated Benjamin in a singles match , however , on the July 23 episode of Raw , The World 's Greatest Tag Team got a tag team win over London and Kendrick to end the rivalry . For this match they were announced as The ( Self @-@ Proclaimed ) World 's Greatest Tag Team , having been previously using simply The World 's Greatest Tag Team since their reformation .
Following this , Benjamin and Haas competed against the teams of Hardcore Holly and Cody Rhodes and Super Crazy and Jim Duggan until November , when the team was disbanded due to Benjamin joining the ECW roster . Benjamin was drafted to the SmackDown brand as part of the 2008 Supplemental Draft .
= = = = Sporadic reformations ( 2009 ) = = = =
On April 15 , 2009 , Haas was drafted to the SmackDown brand as part of the 2009 Supplemental Draft . On the May 8 , 2009 episode of SmackDown , Benjamin accompanied Haas to the ring for his match against John Morrison , hinting at a possible reunion . The following week on the May 15 episode of SmackDown , Benjamin and Haas unofficially reunited and competed against John Morrison and CM Punk in a losing effort . At Judgment Day , Haas escorted Benjamin to the ring for his match against Morrison . On June 29 , Benjamin was traded back to the ECW brand . On February 28 , 2010 , WWE announced that Haas had been released from his contract , and two months later , on April 22 , WWE announced that Benjamin had also been released .
= = = Ring of Honor ( 2010 – 2013 ) = = =
On August 2 , 2010 , Ring of Honor announced that Haas and Benjamin would reform as a tag team , at Glory By Honor IX on September 11 , 2010 , to wrestle the ROH World Tag Team Champions The Kings of Wrestling ( Chris Hero and Claudio Castagnoli ) . The duo later stated that they would collectively be known as Wrestling 's Greatest Tag Team . At Glory By Honor IX Haas and Benjamin were defeated by Hero and Castagnoli in a non – title match . On December 8 , 2010 , Haas and Benjamin returned to Ohio Valley Wrestling , more than seven years after their previous match for the promotion . In their return match they defeated The Elite ( Adam Revolver and Ted McNaler ) . The following day they took part in their first Ring of Honor Wrestling tapings , defeating the Bravado Brothers ( Harlem and Lance ) . The following day , at the second set of television tapings , Haas and Benjamin defeated the All Night Express of Kenny King and Rhett Titus , before participating in an eight @-@ man tag team match , in which Haas and Benjmain teamed with the Briscoe Brothers against the Kings of Wrestling and the All @-@ Night Xpress . The match ended in a no contest . On December 18 at the Final Battle 2010 pay @-@ per @-@ view , Haas and Benjamin announced that in 2011 they would be wrestling regularly for Ring of Honor . At the following pay @-@ per @-@ view , 9th Anniversary Show , on February 26 , 2011 , Haas and Benjamin defeated the Briscoe Brothers in the main event of the evening to earn another shot at the Kings of Wrestling and the ROH World Tag Team Championship .
On April 1 , at Honor Takes Center Stage Night One , Haas and Benjamin defeated the Kings of Wrestling to win the ROH World Tag Team Championship . On June 26 at Best in the World 2011 , Haas and Benjamin successfully defended the ROH World Tag Team Championship in a four @-@ way match against the Briscoe Brothers , the Kings of Wrestling and the All Night Express . On December 23 , Haas and Benjamin lost the ROH World Tag Team Championship to the Briscoe Brothers at the Final Battle 2011 pay @-@ per @-@ view , turning heel during the match . On May 12 , 2012 at Border Wars , Hass and Benjamin regained the ROH World Tag Team Championship from the Briscoe Brothers . On June 24 at Best in the World 2012 , Haas and Benjamin lost the title to Kenny King and Rhett Titus .
Shortly after their loss , Benjamin was suspended in storyline , to explain his absence while wrestling in Japan . Benjamin returned at the Death Before Dishonor X pay @-@ per @-@ view , accompanying Haas and Rhett Titus in a tag team championship match . Following Death Before Dishonor , Haas and Benjamin would continue to feud with Titus and his new tag team partner B.J. Whitmer defeating them at Glory By Honor XI . They defeated them again in a street fight at Final Battle . Benjamin was released from ROH in December 2012 . He made one more appearance for ROH on February 2 , 2013 , when Haas turned on him during an ROH World Tag Team Championship match against the Briscoe Brothers .
= = = Independent circuit ( 2014 ) = = =
On November 15 , 2014 , Jersey All Pro Wrestling 's 18th Anniversary Show , Benjamin , Haas , and Angle ( collectively known as Team Angle ) reunited again . Haas and Benjamin defeated Chris Sabin and Teddy Hart in the main event of the show .
= = In wrestling = =
Finishing moves
Wrestling 's Greatest Finisher ( Double belly @-@ to @-@ back suplex )
Signature moves
Atomic drop by Haas followed by a superkick by Benjamin
Broken Arrow ( Leapfrog body guillotine )
Star Spangled Banner ( Double hip toss dropped into a backbreaker )
Superkick by Benjamin into a German suplex by Haas
Managers
Kurt Angle
Paul Heyman
Eric Bishoff
Entrance themes
" Medal " by Jim Johnston ( WWE ; Used while part of Team Angle )
" Heroes " by Jim Johnston ( WWE )
" Mess You Up " by Maurice Davis Band ( ROH )
" T.N.T. ( Live ) " by AC / DC ( ROH )
" Hot Stakes " by Crushpile ( ROH )
= = Championships and accomplishments = =
Ohio Valley Wrestling
Danny Davis Invitational Tag Team Tournament ( 2015 ) – Haas and Benjamin
Pro Wrestling Illustrated
PWI Tag Team of the Year ( 2003 )
Ring of Honor
ROH World Tag Team Championship ( 2 times ) – Haas and Benjamin
World Wrestling Entertainment
WWE Championship ( 1 time ) – Angle
WWE Tag Team Championship ( 2 times ) – Haas and Benjamin
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= Premastication =
Premastication , pre @-@ chewing , or kiss feeding is the act of chewing food for the purpose of physically breaking it down in order to feed another that is incapable of masticating the food by themselves . This is often done by the mother or relatives of a baby to produce baby food capable of being consumed by the child during the weaning process . The chewed food in the form of a bolus is transferred from the mouth of one individual to another , either directly mouth @-@ to @-@ mouth , via utensils , hands , or is further cooked or processed prior to feeding .
The behaviour was common throughout human history and societies and observed in non @-@ human animals . While premastication is less common in present @-@ day Western societies it was commonly practiced , and is still done in more traditional cultures . Although the health benefits of premastication are still being actively studied , the practice appears to confer certain nutritional and immunological benefits to the infant , provided that the caretaker is in good health and not infected by pathogens .
= = Behavioural roots = =
Premastication and mouth @-@ to @-@ mouth feeding in humans is postulated to have evolved from the regurgitation of food from parent to offspring or male to female ( courtship feeding ) and has been observed in numerous mammals and animals of other species . For instance , food begging behaviour observed in young wolves , wild dogs and certain gulls species , which involves the young approaching the beak or mouth of the adult with their own whereupon gaping their mouths or nuzzling , the adult would regurgitate portions of food to feed the young . However , in the aforementioned animals , this nuzzling behaviour and other types of mouth @-@ to @-@ mouth contact are also used for bonding , socialization , and courtship .
= = = In apes = = =
Young orangutans also beg for food by such contact and accordingly their caretakers regurgitate to feed them . Indeed , behaviours of mouth to mouth feeding of premasticated food and ritualized mouth to mouth contact for bonding has been observed in anthropoid great apes such as gorillas , orangutans , and chimpanzees . All of this supports the idea that human behaviours of kissing and feeding of premastication foods , either directly or indirectly from the mouth , have their behavioural roots in higher animals and ancestral great apes .
= = = Human kiss precursor = = =
In all human cultures premastication / kiss @-@ feeding or kissing between mother and infant has been observed in all with kissing believed to be a socially ritualized form of feeding premasticated food . There is high similarity in the execution of kiss @-@ feeding and human kisses ( e.g. French kiss ) ; in the former , the tongue is used to push food from mother to child with the child receiving both the mother 's food and tongue in sucking movements , and the latter simply forgoes the premasticated food . In fact , observations across various species and cultures confirms that the act of kissing and premastication have most likely evolved from the similar relationship @-@ based feeding behaviours .
= = History and culture = =
Written records of premastication have been found in Ancient Egypt , though the practice likely extends back into prehistoric times to non @-@ human ancestors . For instance , in the Ancient Egyptian Ebers medical papyrus , a mother was instructed to give a medical remedy to a child through premastication . In the fifth century A.D. Roman culture , premastication of infants ' food by caretakers was also common , though the lack of sanitation along with the practice contributed to infant mortality . Infants in Medieval Europe were fed an assortment of mashed , premasticated food or bread softened with liquids .
Due to attitudes in Western medicine in the 1940s and 1950s , Native American and Fijian cultures and societies were strongly dissuaded from premastication due to concerns about the hygiene of the practice . However , the lack of knowledge regarding premastication and its prohibition by missionaries and doctors instead caused severe anemia in the infants of the population , or resulted in malnourished infants and children deprived of nourishment .
Although less prevalent in modern post @-@ industrial Western societies , the offering of premasticated foods to infants is found in many traditional cultures and offers their infant numerous benefits . In North America , premastication is still commonly used by Black and Hispanic mothers , and commonly used by women of Inuit and Aleut peoples .
In many human cultures , the act of premastication and direct mouth @-@ to @-@ mouth feeding is linked with the showing of affection , known as kiss feeding . In the Manus cultures of the Admiralty Islands , the act of premastication has been used by a women to remind children and descendants of their obligations to her . Some human cultures such as the people of Papua New Guinea in fact use mouth to mouth contact primarily for feeding premasticated food , with sexual kissing only observed after the arrival of Europeans . This form of feeding is believed to have evolved into the modern human acts of kissing and French kissing .
Many Western societies have strong aversions toward premastication , which have been compared to their similar criticisms and aversion towards breastfeeding in previous generations for similar rationale , with the same societies finding breastfeeding to be a disagreeable practice performed only by the uneducated lower classes or untempered foreign cultures . For instance , in the late 1800s the medical community of Texas was embroiled in a debate on premastication , with those supporting the practice arguing its benefits and those against it stating that it is " filthy and replusive and ... barbaric " .
= = Health = =
The act of premastication is commonly found in all human societies and populations , although it is less prevalent in some than others . The evolution and selective advantage of premastication behaviours is that it supplements the infant diet of breast milk by providing access to more macro- and micro @-@ nutrients . Although disease can be transmitted through saliva in the pre @-@ chewed foods , the benefits conferred outweighed any risks of the practice during the evolution of human behaviour . Furthermore , discouraging premastication as prevention to disease transmittion may prove as disastrous an infant public health policy as when infants breastfeeding was discouraged in the late 1980s and early 1990s . In the end , the potential benefits and pitfalls of this practice greatly depend on the dietary and medical circumstances of the mother and child . The true scope of the benefits of premastication and its prevalences in differenct societies is still under active research , though there appears to be some consensus on the nutritional benefits of the practice .
= = = Advantages = = =
= = = = Breastmilk supplement = = = =
Premastication is complementary to breastfeeding in the health practices of infants and young children , providing large amounts of carbohydrate and protein nutrients not always available through breast milk , and micronutrients such as iron , zinc , and vitamin B12 which are essential nutrients present mainly in meat . Compounds in the saliva , such as haptocorrin also help increase B12 availability by protecting the vitamin against stomach acid .
= = = = Infant intake of heme iron = = = =
Meats such as beef were likely premasticated during human evolution as hunter @-@ gatherers . This animal @-@ derived bioinorganic iron source is shown to confer benefits to young children ( two years onwards ) by improving growth , motor , and cognitive functions . In earlier times , premastication was an important practice that prevented infant iron deficiency .
Meats provide Heme iron that are more easily absorbed by human physiology and higher in bioavailability than non @-@ heme irons sources , and are recommended sources of iron for infants .
= = = = Anti @-@ allergy and immunological benefits = = = =
The infant can benefit from immunological resistance to infections and immunological hypersensitivity such as asthma can be inhibited through the antimicrobial , anti @-@ inflammatory , growth factors , and nutrient transporters in the mother 's saliva . Related to the hygiene hypothesis , it is postulated that early childhood exposure to rich microflora from premastication may be important in priming the immune system and reducing allergic responses .
Premastication may itself promote the development of infant immune systems through antibody generators in the mother 's saliva , which help prevent the development of allergies in the infant . Early infant feeding of premasticated foods such as eggs and nuts alongside breastfeeding could help promote immune tolerance and help moderate allergic responses . The practice of premastication is postulated to play an important role in the development of oral immunotolerance and help prevent the occurrence of autoimmune diseases in the infant . Although the rise in allergic and autoimmune diseases in Western societies has not been directly linked to the decrease of premastication in these same societies , researchers believe that these two phenomena are related .
= = = = Parental enzymes = = = =
Premasticated foods allow for better infant digestion through the presence of saliva enzymes lacking in infants . Alpha @-@ amylase from maternal saliva aids in digestion of starches fed to a baby . This may be important in the developed nations since " ... milk supplements containing starch are used frequently and if these are introduced into feeds at an early stage , digestion of the starch will require the action of salivary amylase ... " Children being fed mainly plant based diets by vegetarian parents also benefit from the more prevalent and different types of digestive enzymes in premasticated food . Fat digesting lingual lipase in adult saliva can also help infant digestion and fat absorption since infants generally do not produce enough of these enzymes in their digestive tracts to efficiently process the fats they consume .
= = = Disadvantages = = =
= = = = Transmission of diseases = = = =
Premastication can transmit a wide range of diseases and pathogens from infected parents to their infants through the parents ' saliva and open mouth ulcers , including HIV @-@ AIDS as well as possibly hepatitis B virus and Helicobacter pylori . Given the prevalence of HIV in populations of lower @-@ income and poorer nation @-@ states who practice premastication extensively , the practice is likely an important method for transmission of the virus in their populations . In Chile , the practice is also associated with HIV transmission from caregivers who were unaware of their infection to children under their care .
Some state that since most mothers in the West will already know if they are carrying HIV or other serious infectious agents , mothers exercising caution who wish to breastfeed or premasticate for their children should not be dissuaded by experts who use science to justify their own personal disapproval .
= = = = Establishment of cavity causing bacteria = = = =
The widespread belief that dental caries causing bacteria from the mother 's oral ecology can be transmitted to the infant through the saliva , resulting in bacterial colonization and a strong predisposition to tooth decay in the child was already falsified by a voluminous study in 1994 . Instead , it was found that children develop a higher resistance to caries if there are frequent mother – infant salivary contacts .
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= Quebec Expedition =
The Quebec Expedition , or the Walker Expedition to Quebec , was a British attempt to attack Quebec in 1711 in Queen Anne 's War , the North American theatre of the War of Spanish Succession . It failed because of a shipping disaster on the Saint Lawrence River on 22 August 1711 , when seven transports and one storeship were wrecked and some 850 soldiers drowned ; the disaster was at the time one of the worst naval disasters in British history .
The expedition was planned by the administration of Robert Harley , and was based on plans originally proposed in 1708 . Harley decided to mount the expedition as part of a major shift in British military policy , emphasizing strength at sea . The expedition 's leaders , Admiral Hovenden Walker and Brigadier @-@ General John Hill , were chosen for their politics and connections to the crown , and its plans were kept secret even from the Admiralty . Despite the secrecy , French agents were able to discover British intentions and warn authorities in Quebec .
The expedition expected to be fully provisioned in Boston , the capital of colonial Massachusetts , but the city was unprepared when it arrived , and Massachusetts authorities had to scramble to provide even three months ' supplies . Admiral Walker also had difficulty acquiring experienced pilots and accurate charts for navigating the waters of the lower Saint Lawrence . The expedition reached the Gulf of Saint Lawrence without incident , but foggy conditions , tricky currents , and strong winds combined to drive the fleet toward the northern shore of the Saint Lawrence near a place now called Pointe @-@ aux @-@ Anglais , where the ships were wrecked . Following the disaster , Walker abandoned the expedition 's objectives and returned to England . Although the expedition was a failure , Harley continued to implement his " blue water " policy .
= = Background = =
In 1710 , late in the War of Spanish Succession , a mixed force of British regulars and American colonists captured the French fort at Port Royal on the northwestern coast of Acadia ( present @-@ day Annapolis Royal , Nova Scotia ) . Francis Nicholson , the leader of the expedition , brought news of the victory to London , where he and Jeremiah Dummer , who represented the Province of Massachusetts Bay in London , lobbied for an expedition against the heartland of New France , Quebec .
The British government , however , was in some turmoil , and in August 1710 , the ministry of Lord Godolphin fell . Queen Anne replaced him with Robert Harley , a political opponent of the Duke of Marlborough , who had also fallen out of favour . Harley wanted to change Britain 's military strategy , implementing a " blue water " policy that emphasized strength at sea , at the cost of a reduced army . He also sought to blunt Marlborough 's continuing influence with a victory of his own devising . To these ends , he authorised expeditions by land and sea to capture Quebec ; however , he fell ill , so most of the work of organisation was done by his Secretary of State , Henry St. John ( the future Lord Bolingbroke ) .
The basic plan followed one first proposed by Samuel Vetch in 1708 for the 1709 campaign season , with the main thrust to be a naval expedition carrying a combined force of regular army forces and provincial militia . Rear Admiral of the White Sir Hovenden Walker was given overall command of the expedition , with Brigadier John Hill in command of the land forces . Walker , who was promoted to admiral in March , had led a squadron on an expedition to the West Indies earlier in the war that had failed to produce significant results , and may have been chosen due to his friendship with St. John and his Tory sympathies . St. John probably chose Hill to curry favour at court : he was the brother of Queen Anne 's confidante Abigail Masham . The duchess of Marlborough , presumably echoing the opinions of her husband , wrote of Hill that " he was no good as a soldier " . Five regiments from Marlborough 's force in Flanders were added to two from Britain to build a force of some 5 @,@ 000 land troops . This force sailed from ports in southern England in April and May 1711 . Its destination was a tightly guarded secret : Walker was not immediately informed of its destination , nor were the Lords of the Admiralty informed , and it was provisioned only with sufficient supplies for a typical voyage in European waters in an attempt to mislead spies .
= = Boston = =
Francis Nicholson arrived in Boston in early June 1711 with news and details of the expedition plans , and a meeting of provincial governors was quickly arranged in New London , Connecticut . The naval expedition was to include provincial militia raised in the New England colonies , while Nicholson led a provincial force raised in provinces from Connecticut to Pennsylvania up the Hudson River and down Lake Champlain to Montreal . The provincial forces that were to go with Walker 's expedition were led by Samuel Vetch , who became the governor of Nova Scotia in 1710 . They consisted of 1 @,@ 500 men , most from Massachusetts , with smaller contingents from New Hampshire and Rhode Island .
The fleet arrived in Boston on 24 June , and the troops were disembarked onto Noddle 's Island ( the present @-@ day location of Logan International Airport ) . The size of the force was , according to historian Samuel Adams Drake , " the most formidable that had ever crossed the Atlantic under the English flag . " Since the fleet had left with insufficient supplies , its organizers expected it to be fully provisioned in Boston . Since the number of soldiers and sailors outnumbered the population of Boston at the time , this proved a daunting task . Laws were passed to prevent merchants from price @-@ gouging , but sufficient provisions were eventually acquired . Additional laws were passed penalizing residents found harbouring deserters from the fleet ; apparently the attraction of colonial life was sufficient that this was a significant problem during the five weeks the expedition was in Boston .
During the expedition 's sojourn in Boston , Walker attempted to enlist pilots experienced in navigating the Saint Lawrence River . To his dismay , none were forthcoming ; even Captain Cyprian Southack , reputed to be one of the colony 's best navigators , claimed he had never been beyond the river 's mouth . Walker intended to rely principally on a Frenchman he had picked up in Plymouth prior to the fleet 's departure . Samuel Vetch , however , deeply distrusted the Frenchman , writing that he was " not only an ignorant , pretending , idle , drunken Fellow " , but that he " is come upon no good Design " . Following this report , Walker also forced a Captain Jean Paradis , the captain of a captured French sloop , to serve as navigator . The charts Walker accumulated were notably short in details on the area around the mouth the Saint Lawrence , as was the journal Sir William Phips kept of his 1690 expedition to Quebec , which Walker also acquired . Walker interviewed some participants in the Phips expedition , whose vague tales did nothing to relieve his concerns about what he could expect on the river . These concerns prompted him to detach his largest and heaviest ships for cruising duty , and he transferred his flag to the 70 @-@ gun Edgar .
= = Disaster = =
On 30 July , the fleet set sail from Boston . It consisted of a mix of British and colonial ships , including nine ships of war , two bomb vessels , and 60 transports and tenders . It carried 7 @,@ 500 troops and about 6 @,@ 000 sailors . By 3 August the fleet reached to coast of Nova Scotia , and Samuel Vetch piloted the fleet around Cape Breton and Cape North and into the Gulf of Saint Lawrence .
On the morning of the 18 August , just as the expedition was about to enter the Saint Lawrence River , the wind began to blow hard from the northwest , and Walker was forced to seek shelter in Gaspé Bay . On the morning of the 20th , the wind veered to the southeast , and he was able to advance slowly past the western extremity of Anticosti Island before it died down and thick fog blanketed both shore and fleet . By the 22nd , the wind had freshened from the southeast , and there were intermittent breaks in the fog , but not sufficient to give sight of land . At this point the fleet was west of Anticosti at a point where the Saint Lawrence was about 70 miles ( 110 km ) wide , but it narrowed noticeably at a point where the river 's North Shore made a sharp turn , running nearly north @-@ south . This area , near what is now called Pointe @-@ aux @-@ Anglais , includes a number of small islands , including Île @-@ aux @-@ Oeufs ( Egg Island ) , and numerous rocky shallows . After consulting his pilots , Walker gave the signal to head the fleet roughly southwest at about 8 : 00 pm .
Walker had thought he was in mid @-@ stream when he issued the order . In fact , he was about seven leagues ( about 20 miles ( 32 km ) ) north of his proper course , and in the grasp of strong currents which steered his ships towards the northwest . Aided by an easterly wind , the fleet was gradually closing on the north @-@ south shore near Île @-@ aux @-@ Oeufs . When Captain Paddon reported to Walker that land had been sighted around 10 : 30 pm , presumably dead ahead , Walker assumed that the fleet was approaching the south shore , and ordered the fleet to wear , and bring @-@ to on the other tack , before he went to bed . This manoeuvre put the fleet onto a more northerly heading . Some minutes later , an army captain named Goddard roused Walker , claiming to see breakers ahead . Walker dismissed the advice and the man , but Goddard returned , insisting that the admiral " come upon deck myself , or we should certainly be lost " .
Walker came on deck in his dressing gown , and saw that the ship was being driven toward the western lee shore by the east wind . When the French navigator came on deck , he explained to Walker where he was ; Walker immediately ordered the anchor cables cut , and beat against the wind to escape the danger . Two of the warships , Montague and Windsor , had more difficulty , and ended up anchored for the night in a precarious situation , surrounded by breakers . Throughout the night , Walker heard sounds of distress , and at times when the fog lifted , ships could be seen in the distance being ground against the rocks . One New Englander wrote that he could " hear the shrieks of the sinking , drowning , departing souls . " Around 2 : 00 am the wind subsided , and then shifted to the northwest , and most of the fleet managed to stand away from the shore .
It took three days to discover the full extent of the disaster , during which the fleet searched for survivors . Seven transports and one supply ship were lost . Walker 's initial report was that 884 soldiers perished ; later reports revised this number down to 740 , including women attached to some of the units . Historian Gerald Graham estimates that about 150 sailors also perished in the disaster . After rescuing all he could , Walker and Hill held a war council on 25 August . After interviewing a number of the pilots , including Samuel Vetch , the council decided " that by reason of the Ignorance of the Pilots abord the Men of War " , the expedition should be aborted . Vetch openly blamed Walker for the disaster : " The late disaster cannot , in my humble opinion , be anyways imputed to the difficulty of navigation , but to the wrong course we steered , which most unavoidably carried us upon the north shore . "
The fleet sailed down the Gulf of Saint Lawrence and came to anchor at Spanish River ( now the harbour of Sydney , Nova Scotia ) on 4 September , where a council was held to discuss whether or not to attack the French at Plaisance . Given the lateness of the season , insufficient supplies to overwinter in the area , and rumours of strong defences at Plaisance , the council decided against making the attack , and sailed for England .
= = Return = =
Francis Nicholson 's land expedition learned of the naval disaster when it was encamped near Lake George ; Nicholson aborted the expedition . He was reported to be so angry that he tore off his wig and threw it to the ground .
The expedition 's fortunes did not improve on the return voyage . Walker had written to New York requesting the HMS Feversham and any available supply ships to join him ; unbeknownst to him , the Feversham and three transports ( Joseph , Mary , and Neptune ) were wrecked on the coast of Cape Breton on 7 October with more than 100 men lost . The fleet returned to Portsmouth on 10 October ; Walker 's flagship , the Edgar , blew up several days later , possibly due to improper handling of gunpowder . Walker lost a number of papers as a result , and claimed that the journal of William Phips was lost in the blast .
Despite the magnitude of the expedition 's failure , the political consequences were relatively mild . The failure was an early setback in Robert Harley 's " blue water " policy , which called for the aggressive use of the navy to keep England 's enemies at bay ; however , Harley continued to implement it , withdrawing further resources from European military campaigns . Since the project had been organised by the current government , it was also not interested in delving deeply into the reasons for its failure . Walker was sympathetically received by the queen , and both he and Hill were given new commands . Walker eventually wrote a detailed and frank account of the expedition , based on his memory as well as surviving journals and papers ; it is reprinted in Graham . Walker was stripped of his rank in 1715 ( amid a larger change of power including the accession of King George I ) , and died in 1728 .
Popular sentiment in England tended to fault the colonies for failing to properly support the expedition , citing parsimony and stubbornness as reasons . These sentiments were rejected in the colonies , where Nicholson and Governor Dudley instead blamed Walker . The relations between the military leadership and the colonial populations was not always cordial during the army 's stay outside Boston , and foreshadowed difficult relations between civilians and military occupiers in the political conflicts that preceded the American Revolutionary War . One of Hill 's officers wrote of the " ill Nature and Sowerness of these People , whose Government , Doctrine , and Manners , whose Hypocracy and canting , are unsupportable " , and further commented that unless they were brought under firmer control , the colonists would " grow more stiff and disobedient every Day . " Colonists noted with some disgust the fact that both Walker and Hill escaped censure for the expedition 's failure .
= = French actions = =
Authorities in France were alerted as early as March 1711 that Nicholson was organising an expedition against Quebec . They also knew the composition of Hill 's force , but were apparently unaware of his destination until July . The Governor @-@ general of New France , the marquis de Vaudreuil , sent Louis Denys de La Ronde to Boston ostensibly to oversee a prisoner exchange in early June . La Ronde also had secret instructions that he was to try to convince authorities to withhold support from expeditions sent from England . La Ronde , who coincidentally arrived in Boston on 8 June , the same day as Nicholson , was apparently unsuccessful in his attempts to influence British colonial opinion . Nicholson became suspicious of his behaviour and eventually had him arrested . When copies of his secret instructions were found aboard a captured French vessel and brought to Boston , La Ronde was held in Boston until November .
Governor Vaudreuil was warned again in August that expeditions against Quebec and Montreal were being organised . He called out his militia , rallied local Indians , and prepared his defences as best he could , putting the whole colony on a war footing . In mid @-@ October word reached Quebec that large ships were approaching , heightening tensions further . It turned out they were French , and on board was a scout Vaudreuil had sent downriver on 19 September to watch for the British fleet . The scout reported finding the wreckage of seven ships and an estimated 1 @,@ 500 bodies . Although locals were already plundering through the wreckage , the colony organised a formal salvage operation that recovered items like anchors , chains , tents , and cannons ; the items recovered were auctioned .
= = Fleet = =
The fleet is listed in the order of sail drawn up by Admiral Walker . Ships generally sailed two abreast .
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= USS New Mexico ( BB @-@ 40 ) =
USS New Mexico ( BB @-@ 40 ) was a battleship in service with the United States Navy from 1918 to 1946 . She was the lead ship of a class of three battleships , and the first ship to be named for the state of New Mexico . Her keel was laid down on 14 October 1915 at the New York Navy Yard , she was launched on 23 April 1917 , and was commissioned on 20 May 1918 . She was the first ship with a turbo @-@ electric transmission , which helped her reach a cruising speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . Shortly after completing initial training , New Mexico escorted the ship that carried President Woodrow Wilson to Brest , France to sign the Treaty of Versailles . The interwar period was marked with repeated exercises with the Pacific and Atlantic Fleets , use as a trial ship for PID controllers , and a major modernization between March 1931 and January 1933 .
The ship 's first actions during World War II were neutrality patrols in the Atlantic Ocean . She returned to the Pacific after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor , and participated in shore bombardments during operations at Attu and Kiska , Tarawa , the Marshall Islands , the Mariana and Palau islands , Leyte , Luzon , and Okinawa . These were interspersed with escort duties , patrols , and refits . The ship was attacked by kamikazes on several occasions . New Mexico was present in Tokyo Bay for the signing of the Japanese Instrument of Surrender on 2 September 1945 . Four days later , she sailed for the United States , and arrived in Boston on 17 October .
New Mexico was decommissioned in Boston on 19 July 1946 , and struck from the Naval Vessel Register on 25 February 1947 . The ship was sold for scrapping to the Lipsett Division of Luria Bros in November 1947 , but attempts to bring the ship to Newark , New Jersey for breaking up were met by resistance from city officials . City fireboats were sent to block the passage of the battleship and the Lipsett tugboats , while the United States Coast Guard declared intentions to guarantee safe passage . The Under Secretary of the Navy Department was sent to defuse what the media began to call the " Battle of Newark Bay " , with the city agreeing to the breaking up of New Mexico and two other battleships before scrapping operations in Newark Bay ceased , and Lipsett under instructions to dismantle the ships in a set timeframe or suffer financial penalties . Scrapping commenced in November and was completed by July 1948 .
= = Description = =
New Mexico was 624 feet ( 190 m ) long overall and had a beam of 97 ft 5 in ( 29 @.@ 69 m ) and a draft of 30 ft ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) . She displaced 31 @,@ 000 long tons ( 32 @,@ 000 t ) as designed and up to 32 @,@ 000 long tons ( 33 @,@ 000 t ) at full load . She had a crew of 1 @,@ 084 officers and enlisted men . The ship 's main armament comprised twelve 14 @-@ inch ( 356 mm ) / 50 caliber guns mounted three guns in each of four turrets , with each turret weighing 980 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 080 short tons ) . The secondary battery consisted of fourteen 5 @-@ inch ( 127 mm ) / 51 caliber guns , with all of them being removed in May 1942 . The anti @-@ aircraft defense consisted of four 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) / 50 caliber guns , which were soon replaced by a battery of eight 5 @-@ inch ( 127 mm ) / 25 caliber guns . As was standard for capital ships of the period , she carried two 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedo tubes in deck mounted torpedo launchers .
New Mexico 's main armored belt was 13 @.@ 5 in ( 343 mm ) thick over the magazines and the machinery spaces and 8 in ( 203 mm ) elsewhere . The main battery gun turrets had 18 @-@ inch ( 460 mm ) thick faces , and the supporting barbettes had 13 in ( 330 mm ) of armor plating on their exposed sides . Armor that was 3 @.@ 5 in ( 89 mm ) thick protected the decks . The conning tower had 11 @.@ 5 in ( 290 mm ) thick sides .
= = = Propulsion system = = =
Unlike the other two battleships of this class which used geared turbines , New Mexico had turbo @-@ electric transmission , in which the high @-@ speed steam turbine drove a set of generators providing electricity to electric motors turning the propeller shafts . The engines were rated at 27 @,@ 500 shaft horsepower ( 20 @,@ 500 kW ) and had nine Babcock & Wilcox boilers , generating a top speed of 21 knots ( 39 km / h ; 24 mph ) . She had a range of 8 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 9 @,@ 200 mi ) at a cruising speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
General Electric ran an advertisement titled " The " Constitution " of To @-@ day — Electronically Propelled " with a drawing of New Mexico next to USS Constitution . The ad touted the battleship as " the first of any nation to be electrically propelled " . The electrical generating plant was said to put out 27 @,@ 500 shaft horsepower ( 20 @,@ 500 kW ) for a cruising speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . GE called it one of the most important achievements of the scientific age and related it to consumer products noting that " so general are the applications of electricity to the needs of mankind that scarcely a home or individual today need be without the benefits of General Electric products and service . " An illustrated booklet titled " The Electric Ship " was offered free of charge upon request .
A comparison of the turbo @-@ electric propulsion with the more conventional direct @-@ drive turbine design used on her sister ships showed that the conventional design generated 2 @.@ 5 times the power per ton of machinery and required 1 / 3 the floor area although at the cost of 20 % greater fuel consumption , always a concern for the U.S. Navy given Pacific distances . The turbo @-@ electric design allowed for the equipment to be split between smaller watertight compartments , which was a potential benefit should parts of the engine space be attacked and flooded . There was a design weakness in that all electrical connections went through a single switch room , which could entirely disable the ship were that room to be hit . Saratoga , which used a similar propulsion design , lost power for five minutes when it was hit by a torpedo in 1942 . The scheme of watertight subdivisions was further weakened by large ventilation trunks passing through bulkheads and glass windows in the generator room bulkhead .
= = Service history = =
New Mexico 's keel was laid down on 14 October 1915 by the New York Navy Yard . She was launched on 23 April 1917 . The ship was sponsored by Miss Margaret Cabeza De Baca , the daughter of the recently deceased Governor of New Mexico , Ezequiel Cabeza De Baca ( died on 28 February 1917 ) . She was commissioned on 20 May 1918 , with Captain Ashley Herman Robertson in charge .
After New Mexico passed her initial trials , she left New York Harbor on 15 January 1919 for Brest , to escort the ship George Washington . The George Washington was carrying President Woodrow Wilson on his return from the Versailles Peace Conference to the U.S. She returned to the Hampton Roads area on 27 February . New Mexico became the flagship of the newly created United States Pacific Fleet on 16 July and three days later she left Hampton for San Pedro , California . She passed through the Panama Canal and arrived at San Pedro on 9 August . Two of her 5 @-@ inch ( 130 mm ) / 51 caliber guns were removed in a later overhaul , in 1922 .
The next twelve years consisted of training exercises and maneuvers in the Pacific and the Caribbean , with the Pacific and the Atlantic Fleets . She also took several cruises to South American ports and was used for the early development of PID controllers . Invented by the Russian @-@ American engineer Nicolas Minorsky for the automated steering of ships , the devices have since become widespread in control engineering . After that , in 1925 , she took a cruise to Australia and New Zealand .
After her training exercises in the Atlantic and the Pacific were finished , New Mexico was overhauled and modernized at the Philadelphia Harbor by the Navy from March 1931 to January 1933 . The overhaul included the replacement of her turbo @-@ electric drive with more conventional geared turbines , which were made by Curtis . In addition , New Mexico received eight 5 @-@ inch ( 127 mm ) / 25 caliber anti @-@ aircraft guns , replacing the four 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) guns that had been previously installed . After the overhaul , she returned the Pacific to continue training exercises and the development of tactical operations .
Even in 1936 during Fleet Problem XVII , she was one of the fastest battleships in the Navy , having a maximum speed of 21 knots ( 39 km / h ; 24 mph ) , higher than most U.S. battleships , but only 1 @.@ 5 knots ( 2 @.@ 8 km / h ; 1 @.@ 7 mph ) faster than Japan 's slowest battleships . This led to the development of the North Carolina @-@ class battleship and South Dakota @-@ class battleship . In 1937 , she arrived in Hawaii to sail to Dutch Harbor , Alaska , where she and several other ships were sent to help the Navy evaluate fighting in sub @-@ arctic conditions .
= = = World War II = = =
= = = = 1940 – 43 = = = =
As the prospect of war grew , New Mexico 's was based at Pearl Harbor , Hawaii , from 6 December 1940 to 20 May 1941 . She then left Pearl Harbor to join the Atlantic fleet at Norfolk on 16 June for neutrality patrol duty along the Atlantic coast . In the Atlantic , she served on three 7 – 14 day " shifts " following destroyers to escort convoys across the Atlantic . On 10 December , while headed to Hampton Roads ( en route to the west coast after the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor ) , she accidentally rammed and sank the U.S. freighter Oregon south of the Nantucket Lightship off Boston Harbor . She managed to reach the Panama Canal by 17 January 1942 .
During an overhaul in May 1942 , at the Puget Sound Navy Yard , she had her secondary battery of twelve 5 in / 51 guns removed to make space for more anti @-@ aircraft guns . After the overhaul , which was completed on 1 August , she departed San Francisco to Hawaii to prepare for action . From 6 December to 22 March 1943 , she escorted convoys and transports to the Fiji Islands . After that , she patrolled the southwestern Pacific , before returning to Pearl Harbor to get ready for the Aleutian Islands Campaign . After her training , on 17 May , she steamed to Adak , which would be her base for the attack on Attu . She later participated in the shelling of Kiska on 21 July , which led to the Japanese evacuation of the island a week later .
After the Aleutian Islands Campaign , a refit was undertaken at the Puget Sound Navy Yard . On 25 October , New Mexico returned to Pearl Harbor to practice for the invasion of the Gilbert Islands . On 20 November , while the invasion was underway , she shelled Makin Atoll . During the fighting on the islands the ship was tasked with guarding transports at night when they retreated from the islands , providing anti @-@ aircraft fire for the unloading of supplies and troops , and providing screening fire for the aircraft carriers . After U.S. troops captured the Gilbert Islands on 5 December , New Mexico returned to Pearl Harbor .
= = = = 1944 = = = =
New Mexico was part of the Marshall Islands invasion force on 12 January 1944 . She shelled Kwajalein and Ebeye from 31 January to 1 February . Replenishing at Majuro , on 20 February the ship shelled Wotje , and then the following month also shelled New Ireland and Kavieng . After that , she sailed to the Solomon Islands to practice the attack on the Mariana Islands , stopping at Sydney , in Australia , on the way .
In mid @-@ June , New Mexico joined the shelling of Tinian , and also bombarded Saipan and Guam . On 18 June , she helped drive away two air attacks . Later , on 20 June , she escorted transports off the Mariana Islands . Meanwhile , the carrier task force destroyed the Japanese carrier force at the Battle of the Philippine Sea . Later , she escorted troop transports to the naval base of Eniwetok . On 9 July , she sailed to guard escort carriers until 12 July . Her guns later hit Guam on 21 July and kept on shelling the island until 30 July .
After the invasion of the Mariana Islands , she received an overhaul at Bremerton , Washington , from October to November . After the overhaul , she arrived in Leyte Gulf to escort reinforcement and supply transports and convoys . She dealt with daily air attacks , as the Japanese put up heavy resistance to the liberation of the Philippines . She departed Leyte Gulf on 2 December to the Palaus , where she later joined a Mindoro @-@ bound convoy . She provided anti @-@ aircraft fire for the convoy and provided cover fire for invading forces . She provided cover for two more days before retiring to the Palaus .
= = = = 1945 = = = =
New Mexico 's next task in the Philippines was the liberation of Luzon . She took part in the pre @-@ invasion shelling of Lingayen Gulf on 6 January . During the bombardment she came under heavy kamikaze attack , one of which hit her bridge , killing her commanding officer , Captain Robert Walton Fleming , and 29 others . The dead included Lieutenant General Herbert Lumsden , the British representative to General of the Army Douglas MacArthur . A further 87 of her crew were wounded . Bruce Fraser , the commander of the British Pacific Fleet , narrowly escaped death while on her bridge , although his secretary was killed . The guns remained in action as the ship 's crew repaired the damage while the invasion troops were landing on the beaches .
More extensive repairs were completed at Pearl Harbor , after which New Mexico sailed to the island of Ulithi to rehearse the invasion of Okinawa as part of a large fire @-@ support group . Her heavy guns opened up on Okinawa on 26 March , and for the next month she continued to support the US troops ashore . On 11 May , she destroyed eight Shinyo suicide boats .
While she was approaching her berth in the Hagushi anchorage , just after sunset on 12 May , she was attacked by two kamikazes . One of them plunged into her , the other managed to hit her with its bomb . She was set on fire and 54 members of New Mexico 's crew were killed , while a further 119 were wounded . Swift action led to the fires being extinguished within 30 minutes . On 28 May , she departed for repairs at Leyte , followed by rehearsals for the planned invasion of the Japan . Word of the war 's end reached her when she was at Saipan on 15 August . The next day she sailed for Okinawa to join the occupation force . She entered Sagami Wan on 27 August to support the airborne occupation of Atsugi Airfield . The next day New Mexico passed into Tokyo Bay to witness the Japanese surrender , which took place on 2 September . She departed Tokyo Bay on 6 September , passing Okinawa , Hawaii , and the Panama Canal , before arriving at Boston on 17 October .
= = = Postwar = = =
New Mexico was decommissioned in Boston on 19 July 1946 , and was struck from the Naval Vessel Register on 25 February 1947 . On 9 November 1947 , she was sold for scrapping to the Lipsett Division of Luria Bros , for $ 381 @,@ 600 .
Lipsett decided to tow New Mexico for scrapping at Newark , New Jersey . The proximity of Newark to rail lines made it an ideal location for dismantling the ship and hauling away the steel . In early November 1947 New Mexico departed Boston , towed by two tugs . On 12 November , while off the coast of New York , the tugs pulling the battleship encountered heavy weather and were forced to cut the tow lines . Running lights were kept on aboard New Mexico along with three crewmembers , but the tugs eventually lost sight of the battleship . New Mexico then drifted as a derelict until spotted by a Coast Guard plane the next day , 35 miles off the coast . The two tugs then secured tow lines and continued the journey to the scrapyard .
Newark city officials decided they did not want any more ships scrapped along the city 's waterfront . Newark was implementing a beautification plan for the waterfront , and had allocated $ 70 million for improvements . As such , the city declared that any attempt to bring New Mexico to Newark would be blocked . Two city fireboats , Michael P. Duffy and William T. Brennan , were dispatched and were prepared to use their fire hoses and chemical sprayers to halt Lipsett and New Mexico . In response , Lipsett organized its own force of four tugs , and the United States Coast Guard declared it would guarantee safe passage of New Mexico , provided legal entry was permitted . This showdown was dubbed by the press as the " Battle of Newark Bay " , while the Santa Fe Chamber of Commerce announced it would protest Newark 's " slur " of New Mexico 's namesake , through its refusal to admit the battleship .
As New Mexico awaited suitable tidal conditions to make the final tow into Newark , the Navy Department sent Under Secretary W. John Kenney to negotiate . After several sessions , he arranged a tenuous agreement between the City of Newark and Lipsett . Newark would allow New Mexico and two other battleships , Idaho and Wyoming , to be scrapped at Newark , but there would be no permanent ship dismantling facility . Lipsett had nine months to dispose of the three ships , or would be subjected to a fine of $ 1 @,@ 000 per day after the deadline .
New Mexico finally entered Newark Channel on 19 November , and was greeted by the same Newark fireboats that had earlier been sent to oppose the ship . Newark also arranged to have school children honor the old battleship dockside , with a marching band . New Mexico was subsequently joined by Idaho and Wyoming , where all three were finally dismantled . Scrapping of New Mexico began on 24 November and was completed by July 1948 .
= = Awards = =
The following awards were presented to the ship for its service during World War II :
American Defense Service Medal with " Fleet " clasp
American Campaign Medal
Asiatic @-@ Pacific Campaign Medal with six battle stars
World War II Victory Medal
Navy Occupation Medal with " Asia " clasp
Philippine Liberation Medal with two stars
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= Dunder Mifflin =
Dunder Mifflin Paper Company , Inc. is a paper sales company featured in the United States television series The Office . It is analogous to Wernham Hogg in the British original of the series , and Papiers Jennings and Cogirep in the French Canadian and French adaptations respectively . Originally , the company was completely fictitious , but eventually the brand was used to sell products at Staples and other office supply outlets .
Two websites have been created to support the fictional company , NBC sold branded merchandise at its NBC Universal Store website . Its logo was prominently displayed in several locations in downtown Scranton , Pennsylvania , where the show is set . Scranton has been associated internationally with Dunder Mifflin due to the show 's international reach . In a 2008 St. Patrick 's Day speech in the suburb of Dickson City , then @-@ Prime Minister of Ireland Bertie Ahern made a reference to the city 's fictional branch office .
= = Overview = =
A fourth @-@ season episode , " Dunder Mifflin Infinity " , said the company was founded in 1949 by Robert Dunder and Robert Mifflin , originally to sell brackets for use in construction . The fifth @-@ season episode " Company Picnic " said that the co @-@ founders met on a tour of Dartmouth College . U.S. News and World Report likens it to many real companies in its size range : " It is facing an increasingly competitive marketplace . Like many smaller players , it just can 't compete with the low prices charged by big @-@ box rivals like Staples , OfficeMax and Office Depot , and it seems to be constantly bleeding corporate customers that are focused on cutting costs themselves . " The show 's creators share this assessment — " It 's basically a Staples , just not as big " , says co @-@ producer Kent Zbornak — as do some of those companies . " Since Dunder Mifflin could be considered among our competitors " , says Chuck Rubin , an Office Depot executive , " I think Michael Scott is actually the perfect person to run their Scranton office . "
The company was depicted as based in New York City , with branches in smaller Northeastern cities . Episodes are set in the Scranton branch , but other branches have been mentioned and seen . The now @-@ closed Stamford , Connecticut , branch was seen when Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) transferred there during the first half of the third season . Another episode , " Branch Wars " , gave viewers a brief glimpse of the Utica branch , one of several purportedly in upstate New York . Zbornak says that city was on the short list for where to base the show , with some of its writers having ties to Central New York , and that they always intended for at least a branch office to be located there , for reasons of phonetics . " Utica was just such a different @-@ sounding name than Scranton , " Zbornak says . But also , " we had done a little research and thought our kind of business could survive in Utica . "
A Buffalo branch has been mentioned in several episodes , and a Rochester office was also mentioned in the episode titled " Lecture Circuit " . The Dunder Mifflin website also lists a Yonkers branch . Albany rounds out the New York locations , which in a deleted scene in " Stress Relief " is revealed to have closed , leaving three other branches in other states : Akron , Ohio ; Camden , New Jersey ; and Nashua , New Hampshire . In " Company Picnic " , it is announced that the Camden and Yonkers branches have closed , and that the Buffalo branch is about to close . In " Boys and Girls " , a Pittsfield branch was mentioned , until Jan shut it down when their warehouse workers unionized . The episode " Turf War " focuses on the closing of the Binghamton branch , and how reps from the Syracuse branch are competing with Scranton employees for Binghamton 's old clients .
Business writer Megan Barnett has pointed out parallels between Dunder Mifflin and the real @-@ life W.B. Mason paper company , based near Boston , in Brockton , Massachusetts . It is similarly regional in focus , serving corporate customers in New England and the Mid @-@ Atlantic states . Like Dunder Mifflin , its original product line ( rubber stamps ) was something other than paper , and it faces stiff competition from national and international chains . It , too , has a branch office in Stamford , but Mason 's has remained open . In 2009 , it had an accounting scandal that resulted in a $ 545 @,@ 000 payment to corporate customers , much as Dunder Mifflin had to deal with the arrest of Ryan Howard for fraud the year before .
= = = Depiction of corporate culture = = =
The company 's " clearly dysfunctional " top @-@ down management style is a major source of tension on the show , notes Chicago @-@ based writer Ramsin Canon . Corporate headquarters rejects the television commercial Michael created , as he in turn insisted on his own ideas for the commercial and ignored his employees . Ryan Howard ( B. J. Novak ) , who began as a temp , becomes Michael 's new boss because he has an M.B.A. despite never having sold any paper or paper products . Michael , in turn , treats his own employees the same way . The show 's depiction of a dysfunctional corporate culture has led some commentators to liken Dunder Mifflin to the software maker Initech in Mike Judge 's cult comedy Office Space and the nameless company in which the Dilbert comic strip is set .
Dunder Mifflin is also depicted as struggling to accommodate the demands of a diverse workforce . Episodes have focused on sensitivity training sessions and other informal efforts . Sexual harassment has occurred often enough , however , that it has lent its name to an episode . Employment lawyer Julie Elgar started a blog analyzing each episode for plot developments likely to be actionable if they occurred in real life and estimating the legal bill and / or possible verdict the company would incur should a suit be filed — as Michael 's former supervisor , Jan Levenson ( Melora Hardin ) did in one episode , alleging wrongful termination . Greg Daniels , the show 's creator , said many episode plotlines are in fact based on anecdotes recounted during the sensitivity training he and the other members of the show 's cast and crew are required to take annually as employees of NBC , a General Electric subsidiary . The episode " Boys and Girls " showed that the company strongly resisted unionization efforts by its employees , to the point of closing down a branch , as many real companies do or threaten to do in the same situation .
= = Locations and sets used = =
The office and warehouse of the Scranton branch office are sets on the production company 's office in Van Nuys , California ( a real office was used in the show 's first season ) . The parking lots and exterior of the building are likewise the exterior of the building ( except in the first season , when the building 's exterior was different because a different shooting location was used ) . Since the stage set had no windows , writer Jennifer Celotta 's office was dressed to look like Michael Scott 's when the script called for him or someone else to look out the window into the parking lot . In the second and subsequent seasons , the office interiors and exteriors are at a different location in Van Nuys .
Some viewers have presumed that the Pennsylvania Paper & Supply Company 's tower , a downtown Scranton landmark which appears in video footage shot by cast member John Krasinski for the show 's opening credits , is the Dunder Mifflin office . The real company , which also sells paper and office supplies , has welcomed the exposure ( and increase in business ) and has a ground @-@ floor showroom where it sells both its products and T @-@ shirts with the tower . It plans to add a Dunder Mifflin logo to the circular insets near the top of the tower . Mifflin Avenue ends adjacent to the Penn Paper & Supply building .
= = Presence in real world = =
The success of the show has led to the sale of actual products with the Dunder Mifflin logo as souvenirs . NBC sells branded T @-@ shirts , mugs , calendars and other items at its website , as well as in the NBC store located in New York City . In 2006 , the website 80stees.com ranked Dunder Mifflin second only to Duff Beer from The Simpsons as the best fictional brand .
At the first annual The Office convention in Scranton in 2007 , fans who had paid for reserved seating at an " uncommon stockholders meeting " in the Mall at Steamtown received an annual report and complimentary ream of paper . A nearby elevator shaft is also decorated with the company logo . While the Scranton branch 's address , 1725 Slough Avenue , does not actually exist ( the street name was invented as a tribute to the original British version of the show , set in Slough , near London ) , the company logo can be seen two places in the city 's downtown section outside the mall : on one of the pedestrian overpasses along Lackawanna Avenue , and a lamppost banner in front of City Hall .
Two websites purporting to be the company 's exist. dundermifflin.com is the main site , with basic information about the company , and dundermifflininfinity.com , which is allegedly the company intranet , serves as an official NBC fansite . The latter site was shut down around January 2014 but is viewable through the Wayback Machine
In November 2011 , Staples Inc. announced that they are selling their own product of manufactured paper under the " Dunder Mifflin " name , under license from NBC 's parent company , Comcast . The Dunder Mifflin products are produced and sold by Quill.com , a wholly owned subsidiary of Staples . The brand expanded its paper product line beyond manufactured paper in November 2012 .
= = Dunder Mifflin appearances = =
= = = Video games = = =
In Randal 's Monday , a Dunder Mifflin Warehouse 42 sign is visible in a city scene .
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= Battle of San Domingo =
The Battle of San Domingo was a naval battle of the Napoleonic Wars fought on 6 February 1806 between squadrons of French and British ships of the line off the southern coast of the French @-@ occupied Spanish colonial Captaincy General of Santo Domingo ( San Domingo in contemporary British English ) in the Caribbean . The French squadron , under Vice @-@ Admiral Corentin Urbain Leissègues in the 120 @-@ gun Impérial , had sailed from Brest in December 1805 , one of two squadrons intending to raid British trade routes as part of the Atlantic campaign of 1806 .
Separating from the squadron under Contre @-@ Admiral Jean @-@ Baptiste Willaumez in the mid @-@ Atlantic , Leissègues sailed for the Caribbean . After winter storms near the Azores damaged and scattered his squadron , Leissègues regrouped and repaired his ships at the city of Santo Domingo , where a British squadron under Vice @-@ Admiral Sir John Thomas Duckworth discovered them on 6 February 1806 . Duckworth had abandoned his assigned station off Cadiz in pursuit of Willaumez during December and traveled so far across the Atlantic in pursuit that he was forced to resupply at St. Kitts in the Leeward Islands , where news had reached him of Leissègues ' arrival .
By the time French lookouts at Santo Domingo had spotted Duckworth approaching from the southeast , it was too late for Leissègues to escape . Sailing with the wind westwards along the coast , Leissègues formed a line of battle to meet the approaching British squadron , which had split into two divisions . Although his divisions separated during the approach , Duckworth 's lead ships remained in a tight formation and successfully engaged the head of the French line , targeting the flagship Impérial . Under pressure , the French squadron broke apart with the British isolating and capturing three ships before concentrating on the main combat around the French flagship . Severely damaged and surrounded , Leissègues drove Impérial ashore to avoid capture . The remaining French ship of the line , Diomède , followed him . Although most of the crew of these ships scrambled ashore , British boarding parties captured both vessels and set them on fire . The only French ships to escape the battle were three smaller warships , which Duckworth 's squadron had ignored ; they eventually returned to France .
Willaumez 's squadron remained at large in the Atlantic until July 1806 , when a hurricane scattered the vessels along the American Seaboard where British patrols were waiting to intercept them . Of the 11 ships that set out in December 1805 , just four eventually returned to France . The crews of the British squadron were decorated for their success , with the exception of Duckworth , who shared in the general thanks but was otherwise unrewarded . By leaving his post off Cadiz he had provoked the anger of Vice @-@ Admiral Lord Collingwood , commander in the Mediterranean ; only his victory enabled Duckworth to escape a court martial .
The battle of San Domingo was the last fleet engagement of the war between French and British capital ships in open water . The Royal Navy 's dominance off every French port made the risks involved in putting to sea insurmountable . The only subsequent breakout attempt , by the Brest fleet in 1809 , ended with the defeat of the French fleet close to its own anchorage at the Battle of the Basque Roads .
= = Background = =
In late 1805 , First Lord of the Admiralty Lord Barham withdrew the Royal Navy blockade of the French Atlantic ports following the Trafalgar Campaign , in which the French Navy had lost 14 ships of the line . Barham believed that the French , having suffered such heavy losses , would be unable and unwilling to launch a major offensive in the Atlantic until after the winter . However , he had miscalculated the strength of the fleet at Brest , the principal French Atlantic seaport . The Brest fleet had not been engaged in the 1805 campaign and was therefore intact .
Taking advantage of the withdrawal of the British blockade , Emperor Napoleon ordered two squadrons to put to sea with orders to raid the British trade routes that crossed the Atlantic . These forces were to inflict as much economic damage to Britain as possible without engaging an equivalent British naval squadron and risking defeat and capture . The cruise was expected to last as long as 14 months , sustained by captured food supplies from British merchant ships . Sailing unopposed on 13 December 1805 , the squadrons separated two days later in pursuit of British merchant convoys , one squadron steering for the South Atlantic under Contre @-@ Admiral Jean @-@ Baptiste Willaumez and the other , under Vice @-@ Admiral Corentin @-@ Urbain Leissègues , sailing for the Caribbean . The Admiralty in London did not discover that the French had sailed until 24 December , and the two squadrons they prepared in pursuit , under Rear @-@ Admiral Sir Richard Strachan and Rear @-@ Admiral Sir John Borlase Warren , did not sail until January 1806 , by which time the French had disappeared into the Atlantic .
There was however one British squadron that had maintained contact with the French : since the Battle of Trafalgar in October 1805 , the Admiralty had stationed a squadron under Vice @-@ Admiral Sir John Thomas Duckworth off Cadiz to watch the remnants of the combined fleet . In November 1805 , reports reached Duckworth of a French squadron operating against British convoys off the Savage Islands between Madeira and the Canary Islands . This squadron , which belonged to Contre @-@ Admiral Zacharie Allemand , had left France in July 1805 . Immediately sailing to investigate , Duckworth abandoned Cadiz , leaving just two frigates to watch the Allied fleet at anchor . Passing the Savage and Canary Islands , Duckworth continued to the Cape Verde Islands before conceding that the French had escaped him and turning northwards again . Allemand was already far to the north . He eventually returned to France without incident on 23 December .
= = = Duckworth 's cruise = = =
During his return journey to Cadiz , on 23 December Duckworth encountered HMS Arethusa under Captain Charles Brisbane escorting a small group of merchant ships . Leissègues had intercepted , chased and dispersed Brisbane 's convoy in the Bay of Biscay on 15 December , Brisbane retaining only the largest merchant ships to help cover the flight of the smaller vessels . Once he had escaped Leissègues ' pursuit , Brisbane sailed in search of support at Cadiz , continuing southwards after realizing that Duckworth was not at his appointed station . Immediately setting a course that he believed would intercept Leissègues , Duckworth turned to the northwest and on 25 December discovered an enemy squadron approximately 200 nautical miles ( 370 km ) northwest of the Canary Islands . Duckworth ordered his squadron to pursue , the chase lasting throughout the day and continuing into 26 December , by which time it had become clear that his quarry was not Allemand . In fact , Duckworth had discovered Willaumez 's squadron . However , the French admiral ordered his ships to run before Duckworth rather than give battle . By 13 : 00 on 26 December , it seemed certain that the British flagship , HMS Superb , would outstrip the rearmost French ship , when Duckworth suddenly called off the pursuit . He later claimed that he was concerned that the leading ships of his squadron would be overwhelmed by the concentrated French squadron before the stragglers , some of which were more than 45 nautical miles ( 83 km ) behind Superb , could join the battle .
As Willaumez escaped into the South Atlantic , Duckworth ordered his squadron to sail for Barbados to resupply before making the long journey back to Cadiz . When he arrived on 12 January 1806 , he ordered the frigate HMS Acasta to St. Kitts to arrange the required water supplies , and moved the squadron to an anchorage off Basseterre on 19 January . There two ships of the Leeward Islands squadron , HMS Northumberland and HMS Atlas , joined him . Northumberland was the flagship of Rear @-@ Admiral Alexander Cochrane , commander of the station . Cochrane 's arrival raised the number of admirals in the squadron to three , as Duckworth 's second in command was Rear @-@ Admiral Thomas Louis in HMS Canopus . Leissègues was also en route to the Caribbean , winter storms off the Azores having delayed him , separated Alexandre and Brave and inflicted damage on Jupiter and Diomède . Arriving at the French @-@ held city of Santo Domingo on the island of Hispaniola on 20 January , Leissègues disembarked over 1 @,@ 000 soldiers as reinforcements for the garrison , and made hasty repairs as he awaited the arrival of his missing ships , which appeared on 29 January . During his time in the harbour , Leissègues moved ashore and gave orders for the ships to be recaulked following their Atlantic voyage , a difficult and time @-@ consuming process .
On 1 February the small sloop HMS Kingfisher arrived at Basseterre with information that three French ships of the line had been sighted off Santo Domingo . Duckworth gave orders for the fleet to sail immediately . On 3 February the brig HMS Epervier joined him at St. Thomas and on 5 February the frigate HMS Magicienne under Captain Adam Mackenzie joined near the Mona Passage . Mackenzie was accompanied by a Danish schooner that had sailed from Santo Domingo a few days before , and whose crew were able to provide a detailed account of the French squadron 's composition . Before the schooner had sailed , a number of French officers had commented on the risk involved in allowing the vessel to leave port , but the admiral had refused their demands that he burn the Danish ship . Duckworth was now confident that he outnumbered and outgunned Leissègues . During the night of 5 February the British squadron slowly approached Santo Domingo , Acasta and Magicienne scouting ahead of the main fleet .
= = Battle = =
= = = Duckworth 's attack = = =
At 06 : 00 on 6 February Duckworth 's scouts sighted the French , observing two frigates , five ships of the line and one large merchant ship anchored in line at the entrance to Santo Domingo . Leissègues had reportedly issued orders for the squadron to sail for Jamaica , even though several of the French ships were not yet ready for sea , and two frigates were already under sail when the British arrived . Leissègues was not aboard Impérial ; he and a number of his officers were still conducting their business in the town and were therefore forced to join the squadron in small boats , which delayed the squadron . Several officers , possibly including Leissègues , did not reach their ships until after the engagement had begun . Recognising that his enemy was in a vulnerable position , Duckworth raised all sail in an effort to close with the French . Leissègues too recognised the danger his ships were in and ordered them to raise anchor and then to sail westwards along the coast in the direction of Nizao . [ Note A ] Maintaining close formation , the French formed a line of battle , Captain Pierre @-@ Elie Garreau in Alexandre leading , with Impérial , Diomède , Jupiter and Brave following . The frigates and corvette took a position between the battle line and the shore . Duckworth was concerned that there might be other French forces to the west . He therefore angled his line of attack to pass across the front of the French line and signaled to his squadron to direct their fire at the front three ships : Alexandre , Impérial and Diomède .
At 08 : 00 Duckworth 's ships divided into two divisions , a westerly line to windward under Duckworth with Superb , Northumberland , HMS Spencer and HMS Agamemnon , and an eastern line under Louis with Canopus , HMS Donegal and Atlas . The British frigates were gathered in formation to the west of the British lines , awaiting orders to assist if required . Over the next two hours the British slowly closed with the French squadron , the British divisions breaking up as the faster ships outpaced the slower . Louis ' squadron fell behind Duckworth 's , while Agamemnon dropped behind the other three vessels in her division , which otherwise remained in a tight formation . A slight shift in the wind allowed Leissègues to adjust his direction to the southwest , but the close presence of the land restricted French movements and at 10 : 10 Superb was able to open fire on Alexandre .
With the British flagship engaged with the leading French vessel , Northumberland opened fire on the next in line , Leissègues ' flagship Impérial . The French ship carried 120 guns to Northumberland 's 74 , but Cochrane engaged closely , rapidly supported by Spencer , which opened fire on Impérial and Diomède simultaneously . For 15 minutes the British continued to close , both squadrons sailing westwards along the coast with the wind . At 10 : 25 , the damaged Alexandre suddenly swung out of the line in an attempt to drive between Spencer and Northumberland and rake them both . Captain Robert Stopford on Spencer responded rapidly , turning across Alexandre 's bow and raking her , before pulling along the opposite side of Garreau 's Alexandre and opening fire from close range . In the smoke and confusion neither Superb nor Northumberland noticed Spencer 's move ; both fired several shots into Spencer before they realized their mistake . With Spencer and Alexandre out of the way , Impérial was able to engage both of the leading British ships , threatening to overwhelm them . Cochrane moved to defend the flagship by pulling Northumberland between Impérial and Superb , suffering terrible damage but preserving Duckworth 's ship intact . Impérial 's fire was so heavy that several shot passed straight through Northumberland into Superb .
= = = Destruction of the French rear = = =
As the combat raged at the head of the line , the remainder of both squadrons strained to join the battle . The British eastern division under Louis reached the battling Alexandre and Spencer at 10 : 35 , the two ships locked together to the south of the main engagement . As they passed , Canopus , Donegal and Atlas all raked the French ship , bringing down all of her masts and leaving her in a crippled state . Canopus then steered directly towards the battle around Impérial , as Donegal and Atlas turned northwest to intercept Brave and Jupiter respectively . At 11 : 00 , Spencer followed Canopus while Alexandre 's crew were preoccupied with extinguishing a fire that had broken out on board . Alexandre was so badly damaged that she was unable to either escape or continue the action ; she formally surrendered ten minutes later .
Captain Pulteney Malcolm on Donegal attacked Brave directly , firing his starboard guns and then crossing Brave 's stern , inflicting severe damage with a raking broadside , before pulling alongside again and engaging from close range . Badly damaged , Brave surrendered . Malcolm then ordered Captain Richard Dunn in Acasta to take possession as Donegal moved forward to engage Jupiter . With Donegal alongside Jupiter , Captain Samuel Pym in Atlas abandoned his brief engagement with the French ship and steered for the melee surrounding the increasingly isolated Impérial . Taking advantage of his ship 's superior speed , Malcolm pulled ahead of Jupiter and then rammed her bow , securing the ships together to prevent the French vessel from escaping . Recognising that further resistance was hopeless , Captain Gaspard Laignel surrendered immediately . Malcolm then sent 100 men on board as a prize crew and attached a towline to the French ship , just as the trailing Agamemnon finally reached the battle .
= = = Leissègues drives ashore = = =
Under the shroud of heavy smoke that confused the positions and identities of the ships at the head of the line , manoeuvering became hazardous : Atlas fired two broadsides into Impérial as she arrived and then raked the French flagship before her tiller jammed just as Diomède loomed out the smoke . Receiving a heavy broadside from the French ship , Atlas subsequently collided with Canopus as she too appeared immediately ahead , tearing off her bowsprit in the collision . Turning back into the battle , Atlas engaged Diomède at close range as the rest of the British squadron concentrated their fire on the beleaguered Impérial , with the exception of the damaged Northumberland , which was drifting out of the line .
With his main and mizzen masts collapsed and escape impossible , Leissègues turned his ship towards the shore at 11 : 30 , outdistancing the fire from the drifting Northumberland and leaving Superb behind , Duckworth reluctant to risk his ship in the shallow coastal shoals . Canopus maintained the pressure , pursuing the French flagship until it was clear at 11 : 40 that Impérial was hard aground on a coral reef , less than a mile from the beach . Diomède , under attack by Atlas and the recently returned Spencer , followed Impérial ashore . As they struck the reef , both French ships lost their remaining masts and suffered severe damage to their hulls . Their crews then gathered on deck and made preparations to abandon ship as the British squadron pulled back out of range of fire from the shore . During the engagement the French frigates and corvette had all slipped between the battling squadrons and the shoreline and escaped to the westwards . The British frigates were too preoccupied with boarding and towing prizes to initiate a chase .
= = = Destruction of Impérial and Diomède = = =
As Duckworth gathered his squadron , Northumberland 's mainmast collapsed across the deck , causing severe damage to the ship 's fittings . Although Cochrane 's flagship was the most severely damaged of the squadron , all had suffered to a degree : Superb 's men counted 60 shot holes while Atlas was out of control and Donegal had lost one of her topmasts . Casualties were also distributed throughout the fleet , with Northumberland and Spencer suffering the worst and Atlas the least except for the barely engaged Agamemnon . Total losses were 74 killed and 264 wounded and several ships were damaged , but Duckworth was rapidly able to effect repairs as his ships remained on station to observe the situation ashore .
Impérial and Diomède had both run aground between Nizao and Point Catalan , their hulls broadside to the beach and their bottoms stove in by the reefs that lay offshore . Using the remaining ship 's boats and with assistance from the shore , the wounded and survivors were ferried to the beach . These operations continued uninterrupted until 8 February , when Duckworth sent boats from Acasta and Magicienne to the wrecks . Boarding unopposed , the boat parties removed the remaining French crewmen as prisoners and set both ships on fire to deny their potential use to the French , although Leissègues had in fact already issued orders for them to be burnt once the last men had been evacuated . Her captain , Jean @-@ Baptiste Henry , was among the 150 prisoners the British took from Diomède . By contrast , the British found only six men still aboard Impérial , none of them officers . French casualties in the engagement were very heavy , with over 500 men estimated to have been killed or wounded on Impérial alone and over 1 @,@ 000 additional casualties shared among the rest of the fleet . Jupiter had not been severely damaged in the engagement and Brave , although damaged in the hull , was in a sailing condition . Both ships had surrendered early in the engagement after losing their captains killed or wounded , in the initial exchanges . Alexandre , by contrast , was a shattered wreck . Her British prize crew only just prevented the gaping holes smashed in her hull from sinking her .
Duckworth remained at anchor off Santo Domingo for several more days until his entire squadron and their prizes were ready for the voyage to Jamaica , sending Commander Nathaniel Day Cochrane to Britain in Kingfisher with the official despatches . Admiral Cochrane separated from the fleet on the day of departure and Northumberland and Agamemnon sailed for Barbados in case other French forces should appear in the Leeward Islands while the main fleet was repairing at Jamaica . Duckworth was received at Jamaica with " rapturous acknowledgments " and his prizes were refitted for the journey back to Britain . In the event , Brave foundered off the Azores with the loss of three men , and Alexandre was too badly damaged for further service , being broken up on arrival . Only Jupiter , renamed HMS Maida after the recent French defeat at the battle of Maida in Italy , had any continued career in the Royal Navy . The only surviving French ships , the frigates Comète and Félicité , and the corvette Diligente all returned to France without incident over the following months .
= = Aftermath = =
The victory , just four months after the success at Trafalgar , was celebrated in Britain and across the Empire , particularly in the Caribbean . Mere rumours of Leissègues ' presence had stifled trade and caused panic among the merchant houses of the West Indies and Duckworth 's victory helped to restore confidence in commercial ocean travel once more . In Britain both the House of Commons and the House of Lords voted their thanks to the entire squadron when Duckworth 's account of the action was read out , the motions led by Lord Grenville and Charles Grey , who both made expansive speeches in praise of Duckworth . Head money , a bounty on enemy servicemen killed , wounded or captured , was paid for 4 @,@ 268 men , even though records showed that the French fleet carried significantly fewer men than that . Additional prize money was paid for the captured Jupiter and awards of money , ceremonial plate and ornate swords were made by patriotic societies and Lloyd 's of London insurers . Admiral Louis was made a baronet and Cochrane a Knight Companion of the Order of the Bath , while a number of promotions were distributed among the first lieutenants . Duckworth , however , received nothing beyond his share of the general rewards . Vice @-@ Admiral Lord Collingwood , commander in chief of the Mediterranean , was furious that Duckworth had deserted his post off Cadiz , failed to bring Willaumez to battle in December and then sailed for the West Indies to resupply rather than returning to the Spanish coast . Historians William James and William Laird Clowes both considered that if Duckworth had not defeated Leissègues he would probably have faced a court martial . Duckworth 's absence forced Collingwood to divert some of his own ships to the Cadiz blockade . The force provided still proved inadequate – on 26 February a French frigate squadron broke out of the port and escaped to Rochefort . Collingwood 's influence was enough to block additional rewards to Duckworth , who subsequently returned to the Mediterranean and in 1807 commanded the fleet at the ineffectual Dardanelles Operation . Over four decades later the battle was among the actions recognised by a clasp attached to the Naval General Service Medal , awarded upon application to all British participants still living in 1847 .
In France , the government press misrepresented the battle . Le Moniteur Universel published a report purportedly written by Captain Raymond Cocault of the corvette Diligente . The report began by inaccurately claiming that the British squadron consisted of nine ships of the line . The report concluded with the information that two British ships had been destroyed on the San Domingo coast alongside three French and that two others had been dismasted and were badly damaged . The official French report , written by Leissègues but not published in France , contradicted this version of events . Leissègues stated that Cocault , with the other smaller warships , had made all sail to the westwards at the start of the engagement and that by the time the flagship drove ashore , Diligente was already out of sight . Leissègues remained on Santo Domingo for some time , but had returned to Europe by the time the colony fell to a joint English and Spanish force in July 1809 . He later received a regional command in the Ionian Sea and took part in the Adriatic campaign .
The Atlantic campaign continued throughout the spring and summer . Willaumez was able to avoid the British squadrons searching for him by remaining deep in the South Atlantic . However , on 13 March 1806 the British under Warren intercepted and defeated an unrelated French squadron under Contre @-@ Admiral Charles @-@ Alexandre Durand Linois while he was returning from the Indian Ocean . Eventually forced north in search of additional food supplies , Willaumez entered the Caribbean , where he hoped to intercept the Jamaica convoy to Britain . The disobedience of one of his own captains foiled Willaumez 's plan and he ordered his squadron to its final cruising ground , off Newfoundland . On 18 August 1806 , while it was deep in the Central Atlantic , a ferocious hurricane caught the squadron and scattered it . Willaumez eventually found shelter in Havana ; a number of his ships reached ports in the United States , some too badly damaged to ever sail again . Only four of the 11 ships of the line that left Brest in December 1805 ever returned to France . San Domingo was the last fleet battle of the Wars to be fought in open water ; the only subsequent engagement between fleets was the Battle of Basque Roads , fought in the narrow , shallow waters at the mouth of the Charente River .
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= Ryan White =
Ryan Wayne White ( December 6 , 1971 – April 8 , 1990 ) was an American teenager from Kokomo , Indiana , who became a national poster child for HIV / AIDS in the United States after being expelled from middle school because of his infection . As a hemophiliac , he became infected with HIV from a contaminated blood treatment and , when diagnosed in December 1984 , was given six months to live . Doctors said he posed no risk to other students , but AIDS was poorly understood at the time . When White tried to return to school , many parents and teachers in Kokomo rallied against his attendance due to concerns of the disease spreading through bodily fluid transfer . Western School was actually located in Russiaville outside of Kokomo and was not part of the local Kokomo school system . A lengthy legal battle with the school system ensued , and news of the court case turned White into a popular celebrity and advocate for AIDS research and public education . Surprising his doctors , White lived five years longer than predicted but died in April 1990 , one month before his high school graduation .
Before White , AIDS was a disease widely associated with the male gay community , because it was first diagnosed among gay men . That perception shifted as White and other prominent HIV @-@ infected people such as Magic Johnson , Arthur Ashe , the Ray brothers , and Kimberly Bergalis appeared in the media to advocate for more AIDS research and public education to address the epidemic . The U.S. Congress passed a major piece of AIDS legislation , the Ryan White CARE Act , shortly after White 's death . The Act has been reauthorized twice ; Ryan White Programs are the largest provider of services for people living with HIV / AIDS in the United States .
= = Early life and illness = =
Ryan White was born at St. Joseph Memorial Hospital in Kokomo , Indiana , to Jeanne Elaine Hale and Hubert Wayne White . When he was circumcised , the bleeding would not stop . When he was three days old , doctors diagnosed him with severe hemophilia A , a hereditary blood coagulation disorder associated with the X chromosome , which causes even minor injuries to result in severe bleeding . For treatment , he received weekly transfusions of Factor VIII , a blood product created from pooled plasma of non @-@ hemophiliacs , an increasingly common treatment for hemophiliacs at the time .
Healthy for most of his childhood , he became extremely ill with pneumonia in December 1984 . On December 17 , 1984 , during a partial @-@ lung removal procedure , White was diagnosed with AIDS . The scientific community knew little about AIDS at the time : scientists had only realized earlier that year that HTLV @-@ III , now called HIV , was the cause of AIDS . White had apparently received a contaminated treatment of Factor VIII that was infected with HTLV @-@ III , although exactly when he was infected remains unknown to this day . At that time , because the retrovirus that causes AIDS had been recently identified , much of the pooled Factor VIII concentrate supply in hospitals was tainted because doctors did not know how to test for the disease , and donors often did not know they were infected or that blood was a factor in the transmission of the virus . Among hemophiliacs treated with blood @-@ clotting factors between 1979 and 1984 , nearly 90 % became infected with HIV . At the time of his diagnosis , his T @-@ cell count had dropped to 25 ( a healthy individual without HIV will have around 500 – 1200 ) . Doctors predicted White had only six months to live .
After the diagnosis , White was too ill to return to school , but by early 1985 he began to feel better . His mother asked if he could return to school , but was told by school officials that he could not . On June 30 , 1985 , a formal request to permit re @-@ admittance to school was denied by Western School Corporation superintendent James O. Smith , sparking a legal battle that lasted for eight months .
= = Battle with schools = =
Western Middle School in Russiaville faced enormous pressure from many parents and faculty to ban White from the campus after his diagnosis became widely known . 117 parents ( from a school of 360 total students ) and 50 teachers signed a petition encouraging school leaders to ban White from school . Due to the widespread fear and ignorance of AIDS , the principal and later the school board succumbed to this pressure and banned White . The White family filed a lawsuit seeking to overturn the ban . The Whites initially filed suit in the U.S. District Court in Indianapolis . The court , however , declined to hear the case until administrative appeals had been resolved . On November 25 , an Indiana Department of Education officer ruled that the school must follow the Indiana Board of Health guidelines and that White must be allowed to attend school .
The ways in which HIV spread were not fully understood in the 1980s . Scientists knew it spread via blood and was not transmittable by any sort of casual contact , but as recently as 1983 , the American Medical Association had thought that " Evidence Suggests Household Contact May Transmit AIDS " , and the belief that the disease could easily spread persisted . Children with AIDS were still rare : at the time of White 's rejection from school , the Centers for Disease Control knew of only 148 cases of pediatric AIDS in the United States . Many families in Kokomo believed his presence posed an unacceptable risk . When White was permitted to return to school for one day in February 1986 , 151 of 360 students stayed home . He also worked as a paperboy , and many of the people on his route canceled their subscriptions , believing that HIV could be transmitted through newsprint .
The Indiana state health commissioner , Dr. Woodrow Myers , who had extensive experience treating AIDS patients in San Francisco , and the Centers for Disease Control both notified the board that White posed no risk to other students , but the school board and many parents ignored their statements . In February 1986 , the New England Journal of Medicine published a study of 101 people who had spent three months living in close but non @-@ sexual contact with people with AIDS . The study concluded that the risk of infection was " minimal to nonexistent , " even when contact included sharing toothbrushes , razors , clothing , combs and drinking glasses ; sleeping in the same bed ; and hugging and kissing .
When White was finally readmitted in April , a group of families withdrew their children and started an alternative school . Threats of violence and lawsuits persisted . According to White 's mother , people on the street would often yell , " we know you 're queer " at Ryan . The editors and publishers of the Kokomo Tribune , which supported White both editorially and financially , were also ridiculed by members of the community and threatened with death for their actions .
White attended Western Middle School for eighth grade for the entire 1986 – 87 school year , but was deeply unhappy and had few friends . The school required him to eat with disposable utensils , use separate bathrooms , and waived his requirement to enroll in a gym class . Threats continued . When a bullet was fired through the Whites ' living room window ( no one was home at the time ) , the family decided to leave Kokomo . After finishing the school year , his family moved to Cicero , Indiana , where White enrolled at Hamilton Heights High School , located in Arcadia , Indiana . On August 31 , 1987 , a " very nervous " White was greeted by school principal Tony Cook , school system superintendent Bob G. Carnal , and a handful of students who had been educated about AIDS and were unafraid to shake White 's hand .
= = National spokesman = =
The publicity of White 's trial catapulted him into the national spotlight , amidst a growing wave of AIDS coverage in the news media . Between 1985 and 1987 , the number of news stories about AIDS in the American media doubled . While isolated in middle school , White appeared frequently on national television and in newspapers to discuss his tribulations with the disease . Eventually he became known as a poster child for the AIDS crisis , appearing in fundraising and educational campaigns for the syndrome . White participated in numerous public benefits for children with AIDS . Many celebrities appeared with White , starting during his trial and continuing for the rest of his life , to help publicly destigmatize socializing with people with AIDS . Singers John Cougar Mellencamp , Elton John and Michael Jackson , actor Matt Frewer , diver Greg Louganis , President Ronald Reagan and Nancy Reagan , Surgeon General Dr. C. Everett Koop , businessman Donald Trump ( who also paid for White 's medical expenses ) , Indiana University basketball coach Bobby Knight and basketball player Kareem Abdul @-@ Jabbar all befriended White . He also was a friend to many children with AIDS or other potentially debilitating conditions .
For the rest of his life he appeared frequently on Phil Donahue 's talk show . His celebrity crush , Alyssa Milano of the then @-@ popular TV show Who 's the Boss ? , met White and gave him a friendship bracelet and a kiss . Elton John loaned Jeanne White $ 16 @,@ 500 to put toward a down payment on the Cicero home , and rather than accept repayment , placed the repaid money into a college fund for Ryan 's sister . In high school White drove a red Mustang convertible , a gift from Michael Jackson . Despite the fame and donations , White stated that he disliked the public spotlight , loathed remarks that seemingly blamed his mother or his upbringing for his illness , and emphasized that he would be willing at any moment to trade his fame for freedom from the disease .
In 1988 , White spoke before the President 's Commission on the HIV Epidemic . White told the commission of the discrimination he had faced when he first tried to return to school , but how education about the disease had made him welcome in the town of Cicero . White emphasized his differing experiences in Kokomo and Cicero as an example of the power and importance of AIDS education .
In 1989 , ABC aired the television movie The Ryan White Story , starring Lukas Haas as Ryan , Judith Light as Jeanne and Nikki Cox as his sister Andrea . White had a small cameo appearance in the film , playing a boy also suffering from HIV who befriends Haas . Others in the film included Sarah Jessica Parker as a sympathetic nurse , George Dzundza as his doctor , and George C. Scott as White 's attorney , who legally argued against school board authorities . Nielsen estimated that the movie was seen by 15 million viewers . Some residents of Kokomo felt that the movie portrayed their entire town in an unfairly negative light . After the film aired , the office of Kokomo mayor Robert F. Sargent was flooded with complaints from across the country , although Sargent had not been elected to the office during the time of the controversy .
By early 1990 , White 's health was deteriorating rapidly . In his final public appearance , he hosted an after @-@ Oscars party with former president Ronald Reagan and first lady Nancy Reagan in California . Although his health was deteriorating , White spoke to the Reagans about his date to the prom and his hopes of attending college .
= = Death = =
On March 29 , 1990 , White entered Riley Hospital for Children in Indianapolis with a respiratory infection . As his condition deteriorated , he was placed on a ventilator and sedated . He was visited by Elton John and the hospital was deluged with calls from well @-@ wishers . White died on April 8 , 1990 .
Over 1 @,@ 500 people attended White 's funeral on April 11 , a standing @-@ room only event held at the Second Presbyterian Church on Meridian Street in Indianapolis . White 's pallbearers included Elton John , football star Howie Long and Phil Donahue . Elton John performed " Skyline Pigeon " at the funeral . The funeral was also attended by Michael Jackson and First Lady Barbara Bush . On the day of the funeral , former President Ronald Reagan wrote a tribute to White that appeared in The Washington Post . Reagan 's statement about AIDS and White 's funeral were seen as indicators of how greatly White had helped change perceptions of AIDS .
White is buried in Cicero , close to the home of his mother . In the year following his death , his grave was vandalized on four occasions . As time passed , White 's grave became a shrine for his admirers .
= = Legacy = =
White was one of a handful of highly visible people with AIDS in the 1980s and early 1990s who helped change the public perception of the disease . White , along with actor Rock Hudson , was one of the earliest public faces of AIDS . Along with later public figures who became associated with HIV / AIDS , such as the Ray brothers , Magic Johnson , Arthur Ashe , The Brady Bunch 's Robert Reed , Tim Richmond , Kimberly Bergalis , Elizabeth Glaser , Liberace and Freddie Mercury , White helped to increase public awareness that HIV / AIDS was a significant epidemic .
Numerous charities formed around White 's death . The Indiana University Dance Marathon , started in 1991 , raises money for the Riley Hospital for Children . Between 1991 and 2013 , this event helped raise over $ 16 million for children at Riley . The money raised has also helped found the Ryan White Infectious Disease Clinic at the hospital to take care of the nation 's sickest children . White 's personal physician , with whom he was close friends , Dr. Martin Kleiman , became the Ryan White Professor of Pediatrics at Indiana University School of Medicine in Indianapolis . In a 1993 interview , prominent gay rights and AIDS activist Larry Kramer said , " I think little Ryan White probably did more to change the face of this illness and to move people than anyone . And he continues to be a presence through his mom , Jeanne White . She has an incredibly moving presence as she speaks around the world . "
In 1992 , White 's mother founded the national nonprofit Ryan White Foundation . The foundation worked to increase awareness of HIV / AIDS @-@ related issues , with a focus on hemophiliacs like Ryan White , and on families caring for relatives with the disease . The foundation was active throughout the 1990s , with donations reaching $ 300 @,@ 000 a year in 1997 . Between 1997 and 2000 , however , AIDS donations declined nationwide by 21 % , and the Ryan White Foundation saw its donation level drop to $ 100 @,@ 000 a year . In 2000 , White 's mother closed the foundation , and merged its remaining assets with AIDS Action , a larger charity . She became a spokeswoman for AIDS activism and continues to arrange speaking events through the site devoted to her son , ryanwhite.com. White 's high school , Hamilton Heights , has had a student @-@ government sponsored annual Aids Walk , with proceeds going to a Ryan White Scholarship Fund .
White 's death inspired Elton John to create the Elton John AIDS Foundation . White also became the inspiration for a handful of popular songs . Elton John donated proceeds from " The Last Song , " which appears on his album The One , to a Ryan White fund at Riley Hospital . Michael Jackson dedicated the song " Gone Too Soon " from his Dangerous album to White , as did 1980s pop star Tiffany with the song " Here in My Heart " on her New Inside album . In November 2007 , The Children 's Museum of Indianapolis opened an exhibit called " The Power of Children : Making a Difference , " which remains a sobering , featured exhibit and continues to develop , while it features White 's bedroom and belongings alongside similar tributes to Anne Frank and Ruby Bridges .
= = = Ryan White and public perception of AIDS = = =
In the early 1980s , AIDS was known as gay @-@ related immune deficiency , because the disease had first been identified among primarily homosexual communities in New York City and San Francisco . At the start of the HIV / AIDS epidemic in the United States , the disease was thought to be a " homosexual problem " and was largely ignored by policy makers . White 's diagnosis demonstrated to many that AIDS was not exclusive to LGBT , minority , and poor people . In his advocacy for AIDS research , White always rejected any criticism of homosexuality , although not gay himself .
White was seen by some as an " innocent victim " of the AIDS epidemic . White and his family strongly rejected the language of " innocent victim " because the phrase was often used to imply that gays with AIDS were " guilty " . White 's mother told The New York Times ,
Ryan always said , ' I 'm just like everyone else with AIDS , no matter how I got it . ' And he would never have lived as long as he did without the gay community . The people we knew in New York made sure we knew about the latest treatments way before we would have known in Indiana . I hear mothers today say they 're not gonna work with no gay community on anything . Well , if it comes to your son 's life , you better start changing your heart and your attitude around .
= = = Ryan White CARE Act = = =
In August 1990 , four months after White 's death , Congress enacted The Ryan White Comprehensive AIDS Resources Emergency ( CARE ) Act ( often known simply as the Ryan White CARE Act ) , in his honor . The act is the United States ' largest federally funded program for people living with HIV / AIDS . The Ryan White CARE Act funds programs to improve availability of care for low @-@ income , uninsured and under @-@ insured victims of AIDS and their families .
Ryan White programs are " payers of last resort , " which subsidize treatment when no other resources are available . The act was reauthorized in 1996 , 2000 , 2006 and 2009 and remains an active piece of legislation today . The program provides some level of care for around 500 @,@ 000 people a year and , in 2004 , provided funds to 2 @,@ 567 organizations . The Ryan White programs also provide funding and technical assistance to local and state primary medical care providers , support services , healthcare provider and training programs .
The Ryan White CARE Act was set to expire on September 30 , 2009 , although efforts began to obtain an extension to the act . The Ryan White HIV / AIDS Treatment Extension Act of 2009 was signed on October 30 , 2009 by President Barack Obama , who announced that implementation was progressing on repeal of the ban on travel and immigration to the U.S. by individuals with HIV that had been passed by Congress .
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= Public Storage =
Public Storage is an American international self storage company headquartered in Glendale , California that is run as a real estate investment trust ( REIT ) . It is the largest brand of self @-@ storage services in the US . In 2008 , it was the largest of four publicly traded storage REITs . There are more than 2 @,@ 200 Public Storage self @-@ storage locations in the US , Canada and Europe . It also owns 42 percent of an office parks subsidiary , sells packing supplies , and provides other services . As a REIT , it is owned by real estate investors , who receive more than 90 percent of the company 's profits as a return @-@ on @-@ investment .
Public Storage Inc. was founded in 1972 by B. Wayne Hughes and Kenneth Volk Jr . It grew to 1 @,@ 000 locations by 1989 , using funding from investors in real estate limited partnerships ( RELPs ) . The private company was re @-@ structured as a publicly traded REIT in 1995 , when Storage Equities merged with Public Storage and adopted its name . In 2006 it acquired Shurgard Storage Centers in a $ 5 @.@ 5 billion transaction .
The company has been criticized for mold problems at many of its facilities , poor security resulting in burglaries , and sale of insurance policies that do not pay valid claims .
= = History = =
= = = Origins = = =
The idea for Public Storage was conceived by Southern California real estate developer B. Wayne Hughes in the early 1970s . During a trip to Texas , he observed that local real estate developers were doing well creating mini @-@ storage facilities outside of Dallas and Houston ; he brought the self @-@ storage concept back with him to California . Hughes partnered with Kenneth Volk and the two founded Public Storage in August 1972 with a $ 50 @,@ 000 initial investment , at first calling it " Private Storage Spaces Inc . "
The first warehouse was built in 1972 in El Cajon , California . According to Hughes , consumers thought " Private Storage " meant the storage units were not available to the public , so the name was changed to " Public Storage " to match the " PS " acronym already on documents and signs . The founders initially planned to build the storage warehouses as a temporary source of income until the land became more valuable and could be redeveloped for another use .
Within three months , the first location was breaking even with a 35 percent occupancy . In comparison to real estate investments in apartments or office space , the units were rented for a similar price per square foot but cost 35 to 50 percent less to build and maintain . A property management subsidiary called Public Storage Management Inc. was formed in 1973 . By 1974 , 20 locations had been built .
= = = Real Estate Limited Partnership financing = = =
Hughes disliked loans , so he financed the purchase and development of new properties primarily through real estate limited partnerships ( RELPs ) . At first , Public Storage built warehouses and sold them to independent RELPs for a development fee . The company 's own RELP , called Public Storage Partners Ltd , was formed in 1975 and closed its first deal for $ 3 million in investments two years later . Public Storage paid cash to acquire property and build a self @-@ storage facility , then used the property 's income to pay investors back and earn a portion as profit . Public Storage Inc. also earned revenues from a portion of each deal that was made .
Early investors earned three to four times their money back due to increasing property values in Southern California , high occupancy rates , and increasing storage rental prices . By the mid @-@ 1980s , Public Storage was raising $ 200 to $ 300 million in investments each year . The RELP format allowed Public Storage to continue building more locations in the 1970s and 1980s when most of the industry had halted growth because of higher interest rates on loans . In the mid @-@ 1980s , co @-@ founder Volk retired and his interest in Public Storage was purchased by Hughes . Forbes estimated that by this time the company was worth $ 800 million .
Investment funding was used to build mini @-@ storage warehouses nationally beyond California , targeting the 39 largest US cities . Public Storage opened self @-@ storage locations in close proximity , so multiple construction sites could share a development office , and to justify local television advertising . Public Storage 's growth slowed in the mid @-@ 1980s as new competition increased the cost of property and slowed the increase in rental prices to consumers . Poor weather and difficult labor markets outside of California delayed development projects ; the company also made poor investments in office parks . Interest in real estate investing also diminished .
By the late 1980s , the company opened its 1,000th Public Storage location and the company was three times larger than its nearest competitor in the US market . By 1989 , $ 2 @.@ 7 billion had been invested from 200 @,@ 000 investors . Public Storage helped popularize the use of self @-@ storage businesses as a real estate investment vehicle and became one of the longest @-@ running RELP investment vehicles . By 1991 , Public Storage had set up more than 150 RELPs and real estate investment trusts ( REITs ) .
= = = Real Estate Investment Trust ( REIT ) = = =
According to Financial World , by 1989 the real estate limited partnership ( RELP ) market that Public Storage relied on for funding " all but vanished " . A book by Public Storage Inc. said the Tax Reform Act of 1986 reduced the tax benefits of RELPs and was followed by " a tough time for real estate companies . " In December 1990 , five of its partnerships were converted to Real Estate Investment Trusts ( REITs ) in December . It also began consolidating its partnerships and acquiring many of the companies in which it held an interest .
Storage Equities was founded by Public Storage in 1980 to purchase self @-@ storage facilities . It was one of 17 self @-@ storage REITs that Public Storage held an interest in . Between 1992 and 1995 , Storage Equities paid Public Storage $ 31 million in management and consulting fees . In 1995 , Public Storage and its subsidiaries were merged with its self @-@ storage REIT , Storage Equities Inc . , and re @-@ structured as a single REIT called Public Storage Inc . One analyst said the acquisition capitalized on conflict of interest concerns , while Hughes said the merger was set up to alleviate them .
In 1995 , the company spun @-@ off its box , locks , and packing and moving supplies business into the PS Orangeco subsidiary ; Public Storage said this was done to avoid the risk of losing the company 's tax @-@ free REIT status if too large a portion of the company 's business is no longer related to real estate . This frustrated institutional investors that can only invest in real estate companies and could no longer invest in the new non @-@ real estate subsidiaries . By 1998 , Public Storage had $ 141 million in quarterly revenues , $ 2 billion in assets and 1 @,@ 200 facilities in 38 states . Later that year , Public Storage acquired a competing storage company called Storage Trust Realty in a $ 600 million transaction .
= = = Recent history = = =
Public Storage grew steadily in the early 2000s and was added to the S & P 500 in 2005 . In 2006 it acquired Shurgard Storage Centers in a transaction totaling $ 5 @.@ 5 billion , acquiring 624 locations , including 141 in Europe . Public Storage had attempted to acquire the company in 2000 and again in 2005 , but its offers were rejected . The company has continued to make numerous acquisitions , such as a March 2010 purchase of 30 locations from A @-@ American Self Storage .
= = Operations = =
Public Storage is the largest self @-@ storage brand in the US . As of 2014 , there were 2 @,@ 250 Public Storage locations in North America and 193 locations in Europe ; European locations are operated by Shurgard Europe , which Public Storage owns 49 percent of . There are also 2 @,@ 546 office parks operated by PS Business Parks , which Public Storage owns a 42 percent interest in . The largest self @-@ storage business in Canada is operated by a separate company that is allowed to use the Public Storage brand .
Self @-@ storage locations tend to be in dense clusters in major cities , especially near freeways and intersections . Public Storage has very few employees for a company of its size . Customer access to each storage location is automated . Some locations have a husband @-@ wife couple that live on @-@ site and are paid close to minimum wage to monitor the facility .
= = = Failure to pay rental fees = = =
The contents of a storage unit are put up for auction if the rental fees are not paid for sixty days . Although the TV show Storage Wars created increased interest in the auctions , most units do not contain anything of substantial economic value . Sometimes auctioning the renter 's property can result in disputes between Public Storage and the renter . In 2007 , a customer 's belongings were auctioned for non @-@ payment while he was serving the US military in Iraq . After receiving negative publicity , Public Storage apologized and gave him $ 8 @,@ 000 as compensation for his sold belongings .
= = = Theft , insurance and damages = = =
In 2005 , Public Storage said in a public filing that there had been " an increasing number of claims and litigation against owners and managers of rental properties relating to moisture infiltration , which can result in mold or other property damage . " The company 's rental contract says it is not responsible for the storage unit 's contents , even if damage is caused by defects in the unit , and The Wall Street Journal reported that there were " surprisingly few remedies " for theft or property damage at self @-@ storage facilities .
Many Public Storage customers have filed complaints with the Better Business Bureau regarding insurance policies sold by Public Storage representatives , after experiencing burglaries of their storage units then having their insurance claims denied . Investigative journalists from TV news stations in California , Kansas , and Washington have reported on difficulties consumers had when filing insurance claims for burglaries with Willis and The New Hampshire Insurance Company , which are affiliated with Public Storage . For example , claims have been denied because the storage unit had an intact lock ; affiliated insurance companies cited insufficient evidence of forced entry , though burglars often replace the unit 's lock in an attempt to conceal the burglary . Insurance commissioners in two states have criticized the practices of insurance companies affiliated with Public Storage . An ongoing class action lawsuit alleges Public Storage misleads consumers into thinking that insurance premiums are charged at cost , whereas a substantial amount of those premiums are retained as profits by Public Storage . Sales of these insurance policies do have a high profit , but generate less than five percent of the company 's total revenue .
= = Financials = =
Public Storage is a " self @-@ administered , self @-@ managed " real estate investment trust ( REIT ) . A REIT is an organization that primarily purchases and operates real estate investments and returns at least 90 percent of its incomes to investors . It combines the capital of a large number of investors for real estate projects . As of 2008 , Public Storage was the largest of four publicly traded self @-@ storage REITs . As of 2013 , it had a profit margin of 50 percent , the third @-@ highest in the S & P 500 . Public Storage has risen 17 % annually , including dividends over the past 20 years ( as of Q1 2016 ) . This is a growth rate which is double the S & P 500 .
More than 90 percent of Public Storage 's revenues are from its self @-@ storage operations ; it also provides insurance , packing products , and has a 44 percent interest in PS Business Parks . In 1984 , PS Reinsurance was formed to sell insurance for a storage unit 's contents . In 1995 , PS Orangeco was created as a subsidiary , selling boxes , packaging , truck rentals , and other moving supplies .
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= WAVES =
The United States Naval Reserve ( Women 's Reserve ) , better known under the acronym WAVES for Women Accepted for Volunteer Emergency Service , was the World War II women 's branch of the United States Naval Reserve . It was established on 21 July 1942 by the U.S. Congress and signed into law by the president on 30 July 1942 . This authorized the U.S. Navy to accept women into the Naval Reserve as commissioned officers and at the enlisted level , effective for the duration of the war plus six months . The purpose of the law was to release officers and men for sea duty and replace them with women in shore activities . Mildred H. McAfee became the first director of the WAVES . She was commissioned a lieutenant commander in the Navy on 3 August 1942 , and was the first woman commissioned as an officer in the U.S. Naval Reserve ( she was later promoted to commander and then to captain ) . McAfee , on leave as President of Wellesley College , was an experienced educator and highly respected in her field .
The notion of women serving in the Navy was not widely supported in the Congress or by the Navy , although some members did support the need for uniformed women during wartime . Nonetheless , the persistence of several women laid the groundwork for success . The Women 's Armed Services Integration Act allowing women to serve in the Navy became a reality , in large measure , through the efforts of the Navy 's Women 's Advisory Council , Margaret Chung , and Eleanor Roosevelt , the First Lady of the United States who would later become the United States Representative to the United Nations Commission on Human Rights .
The age for officer candidates was between 20 and 49 , with a college degree , or two years of college and two years of equivalent professional or business experience . The enlisted age requirements were between 20 and 35 , with a high school or business diploma , or equivalent experience . WAVES were primarily white , but 72 African @-@ American women did eventually serve on a fully integrated basis . The Navy 's indoctrination of most WAVE officer candidates took place at Smith College , Northampton , Massachusetts , and was designated the U.S. Naval Reserve Midshipmen 's School . Specialized training for officers was held on several college campuses and at various naval facilities . Most enlisted members received recruit training at Hunter College , in The Bronx , and became the U.S. Naval Training Center ( WR ) , the Bronx . After recruit training , some women attended specialized training courses on college campuses and at naval facilities .
WAVES served at 900 shore stations in the United States , to include Alaska , Hawaii , and Puerto Rico and many entered fields previously held by men . As general line officers , Officer WAVES initially served in administrative and support roles , although many later served as attorneys ( the Navy 's JAG Corps was not established until 1967 ) and engineers . Many enlisted women became aviation mechanics , aerographers , air traffic controllers , parachute riggers , hospital corpsmen and radiomen , but most worked in the administrative / clerical and supply fields such as yeomen , personnelmen , disbursing clerks and storekeepers . The WAVES ' peak strength was 86 @,@ 291 members .
The WAVES left behind a legacy of accomplishment . Upon demobilization , accolades came from many sources . The Secretary of the Navy , James Forrestal , Fleet Admiral Ernest King , and Fleet Admiral Chester Nimitz all commended the WAVES for their contributions to the war effort .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
In May 1941 , Representative Edith Nourse Rogers of Massachusetts introduced the bill in the U.S. Congress to establish a Women 's Auxiliary Army Corps ( WAAC ) . " As the word auxiliary suggests , women would serve not in the Army , but with it . " As such , women were deprived of full military status and denied the benefits of their male counterparts . Opposition delayed the passage of the bill until May 1942 . At the same time , the U.S. Navy 's Bureau of Aeronautics believed the Navy would eventually need women in uniform , and had asked the Bureau of Naval Personnel , headed by Rear Admiral Chester W. Nimitz , to propose legislation , as it had done during World War I , authorizing women to serve in the Navy . Nimitz was not considered an advocate for bringing women into the Navy , nor was he about to change course . Soon , the Navy Department began receiving inquires whether WAAC legislation for the Navy might be imminent . In response , the head of the U.S. Naval Reserve expressed the view that the Civil Service would be able to supply any extra personnel that might be needed .
The response did not put the questions to rest . On 9 December 1941 , Representative Rogers telephoned Nimitz and asked him whether the Navy was interested in a bill that would allow the Navy to use women similar to that of the WAAC legislation . In her book , Lady in the Navy , Joy Bright Hancock quotes his reply : " I advised Mrs. Rogers that at the present time I saw no great need for such a bill ... " Nevertheless , within days Nimitz was in touch with all Navy Department bureaus asking them to assess their needs for an equivalent to the WAAC . With few exceptions , the responses were negative . Yet , Congressional inquiries continued to increase about the Navy 's plan for women .
Then on 2 January 1942 , the Bureau of Personnel , in an about face , recommended to the Secretary of the Navy , Frank Knox , that Congress be asked to authorize a women 's organization . The following month , Knox recommended a women 's branch as part of the Naval Reserve . The director of the Bureau of the budget said no , but would agree to the Navy adapting legislation similar to the WAAC – where women were with , but not in the Navy . This was unacceptable to Knox and the standoff began . Still , the Bureau of Aeronautics continued to believe there was a place for women in the Navy , and appealed to an influential friend of naval aviation , Margaret Chung . In Crossed Currents , the authors describe Chung and her involvement . " ... Dr. Margaret Chung of San Francisco , a physician and surgeon , had a long time interest in aviation , particularly naval aviation ... She had many naval aviation friends who referred to themselves as " sons of Mom Chung . " Having learned of the stalemate , she asked Representative Melvin Maas of Minnesota , who had served in the aviation branch of the U.S. Marine Corps in World War I , and was one of her " sons " , to introduce legislation independently of the Navy . On 18 March 1942 he did just that , ... "
Maas 's House bill was essentially the same as the Knox proposal , which would make a women 's branch part of the Naval Reserve . At the same time , Senator Raymond E. Willis of Indiana introduced a similar bill in the Senate . On 16 April 1942 , the House Naval Affairs Committee reported favorably on the bill . It was passed by the House the same day and sent to the Senate . The Senate Naval Affairs Committee was opposed to the bill ; especially chairman Senator David I. Walsh of Massachusetts . He did not want women in the Navy because it " would tend to break @-@ up American homes and would be a step backwards in the progress of civilization . " The Senate committee eventually proposed a naval version of the WAAC , and the president , Franklin D. Roosevelt , approved it . But Knox asked the president to reconsider .
= = = Creation of program = = =
It was apparent that women would eventually be allowed to serve in the Navy : the question was , in what form ? The quandary for the Navy was how to administer a woman 's program , yet fashion it to its own liking . Then they did what they had often done before , turn to academia for help . This time the Navy asked women educators for assistance , first contacting Dr. Virginia C. Gildersleeve , dean of Barnard College . She suggested that Professor Elizabeth Reynard , also of Barnard , become a special assistant to Rear Admiral Randall Jacobs , Chief of Naval Personnel . Reynard was well known for the academic work she had done on women in the work place . But her first @-@ rate performance as Jacob 's assistant silenced any fears the Navy may have had about women educators . Reynard quickly formed the Women 's Advisory Council to meet with Navy officials . Gildersleeve became the chairperson . Because of her efforts eight prominent women agreed to serve on the council . They included :
Dr. Meta Glass of Sweet Briar College
Dr. Lillian Gilbreth , a national authority on efficiency in the workplace
Dr. Ada Comstock , President of Radcliffe College
Dean Alice Crocker Lloyd of the University of Michigan
Mrs. Malbone Graham , a noted lecturer from the West Coast
Marie Rogers Gates wife of Thomas Sovereign Gates , president of the University of Pennsylvania
Harriet Elliott , dean of women at the University of North Carolina
Dean Elliot later resigned and was replaced by Dr. Alice Baldwin , dean of women at Duke University .
The council knew the success of a fledging program would depend on the woman chosen to lead it . A prospective candidate would need to possess proven managerial skills , command respect , and have an ability to get along well with others . Their recommendation was Mildred H. McAfee , president of Wellesley College , as the future director . The Navy agreed . Yet , the task of convincing MacAfee to accept and to persuade the Wellesley Board of Trustees to release her was difficult but successful . Mildred McAfee was an experienced and respected academician , whose background would provide a measure of creditability to the idea of women serving in the Navy .
They also recognized the importance of a name : agreeing it should be one suitable for the organization envisioned . To Reynard fell the task of finding such a name . In explaining how she came up with the nautical name , Reynard said : " I realized that there were two letters which had to be in it : W for women and V for volunteer , because the Navy wants to make it clear that this is a voluntary service and not a drafted service . So I played with those two letters and the idea of the sea and finally came up with Women Accepted for Volunteer Emergency Service – WAVES . I figured the word Emergency would comfort the older admirals because it implies that we 're only a temporary crisis and won 't be around for keeps . " Raynard was later commissioned a lieutenant in the WAVES .
Then on 25 May 1942 , the Senate Naval Affairs Committee recommended to the president that the legislation to create a women 's reserve correspond with the WAAC legislation . He called on Knox to reconsider his position , but Knox , who did not favor the WAAC concept , stood his ground . Another deadlock , but council members Gildersleeve and Elliot took it on themselves to write the president 's wife , Eleanor Roosevelt . They explained their objections to the WAAC legislation and reasons for it . Eleanor showed Elliot 's letter to her husband , the president , and she sent Gildersleeves 's letter on to the Undersecretary of the Navy , James V. Forrestal , a former naval aviator . Within days Forrestal replied , saying that Secretary Knox had asked the president to reconsider . Then , on 16 June 1942 Knox informed Jacobs that the president had given him authority to proceed with a women 's reserve .
Days later , Knox informed Senator Walsh of the president 's decision , and on 24 June the Senate Naval Affairs Committee reported favorably on the bill . By 21 July , the bill had passed both houses of Congress and sent to the president , who signed it on 30 July 1942 as Public Law 689 . This created the Women 's branch of the Navy reserve , as amended under Title V of the U.S. Naval Reserve Act of 1938 . Less than a year later , 1 July 1943 , Congress refashioned the WAAC into the Women 's Army Corps ( WAC ) , providing its members with similar military status as the WAVES .
The idea behind the law was to free @-@ up officers and men for duty at sea , with women standing in for them at shore stations on the home front . Women could now serve in the Navy as an officer or at an enlisted level , with a rank or rating consistent with that of the regular Navy . Volunteers could only serve for the duration of the war , plus six months , but just in the continental United States . They were prohibited from boarding naval ships or combat aircraft , and were without command authority , except within the women 's branch .
Mildred H. McAfee became the first director of the WAVES . She was commissioned a lieutenant commander on 3 August 1942 , and was the first woman officer commissioned in the U.S. Naval Reserve . McAfee was later promoted to the rank of captain . In More Than a Uniform , Winifred Quick Collins ( former WAVE officer ) described Director McAfee as a born diplomat , handling difficult matters with finesse . She also said McAfee played an important decision making role on how women of the WAVES should be treated compared to men , what kind of assignments women would take , housing conditions , and supervision and discipline standards .
In establishing the office of director , the Bureau of Personnel did not define the responsibilities of the office , nor establish clear lines of authority . " ... Lieutenant Commander McAfee was simply told that she was to " run " the women 's reserve and she was to go directly to the Chief of Naval Personnel for answers to her questions . Unfortunately , the decision was not made known to the operating divisions of he bureau . " No plans existed to help guide her : in fact , no planning had been done , by anyone , in anticipation of the Women 's Reserve act . For insights , McAfee turned to Joy Bright Hancock , a Navy Yeoman ( F ) during World War I , and a career writer and editor for the Navy 's Bureau of Aeronautics . She was asked to examine the procedures employed by the Women 's Division of the Royal Canadian Air Force , which had a complement of 6 @,@ 000 members . Many of her findings were later used by the WAVES .
August and September 1942 saw 108 more women commissioned as officers in the Women 's Reserve ; selected because of their educational and business backgrounds . They were drawn to the program by the good standing of McAfee and the Advisory Council . Four of these women would later become directors of the WAVES and another the director of the SPARS ( U.S. Coast Guard Women 's Reserve ) . The new officers began their work routine with no grasp of Navy traditions , or training in the operating methods in use , resulting in some difficult times . However , on 16 September 1942 the Bureau of Personnel issued a memorandum for the organization of the Women 's Reserve . It said the director would administer the program , set policies , and coordinate work within the bureau 's operating divisions . Soon , McAfee was able to bring together a capable staff , building a sound internal organization .
= = = Recruiting = = =
WAVE officers were first assigned to recruiting stations in the different U.S. naval districts , later they were joined by enlisted personnel with recruiter training . The primary sources of publicity used were radio , newspapers , posters , brochures , and personal contacts . The focus of their advertising campaign was patriotism and the need for women . McAfee demanded good taste in all advertising . At the end of 1942 , there were 770 officers and 3 @,@ 109 enlisted women in the WAVES . By 3 July 1945 their ranks had risen to 86 @,@ 291 , which included 8 @,@ 475 officers , 73 @,@ 816 enlisted , and about 4 @,@ 000 in training .
The age for officer candidates was between 20 and 49 , with a college degree , or two years of college and two years of equivalent professional or business experience . The enlisted age requirements were between 20 and 35 , with a high school or business diploma , or equivalent experience . United States citizenship was required in each case . WAVES were primarily white , middle class , and represented every state in the country . New York , California , Pennsylvania , Illinois , Massachusetts and Ohio led the way .
Little or no attempt was made to recruit African @-@ American or other women minorities until October 1944 , when President Roosevelt approved of accepting African @-@ American women into the women 's reserve , under pressure to do so by African @-@ American organizations . Harriet Ida Pickens and Frances Wills were the first African @-@ American women to become WAVE officers . By September 1945 , there were 72 African @-@ American women in the WAVES and integrated .
= = = Uniforms = = =
'The WAVES looked professional and attractive in stylish uniforms created especially for them " . The noted New York fashion house of Mainbocher designed the uniforms . Their design services were secured , without cost , through the efforts of Mrs. James V. Forrestal , wife of the Assistant Secretary of the Navy . The winter uniform was made from navy blue wool , worn with a white shirt and dark blue tie . The jacket was single breasted and unbelted , with a six @-@ gored skirt . Included were black oxfords and plain black pumps ; a brimmed hat ; black gloves ; black leather purse , and rain and winter coats . The summer uniform was much the same as the winter uniform , however , it was lighter in weight , made of white material and worn with white shoes . Later , a gray and white striped , seersucker work uniform for summer was added , along with the wearing of slacks and dungarees when appropriate .
= = = Training of officers = = =
The Navy chose Smith College at Northampton , Massachusetts , as the site for the training of WAVE officers . The facility offered much of what the Navy needed , and the college setting provided the proper training ground . The nickname for Smith was the U.S.S. Northampton . Captain H. W. Underwood , USN ( Retired ) was recalled to active duty and ordered to serve as the commanding officer of the United States Naval Reserve Midshipmen 's School at Smith College , 13 August 1942 . Underwood had a distinguished naval career and received the Navy Cross during World War I. In Lady in the Navy , Joy Bright Hancock described Underwood as intelligent , enthusiastic , and good humored , and serious of purpose .
Underwood and his staff quickly developed the indoctrination curriculum that would hasten the transformation of civilian women into naval officers . The curriculum would include : organization ; personnel ; naval history and law ; ships and aircraft ; naval communications and correspondence . There would be two @-@ months of intense training , yet too short a period to produce an overall naval officer . Still , the rationale was to teach the fundamentals of life and work in the naval service , focusing on administrative procedures . It was the type of work that most officers would eventually be doing . The curriculum did not change much over the life of the training program .
Following their two @-@ months of training , the midshipmen were commissioned as ensigns or lieutenants ( junior grade ) in the U.S. naval reserve . The school closed in December 1944 , after accepting 10 @,@ 181 women and graduating 9 @,@ 477 of them . It also trained 203 SPARS ( United States Coast Guard Women 's Reserve ) and 295 women of the United States Marine Corps Women 's Reserve . Many of these commissioned officers were sent to specialized schools for training in communications , supply , the Japanese language , meteorology , and engineering . The courses of study were held on the college campuses of Mount Holyoke College ; Harvard University ; University of Colorado ; Massachusetts Institute of Technology , University of California ; and the University of Chicago . The Bureau of Ordinance also opened its schools to WAVE officers , where some of them studied aviation ordinance . Other officers attended the Naval Technical Training Command School , while others trained to become aviation instructors . Unlike the training on the college campuses , the training offered at these facilities was coeducational .
= = = Training of enlisted = = =
The campuses of Oklahoma A & M , Indiana University , and the University of Wisconsin were selected by the Navy for both recruit and specialized training of enlisted WAVES . Training for the initial groups of enlisted women began on 9 October 1942 . But it soon became clear that these arrangements were unsuitable for recruit training , because of dispersed training facilities , inexperienced instructors , and the lack of esprit de corps . As a result , the Navy quickly made the decision to establish one recruit @-@ training center on the campus of the Iowa State Teachers College . The specialized training remained at the original locations .
Iowa State Teachers College , Cedar Falls , Iowa , became the new basic training center for enlisted WAVES . ( The school 's original assignment was the training of yeomen ) . Captain Randall Davis was named commanding officer . He arrived on 1 December , two weeks before the first class of 1 @,@ 050 enlisted recruits were to start their five @-@ weeks of basic training . The recruit training routine began each weekday with Reveille at 5 : 30 or 6 : 00 A.M. ; breakfast at 6 : 30 A.M. ; classes and drill for four hours before lunch , and classes and drill for another four hours in the afternoon . Followed by an hour of free time , dinner , and two hours of study or instruction , lights out at 10 : 00 P.M. Captain 's inspection on Saturday morning , then free time until taps . On Sunday , reveille was at 7 : 00 A.M. , with breakfast at 7 : 30 A.M. Then church services and free time until 7 : 30 P.M. , when study hours began . Recruits received immunization shots and were given a series of job aptitude tests . The first class was to graduate in early January 1943 , but on 30 December 1942 the Navy announced that future WAVES recruits would be trained at Hunter College in the Bronx , a borough of the City of New York . The change came because of the Navy 's reassessment of how many more women would be needed , and the kinds of work they would be effective in doing . Iowa State Teachers College would return to training yeomen .
Hunter College became the main recruit @-@ training center for enlisted WAVES : chosen because of its space ; location ; ease of transportation , and the willingness of the college to make its facilities available . Captain William F. Amsden , also a recipient of the Navy Cross in World War I , was named the commanding officer . On 8 February 1943 the college was commissioned the U.S. Naval Training Center ( WR ) , the Bronx , and became known as U.S.S. Hunter . Nine days later , approximately 2 @,@ 000 recruits began their six @-@ weeks of indoctrination . The training objectives were meant to be similar to those of the boot camp for men . In Lady in the Navy , Joy Hancock described the indoctrination of the recruits in this way : " Each recruit went through a balanced training program . She was instructed in Navy ranks and ratings ; ships and aircraft of the fleet ; naval traditions and customs ; and of course , naval history . Physical training and fitness were stressed . As the women marched in platoons to classes , medical examinations , and drills , their approach was signaled by singing , their voices providing the cadence for marching feet . " Between 17 February 1943 and 10 October 1945 , some 80 @,@ 936 WAVES , 1 @,@ 844 SPARS , and 3 @,@ 190 women Marines completed the training course . The SPARS and Marine reservists used the Navy 's training center until the summer of 1943 , at which time they established their own training centers .
Of the graduating classes at Hunter , 83 % went on to specialized schools to train as yeomen ; radiomen ; storekeepers , and cooks and bakers . In addition to the college campuses , enlisted WAVES also trained at Georgia State College for Women in Milledgeville ; Burdett College in Boston , and Miami University in Oxford , Ohio . The Bureaus of Aeronautics and Medicine opened their doors to enlisted WAVES . The training in aeronautics took place at naval air stations and training centers ; the training for medical technicians was held at the National Medical and Great Lakes Training Centers . Unlike the training on the college campuses , the training at these facilities was coeducational .
= = = Assignments = = =
The WAVES served in 900 shore stations in the continental United States . Initially , they were prohibited from serving in commands afloat and outside the country . But in September 1944 , Congress amended the law allowing WAVES to volunteer for service in the territories of Alaska and Hawaii . Hawaii became the only overseas station staffed with WAVES on a permanent basis . By the end of the war , 18 % of the naval personnel assigned to shore stations were women . Officers served in many professional capacities , including doctors ; attorneys ; engineers and mathematicians , and chaplains . One WAVE mathematician was assigned to Harvard University to work on the computation project with the Mark I computer . Another became the only female nautical engineer in the entire U.S. Navy . Enlisted WAVES worked in jobs such as aviation machinist ; aviation metalsmith ; parachute rigger ; control tower operator ; radiomen ; yeomen ; statistician ; administration ; personnel , and health care . Although some enlisted women had the opportunity to work in fields previously held by men , most of them actually worked in secretarial and clerical positions .
The WAVES enjoyed many successes in the work place , but they also suffered from intolerance . Some of the problems sprang from contradictory attitudes of men who supervised women . Often , the women were underutilized in relation to their training , with others it was assignments beyond their physical abilities , and in some cases women were utilized only out of dire need . The mission of the WAVES was to replace men in shore stations for sea duty . Still , certain men were hostile to WAVES because being replaced meant sea duty . The Navy 's lack of clear @-@ cut policies early on also contributed to the difficulties .
= = = Women of the WAVES = = =
Wanting to serve their country in time of need was a strong incentive for young women during World War II . And thousands of them saw fit to join the WAVES . With some , it was for adventure , for others it was professional development , and still others joined for the chance to experience life on college campuses . Some followed family traditions and others yearned for a life other than as a civilian .
Ruby Messer Barber had this to say about joining the WAVES , " It was a choice of adventure . I didn 't have any brothers , and I thought that 's something I can do , one way I can make a contribution . My sisters thought it was great , but they were not interested . There was too much discipline and routine involved . I felt like it would be a challenge , to step forth and do it , to see what it was all about . It gave a sense of confidence . At the time girls just didn 't join the WAVES or go into the military . But my Dad , he said , you 'll be OK " .
Lieutenant Lillian Pimlott wrote to her mother , after being deployed to Pearl Harbor , and said , " I was fascinated by the ships which are making history in every battle . I 've talked to seamen and I 've met flyers @-@ from Iwo ( Iwo Jima ) , from Okinawa , heroes from every encounter . I know now what war means and my heart goes out to every one of them . Among them I am making , I hope , life long friends , for their experiences mean everything to my self @-@ satisfaction ... As long as they fight on , I have no desire to return home , for I feel I belong here ... I have learned much in these brief three months about life and living . And I know I have already changed in many ways and many viewpoints ... It is truly a most broadening experience and I shall never outlive it " .
During the course of the war , seven WAVE officers and 62 enlisted women died of unspecified causes . Numerous WAVES were acknowledged for their contributions to the country . The Distinguished Service Medal was awarded to Captain Mildred McAfee for her efforts as Director of the WAVES , and Commander Elisabeth Raynard received a letter of commendation from the Secretary of the Navy for her work in developing the WAVES training program . Two WAVES received the Legion of Merit , three the Bronze Star , eighteen the Secretary of the Navy 's letter of commendation , and one , the Army Commendation Ribbon . Almost all WAVES looked upon their service as beneficial and many said they would serve again under the same situation .
= = = Demobilization = = =
The Navy established five separation centers for the demobilization of the WAVES and Navy nurses , one in Washington , D.C. , Memphis , San Francisco , Chicago , and New York . The separation process began on 1 October 1945 , and within a month about 9 @,@ 000 WAVES had been separated . By the end of 1946 , almost 21 @,@ 000 more had been discharged . It soon became apparent that more centers were needed and ten additional centers were soon opened . By September 1946 , demobilization of the WAVES was all but completed . Most women spent two or three days at separation centers before being discharged , having physical exams ; orientation on rights as veteran ; final settlement of pay , and then the price of a ticket home . At the time , it was not clear whether demobilization meant phasing women out of the military services altogether .
Although a small contingent of WAVES was retained to help with the Navy 's over @-@ all demobilization plan , many of these women had volunteered to remain on active duty . At that point , Vice Admiral Louis Denfeld , chief of the Bureau of Personnel , announced , " Our plan is to keep a WAVE component in the Naval Reserve . Further , if Congress approves , we will seek to retain on active duty reasonable number of WAVES who wish to do so and who may be needed in certain specialties ... " On 30 July 1948 , the Women 's Armed Services Integration Act ( Public Law 625 ) was signed into law , allowing women to serve in the regular Navy . The wartime assumptions that prohibited women from duty in any unit designated as having a combat mission carried over with the 1948 Act , which effectively incorporated women into service organizations ; legally keeping them from being integrated into the heart of the military and naval professions for more than a quarter of a century . Even though the WAVES no longer existed , the obsolete acronym continued in popular and official usage until the 1970s . "
With demobilization , the WAVES received accolades from the highest sources . Secretary of the Navy Forrestal wrote , " Your conduct , discharge of military responsibilities , and skillful work are in the highest tradition of the naval service . " Fleet Admiral King said , The Navy has learned to appreciate the women ... for their discipline , their skill , and their contribution to high morale ... Our greatest tribute to these women is the request for more WAVES " . Fleet Admiral Nimitz went on to say , they have demonstrated qualities of competence , energy and loyalty " . The WAVES left behind a legacy of accomplishment , which helped to secure a place for women in the regular Navy .
= = Song of the WAVES = =
Elizabeth Ender and Betty St. Clair wrote WAVES of the Navy in 1943 . It was written to harmonize with Anchors Away .
WAVES of the Navy
WAVES of the Navy ,
There 's a ship sailing down the bay
And she won 't slip into port again
Until that Victory Day .
Carry on for that gallant ship
And for every hero brave
Who will find ashore , his man @-@ sized chore
Was done by a Navy WAVE .
|
= Albert Ball =
Albert Ball , VC , DSO & Two Bars , MC ( 14 August 1896 – 7 May 1917 ) was an English fighter pilot during the First World War . At the time of his death he was the United Kingdom 's leading flying ace , with 44 victories , and remained its fourth @-@ highest scorer behind Edward Mannock , James McCudden , and George McElroy .
Raised in Nottingham , Ball joined the Sherwood Foresters at the outbreak of the First World War and was commissioned as a second lieutenant in October 1914 . He transferred to the Royal Flying Corps ( RFC ) the following year , and gained his pilot 's wings on 26 January 1916 . Joining No. 13 Squadron RFC in France , he flew reconnaissance missions before being posted in May to No. 11 Squadron , a fighter unit . From then until his return to England on leave in October , he accrued many aerial victories , earning two Distinguished Service Orders and the Military Cross . He was the first ace to become a British national hero .
After a period on home establishment , Ball was posted to No. 56 Squadron , which deployed to the Western Front in April 1917 . He crashed to his death in a field in France on 7 May , sparking a wave of national mourning and posthumous recognition , which included the award of the Victoria Cross for his actions during his final tour of duty . The famous German flying ace Manfred von Richthofen , remarked upon hearing of Ball 's death that he was " by far the best English flying man " .
= = Early life and education = =
Albert Ball was born on 14 August 1896 at 301 Lenton Boulevard in Lenton , Nottingham . After a series of moves throughout the area , his family settled at Sedgley , 43 Lenton Road . His parents were Albert Ball , a successful businessman who rose from employment as a plumber to become Lord Mayor of Nottingham , and who was later knighted , and Harriett Mary Page . Young Albert had two siblings , a brother and a sister . His parents were considered loving and indulgent . In his youth , Ball had a small hut behind the family house where he tinkered with engines and electrical equipment . He was raised with a knowledge of firearms , and conducted target practice in Sedgley 's gardens . Possessed of keen vision , he soon became a crack shot . He was also deeply religious . This did not curb his daring in such boyhood pursuits as steeplejacking ; on his 16th birthday , he accompanied a local workman to the top of a tall factory chimney and strolled about unconcerned by the height .
Ball studied at the Lenton Church School , Grantham Grammar School and Nottingham High School before transferring to Trent College in January 1911 , at the age of 14 . As a student he displayed only average ability , but was able to develop his curiosity for things mechanical . His best subjects were carpentry , modelling , violin and photography . He also served in the Officers ' Training Corps . When Albert left school in December 1913 , aged 17 , his father helped him gain employment at Universal Engineering Works near the family home .
= = First World War = =
= = = Initial war service = = =
Following the outbreak of the First World War in August 1914 , Ball enlisted in the British Army , joining the 2 / 7th ( Robin Hood ) Battalion of the Sherwood Foresters ( Nottinghamshire and Derbyshire Regiment ) . Soon promoted to sergeant , he gained his commission as a second lieutenant on 29 October . He was assigned to training recruits , but this rear @-@ echelon role irked him . In an attempt to see action , he transferred early the following year to the North Midlands Cyclist Company , Divisional Mounted Troops , but remained confined to a posting in England . On 24 February 1915 , he wrote to his parents , " I have just sent five boys to France , and I hear that they will be in the firing line on Monday . It is just my luck to be unable to go . "
In March 1915 , Ball began a short @-@ lived engagement to Dot Allbourne ( or Ellbourne ) , though he was still interested in other girls such as Thelma Starr . In June , he decided to take private flying lessons at Hendon Aerodrome , which would give him an outlet for his interest in engineering and possibly help him to see action in France sooner . He paid to undertake pilot training in his own time at the Ruffy @-@ Baumann School , which charged £ 75 to £ 100 for instruction ( £ 5 @,@ 580 to £ 7 @,@ 440 in 2010 prices ) .
Ball would wake at 3 : 00 am to ride his motorcycle to Ruffy @-@ Baumann for flying practice at dawn , before beginning his daily military duty at 6 : 45 am . His training at Ruffy @-@ Baumann was not unique ; Edwin Cole was learning to fly there at the same time . In letters home Ball recorded that he found flying " great sport " , and displayed what Peter de la Billière described as " almost brutal " detachment regarding accidents suffered by his fellow trainees :
Yesterday a ripping boy had a smash , and when we got up to him he was nearly dead , he had a two @-@ inch piece of wood right through his head and died this morning . If you would like a flight I should be pleased to take you any time you wish .
= = = Military flight training and reconnaissance work = = =
Although considered an average pilot at best by his instructors , Ball qualified for his Royal Aero Club certificate ( no . 1898 ) on 15 October 1915 , and promptly requested transfer to the Royal Flying Corps ( RFC ) . He was seconded to No. 9 ( Reserve ) Squadron RFC on 23 October , and trained at Mousehold Heath aerodrome near Norwich . In the first week of December , he soloed in a Maurice Farman Longhorn after standing duty all night , and his touchdown was rough . When his instructor commented sarcastically on the landing , Ball angrily exclaimed that he had only 15 minutes experience in the plane , and that if this was the best instruction he was going to get , he would rather return to his old unit . The instructor relented , and Ball then soloed again and landed successfully in five consecutive flights . His rough landing was not the last Ball was involved in ; he survived two others . He completed his training at Central Flying School , Upavon , and was awarded his wings on 22 January 1916 . A week later , he was officially transferred from the North Midlands Cyclist Company to the RFC as a pilot .
On 18 February 1916 , Ball joined No. 13 Squadron RFC at Marieux in France , flying a two @-@ seat Royal Aircraft Factory B.E.2c on reconnaissance missions . He survived being shot down by anti @-@ aircraft fire on 27 March . Three days later , he fought the first of several combats in the B.E.2 ; he and his observer , Lieutenant S. A. Villiers , fired a drum and a half of Lewis gun ammunition at an enemy two @-@ seater , but were driven off by a second one . After this inconclusive skirmish , Ball wrote home in one of his many letters , " I like this job , but nerves do not last long , and you soon want a rest " . In letters home to his father , he discouraged the idea of his younger brother following him into the RFC . Ball and Villiers tried unsuccessfully to shoot down an enemy observation balloon in their two @-@ seater on 10 April . Ball 's burgeoning skills and aggressiveness gained him access to the squadron 's single @-@ seat Bristol Scout fighter later that month . April 1916 also saw Ball 's first mention in a letter home of plans for " a most wonderful machine ... heaps better than the Hun Fokker " . It is now generally believed that these " plans " were unconnected with the design of the Austin @-@ Ball A.F.B.1 , with which he later became involved .
= = = Initial fighter posting = = =
On 7 May 1916 , Ball was posted to No. 11 Squadron , which operated a mix of fighters including Bristol Scouts , Nieuport 16s , and Royal Aircraft Factory F.E.2b " pushers " . After his first day of flying with his new unit , he wrote a letter home complaining about fatigue . He was unhappy with the hygiene of his assigned billet in the nearest village , and elected to live in a tent on the flight line . Ball built a hut for himself to replace the tent and cultivated a garden .
Throughout his flying service Ball was primarily a " lone @-@ wolf " pilot , stalking his prey from below until he drew close enough to use his top @-@ wing Lewis gun on its Foster mounting , angled to fire upwards into the enemy 's fuselage . According to fellow ace and Victoria Cross recipient James McCudden , " it was quite a work of art to pull this gun down and shoot upwards , and at the same time manage one 's machine accurately " . Ball was as much a loner on the ground as in the air , preferring to stay in his hut on the flight line away from other squadron members . His off @-@ duty hours were spent tending his small garden and practising the violin . Though not unsociable per se , he was extremely sensitive and shy . Ball acted as his own mechanic on his aircraft and , as a consequence , was often untidy and dishevelled . His singularity in dress extended to his habit of flying without a helmet and goggles , and he wore his thick black hair longer than regulations generally permitted .
While flying a Bristol Scout on 16 May 1916 , Ball scored his first aerial victory , driving down a German reconnaissance plane . He then switched to Nieuports , bringing down two LVGs on 29 May and a Fokker Eindecker on 1 June . On 25 June he became a balloon buster and an ace by destroying an observation balloon with phosphor bombs . During the month he had written to his parents admonishing them to try and " take it well " if he was killed , " for men tons better than I go in hundreds every day " . He again achieved two victories in one sortie on 2 July , shooting down a Roland C.II and an Aviatik to bring his score to seven .
Ball then requested a few days off but , to his dismay , was temporarily reassigned to aerial reconnaissance duty with No. 8 Squadron , where he flew B.E.2s from 18 July until 14 August . During this posting , Ball undertook an unusual mission . On the evening of 28 July , he flew a French espionage agent across enemy lines . Dodging an attack by three German fighters , as well as anti @-@ aircraft fire , he landed in a deserted field , only to find that the agent refused to get out of the aircraft . While he was on reconnaissance duties with No. 8 Squadron , the London Gazette announced that he had been awarded the Military Cross " for conspicuous skill and gallantry on many occasions , " particularly for " one occasion [ when ] he attacked six in one flight " . This was not unusual ; throughout his career , Ball generally attacked on sight and heedless of the odds . He professed no hatred for his opponents , writing to his parents " I only scrap because it is my duty ... Nothing makes me feel more rotten than to see them go down , but you see it is either them or me , so I must do my duty best to make it a case of them " .
Ball 's 20th birthday was marked by his promotion to temporary captain and his return to No. 11 Squadron . He destroyed three Roland C.IIs in one sortie on 22 August 1916 , the first RFC pilot to do so . He ended the day by fighting 14 Germans some 15 miles ( 24 km ) behind their lines . With his plane badly damaged and out of fuel , he struggled back to Allied lines to land . He transferred with part of No. 11 Squadron to No. 60 Squadron RFC on 23 August . His new commanding officer gave Ball a free rein to fly solo missions , and assigned him his own personal aircraft and maintenance crew . One of the squadron mechanics painted up a non @-@ standard red propeller boss ; A201 became the first of a series of Ball 's aeroplanes to have such a colour scheme . He found that it helped his fellow squadron members identify his plane and confirm his combat claims . By end of the month , he had increased his tally to 17 enemy aircraft , including three on 28 August .
Ball then took leave in England . His feats in France had received considerable publicity . He was the first British ace to become a household name , and found that his celebrity was such that he could not walk down the streets of Nottingham without being stopped and congratulated . Prior to this the British government had suppressed the names of its aces — in contrast to the policy of the French and Germans — but the losses of the Battle of the Somme , which had commenced in July , made politic the publicising of its successes in the air . Ball 's achievements had a profound impact on budding flyer Mick Mannock , who would become the United Kingdom 's top @-@ scoring ace and also receive the Victoria Cross .
Upon return to No. 60 Squadron in France , Ball scored morning and evening victories on 15 September , flying two different Nieuports . On the evening mission , he armed his plane with eight Le Prieur rockets on the outer struts , set to fire electrically . He intended to use them on an observation balloon . As it happened , he spotted three German Roland C.IIs and broke their formation by salvoing his rockets at them , then picked off one of the confused pilots with machine @-@ gun fire . After this he settled into an improved aeroplane , Nieuport 17 no . A213 . He had it rigged to fly tail @-@ heavy to facilitate his changing of ammunition drums in the machine @-@ gun , and had a holster built into the cockpit for the Colt automatic that he habitually carried . Three times during September he scored triple victories in a day , ending the month with his total score standing at 31 , making him Britain 's top @-@ scoring ace . By this time he had told his commanding officer that he had to have a rest and that he was taking unnecessary risks because of his nerves . On 3 October , he was sent on leave , en route to a posting at the Home Establishment in England . A French semi @-@ official report of Ball 's successes was issued the same day ; it was picked up and repeated in the British aviation journal Flight nine days later .
= = = Home front = = =
Ball had been awarded the Distinguished Service Order ( DSO ) and bar simultaneously on 26 September 1916 . The first award was " for conspicuous gallantry and skill " when he took on two enemy formations . The bar was also " for conspicuous skill and gallantry " when he attacked four enemy aircraft in formation and then , on another occasion , 12 enemy machines . He was awarded the Russian Order of St. George the same month . Now that Ball had been posted back to England , he was lionised as a national hero with a reputation as a fearless pilot and expert marksman . A crowd of journalists awaited him on his family 's doorstep . In an interview , he mentioned being downed six times in combat . On 18 November , he was invested with his Military Cross and both DSOs by King George V at Buckingham Palace . A second bar to the DSO , for taking on three enemy aircraft and shooting one down , followed on 25 November , making him the first three @-@ time recipient of the award . Ball was promoted to the substantive rank of lieutenant on 8 December 1916 .
Instead of returning to combat after his leave , Ball was posted to instructional duties with No. 34 ( Reserve ) Squadron RFC , based at Orford Ness , Suffolk . It was while serving on the home front that he was able to lobby for the building and testing of the Austin @-@ Ball A.F.B.1 fighter . He hoped to be able to take an example of the type to France with him , but the prototype was not completed until after his death in action . In November he was invited to test fly the prototype of the new Royal Aircraft Factory S.E.5 scout ( single @-@ seat fighter ) , apparently the first service pilot to do so . He was unimpressed , finding the heavier , more stable fighter less responsive to the controls than the Nieuports he was used to . His negative assessment of other aspects of the S.E. ' s performance , on the other hand , contrasted markedly with the reactions of fellow pilots who tested the prototype about this time . Ball was to maintain his opinion of the S.E. as a " dud " , at least until he had scored several victories on the type after his return to France .
On 19 February 1917 , in a tribute from his native city , Ball became an Honorary Freeman of Nottingham . Around this time he met James McCudden , also on leave , who later reported his impressions in most favourable terms . In London , Ball also encountered Canadian pilot Billy Bishop , who had not as yet seen combat . He immediately liked Bishop , and may have helped the latter secure a posting to No. 60 Squadron . On 25 March , while off @-@ duty , Ball met 18 @-@ year @-@ old Flora Young . He impulsively invited her to fly with him , and she promptly accepted , wearing a leather flying coat that they had borrowed . On 5 April , they became engaged ; she wore his silver identification wrist bracelet in lieu of an engagement ring .
= = = Second fighter posting = = =
Inaction chafed Ball , and he began agitating for a return to combat duty . He finally managed to obtain a posting as a flight commander with No. 56 Squadron RFC , considered to be as close to an elite unit as any established by the RFC . Ball was still first among Britain 's aces , and some documents hint that his attachment to No. 56 Squadron was planned to be temporary . According to one account he had been slated to serve with the unit for only a month to mentor novice pilots .
The latest type from the Royal Aircraft Factory , the S.E.5 , had been selected to equip the new squadron . This choice was viewed with some trepidation by the RFC high command , and Ball himself was personally far from happy with the S.E.5. After some intense lobbying he was allowed to retain his Nieuport 17 no . B1522 when the unit went to France ; the Nieuport was for his solo missions , and he would fly an S.E.5 on patrols with the rest of the squadron . This arrangement had the personal approval of General Hugh Trenchard , who went on to become the first Chief of the Air Staff of the Royal Air Force . No. 56 Squadron moved to the Western Front on 7 April 1917 . On arrival Ball wrote to his parents , " Cheero , am just about to start the great game again " .
S.E.5 no . A4850 , fresh from its packing crate , was extensively modified for Ball : in particular he had the synchronised Vickers machine gun removed , to be replaced with a second Lewis gun fitted to fire downwards through the floor of the cockpit . He also had a slightly larger fuel tank installed . On 9 April , A4850 was refitted , and the downward @-@ firing Lewis gun removed and replaced by the normal Vickers gun mounting . In a letter to Flora Young on 18 April , Ball mentioned getting his own hut on the flight line , and installing the members of his flight nearby .
On 23 April 1917 , Ball was under strict orders to stay over British lines , but still engaged the Germans five times in his Nieuport . In his first combat that day , using his preferred belly shot , he sent an Albatros into a spin , following it down and continuing to fire at it until it struck the ground . It was No. 56 Squadron 's first victory . Regaining an altitude of 5 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 500 m ) , he tried to dive underneath an Albatros two @-@ seater and pop up under its belly as usual , but he overshot , and the German rear gunner put a burst of 15 bullets through the Nieuport 's wings and spars . Ball coaxed the Nieuport home for repairs , returning to battle in an S.E.5. In his third combat of the day , he fired five rounds before his machine gun jammed . After landing to clear the gun , he took off once more , surprising five Albatros fighters and sending one down in flames . His fifth battle , shortly thereafter , appeared inconclusive , as the enemy plane managed to land safely . However , its observer had been mortally wounded .
Three days later , on 26 April , Ball scored another double victory , flying S.E.5 no . A4850 , and one more on 28 April . This last day 's fighting left the S.E.5 so battered by enemy action that it was dismantled and sent away for repair . The following month , despite continual problems with jamming guns in the S.E.5s , Ball shot down seven Albatroses in five days , including two reconnaissance models on 1 May , a reconnaissance plane and an Albatros D.III fighter on 2 May ; a D.III on 4 May , and two D.IIIs the next day , 5 May . The second of these victims nearly rammed Ball as they shot it out in a head @-@ on firing pass . As they sped past one another , Ball was left temporarily blinded by oil spraying from the holed oil tank of his craft . Clearing the oil from his eyes , he flew his S.E.5 home with zero oil pressure in an engine on the brink of seizure . He was so overwrought that it was some time after landing before he could finish thanking God , then dictating his combat report .
While squadron armourers and mechanics repaired the faulty machine @-@ gun synchroniser on his most recent S.E.5 mount , A8898 , Ball had been sporadically flying the Nieuport again , and was successful with it on 6 May , destroying one more Albatros D.III in an evening flight to raise his tally to 44 . He had continued to undertake his habitual lone patrols , but had of late been fortunate to survive . The heavier battle damage that Ball 's aircraft were now suffering bore witness to the improved team tactics being developed by his German opponents . Some time on 6 May , Ball had visited his friend Billy Bishop at the latter 's aerodrome . He proposed that the pair attack the Red Baron 's squadron at its airfield at dawn , catching the German pilots off guard . Bishop agreed to take part in the daring scheme at the end of the month , after he returned from his forthcoming leave . That night , in his last letter to his father , Ball wrote " I do get tired of always living to kill , and am really beginning to feel like a murderer . Shall be so pleased when I have finished " .
= = = Final flight and aftermath = = =
On the evening of 7 May 1917 , near Douai , 11 British aircraft from No. 56 Squadron led by Ball in an S.E.5 encountered German fighters from Jasta 11 . A running dogfight in deteriorating visibility resulted , and the aircraft became scattered . Cecil Arthur Lewis , a participant in this fight , described it in his memoir Sagittarius Rising . Ball was last seen by fellow pilots pursuing the red Albatros D.III of the Red Baron 's younger brother , Lothar von Richthofen , who eventually landed near Annœullin with a punctured fuel tank . Cyril Crowe observed Ball flying into a dark thundercloud . A German pilot officer on the ground , Lieutenant Hailer , then saw Ball 's plane falling upside @-@ down from the bottom of the cloud , at an altitude of 200 feet ( 61 m ) , with a dead prop . Brothers Franz and Carl Hailer and the other two men in their party were from a German reconnaissance unit , Flieger @-@ Abteilung A292 . Franz Hailer noted , " It was leaving a cloud of black smoke ... caused by oil leaking into the cylinders . " The engine had to be inverted for this to happen . The Hispano engine was known to flood its inlet manifold with fuel when upside down and then stopped running . Franz Hailer and his three companions hurried to the crash site . Ball was already dead when they arrived . The four German airmen agreed that the crashed craft had suffered no battle damage . No bullet wounds were found on Ball 's body , even though Hailer went through Ball 's clothing to find identification . Hailer also took Ball to a field hospital . A German doctor subsequently described a broken back and a crushed chest , along with fractured limbs , as the cause of death .
The Germans credited Richthofen with shooting down Ball , but there is some doubt as to what happened , especially as Richthofen 's claim was for a Sopwith Triplane , not an S.E.5 , which was a biplane . Given the amount of propaganda the German high command generated touting the younger Richthofen , a high @-@ level decision may have been taken to attribute Ball 's death to him . It is probable that Ball was not shot down at all , but had become disoriented and lost control during his final combat , the victim of a form of temporary vertigo that has claimed other pilots . Ball 's squadron harboured hopes that he was a prisoner of war , and the British government officially listed him as " missing " on 18 May . There was much speculation in the press ; in France , the Havas news agency reported : " Albert Ball , the star of aviators ... has been missing since the 7th May . Is he a prisoner or has he been killed ? If he is dead , he died fighting for his forty @-@ fifth victory . " It was only at the end of the month that the Germans dropped messages behind Allied lines announcing that Ball was dead , and had been buried in Annoeullin with full military honours two days after he crashed . Over the grave of the man they dubbed " the English Richthofen " , the Germans erected a cross bearing the inscription In Luftkampf gefallen für sein Vaterland Engl . Flieger Hauptmann Albert Ball , Royal Flying Corps ( " Fallen in air combat for his fatherland English pilot Captain Albert Ball " ) .
Ball 's death was reported world @-@ wide in the press . He was lauded as the " wonder boy of the Flying Corps " in Britain 's Weekly Dispatch , the " Ace of English Aces " in Portugal , the " heroe aviador " in South America , and the " super @-@ airman " in France . On 7 June 1917 , the London Gazette announced that he had received the Croix de Chevalier , Legion d 'Honneur from the French government . The following day , he was awarded the Victoria Cross for his " most conspicuous and consistent bravery " in action from 25 April to 6 May 1917 . On 10 June 1917 , a memorial service was held for Ball in the centre of Nottingham at St Mary 's Church , with large crowds paying tribute as the procession of mourners passed by . Among those attending were Ball 's father Albert , Sr. and brother Cyril , now also a pilot in the RFC ; his mother Harriett , overwhelmed with grief , was not present . Ball was posthumously promoted to captain on 15 June . His Victoria Cross was presented to his parents by King George V on 22 July 1917 . The following year he was awarded a special medal by the Aero Club of America .
= = = Posthumous tributes = = =
In 1918 , Walter A. Briscoe and H. Russell Stannard released a seminal biography , Captain Ball VC , reprinting many of Ball 's letters and prefaced with encomiums by Prime Minister David Lloyd George , Field Marshal Sir Douglas Haig , and Major General Sir Hugh Trenchard . Lloyd George wrote that " What he says in one of his letters , ' I hate this game , but it is the only thing one must do just now ' , represents , I believe , the conviction of those vast armies who , realising what is at stake , have risked all and endured all that liberty may be saved " . Haig spoke of Ball 's " unrivalled courage " and his " example and incentive to those who have taken up his work " . In Trenchard 's opinion , Ball had " a wonderfully well @-@ balanced brain , and his loss to the Flying Corps was the greatest loss it could sustain at that time " .
In the book proper , Briscoe and Stannard quote Ball 's most notable opponent , Manfred von Richthofen . The Red Baron , who believed in his younger brother 's victory award , considered Ball " by far the best English flying man " . Elsewhere in the book , an unidentified Royal Flying Corps pilot who flew with Ball in his last engagement was quoted as saying , " I see they have given him the V.C. Of course he won it a dozen times over — the whole squadron knows that . " The authors themselves described the story of Ball 's life as that of " a young knight of gentle manner who learnt to fly and to kill at a time when all the world was killing ... saddened by the great tragedy that had come into the world and made him a terrible instrument of Death " .
Linda Raine Robertson , in The Dream of Civilised Warfare , noted that Briscoe and Stannard emphasised " the portrait of a boy of energy , pluck , and humility , a loner who placed his skill in the service of his nation , fought – indeed , invited – a personal war , and paid the ultimate sacrifice as a result " , and that they " struggle to paste the mask of cheerful boyishness over the signs of the toll taken on him by the stress of air combat and the loss of friends " .
Alan Clark , in Aces High : The War in the Air Over the Western Front , found Ball the " perfect public schoolboy " with " the enthusiasms and all the eager intelligence of that breed " and that these characteristics , coupled with a lack of worldly maturity , were " the ingredients of a perfect killer , where a smooth transition can be made between the motives that drive a boy to ' play hard ' at school and then to ' fight hard ' against the King 's enemies " . Biographer Chaz Bowyer considered that " to label Albert Ball a ' killer ' would be to do him a grave injustice " , as his " sensitive nature suffered in immediate retrospect whenever he succeeded in combat " .
= = Post @-@ war legacy = =
After the war the British discovered Ball 's grave , which had been behind enemy lines , in the Annoeullin Cemetery . In December 1918 , personnel of No. 207 Squadron RAF erected a new cross in place of the one left by the Germans . The Imperial War Graves Commission ( now Commonwealth War Graves Commission ) were working at the time to consolidate the British war graves into fewer cemeteries ; 23 British bodies in graves in the location where Ball was buried were moved to the Cabaret Rouge British Cemetery , but at his father 's request Ball 's grave was allowed to remain . Albert Sr. paid for a private memorial to be erected over Ball 's grave , No. 643 , in what later became the Annoeullin Communal Cemetery and German Extension . Ball 's is the only British grave from the First World War in this extension , the rest being German . Ball 's father also bought the French field where his son had died and erected a memorial stone on the crash site .
Memorials to Ball in his native Nottingham include a monument and statue in the grounds of Nottingham Castle . The monument , which was commissioned by the city council and funded by public subscription , consists of a bronze group on a carved pedestal of Portland stone and granite . The bronze group , by the sculptor Henry Poole , shows a life @-@ size figure of Ball with an allegorical female figure at his shoulder . The monument was unveiled on 8 September 1921 by Air Marshal Trenchard , with military honours including a flypast by a squadron of RAF aircraft . In 1929 the bronze model for Ball 's statue was presented by his father to the National Portrait Gallery in London , where it is on display . In further remembrance of his son , Albert Ball , Sr. commissioned the building of the Albert Ball Memorial Homes in Lenton to house the families of local servicemen killed in action . The Lenton War Memorial , located in front of the homes , includes Ball 's name and was also paid for by the Ball family . The homes were Grade @-@ II listed for historic preservation in 1995 .
A memorial to Ball , along with his parents , and a sister who died in infancy , appears on the exterior wall of the southwest corner of Holy Trinity Church in Lenton . Another memorial tablet is present inside the same church , mounted on the north wall and bearing the RFC and RAF motto Per Ardua ad Astra , along with decorations of medals and royal arms . In 1967 , the Albert Ball VC Scholarships were instituted at his alma mater , Trent College . A propeller from one of Ball 's aircraft and the original cross from his grave in France are displayed at the college 's library and chapel , respectively . One of the houses at Nottingham High 's Junior School is also named after Ball .
In 2006 , Ball was one of six recipients of the Victoria Cross to be featured on a special commemorative edition of Royal Mail stamps marking the 150th anniversary of the award . His Victoria Cross is displayed at the Nottingham Castle Museum along with his other medals and memorabilia , including a bullet @-@ holed Avro windshield , a section of engine piping from one of his damaged Nieuports , his Freedom of Nottingham Scroll and Casket , and various letters and other papers . A portrait study by Noel Denholm Davis is in the collection of Nottingham City Museums and Galleries .
= = Award citations = =
Victoria Cross
Lt. ( temp . Capt. ) Albert Ball , D.S.O. , M.C. , late Notts. and Derby . R. , and R.F.C.
For most conspicuous and consistent bravery from the 25th of April to the 6th of May , 1917 , during which period Capt. Ball took part in twenty @-@ six combats in the air and destroyed eleven hostile aeroplanes , drove down two out of control , and forced several others to land .
In these combats Capt. Ball , flying alone , on one occasion fought six hostile machines , twice he fought five and once four . When leading two other British aeroplanes he attacked an enemy formation of eight . On each of these occasions he brought down at least one enemy .
Several times his aeroplane was badly damaged , once so seriously that but for the most delicate handling his machine would have collapsed , as nearly all the control wires had been shot away . On returning with a damaged machine he had always to be restrained from immediately going out on another .
In all , Capt. Ball has destroyed forty @-@ three German aeroplanes and one balloon , and has always displayed most exceptional courage , determination and skill .
Distinguished Service Order ( DSO )
For conspicuous gallantry and skill . Observing seven enemy machines in formation , he immediately attacked one of them and shot it down at 15 yards range . The remaining machines retired . Immediately afterwards , seeing five more hostile machines , he attacked one at about 10 yards range and shot it down , flames coming out of the fuselage . He then attacked another of the machines , which had been firing at him , and shot it down into a village , when it landed on the top of a house . He then went to the nearest aerodrome for more ammunition , and , returning , attacked three more machines , causing them to dive under control . Being then short of petrol he came home . His own machine was badly shot about in these fights .
Distinguished Service Order ( DSO ) Bar
For conspicuous skill and gallantry . When on escort duty to a bombing raid he saw four enemy machines in formation . He dived on to them and broke up their formation , and then shot down the nearest one , which fell on its nose . He came down to about 500 feet to make certain it was wrecked . On another occasion , observing 12 enemy machines in formation , he dived in among them , and fired a drum into the nearest machine , which went down out of control . Several more hostile machines then approached , and he fired three more drums at them , driving down another out of control . He then returned , crossing the lines at a low altitude , with his machine very much damaged .
Distinguished Service Order ( DSO ) Bar
For conspicuous gallantry in action . He attacked three hostile machines and brought one down , displaying great courage and skill . He has brought down eight hostile machines in a short period , and has forced many others to land .
Military Cross ( MC )
For conspicuous skill and gallantry on many occasions , notably when , after failing to destroy an enemy kite balloon with bombs , he returned for a fresh supply , went back and brought it down in flames . He has done great execution among enemy aeroplanes . On one occasion he attacked six in one flight , forced down two and drove the others off . This occurred several miles over the enemy 's lines .
= = List of victories = =
Confirmed victories numbered ; unconfirmed victories marked " u / c " . Except where noted , data from Shores et al .
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= 2000 French Grand Prix =
The 2000 French Grand Prix ( formally the LXXXVI Mobil 1 Grand Prix de France ) was a Formula One motor race held on 2 July 2000 at the Circuit de Nevers Magny @-@ Cours , Magny @-@ Cours , Burgundy , France . It was the ninth race of the 2000 Formula One season and the 86th French Grand Prix . The 72 @-@ lap race was won by McLaren driver David Coulthard after starting from second position . His teammate Mika Häkkinen finished second with Rubens Barrichello third for the Ferrari team .
Coulthard started the race alongside Ferrari driver Michael Schumacher who began from pole position . Barrichello began from third on the grid and overtook Coulthard going into the first corner . Michael Schumacher maintained his start line advantage and kept the lead after the first round of pit stops . During the course of the second stint of the race , Michael Schumacher began to struggle with tyre wear , allowing Coulthard to close the gap and passed him on lap 40 . Coulthard maintained his lead through the second round of pit stops and won the race . Michael Schumacher retired on lap 59 with an engine failure promoting Häkkinen into second position . Barrichello took third , ahead of BAR driver Jacques Villeneuve in fourth .
The race was Coulthard 's third victory of the season , his first at Magny @-@ Cours , and the result meant that he reduced Michael Schumacher 's points advantage in the Drivers ' Championship to twelve points . Häkkinen remained third on 38 points , six ahead of Barrichello . In the Constructors ' Championship , McLaren 's one @-@ two finish allowed them to narrow the gap to Ferrari to be six points behind , with eight races of the season remaining .
= = Report = =
= = = Background = = =
The Grand Prix was contested by eleven teams , each of two drivers . The teams , also known as constructors were , McLaren , Ferrari , Jordan , Jaguar , Williams , Benetton , Prost , Sauber , Arrows , Minardi and BAR . Tyre supplier Bridgestone brought two different tyre types to the race : the Soft and the Medium dry compound tyres .
Going into the race , Ferrari driver Michael Schumacher led the Drivers ' Championship with 56 points , ahead of David Coulthard on 34 points and Mika Häkkinen on 32 . Rubens Barrichello was fourth with 28 points while Giancarlo Fisichella was fifth on 18 points . In the Constructors ' Championship , Ferrari were leading with 84 points , McLaren and Benetton were second and third with 66 and 18 points respectively , while Williams with 15 and Jordan with ten contended for fourth place . Ferrari and McLaren had so far dominated the Championship , winning the previous eight races . Championship competitors Fisichella and Barrichello had gained second @-@ place finishes while Ralf Schumacher and Heinz @-@ Harald Frentzen had achieved third place podium finishes .
Following the Canadian Grand Prix on 18 June , the teams conducted testing sessions at the Circuit de Nevers Magny @-@ Cours between 21 – 23 June to prepare for the upcoming French Grand Prix . Coulthard set the fastest times on the first day , ahead of McLaren test driver Olivier Panis . Arrows driver Jos Verstappen lost control of his car after suffering a mechanical problem and crashed into the barriers at turn two . Verstappen sustained neck strain and withdrew from testing . He was later passed fit to compete in the Grand Prix . Coulthard remained fastest on the second day . Fisichella damaged the underside of his car 's chassis , limiting his testing time as Benetton made repairs to his car . Häkkinen was quickest on the final day of testing . Michael Schumacher stopped on circuit as his Ferrari engine failed , causing his team to fit a new engine into the chassis . Ferrari went to their private testing facility , the Fiorano Circuit , on 27 June where test driver Luca Badoer shook down three Ferrari F1 @-@ 2000 cars and also took part in pit stop practices .
After a poor race in Canada , where he stalled on the grid before the formation lap before receiving a ten @-@ second stop @-@ go penalty as his mechanics worked on his car 15 seconds before the race started , Coulthard said that Ferrari could still be caught in the season 's nine remaining races : " We have to look towards Magny @-@ Cours and put this ( Montreal ) race behind us . The championship is not over yet and although we cannot change what happened in Canada , we can try to close the gap . " Former World Champion and President of the British Racing Drivers Club ( BRDC ) Jackie Stewart backed Coulthard to clinch the title after Häkkinen 's continuing run of poor results . Michael Schumacher came into the race confident that his car would perform well at the circuit . Benetton team principal Flavio Briatore played down his team 's chances saying , " We need a miracle to finish on the podium . "
= = = Practice and qualifying = = =
Four practice sessions were held before the Sunday race — two on Friday , and two on Saturday . The Friday morning and afternoon sessions each lasted an hour . The third and final practice sessions were held on Saturday morning and lasted 45 minutes . The Friday morning and afternoon practice sessions were held in dry and hot weather conditions . Michael Schumacher set the fastest time in the first practice session , a 1 : 16 @.@ 474 , two @-@ tenths of a second quicker than Häkkinen . Prost driver Nick Heidfeld was third fastest , ahead of Ralf Schumacher . The two Jaguar drivers were fifth and seventh , Eddie Irvine ahead of Johnny Herbert . The pair were separated by Fisichella in sixth . Jean Alesi , Pedro de la Rosa and Jenson Button completed the top ten fastest drivers in the session . Four drivers did not set lap times : Coulthard 's car developed an mechanical fuel pump problem , Barrichello drove one installation lap to conserve tyres and both Jordan drivers decided to sit out the session . In the second practice session , Coulthard had a trouble @-@ free session and was fastest with a time of 1 : 16 @.@ 253 ; Häkkinen finished with the second fastest time . The Ferraris were second and fourth , Michael Schumacher was faster than Barrichello . Sauber 's Mika Salo was fifth quickest , ahead of Fisichella . Trulli , Heidfeld , Ralf Schumacher and Frentzen followed in the top ten .
The weather remained dry and hot for the Saturday morning practice sessions . Coulthard set the fastest time of the third practice session , a 1 : 15 @.@ 965 . Häkkinen was second fastest , almost two @-@ tenths of a second off Coulthard 's pace . The two Jordan drivers were running quicker ; Trulli in third and Frentzen in fourth . Both Jaguars continued to be quick with Irvine fifth and Herbert eighth . The two were separated by Michael Schumacher and Button . Barrichello and de la Rosa rounded out the top ten . In the final practice session , Coulthard was unable to improve his time because of an engine failure though he remained fastest . Häkkinen managed to set a quicker time and remained with the second quickest lap . Barrichello ran quicker and was third fastest , in front of Ralf Schumacher . The Jordan drivers remained fastest – Trulli was fifth and Frentzen sixth – their best times two thousands of a second apart . Irvine was seventh quickest , ahead of Michael Schumacher who concentrated on qualifying set @-@ up . Button and Herbert completed the top ten ahead of qualifying .
Saturday 's afternoon qualifying session lasted for an hour . Each driver was limited to twelve laps , with the grid order decided by the drivers ' fastest laps . During this session , the 107 % rule was in effect , which necessitated each driver set a time within 107 % of the quickest lap to qualify for the race . The qualifying session was held in dry and hot weather conditions . The air temperature ranged between 27 – 28 ° C ( 81 – 82 ° F ) and the track temperature ranged from 33 – 35 ° C ( 91 – 95 ° F ) . Michael Schumacher clinched his fourth pole position of the season , his third at the circuit , with a time of 1 : 15 @.@ 632 . He was joined on the front row of the grid by Coulthard with his fastest time was 0 @.@ 102 seconds slower and used his team 's spare monocoque while the McLaren mechanics fitted his race car with a new fuel pump . Barrichello secured third having changed his car 's set @-@ up during the session which garnered confusion over changes in the ride height . Häkkinen took fourth and was pushed down to his position by Barrichello with the Finn struggling in the slow speed corners . Ralf Schumacher qualified fifth and was happy with his starting position . Irvine was pushed down by Ralf Schumacher to sixth in the closing stages of qualifying . BAR driver Jacques Villeneuve managed seventh . The Jordan drivers of Trulli and Frentzen took seventh and eighth positions respectively although both drivers were disappointed with their performance . Button rounded out the top ten fastest qualifiers . Herbert , who took eleventh , missed out in qualifying in the top ten by nearly three @-@ tenths of a second . Salo captured twelfth on the grid with his fastest time set when air and track temperatures were lowered by cloud cover . He was ahead of de la Rosa in the faster of the two Arrows . Fisichella started from 14th position , nearly one @-@ tenth of a second in front of Benetton teammate Alexander Wurz ; both drivers complained that their cars had balance and grip issues . The two were split by Pedro Diniz in the other Sauber and Heidfeld . Alesi followed up in 18th . Ricardo Zonta set the 19th fastest time and used BAR 's spare car when an engine failure on his race car occurred . Verstappen and the two Minardi drivers Marc Gené and Gastón Mazzacane qualified at the rear of the grid , covering positions 20 to 22 . After the qualifying session , but before the warm @-@ up period , the Fédération Internationale de l 'Automobile ( FIA ) safety delegate , Charlie Whiting announced that he had banned practice starts at the pit lane exit after observing the drivers ' behaviour in the area during the Saturday free practice sessions .
= = = Race = = =
The drivers took to the track at 09 : 30 CEST ( UTC + 2 ) for a 30 @-@ minute warm @-@ up session . Both McLaren cars maintained their good pace from qualifying ; Häkkinen had the fastest time of 1 : 19 @.@ 329 . Coulthard was second in the other McLaren car . Michael Schumacher set the third fastest time with Trulli rounding out the top four . Michael Schumacher drove the spare Ferrari car and his race car , making adjustments to the changeable weather conditions .
The race started at 14 : 00 local time . The conditions on the grid were dry before the race . The air temperature ranged from 27 – 28 ° C ( 81 – 82 ° F ) and the track temperature was between 38 – 39 ° C ( 100 – 102 ° F ) ; conditions were expected to remain consistent throughout the race . All drivers started on the Extra Soft dry compound tyres . Coulthard managed to achieve a better start of the front runners off the line , though Michael Schumacher moved into the McLaren driver 's path to defend his lead . Coulthard then moved to his right allowing Barrichello to pass him for second position . Salo made the best start in the field moving from twelfth to ninth by the end of the first lap , while Irvine lost four positions over the same distance as Ralf Schumacher dropped from fifth to seventh . At the completition of the first lap , the order was Michael Schumacher , Barrichello , Coulthard , Häkkinen , Villeneuve , Frentzen , Ralf Schumacher , Trulli , Salo , Irvine , Button , Herbert , de la Rosa , Heidfeld , Alesi , Fisichella , Verstappen , Zonta , Diniz , Wurz , Gené and Mazzacane .
Michael Schumacher began to pull clear from the rest of the field and set consecutive fastest laps . Barrichello began to hold up the McLaren drivers to allow his teammate to extend his lead . Further down the field , Trulli passed Ralf Schumacher to take seventh position on lap two . Heidfeld was overtaken by Alesi for 14th on the same lap . On the following lap , Ralf Schumacher retook seventh position from Trulli . Heidfeld lost a further position to Fisichella on lap four . Ralf Schumacher started to challenge Frentzen for sixth position on the fifth lap . At the front of the pack , Michael Schumacher was in control , extending his lead over Barrichello to five seconds by lap ten . Button took tenth position from Irvine on lap twelve , while Heidfeld collided with Alesi , sending his teammate into a spin who rejoined down in 18th . Button moved into ninth place when he passed Salo on lap 13 . Zonta , who was running 17th , suffered brake problems on lap 17 and collided with the tyre barriers which caused him to retire from the Grand Prix .
By the 18th lap , Michael Schumacher had extended his lead over Barrichello by 6 @.@ 2 seconds , who in turn was continuing to hold up Coulthard in third . Häkkinen was a further 1 @.@ 4 seconds behind his teammate but was drawing ahead of Villeneuve in fifth . Herbert made an unscheduled pit stop due to a gearbox issue and retired two laps later . Meanwhile , on the same lap , Alesi became the first driver to pit for tyres on the same lap . Trulli became the first front runner to pit on lap 21 , followed by Villeneuve , Frentzen and Ralf Schumacher . Coulthard managed to take Barrichello on lap 22 for second place at turn five . Häkkinen , Button , Michael Schumacher , Coulthard and Barrichello all made pit stops over the following three laps . Verstappen pulled onto the side of the pit straight to retire with gearbox problems on lap 26 . Coulthard was able to close the gap on Michael Schumacher to under a second by lap 32 , having set the fastest lap of the race in the process , a 1 : 19 @.@ 479 on the 28th lap . He attempted to overtake his rival two laps later but the Ferrari driver defended his position . Coulthard lifted off the throttle to avoid a collision and made a hand gesture towards Michael Schumacher . The manoeuvre allowed Häkkinen to close up on the two leading drivers . On the previous lap , Mazzacane spun off at the third corner and retired .
Wurz locked his brakes going into turn 15 , causing him to beach his car in the gravel trap and retired on lap 36 . Button became the first driver to pit twice on lap 39 . Coulthard replicated his manoeuvre into turn five on Michael Schumacher on lap 40 , with the Ferrari driver pushed to the side of the track by Coulthard who took the lead . Michael Schumacher 's right front wheel made slight contact with Coulthard 's left front tyre in the process . Michael Schumacher then immediately withstood Häkkinen 's attempts to overtake him . Frentzen and de la Rosa became the next two drivers to make pit stops on the same lap . Michael Schumacher and Häkkinen made pit stops for the second time on lap 43 and both emerged in third and fourth respectively . Barrichello 's pit stop on the 44th lap saw him drop to fifth after his team had issues with fitting his right front tyre . Coulthard and Ralf Schumacher made pit stops over the next two laps . At the completition of lap 48 , with the frontrunners completing their pit stops , the order was Coulthard , Michael Schumacher , Häkkinen , Barrichello , Villeneuve , Trulli , Ralf Schumacher , Frentzen , Button , Fisichella , Salo , Diniz , Heidfeld , Irvine , Alesi and Gené .
At the tail @-@ end of the field , Gené and Alesi made contact on lap 52 and both drivers were sent spinning sideways . Both drivers continued in their respective positions . Further up , Ralf Schumacher passed Trulli to clinch sixth position at turn five . Häkkinen , meanwhile , was less than one second behind Michael Schumacher by lap 53 and continued to battle the Ferrari driver for second position as his tyres degraded quicker than the McLarens . Irvine overtook Diniz for twelfth position two laps later . Michael Schumacher pulled over to the side of the track with an blown engine on lap 59 . Häkkinen was promoted to second place as a result of Michael Schumacher 's retirement . Coulthard crossed the finish line on lap 72 to take his third victory of the season in a time of 1 ' 38 : 05 @.@ 538 , at an average speed of 116 @.@ 330 miles per hour ( 187 @.@ 215 km / h ) . Häkkinen finished second 14 @.@ 7 seconds behind , ahead of Barrichello in third , Villeneuve in fourth , Ralf Schumacher in fifth and Trulli rounded out the points scoring positions in sixth . Frentzen , Button , Fisichella , Salo , Diniz and Heidfeld followed in the next six positions , with Irvine , Alesi and Gené the last of the classified finishers .
= = = Post @-@ race = = =
The top three drivers appeared on the podium to collect their trophies and in the subsequent press conference . Coulthard described his race weekend as " exhausting " because of the problems his team encountered during the event . He also apologised for the hand gestures he made towards Michael Schumacher after his first overtaking manoeuvre on the Ferrari driver . Häkkinen stated that he was happy with his second @-@ place result and praised his team 's efforts . He also spoke of how he watched Michael Schumacher 's racing lines and believed he would have passed him had he not retired with an engine failure . Barrichello revealed that he was ordered by Ferrari to reduce his pace in the race 's closing stages as he held a large gap of 35 seconds to Villeneuve .
After Ferrari 's victory at the previous race , their team principal Jean Todt , said that " we seemed to be in a strong position but , of course , it is the order at the finish that counts " , while Michael Schumacher said that his car 's tyres dropped in performance after taking his first pit stop . McLaren technical director Adrian Newey said that the pit stop strategy was crucial in winning the race : " The tyre wear did not spring any surprises on us and we were able to trust our estimations and co @-@ ordinate the pit @-@ stops to our best advantage . " Villeneuve was happy with his strong finish and was surprised by his good start . Heidfeld , who made contact with his teammate Alesi during the race , apologised for the collision . Ralf Schumacher said that he reduced his pace to secure his fifth position . Trulli described his race as " difficult " because of the hot temperatures though he praised his mechanics for their work .
The overtaking manoeuvres made by Coulthard on Michael Schumacher received much media attention after the race . Coulthard accused the Ferrari driver of unsporting behaviour and dangerous driving , saying : " I had a clean run at Michael on the outside and equally I felt he drove me wide . You could say he had the right to do that because he had the track position , but I think it was a deliberate gesture in trying to run someone wide like that and I was very angry . " Michael Schumacher later denied any wrongdoing and citied an similar incident at the 1999 Japanese Grand Prix where Coulthard pushed him wide although no objections were made . He also admitted that he did not see Coulthard 's hand gesture . Coulthard sought clarification with the FIA over such overtakes with a source from Formula One 's governing body noting : " It was hard racing -- they are racing drivers aren 't they ? " GrandPrix.com said that Coulthard 's overtake meant that " He is ready to stand up to Michael and he is not afraid of what will happen if Michael does not lift . "
The race result meant that Coulthard narrowed the gap to Michael Schumacher in the Drivers ' Championship to twelve points . Häkkinen remained in third place , six points ahead of Barrichello . Fisichella behind them maintained fifth position . In the Constructors ' Championship , McLaren 's one @-@ two finish reduced the lead of Ferrari to six points . Williams made up two points on the Benetton team , although they were still one point behind . Jordan retained fifth on eleventh points , with eight races of the season remaining .
= = Classification = =
= = = Qualifying = = =
= = = Race = = =
= = Championship standings after the race = =
Note : Only the top five positions are included for both sets of standings .
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= Xin Fengxia =
Xin Fengxia ( Chinese : 新凤霞 ; Wade – Giles : Hsin Feng @-@ hsia ; 1927 – 12 April 1998 ) was a Chinese pingju opera performer , known as the " Queen of Pingju " . She was also a film actress , writer , and painter . She starred in the highly popular films Liu Qiao 'er ( 1956 ) and Flowers as Matchmakers ( 1964 ) , both adapted from her operas .
Xin was married to Wu Zuguang , a prominent playwright and an outspoken critic of government policies . When Wu was denounced as a " rightist " in Mao Zedong 's Anti @-@ Rightist Movement , Xin refused to divorce him and was herself denounced as a result . She was later severely persecuted during the Cultural Revolution , becoming disabled after a beating and was later paralyzed due to a stroke . No longer able to perform , she dedicated the remainder of her life to teaching , writing , and painting . She studied painting with her godfather Qi Baishi , a master of Chinese painting , and studied writing with her husband . She published a two @-@ million @-@ word memoir , which has been translated into English and Urdu .
Xin Fengxia pioneered her own style of pingju , now called the " Xin " ( which also means " new " ) style . It has become one of the most important styles of the opera . In 2014 , the China Pingju Institute created the new pingju opera Xin Fengxia to commemorate her life .
= = Early life and career = =
Xin Fengxia was born in Suzhou , Jiangsu , China . When she was a toddler she was sold by human smugglers to Tianjin in northern China , and was given the name Yang Shumin ( 杨淑敏 ) . She was trained as an opera performer from a young age . At that time , the theatrical world in China was controlled by gangsters . Actors , even renowned performers , had little personal freedom . She originally trained for Peking opera under her " older sister " Yang Jinxiang , but later changed to pingju . She toured extensively , and by the 1940s , her fame had rivalled well known female stars such as Liu Cuixia , Bai Yushuang , and Fu Ronghua .
After the establishment of the People 's Republic of China in 1949 , Xin moved to Beijing . Her first performance , in the modern pingju Little Erhei 's Marriage , was well liked and attracted the attention of the original novelist Zhao Shuli and the well known writer Lao She . Her next performance , in Liu Qiao 'er , was even more successful , making her a household name in China . In the opera Flowers as Matchmakers ( Hua Wei Mei ) , she transformed the traditional melancholy tunes of pingju into joyous ones , and enriched the pingju repertoire by creating many new melodies . It is now considered a classic of the Xin style pingju . Liu Qiao 'er was made into a film in 1956 , which was followed by Flowers as Matchmakers in 1964 . Both starred Xin and were extremely popular . Premier Zhou Enlai and his wife Deng Yingchao were both her fans . Zhou once said : " I can live without tea for three days , but not without watching Xin Fengxia . "
= = Marriage and persecution = =
In 1951 , Lao She introduced Xin Fengxia to the famous playwright Wu Zuguang . Like many intellectuals at the time , Wu held high hopes for the new People 's Republic and returned to China from British Hong Kong . Xin , who had acted in one of Wu 's plays , admired his talent . They married that year , despite the fact that they were from differing socioeconomic backgrounds ; she had no formal education and was nearly illiterate , while he was from a prominent family of scholars . Wu helped her to study reading , writing , and calligraphy . She also studied painting with Qi Baishi , one of the most celebrated masters of Chinese painting , who took her as his goddaughter .
Wu Zuguang , an outspoken critic of government cultural policies , was denounced in 1957 as a " rightist " in Mao Zedong 's Anti @-@ Rightist Movement , and was sent to the Great Northern Wilderness in Heilongjiang to be " reformed through labour . " Xin was pressured to divorce her husband , but refused . Citing a legendary love story from one of her operas , she said " Wang Baochuan waited 18 years for Xue Pinggui , and I will wait 28 years for Wu Zuguang . " As a result , she was herself labeled a rightist and went through struggle sessions .
Wu returned to Beijing after three years of hard labour , but six years later , China fell into the even greater turmoil of the Cultural Revolution , which began in 1966 . Xin Fengxia and Wu Zuguang were both denounced at the beginning of the period . She was severely beaten by a junior actor of the China Pingju Institute ; her left knee was broken and she never fully recovered from the injury . The couple 's friend Lao She drowned himself after being similarly tortured . After her beating Xin served seven years of forced labour . In December 1975 , she became paralyzed after suffering a stroke . Wu took care of her for the rest of her life .
= = Post @-@ Cultural Revolution = =
After the Cultural Revolution , Xin Fengxia was politically rehabilitated in 1979 , but was unable to return to the stage because of her disability . Her performance in Flowers as Matchmakers in 1964 proved to be her last . She devoted her energy to writing , painting , and training the younger generation of pingju performers . In 1997 , she published her two @-@ million @-@ word memoir , which has been translated into English and Urdu . Ye Shengtao , the renowned writer and publisher , greatly encouraged her to write . He composed two poems praising her courage and talent . Her paintings , which were decorated with her husband 's calligraphy , were also popular , and an exhibition of them was held at the China Military Museum in 1994 . She was elected as a member of the Chinese People 's Political Consultative Conference .
In April 1998 , while visiting Changzhou , her husband 's hometown , she suffered a cerebral hemorrhage . She was sent to Changzhou No. 1 People 's Hospital , where she died after a week , on 12 April 1998 .
= = Legacy = =
Xin Fengxia and Wu Zuguang had three children . Their son , Wu Huan , is also a writer , painter , and calligrapher . After the deaths of Xin in 1998 and of Wu Zuguang in 2003 , he organized the exhibition " A Hundred Years of the Wu Family " at the Poly Art Museum in Beijing . It was also shown in France , Hong Kong , and Taiwan .
The " Xin " style of pingju pioneered by Xin Fengxia has become one of the most important styles of the opera . In 2014 , the China Pingju Institute created a new opera entitled Xin Fengxia to commemorate her life , with focuses on her reformation of the opera , and the love story of Xin and Wu . It is written by Huang Weiruo ( 黄维若 ) , and directed by Guo Xiaonan ( 郭小男 ) .
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= United States Senate election in Massachusetts , 2012 =
The 2012 United States Senate election in Massachusetts took place on November 6 , 2012 , concurrently with the U.S. presidential election and elections to the U.S. Senate in other states , as well as elections to the House of Representatives and various state and local elections .
Incumbent Republican Senator Scott Brown ran for re @-@ election to a first full term . He had been elected in a special election in 2010 following the death of incumbent Democratic Senator Ted Kennedy . Brown faced no challengers from his own party . For the Democrats , an initial wide field of prospective candidates narrowed after the entry of Harvard Law School Professor Elizabeth Warren , the architect of the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau . Warren clinched near @-@ unanimous party support , with all but one of the other Democratic candidates withdrawing following her entrance . After winning her party 's nomination , eliminating any need for a primary , she faced Brown in the general election .
The election was one of the most @-@ followed races in 2012 and cost approximately $ 82 million , which made it the most expensive election in Massachusetts history and the second @-@ most expensive in the entire 2012 election cycle , next to that year 's presidential election . This was despite the two candidates ' having agreed not to allow outside money to influence the race . Opinion polling indicated a close race for much of the campaign , though Warren opened up a small but consistent lead in the final few weeks . She went on to defeat Brown by over 236 @,@ 000 votes , 54 % to 46 % .
= = Background = =
Democratic U.S. Senator Ted Kennedy was re @-@ elected in 2006 , and died on August 25 , 2009 from a malignant brain tumor . On September 24 , 2009 , Massachusetts Governor Deval Patrick appointed longtime friend of Kennedy and former Democratic National Committee Chairman Paul G. Kirk to succeed Kennedy until a special election could be held . Kirk 's appointment was especially controversial , as the Governor 's ability to appoint an interim Senator was removed during the Romney administration by the Democratic @-@ controlled legislature , as a precaution if Senator and presidential nominee John Kerry was elected President in 2004 . Laws surrounding Senate appointment were quickly changed following Kennedy 's death . The Massachusetts Republican Party sued in an attempt to halt Kirk 's appointment , but it was rejected by Suffolk Superior Court Judge Thomas Connolly .
In the special election held on January 19 , 2010 , Republican State Senator Scott Brown defeated Democratic State Attorney General Martha Coakley in an upset victory . Brown thus became the first Republican to be elected from Massachusetts to the United States Senate since Edward Brooke in 1972 and he began serving the remainder of Kennedy 's term on February 4 , 2010 .
= = Republican primary = =
Incumbent Scott Brown faced no challenges from within his party . The political action committee National Republican Trust , a group integral to Brown 's election in 2010 , vowed to draft a challenger for Brown but were unable to find one .
= = = Candidates = = =
Scott Brown , incumbent U.S. Senator
= = = Polling = = =
= = = Results = = =
= = Democratic primary = =
The Massachusetts Democratic Convention was held on June 2 , 2012 , where Warren received 95 @.@ 77 % of delegate votes . As the only candidate with 15 % of delegate votes necessary to qualify for the primary ballot , Warren eliminated her challenger Marisa DeFranco , becoming the de facto nominee . The Democratic primary was held September 6 , 2012 , with Warren running unopposed .
= = = Candidates = = =
= = = = Declared = = = =
Nominee : Elizabeth Warren , Harvard Law School professor and architect of the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau
Eliminated at convention : Marisa DeFranco , immigration lawyer
= = = = Withdrew = = = =
Tom Conroy , State Representative ( Withdrew December 12 , 2011 )
Alan Khazei , founder of City Year ( Withdrew October 26 , 2011 )
James Coyne King , corporate lawyer ( Withdrew March 21 , 2012 )
Bob Massie , entrepreneur and nominee for Lieutenant Governor of Massachusetts 1994 ( Withdrew October 7 , 2011 )
Herb Robinson , engineer ( Withdrew December 15 , 2011 )
Setti Warren , Mayor of Newton ( Withdrew September 29 , 2011 )
= = = = Declined = = = =
Mike Capuano , U.S. Representative
Kim Driscoll , Mayor of Salem
Barney Frank , U.S. Representative
Joseph P. Kennedy II , former U.S. Representative
Victoria Reggie Kennedy , Ted Kennedy 's widow
Stephen Lynch , U.S. Representative
Rachel Maddow , television host , and political commentator
Marty Meehan , former U.S. Representative
Thomas Menino , Mayor of Boston
Deval Patrick , Governor of Massachusetts
John F. Tierney , U.S. Representative
Warren Tolman , former State Senator and former State Representative
= = = Polling = = =
= = = Results = = =
= = General election = =
= = = Campaign = = =
Brown ran as a moderate , stressing his ability to cross party lines and highlighting his votes for the Dodd @-@ Frank financial reform law and to repeal " don 't ask , don 't tell " . Warren campaigned on a platform championing the middle class , and supporting Wall Street regulation . Warren criticized Brown for continually voting with Republican leadership , and argued that he was not the bipartisan moderate he claimed to be . A staple of Brown 's attack tactics against Warren was his consistent reference to her as " Professor Warren " , in attempt to portray her as an elitist academic . Brown faced blowback after the second debate , during which he claimed conservative Antonin Scalia was a " model " Supreme Court Justice , prompting boos from the debate audience .
Warren spoke at the 2012 Democratic National Convention immediately before Bill Clinton on the penultimate night of the convention . Warren contrasted President Obama 's economic plan with Mitt Romney 's in the 2012 election and rebuked the Republican Party 's economic policy stating : " Their vision is clear : ' I 've got mine , and the rest of you are on your own . ' " Warren positioned herself as a champion of a beleaguered middle class that , as she said , " has been chipped , squeezed and hammered . " Brown attended the 2012 Republican National Convention , but was not a speaker there . According to Brown , he had rejected an offer to play a larger role , and limited his attendance to a single day because of scheduling demands .
Following Todd Akin 's controversial " legitimate rape " comments , Brown was the first sitting Senator to demand he drop out of the Missouri U.S. Senate race . He also called on his Party to " recognize in its platform that you can be pro @-@ choice and still be a good Republican . " Brown 's campaign had been endorsed by many Massachusetts Democrats , many of whom were prominently featured in his campaign ads .
In September 2011 , a video of Warren explaining her approach to economic policy gained popularity on the internet . In the video , Warren rebuts the charge that asking the rich to pay more taxes is " class warfare " , pointing out that no one grew rich in America without depending on infrastructure paid for by the rest of society . On July 13 , President Obama sparked a controversy when he echoed her thoughts in a campaign speech saying , " Somebody helped to create this unbelievable American system that we have that allowed you to thrive . Somebody invested in roads and bridges . If you 've got a business — you didn 't build that . Somebody else made that happen . "
On September 14 , 2011 , Warren declared her intention to run for the Democratic nomination for the 2012 election in Massachusetts for the United States Senate . The seat had been won by Republican Scott Brown in a 2010 special election after the death of Ted Kennedy . A week later , a video of Warren speaking in Andover became popular on the internet . In it , Warren replies to the charge that asking the rich to pay more taxes is " class warfare , " pointing out that no one grew rich in America without depending on infrastructure paid for by the rest of society , stating :
There is nobody in this country who got rich on his own . Nobody . ... You moved your goods to market on the roads the rest of us paid for ; you hired workers the rest of us paid to educate ; you were safe in your factory because of police forces and fire forces that the rest of us paid for . You didn 't have to worry that marauding bands would come and seize everything at your factory , and hire someone to protect against this , because of the work the rest of us did . Now look , you built a factory and it turned into something terrific , or a great idea . God bless . Keep a big hunk of it . But part of the underlying social contract is , you take a hunk of that and pay forward for the next kid who comes along .
President Barack Obama later echoed her sentiments in a 2012 election campaign speech .
Warren won the Democratic nomination on June 2 , 2012 , at the state Democratic convention with a record 95 @.@ 77 % of the votes of delegates . She was endorsed by the Governor of Massachusetts , Deval Patrick . Warren and her opponent Scott Brown agreed to engage in four televised debates , including one with a consortium of media outlets in Springfield and one on WBZ @-@ TV in Boston .
Warren encountered significant opposition from business interests . In August 2012 , Rob Engstrom , political director for the United States Chamber of Commerce , claimed that " no other candidate in 2012 represents a greater threat to free enterprise than Professor Warren . " She nonetheless raised $ 39 million for her campaign , the most of any Senate candidate in 2012 .
Warren received a primetime speaking slot at the 2012 Democratic National Convention , immediately before Bill Clinton , on the evening of September 5 , 2012 . Warren positioned herself as a champion of a beleaguered middle class that " has been chipped , squeezed , and hammered . " According to Warren , " People feel like the system is rigged against them . And here 's the painful part : They 're right . The system is rigged . " Warren said that Wall Street CEOs " wrecked our economy and destroyed millions of jobs " and that they " still strut around congress , no shame , demanding favors , and acting like we should thank them . "
= = = = Native American ancestry controversy = = = =
In April 2012 , the Boston Herald sparked an election controversy when it drew attention to Warren 's Association of American Law Schools ( AALS ) directory entries from 1986 to 1995 , which listed her as a minority professor . According to the AALS , the directory was compiled by information supplied by law school deans , based on questionnaires filled out by individual teachers . Warren stated that she had self @-@ identified as having Native American ancestry in order to meet others with a similar background . Harvard Law School had listed her as a minority professor in response to criticisms about a lack of faculty diversity , but Warren said that she was unaware of this until she read about it in a newspaper during the 2012 election .
Her opponent Scott Brown speculated that she had fabricated a native ancestry to gain an advantage in the employment market ; the Brown campaign used Warren 's lineage in several attack ads . In response , Warren 's brothers issued a joint statement stating that they " grew up listening to our mother and grandmother and other relatives talk about our family ’ s Cherokee and Delaware heritage " . Brian Leiter of the Chicago Law School dismissed the allegations against Warren , noting that law schools have " no pressure to hire Native Americans for affirmative action reasons " , and that Warren 's record of scholarship was " clearly sufficient to get her appointed at Harvard " .
According to the New England Historical Genealogical Society , several members of Warren 's maternal family claim Cherokee heritage ; the Society found a family newsletter that alluded to a marriage license application that listed Elizabeth Warren ’ s great @-@ great @-@ great grandmother as a Cherokee , but could not find the primary document and found no proof of Warren 's Native American heritage . The Oklahoma Historical Society stated that finding a definitive answer about Native American heritage can be difficult because of intermarriage and deliberate avoidance of registration . Some members of the Cherokee Nation protested her claim to Native American ancestry and questioned whether she benefitted from it . Former colleagues and supervisors at the universities where she had worked ( including Charles Fried , former Solicitor General under President Ronald Reagan ) said Warren 's ancestry was either not mentioned , or played no role in her hiring .
The question of Warren 's ancestry was pressed by the Brown campaign throughout the election . However , polls showed that most voters said that the controversy would not impact their vote in the election . Warren ’ s 2014 autobiography devoted a section to the allegations , describing them as untrue and hurtful .
= = = Endorsements = = =
= = = Debates = = =
Both candidates agreed to four televised debates , three of which were held . The candidates agreed to a fourth debate which was to be held on October 30 in WGBH @-@ TV 's studio , hosted by a Boston mediaB consortium , and moderated by John King , but the day before both pulled out due to Hurricane Sandy . Victoria Kennedy , widow of Ted Kennedy , had proposed an additional debate with Tom Brokaw as moderator , however Brown would only accept the invitation if she pledged not to endorse Brown 's opponent ; which she refused .
Debate 1 : September 20 at WBZ @-@ TV studio , hosted by WBZ and WBZ Newsradio 1030 . Moderated by the station 's political reporter Jon Keller .
Complete video and transcript available at C @-@ SPAN .
Debate 2 : October 1 at UMass Lowell , co @-@ hosted by UMass and The Boston Herald . Moderated by David Gregory .
Complete video and transcript available at C @-@ SPAN .
Debate 3 : October 10 at Springfield Symphony Hall , hosted by a Western MassachusettsA consortium . Moderated by WGBY @-@ TV 's Jim Madigan .
Complete video and transcript available at C @-@ SPAN .
= = Fundraising = =
The election cost approximately $ 82 million , making it the most expensive election in Massachusetts ' history and of any Congressional race in history as well as the second @-@ most expensive election in the 2012 election cycle , behind only the 2012 presidential election .
= = = The People 's Pledge = = =
Both Warren and Brown stated early in the race that they would not accept television advertisement assistance from Super PACs and interest groups . On January 23 , 2012 , both candidates signed the agreement , or People 's Pledge . While no outside groups were obligated by the agreement , both candidates agreed to donate a sum equal to 50 % of an advertisement run by any groups to a charity of the other candidate 's choice . The pledge was broken twice , by Brown supporters . In March the American Petroleum Institute and Coalition of Americans for Political Equality launched ads supporting Brown , and as a result , the Brown campaign agreed to make donations of $ 1 @,@ 000 and $ 34 @,@ 545 , respectively , to the charity of Warren 's choice : the Autism Consortium .
= = = Top donors = = =
Contributions by affiliationC
Source : Center for Responsive Politics
Contributions by industry
Source : Center for Responsive Politics
= = = Polling = = =
* RV = Registered voters ; LV = Likely voters
= = Results = =
Despite President Obama 's winning the state easily , and winning all of the states counties , this race was fairly close . As expected , Warren performed very well in Suffolk County , which is home to the state 's largest city and its capital Boston . Brown performed well in the southern part of the state near Cape Cod . Warren made history by becoming the first woman elected to the U.S. Senate in the state of Massachusetts .
= = Aftermath = =
The People 's Pledge was a popular concept , which Common Cause proposed being implemented in other races . The pledge also resulted in fewer attack ads on the airwaves .
Less than two months after the election , President Barack Obama nominated Senator John Kerry to become United States Secretary of State . Kerry was sworn in on February 1 , making newly inaugurated Warren the state 's senior Senator , and the Senate 's most @-@ junior senior senator . In the Senate special election to replace Kerry the following year , Democratic nominee Ed Markey asked his Republican rival Gabriel E. Gomez to sign a similar pledge with him , although Gomez refused .
The election was a critical event in both candidate 's political careers , with Warren becoming a political icon after entering the Senate , and being drafted to run for President in 2016 . After the election loss , Brown was considered the most prominent Republican in Massachusetts and heavily favored to run in the Senate special election the following year or for Governor in 2014 , though he declined to do either . He instead moved to New Hampshire and ran for the Senate there in 2014 against Democratic incumbent Jeanne Shaheen . He lost , 51 % to 48 % , becoming the first man to lose two Senate races to women .
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= TNA World Heavyweight Championship =
The TNA World Heavyweight Championship is a professional wrestling world heavyweight championship owned by Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( TNA ) . It is currently the highest ranked championship in TNA and is primarily defended in TNA 's heavyweight division . It was unveiled on May 14 , 2007 , at the taping of TNA 's primary television program , TNA Impact ! ; this episode of Impact ! did not air until May 17 , 2007 . The inaugural champion was Kurt Angle .
Like most professional wrestling championships , the title is won via the result of a scripted match . Before the TNA World Heavyweight Championship was created , TNA held control over the NWA World Heavyweight Championship due to an agreement between TNA and the National Wrestling Alliance ( NWA ) , the organization which owned the NWA Championship . In 2007 , the agreement between TNA and the NWA ended , leading to the creation of the TNA World Heavyweight Championship .
= = History = =
The Total Nonstop Action Wrestling promotion formed in May 2002 . Later that same year TNA was granted control over the NWA World Heavyweight and World Tag Team Championships by the National Wrestling Alliance ( NWA ) governing body ; subsequently becoming an official NWA territory as NWA – TNA . On June 19 , 2002 , NWA – TNA held its first show ; a weekly pay @-@ per @-@ view ( PPV ) event . The main event of the telecast was a twenty @-@ man Gauntlet for the Gold match in which twenty men trying to throw each other over the top rope and down to the floor in order to eliminate them , until there were two men left who wrestle a standard match to become the first ever TNA @-@ era NWA World Heavyweight Champion . Ken Shamrock defeated Malice to win the vacant championship with Ricky Steamboat as Special Guest Referee at the event .
= = = Creation = = =
The NWA World Heavyweight and World Tag Team Championships were contested for in TNA until the morning of May 13 , 2007 . On that day , NWA 's Executive Director Robert Trobich announced that the NWA were ending their five – year agreement with TNA , which had allowed them full control over both titles . Trobich went on to state that effective that morning , then @-@ NWA World Heavyweight Champion Christian Cage and the Team 3D pairing of Brother Ray and Brother Devon , then @-@ NWA World Tag Team Champions , were stripped of their respective championships . The alleged motivation behind these actions was because Cage refused to defend the NWA World Heavyweight Championship against wrestlers from NWA territories . That same day , TNA were scheduled to produce their Sacrifice 2007 PPV event , in which both Cage and Team 3D were to defend their respective championships . On the card , Cage was scheduled to defend the NWA World Heavyweight Championship against Kurt Angle and Sting in a match involving three competitors , also known as a Three Way match .
That night , the onscreen graphic used to refer to the champions and their respective championships credited both Cage and Team 3D as still being NWA Champions . However , the ring announcers for the encounters proclaimed the matches as being strictly for the " World Heavyweight Championship " and the " World Tag Team Championship " . Angle defeated Cage and Sting to win the " World Heavyweight Championship " .
TNA held a set of tapings for the next two episodes of TNA Impact ! on May 14 , with the episodes set to air on tape delay on May 17 and May 24 , 2007 . At the first taping , Angle came to the ring with the new TNA World Heavyweight Championship belt and announced that he was the " new TNA World Heavyweight Champion " . TNA commentator Mike Tenay announced when Angle made his way to the ring that Management Director Jim Cornette , TNA 's on @-@ screen authority figure at the time , " made the decision that due to TNA 's growing worldwide exposure , the company needed to have its own TNA title belts " ; thereby not acknowledging the NWA ending their agreement with TNA and giving a storyline explanation as to why the championship was created . Later on during the broadcast , Cornette stripped Angle of the TNA World Heavyweight Championship due to a controversial finish to the match at Sacrifice . Cornette then announced the championship would be contested for at TNA 's Slammiversary PPV event on June 17 , 2007 in a King of the Mountain match — a match which involves five participants racing to gain a pinfall or submission to become eligible to hang a championship belt to win . On May 15 , 2007 Jeremy Borash unveiled the TNA World Heavyweight Championship belt on that day 's edition of TNA 's online podcast TNA Today .
The five participants for the King of the Mountain match were determined in a series of standard wrestling matches that took place on Impact ! leading up to the event . Angle defeated Rhino in the first bout to gain entry on the May 17 episode of Impact ! . On May 24 episode of Impact ! , Samoa Joe defeated Sting to become the second participant . The third qualification match was held on the May 31 episode of Impact ! between AJ Styles and Tomko , which Styles won . The next bout pitted Chris Harris against James Storm on the June 7 episode Impact ! , which ended in a double disqualification ; neither man advanced to the King of the Mountain match . The final qualification match was won by Christian Cage over Abyss on the June 14 episode of Impact ! . Angle ended up winning the King of the Mountain match at Slammiversary over Joe , Cage , Styles , and Harris , who was a mystery participant chosen by Cornette , to become the " undisputed TNA World Heavyweight Champion " .
= = Belt design = =
During the championship 's history , it has had three designs . The original belt , unveiled in May 2007 , had on its center plate an imprint of an eagle with its wings extended . The word " World " was placed above the eagle 's head on a ribbon . The ribbon was wrapped around the bird 's wings and body . Five stars were engraved on the ribbon when it passed over each of the bird 's wings and the word " Champion " as it passed over the bird 's talons . The words " Heavyweight Wrestling " were printed across the bird 's chest . At the top of the center plate , was TNA 's logo . Four smaller side plates had an imprint of a globe centered with TNA 's logo at the top and bottom of each . At each end of the belt was a small plate that covered the belt snaps with TNA 's logo engraved on each . [ 1 ]
At the November 8 , 2010 , tapings of the November 11 edition of Impact ! , TNA introduced a new design for the TNA World Heavyweight Championship belt , which the champion Jeff Hardy dubbed the " Immortal Championship " . The new design consisted of a purple strap with a silver center plate depicting a masked head ( designed to resemble Hardy 's face with face paint ) , the TNA logo on the forehead and blue lines along the mask . There are four irregular dodecagonal side plates on the belt , shaped like stars with rounded edges on two of the sides of these plates .
The Immortal belt was replaced by the third design of the belt at the March 14 , 2011 , tapings of the March 17 edition of Impact ! , introduced by the reigning champion at the time , Sting . The new design features seven gold plates over a black leather strap . The largest plate is the center plate with faux diamonds aligned along its multiple rounded edges , similar to that of the Big Gold Belt . Over the center plate is a large TNA Wrestling logo and below it the words " Heavyweight Champion " are engraved in silver . On each side of the center plate is a group of three smaller plates , one with a TNA logo engraved while the other two feature separate corresponding halves of a globe , on either side of the TNA logo side plate .
= = Reigns = =
Overall , there have been 33 reigns shared among 18 wrestlers . The inaugural champion was Kurt Angle , who won the championship by defeating Christian Cage and Sting in a Three Way match on May 13 , 2007 , at TNA 's Sacrifice event . Angle 's first reign also holds the record for shortest reign in the title 's history at 1 day . Angle also holds the record for the most reigns at six . At 256 days , Bobby Roode 's first reign is the longest in the title 's history . The title has been vacated three different times .
Lashley is the current champion in his third reign . He defeated Drew Galloway to win the title on June 12 , 2016 , in Orlando , Florida at Slammiversary .
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= Milton Bradley ( baseball ) =
Milton Obelle Bradley , Jr . ( born April 15 , 1978 ) is a retired Major League Baseball ( MLB ) outfielder . Standing 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) and weighing 215 pounds ( 98 kg ) , Bradley is a switch hitter who throws right @-@ handed . Over his 11 @-@ year MLB career , Bradley played with the Montreal Expos ( 2000 – 2001 ) , Cleveland Indians ( 2001 – 2003 ) , Los Angeles Dodgers ( 2004 – 2005 ) , Oakland Athletics ( 2006 – 2007 ) , San Diego Padres ( 2007 ) , Texas Rangers ( 2008 ) , Chicago Cubs ( 2009 ) , and Seattle Mariners ( 2010 – 2011 ) . His career was also marred by legal troubles and several notable on @-@ field incidents .
Born in Harbor City , California , Bradley attended Long Beach Polytechnic High School before he was drafted by the Expos in the 1996 Major League Baseball draft . After playing four seasons of minor league baseball for the organization , he made his major league debut on July 19 , 2000 . In 2001 , Bradley was traded to the Cleveland Indians in exchange for pitching prospect Zach Day ; he was again traded in 2004 to the Los Angeles Dodgers . After playing in 216 games for the Dodgers , the most among all teams he has played for , Bradley was traded to the Oakland Athletics for Andre Ethier . Bradley was traded to the Padres in 2007 , was granted free agency after one season with the team , and signed with the Texas Rangers in 2007 . He was voted to the 2008 Major League Baseball All @-@ Star Game with the Rangers , and led the American League with a .436 on @-@ base percentage and a .999 on @-@ base plus slugging percentage . For the year , Bradley finished 17th in American League Most Valuable Player Award voting .
After becoming a free agent , Bradley signed with the Chicago Cubs in January 2009 , who traded him in December of that year to the Seattle Mariners . In Seattle , Bradley batted .205 in 2010 and .218 in 2011 before he was released by the club . He has a career batting average of .271 with 135 home runs and 481 runs batted in ( RBI ) in over 1 @,@ 042 games played , and was described as having " power , speed , a strong arm and star qualities " , although " his temper … has never allowed him to fulfill his immense potential . "
= = Early life = =
Bradley was born on April 15 , 1978 , in Harbor City , California . His mother , Charlena Rector , worked as a clerk at a local Safeway supermarket , while his father , Milton Bradley Sr. , was a veteran of the Vietnam War , and was awarded a Purple Heart for his service . Bradley was named Milton Bradley Jr. when Milton Bradley Sr. filled out his son 's birth certificate without Rector 's permission . According to Bradley Jr . ' s mother , Bradley Sr. was addicted to cocaine , physically abused her , and was homeless for several years . Growing up , Bradley had four half @-@ siblings from Rector 's previous marriage .
Bradley played baseball at Long Beach Polytechnic High School , and was a teammate of Chase Utley . After graduating high school with a 3 @.@ 7 grade point average , he committed to California State University , Long Beach , but instead signed with the Expos on July 1 , 1996 after being drafted by the team in the second round of the 1996 Major League Baseball draft .
= = Major League Baseball career = =
= = = Montreal Expos ( 1996 – 2001 ) = = =
Bradley began his professional baseball career with the GCL Expos of the Gulf Coast League in 1996 ; in 32 games , he batted .241 with 27 hits . The following season , he played nine games for the GCL Expos and 50 for the Vermont Expos , a short season affiliate of the Montreal Expos . For the Expos , he was named to the postseason New York – Penn League All @-@ Star team . In 1998 , he played for the Cape Fear Crocs and the Jupiter Hammerheads , tying for the Croc team lead in doubles with 21 while hitting .302 for the Crocs and .287 for the Hammerheads . While playing for the Harrisburg Senators the next season , he was suspended seven games for starting a fight after he had been hit by a pitch . He also played for the silver @-@ medal @-@ winning United States in the 1999 Pan American Games .
Finishing 76 – 66 , the Senators played the Norwich Navigators for the Eastern League championship . The series was tied two games to two in a best @-@ of @-@ five series . In the final game , Bradley hit a walk @-@ off grand slam with two outs and a full count , in the bottom of the ninth inning , to give the Senators a 12 – 11 win . During the next season , after playing in 88 games for the Ottawa Lynx , he was promoted to the major league club and made his MLB debut on July 19 , 2000 . In his debut , he hit three straight singles against the New York Mets ; and for the season , he batted .221 with 15 RBI over 42 games played .
For the 2001 Expos , Bradley played 67 games , including one on April 26 in which he walked to give the Expos the go @-@ ahead run against Rick Ankiel of the St. Louis Cardinals in the top of the 15th inning . On July 31 of that year , he was traded to the Cleveland Indians to serve as a possible replacement for Kenny Lofton ; in exchange , the Expos received right @-@ handed pitcher Zach Day . Speaking to the Associated Press about the trade , Indians General Manager John Hart stated :
= = = Cleveland Indians ( 2001 – 2003 ) = = =
After the deal , Bradley was assigned to the Triple @-@ A Buffalo Bisons and reported to the team on August 2 . In addition to the 30 games he played for the Bisons , he also played 10 games for the major league Indians .
On April 15 , 2002 , he was placed on the disabled list ( DL ) following an appendectomy a day earlier at St. Anthony 's Hospital in St. Petersburg , Florida . He went on the disabled list again on May 2 with a broken orbital bone and a scratched iris after a batted ball had bounced off the outfield wall and hit him below his left eye while he was trying to make a catch ; up to that point , he was hitting .266 in 23 games . After a rehabilitation stint of six games with the Bisons , he was reactivated by the Indians on June 4 and finished the season with a .249 batting average , 38 RBIs and nine home runs .
Bradley spent the entire 2003 campaign with the Indians . Despite being placed on the 15 @-@ day DL with a strained right hamstring and missing the final six weeks of the season with a lower back injury , he led the team in stolen bases , with 17 . On August 30 , while on the DL with a back injury , he was ticketed for speeding in Cuyahoga Falls , Ohio . After being stopped , he refused the ticket and sped away . He pleaded not guilty to speeding and fleeing charges on September 12 , but was sentenced to a three @-@ day jail term . The ruling was upheld by the Supreme Court of Ohio in December 2004 .
On November 19 , 2003 he signed a one @-@ year , $ 1 @.@ 73 million contract with the Indians in order for the Indians to avoid salary arbitration with him . During spring training , he was banned from the Indians ' training camp after not running out a popup a game earlier . On April 3 , 2004 , he was traded to the Dodgers for Franklin Gutiérrez and a player to be named later ( Andrew Brown ) ; the Akron Beacon Journal later reported that manager Eric Wedge had insisted that Bradley be traded .
= = = Los Angeles Dodgers ( 2004 – 2005 ) = = =
In his first game with the Dodgers , playing center field , Bradley went 2 @-@ for @-@ 3 , with two singles and two walks . On June 1 , he was ejected from a game by home plate umpire Terry Craft for arguing over balls and strikes . After being restrained by manager Jim Tracy , he returned to the dugout and threw a ball bag onto the field . Bradley was suspended for four games and Tracy for one game . On September 19 , he hit a 479 @-@ foot home run against the Colorado Rockies in Coors Field . On September 28 , during a home game against the Rockies , Bradley mishandled a line drive and was charged with an error . A fan threw a bottle at Bradley , who left his position in right field , picked up the bottle and threw it into the stands , yelling at the fan . Bradley was immediately ejected from the game . The next day , MLB suspended him for the remainder of the season and fined him an undisclosed amount . In postseason play , he hit .273 with a home run while the Dodgers lost the National League Division Series to the St. Louis Cardinals three games to one . He finished the 2004 season batting .267 with 19 home runs and 67 RBIs , but was caught stealing 11 times , tying for eighth most in MLB .
During the offseason , Bradley went through anger management counseling . In a game against the San Francisco Giants on April 12 , 2005 , he drove in two runs with a single to tie the game in the bottom of the ninth inning with two outs , the winning run then scoring on Jason Ellison 's error in the same play . On August 25 , 2005 , after hitting .290 with 38 RBIs in 75 games , he was put on the 15 @-@ day DL with a torn patellar tendon and anterior cruciate ligament which rendered him inactive for the remainder of the season . On December 13 , 2005 , the Dodgers traded him to the Oakland Athletics along with infielder Antonio Pérez for outfielder prospect Andre Ethier .
= = = Oakland Athletics ( 2006 – 2007 ) = = =
In his first season with the Oakland Athletics , Bradley posted a .276 batting average with 14 home runs and 52 runs batted in a part @-@ time role . He went on the 15 @-@ day DL on May 11 , 2006 for a strained oblique muscle and a sprained right knee . On July 30 , he hit a three @-@ run walk @-@ off home run to beat the Toronto Blue Jays with two outs in the bottom of the ninth inning . During game four of the 2006 American League Championship Series versus the Detroit Tigers , Bradley became the third player in MLB history to hit home runs from each side of the plate in a postseason game , joining Bernie Williams and Chipper Jones . For the series , he went nine @-@ for @-@ eighteen with two home runs and five RBIs .
On June 21 , 2007 , the Athletics designated him for assignment . A trade completed the next day , which would have sent Bradley to the Kansas City Royals for Leo Núñez was voided by the Royals because he had sustained an oblique injury in his last game as an Athletic . He was then traded to the San Diego Padres on June 29 , with cash , in exchange for Andrew Brown ; it was the second time those two players had been traded for each other .
= = = San Diego Padres ( 2007 ) = = =
Bradley started his tenure with the Padres on the 15 @-@ day DL , but came off it on July 7 ; in July , he batted .364 with four home runs and 12 RBI in 18 games . On September 23 , 2007 , however , he tore his right ACL while being restrained by Padres manager Bud Black during an altercation with first base umpire Mike Winters . Home plate umpire Brian Runge reportedly told Bradley that Winters said that he had tossed his bat in Runge 's direction in a previous at @-@ bat . After Bradley reached first base , he questioned Winters about the alleged bat throwing and subsequent communication with Runge . According to Bradley and Padres first base coach Bobby Meacham , Winters addressed Bradley with a barrage of profanity . Bradley then moved towards Winters . While restrained by Black , Bradley fell to the ground and injured himself . He missed the final week of the regular season in 2007 , during which the Padres lost to the Colorado Rockies in a one game playoff for the National League wild card on October 1 .
Winters was suspended for the remainder of the season and also spent the postseason on the restricted list for the incident , after MLB determined that he had indeed directed obscene language toward Bradley . Bradley was not suspended , MLB finding no need for such discipline since he did not make physical contact with Winters .
= = = Texas Rangers ( 2008 ) = = =
After the 2007 season , Bradley agreed to a one @-@ year contract with the Texas Rangers . He announced in early January 2008 that he expected to be healthy and ready to play in the season opener .
As the Rangers designated hitter , he led the AL in on @-@ base plus slugging with a .999 mark . He was third in batting average ( .321 ) , and led the league in on @-@ base percentage ( .443 ) . On making the All @-@ Star game , he stated , " If I somehow miraculously made it to the All @-@ Star Game , I would be floored . I 'd really be totally humbled by that . I 'm just happy right now to play , to produce and to be with a good group of guys . " He was selected to play in his first All @-@ Star Game in 2008 as a designated hitter ( DH ) after being officially selected as a DH reserve , but due to an injury to David Ortiz he became the starting DH in the 2008 MLB All @-@ Star Game .
According to The Dallas Morning News Bradley attempted to confront Kansas City Royals television announcer Ryan Lefebvre in the press box following a June 2008 game for what he believed were unfair comments made on the air . As the Rangers ' designated hitter , Bradley watched the broadcast when he was not batting and took offense to a comparison Lefebvre made between him and Josh Hamilton . Manager Ron Washington and general manager Jon Daniels chased after him and stopped him before he got to Lefebvre , at which point he returned to the clubhouse in tears and said :
He was quoted by Rangers radio broadcasters as saying that he never intended to physically harm Lefebvre but did want to speak to him ; Daniels said he was upset that someone he didn 't know was judging him .
= = = Chicago Cubs ( 2009 ) = = =
On January 8 , 2009 , Bradley signed a three @-@ year , $ 30 million deal with the Chicago Cubs . He was issued a two @-@ game suspension for supposedly making contact with umpire Larry Vanover while arguing a strike call on April 16 , which was reduced to one game on appeal . During an interleague game against the Minnesota Twins on June 12 , he caught a routine fly in right field and threw it into the stands , believing it was the third out of the inning when there were only two outs . The umpire allowed each of the Twins ' baserunners to advance two bases as a result .
Later that month , Cub manager Lou Piniella told Bradley to leave the dugout and go home after he " went after " a Gatorade cooler in frustration after flying out in another interleague game , against the Chicago White Sox . Piniella and Bradley later confronted each other in the locker room and exchanged words . Piniella later apologized to Bradley , and reinserted him back into the line @-@ up during the team 's next start .
On September 20 , 2009 , the Cubs announced that Bradley would be suspended for the remainder of the season after an interview in which Bradley talked about " negativity " on the part of the Cub organization and declared , " You understand why they [ the Cubs ] haven 't won in 100 years here . " He also said he was uncomfortable just being on the Cubs . General Manager Jim Hendry felt the comments were disrespectful . Bradley later apologized to the Cubs organization for his remarks . For the Cubs , Bradley hit .257 with 12 home runs and 40 RBIs before being traded to the Seattle Mariners for Carlos Silva and cash on December 18 , 2009 .
= = = Seattle Mariners ( 2010 – 2011 ) = = =
Bradley was part of a flurry of offseason moves by the Mariners in hopes of returning to the playoffs , having not reached the postseason since 2001 . On May 4 , 2010 , he removed himself from a game and left the stadium . He asked the Mariners for help with a personal problem , and the organization responded . He was placed on the restricted list , and returned to the team on May 18 after undergoing treatment of an undisclosed nature . He ended the season on the DL after having been placed on it on July 31 prior to right knee arthroscopic surgery on August 17 . He finished the 2010 season batting .205 , with eight home runs and 29 RBIs over 73 games played .
On May 9 , 2011 , the Mariners designated Bradley for assignment after starting the 2011 season hitting .218 with two home runs and 13 RBI in 28 games . Unable to trade Bradley , the Mariners released him on May 16 .
= = Personal = =
In 2005 , Bradley was the Dodgers ' nominee for the Roberto Clemente Award for working with the Dodgers Dream Foundation , Children 's Hospital Los Angeles , and the Long Beach Boys & Girls Clubs , among other charities . Bradley has also opened two baseball academies , one in Long Beach and another in Baldwin Hills . In August 2005 , Redondo Beach police received three domestic @-@ violence @-@ related calls from Bradley 's house . No charges were filed . In 2006 , Bradley filed for divorce but the petition was never finalized .
On January 18 , 2011 , Bradley was arrested at his home in Encino , California and charged with making criminal threats to his wife , Monique . When he agreed to participate in an out @-@ of @-@ court hearing process , no charges were filed against him . However , his wife subsequently filed for divorce .
On June 3 , 2013 , Bradley was convicted by a jury of nine counts of physically attacking and threatening his wife including four counts of spousal battery , two counts of criminal threats , one count of assault with a deadly weapon , one count of vandalism and one count of brandishing a deadly weapon . On July 2 , 2013 , he was sentenced to 32 months in prison and 52 weeks of domestic violence and anger @-@ management classes , and was released on $ 250 @,@ 000 bail .
On September 14 , 2013 , at the age of 33 , Monique Bradley died at Encino Hospital Medical Center . A death certificate dated October 10 lists the causes as cryptogenic cirrhosis of the liver , hemorrhagic shock and cardiac arrest .
On January 21 , 2015 , a Los Angeles appellate court rejected Bradley 's appeal . Sports Illustrated reported in April 2015 that Bradley is free pending a second appeal , and has not yet spent a day in jail . He has sole custody of his and Monique 's two sons .
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= Nasir al @-@ Dawla =
Abu Muhammad al @-@ Hasan ibn Abu 'l @-@ Hayja ' Abdallah ibn Hamdan Nasir al @-@ Dawla al @-@ Taghlibi ( Arabic : أبو محمد الحسن ابن أبو الهيجاء عبدالله ابن حمدان ناصر الدولة التغلبي ; died 968 or 969 ) , more commonly known simply by his laqab ( honorific epithet ) of Nasir al @-@ Dawla ( " Defender of the [ Abbasid ] Dynasty " ) , was the second Hamdanid ruler of the Emirate of Mosul , encompassing most of the Jazira .
As the senior member of the Hamdanid dynasty , he inherited the family power base around Mosul from his father , and was able to secure it against challenges by his uncles . Hasan became involved in the court intrigues of the Abbasid Caliphate in Baghdad , and , between 942 and 943 , he , with the assistance of his brother Ali ( known as Sayf al @-@ Dawla ) , established himself as amir al @-@ umara , or de facto regent for the Abbasid caliph . He was driven back to Mosul by Turkish troops , however , and subsequent attempts to challenge the Buyids who seized control of Baghdad and lower Iraq ended in repeated failure . Twice , his capital Mosul was captured by Buyid forces , which were , however , unable to defeat local opposition to their rule . As a result of his failures to retain power , Nasir al @-@ Dawla declined in influence and prestige . He was eclipsed by the actions of his brother Ali , who established his rule more firmly over Aleppo and northern Syria . After 964 , Nasir al @-@ Dawla 's eldest son Abu Taghlib exercised de facto rule over his domains , and in 967 , Abu Taghlib and his brothers deposed and imprisoned their father , who died in captivity a year or two later .
= = Life = =
= = = Origin and family = = =
Nasir al @-@ Dawla was born al @-@ Hasan ibn Abdallah , the eldest son of Abu 'l @-@ Hayja Abdallah ibn Hamdan ( died 929 ) , son of Hamdan ibn Hamdun ibn al @-@ Harith , who gave his name to the Hamdanid dynasty . The Hamdanids were a branch of the Banu Taghlib , an Arab tribe resident in the area of the Jazira ( Upper Mesopotamia ) since pre @-@ Islamic times . The Taghlibs had traditionally controlled Mosul and its region until the late 9th century , when the Abbasid government tried to impose firmer control over the province . Hamdan ibn Hamdun was one of the most determined Taghlibi leaders in opposing this move . Notably , in his effort to fend off the Abbasids , he secured the alliance of the Kurds living in the mountains north of Mosul , a fact which would be of considerable importance in his family 's later fortunes . Family members intermarried with Kurds , who were also prominent in the Hamdanid military .
Hamdan 's possessions were captured in 895 by the Abbasid Caliph al @-@ Mu 'tadid , and Hamdan himself was forced to surrender near Mosul after a long chase . He was put in prison , but his son Husayn ibn Hamdan , who had surrendered the fortress of Ardumusht to the Caliph 's forces , managed to secure the family 's future . He raised troops among the Taghlib in exchange for tax remissions , and established a commanding influence in the Jazira by acting as a mediator between the Abbasid authorities and the Arab and Kurdish population . It was this strong local base which allowed the family to survive its often strained relationship with the central Abbasid government in Baghdad during the early 10th century . Husayn was a successful general , distinguishing himself against the Kharijites and the Tulunids , but was disgraced after supporting the failed usurpation of Ibn al @-@ Mu 'tazz in 908 . His younger brother Ibrahim was governor of Diyar Rabi 'a ( the province around Nasibin ) in 919 and after his death in the next year he was succeeded by another brother , Dawud . Hasan 's father Abdallah served as emir ( governor ) of Mosul in 905 / 6 – 913 / 4 , was repeatedly disgraced and rehabilitated as the political situation changed in Baghad , until re @-@ assuming control of Mosul in 925 / 6 . Enjoying firm relations with the powerful commander of the caliphal army , Mu 'nis al @-@ Khadim , in 929 he played a leading role in the short @-@ lived usurpation of Al @-@ Qahir ( who would later reign as caliph in 932 – 934 ) against Al @-@ Muqtadir ( r . 908 – 932 ) , and was killed during its suppression . According to the researcher Marius Canard , Abdallah established himself as the most prominent member of the first generation of the Hamdanid dynasty , and was essentially the founder of the Hamdanid Emirate of Mosul .
= = = Consolidation of control over the Jazira = = =
During his absence in Baghdad in his final years from 920 / 921 on , Abdallah relegated authority over Mosul to Hasan . After Abdallah 's death , however , al @-@ Muqtadir took the opportunity to avenge himself upon the Hamdanids , and appointed an unrelated governor over Mosul , while Abdallah 's domains were divided among his surviving brothers . Faced with the claims of his uncles , Hasan was left in charge of a small portion , on the left bank of the Tigris . In 930 , after the caliph 's governor died , Hasan managed to regain control over Mosul , but his uncles Nasr and Sa 'id soon removed him from power and confined him to the western parts of the Diyar Rabi 'a . In 934 , Hasan again recovered Mosul , but Sa 'id , residing in Baghdad and supported by the caliphal government , evicted him again . Hasan fled to Armenia , from where he orchestrated Sa 'id 's murder . Only then did his troops occupy Mosul and establish him permanently as its ruler . Finally , after defeating caliphal forces under the wazir Ibn Muqla and the Banu Habib , his rivals among the Taghlib , in late 935 the Caliph al @-@ Radi was forced to formally recognize him as governor of Mosul and the entire Jazira , in exchange for an annual tribute of 70 @,@ 000 gold dinars and supplies of flour for the two caliphal capitals of Baghdad and Samarra .
Resistance to Hasan 's rule outside of his family 's core region around Mosul remained , however — in Diyar Bakr , the governor of Mayyafariqin , Ali ibn Ja 'far , rebelled against Hasan , and in Diyar Mudar , the Qaysi tribes of the region around Saruj also revolted . Hasan subdued them and secured control over the entire Jazira by the end of 936 , due to the efforts of his brother Ali , who was given the governorship of the two provinces as a reward . In the meantime , the defeated Banu Habib , some 10 @,@ 000 strong and under the leadership of al @-@ Ala ibn al @-@ Mu 'ammar , left their lands and fled to territory controlled by the Byzantine Empire . This unprecedented move may be explained by the fact that a significant portion of the tribe still practised Christianity , or by pressure upon their grazing lands by tribes from the south , but the primary goal of the move was to escape from Hamdanid authority and taxation . Hasan also attempted to extend his control to Sajid @-@ ruled Azerbaijan in 934 and 938 , but his efforts failed .
= = = Struggle for control of the Caliphate = = =
While he tried to consolidate his rule over Mosul , Hasan showed himself conspicuously loyal to the Abbasid regime , and refused to support the revolt of Mu 'nis al @-@ Khadim against the Caliph al @-@ Muqtadir in 932 . Mu 'nis succeeded in overthrowing and killing al @-@ Muqtadir , but over the next few years the Abbasid government all but collapsed , until in 936 the powerful governor of Wasit , Muhammad ibn Ra 'iq , assumed the title of amir al @-@ umara ( " commander of commanders " ) and with it de facto control of the Abbasid government . The Caliph al @-@ Radi was reduced to a figurehead role , while the extensive civil bureaucracy was cut down dramatically both in size and power . Ibn Ra 'iq 's position was anything but secure , however , and soon a convoluted struggle for control of his office , and the Caliphate with it , broke out among the various local rulers and the Turkish and Daylamite military chiefs , which ended in 946 with the ultimate victory of the Buyids .
Thus , in the late 930s , Hasan , encouraged by his control over a large and rich domain , entered the intrigues of the Abbasid court , and became one of the main contenders for the title of amir al @-@ umara . At first , Hasan tried to exploit the weakness of the Abbasid government to withhold his payment of tribute , but the Turk Bajkam , who had ousted Ibn Ra 'iq in 938 , quickly forced him to back down . Hasan then supported Ibn Ra 'iq in the latter 's quest to regain his lost position . Bajkam tried to forcefully evict Hasan from his Jaziran domains , but in vain , and was eventually killed in a skirmish with Kurdish brigands in early 941 . Hasan 's great chance came in early 942 , when the Caliph al @-@ Muttaqi ( r . 940 – 944 ) and his closest aides fled Baghdad to escape the city 's imminent fall to the Barids of Basra and sought refuge at Mosul . Hasan now made a direct bid for power : he had Ibn Ra 'iq assassinated and succeeded him as amir al @-@ umara , receiving the honorific laqab of Nasir al @-@ Dawla ( " Defender of the Dynasty " ) . He then escorted the Caliph back to Baghdad , which they entered on 4 June 942 . To secure his position further , Nasir al @-@ Dawla married his daughter to the Caliph 's son . Along with their cousin , Husayn ibn Sa 'id , Nasir al @-@ Dawla 's brother Ali was instrumental in the Hamdanid enterprise , taking the field against the Baridis , who still controlled the rich province of Basra and were determined to regain Baghdad . After scoring a victory over them , Ali was awarded the laqab of Sayf al @-@ Dawla ( " Sword of the Dynasty " ) , by which he became famous . This double award marked the first time that a laqab incorporating the prestigious element al @-@ Dawla were granted to anyone other than the wazir , the Caliphate 's chief minister , and was a symbolic affirmation of the military 's predominance over the civil bureaucracy .
The Hamdanids ' success and rule over the Abbasid capital lasted for little more than a year . They lacked funds and were politically isolated , finding little support among the Caliphate 's most powerful vassals , the Samanids of Transoxiana and the Ikhshidids of Egypt . Consequently , when in late 943 a mutiny broke out among their troops ( mostly composed of Turks , Daylamites , Carmathians and only a few Arabs ) over pay issues , under the leadership of the Turkish general Tuzun , they were forced to quit Baghdad and return to their base , Mosul . Caliph al @-@ Muttaqi now appointed Tuzun as amir al @-@ umara , but the Turk 's overbearing manner induced al @-@ Muttaqi to once again seek refuge in the Hamdanid court . The Hamdanid forces under Sayf al @-@ Dawla took the field against Tuzun 's army , but were defeated . The Hamdanids now concluded an agreement with Tuzun which allowed them to keep the Jazira and even gave them nominal authority over northern Syria ( which at the time was not under Hamdanid control ) , in exchange for an annual tribute of 3 @.@ 6 million dirhams .
In the meantime , the Caliph was brought to al @-@ Raqqah for greater safety , while Husayn ibn Sa 'id tried to secure control over northern Syria and pre @-@ empt Egypt 's ruler Muhammad ibn Tughj al @-@ Ikhshid taking control of the region . The attempt failed , as al @-@ Ikhshid himself advanced into Syria , took Aleppo and marched to Raqqah , where he met the Caliph . Al @-@ Ikhshid tried to persuade al @-@ Muttaqi to come to Egypt under his protection , but the Caliph refused , and al @-@ Ikhsid returned to Egypt . Instead , al @-@ Muttaqi , persuaded by Tuzun 's assurances of loyalty and safety , returned to Baghdad , where Tuzun deposed and blinded him , replacing him with al @-@ Mustakfi ( r . 944 – 946 ) . At the news of this crime , Nasir al @-@ Dawla again refused payment of tribute , but Tuzun marched against him and forced his compliance . Henceforth , Nasir al @-@ Dawla would be tributary to Baghdad , but he would find it difficult to resign himself to his loss of power over the city he once ruled , and the subsequent years would feature several attempts to regain it .
= = = Wars with the Buyids = = =
In late 945 , Tuzun died . His death weakened the Abbasid government 's ability to maintain its independence against the rising power of the Buyids , who under Ahmad ibn Buya had already consolidated control over Fars and Kerman , and secured the cooperation of the Barids . Al @-@ Mustakfi 's secretary , Ibn Shirzad , tried to confront the Buyids by calling upon Nasir al @-@ Dawla , but Ahmad advanced on Baghdad with his troops , and in January 946 he obtained his appointment as amir al @-@ umara with the honorific Mu 'izz al @-@ Dawla ( " Strengthener of the State " ) . To secure their position , the Buyids immediately marched against the Hamdanids . Nasir al @-@ Dawla countered by marching down the eastern bank of the Tigris river and blockading Baghdad . In the end , however , the Buyids defeated the Hamdanids in battle and forced Nasir al @-@ Dawla to retire to Ukbara . From there , Nasir al @-@ Dawla began negotiations with the Buyids , aiming to secure recognition of Hamdanid control over the Jazira , Syria and even Egypt as tributaries of the Caliphate , with the boundary between Buyid and Hamdanid spheres placed at Tikrit . Negotiations were disrupted by a rebellion among the Hamdanids ' Turkish troops , but Mu 'izz al @-@ Dawla , who for the moment preferred a stable Hamdanid state to anarchy on his northern border , helped Nasir al @-@ Dawla suppress it . The peace was agreed on the terms outlined above , and was affirmed by one of Nasir al @-@ Dawla 's sons being taken as a hostage to Baghdad .
Conflict between the two rivals was renewed in 948 , when Mu 'izz al @-@ Dawla again marched against Mosul , but was forced to cut off his campaign to assist his brother Rukn al @-@ Dawla , who was having trouble in Persia . In exchange , Nasir al @-@ Dawla agreed to recommence the payment of tribute for the Jazira and Syria , as well as to add the names of the three Buyid brothers after that of the Caliph in the Friday prayer . Another round of warfare erupted in 956 – 958 . While the Buyids were preoccupied with the rebellion of their Daylamite troops under Rezbahan ibn Vindadh @-@ Khurshid in southern Iraq , Nasir al @-@ Dawla the opportunity to advance south and capture Baghdad . After the suppression of the Daylamite revolt , however , the Hamdanids were not able to maintain their position in the face of the Buiyd counteroffensive , and abandoned the city . Peace was renewed in exchange for the recommencement of tribute and an additional indemnity , but when Nasir al @-@ Dawla refused to send the second year 's payment , the Buyid ruler advanced north . Unable to confront the Buyid army in the field , Nasir al @-@ Dawla abandoned Mosul and fled to Mayyafariqin and then to his brother Sayf al @-@ Dawla in Aleppo . The Buyids captured Mosul and Nasibin , but the Hamdanids and their supporters withdrew to their home territory in the mountains of the north , taking with them their treasures as well as all government records and tax registers . As a result , the Buyid army was unable to support itself in the conquered territory , all the more since the predominantly Daylamite troops were resented by the local people , who launched guerrilla attacks on them . Sayf al @-@ Dawla tried to mediate with Mu 'izz al @-@ Dawla , but his first approaches were rebuffed . Only when he agreed to assume the burden of paying his brother 's tribute for the entire Diyar Rabi 'a , did the Buyid ruler agree to peace . This agreement marks the reversal of roles between the two Hamdanid brothers , and the establishment of the predominance of the family 's Syrian branch .
In 964 , Nasir al @-@ Dawla tried to renegotiate the terms of the arrangement , but also to secure Buyid recognition for his eldest son , Fadl Allah Abu Taghlib al @-@ Ghadanfar , as his successor . Mu 'izz al @-@ Dawla refused Nasir al @-@ Dawla 's demands , and again invaded Hamdanid territory . Once again Mosul and Nasibin were captured , while the Hamdanids fled to the mountain fortresses . As in 958 , the Buyids were unable to maintain themselves for long in the Jazira , and soon an agreement was reached which allowed the Hamdanids to return to Mosul . This time , however , Abu Taghlib emerged as the effective leader in his father 's place : it was with him , rather than the aged Nasir al @-@ Dawla , that Mui 'zz al @-@ Dawla concluded a treaty . The end of Nasir al @-@ Dawla 's rule came in 967 , in the same year that saw the deaths of his brother Sayf al @-@ Dawla and his great rival Mu 'izz al @-@ Dawla . Nasir al @-@ Dawla was reportedly so much affected by his brother 's death that he lost interest in life and became remote and avaricious . In the end , Abu Taghlib , already the de facto governor of the emirate , deposed him with the aid of his Kurdish mother , Fatima bint Ahmad . Nasir al @-@ Dawla tried to counter them by turning to one of his other sons , Hamdan , but he was seized and imprisoned in the fortress of Ardumusht , where he died in 968 or 969 .
= = = Domestic policies = = =
Nasir al @-@ Dawla was heavily criticized by contemporaries for his oppressive fiscal policies and the suffering they caused among the population . The traveller Ibn Hawqal , who visited Nasir al @-@ Dawla 's domains , reports in length on his seizure of private land in the most fertile regions of the Jazira , on flimsy legal charges , until he became the greatest landowner in his province . This was linked with the practice of a monoculture of cereals , destined to feed the growing population of Baghdad , and coupled with heavy taxation , so that Sayf al @-@ Dawla and Nasir al @-@ Dawla are said to have become the wealthiest princes in the Muslim world . Nevertheless , the Hamdanid administrative machinery seems to have been fairly rudimentary , and the tribute paid to the Buyids — estimated at somewhere between two and four million dirhams , when it was paid at all — was a heavy burden on the treasury .
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= Willie Irvine =
William John " Willie " Irvine ( born 18 June 1943 ) is a former professional footballer who played as a centre forward . Born in Eden , County Antrim , into a large family , he grew up in the nearby town of Carrickfergus . He did well at school , but chose to pursue a career in professional football and initially played for local club Linfield . After a spell in amateur football , Irvine travelled to England for a trial with Burnley at the age of 16 . He was offered a professional deal and spent three years playing for the youth and reserve teams , before making his senior debut at the end of the 1962 – 63 season . Over the following seasons , Irvine became a regular feature of the Burnley team and in the 1965 – 66 campaign , he scored 29 goals and was the highest goalscorer in the Football League First Division .
Irvine lost his place in the Burnley team after suffering a broken leg during a cup tie in 1967 , and never properly regained his form for the club . He was later transfer listed , and joined local rivals Preston North End in March 1968 . In the Football League Second Division , he began to score goals again and was Preston 's top goalscorer in the 1968 – 69 season despite suffering a serious leg injury which forced him to miss much of the campaign . When Alan Ball was named Preston manager in the summer of 1970 , Irvine found himself out of the team . He joined Brighton & Hove Albion in July 1971 after impressing during a loan spell earlier in the year . He moved to Halifax Town midway through the 1972 – 73 season , but left the club after six months . Irvine ended his football career with a spell at semi @-@ professional Great Harwood , before retiring at the age of 29 .
In addition to playing club football , Irvine also represented the Northern Ireland national football team . He won 23 caps for his country , scoring eight goals . After retiring from football , he ran his own do @-@ it @-@ yourself shop but suffered from severe depression when the business collapsed . Irvine spent time in hospital after taking an overdose of medication , but recovered and later worked as a community worker before becoming a window cleaner . As of 2010 , he works full @-@ time in an aerospace factory , and also gives guided tours of Burnley 's stadium , Turf Moor , on matchdays .
= = Early life = =
Willie Irvine was born on 18 June 1943 in the village of Eden , County Antrim , on the east coast of Northern Ireland . He was born to Alex and Agnes Irvine , and had 17 half @-@ brothers and half @-@ sisters from his mother 's previous marriages . Irvine was 11 months old when his father , who had played football for Distillery , died after being involved in a motorcycle accident . He came from a poor background and when he was young the family resided in a small wooden bungalow that had neither electricity nor running water . His mother worked often , and Irvine was looked after by his elder siblings . At the age of one , he started to attend Eden School so that he could be looked after by the teachers while his sisters earned money . When he was seven years old , the family moved to the Sunnylands estate in nearby Carrickfergus after his mother was sent to Omagh Prison for falsely claiming benefits .
Irvine soon warmed to his new neighbourhood ; he enjoyed visiting Carrickfergus Castle and often spent time at the harbour . In 1950 , he moved to Sunnylands Primary School and began to play football seriously . He initially concentrated on playing as a goalkeeper for the school team . In 1953 , the team reached the final of the County Cup , but were defeated 0 – 3 by an older side from Carrick Technical School . Irvine 's elder brother Bobby , who went on to represent Stoke City and was also a Northern Ireland international , played for the opposition . Along with his schoolmate William Donnelly , Irvine often frequented Windsor Park to watch the Northern Ireland national team , and he idolised players such as Jimmy McIlroy and Danny Blanchflower .
At 14 , Irvine enrolled at Carrick Technical School , where he studied German , physics , chemistry and woodwork . He excelled in his studies and was urged to go to university , but his family could not afford the fees . His interest in football increasing , he started to play in a midfield position for the Carrickfergus @-@ based Barn United and was selected to represent the East Antrim Schoolboys as well as the Irish Schools team . His performances while playing for Northern Ireland in the Victory Shield led to him signing junior terms with Belfast @-@ based club Linfield , where his brother Bobby was the first @-@ team goalkeeper . Several months later , Irvine left Linfield and joined local men 's team Barn United , who competed in the Northern Ireland Amateur League . Several clubs , including Manchester United , Arsenal and Wolverhampton Wanderers showed an interest in him and in 1959 , Jimmy McIlroy invited Irvine to a trial at English side Burnley .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Burnley = = =
Irvine joined the Burnley youth team initially on a month 's trial , along with other young players including Brian O 'Neil and Willie Morgan . He suffered an injury to his ankle but recovered in time for the final trial match against local rivals Blackburn Rovers . His performances during the month had sufficiently impressed manager Harry Potts , and Irvine was offered a permanent contract . He became a full member of the youth team and was an understudy to the team that won the Football League First Division in the 1959 – 60 season . As an apprentice footballer he earned a basic wage of £ 7 per week . While in the youth squad , Irvine was converted into a centre forward and in his first match in the position scored a hat @-@ trick for the Burnley C team . He scored more than 40 goals for the A team in the Lancashire League during the 1961 – 62 season , including 6 in an 8 – 3 win against a Blackburn Rovers representative team . On 14 October 1961 , Irvine made his debut for the Burnley reserve side , scoring a hat @-@ trick in the 6 – 1 victory over Barnsley . Both the A team and the reserves were crowned champions of their respective divisions at the end of the season , and Potts singled out Irvine for particular praise , stating that Burnley had not " had a more consistent goal getter than Willie for a very long time . "
Going into the 1962 – 63 campaign , Irvine returned to the Burnley A team and scored a hat @-@ trick against Bury early in the season . After Andy Lochhead was promoted to the first team in October 1962 , Irvine became the reserve side 's first @-@ choice centre forward . He continued to score regularly , netting 8 goals in 15 appearances , although he was forced to stop playing for a period in the winter of 1963 when adverse weather caused the postponement of several matches . After his Northern Ireland debut in April that year , he made several more appearances for the reserves , and his goal against Blackpool was described by journalist Keith McNee as " the finest goal [ he had ] seen " . On 11 May 1963 , Irvine was asked by manager Potts to travel with the first team for their final away fixture of the season at Arsenal . He was a boot boy , and was originally only intended to assist Ray Bennion in transporting the team kit to and from the game . It was reported in the Burnley Express the day before the match that he would be making his professional debut against Arsenal , although Irvine himself only found out just before the match . He started at centre forward in place of Lochhead , who was unable to play because of a leg injury . Irvine had a successful introduction to senior football and scored a headed goal after 20 minutes of play , the first goal in a 3 – 2 win for Burnley . He was again selected three days later for the last game of the campaign at home to Birmingham City and scored a hat @-@ trick as Burnley ended the season with a 3 – 1 victory .
Irvine started the first match of the 1963 – 64 campaign , a 1 – 3 defeat away to Ipswich Town . However , he suffered a broken hand during the game , which left him unable to play throughout the following months . Even after recovery , he remained sidelined , unable to regain his place in the starting eleven . Irvine did not play again for Burnley until 30 March 1964 , when he was chosen to play at inside @-@ right in the away tie against Bolton Wanderers . Despite Irvine 's fifth goal in four league starts , Burnley were beaten 1 – 2 . He retained his place in the team for the next two matches , before returning to his more preferred centre forward position for the 0 – 3 loss at home to Liverpool on 14 April 1964 . He scored three more goals in the final two matches of the season , including two in the 7 – 2 win against Tottenham Hotspur . His frequent goalscoring led to him becoming a more integral part of the Burnley side during the following campaign , in which he scored three goals in the first six matches , although the team achieved only four draws and two losses . He was dropped from the starting line @-@ up for the away match at Birmingham City on 12 September 1964 . The team suffered three defeats in the following four fixtures , and Irvine was reinstated to the team for the trip to West Bromwich Albion two weeks later . He immediately marked his return with both Burnley goals in a 2 – 1 win , the team 's first away victory of the season . Irvine retained his place in the side for most of the remainder of the campaign , and in December he scored seven goals in four games , including a hat @-@ trick in the 4 – 0 win over Fulham . Despite missing a small portion of the campaign through injury , Irvine ended the season with a total of 22 goals in 37 league and cup matches , one more goal than centre forward partner Lochhead .
The Irvine – Lochhead partnership continued into the 1965 – 66 campaign . Irvine scored a goal in a 2 – 1 win against Lausanne Sports on a pre @-@ season tour of Switzerland , and his first competitive goal of the season came on 24 August 1965 in the 3 – 1 home victory against Blackpool . He scored two in the return match at Bloomfield Road the following week , and two matches later he netted a hat @-@ trick in the 4 – 1 defeat of Northampton Town . Between the 1 – 1 draw away at Leeds United on 30 October 1965 and the 5 – 2 win against Fulham on 11 December 1965 , Irvine scored in seven consecutive league matches . In the 3 – 1 win against West Ham United , Irvine and Lochhead both scored in the same match for the first time , despite having played together for almost three seasons . Irvine took his goalscoring form into the cup competitions , netting five times in three FA Cup ties , and scoring the winning goals against Southampton and Stoke City as the team reached the fifth round of the Football League Cup before being knocked out by Peterborough United . During the second half of the season , he went through a somewhat barren spell , failing to score in the league between 8 January 1966 and 26 March 1966 . He ended his poor run of form with a hat @-@ trick in the 4 – 1 win over Nottingham Forest at Turf Moor . He subsequently got on the scoresheet in the next six league games , including two goals against Sheffield Wednesday which took him to 27 league goals , the joint @-@ highest total since George Beel 's 30 in the 1928 – 29 season . Irvine 's 29th and final goal of the season came on 23 April 1966 in the 2 – 0 home victory against Liverpool . He was the highest scorer in the Football League First Division that season , the first , and to date only , time a Burnley player had achieved the feat .
In June 1966 , Irvine had an altercation with Burnley chairman Bob Lord after returning late from a Northern Ireland match . Nevertheless , he retained his place in the starting line @-@ up at the start of the 1966 – 67 campaign , and scored in the first match of the season against Sheffield United . After a pre @-@ season tour of Austria , throughout which Burnley remained undefeated , the team were confident of a successful season and especially looked forward to European competition in the Inter @-@ Cities Fairs Cup . On 20 September 1966 , Irvine scored the sole Burnley goal in the 1 – 1 draw against German side VfB Stuttgart . The following month , he scored in consecutive league matches against Leicester City and Manchester City at Turf Moor . Irvine was on the scoresheet again in the next round of the Fairs Cup as Swiss team Lausanne Sports were beaten 5 – 0 in Burnley on 25 October 1966 . By the middle of the season , Irvine had scored 13 goals in the league , four fewer than the same stage of the previous campaign . He scored his first goal of the new year on 31 January 1967 in the FA Cup third round replay against Everton at Goodison Park . However , early in the second half , Irvine was tackled by Everton defender Johnny Morrissey . The challenge — not deemed a foul by the referee — broke his shin bone , and Irvine was immediately substituted and replaced by fellow Irishman Sammy Todd . The injury meant that he did not play again for Burnley for the remainder of the season . He was forced to remain on the sidelines as Burnley finished 14th in the First Division and reached the fourth round of the Fairs Cup before being knocked out by Eintracht Frankfurt .
Irvine regained his place in the Burnley team at the start of the 1967 – 68 campaign , and scored in the first two league matches of the season . However , he was dropped from the starting eleven after four games . On 7 October 1967 , in the 1 – 1 draw with Nottingham Forest , he became the first ever Burnley player to score after coming on as a substitute , after replacing Martin Dobson . Irvine made six consecutive starts throughout October and November 1967 , before again being dropped following the 2 – 0 home win against Newcastle United . After this , he played less often and scored his final goal for the club on 5 December 1967 in the 1 – 2 defeat to Arsenal in the fifth round of the League Cup . Just over two months later , on 24 February 1968 , Irvine made his last appearance for Burnley when he played in an unfamiliar inside @-@ right position in the 0 – 1 loss away at Nottingham Forest . In the same month , he formally requested to be placed on the transfer list after becoming increasingly unhappy at Burnley . The request was granted by Potts , who set a price of £ 60 @,@ 000 for Irvine . Altogether , he had scored 97 goals in a total of 148 first @-@ team matches for Burnley during his eight years with the club .
= = = Preston North End = = =
In March 1968 , Irvine signed for Preston North End , who were struggling at the bottom of the Football League Second Division , for a transfer fee of £ 45 @,@ 000 and a signing @-@ on fee of £ 5 @,@ 000 . He was one of five Burnley first @-@ team players to leave the club during that year . Irvine made his debut for Preston North End on 14 March 1968 in the 0 – 4 defeat away at Ipswich Town . He scored his first goal for the club in the following match , a 2 – 1 win against Aston Villa at Deepdale . The team subsequently went on a run of eight games without defeat in the league , including a 3 – 1 win over Huddersfield Town in which Irvine scored a hat @-@ trick . On the morning of 27 April 1968 , the Preston North End team were each offered £ 2 @,@ 500 to purposely lose the match against Bristol City in order that Bristol City could improve their chances of avoiding relegation . Irvine , along with team @-@ mate Derek Temple , refused , saying : " I 'm a professional . I want no part of this " . Irvine scored the team 's only goal in a 1 – 4 defeat that day , and by the end of the 1967 – 68 season he had scored six times in eleven matches for his new side . He carried his goalscoring form into the new campaign , scoring the winner against Oldham Athletic in the first round of the League Cup , and netting a consolation goal in the 1 – 3 defeat to Crystal Palace .
After 16 matches of the 1968 – 69 season , Irvine had scored 13 goals . However , he suffered a knee injury midway through the season in the FA Cup fourth round tie against Chelsea . He was injured ten minutes into the match but played for most of the first half before being substituted . He had a chipped bone and ligament damage , requiring him to undergo an operation in February 1969 that forced him to miss the rest of the campaign . Despite missing many games , he was Preston 's top scorer that season with 20 goals in all competitions . Irvine never fully recovered from the injury , and played only 16 games the following season , scoring five goals . Preston North End were relegated to the Football League Third Division in 1970 after finishing bottom of the league . Manager Bobby Seith was dismissed following the relegation , and replaced by former Halifax Town coach Alan Ball in May 1970 . Ball was reluctant to play Irvine after discovering the knee injury from the previous season . Nevertheless , he appeared in the first three matches of the 1970 – 71 campaign , scoring in the 1 – 0 win against Stockport County in the first round of the League Cup . He was dropped from the team after missing several chances in the 1 – 3 defeat to Torquay United on 22 August 1970 . After this , Irvine did not feature regularly for Preston North End and from October 1970 , he played mostly for the reserve team . He made his final senior appearance for the club on 26 December 1970 in the 3 – 3 draw with Tranmere Rovers at Deepdale . During a three @-@ year spell , he played 81 league games for Preston North End , scoring 27 goals in the process .
= = = Later career = = =
In March 1971 , Ball offered Irvine the opportunity of a three @-@ month loan spell at fellow Third Division side Brighton & Hove Albion . Irvine made his debut for Brighton on 10 March 1971 in the 3 – 2 win against Fulham . He scored in the match , and manager Pat Saward was effusive in his praise of his new signing . Irvine became a regular starter for Brighton , and scored again in the 1 – 1 draw with Plymouth Argyle at the Goldstone Ground on 28 April 1971 . During the loan spell , he played 14 league games and scored six goals . At the end of the season , Irvine temporarily returned to Preston but a transfer fee of £ 7 @,@ 000 took him to Brighton on a permanent deal in July 1971 . Irvine became known as " late @-@ goal Willie " after scoring a succession of last @-@ minute goals . On 11 December 1971 , he scored against Walsall in the second round of the FA Cup to take the tie to a replay . He scored the equaliser in the 2 – 2 draw away at Bristol Rovers on 22 January 1972 , followed by a late winner in the 2 – 1 defeat of Wrexham two weeks later .
Irvine added to his tally with home and away goals against Halifax Town , where he would go on to play the next season , and a strike against Aston Villa that was named as runner @-@ up in a Goal of the Season competition by television programme Match of the Day . With the forward partnership of Irvine and Kit Napier , Brighton performed better than expected in the 1971 – 72 season . At the end of the campaign , following a 1 – 1 draw with Rochdale the team was promoted to the Second Division , after finishing as runners @-@ up behind Aston Villa . Irvine continued to score in a higher division , netting five times in the first eleven matches of the season . However , he was then dropped from the team and never regained his place in the starting line @-@ up . Several clubs became interested in his services , including West Ham United , a number of American teams , and Scottish side Heart of Midlothian , where Bobby Seith was the manager . Irvine played his last match for Brighton on 18 November 1972 , when the team lost 0 – 1 at home to his former club Burnley .
After turning down potential transfers to West Ham and Torquay , because neither he nor his wife wanted to live in either place , Irvine decided to sign for Third Division outfit Halifax Town in December 1972 . Despite taking a considerable pay cut , he chose Halifax to enable his family to return to live near Burnley . Irvine made a total of 11 first @-@ team appearances for Halifax Town , scoring one goal for the club . He played his last competitive game for the club in the 1 – 0 win against York City on 13 March 1973 , after manager George Mulhall accused Irvine of not trying and not deserving his wage . At the end of the 1972 – 73 season , the team avoided relegation to the Fourth Division on goal difference . After failing to report for the away game at Walsall on 1 May 1973 , to play in a testimonial match for Burnley defender John Angus , he was fined two weeks ' wages and forced into extra training sessions . In the summer of 1973 , Irvine left Halifax Town by mutual consent , his professional football career over at the age of 29 . Despite having the option to sign for Rochdale , he joined semi @-@ professional side Great Harwood , who played in the Northern Premier League . At Great Harwood , he played alongside two former Burnley team @-@ mates ; goalkeeper Adam Blacklaw and midfielder Les Latcham . Irvine remained at the club for a number of months , before leaving midway through the 1973 – 74 season and retiring from football altogether .
= = International career = =
Irvine 's first taste of international football came in 1958 , when he represented the Northern Ireland schoolboy team in the Victory Shield . Five years later , he made his debut for the Northern Ireland national under @-@ 23 football team , when he played alongside his brother Bobby in the 1 – 5 defeat to Wales on 27 February 1963 . During the next two years , he played twice more for the under @-@ 23 team , scoring three goals for the side . Irvine received his first call @-@ up to the Northern Ireland senior team in April 1963 , one month before he made his professional debut for Burnley . He went straight into the team and won his first cap on 3 April 1963 in the 1 – 4 loss to Wales in the British Home Championship . He received his next cap the following month and scored his first international goal on 30 May 1963 in the 1 – 1 draw with Spain in the first round of the 1964 European Nations Cup . It was over a year before Irvine was selected to represent his country again , when he was included in the squad for the 1 – 2 defeat to Switzerland in a qualification match for the 1966 FIFA World Cup . On 25 November 1964 , he scored his second Northern Ireland goal in the loss to Scotland in the British Home Championship . Irvine was involved in his first win with the Northern Ireland team when they defeated the Netherlands in a World Cup qualifying game on 17 March 1965 . During the remainder of the 1964 – 65 season , he won a further three caps for his country .
Between 2 October 1965 and 30 March 1966 , Irvine scored in four consecutive international fixtures . The run started with a goal against Scotland in the British Home Championship , followed by a goal in the 1 – 2 loss to England on 10 November 1965 . Two weeks later , he netted in a World Cup qualifier against Albania before scoring in the 4 – 1 win against Wales to complete the run . Irvine continued to play for Northern Ireland , winning caps against Mexico , England and Scotland , but it was almost two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half years before he scored again in international football . His two goals in a friendly match against Israel were his last for Northern Ireland , although he did win another five caps for his country . After leaving Burnley in 1968 , his inclusion in the Northern Ireland squad became less frequent and between 1969 and 1972 he did not make an appearance for the team . After three years out of the side , he returned for the 0 – 2 loss to Scotland on 20 May 1972 . He played against England three days later before winning his 23rd and final cap in the goal @-@ less draw with Wales , the team against which he had made his international debut , on 27 May 1972 .
= = = International goals = = =
= = = = Under – 23 = = = =
Scores and results list Northern Ireland U23 's goal tally first .
= = = = Senior team = = = =
Scores and results list Northern Ireland 's goal tally first .
= = Style of play = =
As a youngster , Irvine played as a goalkeeper until his elder brother Bobby , who went on to keep goal for the Northern Ireland national team , threatened to " batter " him . He subsequently moved into a midfield position , before becoming a centre forward during his time in the Burnley youth team . Described as a natural and instinctive goalscorer , Irvine stated that one of his main strengths as a striker was the ability to anticipate where the ball was going to land .
= = Outside football = =
Irvine is married to wife Rita , whom he met in a public house in Burnley . The couple were wed on 3 October 1966 and have three sons ; Darren , Stephen and Jonathan , who played semi @-@ professional football for Nelson and Colne . He has lived in the village of Worsthorne since retiring from football in 1974 . Following his retirement he rented a warehouse from a friend and started a do @-@ it @-@ yourself retail business in the centre of Burnley . The shop was reasonably successful , and Irvine opened a second branch in Keighley , West Yorkshire . However , the business became untenable after several years and left Irvine owing £ 44 @,@ 000 to the bank after a potential buyer for the shop pulled out of the deal . Following the collapse of the business , Irvine suffered severe depression and at one stage attempted suicide by taking an overdose of paracetamol tablets . He was discovered in time by his wife and admitted to Burnley General Hospital , where he underwent an emergency procedure to pump his stomach . After the attempt , he got a part @-@ time job with Burnley Borough Council , working with young people at local community centres . He later worked as a window cleaner for 12 months before selling the round for a profit . Irvine then took a job in an engineering factory , where he worked for 14 years , before joining electrical firm LED . From there , he moved to Aeropia , an aircraft parts manufacturer , where he has worked as a stores manager ever since . On matchdays at Turf Moor , he gives guided tours of the ground to supporters .
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= Oklahoma State Highway 132 =
State Highway 132 , also known as SH @-@ 132 , is a state highway in north @-@ central Oklahoma . It connects State Highway 51 west of Hennessey to the Kansas state line near Manchester , and is 65 @.@ 3 miles ( 105 @.@ 1 km ) long . It has no lettered spur routes .
SH @-@ 132 was originally added to the state highway system in 1956 , when it ran between Carrier and U.S. Route 64 ( US @-@ 64 ) east of Nash . It was extended further northward to the Kansas state line in 1958 , and southward , to its current southern terminus , in 1962 .
= = Route description = =
SH @-@ 132 begins at State Highway 51 in rural Kingfisher County three miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) east of the unincorporated community of Lacey . It heads north from there , passing through unincorporated Cato before crossing into Garfield County . Approximately 4 @.@ 5 miles ( 7 @.@ 2 km ) north of the county line , the highway cuts through Barr . Five miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) north of Barr , the road skirts the east edge of Drummond , where it crosses a Grainbelt Corporation railroad track . The highway then meets U.S. Highway 60 / 412 west of Enid .
SH @-@ 132 turns east and overlaps the U.S. routes for one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) , before splitting back off to the north . In Carrier , it briefly overlaps State Highway 45 . North of Carrier , the highway crosses another railroad track , this one operated by Burlington Northern Santa Fe , before running to the west of Hillsdale . At the Garfield – Grant County line , the highway curves to the northwest before turning back to a due north heading in order to line up with Grant County 's road grid .
SH @-@ 132 's first numbered highway junction in Grant County is with US @-@ 64 . SH @-@ 132 turns to the west , overlapping US @-@ 64 for two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) before splitting off to the north in Nash . North of Nash , the highway passes through two sharp curves before crossing over the Salt Fork of the Arkansas River , and through two more sharp curves after the crossing . SH @-@ 132 then passes one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) to the west of unincorporated Hawley . Its final highway junction in Oklahoma is with State Highway 11 . From here , the highway continues due north , passing west of Sand Creek , Wakita , and Gibbon en route to Manchester . After passing through Manchester , the highway turns west along the Oklahoma – Kansas state line . The road then curves back to the north , fully entering the state of Kansas , and becomes K @-@ 179 .
= = History = =
SH @-@ 132 was first designated on July 14 , 1956 . Initially , the highway began at what was then SH @-@ 38 ( present @-@ day SH @-@ 45 ) in Carrier , proceeding north along its present @-@ day route to end at US @-@ 64 east of Nash . On May 8 , 1958 , the portion of the route concurrent with US @-@ 64 into Nash , and from Nash to the Kansas state line north of Manchester , was added . The route did not appear on the official state highway map until the 1959 edition . At this time , portions of the route in Grant County , including from the Garfield – Grant county line to US @-@ 64 and a segment between Nash and Manchester , were unpaved . By 1961 , the segment of highway north of SH @-@ 11 had been paved .
On July 2 , 1962 , SH @-@ 132 was extended to the south , reaching its present @-@ day southern terminus . A minor realignment to the highway occurred in southern Grant County on January 7 , 1963 , the final change to SH @-@ 132 's route . By 1963 , the portion of highway in Grant County south of US @-@ 64 was paved , leaving only a section extending from north of Nash to SH @-@ 11 as unpaved . This section was paved by 1967 .
= = Junction list = =
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= Peter Dawson ( politician ) =
Peter Dawson ( April 11 , 1892 – March 24 , 1963 ) was a Canadian minister , politician and member of the Legislative Assembly of Alberta .
Dawson was born in 1892 in Scotland . After attending schools and briefly working as a labourer and an apprentice to a butcher in Maybole , Dawson immigrated to Canada at the age of 18 with his brother , James Dawson . Shortly after arriving , he took up residence in Ontario where he worked in the automobile profession for 7 years until moving west to Alberta in 1918 .
Following his decision to settle in Calgary , he found employment as a butcher and interest in missionary work . His residence in Calgary , however , didn 't last long , as 5 years later , he moved to the nearby capital city of Edmonton , where he attended Prebysterian schooling . Ordained as a minister of the United Church in 1927 , he soon was called in 1928 to Sedgewick , where he remained for two years , before getting called to Champion . Although not intending to have a career in politics , a group of citizens persuaded him to run in the 1935 election , in which he defeated United Farmers Member of the Legislative Assembly ( MLA ) Oran McPherson by 66 % of the vote .
In 1937 , Dawson was appointed Speaker of the Legislative Assembly of Alberta . During his 26 @-@ year tenure , from 1937 until his death in 1963 , he witnessed and presided over many events , such as the first instance of crossing the floor in Alberta and naming a fellow MLA for remarks made at a provincial official . He also witnessed 2 royal visits to Alberta from two different monarchs , King George IV in 1939 , and Queen Elizabeth II 20 years later , in which he presided over the installation of a fountain in the Legislature 's rotunda . After dying in office in 1963 , Dawson was honoured with a state funeral , attended by many prominent citizens of Alberta .
= = Early life and career = =
Dawson was born in Slateford , Ayrshire , Scotland , on April 11 , 1892 to John and Jane Dawson ( née McMurray ) . Along with a twin sister who died at the age of 5 months , Peter Dawson had 8 other siblings . John Dawson died in 1900 , when Peter was only 8 years old . Prior to his death , he had worked as a police constable and blacksmith .
Peter Dawson attended public schools and attended the Carrick Academy in Maybole . After finishing school , he worked as farm labourer and a butcher 's apprentice back in Scotland , shortly before coming to Canada . In 1911 , Dawson and his brother , James sailed on the SS Ionian deporting from Glasgow and arriving in Halifax 9 days later . After his arrival , Dawson settled in Ontario and worked at an automobile manufacturer , Tudhope @-@ Anderson in Simcoe County . 7 years later , in 1918 , he moved to Calgary , Alberta , where he found work for " several years " as a butcher .
After 5 years in Calgary , he decided to relocate to Edmonton , where he enrolled in a Prebysterian seminary , Robertson College . He then studied arts and theology at the United Theological College , which would later become the St. Stephen 's College , on the University of Alberta campus , where he was the first president of the student council , as well as , in 1927 , one of the first graduates . He was ordained as a United Church Minister later in the year at Knox United Church in Calgary .
= = Politics = =
Dawson , initially having no interest in politics , ran in the 1935 election as a Social Credit candidate for the riding of Little Bow , at the request and pressure of a citizens ' group . He would go on to handily win the seat , defeating United Farmers of Alberta candidate and former speaker Oran McPherson by 66 % of the vote . Dawson would continue to get re @-@ elected seven consecutive times in that riding , which he held for over 30 years .
= = = Speaker of the Legislative Assembly = = =
Dawson was elected as Speaker of the Legislative Assembly in 1937 . In February of the same year , as Speaker @-@ Designate , Dawson arranged the Opening Session of the Legislature to be broadcast over CJCA radio , given the large number of public wanting to attend the session . Dawson and his family frequently took up residence at the Speaker 's suite during the time while the Legislature was in session , therefore creating him readily accessible as speaker . He was also responsible for many other things , amongst those , though not a part of his official duties , writing the Speech from the Throne , which he compiled from various information from the government departments , which was later read by the Lieutenant Governor of Alberta to open each session .
Dawson 's time as speaker saw many firsts in Alberta legislative history , such as , in 1937 , when Social Credit MLAs and former cabinet ministers William N. Chant and John Hugill left their respective party caucus to sit as independents . This was first instance of crossing the floor in the province 's legislative history . In June 1939 , Dawson played a major role in ceremonies at the Legislature during royal visits of King George VI and Princess ( later Queen ) Elizabeth . He , along with his wife , acted as their hosts during their respective visits .
He was re @-@ nominated as speaker by Premier William Aberhart in 1941 and subsequently in 1945 , 1949 , 1953 , 1955 , and 1960 , these times at the nomination of premier Ernest Manning . The 1945 nomination was seconded by Leader of the Opposition J. Percy Page , making this the first instance that a nomination had been supported by the Official Opposition . In a 1949 session , Dawson ruled comments of Alberta Liberal Leader James Harper Prowse , made during a debate on child welfare , unparliamentary . Prowse had remarked : " Members of the Government , not content with hiding behind the skirts of unfortunate women , now cloak themselves behind the diapers of more unfortunate babies . " Dawson had also deemed other terms , such as " trickery " and " deaf " unparliamentary during his time as speaker .
He was chosen to chair a committee set up in 1951 to revise the rules of the Assembly . During a session on March 21 , 1952 , Dawson was pushed to name MLA for Banff @-@ Cochrane Arthur Wray after Wray made remarks towards a provincial official at a committee meeting . Ehen asked by Dawson to take back the remarks , Wray refused , prompting Dawson to name him and order his removal from the chamber . A unanimous motion was later passed to have Wray suspended for two sitting days , or until he was ready to withdraw his remarks and issue an apology to the chamber . Wray returned on 4 days later , issuing an apology and revoking his remarks .
On February 9 , 1956 , at the opening of the Second Session of the 13th Legislature , Dawson accepted a new Mace from the Civil Service Association of Alberta on the occasion of the province 's 50th anniversary . On the occasion of another royal visit in 1959 , this time of Prince Philip and Queen Elizabeth , Dawson had a permanent fountain in the rotunda of the Legislature installed . Upon Dawson 's 25th anniversary as Speaker , John Wingblade , MLA from Wetaskiwin presented him with a silver @-@ banded gavel on behalf of all members . He continued to serve in the position of Speaker until his unexpected death in 1963 , right before the 1963 election . He had served for 26 years in total as Speaker preceding his death , the longest one has ever served in the Legislative Assembly of Alberta .
= = Church career = =
During his time in Calgary , Dawson became interested in missionary work . After being ordained as a minister in 1927 , his first call , in 1928 , was to Sedgewick , Alberta , where he remained for two years before being called to the United Church in Champion on October 10 , 1930 , mostly conducting services in schoolhouses . Later , in 1954 , he came to Carmangay , Alberta in 1954 to serve as a resident minister . He conducted services in various places in Alberta during his 30 years as a minister , ranging from schoolhouses to churches . In some services , he also participated in duets and sometimes made solo performances , with a strong baritone voice . On top of his duties as Speaker and MLA , Dawson continued his service as a minister . He retired as an active minister in 1960 , after 33 years of service .
= = Personal life = =
In Calgary , on December 26 , 1923 , Dawson married Hildegarde " Hilde " Christina Hallonquist , whom he had met while serving as a missionary during the summer of that same year . Hilde was the daughter of Swedish immigrants Johannes and Hanna Hallonquist . Her father , Johannes , or John , as he was more commonly known , worked helping new Swedish families who had just immigrated to Canada settle in the Manitoba area , and later became a foreman for the Canadian Pacific Railway . Peter and Hilde had two sons , Earland " Earl " McMurray ( 1928 – 2008 ) and David Gilmour ( born 1933 ) . Both went on to be successful professional engineers in Ontario .
In his spare time , Dawson enjoyed a wide range of recreational activities , including golf , curling , badminton and tending the gardens at his home in Vulcan . He was a vital part in the planning and establishment of Little Bow Provincial Park , near Champion . Also an active member of the Grand Lodge of Alberta , a fraternal association , he served in the office of " Worshipful Master " of Champion Lodge in 1947 , grand chaplain of the Grand Lodge in 1949 and 1950 , and finally , Grand Master in 1954 and 1955 . Additionally , Dawson also was active in Shrine and Scottish Rite Lodges . Dawson and his wife moved to Vulcan , Alberta in 1960 , purchasing their first house ever during their marriage .
Dawson received many honours during his time as speaker , including a life membership in the Alberta Legislative Press Gallery Association , in which he had served as an honorary president . One year after his death , in 1964 , the Vulcan Senior Citizens Centre was named " Peter Dawson Lodge " in his memory , after receiving many entries in a contest to name the facility .
= = Death and funeral = =
On March 24 , 1963 , after a speaking engagement in Red Deer , to the Masons at Lodge Perfection , Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite , titled " We know not the hour ! " , Dawson suffered a heart attack in the Speaker 's Suite in the Legislature Building . Attended by health minister Joseph Donovan Ross , he was rushed to the University of Alberta Hospital , when he died on the way , becoming the only speaker in the history of the Alberta Legislative Assembly who had died while still in session . His death was announced the next day by Clerk Raymond A. A. Crevolin . After paying tribute to Dawson , the session was quickly adjourned .
In the morning of March 28 , his body lay in state in the chamber , the first lying @-@ in @-@ state of a Speaker ever held . Several hundred people gathered in the chamber to pay their last respects . After lying in state , his body was taken to Robertson United Church for the state funeral , with several church , judiciary , and government officials from across the province in the general attendance of about 300 , with Premier Manning acted as an officiating clergy , delivering the eulogy . Notably in attendance , along with Premier Manning , were Lieutenant Governor J. Percy Page and Edmonton mayor Elmer Roper . His body was later transported by train to Vulcan , where , after a second service , he was interred in the Vulcan Cemetery . Soon after his death , Hilde Dawson moved to Lethbridge . Upon her death on June 15 , 1987 , she was interred beside her husband .
= = Legacy = =
Upon his death , Premier Manning stated on Dawson : " In his passing not only Alberta , but all of Canada has lost one of its outstanding figures . The reputation he built with his fair judgments and honest ability won him the confidence and respect of all members of the Assembly and extended beyond the borders of Alberta . " Former Mayor of Edmonton and MLA Elmer E. Roper said : " I doubt if there has ever been anyone who occupied the Speaker 's chair in Canada who was more fair and efficient in chairmanship over an assembly then the late speaker " Dawson 's son , David recalled his father 's personableness in that he " talked easily with complete strangers " and his ability to start up a conversation with anyone he met , regardless of where . Future Lieutenant Governor and MLA for Calgary Grant MacEwan compared sitting in the Assembly under Dawson " like attending the school of a strict but well @-@ qualified and kindly teacher . "
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= Thomas Beecham =
Sir Thomas Beecham , 2nd Baronet , CH ( 29 April 1879 – 8 March 1961 ) was an English conductor and impresario best known for his association with the London Philharmonic and the Royal Philharmonic orchestras . He was also closely associated with the Liverpool Philharmonic and Hallé orchestras . From the early 20th century until his death , Beecham was a major influence on the musical life of Britain and , according to the BBC , was Britain 's first international conductor .
Born to a rich industrial family , Beecham began his career as a conductor in 1899 . He used his access to the family fortune to finance opera from the 1910s until the start of the Second World War , staging seasons at Covent Garden , Drury Lane and His Majesty 's Theatre with international stars , his own orchestra and a wide repertoire . Among the works he introduced to England were Richard Strauss 's Elektra , Salome and Der Rosenkavalier and three operas by Frederick Delius .
Together with his younger colleague Malcolm Sargent , Beecham founded the London Philharmonic , and he conducted its first performance at the Queen 's Hall in 1932 . In the 1940s he worked for three years in the United States where he was music director of the Seattle Symphony and conducted at the Metropolitan Opera . After his return to Britain , he founded the Royal Philharmonic in 1946 and conducted it until his death in 1961 .
Beecham 's repertoire was eclectic , sometimes favouring lesser @-@ known composers over famous ones . His specialities included composers whose works were neglected in Britain before he became their advocate , such as Delius and Berlioz . Other composers with whose music he was frequently associated were Haydn , Schubert , Sibelius and the composer he revered above all others , Mozart .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early years = = =
Beecham was born in St Helens , Lancashire , in a house adjoining the Beecham 's Pills laxative factory founded by his grandfather , Thomas Beecham . His parents were Joseph Beecham , the elder son of Thomas , and Josephine , née Burnett . In 1885 , with the family firm flourishing financially , Joseph Beecham moved his family to a large house in Ewanville , Huyton , near Liverpool . Their former home was demolished to make room for an extension to the pill factory .
Beecham was educated at Rossall School between 1892 and 1897 , after which he hoped to attend a music conservatoire in Germany , but his father forbade it , and instead Beecham went to Wadham College , Oxford , to read Classics . He did not find university life to his taste and successfully sought his father 's permission to leave Oxford in 1898 . He studied as a pianist , but had difficulty because of his small hands , and any career as a soloist was ruled out by a wrist injury in 1904 . He studied composition privately with Frederic Austin in Liverpool , Charles Wood in London , and Moritz Moszkowski in Paris . As a conductor , he was self @-@ taught .
= = = First orchestras = = =
Beecham first conducted in public in St Helens in October 1899 , with an ad hoc ensemble comprising local musicians and players from the Liverpool Philharmonic Orchestra and the Hallé in Manchester . A month later , he stood in at short notice for the celebrated conductor Hans Richter at a concert by the Hallé to mark Joseph Beecham 's inauguration as mayor of St Helens . Soon afterwards , Joseph Beecham secretly committed his wife to a mental hospital . Thomas and his elder sister Emily helped to secure their mother 's release and to force their father to pay annual alimony of £ 4 @,@ 500 . For this , Joseph disinherited them . Beecham was estranged from his father for ten years .
Beecham 's professional début as a conductor was in 1902 at the Shakespeare Theatre , Clapham , with Balfe 's The Bohemian Girl , for the Imperial Grand Opera Company . He was engaged as assistant conductor for a tour and was allotted four other operas , including Carmen and Pagliacci . A Beecham biographer calls the company " grandly named but decidedly ramshackle " , though Beecham 's Carmen was Zélie de Lussan , a leading exponent of the title role . Beecham was also composing music in these early years , but he was not satisfied with his own efforts and instead concentrated on conducting .
In 1906 Beecham was invited to conduct the New Symphony Orchestra , a recently formed ensemble of 46 players , in a series of concerts at the Bechstein Hall in London . Throughout his career , Beecham frequently chose to programme works to suit his own tastes rather than those of the paying public . In his early discussions with his new orchestra , he proposed works by a long list of barely known composers such as Étienne Méhul , Nicolas Dalayrac and Ferdinando Paer . During this period , Beecham first encountered the music of Frederick Delius , which he at once loved deeply and with which he became closely associated for the rest of his life .
Beecham quickly concluded that to compete with the two existing London orchestras , the Queen 's Hall Orchestra and the recently founded London Symphony Orchestra ( LSO ) , his forces must be expanded to full symphonic strength and play in larger halls . For two years starting in October 1907 , Beecham and the enlarged New Symphony Orchestra gave concerts at the Queen 's Hall . He paid little attention to the box office : his programmes were described by a biographer as " even more certain to deter the public then than it would be in our own day " . The principal pieces of his first concert with the orchestra were d 'Indy 's symphonic ballad La forêt enchantée , Smetana 's symphonic poem Šárka , and Lalo 's little @-@ known Symphony in G minor . Beecham retained an affection for the last work : it was among the works he conducted at his final recording sessions more than fifty years later .
In 1908 Beecham and the New Symphony Orchestra parted company , disagreeing about artistic control and , in particular , the deputy system . Under this system , orchestral players , if offered a better @-@ paid engagement elsewhere , could send a substitute to a rehearsal or a concert . The treasurer of the Royal Philharmonic Society described it thus : " A , whom you want , signs to play at your concert . He sends B ( whom you don 't mind ) to the first rehearsal . B , without your knowledge or consent , sends C to the second rehearsal . Not being able to play at the concert , C sends D , whom you would have paid five shillings to stay away . " Henry Wood had already banned the deputy system in the Queen 's Hall Orchestra ( provoking rebel players to found the London Symphony Orchestra ) , and Beecham followed suit . The New Symphony Orchestra survived without him and subsequently became the Royal Albert Hall Orchestra .
In 1909 , Beecham founded the Beecham Symphony Orchestra . He did not poach from established symphony orchestras , but instead he recruited from theatre bandrooms , local symphony societies , the palm courts of hotels , and music colleges . The result was a youthful team – the typical age of his players was 25 . They included names that would become celebrated in their fields , such as Albert Sammons , Lionel Tertis , Eric Coates and Eugene Cruft .
Because he persistently programmed works that did not attract the public , Beecham 's musical activities at this time consistently lost money . As a result of his estrangement from his father between 1899 and 1909 , his access to the Beecham family fortune was strictly limited . From 1907 he had an annuity of £ 700 left to him in his grandfather 's will , and his mother subsidised some of his loss @-@ making concerts , but it was not until father and son were reconciled in 1909 that Beecham was able to draw on the family fortune to promote opera .
= = = 1910 – 1920 = = =
From 1910 , subsidised by his father , Beecham realised his ambition to mount opera seasons at Covent Garden and other houses . In the Edwardian opera house , the star singers were regarded as all @-@ important , and conductors were seen as ancillary . Between 1910 and 1939 Beecham did much to change the balance of power .
In 1910 , Beecham either conducted or was responsible as impresario for 190 performances at Covent Garden and His Majesty 's Theatre . His assistant conductors were Bruno Walter and Percy Pitt . During the year , he mounted 34 different operas , most of them either new to London or almost unknown there . Beecham later acknowledged that in his early years the operas he chose to present were too obscure to attract the public . During his 1910 season at His Majesty 's , the rival Grand Opera Syndicate put on a concurrent season of its own at Covent Garden ; London 's total opera performances for the year amounted to 273 performances , far more than the box @-@ office demand could support . Of the 34 operas that Beecham staged in 1910 , only four made money : Richard Strauss 's new operas Elektra and Salome , receiving their first , and highly publicised , performances in Britain , and The Tales of Hoffmann and Die Fledermaus .
In 1911 and 1912 , the Beecham Symphony Orchestra played for Sergei Diaghilev 's Ballets Russes , both at Covent Garden and at the Krolloper in Berlin , under the batons of Beecham and Pierre Monteux , Diaghilev 's chief conductor . Beecham was much admired for conducting the complicated new score of Stravinsky 's Petrushka , at two days ' notice and without rehearsal , when Monteux became unavailable . While in Berlin , Beecham and his orchestra , in Beecham 's words , caused a " mild stir " , scoring a triumph : the orchestra was agreed by the Berlin press to be an elite body , one of the best in the world . The principal Berlin musical weekly , Die Signale , asked , " Where does London find such magnificent young instrumentalists ? " The violins were credited with rich , noble tone , the woodwinds with lustre , the brass , " which has not quite the dignity and amplitude of our best German brass " , with uncommon delicacy of execution .
Beecham 's 1913 seasons included the British premiere of Strauss 's Der Rosenkavalier at Covent Garden , and a " Grand Season of Russian Opera and Ballet " at Drury Lane . At the latter there were three operas , all starring Feodor Chaliapin , and all new to Britain : Mussorgsky 's Boris Godunov and Khovanshchina , and Rimsky @-@ Korsakov 's Ivan the Terrible . There were also 15 ballets , with leading dancers including Vaslav Nijinsky and Tamara Karsavina . The ballets included Debussy 's Jeux and his controversially erotic L 'après @-@ midi d 'un faune , and the British premiere of Stravinsky 's The Rite of Spring , six weeks after its first performance in Paris . Beecham shared Monteux 's private dislike of the piece , much preferring Petrushka . Beecham did not conduct during this season ; Monteux and others conducted the Beecham Symphony Orchestra . The following year , Beecham and his father presented Rimsky @-@ Korsakov 's The Maid of Pskov and Borodin 's Prince Igor , with Chaliapin , and Stravinsky 's The Nightingale .
During the First World War , Beecham strove , often without a fee , to keep music alive in London , Liverpool , Manchester and other British cities . He conducted for , and gave financial support to , three institutions with which he was connected at various times : the Hallé Orchestra , the LSO and the Royal Philharmonic Society . In 1915 he formed the Beecham Opera Company , with mainly British singers , performing in London and throughout the country . In 1916 , he received a knighthood in the New Year Honours and succeeded to the baronetcy on his father 's death later that year .
After the war , there were joint Covent Garden seasons with the Grand Opera Syndicate in 1919 and 1920 , but these were , according to a biographer , pale confused echoes of the years before 1914 . These seasons included forty productions , of which Beecham conducted only nine . After the 1920 season , Beecham temporarily withdrew from conducting to deal with a financial problem that he described as " the most trying and unpleasant experience of my life " .
= = = Covent Garden estate = = =
Influenced by an ambitious financier , James White , Sir Joseph Beecham had agreed , in July 1914 , to buy the Covent Garden estate from the Duke of Bedford and float a limited company to manage the estate commercially . The deal was described by The Times as " one of the largest ever carried out in real estate in London " . Sir Joseph paid an initial deposit of £ 200 @,@ 000 and covenanted to pay the balance of the £ 2 million purchase price on 11 November . Within a month , however , the First World War broke out , and new official restrictions on the use of capital prevented the completion of the contract . The estate and market continued to be managed by the Duke 's staff , and in October 1916 , Joseph Beecham died suddenly , with the transaction still uncompleted . The matter was brought before the civil courts with the aim of disentangling Sir Joseph 's affairs ; the court and all parties agreed that a private company should be formed , with his two sons as directors , to complete the Covent Garden contract . In July 1918 , the Duke and his trustees conveyed the estate to the new company , subject to a mortgage of the balance of the purchase price still outstanding : £ 1 @.@ 25 million .
Beecham and his brother Henry had to sell enough of their father 's estate to discharge this mortgage . For more than three years , Beecham was absent from the musical scene , working to sell property worth over £ 1 million . By 1923 enough money had been raised . The mortgage was discharged , and Beecham 's personal liabilities , amounting to £ 41 @,@ 558 , were paid in full . In 1924 the Covent Garden property and the pill @-@ making business at St Helens were united in one company , Beecham Estates and Pills . The nominal capital was £ 1 @,@ 850 @,@ 000 , of which Beecham had a substantial share .
= = = London Philharmonic = = =
After his absence , Beecham first reappeared on the rostrum conducting the Hallé in Manchester in March 1923 , in a programme including works by Berlioz , Bizet , Delius and Mozart . He returned to London the following month , conducting the combined Royal Albert Hall Orchestra ( the renamed New Symphony Orchestra ) and London Symphony Orchestra in April 1923 . The main work on the programme was Richard Strauss 's Ein Heldenleben . No longer with an orchestra of his own , Beecham established a relationship with the London Symphony Orchestra that lasted for the rest of the 1920s . Towards the end of the decade , he negotiated inconclusively with the BBC over the possibility of establishing a permanent radio orchestra .
In 1931 , Beecham was approached by the rising young conductor Malcolm Sargent with a proposal to set up a permanent , salaried orchestra with a subsidy guaranteed by Sargent 's patrons , the Courtauld family . Originally Sargent and Beecham envisaged a reshuffled version of the London Symphony Orchestra , but the LSO , a self @-@ governing co @-@ operative , balked at weeding out and replacing underperforming players . In 1932 Beecham lost patience and agreed with Sargent to set up a new orchestra from scratch . The London Philharmonic Orchestra ( LPO ) , as it was named , consisted of 106 players including a few young musicians straight from music college , many established players from provincial orchestras , and 17 of the LSO 's leading members . The principals included Paul Beard , George Stratton , Anthony Pini , Gerald Jackson , Léon Goossens , Reginald Kell , James Bradshaw and Marie Goossens .
The orchestra made its debut at the Queen 's Hall on 7 October 1932 , conducted by Beecham . After the first item , Berlioz 's Roman Carnival Overture , the audience went wild , some of them standing on their seats to clap and shout . During the next eight years , the LPO appeared nearly a hundred times at the Queen 's Hall for the Royal Philharmonic Society alone , played for Beecham 's opera seasons at Covent Garden , and made more than 300 gramophone records . Berta Geissmar , his secretary from 1936 , wrote , " The relations between the Orchestra and Sir Thomas were always easy and cordial . He always treated a rehearsal as a joint undertaking with the Orchestra . … The musicians were entirely unselfconscious with him . Instinctively they accorded him the artistic authority which he did not expressly claim . Thus he obtained the best from them and they gave it without reserve . "
By the early 1930s , Beecham had secured substantial control of the Covent Garden opera seasons . Wishing to concentrate on music @-@ making rather than management , he assumed the role of artistic director , and Geoffrey Toye was recruited as managing director . In 1933 , Tristan und Isolde with Frida Leider and Lauritz Melchior was a success , and the season continued with the Ring cycle and nine other operas . The 1934 season featured Conchita Supervía in La Cenerentola , and Lotte Lehmann and Alexander Kipnis in the Ring . Clemens Krauss conducted the British première of Strauss 's Arabella . During 1933 and 1934 , Beecham repelled attempts by John Christie to form a link between Christie 's new Glyndebourne Festival and the Royal Opera House . Beecham and Toye fell out over the latter 's insistence on bringing in a popular film star , Grace Moore , to sing Mimi in La bohème . The production was a box @-@ office success , but an artistic failure . Beecham manoeuvred Toye out of the managing directorship in what their fellow conductor Sir Adrian Boult described as an " absolutely beastly " manner .
From 1935 to 1939 , Beecham , now in sole control , presented international seasons with eminent guest singers and conductors . Beecham conducted between a third and half of the performances each season . He intended the 1940 season to include the first complete performances of Berlioz 's Les Troyens , but the outbreak of the Second World War caused the season to be abandoned . Beecham did not conduct again at Covent Garden until 1951 , and by then it was no longer under his control .
Beecham took the London Philharmonic on a controversial tour of Germany in 1936 . There were complaints that he was being used by Nazi propagandists , and Beecham complied with a Nazi request not to play the Scottish Symphony of Mendelssohn , who was a Christian by faith but a Jew by birth . In Berlin , Beecham 's concert was attended by Adolf Hitler , whose lack of punctuality caused Beecham to remark very audibly , " The old bugger 's late . " After this tour , Beecham refused renewed invitations to give concerts in Germany , although he honoured contractual commitments to conduct at the Berlin State Opera , in 1937 and 1938 , and recorded The Magic Flute for EMI in the Beethovensaal in Berlin in the same years .
As his sixtieth birthday approached , Beecham was advised by his doctors to take a year 's complete break from music , and he planned to go abroad to rest in a warm climate . The Australian Broadcasting Commission had been seeking for several years to get him to conduct in Australia . The outbreak of war on 3 September 1939 obliged him to postpone his plans for several months , striving instead to secure the future of the London Philharmonic , whose financial guarantees had been withdrawn by its backers when war was declared . Before leaving , Beecham raised large sums of money for the orchestra and helped its members to form themselves into a self @-@ governing company .
= = = 1940s = = =
Beecham left Britain in the spring of 1940 , going first to Australia and then to North America . He became music director of the Seattle Symphony in 1941 . In 1942 he joined the Metropolitan Opera as joint senior conductor with his former assistant Bruno Walter . He began with his own adaptation of Bach 's comic cantata , Phoebus and Pan , followed by Le Coq d 'Or . His main repertoire was French : Carmen , Louise ( with Grace Moore ) , Manon , Faust , Mignon and The Tales of Hoffmann . In addition to his Seattle and New York posts , Beecham was guest conductor with 18 American orchestras .
In 1944 , Beecham returned to Britain . Musically his reunion with the London Philharmonic was triumphant , but the orchestra , now ( after his help in 1939 ) a self @-@ governing co @-@ operative , attempted to hire him on its own terms as its salaried artistic director . " I emphatically refuse " , concluded Beecham , " to be wagged by any orchestra ... I am going to found one more great orchestra to round off my career . " When Walter Legge founded the Philharmonia Orchestra in 1945 , Beecham conducted its first concert . But he was not disposed to accept a salaried position from Legge , his former assistant , any more than from his former players in the LPO .
In 1946 , Beecham founded the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra ( RPO ) , securing an agreement with the Royal Philharmonic Society that the new orchestra should replace the LPO at all the Society 's concerts . Beecham later agreed with the Glyndebourne Festival that the RPO should be the resident orchestra at Glyndebourne each summer . He secured backing , including that of record companies in the US as well as Britain , with whom lucrative recording contracts were negotiated . As in 1909 and in 1932 , Beecham 's assistants recruited in the freelance pool and elsewhere . Original members of the RPO included James Bradshaw , Dennis Brain , Leonard Brain , Archie Camden , Gerald Jackson and Reginald Kell . The orchestra later became celebrated for its regular team of woodwind principals , often referred to as " The Royal Family " , consisting of Jack Brymer ( clarinet ) , Gwydion Brooke ( bassoon ) , Terence MacDonagh ( oboe ) and Gerald Jackson ( flute ) .
Beecham 's long association with the Hallé Orchestra as a guest conductor ceased after John Barbirolli became the orchestra 's chief conductor in 1944 . Beecham was , to his great indignation , ousted from the honorary presidency of the Hallé Concerts Society , and Barbirolli refused to " let that man near my orchestra " . Beecham 's relationship with the Liverpool Philharmonic , which he had first conducted in 1911 , was resumed harmoniously after the war . A manager of the orchestra recalled , " It was an unwritten law in Liverpool that first choice of dates offered to guest conductors was given to Beecham . ... In Liverpool there was one over @-@ riding factor – he was adored . "
= = = 1950s and later years = = =
Beecham , whom the BBC called " Britain 's first international conductor " , took the RPO on a strenuous tour through the United States , Canada and South Africa in 1950 . During the North American tour , Beecham conducted 49 concerts in almost daily succession . In 1951 , he was invited to conduct at Covent Garden after a 12 @-@ year absence . State @-@ funded for the first time , the opera company operated quite differently from his pre @-@ war regime . Instead of short , star @-@ studded seasons , with a major symphony orchestra , the new director David Webster was attempting to build up a permanent ensemble of home @-@ grown talent performing all the year round , in English translations . Extreme economy in productions and great attention to the box @-@ office were essential , and Beecham , though he had been hurt and furious at his exclusion , was not suited to participate in such an undertaking . When offered a chorus of eighty singers for his return , conducting Die Meistersinger , he insisted on augmenting their number to 200 . He also , contrary to Webster 's policy , insisted on performing the piece in German . In 1953 at Oxford , Beecham presented the world premiere of Delius 's first opera , Irmelin , and his last operatic performances in Britain were in 1955 at Bath , with Grétry 's Zémire et Azor .
Between 1951 and 1960 , Beecham conducted 92 concerts at the Royal Festival Hall . Characteristic Beecham programmes of the RPO years included symphonies by Bizet , Franck , Haydn , Schubert and Tchaikovsky ; Richard Strauss 's Ein Heldenleben ; concertos by Mozart and Saint @-@ Saëns ; a Delius and Sibelius programme ; and many of his favoured shorter pieces . He did not stick uncompromisingly to his familiar repertoire . After the sudden death of the German conductor Wilhelm Furtwängler , Beecham in tribute conducted the two programmes his colleague had been due to present at the Festival Hall ; these included Bach 's Third Brandenburg Concerto , Ravel 's Rapsodie espagnole , Brahms 's Symphony No. 1 , and Barber 's Second Essay for Orchestra .
In the summer of 1958 , Beecham conducted a season at the Teatro Colón , Buenos Aires , Argentina , consisting of Verdi 's Otello , Bizet 's Carmen , Beethoven 's Fidelio , Saint @-@ Saëns 's Samson and Delilah and Mozart 's The Magic Flute . These were his last operatic performances . It was during this season that Betty Humby died suddenly . She was cremated in Buenos Aires and her ashes returned to England . Beecham 's own last illness prevented his operatic debut at Glyndebourne in a planned Magic Flute and a final appearance at Covent Garden conducting Berlioz 's The Trojans .
Sixty @-@ six years after his first visit to America , Beecham made his last , beginning in late 1959 , conducting in Pittsburgh , San Francisco , Seattle , Chicago and Washington . During this tour , he also conducted in Canada . He flew back to London on 12 April 1960 and did not leave England again . His final concert was at Portsmouth Guildhall on 7 May 1960 . The programme , all characteristic choices , comprised the Magic Flute Overture , Haydn 's Symphony No. 100 ( the Military ) , Beecham 's own Handel arrangement , Love in Bath , Schubert 's Symphony No. 5 , On the River by Delius , and the Bacchanale from Samson and Delilah .
Beecham died of a coronary thrombosis at his London flat , aged 81 , on 8 March 1961 . He was buried two days later in Brookwood Cemetery , Surrey . Owing to changes at Brookwood , his remains were exhumed in 1991 and reburied in St Peter 's Churchyard at Limpsfield , Surrey , close to the joint grave of Delius and his wife Jelka Rosen .
= = = Personal life = = =
Beecham was married three times . In 1903 he married Utica Celestina Welles , daughter of Dr Charles S. Welles , of New York , and his wife Ella Celeste , née Miles . Beecham and his wife had two sons : Adrian , born in 1904 , who became a composer and achieved some celebrity in the 1920s and 1930s , and Thomas , born in 1909 . After the birth of his second child , Beecham began to drift away from the marriage . By 1911 , no longer living with his wife and family , he was involved as co @-@ respondent in a much @-@ publicised divorce case . Utica ignored advice that she should divorce him and secure substantial alimony ; she did not believe in divorce . She never remarried after Beecham divorced her ( in 1943 ) , and she outlived her former husband by sixteen years , dying in 1977 .
In 1909 or early 1910 , Beecham began an affair with Maud Alice ( known as Emerald ) , Lady Cunard . Although they never lived together , it continued , despite other relationships on his part , until his remarriage in 1943 . She was a tireless fund @-@ raiser for his musical enterprises . Beecham 's biographers are agreed that she was in love with him , but that his feelings for her were less strong . During the 1920s and 1930s , Beecham also had an affair with Dora Labbette , a soprano sometimes known as Lisa Perli , with whom he had a son , Paul Strang , born in March 1933 .
In 1943 Lady Cunard was devastated to learn ( not from Beecham ) that he intended to divorce Utica to marry Betty Humby , a concert pianist 29 years his junior . Beecham married Betty in 1943 , and they were a devoted couple until her death in 1958 . On 10 August 1959 , two years before his death , he married in Zurich his former secretary , Shirley Hudson , who had worked for the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra 's administration since 1950 . She was 27 , he 80 .
= = Repertoire = =
= = = Handel , Haydn , and Mozart = = =
The earliest composer whose music Beecham regularly performed was Handel , whom he called , " the great international master of all time . ... He wrote Italian music better than any Italian ; French music better than any Frenchman ; English music better than any Englishman ; and , with the exception of Bach , outrivalled all other Germans . " In his performances of Handel , Beecham ignored what he called the " professors , pedants , pedagogues " . He followed Mendelssohn and Mozart in editing and reorchestrating Handel 's scores to suit contemporary tastes . At a time when Handel 's operas were scarcely known , Beecham knew them so well that he was able to arrange three ballets , two other suites and a piano concerto from them . He gave Handel 's oratorio Solomon its first performance since the 18th century , with a text edited by the conductor .
With Haydn , too , Beecham was far from an authenticist , using unscholarly 19th @-@ century versions of the scores , avoiding the use of the harpsichord , and phrasing the music romantically . He recorded the twelve " London " symphonies , and regularly programmed some of them in his concerts . Earlier Haydn works were unfamiliar in the first half of the 20th century , but Beecham conducted several of them , including the Symphony No. 40 and an early piano concerto . He programmed The Seasons regularly throughout his career , recording it for EMI in 1956 , and in 1944 added The Creation to his repertoire .
For Beecham , Mozart was " the central point of European music , " and he treated the composer 's scores with more deference than he gave most others . He edited the incomplete Requiem , made English translations of at least two of the great operas , and introduced Covent Garden audiences who had rarely if ever heard them to Così fan tutte , Der Schauspieldirektor and Die Entführung aus dem Serail ; he also regularly programmed The Magic Flute , Don Giovanni and The Marriage of Figaro . He considered the best of Mozart 's piano concertos to be " the most beautiful compositions of their kind in the world " , and he played them many times with Betty Humby @-@ Beecham and others .
= = = German music = = =
Beecham 's attitude towards 19th @-@ century German repertoire was equivocal . He frequently disparaged Beethoven , Wagner and others , but regularly conducted their works , often with great success . He observed , " Wagner , though a tremendous genius , gorged music like a German who overeats . And Bruckner was a hobbledehoy who had no style at all ... Even Beethoven thumped the tub ; the Ninth symphony was composed by a kind of Mr. Gladstone of music . " Despite his criticisms , Beecham conducted all the Beethoven symphonies during his career , and he made studio recordings of Nos. 2 , 3 , 4 , 6 , 7 and 8 , and live recordings of No. 9 and Missa Solemnis . He conducted the Fourth Piano Concerto with pleasure ( recording it with Arthur Rubinstein and the LPO ) but avoided the Emperor Concerto when possible .
Beecham was not known for his Bach but nonetheless chose Bach ( arranged by Beecham ) for his debut at the Metropolitan Opera . He later gave the Third Brandenburg Concerto in one of his memorial concerts for Wilhelm Furtwängler ( a performance described by The Times as " a travesty , albeit an invigorating one " ) . In Brahms 's music , Beecham was selective . He made a speciality of the Second Symphony but conducted the Third only occasionally , the First rarely , and the Fourth never . In his memoirs he made no mention of any Brahms performance after the year 1909 .
Beecham was a great Wagnerian , despite his frequent expostulation about the composer 's length and repetitiousness : " We 've been rehearsing for two hours – and we 're still playing the same bloody tune ! " Beecham conducted all the works in the regular Wagner canon with the exception of Parsifal , which he presented at Covent Garden but never with himself in the pit . The chief music critic of The Times observed : " Beecham 's Lohengrin was almost Italian in its lyricism ; his Ring was less heroic than Bruno Walter 's or Furtwängler 's , but it sang from beginning to end " .
Richard Strauss had a lifelong champion in Beecham , who introduced Elektra , Salome , Der Rosenkavalier and other operas to England . Beecham programmed Ein Heldenleben from 1910 until his last year ; his final recording of it was released shortly after his death . Don Quixote , Till Eulenspiegel , the Bourgeois Gentilhomme music and Don Juan also featured in his repertory , but not Also Sprach Zarathustra or Tod und Verklärung . Strauss had the first and last pages of the manuscript of Elektra framed and presented them to " my highly honoured friend ... and distinguished conductor of my work . "
= = = French and Italian music = = =
In the opinion of the jury of the Académie du Disque Français , " Sir Thomas Beecham has done more for French music abroad than any French conductor " . Berlioz featured prominently in Beecham 's repertoire throughout his career , and in an age when the composer 's works received little exposure , Beecham presented most of them and recorded many . Along with Sir Colin Davis , Beecham has been described as one of the two " foremost modern interpreters " of Berlioz 's music . Both in concert and the recording studio , Beecham 's choices of French music were characteristically eclectic . He avoided Ravel but regularly programmed Debussy . Fauré did not feature often , although his orchestral Pavane was an exception ; Beecham 's final recording sessions in 1959 included the Pavane and the Dolly Suite . Bizet was among Beecham 's favourites , and other French composers favoured by him included Gustave Charpentier , Delibes , Duparc , Grétry , Lalo , Lully , Offenbach , Saint @-@ Saëns and Ambroise Thomas . Many of Beecham 's later recordings of French music were made in Paris with the Orchestre National de la Radiodiffusion Française . " C 'est un dieu " , their concertmaster said of Beecham in 1957 .
Of the more than two dozen operas in the Verdi canon , Beecham conducted eight during his long career : Il trovatore , La traviata , Aida , Don Carlos , Rigoletto , Un ballo in maschera , Otello and Falstaff . As early as 1904 , Beecham met Puccini through the librettist Luigi Illica , who had written the libretto for Beecham 's youthful attempt at composing an Italian opera . At the time of their meeting , Puccini and Illica were revising Madama Butterfly after its disastrous première . Beecham rarely conducted that work , but he conducted Tosca , Turandot and La bohème . His 1956 recording of La bohème , with Victoria de los Ángeles and Jussi Björling , has seldom been out of the catalogues since its release and received more votes than any other operatic set in a 1967 symposium of prominent critics .
= = = Delius , Sibelius and " Lollipops " = = =
Except for Delius , Beecham was generally antipathetic to , or at best lukewarm about , the music of his native land and its most acclaimed composers . Beecham 's championship of Delius promoted the composer from relative obscurity . Delius 's amanuensis , Eric Fenby , referred to Beecham as " excelling all others in the music of Delius ... Groves and Sargent may have matched him in the great choruses of A Mass of Life , but in all else Beecham was matchless , especially with the orchestra . " In an all @-@ Delius concert in June 1911 Beecham conducted the premiere of Songs of Sunset . He put on Delius Festivals in 1929 and 1946 and presented his concert works throughout his career . He conducted the British premieres of the operas A Village Romeo and Juliet in 1910 and Koanga in 1935 , and the world premiere of Irmelin in 1953 . However , he was not an uncritical Delian : he never conducted the Requiem , and he detailed his criticisms of it in his book on Delius .
Another major 20th @-@ century composer who engaged Beecham 's sympathies was Sibelius , who recognised him as a fine conductor of his music ( although Sibelius tended to be lavish with praise of anybody who conducted his music ) . In a live recording of a December 1954 concert performance of Sibelius 's Second Symphony with the BBC Symphony Orchestra in the Festival Hall , Beecham can be heard uttering encouraging shouts at the orchestra at climactic moments .
Beecham was dismissive of some of the established classics , saying for example , " I would give the whole of Bach 's Brandenburg Concertos for Massenet 's Manon , and would think I had vastly profited by the exchange " . He was , by contrast , famous for presenting slight pieces as encores , which he called " lollipops " . Some of the best @-@ known were Berlioz 's Danse des sylphes ; Chabrier 's Joyeuse Marche and Gounod 's Le Sommeil de Juliette .
= = Recordings = =
The composer Richard Arnell wrote that Beecham preferred making records to giving concerts : " He told me that audiences got in the way of music @-@ making – he was apt to catch someone 's eye in the front row . " The conductor and critic Trevor Harvey wrote in The Gramophone , however , that studio recordings could never recapture the thrill of Beecham performing live in the concert hall .
Beecham began making recordings in 1910 , when the acoustical process obliged orchestras to use only principal instruments , placed as close to the recording horn as possible . His first recordings , for HMV , were of excerpts from Offenbach 's The Tales of Hoffmann and Johann Strauss 's Die Fledermaus . In 1915 , Beecham began recording for the Columbia Graphophone Company . Electrical recording technology ( introduced in 1925 – 26 ) made it possible to record a full orchestra with much greater frequency range , and Beecham quickly embraced the new medium . Longer scores had to be broken into four @-@ minute segments to fit on 12 @-@ inch 78 @-@ rpm discs , but Beecham was not averse to recording piecemeal – his well @-@ known 1932 disc of Chabrier 's España was recorded in two sessions three weeks apart . Beecham recorded many of his favourite works several times , taking advantage of improved technology over the decades .
From 1926 to 1932 , Beecham made more than 70 discs , including an English version of Gounod 's Faust and the first of three recordings of Handel 's Messiah . He began recording with the London Philharmonic Orchestra in 1933 , making more than 150 discs for Columbia , including music by Mozart , Rossini , Berlioz , Wagner , Handel , Beethoven , Brahms , Debussy and Delius . Among the most prominent of these was the first complete recording of Mozart 's The Magic Flute , supervised by Walter Legge in Berlin in 1937 – 38 , a set described by Alan Blyth in Gramophone magazine in 2006 as having " a legendary status " . In 1936 , during his German tour with the LPO , Beecham conducted the world 's first orchestral recording on magnetic tape , made at Ludwigshafen , the home of BASF , the company that developed the process .
During his stay in the US and afterwards , Beecham recorded for American Columbia Records and RCA Victor . His RCA recordings include major works that he did not subsequently re @-@ record for the gramophone , including Beethoven 's Fourth , Sibelius 's Sixth and Mendelssohn 's Reformation Symphonies . Some of his RCA recordings were issued only in the US , including Mozart 's Symphony No. 27 , K199 , the overtures to Smetana 's The Bartered Bride and Mozart 's La clemenza di Tito , the Sinfonia from Bach 's Christmas Oratorio , a 1947 – 48 complete recording of Gounod 's Faust , and an RPO studio version of Sibelius 's Second Symphony . Beecham 's RCA records that were released on both sides of the Atlantic were his celebrated 1956 complete recording of Puccini 's La bohème and an extravagantly rescored set of Handel 's Messiah . The former remains a top recommendation among reviewers , and the latter was described by Gramophone as " an irresistible outrage … huge fun " .
For the Columbia label , Beecham recorded his last , or only , versions of many works by Delius , including A Mass of Life , Appalachia , North Country Sketches , An Arabesque , Paris and Eventyr . Other Columbia recordings from the early 1950s include Beethoven 's Eroica , Pastoral and Eighth symphonies , Mendelssohn 's Italian symphony , and the Brahms Violin Concerto with Isaac Stern .
From his return to England at the end of the Second World War until his final recordings in 1959 , Beecham continued his early association with HMV and British Columbia , who had merged to form EMI . From 1955 , his EMI recordings made in London were recorded in stereo . He also recorded in Paris , with his own RPO and with the Orchestra National de la Radiodiffusion Française , though the Paris recordings were in mono until 1958 . For EMI , Beecham recorded two complete operas in stereo , Die Entführung aus dem Serail and Carmen . His last recordings were made in Paris in December 1959 . Beecham 's EMI recordings have been continually reissued on LP and CD . In 2011 , to mark the 50th anniversary of Beecham 's death , EMI released 34 CDs of his recordings of music from the 18th , 19th and 20th centuries , including works by Haydn , Mozart , Beethoven , Brahms , Wagner , Richard Strauss and Delius , and many of the French " lollipops " with which he was associated .
= = Relations with others = =
Beecham 's relations with fellow British conductors were not always cordial . Sir Henry Wood regarded him as an upstart and was envious of his success ; the scrupulous Sir Adrian Boult found him " repulsive " as a man and a musician ; and Sir John Barbirolli mistrusted him . Sir Malcolm Sargent worked with him in founding the London Philharmonic and was a friend and ally , but he was the subject of unkind , though witty , digs from Beecham who , for example , described the image @-@ conscious Herbert von Karajan as " a kind of musical Malcolm Sargent " . Beecham 's relations with foreign conductors were often excellent . He did not get on well with Arturo Toscanini , but he liked and encouraged Wilhelm Furtwängler , admired Pierre Monteux , fostered Rudolf Kempe as his successor with the RPO , and was admired by Fritz Reiner , Otto Klemperer and Herbert von Karajan .
Despite his lordly drawl , Beecham remained a Lancastrian at heart . " In my county , where I come from , we 're all a bit vulgar , you know , but there is a certain heartiness – a sort of bonhomie about our vulgarity – which tides you over a lot of rough spots in the path . But in Yorkshire , in a spot of bother , they 're so damn @-@ set @-@ in @-@ their @-@ ways that there 's no doing anything with them ! "
Beecham has been much quoted . In 1929 , the editor of a music journal wrote , " The stories gathered around Sir Thomas Beecham are innumerable . Wherever musicians come together , he is likely to be one of the topics of conversation . Everyone telling a Beecham story tries to imitate his manner and his tone of voice . " A book , Beecham Stories , was published in 1978 consisting entirely of his bons mots and anecdotes about him . Some are variously attributed to Beecham or one or more other people , including Arnold Bax and Winston Churchill ; Neville Cardus admitted to inventing some himself . Among the Beecham lines that are reliably attributed are , " A musicologist is a man who can read music but can 't hear it " ; his maxim , " There are only two things requisite so far as the public is concerned for a good performance : that is for the orchestra to begin together and end together ; in between it doesn 't matter much " ; and his remark at his 70th birthday celebrations after telegrams were read out from Strauss , Stravinsky and Sibelius : " Nothing from Mozart ? "
He was completely indifferent to mundane tasks such as correspondence , and was less than responsible with the property of others . On one occasion , during bankruptcy proceedings , two thousand unopened letters were discovered among his papers . Havergal Brian sent him three scores with a view to having them performed . One of them , the Second English Suite , was never returned and is now considered lost .
= = Honours and commemorations = =
Beecham was knighted in 1916 and succeeded to the baronetcy on the death of his father later that year . In 1938 the President of France , Albert Lebrun , invested him with the Légion d 'honneur . In 1955 , Beecham was presented with the Order of the White Rose of Finland . He was a Commendatore of the Order of the Crown of Italy and was made a Companion of Honour in the 1957 Queen 's Birthday Honours . He was an honorary Doctor of Music of the universities of Oxford , London , Manchester and Montreal .
Beecham , by Caryl Brahms and Ned Sherrin , is a play celebrating the conductor and drawing on a large number of Beecham stories for its material . Its first production , in 1979 , starred Timothy West in the title role . It was later adapted for television , starring West , with members of the Hallé Orchestra taking part in the action and playing pieces associated with Beecham .
In 1980 the Royal Mail put Beecham 's image on the 13 ½ p postage stamp in a series portraying British conductors ; the other three in the series depicted Wood , Sargent and Barbirolli . The Sir Thomas Beecham Society preserves Beecham 's legacy through its website and release of historic recordings .
In 2012 , Beecham was voted into the inaugural Gramophone magazine " Hall of Fame " .
= = Books by Beecham = =
Beecham 's published books were :
John Fletcher ( The Romanes Lecture for 1956 ) . Oxford : Clarendon Press . 1956 . OCLC 315928398 .
A Mingled Chime – Leaves from an Autobiography . London : Hutchinson . 1959 . OCLC 3672200 .
Frederick Delius . London : Hutchinson . 1959 . OCLC 730041374 .
The last of these was reissued in 1975 by Severn House , London , with an introduction by Felix Aprahamian and a discography by Malcolm Walker , ISBN 0 @-@ 7278 @-@ 0073 @-@ 6 .
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= 55 Cancri c =
55 Cancri c ( abbreviated 55 Cnc c ) , also named Brahe , is an extrasolar planet in an eccentric orbit around the Sun @-@ like star 55 Cancri A , making one revolution every 44 @.@ 34 days . It is the third known planet in order of distance from its star . 55 Cancri c was discovered on June 13 , 2002 and has a mass roughly half of Saturn .
In July 2014 the International Astronomical Union launched a process for giving proper names to certain exoplanets and their host stars . The process involved public nomination and voting for the new names . In December 2015 , the IAU announced the winning name was Brahe for this planet . The winning name was submitted by the Royal Netherlands Association for Meteorology and Astronomy of the Netherlands . It honors the astronomer Tycho Brahe .
= = Discovery = =
Like the majority of known extrasolar planets , 55 Cancri c was detected by observing changes in its star 's radial velocity . This was achieved by making sensitive measurements of the Doppler shift of the star 's spectrum . At the time of discovery , 55 Cancri A was already known to possess one planet ( 55 Cancri b ) ; however , there was still a drift in the radial velocity measurements which was unaccounted for .
In 2002 , further measurements revealed the presence of a long @-@ period planet in an orbit at around 5 AU from the star . Even when both of the two planets were accounted for , there was still a periodicity at around 43 days . However , this period is close to the rotation period of 55 Cancri A , which led to the possibility that the 43 @-@ day period was caused by stellar rotation rather than a planet . Both the 43 @-@ day planet ( designated 55 Cancri c ) and the 5 AU planet ( designated 55 Cancri d ) were announced in the same paper , labeled in order of increasing distance from the star .
Further measurements which led to the discovery of the inner planet 55 Cancri e in 2004 lent support to the planet hypothesis . Photometric measurements of the star over 11 years show no activity with the same period as 55 Cancri c 's radial velocity variations , and furthermore the period is stable over long timescales , which is inconsistent with the hypothesis of stellar activity causing the radial velocity variations . The amplitude of the radial velocity signal is inconsistent with stellar variations on stars with 55 Cancri A 's low level of chromospheric activity .
= = Orbit and mass = =
In the 5 @-@ planet solution for the 55 Cancri system , the orbit of 55 Cancri c is mildly eccentric : at apoastron the planet is about 19 % further from the star than it is at periastron . It is located closer to 55 Cancri A than Mercury is to our sun , though it has a longer orbital period than the hot Jupiters . The planet is located close to a 3 : 1 resonance with the inner planet 55 Cancri b ; however , simulations indicate that the two planets are not actually in this resonance .
A limitation of the radial velocity method used to discover the planet is that only a lower limit on the mass can be obtained . Further astrometric observations with the Hubble Space Telescope on the outer planet 55 Cancri d suggest that planet is inclined at 53 ° to the plane of the sky ; but innermost b and e are inclined at 85 ° . Planet c 's inclination is unknown .
= = Characteristics = =
Since the planet was detected indirectly through observations of its star , properties such as its radius , composition , and temperature are unknown . With a mass similar to that of Saturn , 55 Cancri c is likely to be a gas giant with no solid surface .
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= USS Maryland ( BB @-@ 46 ) =
USS Maryland ( BB @-@ 46 ) , also known as " Old Mary " or " Fighting Mary " to her crewmates , was a Colorado @-@ class battleship . She was the third ship of the United States Navy to be named in honor of the seventh state . She was commissioned in 1921 and , serving as the flagship of the fleet , cruised to Australia , New Zealand and Brazil .
She is most notable for her service in World War II . She was present on Battleship Row during the Attack on Pearl Harbor , and was lightly damaged by Japanese bombs . Returning to duty in 1942 , she saw service in the Pacific War , first supporting the rest of the fleet at the Battle of Midway , and then patrolling the Fiji Islands to guard against Japanese incursion . Next , she went on the offensive , commencing shore bombardments in the Battle of Tarawa and later in the Battle of Kwajalein . During the Battle of Saipan she took torpedo damage to her bow , necessitating repairs and refits . She then participated in the Battle of Leyte Gulf where she was hit by a kamikaze . She took another kamikaze hit at the Battle of Okinawa , and was under repair at the end of World War II .
After service in Operation Magic Carpet , she was decommissioned in 1947 and sold for scrap in 1959 . She received seven battle stars for World War II service .
= = Construction = =
Maryland was one of four dreadnought battleships of the Colorado class to be constructed . Her keel was laid down on 24 April 1917 by Newport News Shipbuilding Company of Newport News , Virginia . She was launched on 20 March 1920 , and sponsored by Mrs. E. Brook Lee daughter @-@ in @-@ law of U.S. Senator from Maryland Blair Lee ; she was commissioned on 21 July 1921 , with Captain C.F. Preston in command . She was the third ship named for the state of Maryland , the first Maryland was a sloop commissioned in 1799 and the second Maryland was an armored cruiser commissioned in 1905 .
Maryland had an overall length of 624 feet ( 190 m ) . She had an extreme beam of 97 @.@ 5 feet ( 29 @.@ 7 m ) and a mean draft of 30 @.@ 5 feet ( 9 @.@ 3 m ) . She displaced 32 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 31 @,@ 000 long tons ; 35 @,@ 000 short tons ) . Her armor was 18 inches ( 460 mm ) at its maximum thickness . Her designed speed was 21 knots . Her crew complement consisted of 58 officers and 1 @,@ 022 men .
Maryland 's main battery consisted of eight 16 @-@ inch ( 406 mm ) / 45 caliber Mark 1 guns in four double turrets ( two in a superfiring pair forward , two in a superfiring pair mounted aft of the main superstructure ) that were capable of firing 2 @,@ 110 pounds ( 960 kg ) armor @-@ piercing ( AP ) Mark 3 shells , later upgraded to 2 @,@ 240 pounds ( 1 @,@ 020 kg ) Mark 5 . Her secondary battery consisted of twelve 5 @-@ inch ( 127 mm ) / 51 cailber guns as well as four 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) / 23 caliber guns . She was also armed with a pair of 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) submerged torpedo tubes . She was outfitted with a new type of seaplane catapult and the first 16 in ( 410 mm ) guns mounted on a U.S. ship .
= = Service history = =
= = = Inter @-@ war period = = =
Following her commissioning , Maryland undertook an East Coast shakedown cruise . Shortly thereafter , Maryland was made flagship of Admiral Hilary P. Jones . Maryland found herself in great demand for special occasions . She appeared at Annapolis , Maryland , for the 1922 United States Naval Academy graduation and at Boston , Massachusetts , for the anniversary of the battle of Bunker Hill and the Fourth of July . From 18 August to 25 September , she paid her first visit to a foreign port transporting Secretary of State Charles Evans Hughes to Rio de Janeiro for Brazil 's Centennial Exposition . The next year , after fleet exercises off the Panama Canal Zone , Maryland transited the canal in the latter part of June to join the battle fleet stationed on the west coast . She continued to be a flagship until 1923 when the flag was shifted to Pennsylvania .
She made another voyage to a foreign port in 1925 , this time to Australia and New Zealand . Several years later , in 1928 , she transported President @-@ elect Herbert Hoover on the Pacific leg of his tour of Latin America . She was overhauled in 1928 – 1929 , and the eight 3 in ( 76 mm ) anti @-@ aircraft guns were replaced by eight 5 in ( 130 mm ) / 25 cal guns . Throughout these years and the 1930s , she served as a mainstay of fleet readiness through tireless training operations . She conducted numerous patrols in the 1930s .
In 1940 , Maryland and the other battleships of the battle force changed their bases of operations to Pearl Harbor . She was present at Battleship Row along Ford Island during the Japanese attack on 7 December 1941 .
= = = Attack on Pearl Harbor = = =
On the morning of 7 December , Maryland was moored along Ford Island , with Oklahoma to port , connected by lines and a gangway . To her fore was California , while Tennessee and West Virginia were astern . Further aft were Nevada and Arizona . The seven battleships , in what is now known as " Battleship Row , " had recently returned from maneuvers . Many of Maryland 's crew were preparing for shore leave at 09 : 00 or eating breakfast when the Japanese attack began . As the first Japanese aircraft appeared and explosions rocked the outboard battleships , Maryland ' s bugler blew general quarters .
Seaman Leslie Short — addressing Christmas cards near his machine gun — brought the first of his ship 's guns into play , shooting down one of two torpedo bombers that had just released against Oklahoma . Inboard of Oklahoma , and thus protected from the initial torpedo attack , Maryland managed to bring all her antiaircraft ( AA ) batteries into action . The devastating initial attack sank Oklahoma , and she capsized quickly , with many of her surviving men climbing aboard Maryland to assist her with anti @-@ aircraft defenses .
Maryland was struck by two armor @-@ piercing bombs which detonated low on her hull . The first struck the forecastle awning and made a hole about 12 ft ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) by 20 ft ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) . The second exploded after entering the hull at the 22 ft ( 6 @.@ 7 m ) water level at Frame 10 . The latter hit caused flooding and increased the draft forward by 5 ft ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) . Maryland continued to fire and , after the attack , sent firefighting parties to assist her compatriots , especially attempting to rescue survivors from the capsized Oklahoma . The men continued to muster the AA defenses in case the Japanese returned to attack . In all , two officers and two men were killed in the attack .
The Japanese erroneously announced that Maryland had been sunk , but on 30 December , the damaged ship entered Puget Sound Navy Yard for repairs just behind Tennessee . Two of the original twelve 5 in / 51 cal guns were removed and the 5 in / 25 cal guns were replaced by an equal number of 5 in / 38 cal dual purpose guns . Over the course of several months , she was repaired and overhauled , receiving new fighting equipment . Repairs were complete on 26 February 1942 . She then underwent a series of shakedown cruises to West Coast ports and the Christmas Islands . She was sent back into action in June 1942 , the first ship damaged at Pearl Harbor to return to duty .
= = = Supporting patrols = = =
During the important Battle of Midway , Maryland played a supporting role . Like the other older battleships , she was not fast enough to accompany the aircraft carriers , so she operated with a backup fleet . Maryland stood by on security , awaiting call from other ships if she was needed , until the end of the battle . At the end of the action around Midway , Maryland was sent to San Francisco .
Thereafter , Maryland engaged in almost constant training exercises with Battleship Division 2 , Battleship Division 3 , and Battleship Division 4 until 1 August , when she returned to Pearl Harbor for repairs , her first time in the harbor since the Japanese attack . She departed Pearl Harbor in early November with Colorado , bound for the forward area . On 12 November , the pig mascot King Neptune came aboard Maryland to initiate her " pollywogs " for the line @-@ crossing ceremony . Maryland steamed for the Fiji Islands where she patrolled against Japanese incursion . The two battleships acted as sentinels to guard against Japanese advance to prevent Japanese forces from threatening Australia . During this duty , the two battleships conducted frequent sweeps for Japanese forces .
In early 1943 , with the success of the Solomon Islands campaign , Allied forces went on the offensive . In February 1943 , Maryland and Colorado moved to New Hebrides , operating off of Efate . Intense heat there proved difficult and unpleasant for the crew . She then moved to Espiritu Santo to guard against Japanese incursion , but heat and heavy rains plagued this tour of duty . Maryland and Colorado stood out of Aore Island Harbor in August . During a five @-@ week overhaul at Pearl Harbor 's shipyard , several 40 millimetres ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) AA guns were installed on the top decks and foremast as protection against anticipated Japanese air raids in future operations .
= = = Battle of Tarawa = = =
Departing the Hawaiian Islands on 20 October 1943 for the South Pacific , Maryland became flagship for Rear Admiral Harry W. Hill 's V Amphibious Force and Southern Attack Force in the Gilbert Islands Invasion . Also aboard her were Major General Julian C. Smith , commander of 2nd Marine Division , General " Howling Mad " Smith , commander of the Marine landing forces , and Colonel Evans Carlson , commander of Carlson 's Raiders . Maryland returned to Efate Island staging area , where she joined a large task force preparing for an assault on Tarawa .
The battle of Tarawa commenced on 20 November . In her first offensive action of the war , Maryland 's guns opened fire at 05 : 00 , destroying a shore battery with five salvos on the southwestern point of Betio Island in the Tarawa Atoll . At 06 : 00 she commenced a scheduled shore bombardment to soften up Japanese defenses ahead of the landings . Maryland moved closer to shore to attract Japanese fire and locate artillery emplacements , in the process raking Japanese gun emplacements , control stations , pillboxes and any Japanese installations she could spot . At 09 : 00 as Marine landing forces encountered heavy Japanese resistance and began taking casualties to emplaced crossfire , Maryland provided covering fire to eliminate several Japanese machine gun nests . Her scouting plane then began to cover the progress of the Marines ' assault , with Maryland providing artillery support . The plane was damaged and pilot wounded in this action .
After three days of covering the offensive on Betio Island , she moved to Apamama Island to guard Marine landings there . Marines met with only light resistance from 30 Japanese soldiers there , and two prisoners were brought to Maryland . On 7 December , Maryland left Apamama Island for Pearl Harbor . After a brief stopover there , Maryland left for San Francisco for repairs .
= = = Battle of Kwajalein Atoll = = =
Maryland steamed from San Pedro , California on 13 January 1944 , rendezvoused with Task Force 53 at Lahaina Roads for two days of loading ammunition , refueling , and provisioning ahead of a new operation supporting the Marshall Islands campaign . On 30 January 1944 , she moved to support landings on Roi Island , along with Santa Fe , Biloxi , and Indianapolis , which formed the Northern Support Group of TF 35 .
In the predawn hours of 31 January , the ships began a bombardment of Kwajalein Atoll , the opening moves of the battle of Kwajalein . Maryland destroyed numerous Japanese stationary guns and pillboxes . In the course of the battle , she fired so much that she split the liners in the guns of Turret No. 1 , putting it out of action for the rest of the day . On 1 February , she continued her attack on Japanese positions as the U.S. landing forces advanced . She became the flagship for Admiral Connally for the next two weeks , resupplying and refueling many of the smaller ships in the operation until she departed with a task unit of carriers and destroyers on 15 February 1944 , steaming for Bremerton Navy Yard , where she underwent another overhaul , with her guns being replaced .
= = = Battle of Saipan = = =
Two months later , Maryland sailed westward on 5 May , joining Task Force 52 headed for Saipan . Vice Admiral Richmond K. Turner allotted TF 52 three days to soften up the island 's defenses ahead of the assault . Firing commenced at 05 : 45 on 14 June . They quickly destroyed two coastal guns , then began bombarding Garapan , destroying ammunition dumps , gun positions , small boats , storage tanks , blockhouses and buildings . She then turned her guns to Tanapag , leveling it in heavy bombardment . The invasion commenced 15 June , and Maryland provided fire support for the landing forces .
The Japanese attempted to counter the battleships through the air . On 18 June , the ship 's guns shot down their first Japanese aircraft , but on 22 June , a Mitsubishi G4M3 " Betty " medium bomber flew low over the still @-@ contested Saipan hills and found Maryland and Pennsylvania . The Japanese plane dropped a torpedo , opening a large hole in Maryland 's portside bow . The attack caused light casualties , and in 15 minutes she was underway for Eniwetok , and from there she steamed for the repair yards at Pearl Harbor ( in reverse the whole time so as not to do further damage to her bow ) , escorted by two destroyers . Two men were killed in the attack .
With an around @-@ the @-@ clock effort by the shipyard workers , Maryland was repaired in 34 days , departing on 13 August . She then embarked for the Solomon Islands with a large task force , anchoring in Purvis Bay off Florida Island for two weeks before steaming for the Palau Islands on 6 September . She then joined Rear Admiral Jesse B. Oldendorf 's Western Fire Support Group ( Task Group 32 @.@ 5 ; TG 32 @.@ 5 ) . Firing first on 12 September to cover minesweeping operations and underwater demolition teams at the opening of the Battle of Peleliu , Maryland again conducted shore bombardment supporting the landing craft as they approached the beaches on 15 September . Four days later , organized resistance collapsed , permitting the fire support ships to retire to the Admiralty Islands at the end of the month .
= = = Battle of Leyte Gulf = = =
Maryland steamed for Seeadler Harbor , Manus where she was assigned to the 7th Fleet under Admiral Kincaid . The fleet sortied 12 October and Maryland joined Task Group 77 @.@ 2 , which was the gunfire and covering force for the invasion of Leyte . She , along with four other battleships and numerous cruisers and destroyers , steamed into Leyte Gulf on the morning of 18 October . Maryland took position between Red and White Beaches and began bombarding them ahead of the invasion , which began at 10 : 00 20 October . Securing the beaches quickly , Maryland then took up a sentinel position in Leyte Gulf to guard the beaches against Japanese counterattack by sea .
For the next several days , Japanese forces launched air raids to counter the incursion . These included the first widespread use of the kamikaze suicide attack . Several days later , U.S. submarines in the South China Sea spotted two Japanese forces on approach : five battleships steaming toward San Bernardino Strait , and another force of four Japanese carriers in northern Luzon .
On 24 October , Maryland , West Virginia , Mississippi , Tennessee , California , and Pennsylvania sailed to the southern end of Leyte Gulf to protect Surigao Strait with several cruisers , destroyers , and PT Boats . Early on 25 October , during the Battle of Surigao Strait , Japanese battleships Fusō and Yamashiro , with their screens , led the Japanese advance into the Strait . At 03 : 55 , the waiting Americans ships launched an ambush of the two Japanese battleships , pounding them with torpedoes and main guns . Torpedoes from the destroyers sunk Fusō . Continued attacks by the task force also claimed Yamashiro . A few of the remaining Japanese ships then fled to the Mindanao Sea , pursued by Allied aircraft .
Following the victory , Maryland patrolled the southern approaches to Surigao Strait until 29 October ; she then steamed for the Admiralty Isles for brief replenishment and resumed patrol duty around Leyte on 16 November , protecting the landing forces from continued Japanese air attacks . On 29 November , during another Japanese air attack , a kamikaze aircraft surprised and struck Maryland . The aircraft crashed into Maryland between Turrets No. 1 and 2 , piercing the forecastle , main , and armored decks and blowing a hole in the 4 inch steel , causing extensive damage and starting fires . In all , 31 men were killed and 30 wounded in the attack , and the medical department was destroyed but still functional .
The battleship continued her patrols until relieved on 2 December , when she sailed with two heavily damaged destroyers for repairs . She reached Pearl Harbor on 18 December , and was extensively repaired and refitted over the next several months .
= = = Battle of Okinawa = = =
After refresher training , Maryland headed for the western Pacific on 4 March 1945 , arriving Ulithi on 16 March . There she joined the 5th Fleet and Rear Admiral Morton Deyo 's Task Force 54 ( TF 54 ) , which was preparing for the invasion of Okinawa . The fleet departed on 21 March , bound for Okinawa .
Maryland was assigned targets on the southern coast of Okinawa to support a diversionary landing , which would distract Japanese forces away from the main landing on the west coast . Japanese forces responded with several air raids , with two of Maryland 's radar picket destroyers being struck by kamikaze planes , with Luce sinking . On 3 April , she was moved to the west coast invasion beaches to assist Minneapolis in destroying several shore batteries . Following the land invasion , she remained with the support force off Bolo Point providing artillery support for the invading troops .
Maryland continued fire support duty until 7 April , when she steamed north to intercept a Japanese surface force with TF 54 . The Japanese ships , including the Yamato , came under constant U.S. air attacks that day , and planes of the Fast Carrier Task Force sank six of the 10 ships in the force . At dusk , a kamikaze loaded with a 551 lb ( 250 kg ) bomb crashed the top of Turret No. 3 from starboard . The explosion wiped out the 20 mm mounts and caused a large fire . The 20mm ammunition ignited from the heat , causing further casualties . In all , 10 were killed , 37 injured and 6 missing following this attack . Maryland remained on station for the next week and continued her artillery support mission through several more air raids . Turret No. 3 , damaged but usable , remained silent for the remainder of this mission .
On 14 April , Maryland left the firing line at Okinawa and escorted several retiring transports . They steamed via the Mariana Islands and Guam to Pearl Harbor , and she reached the Puget Sound Navy Yard at Bremerton on 7 May for extensive overhaul . All of her 5 in guns were removed and replaced by sixteen 5 inch / 38 cal guns in new twin mounts . Turret No. 3 was repaired and the crew quarters were improved . She completed repairs in August , leaving for tests and training runs just as Japan surrendered , ending the war .
She next entered Operation Magic Carpet fleet . During the remaining months of 1945 , Maryland made five voyages between the west coast and Pearl Harbor , returning more than 8 @,@ 000 servicemen to the United States .
= = = Post @-@ war = = =
Arriving at Seattle , Washington on 17 December , Maryland completed her Operation Magic Carpet duty . She entered Puget Sound Naval Shipyard on 15 April 1946 , and was placed in commission in inactive reserve on 16 July . She was decommissioned at Bremerton on 3 April 1947 , and remained there as a unit of the Pacific Reserve Fleet . Maryland was sold for scrapping to Learner Company of Oakland , California on 8 July 1959 .
On 2 June 1961 , Governor of Maryland J. Millard Tawes , dedicated a monument to the memory of Maryland and her men . Built of granite and bronze and incorporating the bell of " Fighting Mary " , this monument is located on the grounds of the State House in Annapolis , Maryland .
= = Awards = =
American Defense Service Medal with " FLEET " clasp
American Campaign Medal
Asiatic Pacific Campaign Medal with seven battle stars
World War II Victory Medal
The Maryland received seven battle stars for World War II service .
Pearl Harbor @-@ Midway : 7 December 1941
Gilbert Islands operation : 13 November – 8 December 1943
Marshall Islands operation : Occupation of Kwajalein and Majuro Islands : 28 January – 8 February 1944
Marianas operation : Capture and occupation of Saipan : 11 June – 10 August 1944
Western Caroline Islands operations : Capture and occupation of southern Palau Island : 6 September – 14 October 1944
Leyte operation : Leyte landings : 1 October – 29 November 1944
Okinawa Gunto operation : Assault and occupation of Okinawa Gunto : 24 March – 30 June 1945
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= Hightail =
Hightail – formerly YouSendIt – is a cloud service that lets users send , receive , digitally sign and synchronize files . YouSendIt.com and YouSendIt Inc. were founded in 2004 ; the company renamed itself Hightail in 2013 .
The company 's early focus was on helping users send files that were too large for email ; it started adding features and plug @-@ ins for businesses in 2007 . The service grew quickly , and the firm raised $ 49 million in funding between 2005 and 2010 . The service can now be used via the web , a desktop client , mobile devices , or from within business applications with a Hightail plugin .
In May 2015 , the company launched Hightail Spaces , designed to encourage creative professionals from conception of an idea to delivery .
= = History = =
Hightail was founded as YouSendIt Inc. in 2004 by three cofounders : Ranjith Kumaram , Amir Shaikh and Khalid Shaikh . In its early years , Amir pursued advertising revenues , Jimmy Vienneau managed business development , Francis Wu created the graphic design including the logo , while Kumaran focused on the user experience and Khalid did technical work . By May 2004 , the company had 300 @,@ 000 users and was growing 30 percent each month . That September , Cambrian Ventures invested $ 250 @,@ 000 . At first , YouSendIt was mainly used to send large files , such as photos or audio files , which were too large for the file @-@ size limits set by email providers at the time .
$ 5 million in funding was raised in August 2005 . Afterwards there was a falling out between the founders . Within a few years , Khalid and Amir Shaikh left the company , while Kumaran stayed in a product management and marketing role . In 2011 , Shaikh plead guilty to making denial of service ( DoS ) attacks on the website for the YouSendIt service between December 2008 to June 2009 .
Ivan Koon took over as CEO and YouSendIt continued to raise a total of $ 49 million . YouSendIt grew as file recipients saw how the service works , reaching 100 @,@ 000 paying users and 8 @.@ 5 million registered users by March 2009 . In January 2011 , YouSendIt Inc. acquired a developer of Microsoft Outlook add @-@ ons , Attassa , and an iPhone app developer , Zosh .
In May 2012 , a former AOL and Yahoo ! executive , Brad Garlinghouse , was appointed as CEO . He refocused the company on file sharing and remote document access , placing it in competition with Dropbox Inc. and Box Inc . Hightail began advertising against competitors Dropbox and Box with slogans like " Your files should be neither Dropped nor Boxed " .
In January 2013 , YouSendIt acquired Found Software , a company that develops the Found for Mac application that searches for files on Macintosh computers and connected networks . In July of that year YouSendIt announced its rebranding as Hightail , to represent its move beyond file sharing and into file collaboration services . New mobile apps for iOS and Windows devices were also introduced , as well as an unlimited storage option .
In September 2013 , Hightail acquired adeptCloud , a security @-@ focused file @-@ sharing service for hosting files inside a corporate firewall . In November , Hightail raised $ 34 million in additional funding . Brad Garlinghouse resigned as CEO in September 2014 , allegedly due to disagreements with the board of directors . He was replaced by co @-@ founder Ranjith Kumaran .
= = Products and services = =
Users of the Hightail service upload a file to Hightail 's servers and recipients are provided with a link where the file can be downloaded . Users can also manage files in an online folder system , or create desktop folders that access online storage .
In addition to Hightail.com , the service can be used from desktop applications for Windows and Mac , or from mobile apps for iOS and Android devices . There are also plugins for business applications , such as Microsoft Outlook and Yahoo ! Mail , that allow users to send files from within the application . Documents can be signed digitally with Hightail using a mouse or touch @-@ screen . The service has a pay @-@ per @-@ use security feature and files sent through Hightail are encrypted during transit and while stored on individual devices or servers .
The consumer version is sold on a freemium basis , while a business product is sold as YouSendIt for Business , which was originally released as Workstream . YouSendIt for Business integrates with Active Directory and Microsoft Sharepoint . The business version has additional features for corporate use , such as remote data wipes on mobile devices , service level agreements and controls for compliance requirements , such as HIPAA and PCI .
As of 2013 , the company has more than 40 million registered users , in about 200 countries . Most use its free service for 2 GB of storage , while a half @-@ million pay for unlimited storage and additional features .
= = = Software versions = = =
YouSendIt was initially known as a way for individuals to share personal files and images on YouSendIt.com. In 2007 , a Corporate Suite was released that had management and reporting features for business users . The following year , a tool for embedding YouSendIt into third @-@ party websites , called SiteDrop , was introduced .
Throughout 2008 , YouSendIt added plugins that allowed files to be sent through YouSendIt from within applications like Final Cut Pro , Microsoft Outlook , and Adobe Acrobat . In May of that year , a new release of Yahoo ! Mail included YouSendIt built @-@ in , which added a million YouSendIt users over the following two months . In July , YouSendIt 's online folder management system and digital signing features were introduced in order to compete with Dropbox . The following month , YouSendIt added applications for Mac and PC desktops , as well as iOS and Android devices .
In March 2012 , YouSendIt released a separate product intended for business users called Workstream , which was later renamed to YouSendIt for Business .
= = Reception = =
PC Magazine gave the service a 4 / 5 rating . The reviewer , Jeffrey Wilson , found its app easy to use and noted its digital signing and cloud storage features . Wilson reported problems when trying to use the digital signing feature with the phone held vertically and experienced occasional crashes . TopTenReviews gave the service a 9 @.@ 5 out of 10 . TopTenReviews praised the product for unlimited downloads and accessibility from a desktop , laptop or other mobile device . In benchmark tests , the service took seven minutes to upload a 30 MB file , compared to an industry average of six minutes .
According to a review in Small Business Trends , " Probably one of the most powerful features is the ability to sign digital documents . " A review in About.com said the service was easy @-@ to @-@ use and noted its features for password protection , file @-@ tracking and interface branding , but also pointed out that users cannot copy themselves on files sent through the Hightail Outlook application . A reviewer at MacLife liked its synchronization and collaboration tools , but had some complaints about a " clunky " user interface .
For the " for Business " product , PC Advisor stated that Dropbox , had better customization , while YouSendIt had the advantage of integration with Sharepoint and Active Directory for corporate environments . Enterprise Strategy Group ( ESG ) conducted a comparative review of vendors in the file sharing and collaboration market in 2012 . It gave an average score from an end @-@ user 's perspective and a slightly below @-@ average score from an administrator 's perspective . ESG noted that the pricing model was expensive on a per @-@ user basis , but its lack of caps or surcharges made it more affordable for heavy users . ESG testers found it easy and secure , but noted it lacked the auditing and workflow features of some competitors .
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= Brian Tierney =
Brian P. Tierney ( born 1957 ) is an American advertising and public relations executive and former publisher of The Philadelphia Inquirer . Born in Upper Darby Township , Pennsylvania , Tierney created Tierney Communications , one of the largest and most successful public relations and advertising firms in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania , which he sold in 1999 and left in 2003 . Tierney currently serves as chief executive officer of Brian Communications , which he founded in 2010 , and RealTime Media , which he bought from the previous owners with the help of the venture firm , New Spring Capital . During his early years as a public relations advocate for his clients , Tierney was known for occasionally contacting reporters and their editors when he believed there was evidence of bias or unprofessionalism surrounding a negative story about his clients . Five years after True North Communications acquired Tierney Communications in 1998 , Tierney left and founded another public relations firm , which was a sold a few months later .
Tierney in 2006 assembled a group of investors to form Philadelphia Media Holdings LLC , a group started with the purpose of buying The Philadelphia Inquirer and Philadelphia Daily News . Chief executive of Philadelphia Media Holdings , Mr. Tierney also became the publisher of the Philadelphia Inquirer shortly after Philadelphia Media Holdings bought the paper . Initially , there were concerns about Tierney 's neutrality because of earlier roles he held working in Republican politics and clashes he had with some reporters . But Mr. Tierney calmed those fears by hiring respected journalist and two @-@ time Pulitzer Prize winner William K. Marimow as editor of The Inquirer and by signing a pledge not to interfere with the editorial content of the two newspapers . Under Mr. Marimow , the editorial quality of The Inquirer improved as the paper returned to its roots by doing more investigative stories . Initially , circulation increased in 2007 and advertising sales improved . Meanwhile , the Daily News won the 2010 Pulitzer Prize for investigative journalism for a series of stories on corrupt Philadelphia cops . However , the 2008 financial crisis led to a steep drop in advertising revenue . At the same time , circulation dropped as more readers migrated to the Internet . Newspaper values across the country plummeted by 90 percent or more . Mr. Tierney 's group bought the paper at the top of the market and was saddled with a heavy debt burden . As a result , Philadelphia Media Holdings was forced to file for bankruptcy protection under the U.S. Bankruptcy Code . On April 28 , 2010 , the Philadelphia Inquirer , Daily News and philly.com were sold at a bankruptcy auction to a group of the original lenders , hedge funds and vulture investors led by Angelo Gordon & Company for $ 139 million . Mr. Tierney stepped down from his position as CEO of the company on May 21 , 2010 in order to allow for a smooth transition . Several news accounts of his tenure have called him an " improbable savior " and an " unlikely warrior . " Other accounts have said , " For Tierney ... his tenure as CEO by many measures could be rated a success . " and " As for Tierney , give him credit for trying . "
In the fall of 2010 , Tierney went back to his marketing and public relations roots by launching Brian Communications , and purchasing Realtime Media , a company specializing in digital marketing services for brands that include CNN , L ’ Oréal , Toys “ R ” Us and Unilever . The fast @-@ growing firm moved to Conshohocken , Pa. in the summer of 2013 after outgrowing its old office space .
Outside of business , Tierney has been active in politics and a supporter of Republican causes . Working for the Ronald Reagan administration in the 1980s , Tierney also worked in George W. Bush 's 2000 Presidential election campaign , and Sam Katz 's 2003 run for Philadelphia mayor . Tierney is also an active member of numerous board of directors including NutriSystem , The Episcopal Academy and the Poynter Institute Foundation , where he serves as chairman .
= = Early life = =
Brian Tierney is the fourth of five sons of James and Claire Tierney . Growing up in Upper Darby Township , Pennsylvania , he attended Waldron Mercy Academy and later The Episcopal Academy . When he was seven , his family moved to Springfield Township , Pennsylvania . In 1975 , at the age of eighteen , Tierney unsuccessfully sought the Democratic nomination for township commissioner of Springfield . During the campaign supporters of his opponent in the Democratic primary had torn down his campaign posters and stole other campaign items . Tierney became a Republican after the primary when a few Republicans who said they would look out for his stuff during his primary campaign , invited him to a party meeting .
He graduated from the University of Pennsylvania in 1979 , majoring in political science . At the University of Pennsylvania , Tierney ran the Penn Students for Gerald Ford campaign , and , at the age of twenty @-@ two , moved to Washington , D.C. where he worked for the Republican National Committee in various positions , including as a messenger between Ronald Reagan 's administration and Republican candidates across the country . Tierney moved back to the Philadelphia region as a Reagan appointee in the U.S. Small Business Administration 's public affairs office . In 1987 , he received a law degree from Widener University . Tierney married in 1980 and has two children .
= = Public relations = =
While earning his law degree at Widener University , Tierney founded Tierney & Company Public Relations in 1984 , which he financed on his credit card . In 1986 , he sold the company to Lewis Gilman & Kynett . Tierney stayed with Lewis Gilman & Kynett and by the time he turned twenty @-@ nine he had become president and CEO of the public relations division . In 1989 , he left Lewis Gilman & Kynett and founded Tierney Group , another public relations company , with just three people . One of those people remembers Tierney 's saying " We need to look at what everyone else is charging and charge our clients $ 15 an hour more . " When told that was crazy Tierney responded , " We 're going to be the best at what we do . We need to charge people accordingly . " The company quickly grew with billings of US $ 3 @.@ 5 million and thirty @-@ five employees in offices in three cities .
In 1994 Tierney , in association with Chicago @-@ based True North Communications , made a deal with Foote , Cone & Belding Communications to take control of FCB Philadelphia . FCB Philadelphia , which up to 1989 was Lewis Gilman & Kynett , was renamed FCB / Tierney in May 1994 and renamed again in 1995 to Tierney & Partners . Tierney built the company into one of the largest public relations and advertising firms in the Mid Atlantic . Tierney 's clients included IBM , McDonald 's , Verizon , PECO Energy and the Pennsylvania Lottery . The company created an award winning advertising campaign for Verizon starring James Earl Jones and the slogan " Philadelphia : The place that loves you back " for the Greater Philadelphia Tourism Marketing Corporation . Other advertising campaigns included wrapping a giant hoagie around Philadelphia City Hall to promote Wawa Food Markets and an ad campaign to prevent a hostile takeover of PECO Energy by Enron .
= = = Cipriano affair = = =
Along with promotions , Tierney would advocate on behalf of his clients when targeted by news reporters . Tierney would sometimes contact news editors to complain about coverage of his clients , accusing news reporters of being biased , incompetent and unprofessional . The most notable of Tierney 's complaints to reporters was directed at The Philadelphia Inquirer and Inquirer reporter Ralph Cipriano .
Ralph Cipriano was The Philadelphia Inquirer 's religion reporter for about a year in 1993 . During that time he was called several times by Tierney on behalf of Tierney 's client , the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Philadelphia . After leaving the religion reporter position , Cipriano wrote articles for the Sunday paper , where in 1997 he wrote a profile on Cardinal Anthony Bevilacqua . The profile turned into an investigative piece as Cipriano obtained documents detailing US $ 5 million in questionable spending and how the church was spending millions in the suburbs while cutting inner @-@ city services .
While Cipriano worked on the piece , he and his editors , Jonathan Neumann and Pulitzer Prize winner Robert Rosenthal , were contacted by Tierney . Tierney accused Ralph Cipriano of using inaccurate facts , trespassing and creating a protest at the Archdiocese 's vacation home in Ventnor City , New Jersey , all of which Cipriano denies . Cipriano says that Tierney indicated to him that it was the Archdiocese that had gotten him removed from the religion reporter position , a position Cipriano says he thought he left on his own . Also according to Cipriano , Tierney indicated that if Cipriano was involved in any story about the Archdiocese of Philadelphia , Tierney would start a public relations campaign to ruin Cipriano and The Philadelphia Inquirer , a charge that Tierney denies .
The story Cipriano originally wanted in The Inquirer was never published . Cipriano accused The Inquirer of censoring his report and giving into demands from the Archdiocese . Cipriano eventually was published in the National Catholic Reporter and editor Robert Rosenthal accused Cipriano of bias and not being able to prove his stories . Rosenthal said Cipriano " has a very strong personal point of view and an agenda ... There were things we didn 't publish that Ralph wrote that we didn 't think were truthful . He could never prove them . " Cipriano sued Rosenthal and The Inquirer for libel and the case was later settled out of court . In an 2001 interview with the Editor & Publisher , Cardinal Bevilacqua credited Tierney with stopping the story and noted that The Philadelphia Inquirer 's stories about the Archdiocese have been more positive . In 1998 Tierney was named a Knight of the Order of St. Gregory the Great by Pope John Paul II .
= = = Later ventures = = =
Tierney Group and Tierney & Partners , later renamed Tierney Communications , was bought by True North Communications in 1998 , which is now part of Interpublic Group . Tierney continued as CEO until April 2002 , when he stepped down . He continued with Tierney Communications as chairman until December 1 , 2003 , when Tierney resigned and announced he was founding a new public relations firm , T2 Group .
T2 Group lasted until June 2004 when Tierney announced it was being bought by credit card company Advanta and that Tierney and most of T2 's management would be hired by Advanta . Tierney became vice chairman of Advanta , but in February 2005 , Advanta announced Tierney was no longer serving as vice @-@ chairman . The company gave no explanation as to why Tierney lost the position and Tierney 's employment with the company ended the next month .
= = Philadelphia Media Holdings = =
In 2005 Tierney attempted to buy magazines Inc. and Fast Company from Gruner + Jahr , but failed . Tierney tried again to enter the media industry in March 2006 when he assembled a group of mostly former clients or people that are with him on the board of the Episcopal Academy to buy Philadelphia Newspapers Inc . He and other local businessman formed Philadelphia Media Holdings LLC and bought The Philadelphia Inquirer , Philadelphia Daily News and philly.com for US $ 515 million from The McClatchy Company which was selling off newspapers in unionized and low @-@ growth markets after buying Philadelphia Newspapers Inc . ' s parent company Knight Ridder . The buyout was met with skepticism by many at The Inquirer , especially by reporters who had been contacted in the past by Tierney on behalf of his clients . Tierney allayed fears with the members of Philadelphia Media Holdings signing a pledge not to interfere with the paper 's editorial independence . Tierney said he would combat The Inquirer 's decreasing revenue by spending millions on advertisements and promotions and not by laying off staff . Tierney assumed the role as publisher of The Philadelphia Inquirer in August 2006 after former publisher Joe Natoli resigned for a job at the University of Miami .
The Inquirer 's circulation has been dropping since the 1980s , and except for briefly seeing a rise in weekday circulation in 2007 , The Philadelphia Inquirer 's weekday and Sunday circulation has continued to steadily drop since Philadelphia Media Holdings bought the paper . Loss of circulation combined with an unexpected drop in advertising revenue have forced more than 400 job cuts at The Inquirer and Daily News since they were bought by Philadelphia Media Holdings . As Philadelphia Media Holdings financial situation worsened in 2008 employees began complaining about how management has been monitoring things such as bathroom breaks and the coffee they drink , and that Tierney has been patrolling the parking garage seeing what time employees arrive for work . Despite efforts to manage the financial strain , on February 21 , 2009 , Philadelphia Newspapers LLC , the subsidiary of Philadelphia Media Holdings that owns the paper , filled for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection . The company hoped to restructure the US $ 390 million in debt it borrowed to buy the newspapers , but the end result was that the papers were auctioned off to the company 's lenders . The beginning of 2009 also saw the filing of a lawsuit that accused The Philadelphia Inquirer of writing critical stories about Chester Community Charter School 's use of public funds after business negotiations between school operator Vahan H. Gureghian and Tierney failed .
= = Other activities = =
Tierney continued his political activism in the 1990s and early 2000s by donating to local and national campaigns and headed George W. Bush 's outreach to Catholics in the 2000 Presidential Election . Tierney was credited with helping generate votes for Bush and helping him win important states like Ohio and Missouri . Tierney also frequently appeared as a conservative voice on WPVI @-@ TV 's Inside Story . In 2003 Tierney headed Sam Katz 's third campaign for mayor of Philadelphia , which he lost to incumbent mayor John F. Street . During the campaign , Tierney was involved in a highly publicized dispute with Neil Oxman . Oxman was a political consultant and friend of Sam Katz who worked on Katz 's 1999 run for mayor . Oxman left Katz 's 2003 campaign because he was unable to work with Tierney , saying Tierney was a " shameless self @-@ promoter " and " full of bullshit " . Katz praised Tierney , who he said was full of optimism , which Katz said was a great asset when things were going poorly in the campaign and in Katz 's personal life .
Tierney is a member of numerous board of directors in the Philadelphia area . He has been on the boards of Thomas Jefferson University , the Zoological Society of Philadelphia and the University Museum of the University of Pennsylvania , among others . A member of the board for NutriSystem , Tierney played an important role in the company 's turnaround with the decision to dramatically increase the marketing budget . As a member of the board of the Episcopal Academy , Tierney galvanized the board of directors to buy land in Newtown Square , Pennsylvania and move the school there . In 2001 , the school 's board of trustees approved the preliminary step of buying 123 acres ( 49 @.@ 8 ha ) of farmland in Newtown Square . Tierney , along with fellow board member Brian O 'Neill , led a ninety @-@ day campaign to raise the US $ 20 million needed for the property .
The Pennsylvania Report named him to the 2009 " The Pennsylvania Report 100 " list of influential figures in Pennsylvania . In 2002 , he was named to the PoliticsPA list of politically influential individuals . In 2003 , he was named the PoliticsPA list of politically invluential individuals , where he was called a " potential statewide candidate in 2004 . "
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= Evan Gattis =
James Evan Gattis ( born August 18 , 1986 ) is an American professional baseball designated hitter and catcher for the Houston Astros of Major League Baseball ( MLB ) . He made his MLB debut with the Atlanta Braves on April 3 , 2013 . Gattis has also earned the nickname of " El Oso Blanco " or The White Bear , due to his raw power capabilities , and his large beard . While with Atlanta , he played catcher and occasionally left field .
Gattis was a premier amateur baseball player in the Dallas – Fort Worth area through high school . However , anxiety and substance abuse led him to abandon his scholarship to Texas A & M University . After wandering around the Western United States for four years , he returned to baseball , and was drafted by the Braves in 2010 .
After playing in minor league baseball for the Braves , Gattis made the team 's Opening Day roster in 2013 . Receiving playing time with Brian McCann on the disabled list , Gattis won the National League Rookie of the Month Award for both April and May 2013 . He became the Braves ' primary catcher in 2014 , but was traded to the Astros before the 2015 season .
= = Early life = =
Gattis grew up in Forney , Texas , and began playing baseball at the age of six . His parents divorced when he was eight years old , and at the age of 12 , he moved from his mother 's house to live with his father 's new family . Busy playing baseball , Gattis never processed his parents ' divorce .
Gattis played for the Dallas Tigers , one of the premier amateur teams in the Dallas – Fort Worth metroplex . Clayton Kershaw , Corey Kluber and Yovani Gallardo were some of his teammates . He played on traveling All @-@ Star teams with Austin Jackson and in the Junior Olympic Games with Billy Butler , Homer Bailey , and Justin Upton . He attended high schools in the Dallas area , including R. L. Turner High School , Forney High School , and Bishop Lynch High School , in order to play for specific coaches .
Projected as a potential draft pick in the first eight rounds of the 2004 Major League Baseball ( MLB ) Draft , Gattis instead intimated that he intended to attend college and play college baseball . While Rice University offered him a scholarship to play first base , he accepted an offer from Texas A & M University , who wanted him to play as their catcher . However , the divorce of his parents and anxiety derived from the fear of failing at college baseball led Gattis to abuse alcohol and marijuana . He went undrafted in the 2004 draft .
Instead of going to college , Gattis ' mother took him to a drug rehabilitation facility , where he had a 30 @-@ day inpatient stay . He then went to Prescott , Arizona , where he had three months of outpatient therapy while living in a halfway house .
Gattis enrolled at Seminole State College , a junior college in Seminole , Oklahoma , after receiving a recruitment phone call from the team 's coach . Gattis redshirted as a freshman and played for half a season in 2006 . He injured his knee at Seminole State , became burned out on baseball , and quit .
Gattis ' first job after quitting baseball was as a parking valet in Dallas . He then visited his sister in Boulder , Colorado , and decided to reside there . He sold his truck and worked in a pizza parlor and as a ski @-@ lift operator at the Eldora Mountain Resort . Depressed , unable to sleep , and contemplating suicide , Gattis entered an inpatient psychiatric ward for three days in the summer of 2007 , where he was diagnosed with clinical depression and an anxiety disorder . He was released into the care of his father .
After living in Colorado for seven months , Gattis then moved to Dallas with his brother , where they worked as janitors for Datamatics Global Services . He met a New Age spiritual advisor there , and on her advice , he followed her to Taos , New Mexico . There , he lived in a hostel and worked at a ski resort . Three months later , he moved to California to find more spiritual gurus . Gattis also moved to Wyoming , where he worked at Yellowstone National Park .
= = Baseball career = =
= = = College and minor leagues = = =
Gattis decided to return to baseball in 2010 . His step @-@ brother , Drew Kendrick , was a college baseball player at the University of Texas of the Permian Basin . Brian Reinke , the coach of the Texas – Permian Basin Falcons , remembered Gattis from his high school career , and offered him a spot on the team . That season , he had a .403 batting average and 11 home runs . He was named the Heartland Conference 's player of the week for the week ending February 7 , and to the Conference 's post @-@ season first team .
The Atlanta Braves selected Gattis in the 23rd round of the 2010 MLB Draft . He batted .288 with four home runs in 35 games for the Danville Braves of the Rookie @-@ level Appalachian League that year . He failed to make the opening day roster of any Braves minor league team in 2011 , and remained in extended spring training . He was added to the roster of the Rome Braves of the Class A South Atlantic League ( SAL ) in May . Gattis won the SAL player of the week award twice during the season , and won the SAL batting title . After the season , the managers of the 14 teams in the SAL named Gattis to the post @-@ season all @-@ star team .
Gattis started the 2012 season with the Lynchburg Hillcats of the Class A @-@ Advanced Carolina League . After starting the season with a .385 batting average , nine home runs , and 29 runs batted in ( RBIs ) in 21 games , he was promoted to the Mississippi Braves of the Class AA Southern League at the end of April . With Brian McCann starting for the Braves and top prospect Christian Bethancourt regarded as an excellent catcher , Gattis was shifted to left field . After the regular season , he played in the Venezuelan Winter League , where he batted .303 with 16 home runs and a .595 slugging percentage in 53 games , leading the league in home runs and slugging percentage . He earned the nickname " El Oso Blanco " , Spanish for " the White Bear " .
= = = Atlanta Braves = = =
The Braves invited Gattis to spring training in 2013 as a non @-@ roster player . With a 19 @-@ for @-@ 53 ( .358 ) performance in the Grapefruit League and McCann starting the season on the disabled list , the Braves added Gattis to their Opening Day roster to share catching duties with Gerald Laird . On April 3 , 2013 , Gattis made his major league debut . He recorded his first hit as a major leaguer , a home run off of Roy Halladay , in his second at bat . He batted .333 in his first eight games , also homering off of Stephen Strasburg . Gattis was named the National League ( NL ) Rookie of the Month for April 2013 , in which he batted .250 and led all major league rookies with six home runs , a .566 slugging percentage ( SLG ) , 16 RBIs , and 43 total bases .
Following the return of McCann from the disabled list and an injury to outfielder Jason Heyward , Gattis began to play left field for the Braves . Gattis was again named NL Rookie of the Month for the month of May , after batting .303 with a .362 on @-@ base percentage and a .683 SLG for the month , while leading all rookies with 16 RBIs and tying Jedd Gyorko for most home runs as a rookie with six . Gattis became the first rookie to win consecutive Rookie of the Month awards since Heyward in 2010 . Gattis was on the disabled list from June 19 through July 14 with a strained oblique muscle .
With a 5 @-@ for @-@ 36 ( .139 ) slump in August and McCann catching regularly , Gattis began to lose playing time . The Braves sent Gattis to the Gwinnett Braves of the Class AAA International League on August 31 so that he could play regularly . They recalled him on September 3 , when the International League season ended . On September 8 against Cole Hamels , Gattis recorded the longest home run of 2013 , calculated at 486 feet ( 148 m ) , which was also the longest home run in the history of Citizens Bank Park . Later in that same game Gattis hit another 400 + foot home run off of Hamels after flying out to the warning track in a previous at bat . Hamels was quoted as saying " I felt like I was throwing a golf ball and he had a driver . He 's probably going to be in the strongest man competition . " He ended the season with a .243 batting average , 21 home runs and 65 RBIs . He played a total of 47 games in left field and 38 at catcher . Gattis finished tied for seventh in NL Rookie of the Year balloting .
During the offseason , Gattis had surgery to remove a bone chip in his knee , which had bothered him since 2006 . With McCann leaving the Braves to sign as a free agent with the New York Yankees , Fredi González , the Braves ' manager , declared that he planned for Gattis to start between 100 and 110 games at catcher , with Laird catching the remainder , during the 2014 season . On April 16 , in a 1 – 0 win against the Philadelphia Phillies , Gattis went 4 @-@ for @-@ 4 with one home run , the first time a player has accomplished this in a 1 – 0 victory since Rogers Hornsby in 1929 . On April 21 , Gattis hit his first career walk @-@ off home run , a 2 @-@ run shot off of Miami Marlins reliever Arquimedes Caminero in the 10th inning to give the Braves a 4 – 2 victory . In June , he had a 20 game hitting streak . He went on the disabled list on June 30 with a bulging disc in his upper back , and returned to the Braves ' lineup on July 21 . Gattis hit the game winning home run , his 22nd of the season , against the Miami Marlins in the top of the 10th on September 6 , 2014 . This would give him a new career high and make him the first Braves catcher to hit 20 or more home runs in his rookie and sophomore seasons .
During the 2014 – 15 offseason , the Braves traded Heyward with the intention of shifting Gattis to left field , with Bethancourt at catcher .
= = = Houston Astros = = =
The Braves traded Gattis and James Hoyt to the Houston Astros for Mike Foltynewicz , Andrew Thurman , and Rio Ruiz on January 14 , 2015 . Gattis said he was a fan of the Texas Rangers as a youth and not the Astros , but also said it is a " good environment " in Houston . During the 2015 season , Gattis hit 27 home runs in a career @-@ high 604 plate appearances , spending most of the season as the Astros ' primary designated hitter . He also recorded 11 triples , despite entering the 2015 season with one career triple and being the second @-@ slowest player in baseball , behind David Ortiz of the Boston Red Sox .
Gattis lost approximately 20 pounds ( 9 @.@ 1 kg ) during the 2015 – 16 offseason by focusing on his nutrition and working with a personal trainer . He started only 11 games in left field in 2015 , none at catcher , and 136 at designated hitter . The Astros planned to play Gattis in the field more for the 2016 season , including left field , first base , and his original position of catcher . Eligible for salary arbitration , the Astros and Gattis agreed on a one @-@ year contract on February 16 , 2016 . The contract will pay Gattis $ 3 @.@ 3 million for the 2016 season , with a $ 5 @.@ 2 million club option for the 2017 season . Gattis underwent hernia surgery on February 9 , 2016 , causing him to miss spring training . He was activated in April 2016 , having missed seven regular season games due to the operation . In his first 20 games of 2016 , he batted .203 with a home run and seven RBIs . He was optioned to the Corpus Christi Hooks of the Class AA Texas League on May 7 , 2016 , in order to transition back into a catcher . He was recalled on May 18 , and started at catcher the next day .
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= Rose Catherine Pinkney =
Rose Catherine Pinkney ( born 1964 ) is an American television development executive . She was hired as the VP Development and Original Programming for TV Land in 2012 . Pinkney has previously served as Director of Programming at Twentieth Century Fox Television , Senior Vice President of Comedy Development at Paramount Pictures Television and executive vice president of programming and production at TV One . She most recently served as the head of the television arm of Laurence Fishburne 's production company , Cinema Gypsy . Among Pinkney 's accolades are Network Journal 's 25 Most Influential Black Women in Business , Cable World 's Top 50 Women in Cable and Black Enterprise 's Top 50 Entertainment Executives .
= = Early life and academic career = =
Pinkney was born and raised in Prince George 's County , Maryland , the youngest child and only daughter of Joseph and Maud Pinkney . She points to her parents ' marriage , which as of 2008 had lasted 56 years , as her model of personal values that she has carried through life . Hailing from Brandywine , Maryland , Pinkney is a graduate of Gwynn Park High School . She has an A.B. from Princeton University in sociology and an M.B.A. from UCLA 's Anderson School of Management with a concentration in marketing and entertainment management . Pinkney is a 1986 graduate of Princeton and a lifetime member of its Association of Black Princeton Alumni . She graduated from the Anderson School in 1988 and as of 2011 served on its Alumni Advisory Board .
= = Professional career = =
While director of programming at Twentieth Century Fox , she developed series such as The X @-@ Files and supervised In Living Color for four years . While serving as director of programming she developed comedy , drama and alternative series and as current programming executive , she oversaw the production of several comedies , dramas and alternative shows each year . Among the other shows she developed were New York Undercover , South Central , and Alien Nation .
Subsequently , she served as Upton Entertainment 's Vice President and head of television . Here she supervised the creation of New York Undercover .
Next , she was Senior Vice President of comedy development at Paramount Network Television , where over the course of nearly ten years she developed more than 30 television programs for six television networks , including United Paramount Network 's ( UPN ) Girlfriends . She joined Paramount in 1995 as Vice President of comedy development and was promoted to Senior Vice President and department head in 2002 . During her time at Paramount other shows she developed included Becker , One on One and Andy Richter Controls the Universe . As department head , her responsibilities included identifying writers , directors , talent and ideas for comedy series for television .
She was hired at TV One , which is the second @-@ oldest and second @-@ largest black television network behind BET , in December 2005 , and she started in January 2006 . At TV One , where she served as executive vice president of programming and development , she was responsible for programming strategy and oversaw all program production , acquisition , scheduling and business development for the network . Her time at TV One was spent in unscripted reality and lifestyle programming television . When UPN and WB merged to form CW in September 2006 prior to the 2006 – 07 United States network television season , several of the African @-@ American @-@ themed sitcoms that Pinkney had developed while at Paramount were short @-@ lived . Pinkney has been one of the more outspoken executives on the issue of portrayal of race relations on air .
In December 2008 , Cinema Gypsy , which is Laurence Fishburne 's production company , signed a first @-@ look deal with CBS Paramount Network Television to produce television shows . At that time , Pinkney was named to head the television arm of Cinema Gypsy as it expanded its operations to television programming . In her capacity , she oversaw the development of programming for broadcast and cable networks .
In 2012 , Pinkney became VP Development and Original Programming at TV Land , assuming responsibility for TV Land ’ s existing original series and the development of new ones . Pinkney reports to the EVP Development and Original Programming Keith Cox .
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= Beauty Pageant ( Parks and Recreation ) =
" Beauty Pageant " is the third episode of the second season of the American comedy television series Parks and Recreation , and the ninth overall episode of the series . It originally aired on NBC in the United States on October 1 , 2009 . In the episode , Leslie serves as a judge in the Miss Pawnee beauty pageant and becomes determined to prevent an attractive , but talentless and unintelligent , contestant from winning .
The episode was written by Katie Dippold and directed by Jason Woliner . It featured stand @-@ up comedian Louis C.K. in his second guest appearance as Dave Sanderson , a Pawnee police officer who develops a romantic interest in Leslie . According to Nielsen Media Research , the episode was seen by 4 @.@ 63 million households , a slight improvement over the previous week . " Beauty Pageant " received generally positive reviews , with several commentators claiming the season continued a trend of funnier episodes than in the first season .
It is the only episode of the series in which Nick Offerman does not appear as Ron Swanson .
= = Plot = =
At the beginning of the episode , Leslie ( Amy Poehler ) proudly announces to the parks and recreation staff that she will be judging the Miss Pawnee beauty pageant , a job she takes very seriously . Tom ( Aziz Ansari ) , excited at the prospective of judging women on the basis of their looks , pulls some strings to get a spot on the judging panel along with Leslie . April ( Aubrey Plaza ) enters the contest in order to win the $ 600 prize , despite being disgusted with the concept of a beauty contest . She tries , unsuccessfully , to gain an advantage by sucking up to Leslie . Later , Pawnee police officer Dave Sanderson ( Louis C.K. ) visits Leslie at work to ask her out on a date . She initially accepts , but when Dave mistakes a photo of Madeleine Albright for Leslie 's grandmother , Leslie becomes reluctant .
Meanwhile , Ann ( Rashida Jones ) offers to cook Mark ( Paul Schneider ) a cheap meal if he will fix her broken shower ; Mark accepts what he calls " the weirdest second date ever " . That night , the date goes well , until Ann takes her trash outside and finds her ex @-@ boyfriend Andy ( Chris Pratt ) is spying on her from the construction pit near her house , where he is now living . Back inside , Ann complains about Andy to Mark , who thinks they should invite Andy inside when it starts to rain . Ann reluctantly agrees , and Andy spends the rest of the night interrupting their conversations and spoiling romantic moments . After dinner , Ann kicks him out , but Andy remains convinced the night went very well for him .
Leslie and Tom arrive at the pageant . Leslie , who wants the Miss Pawnee winner to be dignified and graceful , favors Susan ( Anne Elizabeth Gregory ) , a student and children 's hospital volunteer . But the other judges favor Trish ( April Marie Eden ) , an attractive but untalented and unintelligent woman . Tom is particularly impressed with Trish , even when she answers Leslie 's question about how " we as citizens can improve on the great experiment ? " by making fluffy remarks about America and expressing a distaste for immigrants . April puts on an act by pretending to be a shallow beauty contestant , but instantly quits when she learns the $ 600 prize actually consists of gift certificates for a fence company .
After the contest , the judges deliberate . Tom and the other judges ( Susan Yeagley , Frank Medrano , Worth Howe ) all immediately agree Trish should win , but Leslie insists on further discussion . She pushes for Susan to win , but the judges eventually settle on Trish . After the pageant ends , Leslie makes a speech congratulating Susan anyway , and claiming the " Susans " of the world will carry on , even when they lose to the " Trishes " of the world . Dave approaches Leslie at the pageant and asks her again on a date . When she hesitates , he tells her she should call him if she changes her mind . As Dave leaves , he bumps into Trish , who he pushes past without much notice , impressing Leslie . They set up a date the next day and Dave tries to impress Leslie by showing he has memorized the names of all the female politicians in her photographs . Meanwhile , Tom has tried to pick up girls at the pageant by giving him his house keys with none of them showing up , but he reveals that he has been robbed twice .
= = Production = =
" Beauty Pageant " was written by Katie Dippold and directed by Jason Woliner . Woliner directed and co @-@ created the MTV sketch comedy show Human Giant , which also featured Parks co @-@ star Aziz Ansari . " Beauty Pageant " featured stand @-@ up comedian Louis C.K. in his second guest performance as Dave Sanderson , a Pawnee police officer romantically interested in Leslie . The Miss Pawnee Pageant is modeled after the long @-@ standing Miss America competition , which awards scholarships to young women from all 50 states . Several commentators compared Trish , who is attractive but unintelligent and untalented , to Caitlin Upton , the 2007 Miss South Carolina Teen USA who made an incoherent response during the Miss Teen USA 2007 pageant . Series co @-@ creator Michael Schur also indicated the episode was inspired partially by Carrie Prejean , the former Miss California USA who received nationwide attention over her answer to a question about same @-@ sex marriage during the Miss USA 2009 contest . Immediately after " Beauty Pageant " was originally broadcast , NBC set up an official Miss Pawnee Beauty Pageant website . According to the Parks and Recreation official Twitter feed , the site was established at http : / / www.misspawnee.com and included biographies for the judges and competitors , as well as a downloadable PDF of Leslie 's custom scorecard from the episode , ringtones , band posters , songs for download and photos .
Within a week of the episode 's original broadcast , three deleted scenes from " Beauty Pageant " were made available on the official Parks and Recreation website . In the first 90 @-@ second clip , April seeks beauty contestant advice from Leslie , who tells her to act differently from her usual behavior . While awaiting the talent contest , April lists a number of her unusual talents , including inventing emoticons , convincing her mother she is adopted , instantly making security guards suspicious and determining if someone is fat or pregnant " with 60 percent accuracy " . In the second 1 minute and 15 second clip , Ann tries to explain to Mark she is not hinting at sex when she asks him to " fix her shower " , and Sanderson talks about his insecurities , including that Leslie might be too smart for him . In the final 90 @-@ second clip , Tom expresses anger that the swimsuit competition has been removed from the contest , and tries to convince the judges to reinstate it during their deliberations .
= = Cultural references = =
" Beauty Pageant " included several cultural and pop culture references . During her introduction at the pageant , Trish said , " I 've been on YouTube " , a reference to the video sharing website on which users can upload and share videos . Susan is said to have attended Indiana State University , which helps solidify her standing as the smartest beauty pageant contestant . Leslie said one of her criteria categories as a judge is the " Naomi Wolf factor " , a reference to the American third @-@ wave feminist author and political consultant . Sanderson , who has demonstrated a lack of pop culture familiarity in the show , was unfamiliar with a reference Tom made to the 1988 police action film Die Hard and its famous protagonist , John McClane .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast on October 1 , 2009 , " Beauty Pageant " was seen by 4 @.@ 63 million households , according to Nielsen Media Research . Although one of the poorer major network ratings of the night , it constituted a slight increase over the previous week 's episode , " The Stakeout " . The episode received a 1 @.@ 9 rating / 5 share among viewers aged between 18 and 49 . The episode received generally positive reviews , with several commentators claiming the season continued a trend of funnier episodes than in the first season . Alan Sepinwall of The Star @-@ Ledger said the show seemed to be more confident . He praised the silliness of Andy , the deadpan humor of April and " the sweetness of Leslie realizing how much she likes Dave the cop " .
H.T. " Hercules " Strong , a regular columnist with Ain 't it Cool News , said " Beauty Pageant " was " as funny as one of the funniest episodes of The Office , which is saying something . " He particularly praised Louis C.K. Steve Heisler of The A.V. Club called " Beauty Pageant " a great episode , and said Leslie is becoming less of a caricature than in previous episodes . He gave it an A- grade particularly praised Plaza , who he said " embodied pure apathy " and Pratt , who he said livened up the Ann and Mark subplot . Entertainment Weekly writer Henning Fog said Parks and Recreation has continued to improve each week , and " Beauty Pageant " showed Leslie Knope at " her most human " . Fog also said he liked the Ann , Andy and Mark characters , but felt the show was straining to find ways to include them in the story each week . Matt Fowler of IGN said he was glad Parks and Recreation was exploring subplots outside of the pit , but felt a beauty pageant was too cliched and predictable an episode plot . Fowler praised the performances of Plaza , Pratt and Louis C.K. Slate magazine writer Jonah Weiner praised " Beauty Pageant " , and called the hypocrisy of beauty contests demonstrated in the episode " a turkey shoot no less enjoyable for its familiarity " .
= = DVD release = =
" Beauty Pageant " , along with the other 23 second season episodes of Parks and Recreation , was released on a four @-@ disc DVD set in the United States on November 30 , 2010 . The DVD included deleted scenes for each episode .
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= The Front ( The Simpsons ) =
" The Front " is the nineteenth episode of The Simpsons ' fourth season . It originally aired in the United States on the Fox network on April 15 , 1993 . In the episode , Bart and Lisa decide to write an episode of The Itchy & Scratchy Show ; after their script is rejected , they resubmit it under the name of Abraham Simpson , resulting in Grampa being hired as a staff writer . Meanwhile , Homer returns to high school to retake a failed science course .
The episode was written by Adam I. Lapidus and directed by Rich Moore . It is the only Simpsons episode written by Lapidus .
= = Plot = =
After being disappointed by a new episode of Itchy & Scratchy , Bart and Lisa decide that they can write a better one themselves . Inspired by the sight of Homer accidentally slicing Marge 's hair off with hedge shears , they write a script titled " Little Barbershop of Horrors " , but their episode is rejected by Roger Meyers Jr . , head of Itchy & Scratchy International . Correctly guessing that Meyers did not take them seriously because they were children , they resubmit the manuscript under Grampa 's name , leading Meyers to hire Grampa as a staff writer . Bart and Lisa inform Grampa about what they did and the three of them conspire to continue passing off Bart and Lisa 's scripts as Grampa 's own , splitting the money three ways .
For his work on Itchy & Scratchy , Grampa is nominated for an award for Outstanding Writing in a Cartoon Series . When Grampa sees Itchy & Scratchy for the first time in a clip show introducing the award , he is appalled at the violent humor , and turns his acceptance speech into an assault on both the cartoon and the audience amused by it . He storms off the stage amidst boos and thrown vegetables . Grampa gives the award to Bart and Lisa , and Bart swears never to watch an award show again , unless Billy Crystal is featured .
In the subplot , Homer and Marge attend their " Class of 1974 " high school reunion , where they have a great time and Homer wins a variety of humorous awards . However , Principal Dondelinger interrupts the ceremony to announce that Homer never graduated high school because he failed a remedial science course , leading Dondelinger to revoke Homer 's awards . Determined to win back the accolades , Homer retakes the course and passes the final exam , finally graduating .
The conclusion of the episode features a brief segment , complete with its own theme song , entitled " The Adventures of Ned Flanders " . In the sketch , Ned is upset with his sons for not wanting to go to church , until they inform him that it is Saturday and the family laughs together .
= = Production = =
" The Front " was written by Adam I. Lapidus and directed by Rich Moore . In the early 1990s , Lapidus saw a news report on television about three 13 @-@ year @-@ old girls - Renee Carter , Sarah Creef , and Amy Crosby - who had written a script for Tiny Toon Adventures , titled " Buster And Babs Go Hawaiian " . The show 's executive producer , Steven Spielberg , liked the script so much that he brought the three to Hollywood to work with the show 's writing staff . Upon seeing the report , Lapidus thought , " That would really be a neat idea for Bart and Lisa . " He wrote a spec script , which made its way via executive producer James L. Brooks to the Simpsons staff , who hired Lapidus to write the episode . " The Front " is the only Simpsons episode written by Lapidus , causing some dispute among the show 's fans as to whether he actually exists or was perhaps a pseudonym . Lapidus ' mother @-@ in @-@ law came upon one such debate on an Internet forum .
The initial running time for " The Front " was " way , way short " , and the writers had to use " every trick in the book " to make the episode reach the minimum length . Even after greatly expanding the original script and adding an extra @-@ long couch gag during the opening sequence , the episode was still one minute too short ; " The Adventures of Ned Flanders " was added to address the problem . The segment , which plays at the end of the episode , was designed purely to fill time and had nothing to do with the other events of the episode . Showrunner Mike Reiss later commented , " As always , when we try something bold and new the general reaction is , ' What the hell was that ? ' " The scene was also an homage to Archie Comics , which sometimes used a similar technique to fill a final page ; the font used in the scene 's title card is similar to the font used by Archie . The short inspired writers Bill Oakley and Josh Weinstein to produce the season seven episode " 22 Short Films About Springfield " .
The Fox network censors had two objections to " The Front " . The first issue was with a dream sequence in which Bart points a machine gun at Santa Claus and hijacks his sleigh . The second objection was to a scene not included in the finished episode , in which Itchy & Scratchy animators are seen observing a cat , and then putting a stick of dynamite in the cat 's mouth and lighting it . As Meyers , Bart and Lisa continue down the studio 's corridor , an explosion emanates from the room . The scene was cut because of the implied animal abuse , but is included as a deleted scene on the show 's The Complete Fourth Season DVD boxset .
Marge and Homer 's high school classmate Artie Ziff makes a brief appearance in the episode ; his conversation with Homer inspired the season 13 episode " Half @-@ Decent Proposal " . Artie 's usual voice artist Jon Lovitz was not available , so regular cast member Dan Castellaneta provided the voice instead . The school principal , Dondelinger , was named after someone Sam Simon knew .
= = Cultural references = =
The episode focuses on animation and includes several in @-@ jokes about The Simpsons and the animation industry in general . In a scene depicting the Itchy & Scratchy writer 's lounge , each of the writers shown is a caricature of someone working on The Simpsons at the time . The joke was conceived by the show 's animators . Later in the episode , Roger Meyers fires a Harvard alumnus who resembles Simpsons writer Jon Vitti . At the awards ceremony , The Simpsons creator Matt Groening is shown in the audience . Lisa is also seen reading a book titled How to Get Rich Writing Cartoons by John Swartzwelder , a Simpsons writer credited with nearly sixty episodes of the show . The credits at the end of Bart and Lisa 's Itchy & Scratchy episode ( shown in very small print ) are a copy of the credits at the end of The Simpsons .
At the Annual Cartoon Awards , the clip from the nominated The Ren & Stimpy Show is merely a black screen with the text " clip not done yet " . This was a counterattack against Ren & Stimpy creator John Kricfalusi , who had attacked The Simpsons staff by saying that " the show succeeded despite the writing " , and similarly derogatory comments . Another industry reference is the " Animation Wing " door at Itchy & Scratchy studios ; the door is identical to a door at the Disney animation building .
Besides copying the Simpsons credits , the Itchy & Scratchy credits also parody the sequence seen at the end of the credits of many TV shows produced by Stephen J. Cannell , where Cannell sits at the typewriter in his office and throws a sheet of paper into the air , with it forming of part of his production company 's logo . In the episode , Itchy and Scratchy are seen at a desk ; Scratchy pulls a sheet from his typewriter and throws it into the air , where it forms an " I & S Productions " logo . Mike Reiss later met Cannell , who was so pleased with the homage that he hugged Reiss . The title of the episode is a reference to The Front , a 1976 film about writers fronting for blacklisted writers in the 1950s . The Simpsons writers considered trying to make the episode plot resemble that of the film , but in the end decided against it .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast , " The Front " finished 21st in ratings for the week of April 12 – 18 , 1993 , with a Nielsen rating of 12 @.@ 5 , equivalent to approximately 11 @.@ 6 million viewing households . It was the highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , beating Married ... with Children .
Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , the authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , praised " The Front " as " an ironic look at the animation industry , with a higher than average Itchy and Scratchy count . The episode is followed by The Adventures of Ned Flanders with its own , rather wonderful , theme tune . "
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= All Saints Church , Patcham =
All Saints Church is the Anglican parish church of Patcham , an ancient Sussex village which is now part of the English city of Brighton and Hove . A place of worship has existed on the hilltop site for about 1 @,@ 000 years , but the present building has Norman internal features and a 13th @-@ century exterior . Several rounds of restoration in the Victorian era included some structural additions . A wide range of monuments and wall paintings survive inside , including one commemorating Richard Shelley — owner of nearby Patcham Place and one of the most important noblemen in the early history of Brighton . The church , which is Grade II * listed , continues to serve as the Anglican place of worship for residents of Patcham , which 20th @-@ century residential development has transformed from a vast rural parish into a large outer suburb of Brighton .
Patcham 's first church served a large rural area north of the fishing village of Brighthelmston — the ancient predecessor of Brighton . A nucleated settlement developed around this building , which was reconstructed during the Norman era . A wide @-@ ranging series of alterations were carried out by Victorian church restorers to improve the building 's structural condition and provide more space to cater for the growing population . As Patcham developed into a suburb in the 20th century , more churches opened in the area and were administered from All Saints Church . The building 's plain exterior contrasts with its well @-@ preserved and , in parts , ancient interior whose features include wall paintings and stone memorials . The churchyard has a set of Grade II @-@ listed tombs .
= = History = =
The Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle records that the area now covered by the county of Sussex was reached by Saxon forces in 477 . Within a few years , they controlled land along the English Channel coast as far as Pevensey . By the 10th century , the Kingdom of the South Saxons was fully established ; its boundaries match those of the present county . The area was divided into smaller administrative areas called hundreds . Patcham and its neighbouring village of Preston were part of Preston Hundred , one of four hundreds covering present @-@ day Brighton and Hove . The lowest administrative level was the parish , based around a church . The parish of Patcham was recorded ( under the name Piceham ) at the time of the Domesday survey in 1086 , by which time a church existed at the centre of a small village on a spur of land near the top of the South Downs . The parish , which covered 4 @,@ 325 acres ( 1 @,@ 750 ha ) , was unusually large , and its 11th @-@ century population of about 1 @,@ 750 was one of the largest for any Sussex parish . William de Warenne , 1st Earl of Surrey , who held most of the land in the local hundreds , owned the manor . The area around the church gradually became the centre of population within the parish , and a village developed on the hillside leading up to the church , east of the modern London Road .
The Saxon church was rebuilt in the 12th and 13th centuries , and the only feature which may survive from that era is a blocked doorway . It was reset in the north aisle when that was built in 1898 . The doorway has been described as " Norman or possibly earlier " , " pre- [ Norman ] Conquest " and " could be Saxon " by various sources . The Victoria County History of Sussex goes further by stating it was originally in the north wall of the nave , but identifies it as 12th @-@ century . The chancel arch , a " plain " structure , was inserted between the chancel and the nave in the 12th century , and the nave is of the same period . The 12th @-@ century chancel was added to in the following 200 years ; its Decorated Gothic windows are 14th @-@ century . Similar windows were inserted in the nave at the same time .
In the 13th century , a narrow tower was built at the west end , with thin lancet windows characteristic of the era . Its broach spire dates from the mid @-@ 19th century . The tower was given substantial diagonal buttresses with sandstone quoins . Also at this time , the exterior underwent complete restoration with some rebuilding work . The only other changes made before the 19th century was the addition of a porch at the south end and some buttresses on the south wall of the nave , both in the 16th or 17th century .
Having stood for more than 600 years with little alteration , the church was completely changed by four reconstructions and restorations in a 74 @-@ year period in the 19th century . The last of these , in 1898 , was the most substantial : it added a north aisle , much larger and taller than the rest of the building , and a vestry . In the early 19th century , the building had been in better structural condition than many in Sussex — a survey in 1825 by Sir Stephen Glynn of the Ecclesiological Society noted that it was " decently fitted up " — but rebuilding ancient churches was fashionable in the Victorian era , and the condition of a surviving medieval corbel suggests that the exterior walls were in poor condition . The three earlier periods of restoration were 1824 – 25 , 1856 and 1880 – 83 . During the third of these , a 13th @-@ century wall painting of Christ in Judgement was discovered above the chancel arch , hidden under 30 layers of whitewash and the remains of two later paintings ; it may be one of the oldest such murals in England , but it was repainted after its rediscovery . In 1898 , at the same time as the north @-@ side extension , the outside walls of the west , east and south sides were coated with grey cement , probably to improve their structural condition ; although this has been described as " unsightly " and " kill [ ing ] the exterior stone dead " , one historian has argued that because many medieval churches were rendered in this way , rather than having uncovered flint walls , it gives the impression of what a typical church of that era may look like .
Patcham 's proximity to the ever @-@ growing resort of Brighton — it is 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) north of the Palace Pier on the English Channel coast — encouraged suburban growth from the mid @-@ 19th century . From a low point of 286 in 1801 , the population of the village steadily rose and had nearly quadrupled by the time of the United Kingdom Census 1901 . Brighton Corporation ( the forerunners of the present city council ) built an estate of council housing in Moulsecoomb ( then still part of Patcham parish ) in the early 1920s , and on 1 April 1928 all but 152 acres ( 62 ha ) of the 4 @,@ 325 @-@ acre ( 1 @,@ 750 ha ) parish were annexed by Brighton to become part of the urban area , known at the time as Greater Brighton . Four large housing estates were built , and the population reached 5 @,@ 241 in 1930 and continued to rise thereafter . The opening of the north aisle improved capacity at a time when new houses were already surrounding the ancient village centre ; but as development spread to more distant parts of the parish , two more churches were opened — both initially as chapels of ease to All Saints Church : a temporary building erected on the Braybon Avenue estate in south Patcham became the Church of Christ the King , which was replaced by a permanent brick @-@ built church in 1958 ; and in the same year , architect John Wells @-@ Thorpe designed and built the Church of the Ascension in Westdene , a newly developed suburb west of the London Road . The original temporary church at Braybon Avenue became a church hall for Christ the King 's congregation , and All Saints Church gained its own hall in 1937 when Mackie Hall was built on Mackie Avenue . It was closed in 1995 .
Another round of restoration took place in 1989 . The interior was redesigned , and a reredos was made out of old choir stalls which had been removed .
= = Memorials = =
The church contains several memorials , of which the oldest is a wall tablet commemorating Richard Shelley , one of the earliest owners of Patcham Place , who died in 1594 . Patcham Place has its origins in a 16th @-@ century manor house in an isolated position west of the London Road . Its first owner , William West , 1st Baron De La Warr , passed it to Richard Shelley — son of Sir John Shelley of Michelgrove and a member of the family which later became the first Shelley Baronetcy . Shelley lived in Patcham from 1546 , and was an important figure in Brighton 's early history : in 1579 , he and three other local noblemen were appointed by the Privy Council to form a commission to record and regulate the " ancient customs " of the villagers and to mediate between the fishermen and the farmers , who often had conflicting needs . The commissioners produced a book , The Book of All The Auncient [ Ancient ] Customs heretofore used amonge the fishermen of the Toune of Brighthelmston , whose orders were enshrined in law . The memorial , of which only parts remain intact , is flanked by pilasters , the Shelley coat of arms and a naked grave @-@ digger on each side .
Elsewhere in the church , three generations of the Paine family are commemorated by tablets in the chancel ; John Paine of the second generation rebuilt Patcham Place in 1764 . He was the uncle by marriage of Thomas Read Kemp , who developed Brighton 's high @-@ class Kemp Town estate in the 19th century . The Roe family and its descendants of Withdean are also represented . William Roe and his son William Thomas Roe were closely involved with the former Board of Customs ( now Her Majesty 's Customs and Excise ) ; William Roe was its chairman for 14 years . William Thomas Roe also served on The Board of Admiralty . His son , his daughter 's husband and their son also have their own memorials . The manor of Withdean Cayliffe , one of the manors within the parish of Patcham , passed through the family after William Roe acquired it in 1794 .
Outside , there are seven nearly identical chest @-@ tombs , all of which are several centuries old and appear to belong to members of the Scrase family . Together with two unrelated tombs nearby , which are 18th- or early 19th @-@ century , they were listed at Grade II by English Heritage on 26 August 1999 . On the north side of the churchyard , which is traditionally used for burials of criminals and those who committed suicide , a memorial survives to " a smuggler , unfortunately shot " .
= = Architecture and fittings = =
The plan of All Saints Church comprises a west tower with heavy buttresses and a broach spire , a three @-@ bay nave with a tall aisle on the north side ( described by one historian as " quite out of proportion to the rest of the building , particularly in height " ) , and a porch on the south wall , a chancel and a vestry . Although the north aisle of 1898 was flint @-@ built with courses of red brick , the rest of the church 's exterior was clad in cement at the same time . Before this , the outside walls had been entirely flint with stone dressings and sandstone quoins . Both sides of the nave are buttressed , as is the southwest corner of the tower . These buttresses may have been added in the 16th century . The roof of the tower , below the squat 19th @-@ century spire , is of slate ; the rest of the church has a tiled roof . The porch has a gabled roof above a 14th @-@ century archway . The tower contains three bells . One is dated 1639 , and another is known to have been repaired in 1724 . The chancel roof is panelled , while the nave roof has vertical queen @-@ post supports with ancient tie @-@ beams .
The nave and chancel are separated by an ancient chancel arch which has recesses for a reredos on each side . These may be contemporary with the 12th @-@ century structure . Above the chancel arch are the remains of a 13th @-@ century wall painting showing Christ in Judgement . It has been dated to c . 1230 , and depicts the ascension to Heaven of the dead and the weighing of their souls by Jesus Christ , who is flanked by the Virgin Mary and John the Baptist . The fresco was in fragmentary condition when it was discovered in the 1880s , and has been redrawn . Other paintings may have existed elsewhere on the walls , but none are visible now .
There are lancet windows in the north and south walls and on the tower , some with stone tracery ( including the east window in the main body of the church ) . The chancel and nave windows are 14th @-@ century and in the Decorated Gothic style common at the time , while the tower windows and bell @-@ openings are smaller and in the Early English style popular in the 13th century , when the tower was built . The largest window , which sits under a hoodmould , is in the east end of the chancel ; it is a three @-@ light lancet with prominent tracery in the curvilinear / reticulated style . The window dates from the 14th century , which may make it the same age as a small window next to the porch , which has twin lights with foliated heads set below a quatrefoil in an ogive arch . Both windows also have scrollwork drip @-@ moulds . Most other windows are plain trefoil @-@ headed single lancets .
The blocked doorway in the modern north aisle is the oldest surviving part of the church . Its lintel is 10 inches ( 25 cm ) thick and sits below 11 voussoirs , each about 8 inches ( 20 cm ) across . Below the lintel , the former opening is 6 @.@ 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) high and 2 @.@ 75 feet ( 0 @.@ 84 m ) wide ; gradual settling into the ground has masked its original 7 @.@ 5 @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 3 m ) height . The jambs are made up of five stones of equal height , but the uppermost is wider because it served as an impost . Inside the church , the jambs and arch are visible , but there is no lintel .
The wall of the chancel retains a trefoil @-@ arched piscina added during the 14th @-@ century restoration work . The font — a " rather florid circular " example — dates from 1864 , and the church possesses Eucharistic objects dating from the 16th and 17th centuries , such as a chalice of 1568 and a paten dating from 1666 . The west wall has a wide range of old carved prayer and commandment boards , which are a common feature of Sussex churches . Ancient examples of graffiti , consisting of etched crosses and dates , also survives inside ; such " curious carvings " are also common in Sussex .
= = Current status = =
All Saints Church was listed at Grade II * on 13 October 1952 . Worship at All Saints is in the Open Evangelical style . There is a Sunday school and regular youth group .
All Saints is the church in the Benefice of Patcham All Saints , which also incorporates the Church of the Ascension in Westdene , a postwar suburb west of Patcham . This is a modern building of brick and glass , designed in 1958 by architect John Wells @-@ Thorpe . The ecclesiastical parish of All Saints covers the north of Brighton and its rural hinterland , incorporating Withdean , Westdene , Patcham , Hollingbury , part of Preston ( as far south as Preston Park railway station ) , and the scattered residential buildings north of the A27 Brighton Bypass and south of Pyecombe .
Following a review by the Diocese of Chichester in 2005 , parts of the west side of the parish were transferred to the Church of the Good Shepherd on Dyke Road in Brighton , and at the south end another section was ceded to St John the Evangelist 's Church in Preston Village . At the same time the decision was taken to close the Church of Christ the King ( which had been the parish church of South Patcham ) and divide its parish between All Saints and St John the Evangelist 's churches . All Saints Church therefore received the congregation from the northern part of the Church of Christ the King 's parish . The diocese declared the Church of Christ the King redundant from 1 December 2006 , but from 20 July 2007 it was in use again as a place of worship . In that year , two displaced congregations whose churches had been demolished joined to form a new church community , which bought the building and renamed it the Fountain Centre . The Elim Balfour Road Church in Preston Village , a Pentecostal church , was demolished in 2007 , and the Immanuel Community Church had been using the former St Augustine 's Church building near Preston Park since the destruction by fire of their church in Hanover in 2003 .
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= Manam ( film ) =
Manam ( English : Us ) is a 2014 Indian Telugu @-@ language fantasy family drama film written and directed by Vikram Kumar and produced by Akkineni Family under the Annapurna Studios banner . Nagarjuna appears alongside Akkineni Nageswara Rao , Naga Chaitanya , Shriya Saran and Samantha . Amitabh Bachchan , Amala , and Nagarjuna 's younger son Akkineni Akhil made cameo appearances along with other personalities . The film is set in various time periods , over the course of a hundred years up until 2013 , and deals with the concepts of rebirth and eternal love . The plot features a wealthy businessman , Nageswara Rao , attempting to bring a young couple together resembling his deceased parents and the elderly Chaitanya 's attempts to bring the businessman and a doctor together . They resemble Chaitanya 's deceased parents who died because of a mistake committed by him in his childhood .
The film was made with a budget of ₹ 280 million . Harsha Vardhan wrote the film 's dialogues , while Anup Rubens composed the film 's music . P. S. Vinod handled the film 's cinematography . Production began on 3 June 2013 . Principal photography began on 7 June 2013 and was shot in and around Hyderabad , Coorg and Mysore till mid April 2014 .
Manam was the last film of Nageswara Rao , who died on 22 January 2014 during the film 's production phase . The film was promoted as a " befitting send off " and a tribute from his son , Nagarjuna . The film was released worldwide on 23 May 2014 to positive reviews from critics and was commercially successful , collecting ₹ 365 million in its lifetime . The film was screened at the 45th International Film Festival of India in the Homage to ANR section on 29 November 2014 . The film garnered the Filmfare Award for Best Film - Telugu .
= = Plot = =
Radha Mohan and Krishna Veni are a couple leading a miserable marital life due to several misunderstandings and decide to apply for divorce . They die on 14 February 1983 at 10 : 20 AM near a clock tower on their way to the lawyer 's office . Their son , Nageswara Rao , becomes a rich and influential businessman and happens to come across his parents ' lookalikes , Nagarjuna and Priya . After befriending them , Rao decides to re @-@ establish them as a couple but is shocked when Nagarjuna introduces his lover , Prema . Rao manages to dissolve the relationship with the help of his personal adviser , Girish Karnad . Unaware of this , Nagarjuna swears not to fall in love with anyone . At the same clock tower , Rao meets Dr. Anjali and falls in love with her at first sight . He helps her in admitting an injured old man to a nearby hospital and donates his blood . The injured man , Chaitanya , is shocked upon seeing the pair as they resemble his deceased parents , Seetharamudu and Ramalakshmi .
Seetharamudu was a barrister who returned from London upon his father 's death to manage his family businesses . He was a zamindar and was fond of cars . In one such instance , he sees a poor farmer Ramalakshmi and decides to marry her . Asked by a mediator , she accepts the proposal , without meeting Seetharamudu , but asks him for six months ' delay as she has to buy new clothes for the bridegroom , following the village 's tradition . Seetharamudu learns about this and meets her as a reformed thief . With his help , Ramalakshmi could cultivate enough grain in three months and buy new clothes with that money . On the day of marriage , she is surprised to know that Seetharamudu is her chosen groom and they marry . On 14 February 1924 the couple goes out , but Chaitanya , suffering from fever then , fakes a stomach ache so that his parents return . The plan works and the couple rush home at high speed but die in an accident at 10 : 20 AM near the same clock tower where Radha Mohan and Krishna Veni would die . Now he aims to reunite them without letting them recollect their past as they cannot bear the pain of losing him .
Chaitanya stays in Rao 's house for further treatment while Nagarjuna joins them as he was expelled from his hostel . One night , Priya , remembering her past life , visit Rao 's house , only to see Nagarjuna sleeping beside him . She leaves the house in tears . While Rao 's attempts to propose to Anjali begin , Nagarjuna and Priya join Salsa dance classes where Priya constantly expresses her anger towards Nagarjuna . On Rao 's birthday , 13 February 2013 , Anjali proposes to him which he accepts . This makes Chaitanya very happy . Priya meets Nagarjuna there who is dressed as Radha Mohan , who reveals that he too recollected memories of his past life on the night she left the house in shock . He apologises for his wrong deeds and proposes her . She accepts his proposal and Rao is relieved .
The next day , Nagarjuna goes to a temple with Priya in a car which has no brakes and Rao chases them along with Anjali . Both the couples are nearing the same clock tower where they died in their past lives . A worried Chaitanya is offered a lift by a young biker who follow them . On 10 : 20 AM when all the four are safe near the clock tower , a lorry driven by a drunk driver is shown rushing towards them . The biker and Chaitanya jump from the bike , which goes on to hit the lorry tyre , distracting the lorry 's path . The four thank Chaitanya who urges them to thank the biker , Akhil .
= = Cast = =
Special appearances :
Amitabh Bachchan as Pratap
Akkineni Amala as a dance teacher
Akkineni Akhil as Akhil
Neetu Chandra as air hostess
Rashi Khanna as Prema
Lavanya Tripathi as Radha Mohan 's friend
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
After the release of 100 % Love ( 2011 ) , Akkineni Nagarjuna decided to act and produce in an all @-@ star film along with his father , actor Akkineni Nageswara Rao and elder son Naga Chaitanya . Nageswara Rao suggested Nagarjuna to begin the film as early as possible , because of his age . After examining and rejecting many scripts due to a perceived lack of novelty , Nagarjuna was advised by actor Nithin 's father and distributor Sudhakar Reddy to listen to a script by Vikram Kumar , who was directing Nithin and Nithya Menen in Ishq ( 2012 ) . Although he liked the script after the first narration , he agreed to act in the film only after watching Ishq before its theatrical release .
Kumar requested Nagarjuna a year 's time to complete and provide the finishing touches to the script . The latter read the script to director K. Raghavendra Rao , who suggested Kumar develop a simpler version , as the original was too complicated . The rewritten version was read to Nagarjuna in two and a half hours and to Nageswara Rao over six hours , as the latter wanted every detail to be clear . Due to the complex nature of the second half , the latter suggested Kumar to add a comedy plotline between grandfather and grandson . After its incorporation into the script , and after considering the titles Hum and Trayam , Manam was chosen as the film 's title on Nageswara Rao 's suggestion .
The film was officially launched on 3 June 2013 at Annapurna Studios office by conducting a small pooja ceremony . Nageswara Rao died in late January 2014 , making this film his last project as an actor . The promotion material featured the " Akkineni Family " as the film 's producer . Nagarjuna revealed in an interview that he did so because Nageswara Rao taught his family the importance of it in his last days . Reliance Entertainment co @-@ produced and distributed the film .
= = = Casting = = =
Nagarjuna engaged Samantha as the female lead , to be paired with Chaitanya in the film . This was her third collaboration with Chaitanya after Ye Maaya Chesave ( 2010 ) and Autonagar Surya ( 2014 ) . Her inclusion was confirmed in mid @-@ October 2012 by Nagarjuna in an interview with The Times of India .
Ileana D 'Cruz was approached for the other female lead role to be paired with Nagarjuna in early February 2013 . She was impressed with her role and the film 's script and quoted a fee of ₹ 20 million , which was denied by sources close to her . However , Shriya Saran was signed as the other female lead as her fourth collaboration with Nagarjuna . Nagarjuna announced in mid September 2013 that Kaushal Sharma , Srikar Chittarbu and Krishna Yadav , who graduated from the Annapurna International School of Film and Media , would make their debut with this film .
Nagarjuna 's younger son Akkineni Akhil was rumoured to be making a cameo appearance following Nageswara Rao 's request . Sources close to the film 's unit initially denied those reports . Samantha later tweeted that Akhil appeared for shooting his portions in the film . When his health conditions worsened , Nageswara Rao asked Nagarjuna to bring the dubbing equipment to dub for his role fifteen days before his surgery as he did not want any other artist to do it if his voice worsened . He completed those activities just before he died on 22 January 2014 . Only an appearance in a song remained incomplete .
Neetu Chandra , who worked with Kumar on Yavarum Nalam ( 2009 ) , made a cameo appearance in the film . Nagarjuna 's sister Supriya told the media that a few other actors also made cameo appearances in the film . Rashi Khanna confirmed in early April 2014 that she too would make such an appearance . Kumar convinced Nagarjuna to let Akhil make a cameo appearance towards the end of the film or in a special song . However an official confirmation was originally unavailable . Amitabh Bachchan posted in his official blogging site on 27 April 2014 that he would make a quick cameo appearance in the film which would be his debut in Telugu cinema . Lavanya Tripathi also made a cameo appearance on Kumar 's request . Akhil made a cameo towards the film 's end , as he did not want to miss a chance of sharing the screen with his grandfather .
= = = Crew = = =
Anup Rubens was selected to compose the film 's music and background score in mid March 2013 marking his second collaboration with both Kumar and Chaitanya after Ishq ( 2012 ) and Autonagar Surya ( 2014 ) respectively . Kumar read the script to Rubens without revealing the film 's cast . After Rubens accepted a role in the film , both met Nagarjuna . Rubens said in an interview that he worked for fewer days when compared to his previous works and added that Kumar had a small story to tell within every song in the film . Due to Nageswara Rao 's death , a song 's tune was replaced with another tune and a few lines of the song Nenu Puttanu from the film Prem Nagar ( 1971 ) .
Harsha Vardhan was selected in late April 2013 to write the film 's dialogues , in consideration of his work in Gunde Jaari Gallanthayyinde ( 2013 ) . Since the film was a period drama , Nagarjuna wanted an experienced veteran cinematographer , and approached P. C. Sreeram . As Sreeram was busy with I ( 2015 ) , P. S. Vinod was finalised as the cinematographer , marking his return to Telugu cinema after Panjaa ( 2011 ) . Chennai @-@ based costume designer Nalini Sriram , who worked for Ye Maaya Chesave , was selected as the film 's costume designer . While all the artists had to give their inputs for the costumes , Nageswara Rao gave her full freedom to design the film 's costumes .
Rajeevan , also a part of the technical team of Ye Maaya Chesave , was chosen as the film 's art director . In a press interview during the first look launch , executive producer Supriya announced the remaining key technicians . Prawin Pudi was confirmed as the film 's editor . Brinda was signed in on to choreograph the song sequences . FEFSI Vijayan was chosen as the stunt choreographer . Vanamali and Chandrabose were chosen to write the lyrics for the songs .
= = = Characterisations = = =
Nageswara Rao played the role of a 90 @-@ year @-@ old man . His character enters the film just before the interval and remains until the very end of the film . All the members of the principal cast except Nageswara Rao played dual roles in the film . Nagarjuna said in an interview that he would be seen in the 1920s , 1980s and 2013 and would play a zamindar in 1920 . Saran revealed that every character in the film would have a specific aspect ; Nagarjuna 's character loves cars . Regarding her role , Saran said that she would be seen as a poor but content farmer in the flashback sequences and a doctor in the present day . She added " My character goes back to 1930s and comes back in the present era . I can 't tell how it happens though . It 's a fun character and you will find me stammering a lot . Suddenly , I 'm talking normally and suddenly I start stammering , that 's how you understand my character . " She added that apart from Nagarjuna , she has more scenes with Nageswara Rao and only a couple of scenes with Chaitanya in the film .
Chaitanya is seen as the father of a six @-@ year @-@ old in 1980s and a happy @-@ go @-@ lucky college student in 2013 . He described the former role as a challenging one . He also said that both the roles would have multiple layers and added , " The film as you all would know by now , is spread across three generations , and all the characters go back and forth in time . I play a happy @-@ go @-@ lucky college guy in the present era . It 's a typically fun character and has nothing in common with my character from the flashback . So acting wise , it was a big challenge " . He described the drunk scenes shared with Nagarjuna , Nageswara Rao and his confrontation scene with Samantha towards the end of the film as the toughest scenes to act .
Samantha revealed that she too would be seen in a dual role — a mature mother named Krishna Veni in the past and a bubbly girl named Priya in the present . She added that she would not be overshadowed in the film despite the presence of three male leads . Similar to Ye Maaya Chesave , Chaitanya and Samantha had a kissing scene in this film as a part of the script . A clip of one of Samantha 's looks in the film was leaked in late July 2013 . She was seen sporting an urban look and opted for a complete makeover . Nagarjuna 's look in the film was leaked in mid August 2013 and he was seen sporting corrective eyeglasses and a conventional clean shave and moustache for which he removed the goatee he grew for his previous works Greeku Veerudu ( 2013 ) and Bhai ( 2013 ) . Saran 's look in the film 's flashback sequences was leaked in late February 2014 .
The film had two particular wedding scenes , one filmed on Chaitanya and Samantha and the other on Nagarjuna and Saran . The first pair greet each other with " Hi " during the wedding . When Kumar wrote those scenes , they were surprised and felt that such scenes were unrealistic . But it was retained as Nageswara Rao liked it . For the other wedding scene , Kumar wanted to heighten the emotions between the two characters in that scene and it was Nagarjuna who came up with the idea of not revealing his identity to the bride till the last moment .
= = = Filming = = =
Principal photography began on 7 June 2013 . Scenes focusing on Chaitanya and Samantha were shot at Narayanguda in mid June 2013 . The latter completed her part in the schedule and left for Switzerland on 18 June 2013 to work on Attarintiki Daredi ( 2013 ) . The first schedule was wrapped up by late June 2013 and the second schedule was scheduled to begin in mid @-@ July 2013 . Some important scenes were planned to be shot in that schedule . Shriya Saran joined the film 's sets in late July 2013 . Samantha tweeted on 31 July 2013 that the film 's second schedule had been wrapped up . The film was shot in Hyderabad Campus of Birla Institute of Technology and Science , Pilani in late August 2013 and Samantha rejoined the film 's sets on 1 September 2013 after completing Ramayya Vasthavayya ( 2013 ) .
Scenes featuring Nageswara Rao , Nagarjuna and Chaitanya were shot from 9 September 2013 in Hyderabad . Executive producer Supriya announced in mid September 2013 that the filming would be completed by November 2013 . Nageswara Rao had chronic stomach ache , and doctors found out on 8 October 2013 that he is suffering from cancer . He announced this to the press on 19 October 2013 while on set . Recovering from surgery , Nageswara Rao rejoined the film 's sets in mid November 2013 . A 15 @-@ day schedule in Coorg starting from 1 December 2013 was announced in late November 2013 and key scenes on all the members of the principal cast except Nageswara Rao were planned to be shot . The next schedule began in mid December 2013 at Mysore .
The film 's team continued filming at Melukote , Lalitha Mahal and in the backwaters of the Krishna Raja Sagara among others . Samantha completed filming her portions on 22 February 2014 . By late March 2014 , the entire filming , except for a song sequence , was completed ; the song was planned to be shot in April 2014 Featuring Nagarjuna and Naga Chaitanya , it was shot at Annapurna Studios in mid @-@ April 2014 . Amitabh Bachchan shot the scenes for his cameo at the Filmistan Studio in Mumbai on 27 April 2014 .
Saran later revealed in an interview that during the shoot at Coorg , the team 's day began at 4 : 30 AM everyday . She visited coffee plantation and black pepper farms to observe the farmers ' work for her part . For a few particular scenes , where Saran teaches Nagarjuna some farm chores , the team made a few takes , as Nagajuna , being a quick learner , completed the tasks better than Saran .
= = Themes and influences = =
The film was initially rumoured to be inspired by the American science fiction comedy film Back to the Future . It was also compared with an older Hindi film Kal Aaj Aur Kal ( 1971 ) for its casting .
Nagarjuna revealed that the film is set over a period of a hundred years , up until 2013 , and involves reincarnation . He said in an interview that the film 's script is not particularly intense , but has a light narration . The film 's basic theme , established by Kumar and his assistant directors , was " that things have changed and our sorrows and joys have been exchanged ; Night and day , morning and evening , a movement of souls united in being , cosmic beings rearranged . Some things may go wrong in one ’ s life but they are corrected in the other life . The universe and nature correct the mistakes made in one life , in the other . " He said that this statement would seem complex but would be fully explained by the film .
Nagarjuna added that the film 's characters would reborn with no special purpose unlike other reincarnation films like Janaki Ramudu ( 1988 ) , Arundhati ( 2009 ) and Magadheera ( 2009 ) . Saran said in an interview that the film basically has a family @-@ oriented theme and is about falling in love with " small , little things that you sort of don 't see every day , but are really , really important " . Unlike other reincarnation based films , the film 's story develops two separate themes — the relationship between reborn lovers , but also the relationship between reborn parents and their children . Naga Chaitanya acknowledged in an interview with The Hindu that the film 's script might seem to have a few overly @-@ convenient coincidences , but felt that Kumar 's detailing in every scene made the script believable .
= = Music = =
The soundtrack features five songs as well as a theme musical piece all composed by Anoop Rubens . Chandrabose wrote lyrics for three songs and the remaining two were written by Vanamali and Rubens himself . Aditya Music acquired the audio rights and released the soundtrack on 9 May 2014 on YouTube . The soundtrack received positive response , especially for the songs Kanulanu Thaake and Chinni Chinni Aasalu .
= = Release = =
Nagarjuna planned to release the film on 31 March 2014 , on the eve of Ugadi , confirmed on a visit to the Tirumala Venkateswara Temple with Akhil in early March 2014 . However , he later postponed the film 's release , planning to release the film after the 2014 general elections . The film 's trailer confirmed the release date as 23 May 2014 . The film was confirmed to feature in both Dolby Atmos and 5 @.@ 1 surround sound systems . On 14 May 2014 , the Central Board of Film Certification passed the film with a " U / A " certificate instead of a " U " certificate that the makers expected because of a few drinking scenes . The British Board of Film Classification passed the film with a PG rating due to " brief images of injury , mild bad language " .
Nagarjuna arranged a special premiere show on 22 May 2014 at Prasads IMAX for Nageswara Rao 's fans . He succumbed to the huge demand from the admirers of Nageswara Rao and changed the single screen premiere into a five @-@ multiplex screen red carpet show at Prasads IMAX , playing host to thousands of celebrity invitees . CineGalaxy Inc. stated that the film would release in more than 100 screens in the United States alone with advance ticketing commencing at few locations . The film 's release however clashed with Vikrama Simha , the Telugu dubbed version of Kochadaiiyaan ( 2014 ) .
Nagarjuna planned to release the film in more than 1000 screens in India as well as international markets . In India , 171 theatres in Nizam , 95 theatres in Ceded , 50 theatres in Vishakhapatnam , 85 theatres in East and West Godavari districts , 40 theatres in Krishna , 45 theatres in Guntur , 25 theatres in Nellore , 12 screens in Chennai , 20 screens in Bangalore and 25 screens in Maharashtra were booked . In overseas , 108 screens in the United States , 9 screens in Toronto , 6 screens in Germany , 2 screens in Switzerland and 3 screens in Netherlands were booked . The advance ticket booking was made available both online as well as in theatres five days before the film 's release . It registered nearly 50 % advance booking by 22 May 2014 and was expected to register more than 75 % before its theatrical release .
= = = Distribution = = =
Sudhakar Reddy acquired the distribution rights of the film in Nizam Region . CineGalaxy Inc. acquired the entire overseas theatrical screening rights of the film . Lorgan Entertainments acquired the film 's distribution rights for Australia and New Zealand . DBB Films later acquired the theatrical screening rights of the film in all European countries except the United Kingdom , where Errabus Films was the distributor .
= = = Promotion = = =
The first look poster of the film was unveiled by Nagarjuna on 19 September 2013 on the eve of Nageswara Rao 's 90th birthday . The poster featured Nagarjuna dressed in a black suit , Chaitanya sitting in a throne as an elder in traditional costume and Nageswara Rao sitting on the floor posing as a child . The poster received praise for its offbeat theme . The theatrical trailer of the film was planned to be released on 11 April 2014 . The second poster was released on 31 March 2014 on the eve of Ugadi . A special video named " Candid Moments " was released along with the theatrical trailer as a tribute to Nageswara Rao on 8 April 2014 on the eve of Sri Rama Navami . The trailer began with a voiceover of Rao and ends with the message " ANR Lives On " .
Upon release , the trailer went viral , praised as " refreshing " . IndiaGlitz stated " The trailer looks very refreshing and promising . In overall , the trailer looks very delightful , colourful and loaded with entertainment . Hope the movie will be a befitting farewell for the great actor Akkineni Nageswara Rao " and gave it the verdict " Refreshing , Vibrant and Vivid " . Oneindia Entertainment stated " The trailer of Manam shows that the movie has amazing background score , stunning camera work , breath @-@ taking exotic locales , wonderful performances by the lead actors " . The trailer was also screened in theatres screening Race Gurram ( 2014 ) on 11 April 2014 . The trailer received 1 million views of YouTube . Nagarjuna released the promo of the song Piyo Piyo Re on 26 April 2014 . It featured Nagarjuna and Chaitanya dancing in a pub . It became a viral video post its release .
After the audio launch , the positive reception of the song Chinni Chinni Aasalu prompted the makers to release a video featuring the making of the song . Shot in the backdrop of a village , the song featured Nagarjuna dressed as a farmer while Shriya Saran was dressed as an innocent villager . On the other hand , the video showcased the recording of the song by Shreya Ghoshal . The video too received positive response . A still featuring Chaitanya and Samantha in an intimate sequence from the flashback was re @-@ tweeted many times by the fans and Telugu film websites . A short teaser , 31 seconds long , was unveiled on 13 May 2014 , in which Samantha was seen speaking about Nageshwar continuously at a doctors ' check up and the montage of the film 's male leads being played side by side .
A behind @-@ the @-@ scenes video of the making of the song Kanulanu Thaake was released on 14 May 2014 . The song featured Chaitanya and Samantha as a newly married couple and their onscreen romance with Lavanya Tripathi making a brief glimpse towards the end . It also showcased the recording of the song by Arijit Singh . The video received a positive response , with praises directed towards the on @-@ screen chemistry between Chaitanya and Samantha . The audio launch event , entitled " Manam Sangeetham " , was aired on 18 May 2014 in Gemini TV at 5 : 00 PM , with the Akkineni family in attendance .
Tata DoCoMo & Brooke Bond Red Label were involved with the film , advertising on hoardings , television , radio , in print , and on buses , among other venues . Tata DoCoMo came up with the tagline " Be a part of the Manam family " and offered a chance to the meet the film 's star cast by recharging with a certain amount . Brooke Bond used the slogan " Red Label celebrates the taste of togetherness with Manam " and offered a chance to meet Nagarjuna . First Show Digital handled the film 's online promotions . The film 's 100 @-@ day celebration was held along with the platinum disc function of Oka Laila Kosam ( 2014 ) on 22 September 2014 at the Shilpakala Vedika in Hyderabad .
= = = Leak = = =
In early March 2014 , the film was leaked into the Internet . Two people related to the film leakage were arrested on 8 March 2014 . They were identified as Mubashir Sheik and Sheik Abid Basha hailing from Guntur . Basha illegally accessed the feed of the film and handed it over to Sheik who then uploaded it on YouTube . Post release , the film became one of the most downloaded titles in recent times and the Anti @-@ Video Piracy team worked for a week since the film 's release to reduce the effect of this leak on the film 's gross .
= = = Home media = = =
The television broadcast rights were sold to Gemini TV for ₹ 80 million . The film was planned for a television premiere on 20 September 2014 on the eve of Nageswara Rao 's birthday . The film registered a TRP rating of 15 @.@ 62 making it one of the highest TRPs ever registered for a film in 2014 . Reliance Home Video released the film 's DVDs and Blu @-@ ray discs in December 2014 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
The film received positive reviews from critics who called it a beautiful film and a complete entertainer , according to International Business Times India . Prabalika M. Borah of The Hindu praised the performances of the film 's cast , the work of the technical crew , and Kumar 's execution of the film 's script in narrating a complex story without confusion . She summarised , " The smile and laughter will not leave you while it still manage to moisten your eyes here and there " . Sandhya Rao of Sify stated , " Manam`s story is something new within Telugu films context , but the way the film showcases romance and emotion , it is far from a regular fare . Go watch Manam , a complete entertainer , which will surely enthrall ! " . She recognised Nageswara Rao as the pillar of the film and termed his performance as an " outstanding " one .
Shekhar of Oneindia Entertainment gave the film 4 out of 5 stars , stating " Manam is a perfect family entertainer and it is director Vikram Kumar 's unique script that makes the movie a brilliant experiment . The movie is high on entertainment quotient and it is treat to see ANR , Nagarjuna and Naga Chaitanya together on screen " . Rajasekhar S of Cinemalead also gave the film 4 out of 5 stars and called it " classy and brilliant " , stating " Vikram K Kumar has packed the movie in such a way that the audience never get bored . Especially the last 20 minutes of the movie , towards the climax brings us to the edge of the seat " . IndiaGlitz gave the film 4 out of 5 stars as well , and called the film a " complete entertainer that is more than a love story " and stated , " The film packs everything that the trailer promised , plus the not @-@ quite @-@ unknown formula of Past Life Regression . Although we have seen many PLR stories in the past , ' Manam ' is special because of its sublime and intriguing nature . "
Karthik Pasupulate of The Times of India gave the film 3 @.@ 5 out of 5 stars and wrote , " You cannot appreciate the smarts in the script has been written , and how humorously it all gets translated onscreen without getting unduly melodramatic . Since this is ANR 's last film , the cumulative nostalgia and feel goodness of the movie might just paper over the structural issues . It 's definitely worth a watch " . Suresh Kavirayani of Deccan Chronicle also gave the film 3 @.@ 5 out of 5 stars and wrote , " Vikram Kumar has come out with a nice story and screenplay and created a classic masterpiece . Though there are past life regressions and rebirths , the director ’ s intelligent screenplay makes you to see more comfortably without any confusion . Manam is a good film to watch and a fitting tribute to Akkineni Nageswara Rao . "
= = = Box office = = =
The film achieved an average 95 % occupancy in both single screens and multiplexes during the morning and matinee shows on its opening day , increasing during the evening and night shows . The film collected ₹ 32 @.@ 1 million worldwide on its first day according to trade analyst Taran Adarsh . It collected more than ₹ 112 @.@ 6 million net worldwide in three days and topped the Tollywood business chart , beating Vikrama Simha . In four days , the film collected ₹ 149 million worldwide . By the end of its first week , the film collected ₹ 190 million worldwide . The film collected ₹ 267 @.@ 1 million net in 10 days worldwide .
The film collected ₹ 327 @.@ 5 million net worldwide by the end of the 19th day of its theatrical run . By mid June 2014 , the film crossed the ₹ 350 million mark worldwide , and was expected to reach the ₹ 400 million mark . The film collected a worldwide share of ₹ 15 million by the end of its fourth weekend . By late July 2014 , after completing its 50 @-@ day run , it had amassed a ₹ 480 million share , including satellite rights and audio rights . The film collected ₹ 365 million worldwide during its lifetime , becoming one of the highest grossing Telugu films of 2014 . The film 's success was attributed to Nagarjuna 's strategy of releasing the film on a limited number of screens , and utilising a low budget according to IANS .
= = = = India = = = =
The film collected a share of ₹ 22 @.@ 3 million on its first day at AP / Nizam box office . The film collected its highest share of ₹ 9 @.@ 1 million in the Nizam region , followed by the Ceded region with ₹ 3 @.@ 9 million and ₹ 2 @.@ 2 million in Vishakhapatnam . It collected ₹ 16 million and ₹ 0 @.@ 3 million in Karnataka and the rest of India respectively . The film collected ₹ 40 @.@ 2 million at the Indian box office in two days . The film collected ₹ 62 @.@ 2 million at the AP / Nizam box office and ₹ 8 million in the rest of India by the end of its first weekend . The film again collected its highest share of ₹ 26 @.@ 7 million in the Nizam region , followed by the Ceded region with ₹ 10 @.@ 6 million and Vishakhapatnam with ₹ 6 @.@ 2 million . Adarsh reported that the film collected a share of ₹ 89 @.@ 2 million in four days at the Indian box office .
It collected ₹ 122 @.@ 2 million at the AP / Nizam box office , ₹ 14 @.@ 8 million at the Karnataka box office , and ₹ 3 million in the rest of India by the end of its first week . The film collected ₹ 39 @.@ 4 million net at the AP / Nizam box office and ₹ 5 @.@ 8 million in the rest of India by the end of its second weekend . It collected ₹ 218 @.@ 7 million in AP / Nizam and ₹ 21 @.@ 1 million in the rest of India by the end of its 19 @-@ day run . The film company held celebrations after the completion of its 50 @-@ day run on 14 July 2014 . The film completed a 100 @-@ day run on 30 August 2014 .
= = = = Overseas = = = =
The film collected ₹ 5 @.@ 3 million from 69 screens at its premiere in the United States . The premiere was held on Thursday , 22 May 2014 . According to Taran Adarsh , the collections made by the film from its premiere show was a " phenomenal " start . The film collected ₹ 33 @.@ 3 million in three days in the United States with many screens still yet to report as of 25 May 2014 . The film collected ₹ 49 @.@ 6 million on 108 screens as of 27 May 2014 , in the United States . With this , Manam became the film with the highest grossing opening weekend for Nagarjuna and Chaitanya in the United States , and also became the third @-@ highest grosser for an opening weekend in the country in 2014 , after 1 : Nenokkadine and Race Gurram . The film crossed the US $ 1 million mark by the end of its first four @-@ day weekend .
The film collected ₹ 62 @.@ 6 million in six days , thus surpassing the ₹ 59 @.@ 3 million nine @-@ day extended first week collections of Race Gurram in the United States . According to Adarsh , the film continued to do good business in the United States by collecting ₹ 64 @.@ 5 million by the end of its first week . The film continued its successful run in the United States through early June 2014 and collected ₹ 82 million . With this , the film broke the record set by Race Gurram and became the second highest grosser in 2014 after 1 : Nenokkadine . The film surpassed the lifetime collections of 1 : Nenokkadine at the United States box office in 14 days by collecting ₹ 83 @.@ 3 million .
The film collected ₹ 87 @.@ 7 million in the United States in 19 days . By mid June 2014 , the film collected ₹ 91 @.@ 1 million in the United States , and by the end of its 25 @-@ day run and crossed the US $ 1 @.@ 5 million mark , becoming one of the biggest commercially successful Telugu films in the country .
= = Awards and nominations = =
= = Legacy = =
Celebrities like S. S. Rajamouli , Shobu Yarlagadda , Nani , K. Dasaradh , Manchu Manoj , Pooja Hegde , Allu Sirish , Deva Katta , Adivi Sesh , Rakul Preet Singh , Rana Daggubati , Gopimohan , Prakash Raj , Allu Arjun , and Mahesh Babu praised the film . Director Ram Gopal Varma called Manam an " avant garde product but deeply rooted in earth " and " the first constructive demonstration that Tollywood actually can go into a new age of cinema " . He added that both Nagarjuna and Vikram deserved multiple salutes for making a film like Manam , and the only tragedy was that Nageswara Rao was not alive to see this film , which Varma termed an " astounding celebration of human emotions " . Ram Charan called Manam a film that induces " Love , joy , passion , hatred , excitement and almost every feeling you can imagine and more " . Kamal Haasan watched the film on 29 May 2014 , at a special screening in Chennai . Haasan became emotional and could not control his tears . Regarding this , he said " I have always been a fan of ANR and this film has brought back very fond memories . I turned emotional when I saw ANR on the big screen . I wholeheartedly appreciate the Akkineni family for paying tribute to ANR in this manner . "
IndiaGlitz called Manam , along with 1 : Nenokkadine and Drushyam , the best experimental films in recent times . Manam , along with Minugurulu ( 2014 ) , was nominated by the Telugu Film Producers Council to the Film Federation of India to be included on the list of 30 Indian films for the 87th Academy Awards , in the category of Best Foreign Language Film . In late September 2014 , the United States postal department released a stamp in honour of Nageswara Rao , making him the first Indian actor in whose name a postal stamp had been released . That stamp featured a still of Nageswara Rao from the film . The film was screened at the 45th International Film Festival of India on 29 November 2014 , as a Homage to Nageswara Rao . In February 2015 , the makers of Bandipotu ( 2015 ) released a poster featuring Sampoornesh Babu , Allari Naresh and Saptagiri , whose theme resembled the first look of Manam .
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= Insane Clown Posse =
Insane Clown Posse ( ICP ) is an American hip hop duo from Detroit , Michigan . The group is composed of Joseph Bruce and Joseph Utsler , who perform under the respective personas of the " wicked clowns " Violent J and Shaggy 2 Dope ( originally 2 Dope ) . Insane Clown Posse performs a style of hardcore hip hop known as horrorcore and is known for its elaborate live performances . The duo has earned two platinum and five gold albums . According to Nielsen SoundScan , the entire catalog of the group has sold 6 @.@ 5 million units in the United States and Canada as of April 2007 .
Originally known as JJ Boyz and Inner City Posse , the group introduced supernatural- and horror @-@ themed lyrics as a means of distinguishing itself stylistically . The duo founded the independent record label Psychopathic Records with Alex Abbiss as manager , and produced and starred in the feature films Big Money Hustlas and Big Money Rustlas . They formed their own professional wrestling federation , Juggalo Championship Wrestling , and later collaborated with many well @-@ known hip hop and rock musicians . The group has established a dedicated following called Juggalos numbering in the " tens of thousands " .
The songs of Insane Clown Posse center thematically on the mythology of the Dark Carnival , a metaphoric limbo in which the lives of the dead are judged by one of several entities . The Dark Carnival is elaborated through a series of stories called Joker 's Cards , each of which offers a specific lesson designed to change the " evil ways " of listeners before " the end consumes us all " .
= = Musical career = =
= = = 1985 – 94 : Early history = = =
Joseph Bruce ( Violent J ) and Joseph Utsler ( Shaggy 2 Dope ) met in Oak Park , a suburb on the north border of Detroit , Michigan . Along with Utsler 's brother , John , and friend , Lacy , they wrestled in backyard rings that they had built themselves . They also listened to hip hop music , including 3rd Bass , Beastie Boys , N.W.A and local rappers like Awesome Dre . In 1989 , Joseph Bruce , as Jagged Joe , Joseph Utsler , as Kangol Joe , and John Utsler , as Master J , released the single titled " Party at the Top of the Hill " under the name of JJ Boys , but the group did not pursue a serious career in music . Poverty and a difficult home life drove Bruce to move in with Rudy " The Rude Boy " Hill in River Rouge , a city near the industrial southwest side of Detroit .
Feeling a sense of home and belonging , Bruce formed a gang called Inner City Posse , which was composed of Joseph Utsler , Rudy Hill , other friends of Bruce , and a number of other connections he had made in Southwest Detroit . Bruce was jailed for ninety days in 1989 – 1990 for death threats , robbery , and violating probation ; this experience convinced him to reduce his involvement in gang life . Bruce began his professional wrestling career after getting out of jail , and it was at his first show that he met Rob Van Dam and Sabu , two other first @-@ timers with whom he became very good friends . During this time Bruce brought Utsler backstage with him , and all four became close friends .
Bruce became frustrated with the backstage politics of the wrestling business and began searching for another career . Back on the streets , Bruce , Utsler and Utsler 's brother , John performed hip hop music at local night clubs , using the stage names Violent J , 2 Dope , and John Kickjazz , under the name of their gang , Inner City Posse . Seeing a need for a manager , Bruce 's brother Robert recommended his friend and record store owner Alex Abbiss , who established the Psychopathic Records record label with the group in 1991 . Later that year the group released the self @-@ produced EP entitled Dog Beats .
Local radio broadcasters were reluctant to play the EP 's single , " Dog Beats " , because Inner City Posse 's members were white . While trying to get stations to play the single , Bruce learned that one of the stations he and Abbiss visited would be interviewing local rapper Esham , who Bruce considered to be a " superstar " ; Bruce had recently begun to collect Esham 's albums , as he had done with other local rappers ; by the time he had discovered Esham , the rapper had released two full @-@ length albums and three EPs . Bruce met Esham for the first time at the station and praised him . Esham wished Bruce well and Bruce gave the rapper a copy of Dog Beats ; this began the friendship and professional relationship between Psychopathic Records and Esham 's label , Reel Life Productions . Growing popularity in the local music scene turned negative for the group 's gang , which became the target of growing violence . After receiving jail sentences , the group members abandoned gang life .
In late 1991 , the group had the problem of having spent more money on production than was covered by returns . The group decided that its gangsta rap style was the cause : Most emcees at the time used similar styles , making it difficult for Inner City Posse to distinguish itself stylistically . Referring to local rapper Esham 's horrorcore style , Bruce suggested the band adapt this genre , in a bid to have Detroit represent acid rap , much as Los Angeles represented gangsta rap . The group agreed , but not to copying the style of Esham closely . Instead , they suggested using horror @-@ themed lyrics as an emotional outlet for all their negative life experiences . They were also unanimous in deciding not to rap openly about Satan , which Esham often did .
After the change in musical style , the group decided it needed a new name . Utsler suggested keeping the " I.C.P. " initials to inform the community that Inner City Posse was not defunct . Several names were considered before Bruce recalled his dream of a clown running around in Delray , which became the inspiration for the group 's new name : Insane Clown Posse . The group decided they would all don face paint due to the success of their former clown @-@ painted hype man . Upon returning home that night , Bruce says he had a dream in which " spirits in a traveling carnival appeared to him " — an image that would become the basis for the Dark Carnival mythology detailed in the group 's Joker 's Cards series .
= = 1992 – 2004 : First Joker Card Deck = =
= = = 1992 – 93 : Carnival of Carnage Era = = =
The group began recording their debut album , Carnival of Carnage , with producer Chuck Miller . After recording only three songs for $ 6 @,@ 000 with Miller , Alex Abbiss made his first major managerial move by finding another producer , Mike E. Clark . The group finished recording the album with Clark , who continued to work with them throughout their career . The album featured appearances from local rappers , including Esham and Kid Rock . Just weeks prior to the release of their album , John left the group because he felt that it was " taking up too much of [ his ] life " . When Bruce and Utsler attempted to call a meeting to talk about the issues , John did not attend .
Carnival of Carnage was released on October 18 , 1992 , with distribution within a 120 @-@ mile ( 190 km ) radius of Detroit . Allmusic reviewer Stephen Thomas Erlewine compared the group 's performance on the album to " a third @-@ rate Beastie Boys supported by a cut @-@ rate Faith No More , all tempered with the sensibility that made GWAR cult heroes — only with ... more sexism and jokes that ... wind up sounding racist " . The follow @-@ up EP , Beverly Kills 50187 , sold well and gained a larger audience . During a live performance of the song " The Juggla " , Bruce addressed the audience as Juggalos , and the positive response resulted in the group using the word thereafter . The word has been the subject of criticism from both Ben Sisario of Rolling Stone and Allmusic 's Erlewine , who suggested the term is similar to the racial slur jigaboo .
= = = 1994 : Ringmaster Era = = =
The group 's second studio album , Ringmaster , was released on March 8 , 1994 , and its popularity enabled the group to sell out larger nightclubs across Detroit . Because Bruce and Utsler made reference to the Detroit @-@ produced soft drink Faygo in their songs , they " figured it would be cool to have some on stage with [ them ] " . During a concert in 1993 , Bruce threw an open bottle of Faygo at a row of concertgoers who were giving them the finger . After receiving a positive response , Bruce and Utsler have since continued to spray Faygo onto audiences . A subsequent national tour increased sales of the album , earning Ringmaster a gold certification . The group 's second EP , The Terror Wheel , was released on August 5 , 1994 . One of the songs from the EP , " Dead Body Man " , received considerable local radio play . The same year marked their first " Hallowicked " concert , which has since continued annually on Halloween night in Detroit .
= = = 1995 – 96 : Riddle Box Era = = =
In 1995 , Bruce and Utsler attempted to obtain a contract with a major record label . The duo eventually signed a contract with the short @-@ lived Jive Records sub @-@ label Battery Records , which released the group 's third studio album , Riddle Box , on October 10 , 1995 . After Battery / Jive Records showed little interest in promoting the album , Insane Clown Posse funded the promotion of Riddle Box independently . This effort led the group to Dallas , Texas , where it persuaded several music retail stores to stock the album . Sales averaged 1 @,@ 500 copies per week as a result .
= = = 1997 – 98 : The Great Milenko Era = = =
Manager Alex Abbiss negotiated a contract with the Disney @-@ owned label Hollywood Records , which reportedly paid $ 1 million to purchase the Insane Clown Posse contract from Battery / Jive / BMG Records . The group started recording its fourth studio album , The Great Milenko , in 1996 , during which Disney requested that the tracks " The Neden Game " , " Under the Moon " , and " Boogie Woogie Wu " be removed . Disney also asked that the lyrics of other tracks be changed , threatening to not release the album otherwise . Bruce and Utsler complied with Disney 's requests , and planned to go on a national tour with House of Krazees and Myzery as their opening acts .
During a music store autograph signing , Insane Clown Posse was notified that Hollywood Records had recalled the album within hours of its release , despite having sold 18 @,@ 000 copies and reaching # 63 on the Billboard 200 . The group was also informed that its in @-@ store signings and nationwide tour had been canceled , commercials for the album and the music video for " Halls of Illusions " ( which had reached # 1 on The Box video request channel ) were pulled from television , and that the group was dropped from the label . It was later revealed that Disney was being criticized by the Southern Baptist Convention at the time because of Disney 's promotion of " Gay Days " at Disneyland , in addition to presiding over the gay @-@ themed television sitcom Ellen . The Convention accused Disney of turning its back on " family values " . Although Abbiss told the press that Disney had stopped production of The Great Milenko to avoid further controversy , Disney claimed instead that the release of the album was an oversight by their review board , and that the album " did not fit the Disney image " because of its " inappropriate " lyrics , which they claimed were offensive to women .
After the termination of the Hollywood Records contract , Insane Clown Posse signed a new contract with Island / PolyGram Records , which agreed to release the album as intended . Entertainment Weekly music critic David Browne gave the record a C @-@ minus rating : " [ With ] its puerile humor and intentionally ugly metal @-@ rap tunes , the album feels oddly dated " . The Great Milenko was certified platinum with over 1 @.@ 7 million copies sold . One of the group 's first projects with Island Records was an hour @-@ long documentary titled Shockumentary , which aired on MTV . The station initially refused to play the documentary , but Island Records persuaded them to air it as a personal favor . Shockumentary helped increase album sales from 17 @,@ 000 to 50 @,@ 000 copies per week . Island also rereleased the group 's first two albums , as well as a 2 @-@ CD compilation album composed of rare songs and demos titled " Forgotten Freshness Vol . 1 " .
= = = = Nationwide tour = = = =
Two days after the Extreme Championship Wrestling ( ECW ) program , Insane Clown Posse began its rescheduled nationwide tour with House of Krazees and Myzery . Their first concert , held in Orlando , Florida , was hand @-@ picked by Insane Clown Posse and free to the public . Halfway through the tour , Brian Jones of House of Krazees had a falling out with his band members . Jones left the group , forcing House of Krazees to quit the tour . The success of the tour enabled Bruce and Utsler to purchase new houses both for each other and for their families . Bruce even told his mother to quit her job because he would pay her expenses .
= = = = Eminem feud = = = =
In late 1997 , Bruce took Myzery to St. Andrew 's Hall . Eminem , then an unknown local emcee , approached Bruce and , according to Bruce , handed him a flyer advertising the release party for the Slim Shady EP . The flyer read , " Featuring appearances by Esham , Kid Rock , and ICP ( maybe ) " . Bruce asked why Eminem was promoting a possible Insane Clown Posse appearance without first contacting the group . Bruce said that Eminem explained , " It says ' maybe . ' Maybe you will be there ; I don 't know . That 's why I 'm asking you right now . You guys comin ' to my release party , or what ? " Bruce , upset over not being consulted , responded , " Fuck no , I ain 't coming to your party . We might have , if you would 've asked us first , before putting us on the fuckin ' flyer like this . " Bruce reported that Eminem attacked the group in radio interviews . Bruce and Utsler first responded by referring to Eminem 's alter ego as " Slim Anus " on " 85 Bucks An Hour " from Twiztid 's 1997 debut , Mostasteless , and later in 1999 releasing a parody of Eminem 's " My Name Is " entitled " Slim Anus " . Barbs between Insane Clown Posse and Eminem continued until the feud was ended in 2005 by hip hop group D12 and Psychopathic Records .
= = = = The House of Horrors Tour = = = =
One month after ICP 's Strangle @-@ Mania Live , Insane Clown Posse began their second nationwide tour , " The House of Horrors Tour " , with Myzery added as one of the opening acts . While searching for the second opening act , Bruce received a telephone call at his home from former House of Krazees members Jamie Spaniolo and Paul Methric , who told Bruce that the group was officially disbanded and asked to be on the tour . Spaniolo and Methric provided a demo tape containing three songs : " 2nd Hand Smoke " , " Diemotherfuckdie " , and " How Does It Feel ? " Bruce was extremely impressed , and immediately had a contract drafted with Psychopathic Records for the new group to sign . Bruce , Spaniolo , and Methric agreed on the band name Twiztid . The House of Horrors Tour thus featured Insane Clown Posse , with opening groups Twiztid , Myzery , and Psycho Realm .
= = = = Legal troubles = = = =
On November 16 , 1997 , Bruce was arrested on an aggravated battery charge after allegedly striking an audience member thirty times with his microphone at a concert in Albuquerque , New Mexico . Bruce was held for four hours before being released on $ 5 @,@ 000 bail . The January 1998 issue of Spin magazine ran a four @-@ page cartoon lampooning Insane Clown Posse and Juggalos , claiming that the group was offensive " not for their obscenity , but for their stupidity " . Spin likened Insane Clown Posse 's stage act to " a sort of circus karaoke " and portrayed the group 's fans as overweight suburbanites . On the group 's website , Bruce responded to the article by stating , " I could give a fuck less " .
After a show in Indianapolis , Insane Clown Posse 's tour bus stopped at a Waffle House in Greenfield , Indiana . When a customer began to harass Spaniolo and Bruce , a fight broke out between the customer and all of the bands ' members . Months later on June 4 , 1998 , Bruce and Utsler pleaded guilty to misdemeanor disorderly conduct charges ( reduced from battery ) in an Indiana court and were fined $ 200 each . Members of Twiztid , Myzery , and Psycho Realm were charged with battery . The group 's tour was briefly derailed in January 1998 , when their tour bus drifted off a highway and down an embankment , leaving Frank Moreno of Psycho Realm with a concussion . As a result of the accident , Insane Clown Posse postponed two shows scheduled for Cleveland , Ohio , on January 22 and 23 , but honored their promise to perform on January 25 and 26 . They face a lawsuit over alleged sexual harassment .
= = = 1999 : The Amazing Jeckel Brothers Era = = =
On April 19 , 1998 , in Minneapolis , Minnesota , Bruce suffered a panic attack during a performance and was carried off stage . Bruce , who later recalled being completely " out of it " , found scissors and cut off his dreadlocks . After suffering another panic attack once he returned home , Bruce opted to spend three days in a Michigan mental health program . Insane Clown Posse later cancelled the last two weeks ' worth of dates on its United States tour , but subsequently launched their first European tour .
By late 1998 over one million copies of The Great Milenko had been sold , and Insane Clown Posse was ready for its fifth album , The Amazing Jeckel Brothers . Working with Mike E. Clark and Rich " Legz Diamond " Murrell , Bruce and Utsler developed their album with the highest of hopes . The group was known nationally , but were not taken very seriously . Hoping to receive the respect Bruce and Utsler felt they deserved , they planned to feature well @-@ known , respected rappers on their album . Bruce stated outright that he wanted to involve Snoop Dogg and Ol ' Dirty Bastard . They paid Snoop Dogg $ 40 @,@ 000 to appear on the song " The Shaggy Show " . Snoop Dogg also helped them contact Ol ' Dirty Bastard , who was paid $ 30 @,@ 000 for his appearance . Ol ' Dirty Bastard recorded his track in a matter of two days ; however , his recording consisted of nothing more than him rambling about " bitches " . It took Bruce and Utsler a week to assemble just four rhymes out of his rambling , and had to re @-@ record the track and title it " Bitches " . Finally , Insane Clown Posse contacted Ice @-@ T , who charged them only $ 10 @,@ 000 . The group felt that Ice @-@ T 's song did not belong on the album , and was instead released on a later album , Psychopathics from Outer Space .
To help increase their positive publicity , the group hired the Nasty Little Man publicity team . The team set up a photo shoot for Insane Clown Posse that was to appear on the cover of Alternative Press magazine in Cleveland . On the set of the photo shoot , a member of the publicity team approached Bruce and explained that in the song " Fuck the World " , the lyric that stated " Fuck the Beastie Boys and the Dalai Lama " needed to be changed . Insulted , Bruce exclaimed that his music would not be censored again — referring to Disney 's previous requirement for censorship . Nasty Little Man told Bruce that the Beastie Boys were not only clients of the company but also personal friends , and the Beastie Boys told the company to make Bruce change the lyric . In response , Bruce fired Nasty Little Man and asked its team to leave the photo shoot .
The Amazing Jeckel Brothers was released on May 25 , 1999 , and reached # 4 on the Billboard album charts , and has since been certified platinum by the RIAA . Stephen Thomas Erlewine gave the album a " four out of five stars " rating , stating that " [ Insane Clown Posse ] actually delivered an album that comes close to fulfilling whatever promise their ridiculous , carnivalesque blend of hardcore hip @-@ hop and shock @-@ metal had in the first place " . Rolling Stone writer Barry Walters gave the album a " two out of five stars " rating , writing that " no musical sleight of hand can disguise the fact that Shaggy and J remain the ultimate wack MCs " . At the same time as The Amazing Jeckel Brothers ' release , Island Records merged with Def Jam Records . It quickly became apparent to Bruce and Utsler that Def Jam Records had no interest in them . Eminem , who had begun to gain mainstream success , insulted Insane Clown Posse in interviews , tours , and the song " Till Hell Freezes Over " .
= = = = Big Money Hustlas = = = =
On Insane Clown Posse 's previous tour ( The House of Horrors Tour ) , they had watched the movie Big Ballers . The group , as well as Twiztid , loved the video . After Insane Clown Posse finished its The Amazing Jeckel Brothers album , Bruce and Utsler decided to create their own movie , Big Money Hustlas , with the same low @-@ budget comedy style as Big Ballers . Island Records gave them $ 250 @,@ 000 to begin work on the movie . Bruce and Utsler were contacted by John Cafiero , who said that he was a fan of Insane Clown Posse , and offered to direct the movie . Insane Clown Posse asked Mick Foley to appear in the movie as " Cactus Sac " , a parody of his " Cactus Jack " persona . Cafiero retained the Misfits , Fred Berry , and , at Bruce 's request , Harland Williams . The script was written by Bruce , and filmed in New York City . Bruce played a crime boss and Utsler portrayed a police detective . The stage crew members , who showed their dislike for Insane Clown Posse , were a source of contention . Despite the crew striking twice , the movie was filmed in two months .
= = = = Woodstock 1999 = = = =
While on " The Asylum In @-@ store Tour " , Bruce and Utsler were informed by Abbiss that they were offered $ 100 @,@ 000 to perform at Woodstock 1999 . They were excited about the offer , as it indicated their impact on the music industry . Some people perceived participating in Woodstock 1999 was a sell @-@ out for the group ; however , Bruce and Utsler disagreed . As Bruce explains , " [ Woodstock ] sold out the mainstream style for us ! Woodstock never came to us and asked us to change one fuckin ' thing about us or our show ! They wanted ICP just as ICP is , and nothing else . If that ain 't fresh , then I don 't know what the fuck is ! "
= = = = Amazing Jeckel Brothers Tour troubles = = = =
After Woodstock 1999 , Insane Clown Posse began its " Amazing Jeckel Brothers Tour " , along with musicians Biohazard , Krayzie Bone , Twiztid , Mindless Self Indulgence , and Coal Chamber . Biohazard , Mindless Self Indulgence , Krayzie Bone , and Twiztid were well received by audiences ; however , Coal Chamber was not . Insane Clown Posse fans were not purchasing tickets , as they did not like Coal Chamber . For the three shows that Coal Chamber played , there were multiple ticket refunds . Bruce and his brother , Rob , made the decision to eliminate Coal Chamber from the tour . After doing so , there were no tickets returned for the remainder of the tour dates . Bruce and Utsler claimed that Coal Chamber had been removed from the tour because of equipment problems , but later revealed the true reason for their actions on The Howard Stern Show , which aired August 19 , 1999 . Bruce continued by saying , " Nobody will tell you that , because everybody 's afraid of your crumpet @-@ ass bitch manager " . Later that night , Stern contacted Bruce and Utsler , asking them to appear on his show the following day to talk with Coal Chamber 's manager , Sharon Osbourne .
Before the show went on air , Osbourne bet Bruce and Utsler $ 50 @,@ 000 that Insane Clown Posse 's next album would not even sell 200 @,@ 000 copies — a bet that Bruce accepted . On air Osbourne informed Bruce and Utsler that Coal Chamber filed a lawsuit for breach of contract . Osbourne stated that her group was to receive $ 12 @,@ 500 per show for a scheduled two @-@ month package tour . Bruce reiterated that Coal Chamber 's music did not appeal to Insane Clown Posse fans , and that ticket refunds decreased after Coal Chamber had been removed from the tour . Osbourne then made public the bet with Bruce about Insane Clown Posse 's next album , also stating that the duo would be subsequently dropped from their distributor . In Osbourne 's words , " You 're dead . Your career is over . " Bruce predicted that the group 's next album would sell at least 500 @,@ 000 copies ; however , the bet officially stood at 200 @,@ 000 copies as agreed by both Bruce and Osbourne backstage .
= = = 2000 – 01 : Bizaar and Bizzar Era = = =
On January 10 , 2000 , Utsler collapsed on stage during a performance at the House of Blues in Chicago and was rushed to Northwestern Memorial Hospital . He was diagnosed with flu @-@ related symptoms and abnormally low blood sugar . As a result of the incident , the following week 's concert dates were rescheduled . In June 2000 , Eminem physically attacked Douglas Dail , an Insane Clown Posse affiliate , threatening him with a gun in the parking lot of a car audio store in Royal Oak , Michigan . Eminem pleaded guilty to a lesser charge in exchange for two years probation and a $ 10 @,@ 000 fine . In July 2000 , Bruce and Utsler staged the first annual Gathering of the Juggalos at the Novi Expo Center in Novi , Michigan . Described by Bruce as a " Juggalo Woodstock " , the Gathering of the Juggalos was a three @-@ day music festival that featured wrestling , games , seminars , contests , sideshows , and performances by all Psychopathic Records ' artists . Also featured at the event were Vampiro — who both wrestled and performed — Project Born , and Kottonmouth Kings . On July 18 , 2000 , Big Money Hustlas was released direct @-@ to @-@ video .
After the Gathering of the Juggalos , Insane Clown Posse set out to release its sixth and seventh studio albums — Bizaar and Bizzar — as a double album . While recording the albums , the duo had a fallout with long @-@ time producer Mike E. Clark . Bizaar and Bizzar were the last complete albums Clark would produce with Insane Clown Posse until his return in 2007 . Bruce and Utsler flew to Denver , Colorado to add the finishing touches to the albums . Bizaar and Bizzar were released on October 31 , 2000 , peaking at # 20 and # 21 , respectively , on the Billboard 200 . In The New Rolling Stone Album Guide , Ben Sisario wrote that the albums " qualify as ICP 's masterworks of both merchandising and music " . Both albums were given a " three out of five stars " rating . The combined sales were around 400 @,@ 000 copies , exceeding the bet placed previously with Sharon Osbourne ; Osbourne did not come through with payment for having lost the bet .
Two music videos were released from the albums : " Tilt @-@ a @-@ Whirl , " from Bizaar , and " Let 's Go All The Way " , a cover of a Sly Fox song from Bizzar . MTV agreed to play " Let 's Go All The Way " on their network , airing it once in the late evening . Bruce and Utsler decided to bombard Total Request Live ( TRL ) with requests for the video . While on their " Bizaar Bizzar Tour " , Insane Clown Posse posted on its website that December 8 was the day for their fans request the video . Bruce and Utsler named that day " The Mighty Day of Lienda , " meaning " The Mighty Day of All or Nothing " . On December 8 , Rudy Hill , Robert Bruce , Tom Dub , and six other Psychopathic Records employees and friends drove down to New York City .
They were met by nearly 400 Insane Clown Posse fans standing outside in front of the TRL studio window , all with signs supporting the duo . Thirty minutes before the show began , Viacom security guards and New York City police officers were dispatched to remove all the fans from the sidewalk . When some fans , including Robert Bruce , refused to move because it was a public street and no other individuals were asked to move , they were assaulted . All telephone requests for the video to be played were ignored , and Insane Clown Posse was never mentioned during the show . MTV later informed Island Records that the heads of the network must choose the band first before it can become eligible to be featured on TRL .
Bruce and Utsler left Island Records , signing a contract with D3 Entertainment to distribute every release on Psychopathic Records , which would remain independently funded , produced , and recorded . Insane Clown Posse had their own studio built , called " The Lotus Pod " . In the spring of 2001 , Insane Clown Posse 's road manager William Dail was arrested in Omaha , Nebraska , for allegedly choking a man who waved an Eminem T @-@ shirt in front of the band . Dail was charged for misdemeanor assault and battery . The charges were reduced to a $ 100 fine after he pleaded guilty to a lesser charge .
The second Gathering of the Juggalos was held from July 13 – 15 at the SeaGate Convention Centre in Toledo , Ohio . The event featured the same activities as the first Gathering of the Juggalos , as well as guests such as Bone Thugs @-@ n @-@ Harmony , Vanilla Ice , and Three 6 Mafia . On June 15 , 2001 , Bruce was arrested in Columbia , Missouri for an outstanding warrant in St. Louis stemming from an incident in February 2001 . That incident involved Insane Clown Posse allegedly attacking employees of a St. Louis radio station over disparaging remarks that a disc jockey made on the air . The police used several squad cars to detain Bruce , Utsler , and two associates a few miles from a venue where the group had completed a concert . Bruce was transferred to St. Louis the following day and released on bail without charge on June 18 .
= = = 2002 – 03 : The Wraith : Shangri @-@ La Era = = =
The face of the sixth Joker 's Card is " The Wraith " , a personification of Death . The card features two " exhibits " , Shangri @-@ La and Hell 's Pit , each of which would be given its own album . On November 5 , 2002 , Insane Clown Posse released their eighth studio album , The Wraith : Shangri @-@ La , which debuted at # 15 on the Billboard 200 and # 1 on the Top Independent Albums chart . The album was notable for its explicit acknowledgment of ICP 's belief in God .
Ben Sisario criticized the album in the Rolling Stone Album Guide , writing that " the whole thing was some bland divine plan " and asking , " Is this man 's final dis of God , or His of us ? " Some critics perceived the spiritual element of the storyline to be a joke or stunt . Allmusic writer Bradley Torreano wrote that " Even if it is a joke , it isn 't a funny one , or even a clever one . " In September 2003 , Insane Clown Posse was voted the worst band of any musical genre in Blender , with The Wraith : Shangri @-@ La named as the group 's worst album . However , the magazine also gave the album a positive review for its " charming , good @-@ natured idiocy " .
According to Bruce , " Some people might 've been upset [ by spiritual themes in The Wraith : Shangri @-@ La ] , but through our eyes all we did was touch a lot of people . We definitely wanted it to be something everlasting . Maybe a 19 @-@ year @-@ old might not understand or like that ending now . But later , when he has four kids , he might think , ' That was the shit . ' " Following the release of The Wraith : Shangri @-@ La , Bruce and Utsler signed a new contract with Sony BMG 's RED Distribution and launched the Psychopathic Europe record label .
The duo went on the 75 @-@ date " Shangri @-@ La World Tour " , where they performed across the United States , Australia , and Europe . While in Australia , customs confiscated all the group 's Faygo , assuming that they were bringing it for commercial purposes . Insane Clown Posse tried to explain that they are performers and that the soda was part of their act , but were still unable to use the Faygo and forced to use a different form of soda for their Australian tour .
= = = 2004 : The Wraith : Hell 's Pit Era = = =
Following the release of The Wraith : Shangri @-@ La , Bruce admitted that he was considering not completing the production of Hell 's Pit . He is quoted as describing Shangri @-@ La as " the end of the road . It 's the end of the Joker 's Cards . After this I could do anything I want , for the rest of my life . The positivity was so unbelievable " . On August 31 , 2004 , Insane Clown Posse released their ninth studio album , Hell 's Pit , the second exhibit of The Wraith , intended to warn listeners of the horrors of Hell . Bruce described the album as the darkest , most painful work he had ever done . Two versions of the album were released , each containing a different DVD . One release featured a live concert and a twelve @-@ minute music video for the song " Real Underground Baby " , and another featured a short film for the song " Bowling Balls " , which was the first 3 @-@ D film shot in high @-@ definition video . In 2005 , D12 and Insane Clown Posse ended their feud , with the help of member Proof . Attempts to officially end the feud between Eminem and Insane Clown Posse have been unsuccessful , but Bruce states that the rivalry has ended .
= = 2005 – 06 : Post @-@ First Deck Era = =
On February 1 , 2006 , Insane Clown Posse fan Jacob D. Robida attacked individuals in a gay bar in New Bedford , Massachusetts with a handgun and a hatchet — a weapon featured in the logo of the group 's record label , Psychopathic Records . Robida had a swastika tattoo and flaunted Nazi insignias and paraphernalia on his website . On February 5 , Robida shot and killed a traffic officer during a routine stop . When police pulled Robida over during a later stop , he killed his girlfriend , Jennifer Bailey of Charleston , West Virginia , then opened fire on the police . Robida was shot twice in the head during the shootout with the police , and later died in the hospital . On February 7 , Insane Clown Posse released a statement on the Robida attacks . The group 's manager Alex Abbiss extended Bruce and Utsler 's condolences and prayers to the families of the victims , stating that " It 's quite obvious that this guy had no clue what being a Juggalo is all about . If anyone knows anything at all about ICP , then you know that they have never , ever been down or will be down with any racist or bigotry bullshit " .
On October 21 , 2006 , Insane Clown Posse performed at one of twenty benefit shows organized by Myspace as part of the " Rock for Darfur " campaign to raise awareness of the War in Darfur and funds for the region 's aid .
= = 2007 – 08 : The Tempest Era = =
On March 20 , 2007 , Insane Clown Posse released their tenth studio album , The Tempest , which debuted at # 20 on the Billboard 200 and sold nearly 33 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . In 2008 , Bruce and Utsler starred in the film Death Racers . It was released direct @-@ to @-@ video on September 16 , 2008 , by The Asylum . In December 2008 , John Antonelli filed a lawsuit against the group after being struck by an unopened two @-@ liter of Faygo during a performance at the Fargo nightclub The Hub , formerly known as Playmakers . Antonelli is seeking at least $ 50 @,@ 000 in damages . The lawsuit also names the venue , Playmakers , as a defendant . An attorney for Playmakers states that only Bruce should be held liable .
= = 2009 – present : Second Joker Card Deck = =
= = = Big Money Rustlas = = =
Filming of Big Money Rustlas , a Western spoof , began in January 2009 , and concluded on February 24 , 2009 . The tenth Gathering of the Juggalos took place at Hogrock in Cave @-@ In @-@ Rock , Illinois , from August 6 to 9 . The event had the largest attendance in Gathering history with over 20 @,@ 000 people . Over 120 musical artists performed at the event , including the likes of Tech N9ne , Kottonmouth Kings , Ice Cube , GWAR , Coolio , Vanilla Ice , Onyx , Scarface , The Dayton Family , Bizarre , Esham , and NATAS . At the event , the Big Money Rustlas trailer was screened twice . An infomercial for the event was released online by Psychopathic Records . After the event , a friend of Esham 's handed Bruce a copy of his album I Ain 't Cha Homey , which depicted a clown committing suicide with a gun on the front cover . Bruce listened to the album and saw it as a diss towards Insane Clown Posse . While Esham claimed that the album was not a diss in his podcast , the album strained the relationship between Bruce and Esham , and the two have not spoken since its release .
= = = 2009 – 11 : Bang ! Pow ! Boom Era = = =
Insane Clown Posse 's eleventh studio album , Bang ! Pow ! Boom ! , was released on September 1 , 2009 . It debuted at # 1 on the Billboard Top Independent Albums chart and # 4 on the Billboard 200 . The album was later revealed to be the first of a " second deck " of Joker 's Cards . The Detroit News music critic Adam Graham gave the album a B rating , describing it as " the best material the Clowns have touched since 1999 's The Amazing Jeckel Brothers " .
On December 5 , 2009 , Saturday Night Live aired a sketch titled " Kickspit Underground Rock Festival " , which parodied the Gathering of the Juggalos infomercial . Bruce stated that he was not offended by the parody , and that he thought that the sketch was " hilarious " and " a humongous compliment " . On February 17 , 2010 , Psychopathic Records signed a contract with Universal Music Group 's Fontana Distribution . On March 9 , 2010 , Insane Clown Posse were interviewed by Nightline journalist Martin Bashir . Bruce hated the segment , stating that Bashir took statements made by the duo out of context , pairing one of Bruce 's responses with a different question than he had been asked .
The trailer for Big Money Rustlas spawned a parody video called " Juggalo News " , which achieved popularity on CollegeHumor and Funny or Die , and was praised by Bruce on his Twitter account . On April 6 , 2010 , Bang ! Pow ! Boom ! was reissued in a " Nuclear Edition " , which featured previously unreleased material and music videos for the songs " In Yo Face " and " Miracles " . During this period , the duo won the Detroit Music Award for Outstanding Hip @-@ Hop Artist / Group . On April 17 , Saturday Night Live aired a sketch which parodied the " Miracles " music video , featuring host Ryan Phillippe and cast member Bobby Moynihan . Insane Clown Posse responded favorably to the parody , and asked to appear on the show .
Before the 12th annual Gathering of the Juggalos , Insane Clown Posse were contacted by Jack White , who invited Bruce and Utsler to his mansion because he wanted to collaborate with them . White played the track he was working on , an arrangement of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart 's " Leck mich im Arsch " with live instrumentation by JEFF the Brotherhood , for Bruce and Utsler and explained that the title of the track translated to " Lick My Ass " . Bruce perceived that the scatological nature of the composition was the reason why White asked Bruce and Utsler to appear on the song , but once White explained Mozart 's sense of humor , they became excited to work with White , went back to their hotel room to write their lyrics , and returned to record with White and JEFF the Brotherhood in White 's home recording studio . Bruce and Utsler 's vocals were recorded in one take . The song was released as a single on September 13 by White 's label Third Man Records , paired with another song , " Mountain Girl " , which Bruce describes as his favorite of the two songs recorded with White , and " more ICP 's feel " .
Big Money Rustlas was released on August 17 , 2010 . Insane Clown Posse returned to Europe for a tour . The group released a three @-@ disc compilation of their guest appearances with other artists called Featuring Freshness in November 2011 . The compilation also included new songs with artists Paris , Cold 187um , and Tone Tone .
At the 2011 Detroit Music Awards , Insane Clown Posse received the Distinguished Achievement Award . In June , Insane Clown Posse issued a cease and desist notice to the Upright Citizens Brigade , threatening legal action over a planned performance , " The Gathering of the Juggalos For A Mother Fucking Baby Funeral " .
= = = 2012 – 14 : The Mighty Death Pop ! Era = = =
At their 2010 Hallowicked concert , Insane Clown Posse announced that the second new Joker 's Card would be The Mighty Death Pop ! The album has two faces , the first of which was revealed at the Hallowicked concert . The Mighty Death Pop ! features appearances from Tech N9ne and Hopsin .
Additionally , the album was released in three variant editions , containing three individual full @-@ length bonus albums . The first variant edition , dubbed the Red Pop edition , contains an album of cover songs entitled Smothered , Covered & Chunked , which features appearances by Psychopathic artists Twiztid , Anybody Killa , Blaze Ya Dead Homie , Cold 187um and Boondox , as well as Limp Bizkit frontman Fred Durst and rapper Lil Wyte . The second variant , the Black Pop edition , contains the album Freaky Tales , consisting of a single , album @-@ length rap , inspired by Too Short 's song of the same name . The third variant , the White Pop edition , contains the remix album Mike E. Clark 's Extra Pop Emporium , which features remixes , outtakes and leftover songs recorded during the Mighty Death Pop sessions ; these tracks include appearances by Kottonmouth Kings , Three 6 Mafia , Color Me Badd , Ice Cube , Scarface , Geto Boys , Twiztid , Kreayshawn , Swollen Members and Willie D. ICP said in their December 21 , 2012 Hatchet Herald edition that they will be releasing a sideshow EP for The Mighty Death Pop ! in 2013 . The EP is titled House Of Wax set to be released on November 25 , 2014 packaged inside The First Six .
= = = = 2013 – 14 : Continued legal troubles = = = =
Insane Clown Posse sued the FBI , whose National Gang Intelligence Center listed Juggalos as " a loosely organized hybrid gang " in a 2011 report . The report states that Juggalos are " recognized as a gang in only four states ... law enforcement officials in at least 21 states have identified criminal Juggalo sub @-@ sets " . The report also noted that New Mexico was seeing a lot of Juggalo gang expansion due to their attraction to " the tribal and cultural traditions of the Native Americans " . The lawsuit asks for the documents that the FBI used to reach this conclusion ; in August 2013 , federal authorities had " filed a motion to dismiss the case , saying they had already released several news media reports about Juggalos involved in criminal activity " . The American Civil Liberties Union of Michigan is working with ICP 's lawyers in order " to ensure the right of Juggalos everywhere to gather together and express their support of the I.C.P. without having to worry about being unfairly targeted and harassed by law enforcement " . On January 8 , 2014 , Insane Clown Posse , along with the American Civil Liberties Union of Michigan , filed suit again against the FBI . The suit aims to have Juggalos no longer considered to be a gang and to have any " criminal intelligence information " about Juggalos destroyed . ICP announced in the edition of December 21 , 2012 of the Hatchet Herald that they will be releasing a sideshow EP to The Mighty Death Pop ! in 2013 . After no word was heard on the album , it was speculated that it had been scrapped . In mid 2013 it was announced that ICP would be releasing their first ever box set titled The First Six . After the release date came and passed , The First Six was not released . In a February 2014 interview with Faygoluvers , the question was asked if we would be able to get the box set . ICP thought it had already been released . Dog Beats ( the first ever release on Psychopathic Records ) was set to be the bonus album in the box set , ICP went back and decided to put House of Wax in the box set instead . The First Six was set to be released on October 28 , 2014 . After a minor setback , was ultimately released on November 25 , 2014 .
Additionally , Psychopathic Records is pushing back against a former publicist who is suing the label for sexual harassment . In late 2013 ICP teamed up with Da Mafia 6ix to create The Killjoy Club , and released their debut album Reindeer Games on September 2 , 2014 . ICP went on " The ShockFest Tour " with Da Mafia 6ix , Mushroomhead , Madchild and Jelly Roll , additionally Big Hoodoo joined the tour to perform before the ticketed acts . To close out the shows on the tour Insane Clown Posse and Da Mafia 6ix performed on stage together as The Killjoy Club , doing only two songs .
= = = 2015 – present : The Marvelous Missing Link : Lost / Found Era = = =
During their 2014 Hallowicked concert , ICP revealed the 3rd Joker Card in the 2nd Deck of the Dark Carnival saga . The first part of the third card is titled The Missing Link : Lost , which is set to be released on Violent J 's 43rd birthday , April 28 , 2015 . The second part of the third card is titled The Missing Link : Found , which is set to be released during the 2015 Gathering of the Juggalos , July 28 , 2015 . ICP will give away a free poster of The Marvelous Missing Link , and will have The Marvelous Missing Link merchandise available , ( before it 's on their online store - Hatchet Gear ) , at their annual " Big Ballas Xmas Party " with Kottonmouth Kings , DJ Clay , Critical Bill , and Young Lyte , on December 20 , 2014 .
In a February 21 , 2015 interview with Billboard , Violent J stated that Mike E. Clark will not be producing either album due to prior engagements , which include working with Kid Rock , so they will have other people do the production . He also said that " LOST " will have darker beats , and no comedy on it . The album is like looking at the world through negative lenses . He said that " FOUND " is like you have been found , and has songs about the good times , and songs with comedy . Also in the interview it was announced that the " 20th Anniversary Riddle Box Tour " has been temporarily sidelined . They plan to tour in early spring into most of the summer , ending at the GOTJ 2015 , then tour again ending at the annual Hallowicked concert .
Young Wicked of the Axe Murder Boyz posted on his personal Instagram account , that this album was one of the Insane Clown Posse 's best albums ever . He stated specifically that it was going back to the Insane Clown Posse 's roots in the era of the first deck of Jokers Cards . Young wicked also made a statement that referenced the idea that he may have some featured spots on one of the albums .
On April 7 , 2015 The Marvelous Missing Link : Lost was made available for digital download preorder . Those who preordered on that day received the first single off the album , titled " Vomit " . The rest of the album will automatically download on the release date , April 28 , 2015 .
Michigan @-@ based author Steve Miller is writing a book , Juggalo : Insane Clown Posse , Their Fans , and the World They Made — it 's due out in 2016 via Da Capo Press . The book will detail the fandom associated with juggalos and their struggle with the FBI .
In late 2015 2 flyers were released with Phantom : X @-@ tra Spooky EP , promoting 2016 solo album releases from Violent J titled , Karma Forest , and Shaggy 2 Dope titled , F.T.F.O.M.F ..
In an April 8 , 2016 faygoluvers.net interview with Violent J , he stated that Shaggy 2 Dope has been working with Young Wicked , who is also producing the album , without asking Violent J for any help this far .
= = Style and influences = =
= = = Lyrics and music = = =
Insane Clown Posse 's performance style is often described as horrorcore hip hop , which " utilize [ s ] shocking ( and blatantly over @-@ the @-@ top ) narratives to give an over @-@ exaggerated , almost cartoon @-@ like version of urban deprivation in Detroit " , according to author Sara Cohen . Bruce and Utsler describe many of their lyrics as being tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek . The group 's early work features a raw , minimalistic sound , which later evolved into a more rock @-@ oriented style . The group 's lyrics serve as morality tales , with songs focusing on subjects such as cannibalism , murder and necrophilia . Insane Clown Posse 's debut album , Carnival of Carnage , features a politically @-@ oriented focus , criticizing elitism and prejudice against those who live in the ghetto , while the album 's liner notes criticize the Gulf War . The group 's lyrics have opposed racism , bigotry , domestic violence , and child abuse .
Insane Clown Posse has covered songs by Geto Boys , Sly Fox , and Above the Law . Bruce and Utsler refer to Ice Cube , Awesome Dre , Geto Boys , and Esham as influences on their own music , while Bruce has expressed admiration for Gong , Pearl Jam , and Michael Jackson . Mike E. Clark 's production for the group incorporates elements such as " carnival organ riffs , power chords and shotgun blasts ... banjolike plucking and Van Halen @-@ esque guitar squeals " , while Bruce and Utsler sometimes alternate between rapping and screaming . Bruce has credited pop music as an influence on some of the group 's material , even terming the music " Wicked Pop " . Bruce has also stated " We do our own genre of music " . In his review of The Tempest , Allmusic 's David Jeffries writes that Bruce and Utsler " [ rap ] in a carnival barker fashion that fits with their circus motif , their Insane Clown disguises , and Mike E. Clark 's big top @-@ inspired production . " Insane Clown Posse has influenced similar acts , such as Axe Murder Boyz , Blaze Ya Dead Homie and Boondox .
= = = Live performances = = =
Insane Clown Posse is known for their elaborate concert performances . In Marley Brant 's Tales from the Rock ' n ' Roll Highway , Bruce described a typical performance : " We toss out , kick out , and shoot out into the crowd about three to four hundred two @-@ liters of Faygo at every show ... We bring with us monsters , dancing clowns , girls , trampolines , and pure and absolute madness to the stage ... Shaggy and I know that without all that crazy shit going on around us , we 'd just be two more idiots walking back and forth , rapping on stage ... ICP 's motto has always been ' Fuck keepin ' it real : we just keep it entertaining . ' " Performances feature backdrops including , among other settings , a game show set and a cemetery . Bruce stated , " We always have a different set , not only for Hallowicked but every tour we go out on . We 've been around so long that we get to dig up the many cool sets that we used back in the day and then get to use them again on a national level . Something we might 've done once in ' 94 at St. Andrew 's Hall , we can go back again and now do it nationwide @-@ style " .
On tour following the release of Dog Beats , Insane Clown Posse was scheduled to perform at Ferris State University in Big Rapids , Michigan , but were delayed by a blizzard . After they arrived , the group was announced by their manager , Alex Abbiss . Bruce remembers that " [ w ] e came out with no microphones or nothing ; we were just right up in the people 's faces . Shaggy and I were just fuckin ' yelling over our own cassette . The people were staring at us in amazement and bewilderment . They must have been in shock and awe . We finished our two @-@ song set , and the crowd ... didn 't cheer or boo . They just stood there , stunned " ; they later learned that the concert was supposed to occur earlier in the evening , and that they were performing in the wrong building .
The group was unable to bring the large amounts of Faygo needed for their concerts to their European tours without a sales permit visa because customs believed that the group had intended to sell the soda at their concerts . As a result , the group 's European record label purchased similar quantities of another soda and created fake Faygo stickers to label the bottles . According to Bruce , " The craziness was this : they were not the regular two @-@ liter bottles we 're used to ; they were some other amount ... maybe one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ liter bottles . Over there , they make their plastic bottles taller and thinner ... when you 're doing what we do with them — that makes a world of difference " . During a performance in England , Bruce recounts that he " rocketed one of them bottles off my foot and that motherfucker shot straight up and out like a guided Patriot missile , right towards the disco ball high above the crowd ... The bottle nailed the disco ball , and ... came falling down ... on top of some English kid 's head . ... We must 've knocked fifteen or twenty people flat @-@ out cold on that tour ... Shaggy and I both had black eyes and several injuries and bruises ourselves from them things hittin ' us " .
Bruce and Utsler did not expect many of their fans to attend Woodstock 1999 , and were surprised when thousands of people chanted " I @-@ C @-@ P ! I @-@ C @-@ P ! " as they waited for the group to perform . Bruce told his stage crew that he would pay $ 2 @,@ 000 to each person who ran around the stage naked , and two people took up his offer . Insane Clown Posse also brought naked women on stage . Bruce and Utsler felt that because the tickets to the event were over @-@ priced , they needed to " give something back . " According to Bruce , " We brought along these big beach balls . We announced to the crowd that they each had a hundred dollars taped to them , and then we proceeded to kick about thirty of them into the crowd . Then we rolled out these bigger giant @-@ ass beach balls and announced , ' These ones have five hundred bucks taped to them ! ' We booted a gang of them into the human sea . " Bruce also recounts that their set had multiple technical problems , and the audience was not allowed to get close to the stage , which made the duo feel less connected with them .
The group 's 2009 tour in support of Bang ! Pow ! Boom ! featured clowns , showgirls , a ringmaster and caged " attractions " , including " Ape Boy " . According to Bruce , " This is actually the biggest tour we 've ever brought out , as far as stage theatrics and extras on stage ... We 've got a whole circus . We 're touring clubs and theaters , but it 's more like an arena show . It 's like an arena concert packed into a club " .
= = = Spirituality = = =
The themes of God 's presence and the final judgment of individuals are explored in multiple Insane Clown Posse songs . Throughout their career , the group has used parables set within the Dark Carnival mythology to warn of the ultimate consequences of immoral behavior . Their 2002 album The Wraith : Shangri @-@ La ended the first set of Joker Card albums and included the song The Unveiling , which explicitly revealed that the hidden message of ICP 's music had always been to follow God . Joseph Bruce remarked that " The ending of the Joker Cards , the way we looked at it , was death . Heaven and hell . That 's up to each and every juggalo [ to decide ] " .
Several journalists have commented on the apparent conflict between the group 's sexualized and often violent lyrics and their stated spiritual message . In a June 2010 interview with The Columbian 's Alan Sculley , Bruce explained , " [ Sex and violence is ] the stuff that people are talking about on the streets ... to get attention , you have to speak their language . You have to interest them , gain their trust , talk to them and show you 're one of them . You 're a person from the street and speak of your experiences . Then at the end you can tell them God has helped me out like this and it might transfer over instead of just come straight out and just speak straight out of religion " .
In an October 2010 article for The Guardian , Jon Ronson characterized the Insane Clown Posse as " evangelical Christians " who have " only been pretending to be brutal and sadistic to trick their fans into believing in God " . In an interview with ICP conducted for the article , two of Ronson 's queries referred parenthetically to ICP 's " Christian message " and to the members ' identities as " [ secret ] Christians " . Several papers , including The Washington Post , published summaries of Ronson 's claims .
Eight days after publication of the Guardian article , Joseph Bruce Tweeted " I think [ it 's ] crazy how some press say we 're a Christian band and act like we 're all religious [ ... ] I 'm proud that we believe in God but I haven 't been to church since I was like 10 . I don 't even know if [ Utsler has ] ever been to church ! " Christianity Today writer Mark Moring also challenged Ronson 's characterization , writing that " The guys in ICP haven 't used the word ' Christian ' or ' evangelical ' [ ... ] so let 's not call them anything that they 're not claiming for themselves " .
In 2011 , Insane Clown Posse appeared on Attack of the Show ! and repudiated claims that they were a Christian band . Bruce explained that their Dark Carnival mythology " comes from the basic principle of right and wrong , you know . Evil and good . That 's all . We 're just trying to say that there 's bad guys out there and that there 's good guys out there [ ... ] We were taught there 's a heaven and a hell , but that 's all we were taught . We weren 't taught about the [ Ten ] Commandments [ ... or ] what 's in the Bible and all that . We just [ ... ] want to see good people hopefully go to heaven , which we refer to as Shangri @-@ La " . Joseph Utsler explained in a 2002 interview with Craig Markley that " God is in your heart [ ... ] In my definition , it doesn 't matter what creed , religion , or group you belong to . If you 're doing what 's right and are a good person , then you 're right with God . " Bruce and Utsler have also stated that they are not certain that God and the afterlife exist , but that they 'd like to believe that there is something after death .
= = Wrestling = =
Both Bruce and Utsler began wrestling as single competitors in 1983 in their backyard wrestling promotion Tag Team Wrestling , later renamed National All @-@ Star Wrestling . The two moved on to compete in various independent promotions in Michigan from 1990 to 1997 before making an appearance together in Extreme Championship Wrestling ( ECW ) as Insane Clown Posse . In 1998 , the team had a three @-@ month stint in World Wrestling Federation ( WWF ) where they wrestled alongside The Oddities and , later , The Headbangers .
After leaving the company , they went to wrestle for World Championship Wrestling ( WCW ) with The Dead Pool and The Dark Carnival between 1999 and 2000 . On December 19 , 1999 , Bruce and Utsler created their own wrestling promotion , Juggalo Championshit Wrestling ( now known as Juggalo Championship Wrestling ) . In 2004 , they briefly wrestled in Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( TNA ) . The duo continues to wrestle today in Juggalo Championship Wrestling as well as in various independent promotions .
Insane Clown Posse gained fame for being both professional musicians and professional wrestlers . Overall , they are two @-@ time JCW Tag Team Champions . Additionally , Bruce is a one @-@ time JCW Tag Team Champion with 2 Tuff Tony , and Utsler is a one @-@ time JCW Heavyweight Champion . Bruce and Utsler are also founding members of the Juggalo World Order .
In addition they were largely involved in Backyard Wrestling : Don 't Try This at Home , where most of the wrestlers in the game were members of JCW .
= = Band members = =
Timeline
= = Discography = =
Carnival of Carnage ( 1992 )
Ringmaster ( 1994 )
Riddle Box ( 1995 )
The Great Milenko ( 1997 )
The Amazing Jeckel Brothers ( 1999 )
Bizaar ( 2000 )
Bizzar ( 2000 )
The Wraith : Shangri @-@ La ( 2002 )
Hell 's Pit ( 2004 )
The Tempest ( 2007 )
Bang ! Pow ! Boom ! ( 2009 )
The Mighty Death Pop ! ( 2012 )
The Marvelous Missing Link : Lost ( 2015 )
The Marvelous Missing Link : Found ( 2015 )
= = Joker Cards and sideshows = =
= = = 1992 – 04 : First Deck = = =
Joker Card : Carnival of Carnage - October 18 , 1992
Sideshow : Beverly Kills 50187 EP - July 16 , 1993
Joker Card : Ringmaster - March 8 , 1994
Sideshow : The Terror Wheel EP - August 5 , 1994
Joker Card : Riddle Box - October 10 , 1995
Sideshow : Tunnel of Love EP - June 11 , 1996
Joker Card : The Great Milenko - June 24 , 1997
Sideshow :
Joker Card : The Amazing Jeckel Brothers - May 25 , 1999
Sideshow
Joker Card : The Wraith : Shangri @-@ La - November 5 , 2002
Sideshow :
Joker Card : The Wraith : Hells Pit - August 31 , 2004
Sideshow :
= = = 2009 – present : Second Deck = = =
Joker Card : Bang ! Pow ! Boom ! - September 1 , 2009
Sideshow :
Joker Card : The Mighty Death Pop ! - August 14 , 2012
Sideshow : House of Wax EP - November 25 , 2014
Joker Card : The Marvelous Missing Link : Lost - April 28 , 2015
Sideshow :
Joker Card : The Marvelous Missing Link : Found - July 31 , 2015
Sideshow :
= = Solo Albums = =
Enter The Ghetto Zone ( 1990 ) ( Violent J ) ( Rude Boy Productions )
Fuck Off ! EP ( 1994 ) ( Shaggy 2 Dope ) ( Psychopathic Records )
Wizard of the Hood EP ( July 22 , 2003 ) ( Violent J ) ( Psychopathic Records )
F.T.F.O. ( February 21 , 2006 ) ( Shaggy 2 Dope ) ( Psychopathic Records )
The Shining ( April 28 , 2009 ) ( Violent J ) ( Psychopathic Records )
F.T.F.O.M.F. ( 2016 ) ( Shaggy 2 Dope ) ( Psychopathic Records )
Karma Forest ( 2016 ) ( Violent J ) ( Psychopathic Records )
= = Filmography = =
Big Money Hustlas ( 2000 )
Mad TV ( 2002 )
ego trip 's The ( White ) Rapper Show ( 2007 )
Death Racers ( 2008 )
A Family Underground ( 2009 )
Aqua Teen Hunger Force [ TV series , " Juggalo " episode ] ( 2010 )
Big Money Rustlas ( 2010 )
1000 Ways to Die [ TV series , " Deadliest Kitsch " episode ] ( 2011 ) ( Themselves )
Lopez Tonight ( 2011 )
Tosh.0 [ TV series , special " Web Redemption " segment ] ( 2012 )
ICP Theater [ TV series ] ( 2013 )
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= Capon Lake Whipple Truss Bridge =
The Capon Lake Whipple Truss Bridge ( local / keɪpən / ) , formerly known as South Branch Bridge or Romney Bridge , is a historic Whipple truss bridge in Capon Lake , West Virginia . It is located off Carpers Pike ( West Virginia Route 259 ) and crosses the Cacapon River . The bridge formerly carried Capon Springs Road ( West Virginia Secondary Route 16 ) over the river , connecting Capon Springs and Capon Lake .
The bridge 's Whipple truss technology was developed by civil engineer Squire Whipple in 1847 . J. W. Murphy further modified Whipple 's truss design in 1859 by designing the first truss bridge with pinned eyebar connections . The design of the Capon Lake Whipple Truss Bridge incorporates Murphy 's later modifications with double @-@ intersections and horizontal chords , and is therefore considered a Whipple – Murphy truss bridge . The Capon Lake Whipple Truss Bridge is West Virginia 's oldest remaining example of a Whipple truss bridge and its oldest extant metal truss bridge .
The Capon Lake Whipple Truss Bridge was originally constructed in 1874 as part of the South Branch Bridge ( or alternatively , the Romney Bridge ) , a larger two @-@ span Whipple truss bridge conveying the Northwestern Turnpike ( U.S. Route 50 ) across the South Branch Potomac River near Romney . The larger Whipple truss bridge replaced an 1838 wooden covered bridge that was destroyed during the American Civil War . In 1874 , T. B. White and Sons were charged with the construction of a Whipple truss bridge over the South Branch ; that bridge served travelers along the Northwestern Turnpike for 63 years until a new bridge was constructed in 1937 .
Dismantled in 1937 , the bridge was relocated to Capon Lake in southeastern Hampshire County to carry Capon Springs Road ( West Virginia Secondary Route 16 ) between West Virginia Route 259 and Capon Springs . The bridge was dedicated on August 20 , 1938 . In 1991 , a new bridge was completed to the south , and the Capon Lake Whipple Truss Bridge was preserved in place by the West Virginia Division of Highways , due to its rarity , age , and engineering significance . The Capon Lake Whipple Truss Bridge was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on December 15 , 2011 .
= = Geography and setting = =
The Capon Lake Whipple Truss Bridge is located in a predominantly rural agricultural and forested area of southeastern Hampshire County within the Cacapon River valley . Baker Mountain , a forested narrow anticlinal mountain ridge , rises to the immediate west , and the western rolling foothills of the anticlinal Great North Mountain rise to the bridge 's east . The confluence of Capon Springs Run with the Cacapon River lies just north ( downstream ) of the bridge . George Washington National Forest is located to the bridge 's southeast , covering the forested area south of Capon Springs Road .
The bridge is located along Carpers Pike ( West Virginia Route 259 ) in the unincorporated community of Capon Lake , 2 @.@ 05 miles ( 3 @.@ 30 km ) southwest of Yellow Spring and 6 @.@ 77 miles ( 10 @.@ 90 km ) northeast of the town of Wardensville . The historic Capon Springs Resort and the unincorporated community of Capon Springs are located 3 @.@ 5 miles ( 5 @.@ 6 km ) east of Capon Lake on Capon Springs Road ( West Virginia Secondary Route 16 ) . The bridge is located immediately north ( downstream ) of the intersection of Carpers Pike with Capon Springs Road , which is carried across the Cacapon River via the current Capon Lake Bridge , a steel stringer bridge built in 1991 to replace the Whipple truss bridge for conveying vehicle traffic . The property containing the Capon Lake Whipple Truss Bridge is less than 1 acre ( 0 @.@ 40 ha ) in size .
= = Architecture = =
The Capon Lake Whipple Truss Bridge is an early example of the use of metal truss bridge load @-@ bearing superstructure technology , which defined highway bridge design well into the 20th century . Because of " its uncommon innovative design and age " , the bridge is one of West Virginia 's most historically significant bridges . It is the oldest remaining example of a Whipple truss bridge in West Virginia , and the oldest extant metal truss bridge in the state . The metal truss technology of the bridge displays distinctive innovations developed by the prominent civil engineers and bridge designers Squire Whipple and J. W. Murphy ; the innovations are evident in the bridge 's double @-@ intersection diagonals and counter @-@ diagonals with pin connections .
Approximately 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) in width and 176 feet ( 54 m ) in length , the bridge is built atop a reinforced concrete abutment and pier . Its truss structure exhibits a double @-@ intersection configuration , constructed of 14 bays , each measuring approximately 11 feet ( 3 @.@ 4 m ) wide and 23 feet ( 7 @.@ 0 m ) in height , with the diagonals extending across two bays each . The bridge is fabricated of wrought iron bracketed with pins . Spanning the full length of the bridge is a wooden pedestrian walkway that consists of an observation deck and wooden seating near the bridge 's midspan .
= = History = =
= = = Whipple truss development = = =
The bridge 's Whipple truss technology was developed in 1847 by civil engineer Squire Whipple , who received a patent from the U.S. Patent Office the same year . Whipple was one of the first structural engineers to use scientific and mathematical methods analyzing the forces and stresses in framed structures to design the bridge , and his groundbreaking 1847 book , A Work on Bridge Building , had a significant influence on bridge engineering . Whipple 's truss bridge design incorporated double @-@ intersection diagonals into the standard Pratt truss , thus allowing the diagonals to extend across two truss bays . Engineer J. W. Murphy further modified Whipple 's truss design in 1859 when he designed the first truss bridge with pinned eyebar connections , which utilized pins instead of trunnions . Murphy 's design removed the need for riveted connections and allowed for easier and more widespread construction of truss bridges . In 1863 , Murphy designed the first pin @-@ connected truss bridge with both wrought iron tension and compression components and cast iron joint blocks and pedestals . Murphy 's truss design consisted of double @-@ intersection counter @-@ diagonals , and along with the eyebar and pin connections , permitted longer iron bridge spans .
The technological design advances made by Whipple and Murphy , in addition to further advances in steel and iron fabrication , made wrought iron truss bridges a major industry in the United States . The Capon Lake bridge was a Whipple – Murphy truss bridge , since it incorporated Murphy 's later modifications with double @-@ intersections and horizontal chords . At the time of the bridge 's original fabrication in 1874 , metal truss bridges were ordered from catalogs by county courts and other entities responsible for transportation construction and maintenance . These entities provided the desired width , length , and other specifications , and the truss materials were shipped to the construction site and assembled by local construction teams . Metal truss bridges were more economically feasible , could span longer distances , and were simpler to construct than stone bridges , and they were more durable than wooden bridges . They were also marketed as detachable and transportable structures that could be dismantled and reassembled . The technology used in the Capon Lake Whipple Truss Bridge revolutionized transport throughout West Virginia . While the Whipple truss bridge had waned in popularity by the 1890s , the bridges were commonly disassembled and re @-@ erected for use on secondary roads , as was the case with the Capon Lake Whipple Truss Bridge in 1938 .
= = = T. B. White and Sons = = =
The construction company that built the Capon Lake Whipple Truss Bridge , T. B. White and Sons , was established in 1868 . Its founder Timothy B. White had been a carpenter and contractor in New Brighton , Pennsylvania since the 1840s . White also operated factories for iron cars and woolen mill machinery until 1859 , when he began to concentrate solely on bridge construction . White 's bridge company operated from a factory on the Beaver River in New Brighton until the factory was destroyed by fire in 1878 . After the fire , the company relocated across the river to Beaver Falls and restructured as the Penn Bridge and Machine Works . In addition to iron truss bridges , the company produced a range of structural and architectural components and continued to expand ; it employed over 500 workers by 1908 . Penn Bridge and Machine Works fended off purchase by the American Bridge Company and continued to operate independently , unlike similar small bridge companies founded in the 19th century . The most prolific of its kind in the Pittsburgh region , the company was responsible for the construction of bridges throughout the United States .
= = = South Branch Bridge = = =
The Capon Lake Whipple Truss Bridge was originally constructed in 1874 as part of the South Branch Bridge ( or the Romney Bridge ) , a larger two @-@ span Whipple truss bridge conveying the Northwestern Turnpike ( U.S. Route 50 ) across the South Branch Potomac River 0 @.@ 57 miles ( 0 @.@ 92 km ) west of Romney . The 1874 Whipple truss bridge across the South Branch replaced an 1838 wooden covered bridge that had been chartered by the Virginia General Assembly during the construction of the Northwestern Turnpike . Before the construction of the covered bridge in 1838 , a public ferry conveyed traffic across the river . Isaac Parsons ( 1752 – 1796 ) operated a ferry there following its establishment by an act of the Virginia General Assembly in October 1786 . The 1838 covered bridge remained in use until it was destroyed by retreating Confederate forces during the American Civil War . Throughout the course of the war , Romney reportedly changed hands 56 times between Confederate and Union forces , and the crossing of the South Branch Potomac River served as a strategic point due to its position along the Northwestern Turnpike , an important east – west route .
Following the conclusion of the war , nearly all bridges along the Northwestern Turnpike had been destroyed , including the South Branch Bridge . In order to restore local businesses and industry , Hampshire County citizens called a meeting and steps were taken at the local level to proceed with the construction of new bridges . Local citizens and the South Branch Intelligencer newspaper of Romney campaigned for the immediate replacement of the bridge because of " continual risk , danger and inconveniences arising from want of the South Branch Bridge at Col. Gibson 's ( destroyed during the war ) ... " . Hampshire County began issuing bonds for the construction of a new bridge over the South Branch in 1868 , and by 1874 , construction of the Whipple truss bridge had commenced . T. B. White and Sons were charged with the bridge 's construction .
The South Branch Intelligencer published periodic updates on the progress of the South Branch Bridge 's construction . According to the newspaper , the bridge was scheduled to be completed by July 1875 . During the course of construction , John Ridenour lost a finger while working on the bridge . The new South Branch Bridge was completed well ahead of schedule in October 1874 . The October 12 , 1874 , edition of the South Branch Intelligencer characterized the new bridge as a " complete , handsome and durable structure " , and further recounted that " the contractors , Messrs. White & Sons , New Brighton , Pennsylvania ' Penn Bridge & Machine Works , ' have given us , in general opinion , a first rate , durable work , and deserve our best commendations .... We are confident that ours will realize a very handsome income and fully vindicate the wisdom of the County Court in voting its construction . "
Following its construction in 1874 , the Whipple truss bridge over the South Branch Potomac River served Romney and travelers along the Northwestern Turnpike for 63 years . In 1935 , the West Virginia State Road Commission began organizing a project to replace the Whipple truss bridge , and construction of the new bridge had begun by 1936 . In November of that year , a car collided with the south side of the eastern Whipple truss span , which knocked the span completely off its eastern abutment . The car plunged into the South Branch Potomac River , followed by the compromised truss span , which collapsed on top of the car . Unaware of the span 's collapse , a car traveling from the west drove off the end of the west span at the bridge 's center pier , and fell onto the collapsed span . According to the Hampshire Review , the only serious injury sustained was a broken wooden leg . Following the collapse of the eastern Whipple truss span , a temporary wooden span was hastily constructed between the western truss span and the eastern abutment , so that traffic was uninterrupted until the new bridge was completed and opened on June 21 , 1937 . The 1937 bridge was used until 2010 when it was replaced by the current South Branch Bridge .
= = = Capon Lake Bridge = = =
Because Whipple truss bridges were easily disassembled and re @-@ erected , the remaining western span of the Whipple truss over the South Branch was dismantled in 1937 and relocated to Capon Lake in southeastern Hampshire County to convey Capon Springs Road ( West Virginia Secondary Route 16 ) between West Virginia Route 259 and Capon Springs . According to Branson Himelwright , a Capon Springs resident who had been a construction worker involved in the re @-@ erection of the Whipple truss span at Capon Lake , the only two ways to cross the Cacapon River to reach Capon Springs were to cross a swinging footbridge or ford the river . During the bridge 's construction , a new pier and abutments were constructed to carry the Whipple truss span and a connected Pratt truss that had been salvaged from an unknown bridge . Himelwright and Jacob " Moss " Rudolph , who had also participated in the bridge 's construction , stated in interviews that both the site excavation and concrete work for the pier and abutments were completed by hand .
The newly erected Capon Lake Bridge was dedicated on August 20 , 1938 , with a ceremony including musical performances by the Romney High School and Capon Springs Resort bands . Former West Virginia Governor and Capon Springs native Herman G. Kump , West Virginia State Road Commission Secretary Cy Hammill , and numerous other state officials were in attendance at the dedication .
In 1991 , the new steel stringer Capon Lake Bridge was constructed 187 feet ( 57 m ) to the southwest of the Capon Lake Whipple Truss Bridge , after which the Whipple truss bridge was closed to vehicle traffic . Due to its rarity , age , and engineering significance , West Virginia Division of Highways District 5 decided to preserve the Whipple truss bridge . During the bridge 's restoration , the Pratt truss span was removed due to significant deterioration , and the roadway deck was also removed . A wooden pedestrian walkway and observation deck were constructed across the full span of the remaining truss bridge .
The Capon Lake Whipple Truss Bridge was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on December 15 , 2011 , for its " engineering significance as an excellent example of a Whipple / Murphy Truss bridge . " Since its listing , the bridge has been maintained as a historic site for pedestrians by the West Virginia Division of Highways District 5 . In 2012 , the West Virginia Division of Highways , in association with the West Virginia Archives and the history department of the West Virginia Division of Culture and History , installed a historical marker at the northwestern entry to the bridge as part of the West Virginia Highway Historical Marker Program . The marker reads :
First erected in 1874 as a two span bridge on US 50 near Romney , one span was moved here in 1938 and re @-@ erected on a new foundation . The 17 ' wide by 176 ' long bridge is a Whipple – Murphy Truss . The state 's oldest extant metal truss , the bridge is one of a few of its type in WV . Listed in the National Register of Historic Places in 2011 .
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= Bella Bond murder case =
Bella Neveah Amoroso Bond ( August 6 , 2012 – May or June 2015 ) , previously known as the Deer Island Jane Doe and " Baby Doe " , was an American child found dead in a plastic bag on the shore of Deer Island in Boston , Massachusetts on June 25 , 2015 . Authorities pursued investigation into discovering who the child was until her identification in September 2015 .
The National Center for Missing & Exploited Children reconstructed the child 's face to provide the public with an estimation of the victim 's appearance during life . They aimed to generate tips to a potential identity and to locate the individual or individuals responsible for the disposal of her body . After the reconstruction was released and news coverage began nationwide a large amount of public attention emerged ; an estimated 56 million people viewed reports on the case . Half of these occurred within the first week after the body was found .
The publicity generated many tips with possible leads , one of which led to the girl 's identity . Bond was identified on September 18 , 2015 . Bond 's mother and her mother 's boyfriend were arrested , and authorities confirmed that Bella had been murdered , despite the fact that an initial autopsy performed on the body did not uncover the exact cause of death . Investigation is continuing toward solving the case , and the boyfriend of the victim 's mother was charged with her murder and her mother was charged as an " accessory after the fact " .
= = Discovery = =
The body was found inside a plastic garbage bag on the shoreline of Deer Island in Boston , Massachusetts . A woman walking her dog discovered Bond 's remains on the afternoon of June 25 , 2015 , when the dog stopped at the plastic bag . After the body was found , the public placed flowers near the scene . She wore only a pair of white leggings designed with a black polka @-@ dot pattern . A zebra @-@ print blanket was also inside the bag . Initially , police were unsure if there would be additional bodies at the scene , so they attempted unsuccessfully to use cadaver dogs to locate any other possible remains .
Authorities originally estimated that the girl had died within days of her discovery . Later developments in the case have suggested that Bella 's body had been " hidden in a fridge " for as long as one month before it was deposited on Deer Island . Despite the fact that she appeared to be deceased a short amount of time , she had already begun to decompose and become bloated , and so was impossible to identify visually . Decomposition had also made it impossible to collect fingerprints , due to exposure to the water . Investigators were able to conclude that she was a young child but were initially unsure of her race and ethnicity .
It was unknown how the remains had settled at the location ; the body might either have been placed at the beach or have drifted in the water from another location , some presuming from as far as Canada . The United States Coast Guard entered the investigation and analyzed the currents of the water in the area to estimate where the bag containing the remains could have originated from . Dive teams were also used around the time the body was discovered . As of mid @-@ July and August , authorities believed the victim had been placed at the scene , rather than washing onto Deer Island from another location , because the body was not in an advanced enough stage of decomposition . The beach is near a waste @-@ water treatment plant . One of the investigators thought there was a possibility that the disposal had been performed by an employee of the nearby water treatment plant . Since the area has been regarded as a " busy " area for both workers and the public , it was also possible that the person who placed the bag at the scene did so overnight , to avoid being seen .
= = Examination = =
A " preliminary " autopsy was conducted on July 3 but did not conclude what had caused the girl 's death . However , authorities suspected foul play as a factor in the case . Yet no signs of obvious injury have been found on the remains . Tests were later conducted to find any toxins , drugs or alcohol present in the body as a possible explanation for the death . Examiners were unable to find any trace of cleaners such as bleach in the remains , but continued with more testing in hopes of finding another toxin as a possible cause of death . After the identification of the victim , a conclusive cause of death had yet to be announced , yet all forms of a " natural death had been excluded " . Suffocation has not been ruled out as the cause .
The clothing found on the toddler , believed to be a " size 4T " was determined to have been manufactured by the Circo company and was likely sold at a Target store . The blanket was possibly made by the Cannon Mills company and sold at K @-@ Mart . A hair band made from elastic material was also found .
She was eventually determined to be between the ages of three and five and appeared to be white with possible Hispanic ancestry . Her hair was described as being " brown , wavy and fourteen inches in length " . It is presumed that the child 's hair was left untrimmed for approximately two years , judging by its length . It was also estimated that she was between three feet one and three feet six inches tall and weighed around thirty pounds . There were no distinct birthmarks or scars on the body . It was later discovered that the girl had pierced ears , so the National Center for Missing & Exploited Children released an updated image of the child wearing earrings . The girl appeared to have been " well @-@ cared for " during her life ; no signs of malnutrition or abuse were noted , and investigators stated the clothing also reinforced the theory .
= = Investigation = =
The National Center for Missing & Exploited Children digitally reconstructed the face of the child after preceding attempts to identify the body failed . The reconstruction was created in four hours using Adobe Photoshop with the influence of mortuary and " stock " photographs to give an estimation of the child 's appearance while alive . The reconstruction , created by forensic artist Christi Andrews , was released on July 2 , 2015 . Because of the end result of the composite created with Adobe Photoshop , many viewers mistook it for an actual photograph . The organization also digitally enhanced images of the leggings and the blanket found with the remains and created a poster featuring them on their website . Flyers containing images of the Jane Doe and her belongings were eventually dispersed in hopes of obtaining more information .
The child was entered into the National Missing and Unidentified Persons System on July 4 , 2015 , including details of the discovery of the subject and physical estimations . Many missing persons were excluded as possible identities ; authorities checked Shoshana Black , Paula Ramerez @-@ Figuroa , Ofir Ben – Haim , Cassidy Gibbs and Ayla Reynolds . Other leads were pursued involving children that were reported missing , some of whom were foreign to the United States . Some of the potential matches were later located alive . The disappearance case of Sarah Hoggle had been analyzed to have a possible link to the case , yet investigators stated it was " unlikely " to have been related to this case . In all , over two hundred missing people were ruled out from the case .
A press conference displaying the reconstruction and the enhanced images of the clothing and blanket was later held at the location where the body was found . It was televised to ask the public for assistance identifying the victim and to request of those that may have known her , especially her parents , to identify the girl . During the press conference , officials urged viewers to be aware of children that may have disappeared or gone uncounted for in the days leading up to the celebration of Independence Day . Despite their hopes , no one came forward to claim responsibility for the crime or to confirm who the victim was . Hundreds of tips were submitted over the phone and online and were investigated .
When searching missing persons databases produced few cases matching her profile , authorities began to believe that the child may never have been reported missing . They explored the guess that the family of the child could be unaware of her death . Another explanation for why no matches were achieved was that she could have belonged to an " undocumented " family . Police were focused on investigating in the local community , yet they believed it possible that the girl was not from the area and continued to search through various cases of missing children .
Among other theories about the case , early speculation was that the girl could have been murdered by a member of her family . A criminologist stated that it did not seem likely that she would have been " murdered by a stranger , " according to statistics of similar cases . The fact that she had been disposed of along with personal items reinforced this theory . The fact that there were not yet any tips from relatives with information about the child supported the idea that family members were involved with the disposal of the body — and possibly with her death . Investigators feared for other children that may have been in the care of those that disposed of the body , as they could be in danger . A different theory held that the child 's family members might also be deceased , having faced a similar demise .
= = = Forensic testing = = =
Forensics teams analyzed the DNA of Deer Island Jane to exclude some missing persons and in hopes of matching it to possible relatives of the girl whose DNA was on record . It was obtained through samples of hair and a tooth . The DNA did not match the profiles stored in databases of known missing persons . Officials stated that they also sent samples to the University of North Texas to create a more specific profile , a time @-@ consuming process . Mitochondrial DNA from the bones of the child was later developed to compare to possible relatives .
Besides DNA testing , authorities conducted efforts into forensic palynology as well as isotope examination of water found at the scene . Results of the testing indicated that the child had spent time in the local , urban area , most likely in Boston , as traces of both pine and soot were found through the tests . Eventually , it was also determined that she may have spent time in " any [ ... ] New England " state and possibly others . The hair and enamel tests also indicated she could have " moved across the country . "
= = Public interaction = =
Since the reconstruction and the story was publicized , an unexpectedly large amount of public interest in the case developed internationally . Many remarked on the so @-@ called " beauty " of the girl . Many people have since shared and viewed reports detailing the case on social networks , such as Twitter and Facebook . Several individuals offered to pay for the child 's funeral and burial if she could not be identified . One funeral home stated that they would donate the means to bury the child under a headstone , so she would not be buried in a pauper 's grave . Local businesses in the area began placing posters of the child in their buildings , hoping to create awareness for the case and to generate potential leads . The Massachusetts Water Resources Authority reported plans to donate a bench in memory of the girl . The digital reconstruction has been viewed an estimated fifty million times by the public , which officials have stated is significantly efficient in assisting with the case .
On July 10 , CNN News host Anderson Cooper interviewed the National Center for Missing & Exploited Children 's co @-@ founder and former emcee of America 's Most Wanted , John Walsh about the case . Walsh stated that " absolutely someone knows " the identity of the Jane Doe and that in similar cases , it was often the " live @-@ in boyfriend " or the mother of the child that had abused or neglected one of several children in a family , citing that the victim could have been " accidentally killed or starved to death . " When explaining a probable reason why the girl had remained unidentified , Walsh stated that " people do not want to talk to cops , " possibly due to the fear of authorities investigating their own lives . For instance , the family of Anjelica Castillo , who were undocumented immigrants and never reported the victim missing due to fear of deportation . Walsh encouraged viewers to contact him instead , giving the number for the show he hosts , The Hunt With John Walsh and the URL for his profile on the CNN website . He confirmed that those submitting tips could remain anonymous .
= = = Tips = = =
Many leads were followed that appeared to match the circumstances of the case . A woman witnessed throwing a garbage bag over a bridge was later questioned by police , but it was found that that bag contained only spoiled fruit . Other individuals stated they had seen toddlers resembling the Jane Doe , one at a store and another at a playground , seen with a woman clothed in a " burka . " Investigators were unable to find any trace of the girl at the store through information gathered by security cameras , and the subject at the playground has yet to be located . A man stated he believed he had seen the toddler in November 2014 at a laundromat with a " heavyset " and " dirty blond " woman pushing the child in a stroller .
The local police department reported that they received many tips suggesting possible identities for the child , those of missing girls throughout the country . Many readers online told police that the girl could be Aliya Lunsford of West Virginia , who disappeared on September 24 , 2011 . Lunsford would have been six at the time of the discovery and did bear a resemblance to the reconstruction of the Jane Doe , but she was later excluded from the case . The Massachusetts State Police later released statements on their Facebook pages regarding the exclusions of Lunsford , as well as Ayla Reynolds . Police were made aware of a possible link between the Jane Doe and Katherine Phillips , nicknamed as " Baby Kate , " who went missing in 2011 . Phillips ' body has never been recovered , despite the fact that her father has since been charged with her murder and convicted of kidnapping . Authorities expressed their doubts that the body was Katherine Phillips but said they would investigate the lead . DNA between the pair was eventually compared . Phillips was later ruled out as " Baby Doe " and an announcement to the public was released on July 10 .
Investigators set up a twenty @-@ four @-@ hour hotline for those with information on the case to call . A text hotline was also created . Many submitted information about potential matches , later revealed to be missing children in over half of the United States as well as European and South and Central American countries . A total of eighty @-@ four billboards , including digital signs donated by Clear Channel , were also placed across the state of Massachusetts , encouraging individuals to report tips to the anonymous hotlines created for the child .
= = Identification = =
The child was identified as Bella Neveah Amoroso Bond on September 18 , 2015 . The identification was made after the sister of one of Rachelle Bond 's neighbors reported to police a link between Bond and the Jane Doe . Apparently , the neighbor had noticed Bella was absent from the household and had confronted Rachelle Bond and her boyfriend Michael McCarthy . They stated that the girl had been " taken away by the Department of Children and Families " ( this was later disproved ) . Subsequently , the neighbor told his sister that he believed that " Baby Doe " was Bella Bond , and she contacted authorities .
On September 17 , 2015 , a search warrant was executed at the home of Rachelle Bond , 40 , the child 's mother , in Dorchester , Massachusetts . Since the identification was made , images of the toddler from her mother 's Facebook page have been released .
= = = Later developments and trials = = =
Rachelle Bond , known as a habitual drug user , had two other children that had been removed from her custody . She had also been arrested multiple times in the past , for other crimes , including prostitution . Police commented that they had dealt with complaints that she was neglecting her daughter and had had four separate encounters with Bond . Bella 's family was interviewed after the identification was announced . Her aunt stated that she had never suspected that " Baby Doe " was Bella , and the maternal grandmother of the victim was unaware that the child was ever born . The Department of Children and Families had responded to two neglect complaints regarding Bella ; both cases were closed .
Police released the information that the child was a murder victim and charged Michael McCarthy , the mother 's boyfriend , with Bond 's death . They also charged her mother with being an accessory to the crime , believing her to have assisted McCarthy with " covering up " Bella 's death . Larceny was added to Rachelle Bond 's charges after it was discovered that she accepted $ 1 @,@ 400 of welfare income after she knew about the death of her daughter . The pair were arraigned on September 21 , 2015 . Rachelle 's bail was set for one million dollars ; McCarthy was not eligible for bail . McCarthy was scheduled to appear in court again on February 16 , 2016 , after Rachelle Bond 's appearance on January 6 . A judge later set Rachelle Bond 's trial date to December 1 , 2016 .
Authorities have acknowledged that since the exact cause of Bella 's death remains unknown , asserting that it was homicide to a jury could be " difficult to prove . " Rachelle Bond alleged that McCarthy had punched the toddler in the stomach multiple times after claiming Bella was a " demon " , and that he was the sole perpetrator of the murder . Prosecutors of McCarthy allege that Bella was murdered in one of many abusive occasions after she had been uncooperative about going to bed . Citing that McCarthy had decided to " calm the child down , " they say Rachelle had not entered the room alongside her boyfriend . When she did enter , they say she witnessed him near the girl 's body , which was " swollen and gray , " indicating she was deceased . Rachelle Bond 's attorney claims McCarthy threatened to murder her client if she contacted authorities . She also maintained that Rachelle was not involved with hiding the victim 's body , which had initially been placed in garbage bags and concealed in a refrigerator . A cadaver dog brought to the house later indicated that it smelled something on the refrigerator . Bond contradicted the belief that the body was placed on Deer Island ; she stated that McCarthy had placed the body in a weighted duffel bag and disposed of it in the water , suggesting it drifted to the location where it was found .
McCarthy claimed Rachelle was responsible for the death . McCarthy 's lawyer objected to claims made by Rachelle Bond 's defense and stated that his client had no knowledge of Bella 's death , saying no sufficient evidence exists to indicate otherwise . They have also claimed that he had moved out of Rachelle Bond 's residence before Bella 's death . McCarthy claimed he had left after witnessing Rachelle 's negative treatment of Bella , which included emotional and physical abuse . His defense also cited that Rachelle 's statements could not be confirmed and that she was more likely to have killed her daughter because of her drug history . The claim of Bella being beaten to death was also challenged , as the autopsy did not indicate any signs of injuries consistent with what Rachelle described . Other claims exist that accuse Rachelle Bond of fabricating the story as a way to avoid being charged with murder . It was announced that McCarthy had sent Rachelle a text message that said " don 't tell them you have a daughter . We don 't want [ the Department of Children and Families ] getting involved " .
Bella 's biological father , Joe Amoroso , had allegedly never met his daughter , but had spoken over a telephone with her . Amoroso had stated he had learned of Bella 's death when Rachelle told him during a visit , within a week before the identification was made . He states that he believed that Bond would not ever have hurt her daughter . Amoroso elaborated in another interview that he believed Rachelle had been " sedated " with an injection of heroin by her boyfriend quickly after Bella 's death , as a " track mark " visible on her neck could not be the result of her own action . Unlike her son , Bella 's paternal grandmother stated that she believed Rachelle Bond was heavily involved in Bella 's death and openly questioned the truthfulness of her allegations toward Michael McCarthy . Amoroso announced plans to bury Bella in Winthrop , Massachusetts among family members , stating he had decided to have the " funeral and wake services to be public . " Bella Bond was buried on November 28 , 2015 at the Winthrop Cemetery during a private funeral , after her parents later came to a consensus not to have the service open to the public . She was buried under a headstone reading " Bella N. Bond Amoroso " with the date of death listed as the day she was discovered .
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= Remy Hamilton =
Remy Martin Hamilton ( born August 30 , 1974 ) is a former American football kicker who played in the National Football League ( NFL ) and Arena Football League ( AFL ) . In college , he was an All @-@ American for the Michigan Wolverines football team . As a professional , he played for the Detroit Lions of the NFL in addition to exhibition and training camp experience with the Seattle Seahawks , St. Louis Rams and Chicago Bears . He also played for the Grand Rapids Rampage , Carolina Cobras , Milwaukee Mustangs , Los Angeles Avengers , and Dallas Desperados of the AFL . In the AFL , he holds records for all @-@ time career points and single @-@ season kick points.c
At Michigan , he set the current Big Ten Conference record for single @-@ season field goals , which is 25 . He ranks both first and second in school history in single @-@ season field goals made and co @-@ holds the school record for consecutive field goals made along with Brendan Gibbons . He is the only All @-@ American placekicker in Michigan history .
= = Early years = =
Hamilton attended Spanish River Community High School in Boca Raton , Florida , where he was a three @-@ sport star in football , soccer , and tennis . In football , he played as a kicker , punter , defensive back , and quarterback , and as a senior , the Sun @-@ Sentinel named him the Offensive Player of the Year . In his senior season , Hamilton passed for 1 @,@ 147 yards and 12 touchdowns , and rushed for 249 yards and six touchdowns .
= = College career = =
Hamilton attended the University of Michigan , where he played football from 1993 to 1996 . During this first season at Michigan , he only made one field goal . Following the 1993 season , he was suspended from the team for violating team rules . He remained on suspension while police investigated a convenience store theft . After making a 47 @-@ yard field goal in his only attempt as a freshman , he lost the kicking job to Erik Lovell in spring practice . Lovell handled the kicking duties in the 1994 NCAA Division I @-@ A football season opener and Hamilton did not get the starting assignment until immediately before the second game . Lovell missed an extra point in the opener , which gave Hamilton his second chance . Thus , before the second game of his sophomore season , he had not recorded any field goals that season and still had a career total of one . However , during the September 10 , 1994 Michigan – Notre Dame rivalry game against third @-@ ranked Notre Dame , he made four field goals and two extra point conversions , including the game @-@ winning 42 @-@ yarder with two seconds remaining . Notre Dame called a timeout to ice Hamilton , but it inadvertently helped Michigan , which had prematurely packed away the kicking net on its sidelines . The field goal redeemed Hamilton for a missed tackle on a kickoff return , which he felt would have cost his team the game . For his performance , the Big Ten named him the Special Teams Player of the Week . Michigan fans still remember Hamilton for this game , and regularly congratulate him for the kick . Two games later , he had a three @-@ field goal game in the Big Ten Conference opener against Iowa . Hamilton had another four @-@ field goal outing later in the season against Illinois . This earned him another Player of the Week recognition .
He was named to the 1994 College Football All @-@ America and 1994 All @-@ Big Ten teams . Hamilton was a first team All @-@ American selection by the Walter Camp Football Foundation and second team selection by the Associated Press and the Football News . Despite NFL alumni that include Jay Feely , Hayden Epstein and Ali Haji @-@ Sheikh , Hamilton remains the school 's only All @-@ American placekicker . During the 1994 football season , Hamilton established the current Big Ten single @-@ season record for successful field goals at 25 , which has since been tied three times , . The Big Ten was talented at the placekicker position that season , with four of the twenty semifinalists for the Lou Groza Award being from the conference ( Hamilton , Illinois ' Chris Richardson , Minnesota 's Mike Chalberg and Northwestern 's Sam Valenzisi ) . Hamilton won the NCAA statistical championship for field goal kickers that season . He also set Michigan 's single season kick point record with 101 in 1994 .
During the 1995 season , one of his more important field goals for the Wolverines came in the 5 – 0 victory over Purdue . However , when Northwestern beat Michigan at Michigan Stadium , 19 – 13 , for its first victory there since 1959 , Hamilton missed a key 37 @-@ yard field goal . His 1995 total of 19 field goals ranked second in Michigan history , behind only his own 1994 total . Garrett Rivas tied that single @-@ season total twice , but no one has unseated Hamilton from first and second place .
He also helped the 1996 team take a 9 – 0 halftime lead and converted an extra point to give them a 16 – 0 lead in what would eventually be a loss to Northwestern , 17 – 16 . His most notable scoring in 1996 gave Michigan essential fourth @-@ quarter points in a 27 – 20 victory over Indiana . He earned his third Big Ten Special Teams Player of the Week honors following a 13 – 9 victory over Ohio State in the Michigan – Ohio State football rivalry game on November 23 , 1996 . He put the team ahead , 10 – 9 , on the last play of the third quarter and added a key field goal with 1 : 19 remaining . A two @-@ time finalist for the Lou Groza Award , Hamilton finished his career as the all @-@ time Wolverine leader in field goals made ( 63 ) and field goals attempted ( 82 ) . Before his career ended , he became the ninth Wolverine to accumulate over 200 points .
Hamilton holds the Michigan record for consecutive field goals made ( 14 ) as well as outright or shared school records for single @-@ game ( 5 ) , single @-@ season ( 30 ) and career ( 82 ) field goal attempts . His career field goals made record ( 63 ) was eclipsed by Garrett Rivas in 2006 by one . Hamilton was a three @-@ time Big Ten All @-@ Academic selection ( 1993 , 1995 , 1996 ) . He was also a three @-@ time Big Ten Conference Special Teams Player of the Week ( 9 / 12 / 94 , 10 / 10 / 94 , 11 / 25 / 96 ) . His 14 consecutive field goals mark was one short of Vlade Janakievski 's Big Ten record , which has since been broken . Hamilton 's 63 career field goals were two short of Todd Gregoire 's Big Ten record , which has since been broken .
= = Professional career = =
Hamilton joined the AFL 's Grand Rapids Rampage in 1998 , for which he played two seasons . During these , he had modest success as a field goal kicker connecting on 31 of 88 attempts ( 35 @.@ 2 % ) . In his first season , he also caught a touchdown pass . He then played in 2000 with the Carolina Cobras and in 2001 with the Milwaukee Mustangs , where he posted 11 of 42 ( 26 @.@ 2 % ) and 18 of 47 ( 38 @.@ 3 % ) field goal performances . While with the Cobras , Hamilton played against the Los Angeles Avengers in the first AFL game played at the Staples Center on April 20 , 2000 .
In 2002 , he joined the Avengers for which he had his best years as a professional , making at least half of his field goal attempts each season . Hamilton was second among kickers in the AFL in scoring in 2003 . Following his strong performance , he signed with the NFL 's Seattle Seahawks , where he competed against Josh Brown . After Brown was perfect in both four field goal and seven extra point attempts in the first three preseason games , Hamilton was released about three weeks later , and he returned to play for Los Angeles again . Hamilton was the top @-@ scoring kicker in the AFL in 2004 . In August 2004 , he signed with the Chicago Bears , where he battled Paul Edinger for the kicking duties . Bears head coach Lovie Smith noted Hamilton 's skill at onside kicks . In terms of distance , Hamilton had a slight edge with his average kick three yards deep in the end zone compared with Edinger 's goal line average . However , Edinger was perfect on six field goals and two extra points in the first three preseason games , and Hamilton missed his only exhibition game field goal attempt , a 36 @-@ yarder on August 27 . The team waived him a few days later . He was again the top @-@ scoring kicker in the AFL in 2005 . That year , he eclipsed Jay Taylor 's AFL record for single @-@ season field goal percentage , which had been 72 % , with a 74 @.@ 4 % 29 for 39 performance . Hamilton started the season with eleven consecutive field goals , giving him a total of twelve in a row for a league record . He earned a couple of NFL tryouts . Hamilton first signed with the St. Louis Rams in July 2005 prior to training camp . He played for them during the 2005 exhibition season . He made the team 's final points with a field goal in an August 12 , 1995 17 – 13 preseason victory over the Chicago Bears . For the preseason , he made his only field goal and all six extra points . Nonetheless , the Rams decided to retain Jeff Wilkins who had been their kicker since 1997 . Hamilton then signed with the Detroit Lions for their practice squad in September of the 2005 NFL season . He appeared in one NFL game for Detroit , but missed his only point after touchdown attempt , which was blocked by Alfonso Boone . He also executed a couple of kickoffs , and he made the tackle on Jerry Azumah 's 33 @-@ yard return to the 37 @-@ yard line on one in the third quarter . He was activated to replace Jason Hanson who suffered a hamstring injury , which ended Hanson 's consecutive games streak at 209 . However , Hamilton was released later that month . Hamilton returned to the AFL for Los Angeles , and he led the AFL 's kickers in scoring again in 2006 . This earned Hamilton his second consecutive AFL 's " Kicker of the Year " title and second consecutive First Team All @-@ Arena League selection . His 2006 point total is 2nd in AFL history to his own 2005 total . He signed with the Rams again before training camp , and he played for them in exhibition games during 2006 . He made four of six field goals ( including a 48 @-@ yarder ) and four of five extra points during the preseason . Again the Rams kept Wilkins . Hamilton returned to the AFL for his final season in Los Angeles . He ranked third in kicker scoring in the AFL for Los Angeles in 2007 . He joined the Dallas Desperados for 2008 . He spent the 2011 season with the Dallas Vigilantes . In 2012 , Hamilton was assigned to the Philadelphia Soul . By the time of his assignment he was the AFL ’ s all @-@ time leader in field goals made ( 188 ) , extra points made ( 1 @,@ 082 ) and scoring by a kicker ( 1 @,@ 646 points ) .
= = Personal life = =
In a May 2004 article , the Los Angeles Times reported that , less than 15 hours after a 53 – 52 overtime loss to the Georgia Force at Staples Center , Hamilton 's wife , Heather , delivered the couple 's first child , a boy named Tate . Hamilton has served as a personal trainer for other kickers .
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= Gigha =
The Isle of Gigha ( / ˈɡiːə / ; Scottish Gaelic : Giogha ) is a small island off the west coast of Kintyre in Scotland . The island forms part of Argyll and Bute and has a usually resident population of about 160 people . The climate is mild with higher than average sunshine hours and the soils are fertile .
Gigha has a long history , having been inhabited continuously since prehistoric times . It may have had an important role during the Kingdom of Dalriada and is the ancestral home of Clan MacNeill . It fell under the control of the Norse and the Lords of the Isles before becoming incorporated into modern Scotland and saw a variety of conflicts during the medieval period .
The population of Gigha peaked at over 700 in the eighteenth century , but during the 20th century the island had numerous owners , which caused various problems in developing the island . By the beginning of the 21st century resident numbers had fallen to only 98 . However a " community buy @-@ out " in 2002 has transformed the island , which now has a growing population and a variety of new commercial activities to complement farming and tourism .
Attractions on the island include Achamore Gardens and the abundant wildlife , especially seabirds . There have been numerous shipwrecks on the surrounding rocks and skerries .
= = Etymology = =
The Hebrides have been occupied by the speakers of at least four languages since the Iron Age , and many of the names of these islands have more than one possible meaning as a result . Many modern authorities hold that the name " Gigha " is probably derived either from the Norse Guðey or from Gud @-@ øy , meaning either " good island " or " God island " . The Norse historical text Hákonar saga Hákonarsonar explicitly calls the island Guðey .
Despite this , Keay and Keay ( 1994 ) and Haswell @-@ Smith ( 2004 ) suggest the Gaelic name is derived instead from Gjáey , meaning " island of the geo " or " cleft " . However , Norse gjá normally shows up in Gaelic in the form of geodha . Czerkawaska ( 2006 ) also notes that the isle is called " Gug " in a charter of 1309 and also appears as " Gega " on some old maps and speculates that a possible pre @-@ Norse derivation is from the Gaelic Sheela na Gig , a female fertility symbol . Haswell @-@ Smith ( 2004 ) also offers the possibility of Gydha 's isle after the Norse female name .
A Gigha resident is a Gioghach , also nicknamed a gamhainn ( " stirk " ) . Although the most widespread pronunciation of the Gaelic name Giogha is [ kʲi.ə ] , the Southern dialects preserve the fricative : [ kʲiɣa ] in Kintyre and [ kʲɯɣɑ ] in Argyllshire .
= = Geography and geology = =
Gigha lies 5 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) off the coast of Kintyre and is 9 @.@ 5 km ( 5 @.@ 9 mi ) long in a roughly north @-@ south direction and a maximum of 2 @.@ 5 km ( 1 @.@ 6 mi ) wide . The total area is 1 @,@ 395 ha ( 3 @,@ 447 acres ) and the highest elevation of Creag Bhàn reaches only 100 metres ( 330 ft ) . The rocky central spine is composed of epidiorite with basalt intrusions .
The main settlement is Ardminish which is on the south east coast and offers a small anchorage in the sheltered Ardminish Bay . Further to the north is Druimyeon Bay and beyond that West and East Tarbert Bays which ( as their names imply ) lie astride a small isthmus .
The climate is mild with higher than average sunshine hours and minimum temperatures , and lower than average days of ground frost for Scotland . Annual rainfall is typically between 1 @,@ 000 millimetres ( 39 in ) and 1 @,@ 290 millimetres ( 51 in ) .
= = = Surrounding islands = = =
Cara Island lies just offshore to the south , the smaller Craro island lies to the west and Gigalum to the south east . A sandy spit connects Gigha to Eilean Garbh in the north @-@ west . To the north are the rocks called An Dubh Sgeir ( a common name meaning " black rock " ) and Gamhna Giogha . The Sound of Gigha separates Gigha and its attendant isles from mainland Kintyre .
To the west and north west respectively , are the two large islands of Islay and Jura . South west are Rathlin Island and the north of Ireland , which can be seen from Gigha on clear days . Between Jura and Gigha are the rocks of Na Cuiltean and Skervuile Lighthouse . Between Gigha and Port Ellen on Islay is the Isle of Texa . Eilean Mòr , and the Isle of Danna are little further up the Argyll coast to the north .
There are also many small rocks and skerries ( small rock islands ) in the seas around Gigha . Asked by a tourist if he knew where they all were , local resident Willie McSporran ( see below ) replied " No , but I know where they aren 't and that 's good enough for me " .
= = History = =
Gigha has been inhabited continuously since prehistoric times , and there are several standing stones on the island . There are many other archaeological sites , including cairns , standing stones , duns and an ogham stone near to Kilchattan , which has not been deciphered .
In the Early Historic Period The domain of the Cenél nGabraín appears to have been centred on Kintyre and Knapdale and may have included Arran , Jura and Gigha . The title king of Kintyre is used of a number of presumed kings of the Cenél nGabrain . This would have made Gigha part of Dalriada .
There is some evidence to show that the island might have been the seat of power for Conall mac Comgall , King of Dalriada , in the mid to late 6th century . The Annals of Tigernach refer to a Battle of Delgon ( later Cindeglen ) in 574 , and this has been identified as taking place on Gigha , then referred to as Eilean da Ghallagan , although other sources believe the battle took place in Kintyre .
= = = Norse period = = =
Nearby Islay was a centre for Norse control over the Hebrides , and Gigha was later part of the Kingdom of the Isles . The island 's name appears to be Norse in origin , although its meaning is disputed , and there are several other Norse placenames in the vicinity , such as Gigalum ( i.e. " Gigha - holm " ) and Cnoc Haco ( possibly " Haakon 's hill " ) .
In 1849 , a Viking grave was found at East Tarbert Bay , which revealed a number of artefacts , including a bronze weighing balance dated to the 10th century .
Prior to the Battle of Largs , Haakon IV of Norway is said to have visited the island . According to Hákonar saga Hákonarsonar ( " The Saga of Haakon Haakonsson " ) written by Icelander Sturla Þórðarson in the 1260s :
King Haco sailed afterwards south to Guðey before Kintyre where he anchored . There King John met him ; he came in the ship with Bishop Thorgil . King Haco desired him to follow his banner as he should do . But King John excused himself . He said he had sworn an oath to the Scottish King , and held of him more lands than of the Norwegian Monarch ; he therefore entreated King Haco to dispose of all those estates which he had conferred upon him . King Haco kept him with him some time , and endeavoured to incline his mind to fidelity . Many laid imputations to his charge . King Haco indeed had before received bad accounts of him from the Hebrides ; for John Langlife @-@ son came to the King , while he was sailing west from Shetland , and told him the news that John King of the Hebrides , breaking his faith , had turned to the Scottish Monarch . King Haco , however , would not believe this till he had found it so .
During King Haco 's stay at Guðey an Abbot of a monastery of Greyfriars waited on him , begging protection for their dwelling , and Holy Church : and this the King granted them in writing .
Friar Simon had lain sick for some time . He died at Guðey . His corpse was afterwards carried up to Kintire where the Greyfriars interred him in their Church . They spread a fringed pall over his grave , and called him a Saint .
= = = John of Islay = = =
After Edward Balliol 's coup against the Bruce regime in 1333 , he attempted to court John of Islay , Lord of the Isles . In 1336 , Edward confirmed the territories which the Islay lords had acquired in the days of Robert I and awarded John the lands of Kintyre , Knapdale , Gigha , Colonsay , Mull , Skye , Lewis , and Morvern , previously held by magnates still loyal to the Bruces . John , however , never provided Edward with real assistance . Although Balliol 's deposition and the restoration of the House of Bruce meant that the grants made to John were void , his pre @-@ 1336 possessions were confirmed by King David II in 1343 . Moreover , in 1346 , John inherited the great Lordship of Garmoran through his brother @-@ in @-@ law Raghnall MacRuaridh . This meant that John 's dominions now included all of the Hebrides except Skye , and all of the western seaboard from Morvern to Loch Hourn .
= = = Clan MacNeill = = =
Gigha is the ancestral home of the Clan MacNeill , which possesses its own tartan and Clan badge , both distinctly different from those of the larger and better known Clan MacNeil of Barra ( spelt with one " l " in English ) who share the same Chief .
The origin of the MacNeills of Taynish , Gigha and Colonsay is obscure . They were hereditary keepers of Castle Sween under the Lords of the Isles during the 15th and 16th centuries . The MacNeill of Gigha , was known as the " chief and principal of the clan and surname of Macneils " in 1530 . However , as the power of the Campbells grew and spread into the Inner Hebrides , the influence of the MacNeills of Gigha decreased . At about this time the MacNeils on the more remote island of Barra , far removed from Campbell power , began to grow in prominence and for a long time since have been regarded as " Chief of the Clan and Name " .
In 1449 Alexander , Lord of the Isles granted part of the island to Torquil MacNeill of Taynish , the remainder being owned by the monks of Paisley . In 1493 the whole island came under MacNeill control and it remained in their hands , with various brief interludes , until the 19th century . This prize was by no means without its hazards . In 1530 the notorious pirate Ailean nan Sop murdered MacNeill of Taynish and numerous island residents . A dozen years later the title deeds were lost when eleven gentlemen of Gigha were slain by raiders .
= = = Medieval conflict = = =
In 1554 the MacNeills relinquished their Gigha holdings to the MacDonalds , but if anything the conflicts intensified . In 1567 Gigha was " ravaged " by the Macleans of Duart . By 1587 , atrocities committed between warring West Highland clans had escalated to such an extent that Parliament devised what is known as the General Band in an effort to quell hostilities . Despite the Governments actions to secure the peace , about this time Lachlan Mor MacLean of Duart ravaged the MacDonald islands of Islay and Gigha , slaughtering 500 — 600 men . Maclean of Duart then besieged Angus MacDonald of Dunivaig and the Glens at his Castle Dunivaig on Islay .
The siege was only lifted when MacDonald of Dunivaig agreed with MacLean of Duart to surrender half of his lands on Islay . However , despite his agreement with the MacLeans , MacDonald of Dunivaig then invaded the MacLean islands of Mull , Tiree , Coll and Luing . Angus MacDonald of Dunivaig was aided in the action by Donald Gorm Mor MacDonald of Sleat and the MacDonalds of Clanranald , MacIains of Ardnamurchan , MacLeods of Lewis , MacNeills of Gigha , MacAlisters of Loup and the Macfies of Colonsay . Supporting MacLean of Duart were the MacLeods of Harris and Dunvegan , MacNeils of Barra , MacKinnons of Strathrodle and the MacQuarries of Ulva .
In 1590 , Angus of Islay sold out to John Campbell of Cawdor , a junior cousin of the Earl of Argyll . In a move that may well have been pre @-@ arranged Campbell then immediately resold back to Neil MacNeill of Taynish . The church at Kilchattan that dates from this period has some " intricately carved medieval grave slabs " .
= = = 17th century = = =
Visiting in the late 17th century Martin Martin wrote :
This isle is for the most part arable , but rocky in other parts ; the mould is brown and clayey , inclining to red ; it is good for pasturage and cultivation . The corn growing here is oats and barley . The cattle bred here are cows , horses , and sheep . There is a church in this island called Kilchattan , it has an altar in the east end , and upon it a font of stone which is very large , and hath a small hole in the middle which goes quite through it . There are several tombstones in and about this church ; the family of the Macneils , the principal possessors of this isle , are buried under the tombstones on the east side the church , where there is a plot of ground set apart for them . Most of all the tombs have a two @-@ handed sword engraven on them , and there is one that has the representation of a man upon it ... This isle affords no wood of any kind , but a few bushes of juniper on the little hills .
William II of Scotland visited the island in 1689 , the MacNeill remaining loyal to the crown both then and in the ' 45 .
= = = Modern period = = =
In the eighteenth century the population of Gigha peaked at over 600 , but had declined to just under 400 by the close of the 19th century . After half of millennium of association , the MacNeills sold the isle for £ 49 @,@ 000 to James Williams Scarlett , a nephew of James Scarlett , 1st Baron Abinger in 1865 . His son , Lieutenant @-@ Colonel William James Scarlett built the mansion house of Achamore and Gigha remained in the family 's hands until 1919 .
During the 20th century the island had various other owners . Major John Allen bought the island from the Scarletts and sold it to the Richard Hamer in 1937 , before passing ownership during World War II to his brother @-@ in @-@ law , Somerset de Chair , who in turn sold to Sir James Horlick in 1944 . Horlick is recalled as a generous owner who encouraged dairy farming and created the gardens of Achamore . David Landale then purchased it from the Horlick estate in 1973 retaining it until 1989 , during which time he created a fish farm , which now specialises in halibut with a growing international reputation . Over the years little further development took place and some owners are recalled less fondly . The island briefly passed into the hands of Malcolm Potier , a property developer , and subsequently to Derek Holt and his family prior to the sale to the Isle of Gigha Heritage Trust . By the 1960s resident numbers had fallen to 163 and by the beginning of the 21st century the population was reduced to only 98 and the housing stock was in poor condition .
Overview of population trends
Note : The figures for 1755 – 1841 include Cara .
= = Community buy @-@ out = =
The challenges created by private landlords came to an end in March 2002 when the islanders managed , with help from grants and loans from the National Lottery and Highlands and Islands Enterprise , to purchase the island for £ 4 million . They now own it through a development trust called the Isle of Gigha Heritage Trust . As a result , 15 March , the day when the purchase went through , is celebrated as the island 's " independence day " . £ 1 million of the financial support was in the form of a short @-@ term loan . The money to pay this loan back was largely raised by selling Achamore House ( but not the gardens ) to Don Dennis , a businessman from California . Dennis now operates a flower essences importing business and a boat tours company from the house , which is also rented out as a bed and breakfast business . An additional £ 200 @,@ 000 was raised by the islanders through various fundraising ventures , allowing the loan to be paid back to the Scottish Land Fund on 15 March 2004 . Since the community buy out several other private businesses have sprung up on Gigha providing a boost to the local economy , including the multi @-@ award winning Boathouse Café Bar . The island 's population and economy has begun to recover as a result of these activities .
= = Economy = =
Gigha 's economy is largely dependent on livestock farming , tourism and some limited fishing . There have been some moves to diversify the economy since the community buy @-@ out . There is also a fish farm on the island , and small @-@ scale fishing .
365 hectares ( 900 acres ) of arable land are farmed and relative to its size it is the most fertile and productive island in Scotland . Ayrshire cattle are kept on the island and goat 's cheese is also produced . The Achamore creamery was closed during the 1980s , but has been successively revived .
In October 2006 it was announced that the population had reached 150 - a rise of more than 50 per cent since the 2002 buy @-@ out . Willie McSporran , former chairman of the Heritage Trust , was quoted as saying : " The trust turned 300 years of population decline on its head by encouraging new development and the growth of the local economy . A sign of the surge of people wanting to relocate to Gigha is that we are struggling to meet the demand for housing despite building 18 new homes . " The issues of island ownership are not unique to Gigha and consequently the island has been highlighted in an edition of the BBC series , Countryfile .
In 2010 the historian James Hunter stated that the transfer of ownership had brought about " a spectacular reversal of Gigha 's slide towards complete population collapse " and suggested that the UK Government should learn lessons from Gigha and other community buy @-@ outs to inform their " Big Society " plans . Between 2001 and the 2011 census the island 's population grew by over 45 % . During the same period Scottish island populations as a whole grew by 4 % to 103 @,@ 702 .
= = = Wind turbines = = =
The Heritage Trust set up Gigha Renewable Energy Ltd. to buy and operate three Vestas V27 wind turbines , known locally as The Dancing Ladies or Creideas , Dòchas is Carthannas ( Gaelic for Faith , Hope and Charity ) . They were commissioned on 21 January 2005 and are capable of generating up to 675 kW of power . Revenue is produced by selling the electricity to the grid via an intermediary called Green Energy UK . Gigha residents control the whole project and profits are reinvested in the community .
= = = Transport and infrastructure = = =
There is an unmanned grass landing strip running east / west near the southern end of the island , requiring prior permission for landing . It is one of the closest airstrips to Glasgow International Airport , typically a 20- to 30 @-@ minute flight away for small aircraft .
A Caledonian MacBrayne ferry service links the island 's only village , Ardminish , to Tayinloan on the Kintyre peninsula of the Scottish mainland . This in turn links to the A83 road .
There is a primary school on the island , but secondary pupils must go to the Mainland for education . Ardminish has the pier , post office and shop . The island 's postcode is PA41 .
= = = Attractions = = =
Attractions on the island include the 20 @.@ 2 hectares ( 50 acres ) Achamore Gardens , begun in 1945 by Sir James Horlick and known for its rhododendrons and azaleas , the many sandy beaches and the thirteenth century St Catan 's Chapel ruins . There is also a nine @-@ hole golf course .
= = Wildlife = =
Because it is set on the eastern shores of the Atlantic Ocean , Gigha attracts a wide variety of sea birds such as guillemot and eider , which breed on Eilean Garbh . Inland , ducks such as mallard , teal , wigeon and pochard can be found along with heron , snipe , pheasant and red grouse . The hooded crow and jackdaw are present in considerable numbers , but geese are only occasional visitors . Mammals are under @-@ represented ; there are no red deer , stoat , weasel , red fox or hare . In the mid @-@ 20th century Gigha had eight boats engaged in fishing for cod and lobster , but commercial activity ceased some time ago .
= = Shipwrecks = =
Gigha 's coasts have seen numerous wrecks . In August 1886 the Staffa ran aground on Cath Sgier west of Craro . The ship remained on the reef in calm overnight conditions and all crew and 21 passengers were rescued the following morning . On 8 April 1894 the steamship Udea was lost on the same rocks with a cargo of coal and iron . Owned by David MacBrayne , she was en route from Glasgow to Lewis at the time . On 16 September 1940 the British steam liner Aska was bombed by a German aircraft south of Gigha whilst carrying French troops from Gambia . Twelve crewmen died in the attack and 75 survivors were successfully picked up by trawlers . On fire , the Aska drifted onto Cara and was wrecked there . Four years later the Mon Cousu was deliberately sunk in the Sound of Gigha and used for bombing practice . In 1991 the Russian factory ship Kartli was hit by two freak waves off Islay and ran aground at Port Ban after the crew were evacuated . Forty seven crew members were air @-@ lifted to safety but four men were killed in the accident .
= = Culture = =
Gigha had a vigorous tradition of harping , represented mainly by the family called Mac an Bhreatnaigh ( Galbraith ) , who were active in Gigha and Kintyre , and it is thought that their descendants were in Gigha until at least 1685 . In the 1990s it was reported that many of the island 's resident spoke Gaelic although the numbers have declined significantly in recent years .
= = = Gaelic = = =
Gigha has historically been a very strong Gaelic speaking area . Both in the 1901 and 1921 census , the island was reported to be over 75 % Gaelic speaking . By 1971 , it had dropped to the 25 @-@ 49 @.@ 9 % range . In the 2001 census , the percentage of Gaelic speakers had dropped to 14 % .
Gigha Gaelic was studied extensively by N.M. Holmer in the 1930s , who noted features such as its weak svarabhakti .
In 2008 , Henri Macaulay of Gigha Gallery received funding from the Gaelic development body , Bord na Gàidhlig , to run a series of Gaelic @-@ learning weekends on the island as a combined cultural @-@ revival and tourism @-@ development initiative . Conversation and music form the backbone of the weekends . They run through the winter months .
= = Notable residents = =
Seamus McSporran who managed to do 14 jobs during the 31 years of his working life - at the same time . He has also featured in a 2006 English as a foreign or second language study book and in the widely used English textbooks for adults New Headway Elementary and New Headway Elementary 3rd Edition
Willie McSporran , MBE the first chairman of the Isle of Gigha Heritage Trust . He is the brother of Seamus .
Giolla Críost Brúilingeach , mid 15th century harper .
Vie Tulloch , noted sculptor and the island 's oldest resident until her death in 2011 .
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= Heinkel He 111 =
The Heinkel He 111 was a German aircraft designed by Siegfried and Walter Günter at Heinkel Flugzeugwerke in 1934 . Through development it was described as a " wolf in sheep 's clothing " because the project masqueraded the machine as civilian transport , though from conception the Heinkel was intended to provide the nascent Luftwaffe with a fast medium bomber .
Perhaps the best @-@ recognised German bomber due to the distinctive , extensively glazed " greenhouse " nose of later versions , the Heinkel He 111 was the most numerous Luftwaffe bomber during the early stages of World War II . The bomber fared well until the Battle of Britain , when its weak defensive armament was exposed . Nevertheless , it proved capable of sustaining heavy damage and remaining airborne . As the war progressed , the He 111 was used in a variety of roles on every front in the European theatre . It was used as a strategic bomber during the Battle of Britain , a torpedo bomber in the Atlantic and Arctic , and a medium bomber and a transport aircraft on the Western , Eastern , Mediterranean , Middle Eastern , and North African Front theatres .
The He 111 was constantly upgraded and modified , but became obsolete during the latter part of the war . The German Bomber B project was not realised which forced the Luftwaffe to continue operating the He 111 in combat roles until the end of the war . Manufacture of the He 111 ceased in September 1944 , at which point , piston @-@ engine bomber production was largely halted in favour of fighter aircraft . With the German bomber force virtually defunct , the He 111 was used for logistics .
Production of the Heinkel continued after the war as the Spanish @-@ built CASA 2 @.@ 111 . Spain received a batch of He 111H @-@ 16s in 1943 along with an agreement to licence @-@ build Spanish versions . Its airframe was produced in Spain under licence by Construcciones Aeronáuticas SA . The design differed significantly in powerplant only , eventually being equipped with Rolls @-@ Royce Merlin engines . The Heinkel 's descendant continued in service until 1973 .
= = Design and development = =
= = = Design conception = = =
After its defeat in World War I , Germany was banned from operating an air force by the Treaty of Versailles . German re @-@ armament began earnestly in the 1930s and was initially kept secret because it violated the treaty . Consequently , the early development of military bombers was disguised as a development program for civilian transport aircraft .
Among those designers seeking to benefit from German re @-@ armament was Ernst Heinkel . Heinkel decided to create the world 's fastest passenger aircraft , a goal met with scepticism by Germany 's aircraft industry and political leadership . Heinkel entrusted development to Siegfried and Walter Günter , both fairly new to the company and untested .
In June 1933 Albert Kesselring visited Heinkel 's offices . Kesselring was head of the Luftwaffe Administration Office : at that point Germany did not have a State Aviation Ministry but only an aviation commissariat , the Luftfahrtkommissariat . Kesselring was hoping to build a new air force out of the Flying Corps being constructed in the Reichswehr and required a modern force of aircraft . Kesselring convinced Heinkel to move his factory from Warnemünde to Rostock and turn it over to mass production with a force of 3 @,@ 000 employees . Heinkel began work on the new design , which garnered urgency as the American Lockheed 12 , Boeing 247 and Douglas DC @-@ 2 began to appear .
Features of the He 111 were apparent in the Heinkel He 70 . The first single @-@ engined He 70 Blitz ( " Lightning " ) rolled off the line in 1932 and the type immediately started breaking records . In the normal four @-@ passenger version its speed reached 380 km / h ( 230 mph ) , when powered by a 447 kW ( 600 hp ) BMW VI engine . The He 70 was designed with an elliptical wing , which the Günther brothers had already incorporated into the Bäumer Sausewind before they joined Heinkel . This wing design became a feature in this and many subsequent designs they developed . The He 70 drew the interest of the Luftwaffe , which was looking for an aircraft with dual bomber and transport capabilities .
The He 111 was a twin @-@ engine version of the Blitz , preserving the elliptical inverted gull wing , small rounded control surfaces and BMW engines , so that the new design was often called the Doppel @-@ Blitz ( " Double Lightning " ) . When the Dornier Do 17 displaced the He 70 , Heinkel needed a twin @-@ engine design to match its competitors . Heinkel spent 200 @,@ 000 man hours designing the He 111 . The fuselage length was extended to just over 17 @.@ 4 m / 57 ft ( from 11 @.@ 7 m / 38 ft 4 ½ in ) and wingspan to 22 @.@ 6 m / 74 ft ( from 14 @.@ 6 m / 48 ft ) .
= = = First flight = = =
The first He 111 flew on 24 February 1935 , piloted by chief test pilot Gerhard Nitschke , who was ordered not to land at the company 's factory airfield at Rostock @-@ Marienehe ( today 's Rostock @-@ Schmarl neighbourhood ) , as this was considered too short , but at the central Erprobungstelle Rechlin test facility . He ignored these orders and landed back at Marienehe . He said that the He 111 performed slow manoeuvres well and that there was no danger of overshooting the runway . Nitschke also praised its high speed " for the period " and " very good @-@ natured flight and landing characteristics " , stable during cruising , gradual descent and single @-@ engined flight and having no nose @-@ drop when the undercarriage was operated . However , during the second test flight Nitschke revealed there was insufficient longitudinal stability during climb and flight at full power and the aileron controls required an unsatisfactory amount of force .
By the end of 1935 , prototypes V2 V4 had been produced under civilian registrations D @-@ ALIX , D @-@ ALES and D @-@ AHAO . D @-@ ALES became the first prototype of the He 111 A @-@ 1 on 10 January 1936 , and received recognition as the " fastest passenger aircraft in the world " , as its speed exceeded 402 km / h ( 250 mph ) . The design would have achieved a greater total speed had the 1 @,@ 000 hp DB 600 engine that powered the Messerschitt Bf 109 's tenth through thirteenth prototypes been available . However , Heinkel was forced initially to use the 650 hp BMW VI liquid @-@ cooled engine .
During the war , British test pilot Eric Brown evaluated many Luftwaffe aircraft . Among them was a He 111 H @-@ 1 of Kampfgeschwader 26 which was forced to land at the Firth of Forth on 9 February 1940 . Brown described his impression of the He 111s unique greenhouse nose :
The overall impression of space within the cockpit area and the great degree of visual sighting afforded by the Plexiglas panelling were regarded as positive factors , with one important provision in relation to weather conditions . Should either bright sunshine or rainstorms be encountered , the pilot 's visibility could be dangerously compromised either by glare throwback or lack of good sighting .
Taxiing was easy and was only complicated by rain , when the pilot needed to slide back the window panel and look out to establish direction . On take off , Brown reported very little " swing " and the aircraft was well balanced . On landing , Brown noted that approach speed should be above 145 km / h ( 90 mph ) and should be held until touch down . This was to avoid a tendency by the He 111 to drop a wing , especially on the port side .
= = = Competition = = =
In the mid @-@ 1930s , Dornier Flugzeugwerke and Junkers competed with Heinkel for Ministry of Aviation ( German : Reichsluftfahrtministerium , abbreviated RLM ) contracts . The main competitor to the Heinkel was the Junkers Ju 86 . In 1935 , comparison trials were undertaken with the He 111 . At this point , the Heinkel was equipped with two BMW VI engines while Ju 86A was equipped with two Jumo 205Cs , both of which had 492 kW ( 660 hp ) . The He 111 had a slightly heavier takeoff weight of 8 @,@ 220 kg ( 18 @,@ 120 lb ) compared to the Ju 86 's 8 @,@ 000 kg ( 17 @,@ 640 lb ) and the maximum speed of both aircraft was 311 km / h ( 193 mph ) . However the Ju 86 had a higher cruising speed of 177 mph ( 285 km / h ) , 9 mph ( 14 km / h ) faster than the He 111 . This stalemate was altered drastically by the appearance of the DB 600C , which increased the He 111 's power by 164 kW ( 220 hp ) . The Ministry of Aviation awarded both contracts , and Junkers sped up development and production at a breathtaking pace , but the financial expenditure for the Junkers was huge . In 1934 @-@ 1935 , 3 @,@ 800 @,@ 000 RM ( 4 ½ % of annual turnover ) was spent . The Ju 86 appeared at many flight displays all over the world which helped sales to the Ministry of Aviation and abroad . Dornier , which was also competing with their Do 17 , and Heinkel were not as successful . However , in production terms , the He 111 was more prominent with 8 @,@ 000 examples produced against just 846 Ju 86s and was therefore the Luftwaffe 's most numerous type at the beginning of the Second World War .
= = Basic design = =
The design of the He 111 A @-@ L initially had a conventional stepped cockpit , with a separate pair of windscreen @-@ like panels just for the pilot and co @-@ pilot . The introduction of the P variant triggered a complete re @-@ design of the cockpit . The He 111P , and subsequent production variants , were fitted with a fully glazed cockpits , laterally asymmetric nose , with the port side having the greater curvature for the pilot , offsetting the bombardier to starboard . The resulting stepless cockpit , which was a feature on a number of German bomber designs during the war years in varying shapes and formats , no longer had the separate windscreen panels for the pilot . The pilot had to view their exterior flight environment through the same bullet @-@ like glazing that was used by the bombardier and navigator . The pilot was seated on the left and the navigator / bomb aimer on the right . The navigator went forward to the prone bomb @-@ aiming position , or could tilt his chair to one side so that he could move into the rear of the aircraft . There was no cockpit floor below the pilot 's feet — the rudder pedals being on arms — giving very good visibility below . Sliding and removable panels were manufactured into the nose glazing to allow the pilot , navigator and or bomb aimer to exit the aircraft quickly , without a time @-@ consuming retreat into the fuselage .
The fuselage contained two major bulkheads . The cockpit was at the front of the first bulkhead . The nose was fitted with a rotating machine gun mount which was offset to allow the pilot a better field of forward vision . The cockpit was fully glazed , with the exception of the lower right section , which acted as a platform for the bombardier @-@ gunner to be positioned . The commonly @-@ used Lotfernrohr @-@ series bombsight penetrated through the cockpit floor into a protective housing on the external side of the cockpit area .
Between the forward and rear bulkhead was the bomb bay , which was constructed with a double @-@ frame to strengthen it for carrying the bomb load . The space between the bomb bay and rear bulkhead was used up by Funkgerät radio equipment and contained the dorsal and flexible casemate ventral gunner positions . The rear bulkhead contained a hatch which allowed access into the rest of the fuselage which was held together by a series of stringers . The wing was a two spar design . The fuselage was formed of stringers to which the fuselage skin was riveted . Internally the frames were fixed only to the stringers which made for simpler construction but at the loss of some rigidity .
The wings ' leading edges were swept back to a point inline with the engine nacelles , while the trailing edges were angled forward slightly . The wing contained two 700 L ( 190 US gal ) fuel tanks between the inner wing main spars , while at the head of the main spar the oil coolers were fitted . Between the outer spars , a second pair of reserve fuel tanks were located carrying an individual capacity of 910 L ( 240 US gal ) of fuel . The outer trailing edges were formed by the ailerons and flaps , which were met by smooth wing tips which curved forward into the leading edge . The outer leading edge sections were installed in the shape of a curved " strip nosed " rib , which was positioned ahead of the main spar . Most of the interior ribs were not solid , with the exception of the ribs located between the rear main spar and the flaps and ailerons . This was of solid construction , though even they had lightening holes .
The control systems also had some innovations . The control column was centrally placed and the pilot sat on the port side of the cockpit . The column had an extension arm fitted and had the ability to be swung over to the starboard side in case the pilot was incapacitated . The control instruments were located above the pilot 's head in the ceiling which allowed viewing and did not block the pilot 's vision . The fuel instruments were electrified . The He 111 used the inner fuel tanks closest to the wing root . The outer tanks acted as reserve tanks . The pilot was alerted to the fuel level when the tank had 100 L ( 26 US gal ) left . A manual pump was available in case of electrical or power failure , but the delivery rate of just 4 ½ L ( 1 @.@ 2 US gal ) per minute demanded that the pilot fly at the lowest possible speed and just below 3 @,@ 048 m ( 10 @,@ 000 ft ) . Fortunately , the He 111 handled well at low speeds .
The defensive machine gun positions were located in the glass nose , the flexible ventral , dorsal and lateral positions in the fuselage , and all offered a significant field of fire . The design of the nose allowed the machine gun position to be moved 10 ° upwards from the horizontal and 15 ° downwards . The gun could traverse some 30 ° laterally . Both the dorsal and ventral machine guns could move up and downwards by 65 ° . The dorsal position could move the 13 mm ( .51 in ) MG 131 machine gun 40 ° laterally , but the ventral Bola @-@ mount 7 @.@ 92 mm ( .312 in ) twinned @-@ up MG 81Z machine guns could be moved 45 ° laterally . Each MG 81 single machine gun mounted in the side of the fuselage in " waist " positions , could move laterally by 40 ° , and could move upwards from the horizontal by 30 ° and downwards by 40 ° .
= = Early civilian variants = =
= = = He 111C = = =
The first prototype , He 111 V1 ( W.Nr. 713 , D @-@ ADAP ) , first flew from Rostock @-@ Marienehe on 24 February 1935 . It was followed by the civilian @-@ equipped V2 and V4 in May 1935 . The V2 ( W.Nr. 715 , D @-@ ALIX ) used the bomb bay as a four @-@ seat " smoking compartment " , with another six seats behind it in the rear fuselage . V2 entered service with Deutsche Luft Hansa in 1936 , along with six other newly built versions known as the He 111C . The He 111 V4 was unveiled to the foreign press on 10 January 1936 . Nazi propaganda inflated the performance of the He 111C , announcing its maximum speed as 400 km / h ( 249 mph ) , in reality its performance standing at 360 km / h ( 224 mph ) . The He 111 C @-@ 0 was a commercial version and took the form of the V4 prototype design . The first machine , designated D @-@ AHAO " Dresden " . It was powered by the BMW VI engine and could manage a range ( depending on the fuel capacity ) of 1 @,@ 000 km ( 621 mi ) to 2 @,@ 200 km ( 1 @,@ 367 mi ) and a maximum speed of 310 km / h ( 193 mph ) . The wing span on the C series was 22 @.@ 6 m ( 74 ft 1 ¾ in ) . The fuselage dimensions stood at 17 @.@ 1 m ( 56 ft 1 ¾ in ) in the He 111 V1 , but changed in the C to 17 @.@ 5 m ( 57 ft 5 in ) . The Jumo 205 diesel @-@ type powerplant engine replaced the BMW VI . Nevertheless , the maximum speed remained in the 220 – 240 km / h ( 137 – 149 mph ) bracket . This was increased slightly when the BMW 132 engines were introduced .
A general problem existed in powerplants . The He 111 was equipped with BMW VI glycol @-@ cooled engines . The German aviation industry lacked powerplants that could produce more than 600 hp . Engines of suitable quality were kept for military use , frustrating German airline Luft Hansa and forcing it to rely on the BMW VI or 132s .
= = = He 111G = = =
The He 111G was an upgraded variant and had a number of differences to its predecessors . To simplify production the leading edge of the wing was straightened , like the bomber version . Quite a few different engine types were used , among them the BMW 132 , BMW VI , DB 600 and DB601A . Some C variants had been upgraded with the new wing modifications . A new BMW 132H engine was also used in a so @-@ called Einheitstriebwerk ( unitary powerplant ) . These radial engines were used in the Junkers Ju 90 and the Focke @-@ Wulf Fw 200 . The wing units and engines were packed together as complete operating systems , allowing for a quick change of engine . The He 111G was the most powerful as well as the fastest commercial version . The G @-@ 0 was given the BMW VI 6 @.@ 0 ZU . Later variants had their powerplants vary . The G @-@ 3 for example was equipped with the BMW 132 . The G @-@ 4 was powered by DB600G inverted @-@ vee 950 hp ( 710 kW ) engines and the G @-@ 5 was given the DB601B with a top speed of 410 km / h ( 255 mph ) . By early 1937 , eight G variants were in Lufthansa service . The maximum number of He 111s in Lufthansa service was 12 . The He 111 operated all over Europe and flew flights as far away as South Africa . Commercial development ended with the He 111G .
= = Military variants = =
= = = He 111 A - D = = =
The initial reports from the test pilot , Gerhard Nitschke , were favourable . The He 111 's flight performance and handling were impressive although it dropped its wing in the stall . As a result , the passenger variants had their wings reduced from 25 m ( 82 ft ) to 23 m ( 75 ft ) . The military aircraft - V1 , V3 and V5 - spanned just 22 @.@ 6 m ( 74 @.@ 1 ft ) . The prototypes were equipped with 431 kW ( 578 hp ) BMW VI 6 @.@ 0 V12 in @-@ line engines , succeeded by745 kW ( 999 hp ) DB 600 engines .
The first prototypes were underpowered , as they were equipped with 431 kW ( 578 hp ) BMW VI 6 @.@ 0 V12 in @-@ line engines . This was eventually increased to 745 kW ( 999 hp ) with the fitting of the DB ( Daimler @-@ Benz ) 600 engines into the V5 , which became the prototype of the " B " series .
Only 10 He 111 A @-@ 0 models based on the V3 were built , but they proved to be underpowered and were eventually sold to China . The type had been lengthened by 1 @.@ 2 m ( 3 @.@ 9 ft ) due to the added 7 @.@ 92 mm ( .312 in ) MG 15 machine gun in the nose . Another gun position was installed on top of the fuselage , and another in a ventral position as a " dustbin " exposed turret , which could retract . The bomb bay was divided into two compartments and could carry 680 kg ( 1 @,@ 500 lb ) of bombs . The problem with these additions was that the weight of the aircraft reached 8 @,@ 200 kg ( 18 @,@ 080 lb ) . The He 111 's performance was seriously reduced ; in particular , the BMW VI 6 @.@ 0 Z engines were not now powerful enough . The increased length also altered the 111 's aerodynamic strengths and reduced its excellent handling on takeoffs and landings .
The crews found the aircraft difficult to fly , and its top speed was reduced significantly . Production was shut down after the pilots reports reached the Ministry of Aviation . However , a Chinese delegation was visiting Germany and they considered the He 111 A @-@ 0 fit for their needs and purchased seven machines .
The first He 111B made its maiden flight in the autumn of 1936 . The first production batch rolled off the production lines that summer , at Rostock . Seven B @-@ 0 pre @-@ production aircraft were built , bearing the Werknummern ( Works numbers ) 1431 to 1437 . The B @-@ 0s were powered by DB 600C engines fitted with variable pitch airscrews . The screws increased output by 149 kW ( 200 hp ) . The B @-@ 0 had a MG 15 machine gun installed in the nose . The B @-@ 0 could also carry 1 @,@ 500 kg ( 3 @,@ 310 lb ) in their vertical cells . The B @-@ 1 had some minor improvements . The installation of the revolving gun @-@ mount in the nose and a flexible Ikaria turret under the fuselage . After improvements , the RLM ordered 300 He 111 B @-@ 1s ; the first were delivered in January 1937 . In the B @-@ 2 variant , engines were upgraded to the supercharged 634 kW ( 850 hp ) DB 600C , or in some cases , the 690 kW ( 925 hp ) 600G . The B @-@ 2 began to roll off the production lines at Oranienburg in 1937 . The He 111 B @-@ 3 was a modified trainer . Some 255 B @-@ 1s were ordered . However , the production orders were impossible to fulfill and only 28 B @-@ 1s were built . Owing to the production of the new He 111E , only a handful of He 111 B @-@ 3s were produced . Due to insufficient capacity , Dornier , Arado and Junkers built the He 111B series at their plants in Wismar , Brandenburg and Dessau , respectively . The B series compared favourably with the capacity of the A series . The bomb load increased to 1 @,@ 500 kg ( 3 @,@ 300 lb ) , while there was also an increase in maximum speed and altitude to 215 mph ( 344 km / h ) and 22 @,@ 000 ft ( 6 @,@ 700 m )
In late 1937 , the D @-@ 1 series entered production . However , the DB 600Ga engine with 781 kW ( 1 @,@ 047 hp ) planned for this variant was instead allocated to Messerschmitt Bf 109 and Bf 110 production lines . Heinkel then opted to use Junkers Jumo engines , and the He 111 V6 was tested with Jumo 210 G engines , but was judged underpowered . However , the improved 745 kW ( 999 hp ) Jumo 211 A @-@ 1 powerplant prompted the cancellation of the D series altogether and concentration on the design of the E series .
= = = He 111 E = = =
The pre @-@ production E @-@ 0 series were built in small numbers . Fitted with Jumo 211 A @-@ 1 engines loaded with retractable radiators and exhaust systems . The variant could carry 1 @,@ 700 kg ( 3 @,@ 748 lb ) of bombs giving it a take off weight of 10 @.@ 300 kg ( 22 @,@ 707 lbs ) . The development team for the Jumo 211 A @-@ 1 engines managed to increase engine power to 930 hp ( 690 kW ) , subsequently the He 111 E @-@ 1s bomb load capacity increased to 2 @,@ 000 kg ( 4 @,@ 410 lb ) and a top speed of 242 mph ( 390 km / h ) .
The E @-@ 1 variant with Jumo 211A @-@ 1 engines was developed in 1937 , the He 111 V6 being the first production variant . The E @-@ 1 had its original powerplant , the DB 600 replaced with the Jumo 210 Ga engines . The more powerful Jumo 211 A @-@ 1 engines desired by the Ministry of Aviation were not yet ready for installation . Another trial aircraft , He 111 V10 ( D @-@ ALEQ ) was to be fitted with two oil coolers necessary for the Jumo 211 A @-@ 1 installation .
The E @-@ 1s came off the production line in February 1938 , in time for a number of these aircraft to serve in the Condor Legion during the Spanish Civil War in March 1938 . The RLM thought that because the E variant could outrun enemy fighters in Spain , there was no need to upgrade the defensive weaponry , which would prove a mistaken in later years .
The fuselage bomb bay used four bomb racks , in later versions eight modular standard bomb racks designed to carry one SC 250 kg ( 550 lb ) bomb or four SC 50 kg ( 110 lb ) bombs each in nose up orientation . These modular standard bomb racks were a common feature on the first generation of Luftwaffe bombers , but it turned out that they limited the ordnance selection to bombs of only two sizes . These racks were abandoned in later designs .
The E @-@ 2 series was not produced , and was dropped in favour of producing the E @-@ 3 with only a few modifications , such as external bomb racks . Its design features were distinguished by improved FuG radio systems . The E @-@ 3 series was equipped with the Jumo 211 A @-@ 3 for the duration of the series which packed 1 @,@ 100 hp ( 820 kW ) .
The E @-@ 4 variant was fitted with external bomb racks also and the empty bomb bay space was filled with an 835 L ( 221 US gal ) tank for aviation fuel and a further 115 L ( 30 US gal ) oil tank . This increased the loaded weight but increased range to 1 @,@ 800 km ( 1 @,@ 130 mi ) . The modifications allowed the He 111 to perform both long- and short @-@ range missions . The E @-@ 4s eight internal vertically aligned bomb racks could each carry a 250 kg ( 550 lb ) . The last E Variant , the He 111 E @-@ 5 , was powered by the Jumo 211 A @-@ 3 , and retained the 835 L ( 221 US gal ) fuel tank on the port side of the bomb bay . Only a few of the E @-@ 4 and E @-@ 5 were built .
The RLM had acquired an interest in rocket boosters fitted for the sake of simplicity below the wings of a heavily loaded bomber to cut down the length of runway needed for takeoff . Once in the air the booster canisters would be jettisoned by parachute for reuse . The firm of Hellmuth Walter , at Kiel , handled this development . The first standing trials and tests flights of the Walter HWK 109 @-@ 500 Starthilfe liquid @-@ fueled boosters were held in 1937 at Neuhardenberg with test pilot Erich Warsitz at the controls of Heinkel He 111E bearing civil registration D @-@ AMUE .
= = = He 111 F = = =
The He 111 design quickly ran through a series of minor design revisions . One of the more obvious changes started with the He 111F models , which moved from the elliptical wing to one with straight leading and trailing edges , which could be manufactured more efficiently . The dimensions of the new design had a wing span of 22.6m ( 74 ft 1 ¾ in ) and an area of 87.60m ² ( 942 @.@ 90 ft ) .
Heinkel 's industrial capacity was limited and production was delayed . Nevertheless , 24 machines of the F @-@ 1 series were exported to Turkey . Another 20 of the F @-@ 2 variant were built . The Turkish interest , prompted by the fact the tests of the next prototype , He 111 V8 , was some way off , prompted the Ministry of Aviation to order 40 F @-@ 4s with Jumo 211 A @-@ 3 engines . These machines were built and entered service in early 1938 . This fleet was used as a transport group during the Demyansk Pocket and Battle of Stalingrad . At this time , development began on the He 111J . It was powered by the DB 600 and was intended as a torpedo bomber . As a result , it lacked an internal bomb bay and carried two external torpedo racks . The Ministry of Aviation gave an order for the bomb bay to be retrofitted ; this variant became known as the J @-@ 1 . In all but the powerplant , it was identical to the F @-@ 4 .
The final variant of the F series was the F @-@ 5 , with bombsight and powerplants identical to the E @-@ 5 . The F @-@ 5 was rejected as a production variant owing to the superior performance of the He 111 P @-@ 1 .
= = = He 111 J = = =
The He 111 's low @-@ level performance attracted the interest of the Kriegsmarine . The result was the He 111J , was capable of carrying torpedoes and mines . However , the navy eventually dropped the program as they deemed the four @-@ man crew too expensive in terms of manpower . The RLM nevertheless continued production of the He 111 J @-@ 0 . Some 90 ( other sources claim 60 ) were built in 1938 and were then sent to Küstenfliegergruppe 806 ( Coastal Flying Group ) . Powered by the DB 600G engines , it could carry a 2 @,@ 000 kg ( 4 @,@ 410 lb ) payload . But few of the pre @-@ production J @-@ 0s were fitted with the powerplant . Instead , the DB 600 was used , performance deteriorated and the torpedo bomber was not pursued . The J variants were used in training schools until 1944 . Some J @-@ 1s were utilised used as test beds for Blohm & Voss L 10 radio @-@ guided air @-@ to @-@ ground torpedo missiles .
= = = He 111 P = = =
The He 111P incorporated the updated Daimler @-@ Benz DB 601A @-@ 1 liquid @-@ cooled engine and featured a newly designed nose section , including an asymmetric mounting for an MG 15 machine gun that replaced the ' stepped ' cockpit with a roomier and more aerodynamic glazed stepless cockpit over the entire front of the aircraft . This smooth glazed nose was first tested on the He 111 V8 in January 1938 . These improvements allowed the aircraft to reach 475 km / h ( 295 mph ) at 5 @,@ 000 m ( 16 @,@ 400 ft ) and a cruise speed of 370 km / h ( 230 mph ) , although a full bomb load reduced this figure to 300 km / h ( 190 mph ) . The design was implemented in 1937 because pilot reports indicated problems with visibility . The pilot 's seat could actually be elevated , with the pilot 's eyes above the level of the upper glazing , complete with a small pivoted windscreen panel , to get the pilot 's head above the level of the top of the " glass tunnel " for a better forward view for takeoffs and landings . The rear @-@ facing dorsal gun position , enclosed with a sliding , near @-@ clear view canopy , and for the first time , the ventral Bodenlafette rear @-@ facing gun position , immediately aft of the bomb bay , that replaced the draggy " dustbin " retractable emplacement became standard , having been first flown on the He 111 V23 , bearing civil registration D @-@ ACBH .
One of Heinkel 's rivals , Junkers , built 40 He 111Ps at Dessau . In October 1938 , the Junkers Central Administration commented :
Apparent are the externally poor , less carefully designed components at various locations , especially at the junction between the empennage and the rear fuselage . All parts have an impression of being very weak .... The visible flexing in the wing must also be very high . The left and right powerplants are interchangeable . Each motor has an exhaust @-@ gas heater on one side , but it is not connected to the fuselage since it is probable that ... the warm air in the fuselage is not free of carbon monoxide ( CO ) . The fuselage is not subdivided into individual segments , but is attached over its entire length , after completion , to the wing centre section . Outboard of the powerplants , the wings are attached by universal joints . The latter can in no way be satisfactory and have been the cause of several failures .
The new design was powered by the DB 601 Ba engine with 1 @,@ 175 PS The first production aircraft reached Luftwaffe units in Fall 1938 . In May 1939 , the P @-@ 1 and P @-@ 2 went into service with improved radio equipment . The P @-@ 1 variant was produced with two DB 601Aa powerplants of 1 @,@ 150 hp ( 860 kW ) . It had self @-@ sealing fuel tanks . The P @-@ 1 featured a semi @-@ retractable tail wheel to decrease drag . Armament consisted of a MG 15 in the nose , and a sliding hood for the fuselage 's dorsal B @-@ Stand position . Installation of upgraded FuG III radio communication devices were also made and a new ESAC @-@ 250 / III vertical bomb magazine was added . The overall takeoff weight was now 13 @,@ 300 kg ( 29 @,@ 321 lb ) .
The P @-@ 2 , like the later P @-@ 4 , was given stronger armour and two MG 15 machine guns in " waist " mounts on either side of the fuselage and two external bomb racks . Radio communications consisted of FuG IIIaU radios and the DB601 A @-@ 1 replaced the 601Aa powerplants . The Lotfernrohr 7 bombsights , which became the standard bombsight for German bombers , were also fitted to the P @-@ 2 . The P @-@ 2 was also given " field equipment sets " to upgrade the weak defensive armament to four or five MG 15 machine guns . The P @-@ 2 had its bomb capacity raised to 4 ESA @-@ 250 / IX vertical magazines . The P @-@ 2 thus had an empty weight of 6 @,@ 202 kg ( 13 @,@ 272 lb ) , a loaded weight increased to 12 @,@ 570 kg ( 27 @,@ 712 lb ) and a maximum range of 2 @,@ 100 km ( 1 @,@ 305 mi ) .
The P @-@ 3 was powered with the same DB601A @-@ 1 engines . The aircraft was also designed to take off with a land catapult ( KL @-@ 12 ) . A towing hook was added to the fuselage under the cockpit for the cable . Just eight examples were produced , all without bomb equipment .
The P @-@ 4 contained many changes from the P @-@ 2 and P @-@ 3 . The jettisonable loads were capable of considerable variation . Two external SC 1800 kg ( 3 @,@ 960 lb ) bombs , two LMA air @-@ dropped anti @-@ shipping mines , one SC 1 @,@ 800 kg plus four SC 250 kg ; or one SC 2 @,@ 500 kg external bomb could be carried on an ETC Rüstsatz rack . Depending on the load variation , an 835 L fuel and 120 L oil tank could be added in place of the internal bomb bay . The armament consisted of three defensive MG 15 machine guns. later supplemented by a further three MG 15s and one MG 17 machine gun . The radio communications were standard FuG X ( 10 ) , Peil G V direction finding and FuBI radio devices . Because of the increase in defensive firepower , the crew numbers increased from four to five . The empty weight of the P @-@ 4 increased to 6 @,@ 775 kg ( 14 @,@ 936 lb ) , and the full takeoff weight increased to 13 @,@ 500 kg ( 29 @,@ 762 lb ) owing to the mentioned alterations .
The P @-@ 5 was powered by the DB601A . The variant was mostly used as a trainer and at least twenty @-@ four production variants were produced before production ceased . The P @-@ 5 was fitted with meteorological equipment , and was used in Luftwaffe weather units .
Many of the He 111 Ps served during the Polish Campaign . With the Junkers Ju 88 experiencing technical difficulties , the He 111 and the Do 17 formed the backbone of the Kampfwaffe . On 1 September 1939 , Luftwaffe records indicate the Heinkel strength at 705 ( along with 533 Dorniers ) .
The P @-@ 6 variant was the last production model of the He 111 P series . In 1940 , the Ministry of Aviation abandoned further production of the P series in favour of the H versions , mostly because the P @-@ series ' Daimler @-@ Benz engines were needed for Messerschmitt Bf 109 and Bf 110 fighter production . The remaining P @-@ 6s were redesignated P @-@ 6 / R2s and used as heavy glider tugs . The most notable difference with previous variants was the upgraded DB 601N powerplants .
The P @-@ 7 variant 's history is unclear . The P @-@ 8 was said to have been similar to the H @-@ 5 fitted with dual controls . The P @-@ 9 was produced as an export variant for the Hungarian Air Force . Due to the lack of DB 601E engines , the series was terminated in summer 1940 .
= = He 111H and its variants = =
= = = He 111 H @-@ 1 to H @-@ 10 = = =
The H variant of the He 111 series was more widely produced and saw more action during World War II than any other Heinkel variant . Owing to the uncertainty surrounding the delivery and availability of the DB 601 engines , Heinkel switched to b820 kW ( 1 @,@ 100 hp ) Junkers Jumo 211 powerplants , whose somewhat greater size and weight were regarded as unimportant considerations in a twin @-@ engine design . When the Jumo was fitted to the P model it became the He 111 H.
The He 111 H @-@ 1 was fitted with a standard set of three 7 @.@ 92 mm ( .312 in ) MG 15 machine guns and eight SC 250 250 kg ( 550 lb ) or 32 SC 50 50 kg ( 110 lb ) bombs . The same armament was used in the H @-@ 2 which started production in August 1939 . The P @-@ series was gradually replaced on the eve of war with the new the H @-@ 2 , powered by improved Jumo 211 A @-@ 3 engines of 820 kW ( 1 @,@ 100 hp ) . A count on 2 September 1939 revealed that the Luftwaffe had a total of 787 He 111s in service , with 705 combat ready , including 400 H @-@ 1 and H @-@ 2s that had been produced in a mere four months . Production of the H @-@ 3 , powered by the 895 kW ( 1 @,@ 200 hp ) Jumo 211 D @-@ 1 , began in October 1939 . Experiences during the Polish Campaign led to an increase in defensive armament . MG 17s were fitted whenever possible and the number of machine guns was increased to seven . The two waist positions received an additional MG 15 or 17 , and on some variants a belt @-@ fed MG 17 was even installed in the tail .
After the Battle of Britain , smaller scale production of the H @-@ 4s began . The H @-@ 4 was virtually identical to the He 111 P @-@ 4 with the DB 600s swapped for the Jumo 211D @-@ 1s . Some also used the Jumo 211H @-@ 1 . This variant also differed from the H @-@ 3 in that it could either carry 2 @,@ 000 kg ( 4 @,@ 410 lb ) of bombs internally or mount one or two external racks to carry one 1 @,@ 800 kg ( 3 @,@ 970 lb ) or two 1 @,@ 000 kg ( 2 @,@ 210 lb ) bombs . As these external racks blocked the internal bomb bay doors , a combination of internal and external storage was not possible . A PVR 1006L bomb rack was fitted externally and an 835 L ( 221 US gal ) tank added to the interior spaces left vacant by the removal of the internal bomb @-@ bay . The PVR 1006L was capable of carrying a SC 1000 1 @,@ 000 kg ( 2 @,@ 210 lb ) bomb . Some H @-@ 4s had their PVC racks modified to drop torpedoes . Later modifications enabled the PVC 1006 to carry a 2 @,@ 500 kg ( 5 @,@ 510 lb ) " Max " bomb . But 1 @,@ 000 kg ( 2 @,@ 200 lb ) " Hermann " or 1 @,@ 800 kg ( 3 @,@ 970 lb ) " Satans " were used more widely .
The H @-@ 5 series followed in February 1941 , with heavier defensive armament . Like the H @-@ 4 , it retained a PVC 1006 L bomb rack to enable it to carry heavy bombs under the fuselage . The first ten He 111 H @-@ 5s were pathfinders , and selected for special missions . The aircraft sometimes carried 25 kg flashlight bombs which acted as flares . The H @-@ 5 could also carry heavy fire bombs , either heavy containers or smaller incendiary devices attached to parachutes . The H @-@ 5 also carried LM A and LM B aerial mines for anti @-@ shipping operations . After the 80th production aircraft , the PVC 1006 L bomb rack was removed and replaced with a heavy @-@ duty ETC 2000 rack , enabling the H @-@ 5 to carry the SC 2500 " Max " bomb , on the external ETC 2000 rack , which enabled it to support the 5 @,@ 000 lb ( 2 @,@ 300 kg ) bomb .
Some H @-@ 3 and H @-@ 4s were equipped with barrage balloon cable @-@ cutting equipment in the shape of cutter installations forward of the engines and cockpit . They were designated H @-@ 8 , but later named H8 / R2 . These aircraft were difficult to fly and production stopped . The H @-@ 6 initiated some overall improvements in design . The Jumo 211 F @-@ 1 engine of 1 @,@ 007 kW ( 1 @,@ 350 hp ) increased its speed while the defensive armament was upgraded with one 20 mm MG FF cannon in the nose position , one MG 15 in the ventral turret , and in each of the fuselage side windows ( optional ) . Some H @-@ 6 variants carried tail @-@ mounted MG 17 defensive armament . The performance of the H @-@ 6 was much improved . The climb rate was higher and the machine could reach a slightly higher ceiling of 8 @,@ 500 m ( 27 @,@ 200 ft ) . When heavy bomb loads were added , this ceiling was reduced to 6 @,@ 500 m ( 20 @,@ 800 ft ) . The weight of the H @-@ 6 increased to 14 @,@ 000 kg ( 30 @,@ 600 lb ) . Some H @-@ 6s received Jumo 211F @-@ 2s which improved a low @-@ level speed of 226 mph ( 365 km / h ) . At an altitude of 6 @,@ 000 m ( 19 @,@ 200 ft ) the maximum speed was 270 mph ( 435 km / h ) . If heavy external loads were added , the speed was reduced by 21 @.@ 75 mph ( 35 km / h ) .
Other designs of the mid @-@ H series included the He 111 H @-@ 7 and H @-@ 8 . The airframes were to be rebuilds of the H @-@ 3 / H @-@ 5 variant . Both were designed as night bombers and were to have two Jumo 211F @-@ 1s installed . The intention was for the H @-@ 8 to be fitted with cable @-@ cutting equipment and barrage ballon deflectors on the leading edge of the wings . The H @-@ 7 was never built .
The H @-@ 9 was intended as a trainer with dual control columns . The airframe was a H @-@ 1 variant rebuild . The powerplants consisted of two JumoA @-@ 1s or D @-@ 1s . The H @-@ 10 was also designated to trainer duties . Rebuilt from an H @-@ 2 or H @-@ 3 airframe , it was installed with full defensive armament including 13 mm ( .51 in ) MG 131 and 7 @.@ 92 mm ( .312 in ) MG 81Z machine guns . It was to be powered by two Jumo 211A @-@ 1s , D @-@ 1s or F @-@ 2s .
= = = Later H variants , H @-@ 11 to H @-@ 20 = = =
In the summer of 1942 , the H @-@ 11 , based on the H @-@ 3 was introduced . With the H @-@ 11 , the Luftwaffe had at its disposal a powerful medium bomber with heavier armour and revised defensive armament . The drum @-@ fed 7 @.@ 92 mm ( .312 in ) MG 15 was replaced with a belt @-@ fed 13 mm ( .51 in ) MG 131 in the now fully enclosed dorsal position ( B @-@ Stand ) ; the gunner in the latter was now protected with armoured glass . The single MG 15 in the ventral C @-@ Stand or Bola was also replaced , with a belt @-@ fed 7 @.@ 92 mm ( .312 in ) MG 81Z with much higher rate of fire . The beam positions originally retained the single MG 15s , but the H @-@ 11 / R1 replaced these with twin MG 81Z as well ; this latter arrangement was standardized in November 1942 . The port internal ESAC bomb racks could be removed , and an 835 L ( 221 US gal ) fuel tanks installed in its place . Many H @-@ 11s were equipped with a new PVC rack under the fuselage , which carried five 250 kg ( 550 lb ) bombs . Additional armour plating was fitted around crew spaces , some of it on the lower fuselage and could be jettisoned in an emergency . Engines were two 1 @,@ 000 kW ( 1 @,@ 340 hp ) Junkers Jumo 211F @-@ 2 , allowing this variant to carry a 2 @,@ 000 kg ( 4 @,@ 410 lb ) payload to a range of 2 @,@ 340 km ( 1 @,@ 450 mi ) . Heinkel built 230 new aircraft of this type and converted 100 H @-@ 3s to H @-@ 11s by the summer of 1943 .
The third mass production model of the He 111H was the H @-@ 16 , entering production in late 1942 . Armament was as on the H @-@ 11 , with some differences . The 20 mm MG FF cannon was deleted , as the H @-@ 16s were seldom employed on low @-@ level missions , was replaced with a single MG 131 in a flexible installation in the nose ( A @-@ Stand ) . On some aircraft , designated He 111 H @-@ 16 / R1 , the dorsal position was replaced by a Drehlafette DL 131 electrically powered turret , armed with a single MG 131 . The two beam and the aft ventral positions were provided with MG 81Zs , as on the H @-@ 11 . The two 1 @,@ 000 kW ( 1 @,@ 340 hp ) Jumo 211 F @-@ 2 provided a maximum speed of 434 km / h ( 270 mph ) at 6 @,@ 000 m ( 19 @,@ 690 ft ) ; cruising speed was 390 km / h ( 242 mph ) , service ceiling was 8 @,@ 500 m ( 27 @,@ 900 ft ) .Funkgerät ( FuG ) radio equipment . FuG 10P , FuG 16 , FuBl Z and APZ 6 were fitted for communication and navigation at night , while some aircraft received the FuG 101a radio altimeter . The H @-@ 16 retained its eight ESAC internal bomb cells ; four bomb cells , as on previous versions could be replaced by a fuel tank to increase range . ETC 2000 racks could be installed over the bomb cell openings for external weapons carriage . Empty weight was 6 @,@ 900 kg ( 15 @,@ 210 lb ) and the aircraft weighed 14 @,@ 000 kg ( 30 @,@ 860 lb ) fully loaded for take off . German factories built 1 @,@ 155 H @-@ 16s between the end of 1942 and the end of 1943 ; in addition , 280 H @-@ 6s and 35 H @-@ 11s were updated to H @-@ 16 standard . An undetermined number of H variants were fitted with the FuG 200 Hohentwiel . The radar was adapted as an anti @-@ shipping detector for day or night operations .
The last major production variant was the H @-@ 20 , which entered into production in early 1944 . It was planned to use two 1 @,@ 305 kW ( 1 @,@ 750 hp ) Junkers Jumo 213E @-@ 1 engines , turning three @-@ blade , Junkers VS 11 wooden @-@ bladed variable @-@ pitch propellers . It would appear this plan was never developed fully . Though the later H @-@ 22 was given the E @-@ 1 , the F @-@ 2 remained the H @-@ 20s main power plant . Heinkel and its licensees built 550 H @-@ 20s through the summer of 1944 , while 586 H @-@ 6s were upgraded to H @-@ 20 standard .
In contrast to the H @-@ 11 and H @-@ 16 the H @-@ 20 , equipped with two Jumo 211F @-@ 2s , had more powerful armament and radio communications . The defensive armament consisted of one MG 131 in an A @-@ Stand gun pod for the forward mounted machine gun position . One rotatable Drehlafette DL 131 / 1C ( or E ) gun mount in the B @-@ stand was standard and later MG 131 machine guns were added . Navigational direction @-@ finding gear was also installed . The Peil G6 was added to locate targets and the FuBI 2H blind landing equipment was built in to help with night operations . The radio was a standard FuG 10 , TZG 10 and FuG 16Z for navigating to the target . The H @-@ 20 also was equipped with barrage balloon cable @-@ cutters . The bomb load of the H @-@ 20 could be mounted on external ETC 1000 racks , or four ESAC 250 racks . The sub variant H @-@ 20 / R4 could carry 20 50 kg ( 110 lb ) bombs as external loads .
= = = He 111Z = = =
The He 111Z Zwilling was a design that entailed the merging of two He 111s . The design was originally conceived to tow the Messerschmitt Me 321 glider . Initially , four He 111 H @-@ 6s were modified . This resulted in a twin @-@ fuselage , five @-@ engine aircraft . They were tested at Rechlin in 1941 , and the pilots rated them highly . A batch of 10 were produced and five were built from existing H @-@ 6s . The machines were joined by a centre wing formed by two sections 6 @.@ 15 m ( 20 ft ) in length . The powerplants were five Jumo 211F engines at 1 @,@ 000 kW ( 1 @,@ 340 hp ) each . Total fuel capacity was 8 @,@ 570 L ( 2 @,@ 260 US gal ) . This was increased with the addition of four 600 L ( 160 US gal ) drop tanks . It could tow a Gotha Go 242 glider or Me 321 for up to 10 hours at cruising speed . It could also remain airborne if the three central powerplants failed . The He 111 Z @-@ 2s and Z @-@ 3s were also planned as heavy bombers carrying 1 @,@ 800 kg ( 3 @,@ 970 lb ) of bombs and having a range of 4 @,@ 000 km ( 2 @,@ 500 mi ) . The ETC extensions allowed for a further four 600 L ( 160 US gal ) drop tanks to be installed .
The He 111 Z @-@ 2 could carry four Henschel Hs 293 anti @-@ shipping guided missiles , which were guided by the FuG 203b Kehl III missile control equipment . With this load the He 111Z had a range of 1 @,@ 094 km ( 680 mi ) and a speed of 314 km / h ( 195 mph ) . Its maximum bombload was 7 @,@ 200 kg ( 15 @,@ 870 lb ) . To increase power the five Jumo 211F @-@ 2 powerplants were to be fitted with Hirth TK 11 superchargers . The armament was the same as the H @-@ 6 with the addition of one 20 mm MG 151 / 20 in a rotating gun @-@ mount on the centre section . The variant did not display any convincing ( stable ) flight performance .
The layout of the He 111Z had the pilot and his controls in the port fuselage only . Only the controls themselves and essential equipment remaining in the starboard section . The aircraft had a crew of seven ; a pilot , first mechanic , radio operator and gunner in the port fuselage , and the observer , second mechanic and gunner in the starboard fuselage .
The Z @-@ 3 was to be a reconnaissance version and was to have additional fuel tanks increasing its range to 6 @,@ 000 km ( 3 @,@ 730 mi ) . Production was due to take place in 1944 , just as bomber production was being abandoned . The long @-@ range variant designs failed to come to fruition . The He 111Z was to have been used in an invasion of Malta in 1942 and as part of an airborne assault on the Soviet cities Astrakhan and Baku in the Caucasus in the same year . During the Battle of Stalingrad their use was cancelled due to insufficient airfield capacity . Later in 1943 it helped evacuate German equipment and personnel from the Caucasus region and during the Allied invasion of Sicily attempted to deliver reinforcements to the island .
During operations , the He 111Z did not have enough power to lift a fully loaded Me 321 . The He 111s in RATO ( rocket assisted takeoff ) units were supplemented by rocket pods . Two were mounted beneath each fuselage and one underneath each wing . This added 500 kg ( 1 @,@ 100 lb ) in weight , but gave additional thrust to the engines . The pods were then released by parachute after takeoff .
The He 111Z 's operational history was minimal . One such machine was caught by RAF fighter aircraft over France on 14 March 1944 . The He 111Z was towing a Gotha Go 242 , and was shot down . Eight were shot down or destroyed on the ground in 1944 .
= = Production = =
To meet demand for numbers , Heinkel constructed a factory at Oranienburg . On 4 May 1936 , construction began , and exactly one year later the first He 111 rolled off the production line . The Ministry of Aviation Luftwaffe administration office suggested that Ernst Heinkel lend his name to the factory . The " Ernst Heinkel GmbH " was established with a share capital of 5 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 Reichsmarks ( RM ) . Heinkel was given a 150 @,@ 000 RM share . The factory itself was built by , and belonged to , the German state .
From this production plant , 452 He 111s and 69 Junkers Ju 88s were built in the first year of the war . German production for the Luftwaffe amounted to 808 He 111s by September 1939 . According to Heinkel 's memoirs , a further 452 were built in 1939 , giving a total of 1 @,@ 260 . But " 1940s production suffered extreme losses during the Battle of Britain , with 756 bombers lost " . Meanwhile , the He 111 's rival - the Ju 88 - had increased production to 1 @,@ 816 aircraft , some 26 times the number from the previous year . Losses were also considerable the previous year over the Balkans and Eastern Fronts . To compensate , He 111 production was increased to 950 in 1941 . In 1942 , this increased further to 1 @,@ 337 He 111s . The Ju 88 production figures were even higher still , exceeding 3 @,@ 000 in 1942 , of which 2 @,@ 270 were bomber variants . In 1943 , He 111 increased to 1 @,@ 405 aircraft . But the Ju 88 still outnumbered it in production terms as its figures reached 2 @,@ 160 for 1943 . The Allied bomber offensives in 1944 and in particular Big Week failed to stop or damage production at Heinkel . Up until the last quarter of 1944 , 756 Heinkel He 111s had been built , while Junkers produced 3 @,@ 013 Ju 88s , of which 600 were bomber versions . During 1939 @-@ 1944 , a total of 5 @,@ 656 Heinkel He 111s were built compared to 9 @,@ 122 Ju 88s . As the Luftwaffe was now on the strategic defensive , bomber production and that of the He 111 was suspended . Production in September 1944 , the last production month for the He 111 , included 118 bombers . Of these 21 Junkers Ju 87s , 74 Junkers Ju 188s , 3 Junkers Ju 388s and 18 Arado Ar 234s were built . Of the Heinkel variants , zero Heinkel He 177s were produced and just two Heinkel He 111s were built .
= = = Exports = = =
In 1937 , 24 He 111 F @-@ 1s were bought by the Turkish Air Force . The Turks also ordered four He 111 G @-@ 5s . China also ordered 12 He 111 A @-@ 0s , but at a cost 400 @,@ 000 Reichsmark ( RM ) . The aircraft were crated up and transported by sea . At the end of the Spanish Civil War , the Spanish Air Force acquired 59 He 111 " survivors " and a further six He 111s in 1941 @-@ 1943 . Bulgaria was given one He 111 H @-@ 6 , Romania received 10 E @-@ 3s , 32 H @-@ 3s and 10 H @-@ 6s . Two H @-@ 10s and three H @-@ 16s were given to Slovakia , Hungary was given 3 He 111Bs and 12 @-@ 13 He 111s by 6 May 1941 . A further 80 P @-@ 1s were ordered , but only 13 arrived . Towards the end of 1944 , 12 He 111Hs were delivered . The Japanese were due to receive 44 He 111Fs , but in 1938 the agreement was cancelled .
= = Operational history = =
The Heinkel He 111 served on all the German military fronts in the European Theatre of World War II . Beginning the war as a medium bomber it supported the German campaigns in the field until 1943 when , owing to Western Allied and Soviet air superiority , it reverted to a transport aircraft role .
German @-@ built He 111s remained in service in Spain after the end of the Second World War , being supplemented by Spanish licence @-@ built CASA 2.111s from 1950 . The last two German @-@ built aircraft remained in service until at least 1958 .
= = Variants = =
= = Operators = =
= = = Military operators = = =
Bulgaria
Bulgarian Air Force
China
Chinese Nationalist Air Force
Czechoslovakia
Czechoslovak Air Force operated one aircraft post @-@ war .
Germany
Luftwaffe
Hungary
Royal Hungarian Air Force
Romania
Royal Romanian Air Force
Slovakia
Slovak Air Force
Soviet Union
Soviet Air Forces operated several captured He 111s during World War II .
Spanish State
Spanish Air Force .
Turkey
Turkish Air Force operated 24 He 111F @-@ 1s , with first deliveries in 1937 , and remaining in use until 1944 .
United Kingdom
Royal Air Force operated various captured variants during and after the war for evaluation purposes i.e. to discover strengths and weaknesses .
United States
United States Army Air Forces operated several captured aircraft after the war . One pictured H @-@ 20 - 23 , may be the aircraft currently on display at the RAF Museum Hendon , minus the Drehlafette DL 131 turret .
= = = Civil operators = = =
China
Central Air Transport Corporation ( CATC ) operated a single ex @-@ air force He 111A re @-@ fitted with Wright Cyclone radial engines .
Germany
Deutsche Luft Hansa operated 12 aircraft .
Romania
Unknown civilian user operated one converted bomber . The registration of the He 111 was YR @-@ PTP . It is unknown whether this was a German or Romanian designation . Works , or factory number is unknown .
= = Survivors = =
Only four original German built He 111 survivors are on display or stored in museums around the world ( not including major sections ) :
He 111 E @-@ 3 ( code 25 + 82 ) , Wk Nr 2940 with the " conventional " cockpit is on display at the Museo del Aire , Madrid , Spain .
A mostly complete He 111 P @-@ 2 ( 5J + CN ) , Werknummer 1526 of 5.Staffel / Kampfgeschwader 54 ( KG 54 — Bomber Wing 54 ) , is on display at the Royal Norwegian Air Force Museum at Gardermoen , part of the Norwegian Armed Forces Aircraft Collection . The 5J Geschwaderkennung code on the aircraft is usually documented as being that of either I. Gruppe / KG 4 or KG 100 with B3 being KG 54 's equivalent code throughout the war .
A He 111 H @-@ 20 ( Stammkennzeichen of NT + SL ) , Wk Nr 701152 , a troop @-@ carrying version is on display at the RAF Museum Hendon , London . Appropriated by USAAF pilots in France at the end of the war , it was left in Britain following the unit 's return to the US , and taken on by the RAF .
In 2005 , another He 111 was salvaged from a Norwegian lake and has since been moved to Germany for restoration .
= = Specifications = =
= = = He 111 H @-@ 6 = = =
Data from Heinkel He 111 : A Documentary History
General characteristics
Crew : 5 ( pilot , navigator / bombardier / nose gunner , ventral gunner , dorsal gunner / radio operator , side gunner )
Length : 16 @.@ 4 m ( 53 ft 9 ½ in )
Wingspan : 22 @.@ 60 m ( 74 ft 2 in )
Height : 4 @.@ 00 m ( 13 ft 1 ½ in )
Wing area : 87 @.@ 60 m ² ( 942 @.@ 92 ft ² )
Empty weight : 8 @,@ 680 kg ( 19,136lb lb )
Loaded weight : 12 @,@ 030 kg ( 26 @,@ 500 lb )
Max. takeoff weight : 14 @,@ 000 kg ( 30 @,@ 864 lb )
Powerplant : 2 × Jumo 211F @-@ 1 or 211F @-@ 2 liquid @-@ cooled inverted V @-@ 12 , 986 kW ( 1 @,@ 300 hp ( F @-@ 1 ) or 1 @,@ 340 ( F @-@ 2 ) ) each
Performance
Maximum speed : 440 km / h ( 273 mph )
Range : 2 @,@ 300 km ( 1 @,@ 429 mi ) with maximum fuel
Service ceiling : 6 @,@ 500 m ( 21 @,@ 330 ft )
Rate of climb : 20 minutes to 5 @,@ 185 m ( 17 @,@ 000 ft )
Wing loading : 137 kg / m ² ( 28 @.@ 1 lb / ft ² )
Power / mass : .082 kW / kg ( .049 hp / lb )
Armament
Guns : up to 7 × 7 @.@ 92 mm MG 15 or MG 81 machine guns , ( 2 in the nose , 1 in the dorsal , 2 in the side , 2 in the ventral ) some of them replaced or augmented by
1 × 20 mm MG FF cannon ( central nose mount or forward ventral position )
1 × 13 mm MG 131 machine gun ( mounted dorsal and / or ventral rear positions )
Bombs : 2 @,@ 000 kilograms ( 4 @,@ 400 lb ) in the main internal bomb bay .
Up to 3 @,@ 600 kilograms ( 7 @,@ 900 lb ) could be carried externally . External bomb racks blocked the internal bomb bay . Carrying bombs externally increased weight and drag and impaired the aircraft 's performance significantly . Carrying the maximum load usually required rocket @-@ assisted take @-@ off .
= = = He 111 C @-@ 0 = = =
Data from Black Cross Volume 4 : Heinkel He 111
General characteristics
Crew : 2
Length : 17 @.@ 5 m ( 57 ' 5 " )
Wingspan : 22 @.@ 60 m ( 74 ft 2 in )
Height : 4 @.@ 10 m ( 13 ' 5 ⅜ " )
Wing area : 87 @.@ 60 m ² ( 942 @.@ 92 ft ² )
Empty weight : 5 @,@ 400 kg ( 11,905lb lb )
Loaded weight : 9 @,@ 610 kg ( 21 @,@ 186 lb )
Powerplant : 2 × BMW VI liquid @-@ cooled inverted V @-@ 12 , ( 660 hp ) each
Performance
Maximum speed : 310 km / h ( 193 mph )
Range : 2 @,@ 400 ( 1 @,@ 491 mi )
Service ceiling : 4 @,@ 800 m ( 15 @,@ 750 ft )
Wing loading : 109 @.@ 7 kg / m ² ( 22 @.@ 45 lb / ft ² )
= = Notable appearances in media = =
The He 111 is the most @-@ often portrayed German bomber in Second World War @-@ related shows ( often using its Spanish @-@ built CASA 2 @.@ 111 cousin as stand in ) , with the quintessential example being the movie Battle of Britain .
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= Lad , A Dog ( film ) =
Lad : A Dog is a 1962 American dramatic film based on the 1919 novel Lad : A Dog written by Albert Payson Terhune . Starring Peter Breck , Peggy McCay , Carroll O 'Connor , and Angela Cartwright , the film blends several of the short stories featured in the novel , with the heroic Lad winning a rigged dog show , saving a handicapped girl from a snake , and capturing a poacher who killed his pups and injured one of his owners . Warner Brothers purchased the film rights for the novel from Vanguard Productions , and acquired the film rights for the other two Lad novels from the late Terhune 's wife .
Aram Avakian was initially selected to be the film 's director , but when he continually refused to do a sentimental @-@ type dog story , he was replaced by Leslie H. Martinson . Lillie Hayward and Roberta Hodes wrote the screenplay for the film , adapting several of the short stories from the novel to create a single narrative , and adding in an all @-@ purpose villain . The film was released on June 6 , 1962 . The studio hoped it would be successful enough to be followed by a second film and a television series . Though praised by fans and modern reviewers , contemporary critiques felt Terhune 's work did not translate well to film and it was considered a low budget , B @-@ movie . It was released to home video in 1995 .
= = Plot = =
Purebred rough collie Lad and his owners , Stephen ( Peter Breck ) and Elizabeth Tremayne ( Peggy McCay ) , are visited by their wealthy neighbor Hamilcar Q. Glure ( Carroll O 'Connor ) and his 8 @-@ year @-@ old daughter Angela ( Angela Cartwright ) , who is crippled from polio . While Lad befriends the girl , Glure invites the Tremaynes to show the prize @-@ winning Lad at his upcoming dog show . However , Glure is jealous of Lad 's success and has rigged one event to have such specialized rules that he believes only his recently purchased high @-@ priced , English @-@ trained collie can win . During the competition , which involves directing the dogs through a tricky set of a maneuvers , Lad is able to complete the course , while Glure 's champion does not recognize the hand signals Glure makes while holding a cigar .
Later , Lad saves Glure 's daughter Angela from a poisonous snake by knocking her backwards to get her out of harm 's way , then fighting and killing the snake , getting bitten in the process . Her nurse ( Alice Pearce ) initially does not see the snake , and begins beating Lad for " attacking " the little girl . Distraught , Angela stands and walks for the first time since her illness to stop the nurse 's abuse of her friend . Lad disappears for three days , reappearing covered in mud but cured of the poison .
After his return , Lad is bred with another prize @-@ winning collie , Lady , and they have two male puppies which are named Little Lad & Wolf . Angela is allowed her choice of one as a present to her when they are old enough to leave their mother & she chooses Little Lad . However , Jackson White ( Jack Daly ) , a poacher Lad fought and chased off the property before , sets fire to barn out of vengeance . Elizabeth is injured and Little Lad is killed but not Wolf . Lad later aids in capturing White when he breaks into the house to try to steal Lad 's gold trophy from the dog show . Angela is initially inconsolable over the loss of her puppy Little Lad , and refuses to have anything to do with Wolf . After he is nearly lost in another accident , she changes her mind and accepts Wolf as her new dog .
= = Production = =
Max J. Rosenberg , of Vanguard Productions , purchased the film rights for Albert Payson Terhune 's Lad : A Dog from publisher E.P. Dutton , then later sold the rights to Warner Brothers . When the studio learned of the other two Lad novels , Further Adventures of Lad and Lad of Sunnybank , they were concerned to learn that Dutton had the rights to only the first novel , as they were hoping the film would be successful enough to develop a sequel and possibly a television series . Executive Bruce Chapman negotiated for the film rights for the other two novels with Anice Terhune , the late wife of the author . She set up a foundation , Terhune Lad Stories , Inc , to negotiate the rights for other two novels . All told , Warner paid $ 25 @,@ 000 for the rights to all three books , though the bulk of the funds went to Dutton .
Warner Brothers initially hired Aram Avakian , a " talented , aggressive young ex @-@ film editor " known for his avant @-@ garde tendencies , to direct the film . The studio wanted a sentimental dog story that played true to the novel , which Avakian opposed . In a 1969 Life interview , Avakian stated that he " wanted to make a kind of pop , camp thing that wouldn 't be a complete ordeal for parents " while everyone else involved in the production wanted " Dick , Jane and Doggie " . Jack Warner , then head of the studio , eventually fired him , bringing the more conventional Leslie H. Martinson to complete the film . Peter Breck and Peggy McCay were cast as Lad 's owners , renamed to Stephen and Elizabeth Tremayne . Veteran actor Carroll O 'Connor was hired to play the pompous and newly wealthy Hamilcar Q. Glure , with the role of his daughter played by Angela Cartwright , a noted young actress who had starred in The Danny Thomas Show . To cast the role of Lad , a talent search was conducted , eventually resulting in the selection of a collie from the San Fernando Valley who was credited simply as " Lad " . The film is set in a modified version of the Place , with Pompton Lake reduced to a river with a large dock . The house , though similar to the real Terhune home , even including duplicates of the stone lions on the veranda , was built on a scale three times larger than the original .
Well @-@ known screenwriter Lillie Hayward , and newcomer Roberta Hodes , were hired to adapt the novel for film . They combined several of the stories from the novel , modifying characters to create a single flowing narrative . For example , the crippled girl who was a neighbor girl in the original novel became Glure 's daughter . Noting Terhune 's frequent disdain for the Ramapough Mountain Indians , they named the film 's villain Jackson White , a play on the nickname used to refer to those people . White became the catch all villain of the film , who poaches deer , sets fire to the Tremayne barn , and break into the house to try to steal a gold trophy won by Lad .
Lad : A Dog was released to theaters on June 6 , 1962 . The 98 minute film was released to VHS format on January 31 , 1995 .
= = Reception = =
The film was considered to be a " B @-@ movie " with its low production budget . Terhune biographer Irving Litvag praised O 'Connor 's performance as Glure , feeling his talent made him " seem human " and " a person of dignity and love " versus Terhune 's " overdrawn and exaggerated " silly character . He felt the setting and cinematography was " typical Hollywood overstatement " , and that as a whole found that Terhune 's " sentimental writing " did not do well in film form , calling the resulting film " cloying " and a " minor , unsung film . " However , he noted that fans of the novels seemed to thoroughly enjoy the film , suspecting part of it was the " handsome collie " found to play the titular role , and seeing the names of the beloved collies they knew on the screen . A New York Times reviewer called it a " bucolic drama of no discernible merit " . The Monthly Film Bulletin praised the dog actors , but felt the film was " stultifyingly mawkish , with a touch of supposed humor contributed by an allegedly English chauffeur " . Bob Ross , of the Tampa Tribune , considered it to be an " earnest , well @-@ acted story " . Leonard Maltin felt it was a " genuine if schmaltzy " adaptation of the novel .
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= Christ Episcopal Church ( Waltham , Massachusetts ) =
Christ Church is a historic Episcopal church at 750 Main Street in Waltham , Massachusetts . The church is a parish of the Episcopal Diocese of Massachusetts , and was named to the National Register of Historic Places in 1989 .
The church was founded in 1848 , but a local hall was used for services until a wooden church was built in 1849 . The wooden structure eventually proved inadequate and a larger church designed by Peabody and Stearns was built of local fieldstone at the current location between 1897 and 1898 .
The church contains stained glass windows produced by several noteworthy manufacturers , including Clayton and Bell , Charles Connick , Louis Comfort Tiffany , and Donald MacDonald . Eight rectors have served the church since its founding .
= = History = =
The community of Christ Church was founded in 1848 by Albert C. Patterson , an Episcopal clergyman and missionary who identified the growing industrial city of Waltham as an ideal place to build a church . The new Episcopal community met in Rumford Hall ( later Waltham City Hall ) until a Gothic wooden church was completed on Central Street in Waltham in 1849 . The land for the church and much of its funding was provided by founding member J.S. Copley Greene .
Christ Church 's first rector was the Rev. Thomas F. Fales , from St. Paul 's Episcopal Church in Brunswick , Maine . Fales remained the church 's rector for more than 40 years , until retiring in 1890 . During this time , Christ Church 's membership grew from 15 members to more than 400 .
At about the time Fales retired , the church outgrew the Central Street building . In 1892 , the parish bought land with the intent of building a larger church at 750 Main Street . In 1895 , the old church building was sold to a French Canadian Roman Catholic community . Christ Church held services in Waltham 's Maynard Hall until the new building could be completed .
In 1896 , after four years of planning , the architectural firm of Peabody and Stearns was hired to design the new structure and construction began in the early months of 1897 . Philanthropist and Christ Church senior warden Robert Treat Paine , Jr. signed the contract for construction , and financed much of the building with his own fortune . Philanthropist sisters and Christ Church parishioners Harriet Sarah and Mary Sophia Walker also contributed significantly to the funding .
The first service in the completed building was held on June 17 , 1898 . That Sunday , the retired Rev. Fales delivered the church 's inaugural sermon from the wooden pulpit that was his gift to the new building .
The church is a parish of the Episcopal Diocese of Massachusetts , and was named to the National Register of Historic Places in 1989 .
= = Architecture and design = =
Christ Church was designed by Peabody and Stearns , masters of American Shingle style architecture , and was constructed of native Waltham fieldstone in the English Country style . The inspiration for the church 's stone exterior came indirectly from architect H. H. Richardson , who was also a friend and Harvard classmate of Robert Treat Paine , Jr . When Paine remodeled and expanded his Waltham home in 1883 , it was Richardson who designed the residence that would become Stonehurst , a Shingle style mansion built of glacial stones quarried on site from Paine 's estate . Richardson died in 1886 and played no part in the planning of Christ Church , but it was his Stonehurst design that inspired Robert Treat Paine , Jr. to use the same stones from his property for the exterior of the church .
The church features several stained glass windows of significance . The east window , by Clayton and Bell , was a gift from Robert Treat Paine , Jr. in memory of his wife , Lydia Lyman Paine , who died in 1897 during the construction of the church . At Paine 's request , his wife 's likeness was incorporated into the left panel of the window as a red @-@ clad figure kneeling before Christ . The west window , designed by Charles Connick , pays homage to Waltham 's manufacturing history . In addition to images of Ruth , Solomon , and Noah — all industrious figures in the Bible — the window features rivets , a bicycle wheel , a watch escapement , a Metz car , and other symbols that reference Waltham 's industrial character . Along the south wall is a signed Tiffany window , designed by Tiffany artist Frederick Wilson . The window depicts the Nativity , and was given to the church in 1908 by John H. Storer in memory of Frank Henry Perkins and Mary Ella Perkins . Also along the south wall is a window by noted Boston stained glass artist Donald MacDonald . This work , given in memory of Harriet K. Parmenter , depicts the Easter scene of the risen Christ revealing himself to Mary Magdalene .
= = Rectors = =
Since its founding , eight clergy have been elected by the Christ Church parish to serve as rector :
The Rev. Thomas F. Fales ( 1849 – 1890 )
The Rev. Herbert Noel Cunningham ( 1890 – 1895 )
The Rev. Hubert Wetmore Wells ( 1896 – 1900 )
The Rev. Francis Ellsworth Webster ( 1901 – 1930 )
The Rev. George O. Ekwall ( 1930 – 1960 )
The Rev. John S. Kromer ( 1961 – 1970 )
The Rev. William R. Mawhinney ( 1971 – 1999 )
The Rev. Sara H. Irwin ( 2009 – present )
Note : In the intervening years listed above , a priest @-@ in @-@ charge appointed by the bishop served as the leader of the church .
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= Raven banner =
The raven banner ( Old Norse : hrafnsmerki ; Middle English : hravenlandeye ) was a flag , possibly totemic in nature , flown by various Viking chieftains and other Scandinavian rulers during the 9th , 10th and 11th centuries . The flag , as depicted in Norse artwork , was roughly triangular , with a rounded outside edge on which there hung a series of tabs or tassels . It bore a resemblance to ornately carved " weather @-@ vanes " used aboard Viking longships .
Scholars conjecture that the raven flag was a symbol of Odin , who was often depicted accompanied by two ravens named Huginn and Muninn . Its intent may have been to strike fear in one 's enemies by invoking the power of Odin . As one scholar notes regarding encounters between the Christian Anglo @-@ Saxons and the invading pagan Scandinavians :
The Anglo @-@ Saxons probably thought that the banners were imbued with the evil powers of pagan idols , since the Anglo @-@ Saxons were aware of the significance of Óðinn and his ravens in Norse mythology .
= = Raven symbolism in Norse culture = =
The raven is a common iconic figure in Norse mythology . The highest god Odin had two ravens named Huginn and Muninn ( " thought " and " memory " respectively ) who flew around the world bringing back tidings to their master . Therefore , one of Odin 's many names was the " raven god " ( Hrafnaguð ) . In Gylfaginning ( c . 1220 ) , the medieval Icelandic historian Snorri Sturluson explains :
Odin was also closely linked to ravens because in Norse myths he received the fallen warriors at Valhalla , and ravens were linked with death and war due to their predilection for carrion . It is consequently likely that they were regarded as manifestations of the Valkyries , goddesses who chose the valiant dead for military service in Valhalla . A further connection between ravens and Valkyries was indicated in the shapeshifting abilities of goddesses and Valkyries , who could appear in the form of birds .
The raven appears in almost every skaldic poem describing warfare . To make war was to feed and please the raven ( hrafna seðja , hrafna gleðja ) . An example of this is found in Norna @-@ Gests þáttr , where Regin recites the following poem after Sigurd kills the sons of Hunding :
Above all , kennings used in Norse poetry identify the raven as the bird of blood , corpses and battle ; he is the gull of the wave of the heap of corpses , who screams dashed with hail and craves morning steak as he arrives at the sea of corpses ( Hlakkar hagli stokkin már valkastar báru , krefr morginbráðar er kemr at hræs sævi ) .
In black flocks , the ravens hover over the corpses and the skald asks where they are heading ( Hvert stefni þér hrafnar hart með flokk hinn svarta ) . The raven goes forth in the blood of those fallen in battle ( Ód hrafn í valblóði ) . He flies from the field of battle with blood on his beak , human flesh in his talons and the reek of corpses from his mouth ( Með dreyrgu nefi , hold loðir í klóum en hræs þefr ór munni ) . The ravens who were the messengers of the highest god , Huginn and Muninn , increasingly had hellish connotations , and as early as in the Christian Sólarljóð , stanza 67 , the ravens of Hel ( l ) ( heljar hrafnar ) who tear the eyes off backtalkers are mentioned . Two curses in the Poetic Edda say " may ravens tear your heart asunder " ( Þit skyli hjarta rafnar slíta ) . and " the ravens shall tear out your eyes in the high gallows " ( Hrafnar skulu þér á hám galga slíta sjónir ór ) . Ravens are thus seen as instruments of divine ( if harsh and unpleasant ) justice .
Despite the violent imagery associated with them , early Scandinavians regarded the raven as a largely positive figure ; battle and harsh justice were viewed favorably in Norse culture . Many Old Norse personal names referred to the raven , such as Hrafn , Hrafnkel and Hrafnhild .
= = Usage = =
= = = Late 9th century = = =
The raven banner was used by a number of Viking warlords regarded in Norse tradition as the sons of the Danish Ragnar Lodbrok . The first mention of a Viking force carrying a raven banner is in the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle . For the year 878 , the Chronicle relates :
And in the winter of this same year the brother of Ivar and Halfdan landed in Wessex , in Devonshire , with 23 ships , and there was he slain , and 800 men with him , and 40 of his army . There also was taken the war @-@ flag ( guðfani ) , which they called " Raven " .
The 12th @-@ century Annals of St Neots claims that a raven banner was present with the Great Heathen Army and adds insight into its seiðr- ( witchcraft- ) influenced creation and totemic and oracular nature :
Geffrei Gaimar 's Estorie des Engles ( written around 1140 ) mentions the Hrafnsmerki being borne by the army of Ubbe at the Battle of Cynwit ( 878 ) : " [ t ] he Raven was Ubbe 's banner ( gumfanun ) . He was the brother of Iware ; he was buried by the vikings in a very big mound in Devonshire , called Ubbelawe . "
= = = 10th century = = =
In the 10th century , the raven banner seems to have been adopted by Norse @-@ Gaelic kings of Dublin and Northumbria . Many of the Norse @-@ Gaelic dynasts in Britain and Ireland were of the Uí Ímair clan , which claimed descent from Ragnar Lodbrok through his son Ivar . A triangular banner appearing to depict a bird ( possibly a raven ) appears on a penny minted by Olaf Cuaran around 940 . The coin features a roughly right isosceles triangular standard , with the two equilateral sides situated at the top and staff , respectively . Along the hypotenuse are a series of five tabs or tassels . The staff is topped by what appears to be a cross ; this may indicate a fusion of pagan and Christian symbolism .
The raven banner was also a standard used by the Norse Jarls of Orkney . According to the Orkneyinga Saga , it was made for Sigurd the Stout by his mother , a völva or shamanic seeress . She told him that the banner would " bring victory to the man it 's carried before , but death to the one who carries it . " The saga describes the flag as " a finely made banner , very cleverly embroidered with the figure of a raven , and when the banner fluttered in the breeze , the raven seemed to be flying ahead . " Sigurd 's mother 's prediction came true when , according to the sagas , all of the bearers of the standard met untimely ends . The " curse " of the banner ultimately fell on Jarl Sigurd himself at the Battle of Clontarf :
Earl Sigurd had a hard battle against Kerthialfad , and Kerthialfad came on so fast that he laid low all who were in the front rank , and he broke the array of Earl Sigurd right up to his banner , and slew the banner @-@ bearer . Then he got another man to bear the banner , and there was again a hard fight . Kerthialfad smote this man too his death blow at once , and so on one after the other all who stood near him . Then Earl Sigurd called on Thorstein the son of Hall of Sida , to bear the banner , and Thorstein was just about to lift the banner , but then Asmund the White said , " Don 't bear the banner ! For all they who bear it get their death . " " Hrafn the Red ! " called out Earl Sigurd , " bear thou the banner . " " Bear thine own devil thyself , " answered Hrafn . Then the earl said , " `Tis fittest that the beggar should bear the bag ; ' " and with that he took the banner from the staff and put it under his cloak . A little after Asmund the White was slain , and then the earl was pierced through with a spear .
= = = Early 11th century = = =
The army of King Cnut the Great of England , Norway and Denmark bore a raven banner made from white silk at the Battle of Ashingdon in 1016 . The Encomium Emmae reports that Cnut had
a banner which gave a wonderful omen . I am well aware that this may seem incredible to the reader , but nevertheless I insert it in my veracious work because it is true : This banner was woven of the cleanest and whitest silk and no picture of any figures was found on it . In case of war , however , a raven was always to be seen , as if it were woven into it . If the Danes were going to win the battle , the raven appeared , beak wide open , flapping its wings and restless on its feet . If they were going to be defeated , the raven did not stir at all , and its limbs hung motionless .
The Lives of Waltheof and his Father Sivard Digri ( The Stout ) , the Earl of Northumberland , written by a monk of Crowland Abbey ( possibly the English historian William of Ramsey ) , reports that the Danish jarl of Northumbria , Sigurd , was given a banner by an unidentified old sage . The banner was called Ravenlandeye .
According to the Heimskringla , Harald Hardrada flew a raven banner called Landøyðan or " Land @-@ waster " ; whether this was the same banner as that flown by Sigurd of Northumbria is unclear . In a conversation between Harald and King Sweyn II of Denmark ,
Sveinn asked Haraldr which of his possessions of his he valued most highly . He answered that it was his banner ( merki ) , Landøyðan . Thereupon Sveinn asked what virtue it had to be accounted so valuable . Haraldr replied that it was prophesied that victory would be his before whom this banner was borne ; and added that this had been the case ever since he had obtained it . Thereupon Sveinn said , " I shall believe that your flag has this virtue if you fight three battles with King Magnús , your kinsman , and are victorious in all . "
Years later , during Harald 's invasion of England , Harald fought a pitched battle against two English earls outside York . Harald 's Saga relates that
when King Haraldr saw that the battle array of the English had come down along the ditch right opposite them , he had the trumpets blown and sharply urged his men to the attack , raising his banner called Landøyðan . And there so strong an attack was made by him that nothing held against it .
Harald 's army flew the banner at the Battle of Stamford Bridge , where it was carried by a warrior named Frírek . After Harald was struck by an arrow and killed , his army fought fiercely for possession of the banner , and some of them went berserk in their frenzy to secure the flag . In the end the " magic " of the banner failed , and the bulk of the Norwegian army was slaughtered , with only a few escaping to their ships .
Other than the dragon banner of Olaf II of Norway , the Landøyðan of Harald Hardrada is the only early Norwegian royal standard described by Snorri Sturluson in the Heimskringla .
In two panels of the famous Bayeux tapestry , standards are shown which appear to be raven banners . The Bayeux tapestry was commissioned by Bishop Odo , the half @-@ brother of William the Conqueror ; as one of the combatants at the Battle of Hastings , Odo would have been familiar with the standards carried into the fight . In one of the panels , depicting a Norman cavalry charge against an English shield @-@ wall , a charging Norman knight is depicted with a semicircular banner emblazoned with a standing black bird . In a second , depicting the deaths of Harold Godwinson 's brothers , a triangular banner closely resembling that shown on Olaf Cuaran 's coin lies broken on the ground . Scholars are divided as to whether these are simply relics of the Normans ' Scandinavian heritage ( or for that matter , the Scandinavian influence in Anglo @-@ Saxon England ) or whether they reflect an undocumented Norse presence in either the Norman or English army .
= = Modern reception = =
Despite claims that the Hrafnsmerki was " the first European flag in the New World " , there is no indication that it was ever carried as a universal flag of Scandinavians , and no source assigns it to the Vinland settlers ( or any other Icelandic or Greenlandic group ) .
It is still used by some Danish army regiments , such as the shoulder sleeve insignia on the Guard Hussars regiment 's 1st Battalion 1st Tank Squadron .
In Shetland an alternate form of the banner ( black raven on a rectangular , red field ) is used as the symbol of Up @-@ Helly @-@ Aa , a festival that celebrates the Islands ' Norse heritage .
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= Three Witches =
The Three Witches or Weird Sisters or Wayward Sisters are characters in William Shakespeare 's play Macbeth ( c . 1603 – 1607 ) . Their origin lies in Holinshed 's Chronicles ( 1587 ) , a history of England , Scotland and Ireland . Other possible sources , aside from Shakespeare 's imagination itself , include British folklore , such contemporary treatises on witchcraft as King James VI of Scotland 's Daemonologie , the Norns of Norse mythology , and ancient classical myths of the Fates : the Greek Moirai and the Roman Parcae . Productions of Macbeth began incorporating portions of Thomas Middleton 's contemporaneous play , The Witch , circa 1618 , two years after Shakespeare 's death .
Shakespeare 's witches are prophets who hail Macbeth , the general , early in the play , and prophecise his ascent to king . Upon killing the king and ascending the throne of Scotland , Macbeth hears them ambiguously prophecise his eventual downfall . The darkly contradictory witches , their " filthy " trappings and supernatural activities , all set an ominous tone for the play .
Artists in the eighteenth century ( e.g. , Henry Fuseli , William Rimmer ) depicted the witches variously , as have many directors since . Some have exaggerated or sensationalized the hags , or have adapted them to different cultures , as in Orson Welles 's rendition of the weird sisters as voodoo priestesses . Some film adaptations have cast the witches as such modern analogues as hippies on drugs , or goth schoolgirls . Their influence reaches the literary realm as well in such works as The Third Witch and the Harry Potter series .
= = Origins = =
The name " weird sisters " is found in most modern editions of Macbeth . However , the first folio 's text reads :
The weyward Sisters , hand in hand ,
Posters of the Sea and Land ...
In later scenes in the first folio the witches are called " weyward , " but never " weird . " The modern appellation " weird sisters " derives from Holinshed 's original Chronicles . It should be noted however that modern English spelling was only starting to become fixed by Shakespeare 's time and also that the word ' weird ' ( from Old English wyrd , fate ) had connotations beyond the common modern meaning .
One of Shakespeare 's principal sources for the Three Witches is found in the account of King Duncan in Raphael Holinshed 's history of Britain , The Chronicles of England , Scotland , and Ireland ( 1587 ) . In Holinshed , the future King Macbeth of Scotland and his companion Banquo encounter " three women in strange and wild apparell , resembling creatures of elder world " who hail the men with glowing prophecies and then vanish " immediately out of their sight . " Holinshed observes that " the common opinion was that these women were either the Weird Sisters , that is … the goddesses of destiny , or else some nymphs or fairies endued with knowledge of prophecy by their necromantical science "
Another principal source was the Daemonology of King James published in 1597 which included a news pamphlet titled Newes from Scotland that detailed the infamous North Berwick witch trials of 1590 . Not only had this trial taken place in Scotland , witches involved confessed to attempt the use of witchcraft to raise a tempest and sabotage the very boat King James and the Queen of Scots were on board during their return trip from Denmark . This is evidenced by the following passages :
purposely to be cassin into the sea to raise winds for destruction of ships.- Macbeth , I. iii . 15 @-@ 25 .
The news pamphlet states :
Moreover she confessed that at the time when his Majesty was in Denmark , she being accompanied with the parties before specially named , took a Cat and christened it , and afterward bound to each part of that Cat , the cheefest parts of a dead man , and several joints of his body , and that in the night following the said Cat was conveyed into the midst of the sea by all these witches sailing in their riddles or Cues as aforesaid , and so left the said Cat right before the Town of Leith in Scotland : this done , there did arise such a tempest in the Sea , as a greater has not been seen : which tempest was the cause of the perishing of a Boat or vessel coming over from the town of Brunt Island to the town of Leith , of which was many Jewels and rich gifts , which should have been presented to the current Queen of Scotland , at her Majesty ’ s coming to Leith . Again it is confessed , that the said christened Cat was the cause that the King Majesty ’ s Ship at his coming forth of Denmark , had a contrary wind to the rest of his Ships , then being in his company , which thing was most strange and true , as the King ’ s Majesty acknowledges - Daemonologie , Newes from Scotland
The concept of the Three Witches themselves may have been influenced by the Old Norse skaldic poem Darraðarljóð ( found in chapter 157 of Njáls saga ) , in which twelve valkyries weave and choose who is to be slain at the Battle of Clontarf ( fought outside Dublin in 1014 ) .
Shakespeare 's creation of the Three Witches may have also been influenced by an anti @-@ witchcraft law passed by King James nine years previously , a law that was to stay untouched for over 130 years . His characters ' " chappy fingers , " " skinny lips , " and " beards , " for example , are not found in Holinshed . Macbeth 's Hillock near Brodie , between Forres and Nairn in Scotland , has long been identified as the mythical meeting place of Macbeth and the witches . ( Map ) Traditionally , Forres is believed to have been the home of both Duncan and Macbeth .
However , Samuel Taylor Coleridge proposed that the three weird sisters should be seen as ambiguous figures , never actually being called witches by themselves or other characters in the play . Moreover , they were depicted as more fair than foul both in Holinshed 's account and in that of contemporary playgoer Simon Forman .
= = Dramatic role = =
The Three Witches first appear in Act 1 @.@ 1 where they agree to meet later with Macbeth . In 1 @.@ 3 , they greet Macbeth with a prophecy that he shall be king , and his companion , Banquo , with a prophecy that he shall generate a line of kings . The prophecies have great impact upon Macbeth . As the audience later learns , he has considered usurping the throne of Scotland . The Witches next appear in what is generally accepted to be a non @-@ Shakespearean scene , 3 @.@ 5 , where they are reprimanded by Hecate for dealing with Macbeth without her participation . Hecate orders the trio to congregate at a forbidding place where Macbeth will seek their art . In 4 @.@ 1 , the Witches gather as Hecate ordered and produce a series of ominous visions for Macbeth that herald his downfall . The meeting ends with a " show " of Banquo and his royal descendants . The Witches then vanish .
= = Analysis = =
The Three Witches represent evil , darkness , chaos , and conflict , while their role is as agents and witnesses . Their presence communicates treason and impending doom . During Shakespeare 's day , witches were seen as worse than rebels , " the most notorious traitor and rebel that can be . " They were not only political traitors , but also spiritual traitors as well . Much of the confusion that springs from them comes from their ability to straddle the play 's borders between reality and the supernatural . They are so deeply entrenched in both worlds that it is unclear whether they control fate , or whether they are merely its agents . They defy logic , not being subject to the rules of the real world .
The witches ' lines in the first act : " Fair is foul , and foul is fair : Hover through the fog and filthy air " are often said to set the tone for the remainder of the play by establishing a sense of moral confusion . Indeed , the play is filled with situations in which evil is depicted as good , while good is rendered evil . The line " Double , double toil and trouble , " ( often sensationalized to a point that it loses meaning ) , communicates the witches ' intent clearly : they seek only to increase trouble for the mortals around them .
Though the witches do not deliberately tell Macbeth to kill King Duncan , they use a subtle form of temptation when they inform Macbeth that he is destined to be king . By placing this thought in his mind , they effectively guide him on the path to his own destruction . This follows the pattern of temptation attributed to the Devil in the contemporary imagination : the Devil was believed to be a thought in a person 's mind , which he or she might either indulge or reject . Macbeth indulges the temptation , while Banquo rejects it .
Several non @-@ Shakespearean moments are thought to have been added to Macbeth around 1618 and include all of 3 @.@ 5 and 4 @.@ 1 @.@ 39 – 43 and 4 @.@ 1 @.@ 125 @-@ 32 , as well as two songs .
= = Performance = =
In a version of Macbeth by William Davenant ( 1606 – 1668 ) a scene was added in which the witches tell Macduff and his wife of their future as well as several lines for the two before Macbeth 's entrance in Act 4 . Most of these lines were taken directly from Thomas Middleton 's play The Witch . David Garrick kept these added scenes in his eighteenth @-@ century version . Horace Walpole created a parody of Macbeth in 1742 entitled The Dear Witches in response to political problems of his time . The witches in his play are played by three everyday women who manipulate political events in England through marriage and patronage , and manipulate elections in order to have Macbeth made Treasurer and Earl of Bath . In the final scene , the witches gather around a cauldron and chant " Double , double , Toil and Trouble / parties burn and Nonsense bubble . " In their concoction they throw such things as " Judgment of a Beardless Youth " and " Liver of a Renegade . " The entire play is a commentary on the political corruption and insanity surrounding the period .
Orson Welles ' stage production of Macbeth sets the play in Haiti , and casts the witches as voodoo priestesses . As with earlier versions , the women are bystanders to the murder of Banquo , as well as Lady Macbeth 's sleepwalking scene . Their role in each of these scenes suggests they were behind Macbeth 's fall in a more direct way than Shakespeare 's original portrays . The witches encroach further and further into his domain as the play progresses , appearing in the forest in the first scene and in the castle itself by the end . Directors often have difficulty keeping the witches from being exaggerated and overly @-@ sensational .
Charles Marowitz created A Macbeth in 1969 , a streamlined version of the play which requires only eleven actors . The production strongly suggests that Lady Macbeth is in league with the witches . One scene shows her leading the three to a firelight incantation . In Eugène Ionesco 's satirical version of the play Macbett ( 1972 ) , one of the witches removes a costume to reveal that she is , in fact , Lady Duncan , and wants to be Macbeth 's mistress . Once Macbeth is King and they are married , however , she abandons him , revealing that she was not Lady Duncan all along , but a witch . The real Lady Duncan appears and denounces Macbeth as a traitor .
The Spanish poet and playwright León Felipe wrote a version of Shakespeare 's play in Spanish which significantly changes the witches ' role , especially in the final scene . After Macbeth 's death , the Three Witches reappear in the midst of wind and storm , which they have been associated with throughout the play , to claim his corpse . They carry it to a ravine and shout , " Macbeth ! Macbeth ! Macbeth ! / We have an appointment with you in Hell ! " In the play , they also connect themselves to a painting by Francisco Goya called Volaverunt , in which three mysterious figures are flying through the air and supporting a more discernible royal female figure .
= = Other representations = =
= = = In art = = =
Drawings contained in Holinshed 's Chronicles , one of the sources Shakespeare used when creating the characters , portray them as members of the upper class . They are wearing elaborate dresses and hairstyles and appear to be noblewomen as Macbeth and Banquo approach . Shakespeare seems to have diverted quite a bit from this image , making the witches ( as Banquo says ) " withered , and so wild in their attire , / That look not like th ' inhabitants o ' th ' earth . . . each at once her choppy fingers laying / Upon her skinny lips . You should be women , / And yet your beards forbid me to interpret / That you are so . "
The Three Witches of Macbeth have inspired several painters over the years who have sought to capture the supernatural darkness surrounding Macbeth 's encounters with them . For example , by the eighteenth century , belief in witches had waned in the United Kingdom . Such things were thought to be the simple stories of foreigners , farmers , and superstitious Catholics . However art depicting supernatural subjects was very popular . John Runciman , as one of the first artists to use Shakespearean characters in his work , created an ink @-@ on @-@ paper drawing entitled The Three Witches in 1767 – 68 . In it , three ancient figures are shown in close consultation , their heads together and their bodies unshown . Runciman 's brother created another drawing of the witches called The Witches show Macbeth The Apparitions painted circa 1771 – 1772 , portraying Macbeth 's reaction to the power of the witches ' conjured vision . Both brothers ' work influenced many later artists by removing the characters from the familiar theatrical setting and placing them in the world of the story .
Henry Fuseli would later create one of the more famous portrayals of the Three Witches in 1783 , entitled The Weird Sisters or The Three Witches . In it , the witches are lined up and dramatically pointing at something all at once , their faces in profile . This painting was parodied by James Gillray in 1791 in Weird Sisters ; Ministers of Darkness ; Minions of the Moon . Three figures are lined up with their faces in profile in a way similar to Fuseli 's painting . However , the three figures are recognizable as Lord Dundas ( the home secretary at the time ) , William Pitt ( prime minister ) , and Lord Thurlow ( Lord Chancellor ) . The three of them are facing a moon , which contains the profiled faces of George III and Queen Charlotte . The drawing is intended to highlight the insanity of King George and the unusual alliance of the three politicians .
Fuseli created two other works depicting the Three Witches for a Dublin art gallery in 1794 . The first , entitled Macbeth , Banquo and the Three Witches was a frustration for him . His earlier paintings of Shakespearean scenes had been done on horizontal canvases , giving the viewer a picture of the scene that was similar to what would have been seen on stage . Woodmason requested vertical paintings , shrinking the space Fuseli had to work with . In this particular painting he uses lightning and other dramatic effects to separated Macbeth and Banquo from the witches more clearly and communicate how unnatural their meeting is . Macbeth and Banquo are both visibly terrified , while the witches are confidently perched atop a mound . Silhouettes of the victorious army of Macbeth can be seen celebrating in the background , but lack of space necessitates the removal of the barren , open landscape seen in Fuseli 's earlier paintings for the Boydell Shakespeare Gallery of the same scene .
Fuseli 's other Macbeth Woodmason painting Macbeth and the Armed Head depicts a later scene in which Macbeth is shown MacDuff and warned to be wary of him . Fuseli evidently intended the two paintings to be juxtaposed . He said , " when Macbeth meets with the witches on the heath , it is terrible , because he did not expect the supernatural visitation ; but when he goes to the cave to ascertain his fate , it is no longer a subject of terror . " Fuseli chose to make MacDuff a near @-@ likeness of Macbeth himself , and considered the painting one of his most poetic in that sense , asking , " ' What would be a greater object of terror to you if , some night on going home , you were to find yourself sitting at your own table . . . would not this make a powerful impression on your mind ? "
= = = In music = = =
At least fifteen operas have been based on Macbeth , but only one is regularly performed today . This is Macbeth , composed by Giuseppe Verdi to a libretto by Francesco Maria Piave and premièred in Florence in 1847 . In the opera , the Three Witches became a chorus of at least eighteen singers , divided into three groups . Each group enters separately at the start of the opera for the scene with Macbeth and Banquo ; after the men 's departure , they have a chorus of triumph which does not derive from Shakespeare . They reappear in Act 3 , when they conjure up the three apparitions and the procession of kings . When Verdi revised the opera for performance in Paris in 1865 , he added a ballet ( rarely performed nowadays ) to this scene . In it , Hecate , a non @-@ dancing character , mimes instructions to the witches before a final dance and Macbeth 's arrival .
= = = In film = = =
Orson Welles created a film version of the play in 1948 , sometimes called the Übermensch Macbeth , which altered the witches ' roles by having them create a voodoo doll of Macbeth in the first scene . Critics take this as a sign that they control his actions completely throughout the film . Their voices are heard , but their faces are never seen , and they carry forked staves as dark parallels to the Celtic cross . Welles ' voiceover in the prologue calls them " agents of chaos , priests of hell and magic . " At the end of the film , when their work with Macbeth is finished , they cut off the head of his voodoo doll .
Throne of Blood , a Japanese version filmed in 1958 by Akira Kurosawa , replaces the Three Witches with the Forest Spirit , an old hag who sits at her spinning wheel , symbolically entrapping Macbeth 's equivalent , Washizu , in the web of his own ambition . She lives outside " The Castle of the Spider 's Web " , another reference to Macbeth 's entanglement in her trap . Behind her hut , Washizu finds piles of rotting bones . The hag , the spinning wheel , and the piles of bones are direct references to the Noh play Adachigahara ( also called Kurozuka ) , one of many artistic elements Kurosawa borrowed from Noh theater for the film . Roman Polanski 's 1971 film version of Macbeth contained many parallels to his personal life in its graphic and violent depictions . His wife Sharon Tate had been murdered two years earlier by Charles Manson and three women . Many critics saw this as a clear parallel to Macbeth 's murders at the urging of the Three Witches within the film .
Scotland , PA , a 2001 parody film directed by Billy Morrissette , sets the play in a restaurant in 1970s Pennsylvania . The witches are replaced by three hippies who give Joe McBeth drug @-@ induced suggestions and prophecies throughout the film using a Magic 8 @-@ Ball . After McBeth has killed his boss , Norm Duncan , one of them suggests , " I 've got it ! Mac should kill McDuff 's entire family ! " Another hippie sarcastically responds , " Oh , that 'll work ! Maybe a thousand years ago . You can 't go around killing everybody . "
Vishal Bhardwaj 's 2004 film Maqbool takes place in the setting of warring gangs in the Bombay underworld . The Three Witches are replaced by two corrupt policemen , who don 't just pronounce prophecies but also actively shape events in order to " balance forces " .
Geoffrey Wright 's 2006 Macbeth takes place in the midst of a modern Australian gang and drug culture . The Three Witches are replaced by three teenage goth schoolgirls who are knocking down headstones in a graveyard in the opening scene . They whisper their prophecies in Macbeth 's ear as they dance in a deserted nightclub .
Justin Kurzel 's hyperrealist 2015 Macbeth portrays the witches as poor women dabbling in witchcraft ( who may be sisters ) living off the countryside of Scotland with their children . They seem real and though they appear amidst battles and make strangely accurate prophecies , they do not manifest anything supernatural otherwise . The movie gives one hint they are not suppernatural beings as in one scene they simply disappear in the fog while Macbeth tells Banquo they disappeared in thin air , alluding to the beginning of his mental illness .
= = Influence = =
Come and Go , a short play written in 1965 by Samuel Beckett , recalls the Three Witches . The play features only three characters , all women , named Flo , Vi , and Ru . The opening line : “ When did we three last meet ? ” recalls the “ When shall we three meet again ? ” of Macbeth : Act 1 , Scene 1 . The Third Witch , a 2001 novel written by Rebecca Reisert , tells the story of the play through the eyes of a young girl named Gilly , one of the witches . Gilly seeks Macbeth 's death out of revenge for killing her father .
J. K. Rowling has cited the Three Witches as an influence in her Harry Potter series . In an interview with The Leaky Cauldron and MuggleNet , when asked , " What if [ Voldemort ] never heard the prophecy ? " , she said , " It 's the ' Macbeth ' idea . I absolutely adore ' Macbeth . ' It is possibly my favourite Shakespeare play . And that 's the question isn 't it ? If Macbeth hadn 't met the witches , would he have killed Duncan ? Would any of it have happened ? Is it fated or did he make it happen ? I believe he made it happen . " On her website , she referred to Macbeth again in discussing the prophecy : " the prophecy ( like the one the witches make to Macbeth , if anyone has read the play of the same name ) becomes the catalyst for a situation that would never have occurred if it had not been made . " More playfully , Rowling also invented a musical band popular in the Wizarding world called The Weird Sisters that appears in passing in several books in the series as well as the film adaptation of Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire . The third Harry Potter movie 's soundtrack featured a song by John Williams called " Double Trouble " , a reference to the witches ' line , " Double double , toil and trouble " . The lyrics of the song were adapted from the Three Witches ' spell in the play .
Terry Pratchett 's 1988 Discworld novel Wyrd Sisters bears obvious reference to Shakespeare 's three witches , as well as to a number of other plays by Shakespeare .
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= Roper steam velocipede =
The Roper steam velocipede was a steam @-@ powered velocipede built by inventor Sylvester H. Roper of Roxbury , Boston , Massachusetts , United States sometime from 1867 – 1869 . It is one of three machines which have been called the first motorcycle , along with the Michaux @-@ Perreaux steam velocipede , also dated 1867 – 1869 , and the 1885 Daimler Reitwagen . Historians disagree over whether the Roper or the Michaux @-@ Perreaux came first . Though the Reitwagen came many years later than the two steam cycles , it is often , perhaps most often , known as the " first motorcycle " because there is doubt by some experts that a steam cycle meets the definition of a motorcycle .
After his initial prototype of the late 1860s , Roper built a new and revised version in 1884 , based on the then state of the art safety bicycle frame type . Sylvester Roper died of an apparent heart attack while riding this machine in 1896 .
An 1869 Roper machine is now in the Smithsonian Institution , and one from 1868 is in private hands after being offered at auction in 2012 . An 1894 Roper velocipede was exhibited in the Guggenheim Museum 's The Art of the Motorcycle show at their Las Vegas venue , and was shown in 2011 at the Deeley Museum collection in Vancouver .
= = First motorcycle ? = =
There are competing claims for the title of first motorcycle , depending on whether a steam motorcycle , or only one with an internal combustion engine , counts as a true motorcycle , and the uncertainty as to which of the two earliest steam motorcycles , the Roper or the Michaux @-@ Perreaux , was built first .
= = = Date = = =
The earliest date claimed for the existence of the Roper steam velocipede is 1867 , but some say the Michaux @-@ Perreaux also could have been made in 1867 . Motorcycling historians Charles M. Falco and David Burgess @-@ Wise , and Motorcycle Consumer News design columnist Glynn Kerr date the Roper later , to 1868 , and the Owls Head museum 's example is of that year . The AMA Hall of Fame and motoring author Mick Walker put Roper 's steam velocipede at 1869 , in accordance with the date of the machine in the Smithsonian . Cycle World 's Alan Girdler dates both at 1868 , while Mick Walker also declares a tie , but in the year 1869 . Classic Bike editor Hugo Wilson says the existence of an 1869 patent for the Michaux @-@ Perreaux gives it " the better claim to ' first ' " , even though the Roper was built around the same time . Though Sylvester Roper took out a number of patents for firearms , industrial machinery and other inventions , he did not obtain patents for any of his steam cycles or cars .
= = = True motorcycle ? = = =
If the definition of a motorcycle requires an internal combustion engine , as asserted by the Oxford English Dictionary and others , then the two pre @-@ 1870 steam cycles are disqualified and the first motorcycle may be Bernardi 's 1882 motorized tricycle , or the Reitwagen of Wilhelm Maybach and Gottlieb Daimler , patented in 1885 . Encyclopedia Britannica defines a motorcycle as , " any two @-@ wheeled or , less commonly , three @-@ wheeled motor vehicle , usually propelled by an internal @-@ combustion engine . "
A somewhat different argument acknowledges that while the several steam two- and three @-@ wheelers that preceded the Reitwagen might have been technically motorcycles , none are candidates for the historical milestone of " the first motorcycle " because the technology they used was a dead end . Instead , the recognition should go to the internal combustion Reitwagan because it blazed a trail that was followed by the thousands of successful motorcycles subsequently built in the 20th century . As Cycle World 's Technical Editor Kevin Cameron noted , " History follows things that succeed , not things that fail . "
Allan Girdler and Glynn Kerr nonetheless still favor the Roper , even by Cameron 's criterion . The reason , they say , is that it did in fact pioneer successful motorcycle technologies , including the twistgrip throttle control , and the frame geometry and engine placement used by the motorcycle as we know it today , while the Reitwagen was exceedingly crude , failing to employ the well understood principles of rake and trail to remain upright by movements of the front fork , and turn by leaning . Rake and trail are created by having the steering axis angled to varying degrees , rather than perfectly vertical , and by having the steering axis slightly offset , creating trail . This subtle engineering makes it possible for the rider to turn the bicycle or motorcycle by the counterintuitive , and typically unconscious , technique of countersteering , in which the handlebar is turned slightly to the left , causing the machine to lean to the right , and turning the vehicle to the right . Trail , also called fork offset , is an element contributing to the stability of bicycle and motorcycle dynamics , and the lack of it was one reason why the Reitwagen had to rely on two outrigger wheels to keep it from falling down , so it remained vertical and was steered much like a tricycle . David Burgess @-@ Wise called the Daimler @-@ Maybach test bed " a crude makeshift " , saying , " as a bicycle , it was 20 years out of date . "
= = 1867 – 1869 version = =
According to the Smithsonian , Roper 's first velocipede of 1867 – 1869 used a purpose built frame rather than adapting an existing velocipede frame by retrofitting a steam engine , but one contemporary newspaper account does assert that Roper repurposed a velocipede frame , and Setright and motoring author Roland Brown say Roper used a hickory wood frame built by the Hanlon Brothers , who made and demonstrated boneshakers at fairs and circuses , although the Smithsonian 's Roper has an iron frame . It had a wheelbase of 49 in ( 1 @,@ 200 mm ) and two 34 in ( 860 mm ) diameter wheels made of iron bands on wooden felloes with wooden spokes . It had a rigid , forged iron fork , and a solid handlebar with wooden grips . Unlike the modern twistgrip , where the grip on only one side is a sleeve that rotates around the handlebar to open the throttle , the Roper velocipede 's entire bar was rotated with both hands , and it had a dual function . When turned forward , the throttle opened , and when turned backwards it applied the spoon brake on the front wheel . The seat doubled as the water reservoir ; or the water tank can be described as saddle shaped . A hand pump transferred water from this tank to the boiler . The boiler was between the wheels with a " nautical looking " chimney from the boiler angling backwards behind the rider , with the firebox in the lower half of this housing , all of which hung from the frame with a spring to absorb shock , while two stay rods attached the bottom of the housing to the back of the frame . There were three water level cocks on the left side , near the water pump , and a drain valve on the bottom . The two cylinders , with bores of about 2 1 ⁄ 4 in ( 57 mm ) were located on either side of the frame , from the upper part of the boiler near the chimney , connecting to 2 1 ⁄ 2 in ( 64 mm ) cranks on the rear wheel . Exhaust steam , conveyed by tubing to the base of the chimney , provided a forced draft .
The original 1868 version of the velocipede is attributed to W.W. Austin of Winthrop , Massachusetts by some early newspaper accounts , which were taken up in later histories . Motoring author L. J. K. Setright believes Austin was only the rider or demonstrator of a Roper machine , and had been misidentified as its inventor . Austin is also mentioned as the owner , in 1901 , of both the 1867 – 1869 Roper velocipede and an older four wheeled Roper steam car . The Smithsonian says a " Professor " W.W. Austin had exhibited a Roper steamer of unknown date , leading to the erroneous attrition to Austin instead of Roper . A Roper velocipede was on display at the first New York Auto Show in Madison Square Garden in November 1900 , and again Austin was sometimes described as the inventor .
The 1867 – 1869 Roper velocipede , or one like it , was later given to the Smithsonian by John H. Bacon , and is currently in the America on the Move exhibit in the National Museum of American History , Washington , D.C. It is the oldest self @-@ propelled road vehicle in the Smithsonian , and the second oldest in America , after the Dudgeon steamer .
= = 1884 – 1896 version = =
Roper 's second steam cycle was apparently constructed in 1884 , and was further developed in 1896 , when Colonel Albert Pope , owner of Pope Columbia bicycles safety bicycle , commissioned Roper to build a ' pacer ' for his bicycle racing team , . Motorized bicycle pacers had recently emerged with crude deDion @-@ based gasoline engines , but these were unreliable and often disappointed racing fans . Pope supplied a Columbia frame to Roper , who added an improved single @-@ cylinder coal fired steam engine to the center of the frame . The weight , including coal and water , was 150 lb ( 68 kg ) . The steam engine normally generated 150 pounds of steam pressure , but could go as high as 185 pounds , which the Boston Daily Globe in 1896 described as equivalent to 8 hp ( 6 @.@ 0 kW ) . Roper was known to regularly ride this machine , which he called his ' self propeller ' , from his home at 299 Eustis Ave in Roxbury to the Boston harbor , a distance of 7 miles , the engine 's maximum range . Roper claimed his machine could ' climb any hill and outrun any horse ' , and American Machinist magazine noted , " the exhaust from the stack was entirely invisible so far as steam was concerned ; a slight noise was perceptible , but not to any disagreeable extent . " .
Roper was asked to demonstrate his ' self propeller ' at the Charles River velodrome , a banked concrete bicycle racing track , where he first paced the racing cyclists , then raced professional rider Nat Butler , easily outpacing the bicyclists with timed laps at around 30 mph ( 120.2sec / mile on the 1 / 3mile track ) . He was then encouraged to give a demonstration of maximum speed , and was timed at over 40 mph , when a ' sudden pallor ' was ween on his face , and his machine wobbled to a stop , Roper falling off his cycle . He died at the track @-@ side with his son Charles , of ' natural causes ' , at age 72 .
This machine was on exhibit in the 1960s at Bellm 's Cars of Yesterday in Sarasota , Florida . An 1894 Roper velocipede was lent from the R. J. Boudeman family collection to the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum 's 2001 expansion , Guggenheim Las Vegas , where The Art of the Motorcycle exhibition was the only show there until the expansion closed in 2003 . It was the fourth venue for the motorcycle design show which had first opened at the Guggenheim New York in 1998 , where the Michaux @-@ Perreaux velocipede had been the first machine viewers saw upon entering the rotunda of the museum . Later , the Boudeman Roper velocipede was on view at the 2011 Deeley Motorcycle Exhibition in Vancouver . An 1894 Roper was offered for auction in January 2012 , with a claimed high bid of $ 425 @,@ 000 .
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= The Killer ( 1989 film ) =
The Killer ( simplified Chinese : 喋血双雄 ; traditional Chinese : 喋血雙雄 ; Jyutping : dip6 hyut3 soeng1 hung4 ; pinyin : Diéxuè shuāngxióng ) † is a 1989 Hong Kong action film written and directed by John Woo , and starring Chow Yun @-@ fat , Danny Lee and Sally Yeh . Chow plays the assassin Ah Jong , who accidentally damages the eyes of the singer Jennie ( Sally Yeh ) during a shootout . He later discovers that if Jennie does not have an expensive operation she will go blind . To get the money for Jennie , Ah Jong decides to perform one last hit .
After the financial backing from Tsui Hark became problematic following the release of Woo 's film A Better Tomorrow 2 , Woo had to find backing through Chow Yun Fat and Danny Lee 's financing companies . Woo went into filming The Killer with a rough draft whose plot was influenced by the films Le Samouraï , Mean Streets , and Narazumono . Woo desired to make a film about honour , friendship and the relationship of two seemingly opposite people . After finishing filming , Woo referred to The Killer as a tribute to directors Jean @-@ Pierre Melville and Martin Scorsese .
The Killer was not an immediate success in Hong Kong , but received critical acclaim in the Western world with reviewers praising the action scenes and its over @-@ the @-@ top style . The film became Woo 's stepping stone to make Hollywood films and has been a strong influence on many directors , including Quentin Tarantino , Robert Rodriguez and Johnnie To .
= = Plot = =
A Hong Kong assassin , Ah Jong , is on his last job for the Triad ( a criminal organization ) , but accidentally damages the eyes of a young nightclub singer named Jennie with a muzzle flash in a shootout . After the attack , Ah Jong begins to watch Jennie perform at the nightclub and escorts her home when she is attacked by thugs . Jennie and Ah Jong begin to fall in love during his frequent visits at her apartment . Driven to help her secure the money for a sight @-@ saving corneal transplant , he accepts one final hit . A police detective , Li Ying , spots Ah Jong completing the job but the assassin escapes . The Triad leader Hay Wong Hoi double crosses Ah Jong , and instead of paying him , sends a group of hitmen to kill him . During Ah Jong 's escape from the Triad , a young child is injured by a stray bullet . After dispatching the attackers , Ah Jong rushes the child to the hospital while being followed by Li and his partner Sgt. Tsang . Once the child regains consciousness at the casualty ward , Ah Jong escapes Li and Tsang .
Li becomes obsessed with Ah Jong 's act of good will . He and Tsang find that Ah Jong visits Jennie at her apartment ; they plan to arrest him the next time he visits her . Ah Jong visits Jennie and is caught in an ambush from which he manages to escape . Li and Tsang explain to Jennie that Ah Jong was the assassin that blinded her at the nightclub . Ah Jong meets with his Triad manager , Fung Sei ( Chu Kong ) , and demands his payment for the job . Fung Sei brings a suitcase for Ah Jong , who discovers it to be filled with sheets of blank paper before finding himself in the middle of a Triad ambush . He kills all of the hitmen , but leaves Fung Sei alive . The next day , after Fung Sei 's pleas for Wong Hoi fall on deaf ears , Ah Jong does a hit @-@ and @-@ run on Wong Hoi 's car , wounding the Triad leader and killing his driver and bodyguard .
Li begins to close in on Ah Jong after Tsang follows Fung Sei ; Tsang is killed after revealing the location of his home . Because of their friendship , Fung Sei leaves a large stockpile of weaponry for Ah Jong . The home is another ambush ; Li attacks , followed by a group of Triad hitmen . Li gets caught in the middle of the crossfire between Ah Jong and the Triad . Ah Jong and Li flee , and while Ah Jong 's wounds are mended , they find themselves bonding and becoming friends . Ah Jong tells Li that should anything happen to him , Li should have Ah Jong 's eyes donated for Jennie 's surgery or use Ah Jong 's money to fly her overseas to have her surgery performed by more experienced doctors . Li , Ah Jong , and Jennie wait in a church for Fung Sei to return with Ah Jong 's money . Fung Sei arrives with the money , horribly beaten by Wong Hoi 's gangsters who have followed him . He is mortally wounded when the hitmen barge into the church . After Ah Jong ends Fung Sei 's misery , he and Li engage in a long and bloody shootout with the Triad all over the church . The battle ends with a Mexican standoff between Ah Jong , Li and Wong Hoi . Ah Jong manages to wound Wong Hoi , but the Triad leader lands two bullets in Ah Jong 's eyes before the latter dies of his wounds . When a police squadron arrives in the scene , Wong Hoi begs to be taken into custody . Frustrated by the outcome of the battle , Li fatally shoots Wong Hoi and mourns Ah Jong just as the police surround him .
The credits roll with Ah Jong playing the harmonica .
= = Cast = =
Chow Yun @-@ fat as Ah Jong ( 阿莊 Ā Zhuāng , aa3 zong1 ) , an assassin who accidentally blinds singer Jennie when he is on a mission for the criminal organization , the Triads . Ah Jong decides to take on one last mission to pay for surgery to repair her eyes . Ah Jong is called John and Jeff in some subtitled prints of the film . The nickname given to Ah Jong by Li is " Har Tau " , which roughly translates as " Shrimp Head . " In some dubbed and subtitled prints , his nickname is " Mickey Mouse " or " Butthead " .
Danny Lee as Detective Li Ying ( 李 鷹 , Lǐ Yīng , lei5 jing1 ) . Li works with his partner Tsang to find Ah Jong . After his first meeting with him , Li becomes obsessed with Ah Jong 's morals and character . The nickname given to Li by Ah Jong is " Ah B " which roughly translates to baby or kid . In some dubbed and subtitled prints , his nickname is " Dumbo " or " Numbnuts " .
Sally Yeh as Jennie ( 珍妮 Zhēnnī , zan1 nei4 ) , a nightclub singer who is blinded by Ah Jong in a shootout . Jennie falls in love with Ah Jong , before learning of his profession as a killer .
Kenneth Tsang as Sgt. Tsang Yeh , Li 's police partner . Tsang helps find the whereabouts of Fung Sei which will lead Li to Ah Jong . In some subtitled prints , his name is Randy Chang .
Chu Kong as Fung Sei , Ah Jong 's Triad manager and close friend . After Ah Jong is spotted on a hit , Fung Sei is ordered to kill Ah Jong . In some subtitled prints , his name is " Sidney Fong . "
Shing Fui @-@ on as Hay Wong Hoi ( 汪 海 Wāng Hǎi , wong1 hoi2 ) , a ruthless Triad boss . In some subtitled versions he is " Johnny Weng . "
Ricky Yi Fan @-@ wai as Frank Chen , a contract killer / assassin hired by Wong Hoi to kill Ah Jong .
= = Themes = =
Director John Woo has described The Killer as being about " honour and friendship " , " trying to find out if there is something common between two people " and as a " romantic poem " . The structure of the film follows two men on opposite sides of the law who find a relation to each other in their opposition to a greater evil , Wong Hoi , a Triad boss . Li and Ah Jong 's relationship was influenced by the Spy vs. Spy comics from Mad Magazine . Woo recalled " When I was young I was fascinated with the cartoon – I love it very much ... the white bird and the black bird are always against each other , but deep in their heart , they are still friendly , and the idea came from that . " Woo uses Ah Jong and Li as a central motif to illustrate moral points . Scenes with this reflective doubling include the hospital sequence with Li and Ah Jong on opposite sides of a hospital hall and in the final battle scene where Li and Ah Jong are in a standoff with Wong . The focus on male friendships in Woo 's film have been interpreted as homoerotic . Woo has responded to these statements stating " People will bring their own preconceptions to a movie .... If they see something in The Killer that they consider to be homoerotic then that is their privilege . It 's certainly not intentional . "
Woo is a Christian and instills his films with religious imagery while stating that The Killer is " not a religious film " . In the opening of The Killer , Ah Jong is found in a church stating he enjoys the " tranquility " . Ah Jong is later found in the church again getting several slugs pulled out of his back showing his intense pain while the altar and cross are shown prominently behind him . The idea was influenced by Martin Scorsese 's film Mean Streets , Woo stated the imagery was used to show that " God is welcoming , no matter if it 's a good or a bad man , everyone is welcome " .
Woo draws on animal symbolism throughout the film . He filled the church with doves and pigeons , employing doves to represent the spirits of the people . This was the first film where Woo used the dove symbolism and he has used it to similar effect in Hard Target and Face / Off . A cat appears when Ah Jong first meets Jennie on her visit home , and secondarily when Li 's partner Chang tries to catch Ah Jong in Jennie 's apartment . In Chinese culture , a cat coming into a home is an omen of ruin and poverty for its inhabitants . Both Chang and Jennie meet negative outcomes in the film .
= = Production = =
= = = Pre @-@ production = = =
The Killer was director Woo 's follow @-@ up to A Better Tomorrow 2 which was released in 1987 . The first cut of A Better Tomorrow 2 was too long for the studio so the film was edited within a week separately by both producer Tsui Hark and Woo . According to producer Terence Chang , Tsui Hark felt that John Woo ruined A Better Tomorrow 2 and asked Chang to fire Woo from the studio . When Chang refused , Hark began rejecting Woo 's new film ideas , including ideas for films that would later be made , such as Bullet in the Head and Once a Thief . When Woo proposed the story of The Killer to Tsui Hark , it was denied ; Hark 's reaction was that " [ n ] obody wants to see a film about a killer " .
The Killer was not able to be filmed until actor Chow Yun @-@ fat stepped in and enlisted the company he was contracted with , Golden Princess Film , to fund part of the project . Chow had worked previously with Woo on the two A Better Tomorrow films . Woo wanted Danny Lee to play Li Ying , but Lee was under an exclusive contract with Cinema City and was only able to work on The Killer if his production company , Magnum , was involved . John Woo approached his friend , Sally Yeh , asking her to be in a film to play an important female character . Yeh was currently contracted with Tsui Hark and accepted the role but later felt she did not give her best performance . The supporting roles were filled out by friends of the actors and director . Chu Kong was a friend of Chow Yun @-@ fat who had entered retirement and returned to acting in The Killer as a favor . Two of Woo 's close friends joined the cast : actor Kenneth Tsang and screenwriter Barry Wong . Wong Wing @-@ Hang was hired to be the director of photography for The Killer but had to leave the set for an extended period of time , so Peter Pau was added to shoot the rest of the film .
= = = Filming = = =
Woo had over 90 days to shoot The Killer which was nearly double the amount of time that the average Hong Kong film was shot in the late 1980s . Woo went into filming with only a short treatment for the film and wrote the details of the script while filming . During promotion periods for the film , Woo described the film as a tribute to Martin Scorsese and French director Jean @-@ Pierre Melville . Woo cites Melville 's Le Samouraï as an influence on the story . Woo borrows plot elements for the film , including the set @-@ up where Jef enters a nightclub and looks at the female singer . Woo also described the influence of a Japanese film , Narazumono , about a killer ( Ken Takakura ) who only kills delinquents . When a mob tricks him into killing an innocent person , he swears revenge but then meets a woman who has tuberculosis and wants to go home . The killer promises the woman that he will take her home after getting his revenge .
The scene where Danny Lee chases a gunman onto a tram was filmed in Causeway Bay and the crew only had three hours to film . Residents thought it was a real gunfight and phoned the police . However , when the police arrived , Danny Lee talked to the superintendent so they could continue filming . Scenes from the Dragon Boat festival were shot months apart , some footage was of the boat races and rest of the footage involving the actors was shot months later . It was planned for the boats to flip over during the chase but the owners refused because they felt it would bring bad luck . The scene at the airport were filmed at the Kai Tak Airport . The scenes at Paul Chu Kong 's character 's house were filmed in Stanley , Hong Kong . John Woo wanted this house to be by a beach but a suitable location could not be found . The action scene inside the house took 28 days to shoot . The final action scene took 36 days to shoot and was shot at a remote building made to look like a church while the exterior seen from Ah Jong 's apartment is a real church . The original ending of the film involved Jennie waiting at an airport for Li to give her the money and for them to travel to the United States . Due to Sally Yeh 's tight filming schedule , the scene was not filmed and replaced with Ah Jong playing the harmonica .
= = = Music = = =
Tsui and Woo disagreed on the musical aspects of the film . For the opening scene , Woo wanted the singer to perform a jazz song and have the killer playing a saxophone . Tsui rejected this idea as he felt that the Hong Kong audiences did not understand or like jazz . Woo stated that he " had to change it to a Chinese song , the kind of song they always use in Hong Kong movies . " Actress Sally Yeh who performed the Cantopop songs did not feel they were appropriate for the film . The songs were requested by the studio and written specifically for The Killer .
The film 's music was composed by Lowell Lo and edited by David Wu . A reoccurring musical theme is a haunting vibraphone theme which is first heard over the opening credits . The harmonica motif in the film was influenced by the soundtracks of Ennio Morricone , specifically the soundtrack to Once Upon a Time in America , and used a bottle blower to give the music a haunting effect . David Wu said the influence of the Harmonica music in Sergio Leone 's western films was a strong influence on his work . During the final action scene when the statue of the Virgin Mary is destroyed , the action music transitions to " Overture " from Messiah by George Frideric Handel . This was the idea of editor David Wu who felt that it would break up the numbing effect of the kinetic violence .
= = Release = =
The Killer was first released in Taiwan in March 1989 with a running time of 124 minutes . It was then cut to its current running time of 110 minutes and released in Hong Kong during July 1989 , Woo felt this cut was " much better " . The film was not an immediate success in Hong Kong due to the Tiananmen Square massacre but eventually gained fame , grossing $ 18 @,@ 255 @,@ 083 and reached ninth at the 1989 Hong Kong box office . At the 9th Hong Kong Film Awards , the film won for Best Director ( John Woo ) and Best Editing ( Fan Kung Ming ) and was also nominated for Best Picture , Best Supporting Actor ( Paul Chu Kong ) , Best Screenplay ( Woo ) and Best Cinematography ( Wong Wing Hang and Peter Pau ) . The Killer was popular in Korea taking seventh highest place in the year end box office receipts .
The Killer was shown at several film festivals outside Asia including the 1989 Toronto Film Festival and , during the film 's United States premiere , at the Palm Springs International Film Festival in January 1990 . It was also shown at the Sundance Film Festival in the United States and the Cannes Film Festival in France in 1990 . Film producer Terence Chang suggested that The Killer 's success around the world made several Hong Kong filmmakers jealous : " It created a certain kind of resentment in the Hong Kong film industry . One thing I can say for sure is , the American , European , Japanese , Korean and even the Taiwanese audiences and critics appreciated The Killer a lot more than it was in Hong Kong . " The Killer received a wide release in the United Kingdom on 8 October 1993 .
= = = Home media = = =
The Killer was released in the United States on VHS by Fox Lorber in November 1992 , in a dubbed and subtitled version . On 25 June 1996 Fox Lorber released The Killer along with Hard Boiled as a double feature on home video . The Killer was released on DVD by The Criterion Collection on 1 April 1998 in the original Cantonese language track with English subtitles . Bonus features on DVD included the trailer , production notes , and a commentary track . Woo was very happy with the film being included in the Criterion Collection stating , " it was great because it would let people know what [ The Killer and Hard Boiled ] are about ... when I saw that Criterion Collection selected The Killer , I was very happy as The Killer and Bullet in the Head are my two favourites " .
On 3 Oct 2000 Fox Lorber released a DVD of The Killer with English and Cantonese audio , including a commentary track with John Woo and film trailers . This Fox Lorber disc was also included in a two disc DVD collection with Hard Boiled but both the Fox Lorber and Criterion DVDs went out of print .
On 30 March 2010 The Killer was released by the Dragon Dynasty label on two @-@ disc DVD and Blu @-@ ray . Bonus features included were interviews with John Woo , a location guide , and a trailer gallery .
In the United Kingdom , The Killer was released on DVD by Hong Kong Legends on 21 October 2002 which included an audio commentary with Bey Logan and interviews with Kenneth Tsang , Sally Yeh and cinematographer Peter Pau .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
The Killer received critical acclaim on its initial release outside Hong Kong with critics focusing their praise on the action scenes in the film . Stephen Holden of The New York Times referred to the film as " Alternately gripping and laughable " and that " The scenes of gore and destruction are even more spectacular than Hong Kong 's fog @-@ shrouded skyline " . Variety gave a positive review , describing the film as an " extremely violent and superbly made actioner demonstrates the tight grasp that director John Woo has on the crime meller genre " . Kathleen Maher of The Austin Chronicle praised the film stating that it " defies all categorization but demands comparisons , if only to prove that there 's never been anything like this before . " Hal Hinson of The Washington Post wrote a positive review , describing the film as " like eating popcorn , but it 's not just any old brand ; it 's escape @-@ velocity popcorn , popcorn with a slurp of rocket fuel ... [ Woo 's ] ideas overreach themselves with such a virile swagger that they border on comedy . With excess like this you can 't help but laugh . This is a rush of a movie " . The Christian Science Monitor gave the film a mixed review , stating that " This violent Hong Kong thriller has more psychological depth than most of its kind , but ultimately seems like a pointless exercise in style " .
Later critiques of the film remained positive . The Washington Post stated that " the plot doesn 't exactly break new crime @-@ story ground . It 's all the Woo flourishes ... that elevates The Killer to another level " . Lucia Bozzola of the online film database Allmovie gave the film a five star rating , and stated it as " One of the high points of 1980s Hong Kong action cinema " . Empire gave the film five stars and proclaimed that " John Woo 's trademark style reached its zenith in The Killer " . In 2010 , Time Out New York ranked The Killer at number 50 on their list of the top 50 foreign films of all time . As of 2014 , The Killer is one of the several films to maintain a perfect 100 % rating on Rotten Tomatoes . In 2014 , Time Out polled several film critics , directors , actors and stunt actors to list their top action films . The Killer was listed at 24th place on this list .
= = = Legacy = = =
The Killer is an important and influential film for both Western and Asian filmmakers . Film scholars have noted the similarities between Woo 's style and The Killer with the films Nikita ( 1990 ) and Léon ( 1994 ) directed by French director Luc Besson . Kenneth E. Hall described Léon as having the similar character configuration of a hitman and the person he protects . In Nikita , the main character 's crisis of conscience after performing a number of hits is also seen in The Killer . Lucy Mazdon described the style of Nikita as recalling " the work of directors like John Woo . Like Nikita , Woo 's films show alienated and often brutal characters and graphic violence " . In the United States , directors Robert Rodriguez and Quentin Tarantino developed films that were influenced by The Killer . Rodriguez 's films El Mariachi ( 1992 ) and Desperado ( 1995 ) contain stylistic homages to The Killer . In the film Jackie Brown , Tarantino wrote dialog referencing The Killer . No references to the film are made in the original novel . Asian @-@ based directors were also influenced by the film . Hong Kong director Johnnie To borrows from The Killer 's gunfighting style , oppositional character pairing , and parody in his films A Hero Never Dies , Running Out of Time , and Fulltime Killer .
The Killer was also influential on hip hop music . American hip hop artist , and Wu @-@ Tang Clan member Raekwon released his critically praised debut album Only Built 4 Cuban Linx ... ( 1995 ) that sampled numerous portions of dialog from the film . RZA , the producer of the album described the album 's themes by stating that " Rae and Ghost was two opposite guys as far as neighborhoods was concerned , I used John Woo 's The Killer . [ In that movie ] you got Chow Yun Fat [ playing the role of Ah Jong ] and Danny Lee [ Inspector Li ] . They have to become partners to work shit out . " Woo felt honored that the group sampled The Killer and asked for no monetary return from them . In 2005 , Vibe magazine placed The Killer at number 20 on their list of top fifty films that shaped hip hop .
= = Remake = =
In 1992 , American director and writer Walter Hill wrote a screenplay titled The Killer , Based on the Hong Kong Action Film by John Woo that was dated 6 April 1992 . A year later , screenwriters Jim Cash and Jack Epps , Jr. were hired by producers Charles Roven and Robert Cavallo to write a screenplay based on The Killer for Tri @-@ Star Pictures . The press release of this remake stated the script was written for actors Richard Gere and Denzel Washington . In June 1992 , it was announced Walter Hill and David Giler were writing a script titled Hong Kong based on The Killer with Hill directing . The producers had difficulty with the relationship between two main characters in the script as they felt that American audiences would interpret it as a homoerotic one . Producer Terence Chang , who worked with Woo on several productions , suggested to the American producers to have Hong Kong actress Michelle Yeoh play the role of the police officer to resolve any homoerotic reading of the film . A third draft of the script was released by 23 August 1993 which featured a story of a Caucasian hitman living in Hong Kong . This screenplay moved the focus from the pairing the hit man and the police detective characters to the characters of blinded night club singer and the hit man .
In October 2007 , The Hollywood Reporter announced that a remake of The Killer was announced with American @-@ Korean director John H. Lee directing . The remake would take place in Los Angeles 's Koreatown , Chinatown , and South Central . Lee has stated that The Killer is one of his favourite films and that he is excited to make his own version of the film . Lee 's version was set to be produced by Woo , and star Jung Woo @-@ sung and shot in 3D . Seven Stars Film Studios was slated to finance the production with a screenplay by Josh Campbell . Sarah Li was initially cast to play the role of the blind singer . Woo spoke about the remake in October 2015 , stating that Lee 's film was in development for some time and Lee eventually took on other projects . Woo commented that after completing his film Manhunt , he " probably will go back to Hollywood to make another action thriller . I ’ m going to make The Killer in an American version . "
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= Persuasion ( 1995 film ) =
Persuasion is a 1995 period drama film directed by Roger Michell and based on Jane Austen 's 1817 novel of the same name . In her theatrical film debut , the British actress Amanda Root stars as protagonist Anne Elliot , while Ciarán Hinds plays her romantic interest , Captain Frederick Wentworth . The film is set in 19th century England , nine years after Anne was persuaded by others to reject Wentworth 's proposal of marriage . Persuasion follows the two as they become reacquainted with each other , while supporting characters threaten to interfere .
The film was adapted by the writer Nick Dear , who considered the story more mature than Austen 's other novels . He characterised it as one of realism and truthfulness , particularly in telling the story of two people separated and then reunited . As Austen 's narrative style conveys Anne 's thoughts internally , Dear and Root felt compelled to express the character 's emotions using comparatively little dialogue . Persuasion was shot in chronological order , allowing the actress to portray Anne 's development from being downtrodden to happy and blossoming .
Originally the BBC was the sole producer of Persuasion , until it partnered with the American company WGBH Boston and the French company Millesime . This decision gave the production a larger budget and allowed it to be filmed at locations featured in the novel , including Lyme Regis and Bath . Michell believed this was Austen 's most emotional and poignant novel , as well as her most autobiographical . While directing , he avoided what he felt was the polished , artificial feel of other 19th @-@ century depictions , and discouraged his actors from wearing make @-@ up or appearing too hygienic . Costume designer Alexandra Byrne produced clothing that appeared " lived @-@ in " , winning a BAFTA for her efforts .
Persuasion was filmed during a period of popularity for Austen 's works ; it was one of six adaptations of her novels produced during the mid @-@ 1990s . The film originally aired on 16 April 1995 , when it broadcast on the British television channel BBC Two . Sony Pictures Classics released the film in American cinemas on 27 September 1995 , as Austen 's increasing popularity became apparent to Hollywood . Persuasion 's cinematic release attracted the attention of film critics , and it received generally positive reviews , with many praising Root 's performance . Film scholars have since observed significant changes from the source material , as well as class and gender themes .
= = Plot = =
The film opens by cutting back and forth between scenes of a naval ship carrying Admiral Croft ( John Woodvine ) , and a buggy carrying Mr. Shepherd ( David Collings ) and his daughter Mrs. Clay ( Felicity Dean ) to Kellynch Hall . Shepherd and Clay are accosted by creditors due to the debts owed by the residence 's owner , Sir Walter Elliot ( Corin Redgrave ) , while Croft discusses the end of the Napoleonic Wars with fellow men of the navy . Sir Walter , a vain foppish baronet , is faced with financial ruin unless he retrenches . Though Sir Walter initially opposes the idea , he eventually agrees to temporarily move to Bath while the hall is let ; the idea came from Shepherd , family friend Lady Russell ( Susan Fleetwood ) , and Sir Walter 's second eldest daughter , the intelligent Anne ( Amanda Root ) .
Anne is visibly upset upon learning that the new tenant of Kellynch Hall will be Admiral Croft , who is the brother @-@ in @-@ law of Frederick Wentworth ( Ciarán Hinds ) — a naval captain she was persuaded to reject in marriage nine years previously because of his lack of prospects and connections . Wentworth is now wealthy from serving in the Wars , and has returned to England , presumably to find a wife . Later , Anne expresses to Lady Russell her unhappiness at her family 's current financial predicament , and her past decision to reject the captain 's proposal of marriage . Anne visits her other sister Mary ( Sophie Thompson ) , a hypochondriac who has married into a local farming family . Anne patiently listens to the various complaints confided in her by each of the Musgrove family ; this includes Mary 's husband Charles , sisters @-@ in @-@ law Louisa ( Emma Roberts ) and Henrietta ( Victoria Hamilton ) , and parents @-@ in @-@ law Mr and Mrs Musgrove ( Roger Hammond and Judy Cornwell ) .
Captain Wentworth comes to dine with the Musgroves , but Anne avoids going when she volunteers to nurse Mary 's injured son . The following morning at breakfast , Anne and Mary are suddenly met briefly by Wentworth , the first time he and Anne have seen each other since she rejected him . Anne later hears that Wentworth thought her so altered that he " would not have known [ her ] again " . Louisa and Henrietta begin to pursue marriage with Wentworth , as the family is unaware of his and Anne 's past relationship . Hurt and rejected by Anne 's refusal years before , Wentworth appears to court Louisa , much to Anne 's chagrin . Later , Wentworth learns Anne also was persuaded by Lady Russell to refuse Charles ' offer of marriage , after which Charles instead proposed to Mary .
Anne , Wentworth , and the younger Musgroves go to Lyme and visit two of Wentworth 's old naval friends , Captain Harville ( Robert Glenister ) and Captain Benwick ( Richard McCabe ) . While there , Louisa rashly jumps off a staircase in the hopes Wentworth will catch her , sustaining a head injury . Afterwards , Anne goes to Bath to stay with her father and sister . Sir Walter and Elizabeth reveal they have repaired their relationship with a previously disreputable cousin , Mr. Elliot ( Samuel West ) , the heir to the Elliot baronetcy and estate . Anne is introduced to him , and they realise they briefly saw each other in Lyme . Much to Lady Russell 's pleasure , Mr. Elliot begins to court Anne , but she remains uncertain of his true character . Meanwhile , Louisa has recovered and become engaged to Captain Benwick . Wentworth arrives in Bath and encounters Anne on several occasions , though their conversations are brief .
Anne learns from an old friend , Mrs. Smith ( Helen Schlesinger ) , that Mr. Elliot is bankrupt and only interested in marrying Anne to help ensure his inheritance from her father . Anne also is told that Mr. Elliot wishes to keep the baronet from possibly marrying Mrs. Clay to produce a male heir . Soon after , Wentworth overhears Anne talking with Captain Harville about the constancy of a woman 's love , and writes her a letter declaring that he still cares for her . Anne quickly finds him and the two happily walk off down a street , arm in arm . That night at a party , Wentworth announces his intention to marry Anne , much to Mr. Elliot 's consternation . The final scene shows Wentworth and Anne on a naval ship , happy to be together .
= = Cast = =
= = Production = =
= = = Conception and adaptation = = =
The filming of Persuasion coincided with a sudden resurgence of Jane Austen adaptations , as it was one of six such productions released during the mid @-@ 1990s . The media dubbed the phenomenon " Austenmania " . While it was common for a successful adaptation to lead to the production of others , this surge in Austen 's popularity involved many simultaneous projects — Persuasion 's production , for instance , coincided with the TV serial Pride and Prejudice and the feature film Sense and Sensibility . Despite the surge , film scholar Andrew Higson and others argue that there is little evidence that the various producers — who were employed by different companies — communicated when conceiving their adaptations .
The idea for a film version of the 1817 Austen novel Persuasion began with the English producer Fiona Finlay , who had wanted to create an adaptation for several years . The novel had last been adapted by ITV in a 1971 serial starring Ann Firbank . Finlay felt that the " very romantic " story was one " everyone can relate to . There 's something very touching about long @-@ lost love " . She approached the writer Nick Dear about adapting it for television ; Finlay had enjoyed his contributions to theatre , particularly his play about William Hogarth , The Art of Success . Dear first suggested they try one of Austen 's other works — either Sense and Sensibility or Pride and Prejudice — but agreed to adapt Persuasion after reading it . Dear considered the novel — the author 's last completed work — a maturer story than the others .
Dear later wrote that Persuasion was superficially " a love story in the Cinderella mould " but it was also one of " realism and truthfulness " , particularly in telling the story of two people separated and then reunited . He spent two years working on a script , and found this task difficult for several reasons . First , he needed to find a structure that would be faithful to the novel . Second , his protagonist barely spoke for the first half , and " therefore can 't motor the action along as a central character conventionally does " . Adapting Austen 's wit was another challenge ; much could not be used " because it 's almost all in the author 's voice telling us about characters , with a certain wit or lightness that came from the characters themselves . It 's a craft job , interpreting the novel for oneself and then finding a film language for it " .
An experienced theatre and serial director , Roger Michell was chosen to direct Persuasion , in what was to be his first feature film . As a young child , Michell had been an admirer of Austen 's , which set him apart from his male classmates . " I was the only boy in my class who took Austen as a special paper " , he said . His attraction to Persuasion was based on his belief that it was Austen 's most emotional and poignant novel , as well as her most autobiographical . He described the work as an " erotic love story which is full of sexual yearning " . While directing , Michell sought to emphasise contrasts in Austen 's story , seen for instance between " the chilly formality of Kellynch Hall and the warm , wet feel of Uppercross " . The Royal Navy was another point of interest , as officers like Wentworth would often have returned to society wealthy and full of stories . The director wished to depict the integration of cultures , as naval officers came back with " an informality of behaviour and language which was in marked contrast to what was there before " .
= = = Casting = = =
Root made her theatrical film debut playing Anne Elliot , the film 's protagonist . According to Root , " every actress in England " read for the part . Having worked with the director previously on the 1993 TV serial The Buddha of Suburbia , Root won the role by writing him a letter to gain an audition . The character was described to Root as " haggard " , which attracted the actress . " I relish a job like this , starting off downtrodden and gradually blossoming " , she said . WGBH Boston , the American company co @-@ producing the film , had wanted a better known actress for the part but agreed to Root 's casting after seeing Root 's screen test .
Root came to realise that while the novel 's narrative style allowed Anne 's thoughts to come through , the film adaptation offered comparatively little dialogue . As a result , she " had to cover pages and pages of the story without uttering anything , much of the time . I couldn 't even think about technique , I just had to keep looking at the [ novel ] and then somehow radiate the feelings " . Persuasion was shot in chronological order , which allowed Root to see " what a difference [ her character 's ] sense of unhappiness can create " , as by the end of the film Anne is " happier and looks better " . Root considered the role to be much quieter than her experiences working with the Royal Shakespeare Company , which included her portrayal of Lady Macbeth . The Irish actor Ciarán Hinds , who depicted Frederick Wentworth , commented that Austen " understands a man 's heart and how delicate it can be sometimes " . He also appreciated that , though Wentworth was a " competent leader of men in his profession " , he was " socially inept " in Anne 's presence . Susan Fleetwood , the actress who played Lady Russell , had also worked with Michell on The Buddha of Suburbia . She died soon after filming ; Persuasion was her last film role .
= = = Make @-@ up and costume design = = =
Michell attempted to be as faithful to the novel as possible , in particular avoiding what he felt was the polished , artificial feel of other period dramas set in the 19th @-@ century . The director explained , " I was desperately trying to make it feel like it could be happening in the next room . I tried to make it something which is absolutely about real people and not about dressing or hairstyles or carpet " . Consequently , because he felt the realistic look of the age would make the film more dramatic , Michell chose to depict the actors without make @-@ up , and disallowed them from looking too hygienic . Root commented about the film 's natural look in an interview , " I basically didn 't wear any makeup [ in the film ] , and my hair was obviously set in a very unflattering way ... I suppose the lighting was quite harsh , as well . None of us looked good " . She said in a separate interview , " I wanted to make Anne Elliot a somewhat plain woman who was not really miserable but had found a way to be content somehow , and yet emotions are buzzing around her all the time " . Root believed the film 's realistic depiction of the age was a key aspect of its appeal .
The film 's costume design was overseen by Alexandra Byrne , who created clothing that appeared " lived @-@ in " and " realistic " . Like Fleetwood , Byrne had also worked with Michell on The Buddha of Suburbia . It was her first time designing period costumes for film . During shooting , the crew often had to compete for costumes and props with the BBC production Pride and Prejudice , which was being filmed at the same time . Persuasion 's crew consequently had to send for replacement items from Italy and Australia . For her work in the film , Byrne won a BAFTA for Best Costume Design .
Louise Watson , writing for Screenonline , felt the film 's costume and make @-@ up help " convey the full Cinderella transformation of Austen 's heroine . At first the undervalued family martyr , Anne is the wallflower who has lost her ' bloom ' . Her loose @-@ fitting costumes hint at how she has pined away since refusing Wentworth ... As she regains her confidence , she blossoms ; she dresses becomingly , her eyes sparkle and her features become animated " . Paulette Richards argues that the film 's " unreliable " male characters , such as Sir Walter , are identified as such by the flamboyant nature of their clothing . This flamboyance is especially clear to modern viewers , who live in a culture where " real men " are expected to care little for their clothing . Conversely , the film 's Wentworth is typically depicted in naval uniforms , which is a contrast to Bryan Marshall 's version of the character in the 1971 adaptation . This uniform helps set Wentworth apart from many of the other male characters , allowing him to appear romantic but isolated . Gina and Andrew MacDonald had a similar view of the film , writing that it accurately captures Austen 's satire by juxtaposing the upper classes ' extravagance in fashion with the virtuous qualities of the Royal Navy . The naval men 's profession is emphasised by the frequency of wearing their uniforms , in contrast to other adaptations of the novel .
= = = Filming = = =
As a BBC production , Persuasion originally received a budget of £ 750 @,@ 000 . The British broadcaster proposed a collaboration with the American public television station WGBH Boston , a partnership that had also produced the American anthology television series Masterpiece Theatre as well as literary adaptations like the serial Pride and Prejudice . Rebecca Eaton , executive producer of Masterpiece Theatre , approved the co @-@ production as she had a preference for Persuasion out of all Austen 's novels . The decision led to additional funding . Eaton would cite Persuasion as a successful example of WGBH using its small budget to invest in television projects , though she later expressed regret that the adaptation was two hours rather than a " luscious " six @-@ part miniseries . Additionally , the French company Millesime co @-@ produced the film in exchange for airing it on television in France . This decision further increased funding to £ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 . Mobil Oil Corporation , a major sponsor of Masterpiece Theatre , co @-@ produced the film .
The diverse sources of funding meant that the production team had to field opinions from various sources . Millesime was unhappy with certain aspects of the story , for instance wanting the entire Lyme sequence removed because they considered it " too boring " . WGBH gave the BBC detailed notes , which were then integrated into the script . One change concerned the ending . To display the climax when Anne and Wentworth finally approach each other with their feelings , two different scenes were shot , one in which they kiss and one in which they do not . Dear first wrote a scene closely modelled after Austen 's ending : Anne reunites with Wentworth on the streets of Bath , and the two exchange words and hold hands . Eaton felt that after hours of waiting , audiences " would go nuts with frustration and irritation " if the two did not kiss . Eaton also thought " a kiss would be an emotional pay @-@ off " , and WGBH believed it would give the film a wider appeal . Michell agreed to compromise , opting to shoot one British version and one American version — the latter included the kiss . The American ending is reflected on the international poster , which shows the two protagonists embracing . While the kiss attracted some criticism among fans , actress Amanda Root defended it . " After the great suspense of the story , by the end you 're desperate for Anne and Captain Wentworth to get together , desperate ! Film is a visual medium , after all . You don 't necessarily want to see them in bed together , but you do want to see something like a kiss " , she said .
In comparison to its adaptations of the 1970s and 1980s , the BBC provided increased funding for many of its productions in the 1990s . Persuasion consequently benefited , allowing it to frequently film on @-@ location in places including Lyme Regis and Bath , and in the south @-@ eastern English countryside . Both Lyme and Bath are prominent locales in Austen 's novel . Dear desired the opening sequence be on board a Royal Navy ship of the period , but the only authentic vessel available was the HMS Victory . It was dry docked as part of a museum in Portsmouth , and filming was only possible during short periods when the vessel was closed to the public . The final shot , in which Anne and Wentworth gaze into the ocean , was taken from the 1984 historical film The Bounty . The film 's low budget also resulted in one of the opening shots , depicting Admiral Croft 's ship on the ocean , being taken from The Bounty .
= = Themes and analysis = =
= = = Changes from source material = = =
While Dear has received praise for " remarkably ... retain [ ing ] most of the source novel 's complex plot and numerous characters " , literary scholars have noted significant differences between the film and the source material . Sarah R. Morrison observes that the film 's version of Anne articulates thoughts that the character would never say in the novel . Morrison cites Anne 's adamant defence of her visit to Mrs. Smith — where Anne visits a poor old friend rather than go to the party of a titled relative — in the film as an example , as " Austen 's narrator makes it abundantly clear that Anne would never presume to dispute with her father upon such terms of absolute equality " . The film 's Anne also engages in actions not visible in the novel , such as her haste to stop Wentworth from leaving a musical concert when he feels demeaned by disparaging comments about his profession . Morrison attributes these differences to the difficulty in adapting novel to film , particularly as the latter form lacks a narrator to convey Anne 's inner thoughts .
The film also expands upon Austen 's subtle characterisation by exaggerating the emotions of characters and certain scenes . For example , in the novel during an early party Anne offers to play the pianoforte like usual ; while doing so , she is slightly tearful but also " extremely glad to be employed " and " unobserved " . Conversely , Dear 's screenplay has Wentworth quickly giving up his seat to Anne and then immediately dancing with the Musgrove sisters , furthering the contrast between Anne and the others . According to David Monaghan , Austen 's novel displays a " relatively radical vision " of societal change , such as the rise of a professional class challenging the old order of landed gentry . Monaghan posits that this vision appealed to Dear and Michell , who used visuals and movement to emphasise this change . However , the two " deviate significantly " from the source material by depicting Anne and Wentworth as " single @-@ mindedly oriented " to the future and thus 20th @-@ century viewers ' sensibilities .
Sue Parrill observes that Persuasion 's larger production budget , which allowed the crew to film much content on @-@ location , " enabled the filmmakers to make fuller use of setting for symbolism and for creation of mood " . The weather , for instance , is particularly important to Anne 's state of mind in the novel . Persuasion 's opening scenes establish its historical context , as well as the financial predicament in which the Elliot family finds itself . Indeed , for Rachel Brownstein , by opening the film with a depiction of sailors , the director is confronting a common complaint of Austen 's works — her failure to mention the Napoleonic Wars . The juxtaposition between the navy and the Elliots establishes their differences , with the former group discussing the fall of Napoleon and the latter group discussing the relatively minor inconvenience of overspending .
= = = Class and gender = = =
In his introduction to the published screenplay , Dear said he was in part attracted to adapt Persuasion because it depicted a " world in transition " . To him , the novel showed " an old order fading away into decadence , and a new tribe , a meritocracy , coming to the fore " . While directing , Roger Michell felt that the story included " the prototype of the postmodern family " — Anne 's mother is dead , her father is bankrupt , and " the old social orders are breaking down " . Root described Anne as a " feminist in a prefeminist period " and a " strong , independent character " , to whom modern viewers can relate despite the story 's period setting .
Austen scholars have studied the film 's intersection with class and social change . Carole M. Dole notes that , among the many productions of Austen 's work that appeared in the 1990s , Persuasion was the only one to " insistently draw attention to class issues " , and " provide striking visual testimony to the workings of the British class system " . The film , she adds , accomplishes this in part by focusing on the servants ' faces , gauging their negative reactions to events . Richards , too , finds Michell " visually more aware " of the lower classes , adding that the film 's inclusion of black servants alludes to the " colonial sources of wealth " supporting those superior in class and rank . Anne @-@ Marie Scholz writes that the film and Emma Thompson 's Sense and Sensibility both highlight the theme of class , but in different ways . Unlike Sense and Sensibility , Persuasion depicts general class divisions rather than just how the working class impacts the protagonists — the camera focuses on the faces and expressions of servants and working people , personifying them .
In Michell 's opinion , Austen was a " proto @-@ feminist " who possessed a " clear @-@ sighted vision of the ways the world is tilted against women " . As evidence , Michell cites a book scene in which Anne discusses how songs and proverbs about women 's fickleness were all written by men . Scholz argues that Anne 's marginal status as a woman in the film is linked to that of the servants ; the parallel between class and gender is conveyed with Anne 's trip to Uppercross in a cart containing animals . Julianne Pidduck adds that the director " pointedly foregrounds themes of class and gendered social constraint by juxtaposing the stuffy interiors of mannered society with the inviting , open horizons of the sea " . As an example , Pidduck discusses Anne 's stay in a gated residence in Bath , where she gazes out of an upper story window in search for Wentworth on the streets below . To her , Wentworth and the sea represent freedom and possibility .
= = Reception = =
= = = Release = = =
Persuasion premiered on 16 April 1995 , Easter Day , on the British television channel BBC Two . An estimated 3 @.@ 8 million viewers watched the production . BBC Two aired it again on 25 December , Christmas Day . It also later aired on the American television channel PBS on 6 April 1997 .
Near the end of filming , Rebecca Eaton noticed the growing " buzz " surrounding Austen and costume dramas in Hollywood . WGBH had never made a theatrical film before , but " decided to try its luck on the big screen " . Sony Pictures Classics saw a cut of the adaptation and requested permission to show it in American cinemas , releasing it on 27 September 1995 . There , it was characterised as an " art @-@ house " film , with a small niche audience . It was shown at the Toronto and Chicago International Film Festivals . Persuasion earned $ 56 @,@ 000 in its first week of release in New York , and grossed $ 150 @,@ 000 in Los Angeles . The total US gross was $ 5 @,@ 269 @,@ 757 . It was less financially successful than the popular Sense and Sensibility , which was released in cinemas several months later . The film was released in VHS format on 12 November 1996 ; a DVD version followed on 1 February 2000 .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Upon its release , Persuasion at first failed to attract many critical reviews . This changed when Pride and Prejudice and Sense and Sensibility were released in late 1995 to great success in the UK . Their reception lifted the earlier film out of obscurity , as Austen 's popularity became apparent among critics . Persuasion garnered highly positive reviews from major film critics , and critical review website Rotten Tomatoes has since calculated a rating of 83 % , which refers to the percentage of positive reviews . Caryn James of The New York Times deemed it a " critic 's pick " , praising " a cast completely in sync with Austen 's warm but piercing style " . Jay Carr of The Boston Globe highlighted Root 's performance , calling it " a heart @-@ stoppingly reticent yet glorious debut " .
In a contribution for The Washington Post , Desson Howe said " there 's a wonderful , unhurried delicacy about Persuasion ... as if everyone concerned with the production knows that , if given time and patience , Austen 's genius will emerge . Thanks to assured performances , exacting direction and , of course , inspired writing , it does , in subtle , glorious ways " . Writing for Entertainment Weekly , critic Ken Tucker graded the film with an " A – " , saying it " should enthral even those who haven 't read " the novel . Tucker concluded that the film was " the sort of passionate yet precise comedy that reminds me why Austen remains such a vital writer " . Susan Ostrov Weisser , a professor of nineteenth @-@ century literature , called the film a " faithful parade of Austen 's world " , and praised Root as the film 's " crown jewel " for playing a " fiercely intelligent , regretful , and frustrated Anne Elliot with subtlety and nuance " . In 2008 , James Rampton of The Independent rated it the fourth best Austen adaptation of all time .
When reviewing , film critics often compared the respective adaptations of Persuasion and Sense and Sensibility . Thompson 's film received more recognition and accolades from Hollywood , while Michell 's production gained the admiration of up @-@ market critics , who felt it was a more authentic and thoughtful representation of Austen 's world . Janet Maslin of The New York Times , for instance , wrote that Sense and Sensibility " can 't match the brilliant incisiveness of the more spartan Persuasion , still the most thoughtful new Austen adaptation " . The Los Angeles Times characterised Persuasion as " the most authentically British version and the one closest to the spirit of the novels " and Sense and Sensibility as " the audience @-@ friendly Hollywood version of Austen , easygoing and aiming to please " . Time magazine named them both the best films of 1995 , referring to Persuasion as " reserved " and Sense and Sensibility as " more bustling " . Higson , when analysing both productions , felt Persuasion captured a sense of " gritty realism " that would influence such later Austen adaptations as Mansfield Park ( 1999 ) and Becoming Jane ( 2007 ) .
= = = Accolades = = =
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= Adlington Hall =
For Adlington Hall , Lancashire see Adlington Hall , Lancashire
Adlington Hall is a country house near Adlington , Cheshire . The oldest part of the existing building , the Great Hall , was constructed between 1480 and 1505 ; the east wing was added in 1581 . The Legh family has lived in the hall and in previous buildings on the same site since the early 14th century . After the house was occupied by Parliamentary forces during the Civil War , changes were made to the north wing , including encasing the Great Hall in brick , inserting windows , and installing an organ in the Great Hall . In the 18th century the house was inherited by Charles Legh who organised a series of major changes . These included building a new west wing , which incorporated a ballroom , and a south wing with a large portico . It is possible that Charles Legh himself was the architect for these additions . He also played a large part in planning and designing the gardens , woodland and parkland , which included a number of buildings of various types , including a bridge known as the Chinese Bridge that carried a summerhouse .
The hall was reconstructed and reduced in size in 1928 . The work included demolition of much of the west wing , building a screen wall to fill the gap , and removing parts of the south wing . During the 19th and early 20th centuries the gardens , parkland and woodland became overgrown , and the condition of some of the buildings in them deteriorated . From the middle of the 20th century , work has been undertaken to restore some of the parkland and its buildings , and to create new formal gardens near the hall .
Adlington Hall is recorded in the National Heritage List for England as a designated Grade I listed building . The stable block has been converted for modern uses ; part of it is listed at Grade II * , and the rest is at Grade II . The grounds contain eleven Grade II listed buildings , and the grounds themselves have been designated at Grade II * on the National Register of Historic Parks and Gardens . The hall is open to the public for visits and guided tours , and parts of the building can be hired for weddings and social functions .
= = History = =
The first known building on the site was a Saxon hunting lodge for Earl Edwin . After the Norman conquest the estate was given to Hugh Lupus , and it remained in the possession of the Norman earls until 1221 , when it passed to the Crown . Henry III granted the manor to Hugh de Corona . Hugh 's son Thomas , who had no children , granted it to his sister Ellen , who married John de Legh of Booth in the early 14th century during the reign of Edward II , after which it became the ancestral home of the Leghs of Adlington . Originally the hall consisted of timber @-@ framed buildings on three or four sides of a courtyard surrounded by a moat . The Great Hall , on the north side of the courtyard , was built between 1480 and 1505 for Thomas Legh I. The east wing and porch were added for Thomas Legh III in 1581 . During the Civil War the hall was held by Colonel Thomas Legh for the Royalists but was taken twice , in 1642 and in 1644 , by the Parliamentary forces . The hall was returned to the Leghs in 1656 , and the north front was restored in 1660 . Between 1665 and 1670 the north wing was rebuilt for Thomas Legh IV . Windows were inserted and along with the Great Hall , excluding the porch , it was encased in brick .
The estate was inherited in 1739 by Charles Legh , who embarked on a major programme of reconstruction , transforming the hall " from a medium @-@ sized Tudor house into a large Georgian manor " . He built a new west wing , which contained a dining room , a drawing room , a library , and a ballroom , the last occupying the whole length of the first floor . He then rebuilt the south wing , connecting it with the new west wing and the older Tudor east wing . At each end of the south wing was a pavilion with a canted bay on its south front . The west pavilion contained the southern end of the ballroom , and the east pavilion housed a chapel . During this time the stable block and other buildings were constructed in the grounds . The architect responsible for this work is unknown , although it has been suggested that the design was by Charles himself . A major reconstruction took place in 1928 under the direction of the architect Hubert Worthington . Much of the west wing was demolished , removing the ballroom but retaining the drawing and dining rooms . To avoid leaving a gap exposing the courtyard , Worthington filled it with a screen wall containing a corridor linking the west and south wings . He decorated this with quoins , cornices and sash windows . The projecting pavilions at the ends of the south front were also demolished . In the 1960s the stable block was converted into mews flats . Between 2004 and 2009 the east wing was restored .
= = Architecture = =
= = = Exterior = = =
The plan of the hall consists of four ranges or wings arranged as a quadrangle around a courtyard , and comprises a mixture of architectural styles . The north and east wings are in 15th- and 16th @-@ century black @-@ and @-@ white timber framing , and the south and west wings are in brick dating from the middle of the 18th century . The north front is in brick with stone quoins enclosing the timber @-@ framing . It is irregular , in two or three storeys with six gables . It contains a mixture of 12- and 16 @-@ pane sash windows , and two Venetian windows . On the courtyard side is a two @-@ storey timber @-@ framed porch bearing a long inscription dated 1581 . The east wing is timber @-@ framed , with close studding , on a rubble stone plinth . It contains mullioned and transomed windows , a small oriel window , and 12- and 16 @-@ pane sash windows . There is also a two @-@ storey staircase turret . The south wing is in Flemish bond brick with sandstone dressings . It is symmetrical , in two and three storeys , and 13 bays . It is set on a low stone plinth , and has rusticated quoins . In the centre is a portico rising to the full height of the building . This consists of four plain Ionic columns each of which is carried on an octagonal pedestal . It has a frieze bearing the inscription " CHARLES & HESTER LEGH 1757 " , and its pediment contains the Legh arms . Behind the portico are two round @-@ arched windows and a round @-@ arched door on the ground floor , over which is a window with a Palladian pediment . On each side of the portico are 12 @-@ pane sash windows under flat rusticated heads . Only the left and right ends of the west wing are still present , and they are joined by a screen wall . Inside the courtyard , on the south and west sides , is a cloister .
= = = Interior = = =
The major part of the north wing is occupied by the medieval Great Hall . This has a hammer @-@ beam roof , with carvings of angels that were added at a later date . The roof is plastered , but has been painted in such a way that it appears to be panelled . At the end that would have originally been occupied by the high table is " the finest canopy in the county " , according to the authors of the Buildings of England series . This is " a rare wooden version of the cloths of estate hung over the high table in the Middle Ages to give splendour to the appearance of the Lord of the Manor " . It consists of five tiers of panels , divided by oak ribs into 60 compartments , each of which is painted with the arms of Cheshire families . At the intersections of the ribs , instead of bosses , there are carved letters spelling out an inscription including the date 1505 . At one time the scheme may have been greater , as an account dated 1611 records a display of over 180 coats of arms . Under the canopy is a mural of Hector and Andromache . The side walls contain murals depicting the history of Troy . The latter had been painted over until they were revealed in 1859 , when the family were playing with a shuttlecock and damaged the overlying plaster . The other end of the hall is supported by a spere truss formed by two giant oak trunks , carved into an octagonal shape and covered in panels . Within the spere truss is an organ ( see below ) . To the sides of the organ are murals depicting , on one side Arabella Hunt , and on the other Saint Cecilia playing a harp . Below the murals were the doors to the buttery and pantry . Both doors are now blocked , replaced by panels carved with animals and foliage . Also in the Great Hall is a fireplace decorated with the head of Apollo .
In the west wing are the surviving rooms from Charles Legh 's extension , the dining room on the ground floor and the drawing room above it . Both rooms are panelled and decorated in Classical style , with pediments over the doors and chimneypieces . The dining room is the simpler of the two , and contains a white marble fireplace that has been dated to 1742 . The fireplace in the drawing room is also in white marble but is more elaborate , carved with scrolls , garlands , and a profile of Minerva . This room also contains giant Corinthian pilasters . Above its doors are wood @-@ carvings in the style of William Kent , depicting the heads of Bacchus , Ceres , Flora , and Neptune . The rooms in the south wing include family sitting rooms decorated with Rococo style ceilings , and Gothic and Chinoiserie motifs . Also in the rooms of this wing are items moved from the demolished parts of the west wing . The east wing contains service rooms .
= = Organ = =
The organ was installed in the Great Hall in the late 17th century . There is some dispute in respect of the precise date of installation and the builder . It was probably built in about 1670 , and has been attributed to Bernard " Father " Smith , but " no conclusive evidence has come to light either to substantiate or to dismiss this theory " . It has two manuals , no pedals , and fourteen speaking stops . It includes three 17th @-@ century reed stops , which is a rarity for the time . The organ was " remade " in about 1680 by Christian Smith , and rebuilt in 1741 – 42 by Glyn and Parker . In 1958 – 59 it was restored by Noel Mander , at which time it had been derelict for a century or more . The organ has a " very fine Renaissance case " , in two tiers . In the lower tier are the two manual keyboards over which is a row of pipes . The upper tier consists of five panels containing pipes , which are flanked by Corinthian pilasters . Over the top is a large curved hood containing gilded statues of putti playing trumpets , and a coat of arms celebrating the marriage of John Legh to Isabella Robartes in 1693 . The hall 's website states it is " without doubt England 's most important surviving instrument from the late 17th century " . It has been awarded a Historic Organ Certificate . The organ was filmed and recorded for the documentary The Elusive English Organ .
The composer Handel was a friend of the Legh family and played the organ in 1741 or 1742 . He also composed the music for a hunting song , the words of which had been written by Charles Legh . There is a tradition that Handel composed The Harmonious Blacksmith at the hall , but it is not possible to confirm this .
= = Grounds = =
The hall is surrounded by a landscape park and woodland , covering in total about 160 acres ( 65 ha ) . In addition to the buildings in the grounds , Charles Legh played a large part in designing the layout of the gardens in the 18th century . Over the years parts of the grounds have become overgrown , and the condition of the buildings has deteriorated . Since the 1950s work has been carried out to improve the grounds , and to develop parts of the gardens in a more modern style . To the north of the house a rose garden has been created and , beyond that a yew maze .
To the southeast of the hall is the stable block which partly surrounds a courtyard . It has a south front of nine bays , the middle three of which project forwards and have a pediment carried on four large Doric pilasters . The block originally had a cupola , but this has been removed . A formal garden has been built between the east wing and the stable block . Standing in this garden is a lead statue of a reclining , naked male figure , said to be Father Tiber , the river god . This formerly stood in the Wilderness garden . On the wall behind the statue are two carved unicorn heads , the emblem of the Legh family . These formerly stood on pillars at the eastern entrance to the grounds . The statues have been designated as a Grade II listed building . A Grade II building is one that is " nationally important and of special interest " . To the south of the formal garden is a stone statue of Napoleon carved by George Turner and dated 1837 . To the west of the hall is a ha @-@ ha in rubble sandstone dating from the 18th century . It was built to act as a barrier between the west side of the garden and the deer park beyond it , and is listed Grade II . Immediately to the south of the hall is a circular lawn , in the centre of which is a sundial that probably dates from about 1825 . Constructed in ashlar buff sandstone and standing on a pair of circular steps , it consists of an octagonal base with a partly fluted baluster supporting an octagonal moulded capstone . The capstone carries a copper plate inscribed with Roman numerals and the initials " TL " , and has a simple triangular gnomon . The sundial is also listed Grade II . Leading south from the lawn is a walk known as the Lime Avenue , which is entered through gates dated 1688 . The gates are in wrought iron and the piers in ashlar buff gritstone ; these are again listed Grade II . The avenue leads to another Grade II listed building , a structure known as the Shell House , so @-@ called because its interior is decorated with shells and coloured mirrors . It is a single @-@ storey cottage constructed in red brick with buff sandstone dressings . The roof is in stone @-@ slate and the chimney is brick . The wall is in brick with a stone coping . In front of Shell Cottage another sundial , also listed Grade II . This was probably built in the early 18th century for John Legh , and moved to its present position in the middle of that century . It is thought that the pillar on which it stands was originally a Saxon cross base . The octagonal copper plate is inscribed with Roman numerals , the longitude of Adlington , and John Legh 's initials . To the front of the Shell House is another walk , known as the Yew Walk . At the back and side of the house is a rockery . To the south and west of the Shell House is a wooded area known as the Wilderness , through which runs the River Dean ( or Dene ) . Many of the winding paths created by Charles Legh in the Wilderness are now overgrown , and some of the buildings are in a poor condition , or have collapsed into ruin . One building still in good condition is the Tig House , a small square pavilion overlooking the river , an early example of a building in the Chinoiserie style . It is constructed in red brick and partly clad in black and white timber framing . It has a stone @-@ slate pyramidal roof with a wooden finial , and is listed Grade II . Near to this is the a bridge known as the Chinese Bridge crossing the river , but the summerhouse which once stood on the bridge is no longer present . Another structure in the Wilderness is the Temple of Diana . This is a circular temple with a dome constructed in ashlar buff sandstone . It stands on a stylobate which supports six Doric columns and an entablature . The structure is listed Grade II . This appears to be in good condition , but in the early 2000s was said to be suffering from damp . Other buildings known as the Rathouse and the Hermitage , have been damaged by falling trees . At the north entrance to the grounds is a pair of gate piers that are listed Grade II . The piers are in rusticated ashlar sandstone and are surmounted by ball finials . The gates are iron and are similar to those at the end of the lime avenue . At the other end of the grounds , at the site of the former south approach , is a pair of sandstone gate piers dating from the middle of the 18th century . They originally carried the carved unicorn heads that are now in the formal garden , and were left isolated when the route of the turnpike road was moved . They are listed Grade II .
= = Present day = =
Adlington Hall stands in open countryside to the west of the village of Adlington , Cheshire , England . It was designated a Grade I listed building on 25 July 1952 . Grade I listing means that the building is acknowledged to be " of exceptional interest , sometimes considered to be internationally important " . The hall is still privately owned by the Legh family , who live in the hall . It is open to the public and for guided tours for groups at advertised times . The Great Hall and the Hunting Lodge are available to be hired for weddings and social functions . The south wing of the stable block has been converted into eight flats and is known as The Mews . It has been designated as a Grade II * listed building . Grade II * listing applies to " particularly important buildings of more than special interest " . The east wing is listed Grade II and has been converted into two flats and tea rooms . The landscape park has been registered at Grade II * in the National Register of Historic Parks and Gardens . Designation as Grade II * on the Register means that the site is " particularly important , of more than special interest " .
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= County of Oneida v. Oneida Indian Nation of New York State =
County of Oneida v. Oneida Indian Nation of New York State , 470 U.S. 226 ( 1985 ) , was a landmark United States Supreme Court case concerning aboriginal title in the United States . The case , sometimes referred to as Oneida II , was " the first Indian land claim case won on the basis of the Nonintercourse Act . "
The Supreme Court held that Indian tribes have a common law cause of action for possessory land claims based upon aboriginal title , that the Nonintercourse Act did not preempt that cause of action , and that the cause of action was not barred by a statute of limitations , abatement , implicit federal ratification , or nonjusticiability . Four dissenting justices would have held for the counties on the defense of laches , a question which the majority did not reach , but expressed doubts about .
Furthermore , the Court held that , due to the Eleventh Amendment , federal courts could not exercise ancillary jurisdiction over cross @-@ claims by counties against states . Although only two other justices agreed with the entirety of Justice Powell 's majority opinion , Brennan and Marshall agreed with Parts I @-@ IV and VI ( the Oneida 's claims against the counties ) and Burger , White , and Rehnquist agreed with Part V ( the counties claims against the state ) , thus forging separate majorities .
The case is often referred to as Oneida II because it is the second of three times the Oneida Indian Nation reached the Supreme Court in litigating its land rights claims . It followed Oneida Indian Nation of New York v. County of Oneida ( Oneida I ) ( 1974 ) , holding that there was federal subject @-@ matter jurisdiction , and was followed by City of Sherrill v. Oneida Indian Nation of New York ( 2005 ) , rejecting the tribe 's attempt in a later lawsuit to re @-@ assert tribal sovereignty over parcels of land re @-@ acquired by the tribe in fee simple .
= = Background = =
This was the second time the Supreme Court had granted certiorari to the Oneida 's land claim . Over a decade earlier , in Oneida Indian Nation of New York v. County of Oneida ( 1974 ) , the Supreme Court had allowed the same suit to proceed by unanimously holding that there was federal subject @-@ matter jurisdiction to hear the claim . Since then , Justices William O. Douglas and Potter Stewart had departed , replaced by John Paul Stevens and Sandra Day O 'Connor .
On remand , the United States District Court for the Northern District of New York had found the counties liable to the Oneida for wrongful possession of their lands , awarded damages of $ 16 @,@ 694 , plus interest , representing the fair rental value of the land in question for the 2 @-@ year period specified in the complaint . Finally , the District Court required New York state to indemnify the counties . The United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit affirmed .
The Supreme Court granted certiorari " to determine whether an Indian tribe may have a live cause of action for a violation of its possessory rights that occurred 175 years ago , " ultimately agreeing with the District Court and Second Circuit that the tribe may . On appeal , the counties did not dispute the District Court 's findings that the Oneida held aboriginal title to the lands in question , and that the 1795 conveyances of the lands to the state violated the Nonintercourse Act . The counties instead argued that the Nonintercourse Act preempted the Oneida 's cause of action , that any cause of action was time barred , nonjusticable , and abated , and that any conveyance was ratified by the federal government .
= = Change of counsel = =
The case was initiated by George Shattuck of Bond , Schoeneck & King ( BS & K ) , on a contingency fee basis rather than as a pro bono matter . The retainer agreement between the firm and the tribe , approved ( as required ) by the Department of the Interior , provided that the firm would litigate the tribe 's Nonintercourse Act claim only against the government and would not sue private land owners ; another firm was handling the tribe 's claim before the Indian Claims Commission .
Shattuck argued Oneida I alone before the Supreme Court . The Native American Rights Fund ( NARF ) , which had assisted initially assisted the firm , served as co @-@ counsel in the trial after the Oneida I decision and took over completely on the second appeal . The NARF also filed another suit behalf of the Oneidas , pressing the Oneida 's possessory claims against landowners over additional lands .
As of March 2011 , BS & K had yet to receive any attorney 's fees from the tribe . On July 11 , 2011 , the United States District Court for the Northern District of New York ruled that BS & K was entitled to $ 5 @,@ 174 @.@ 54 in fees ; the district court reduced the fees to that number after finding that BS & K had breached its duty of loyalty to the Oneida 's by also representing the Canadian claimants .
= = Opinion of the Court = =
The majority opinion by Justice Lewis F. Powell , Jr. recognized the Oneida 's federal common law cause of action , and rejected all the counties ' affirmative defenses .
Cause of action
The Second Circuit held that the Oneida 's had both a federal common law cause of action and an implied cause of action under the Nonintercourse Act of 1793 ( the version that governed the 1795 transaction ) . The Supreme Court did not reach the statutory question because it held that " the Indians ' common @-@ law right to sue is firmly established . " The court recognized that " [ n ] umerous decisions of this Court prior to Oneida I recognized at least implicitly that Indians have a federal common @-@ law right to sue to enforce their aboriginal land rights , " citing a string of examples back to Johnson v. M 'Intosh ( 1823 ) . The court concluded :
[ W ] e hold that the Oneidas can maintain this action for violation of their possessory rights based on federal common law .
As to the Nonintercourse Act , the Court held that it did not preempt the cause of action because " [ t ] he Nonintercourse Act of 1793 does not speak directly to the question of remedies for unlawful conveyances of Indian land . " The court noted that the Act " did not establish a comprehensive remedial plan for dealing with violations of Indian property rights " and that there was " no indication in the legislative history that Congress intended to pre @-@ empt common @-@ law remedies . " Because the Act contained no remedial provisions , and because subsequent Congressional enactments contemplated possessory land suits by Indians , the Court found that preemption was not indicated . The court reviewed its recent aboriginal title decisions , and reiterated its statement in Oneida I that the Act merely " put in statutory form what was or came to be the accepted rule . "
Statute of limitations
Where there is no statute of limitations for a federal cause of action , the general rule is to borrow the analogous state statute of limitations unless such would be inconsistent with the underlying federal policies . However , here , the Court held that " borrowing of a state limitations period in these cases would be inconsistent with federal policy . " Reviewing Congressional actions in the context of the Indian Claims Commission , the Court concluded that " It would be a violation of Congress ' will were we to hold that a state statute of limitations period should be borrowed in these circumstances . "
Laches
The majority noted that the four dissenting justices would have barred the Oneida 's claim under laches . However , the majority noted that " we do not reach this issue today " because the District Court had ruled against the counties laches defense , and the counties had not raised the issue in the Second Circuit . In a footnote , the majority opined that " application of the equitable defense of laches in an action at law would be novel indeed . " The same footnote cited Ewert v. Bluejacket , 259 U.S. 129 ( 1922 ) for the proposition that laches " cannot properly have application to give vitality to a void deed and to bar the rights of Indian wards in lands subject to statutory restrictions . " The majority called the application of laches " questionable " and noted that such " would appear to be inconsistent with established federal policy . "
In its final footnote , the majority noted that , on " [ t ] he question whether equitable considerations should limit the relief available to the present day Oneida Indians . . . , we express no opinion as to . . . the final disposition of this case should Congress not exercise its authority to resolve these far @-@ reaching Indian claims . "
Abatement
The counties advanced the theory that the causes of action under Nonintercourse Acts of 1790 , 1793 , 1796 , 1799 , and 1802 ( unlike the final 1833 version ) abated upon the expiration of the statutes . However , the Court held that because the different versions of the Act contained " substantially the same restraint on the alienation of Indian lands . . . , the precedents of this Court compel the conclusion that the Oneidas ' cause of action has not abated . "
Ratification
The counties advanced the theory that later treaties between the Oneidas and the United States , which ceded different lands to New York , constituted a ratification of the earlier conveyances ( and thus those conveyances were in compliance with the Nonintercourse Act ) . The Court found this interpretation untenable under the canons of construction of federal Indian law , which provide that , inter alia , " treaties should be construed liberally in favor of the Indians . "
Nonjusticiability
The counties final argument was that the Oneida 's land claim was a nonjusticiable political question . The Court found this argument to be non @-@ meritorious in light of similar Indian law precedents .
Ancillary jurisdiction
The final question before the Court was whether the District Court rightly exercised ancillary jurisdiction over the counties ' cross @-@ claim against the state for indemnification . The Court rejected , as having " no basis in law , " the Second Circuit 's theory that " by violating a federal statute , the State consented to suit in federal court by any party on any claim , state or federal , growing out of the same nucleus of operative facts as the statutory violation . " Although the counties ' cross @-@ claim would meet the traditional criteria for ancillary jurisdiction , the Court found those criteria foreclosed by the Eleventh Amendment .
Conclusion
The Court concluded by remarking upon the " potential consequences of affirmance , " arguing that " this litigation makes abundantly clear the necessity for congressional action " to extinguish Indian title by statute . In the words of the Court :
One would have thought that claims dating back for more than a century and a half would have been barred long ago . As our opinion indicates , however , neither petitioners nor we have found any applicable statute of limitations or other relevant legal basis for holding that the Oneidas ' claims are barred or otherwise have been satisfied .
= = = Brennan and Marshall = = =
Justices William J. Brennan , Jr. and Thurgood Marshall joined the entirety of the majority 's opinion , except the ancillary jurisdiction portion . In a brief opinion , Brennan reiterated his view from Yeomans v. Kentucky ( 1975 ) that the Eleventh Amendment " bars federal court suits against States only by citizens of other States . "
= = = Stevens , Burger , White , and Rehnquist = = =
Justice John Paul Stevens , joined by Chief Justice Warren E. Burger and Justices Byron White and William Rehnquist joined the majority 's opinion as to No. 83 @-@ 1240 ( the cross @-@ claims against the state ) but dissented as to No. 83 @-@ 1065 ( the Oneida 's claims against the counties ) . The dissenters would have barred the Oneida 's claim under the equitable doctrine of laches , noting :
[ In 1795 , the Oneidas ] made no attempt to assert the claim , and their successors in interest waited 175 years before bringing suit to avoid a 1795 conveyance that the Tribe freely made , for a valuable consideration . The absence of any evidence of deception , concealment , or interference with the Tribe 's right to assert a claim , together with the societal interests that always underlie statutes of repose @-@ particularly when title to real property is at stake @-@ convince me that this claim is barred by the extraordinary passage of time . It is worthy of emphasis that this claim arose when George Washington was the President of the United States .
The dissenters noted various historical examples of the Court applying laches to Indian equitable claims , and argued that the doctrine should also be applied to the action of ejectment ( which they admitted was an action at law , not equity ) . Specifically , they cited " [ t ] hree decisions of this Court illustrate the application of the doctrine of laches to actions seeking to set aside conveyances made in violation of federal law . " Moreover , the dissenters quoted Lewis v. Marshall , 30 U.S. 470 ( 1831 ) , for the proposition that :
The best interests of society require that causes of action should not be deferred an unreasonable time . This remark is peculiarly applicable to land titles . Nothing so much retards the growth and prosperity of a country as insecurity of titles to real estate . Labor is paralysed where the enjoyment of its fruits is uncertain ; and litigation without limit produces ruinous consequences to individuals .
The dissent concluded :
The Court , no doubt , believes that it is undoing a grave historical injustice , but in doing so it has caused another , which only Congress may now rectify .
The dissent did not address the other defenses raised by the counties .
= = Subsequent developments = =
= = = Remand = = =
On remand , after decades of settlement efforts , Judge McCurn entered judgments of $ 15 @,@ 994 against Oneida County and $ 18 @,@ 970 against Madison County , representing the full fair market rental value , minus set @-@ offs for improvements , plus pre @-@ judgment interest . The following year , McCurn denied cross @-@ motions for relief from the judgment – seeking to correct various mathematical errors previously made by Judge Port — due to a pending appeal before the Second Circuit . After a stipulated remand , McCurn granted both motions .
= = = Companion cases = = =
Oneida Indian Nation of New York v. New York ( 2d Cir . 1988 )
Another Oneida claim , challenging the pre @-@ constitutional conveyance of another 6 @-@ million @-@ acre ( 24 @,@ 000 km2 ) tract , was rejected by the Second Circuit in 1988 , on the grounds that the Confederation Congress Proclamation of 1783 had neither the authority nor the intent to limit the acquisition of Indian lands within the borders of the states .
City of Sherrill v. Oneida Indian Nation of New York ( U.S. 2005 )
After decades , the Oneida became frustrated by the failure of the case to settle . Instead , they began to purchase land within the claim area in fee simple , asserting sovereignty over the re @-@ acquired parcels and refusing to pay property tax . In City of Sherrill v. Oneida Indian Nation of New York ( 2005 ) , the Supreme Court held that laches barred the re @-@ assertion of sovereignty over ancestral land re @-@ acquired in fee simple ; the Court did not consider whether the original aboriginal title over the disputed parcels was validly extinguished , and thus did not disturb its holding in Oneida II .
On remand , the district court held that , although the counties could tax the Oneida , due to tribal sovereign immunity , they could not foreclose on land held by the tribe in satisfaction of these unpaid taxes . The Second Circuit affirmed , but two of the judges urged the Supreme Court to overrule some of its tribal sovereign immunity precedents . After the Supreme Court granted certiorari , the tribe passed an ordinance consenting to taxation , and the Court vacated and remanded .
Oneida Indian Nation of New York v. County of Oneida ( 2d Cir . 2010 )
Oneida I and Oneida II were litigated as test cases by both sides ; the Oneidas suit against the counties for 200 years of damages was stayed pending its resolution . After settlement efforts , that suit resumed in 2000 . In a similar suit by a different tribe , the Second Circuit adopted the view of the four dissenting Oneida II justices in Cayuga Indian Nation of New York v. Pataki ( 2005 ) . The same laches defense defeated the larger Oneida claim . The Oneida and the United States petitioned the Supreme Court for certiorari on May 16 , 2011 . The Court denied certiorari on October 17 , with Justices Ginsburg and Sotomayor dissenting from the denial .
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= University of the Philippines Los Baños =
The University of the Philippines Los Baños ( also referred to as UPLB , UP Los Baños , or Elbi ) is a public university located in the towns of Los Baños and Bay in the province of Laguna , some 64 kilometers southeast of Manila . It traces its roots to the UP College of Agriculture ( UPCA ) , which was founded in 1909 by the American colonial government to promote agricultural education and research in the Philippines . American botanist Edwin Copeland served as its first dean . UPLB was formally established in 1972 following the union of UPCA with four other Los Baños and Diliman @-@ based University of the Philippines ( UP ) units .
The university has played an influential role in Asian agriculture and biotechnology due to its pioneering efforts in plant breeding and bioengineering , particularly in the development of high @-@ yielding and pest @-@ resistant crops . In recognition of its work , it was awarded the Ramon Magsaysay Award for International Understanding in 1977 . Nine research centers are recognized as Centers of Excellence by presidential decree . UPLB hosts a number of local and international research centers , including the International Rice Research Institute ( IRRI ) , ASEAN Center for Biodiversity , World Agroforestry Centre , and the Southeast Asian Regional Center for Graduate Study and Research in Agriculture ( SEARCA ) .
In late 2015 , as a testament of its leadership in agricultural education and development studies , the university signed a memorandum of agreement with Nagoya University to host the Nagoya University Asian Satellite Campus ( NUASC ) through the UPLB Graduate School . The agreement makes the Philippines the eighth country to host the NUASC through which the Transnational Doctoral Programs for Leading Professionals in Asian Countries will be implemented . It will enable Filipino doctoral candidates to enroll in NU doctoral programs without having to be physically present in Nagoya for the whole duration of the course . Nagoya 's Graduate School of Bioagricultural Sciences and Graduate School of International Development will offer the doctorates in bioagricultural sciences and international development , respectively , through the said facility .
UPLB offers more than 100 degree programs in various disciplines through its nine colleges and two schools . As of Academic Year 2012 @-@ 2013 the Commission on Higher Education ( CHED ) has accredited nine academic units as Centers of Excellence and two as Centers of Development , giving UPLB the largest number of Centers of Excellence ( research and academic units combined ) among all universities in the country .
UPLB alumni have been recognized in a wide range of fields . They include 13 scientists awarded the title National Scientist of the Philippines , members of the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC , the joint winner of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize ) , Palanca Award winners , as well as political and business leaders .
= = History = =
UPLB was originally established as the University of the Philippines College of Agriculture ( UPCA ) on 6 March 1909 , by the UP Board of Regents . Edwin Copeland , an American botanist and Thomasite from the Philippine Normal College in Manila , served as its first dean . Classes began in June 1909 with five professors , and 12 students initially enrolled in the program . The Forestry School was established a year later .
During the Japanese occupation of the Philippines , UPCA was closed and the campus converted into an internment camp for allied nationals and a headquarters of the Japanese army . For three years , the college was home to more than 2 @,@ 000 civilians , mostly Americans , that were captured by the Japanese . In 1945 , as part of the liberation of the Philippines , the US Army sent 130 11th Airborne Division paratroopers to Los Baños to rescue the internees . Only four paratroopers and two Filipino guerrillas were killed in the raid . However , Japanese reinforcements arrived two days later , destroying UPCA facilities and killing some 1 @,@ 500 Filipino civilians in Los Baños soon afterwards .
UPCA became the first unit of the University of the Philippines to close after the war when it resumed classes on 25 July 1999 , with Leopoldo Uichangco as dean . However , only 125 ( 16 percent ) of the original students enrolled . It was even worse for the School of Forestry , which only had nine students . Likewise , only 38 professors returned to teach . UPCA used its ₱ 470 @,@ 546 ( US $ 10 @,@ 800 ) share in the Philippine @-@ US War Damage Funds ( released in 1947 ) for reconstruction .
Further financial endowments from the United States Agency for International Development ( USAID ) and the Mutual Security Agency ( MSA ) allowed the construction of new facilities , while scholarship grants , mainly from the Rockefeller Foundation and the International Cooperation Administration , helped fund training of UPCA faculty . From 1947 to 1958 , a total of 146 faculty members had been granted MS and PhD scholarships in US universities .
Dioscoro Umali became UPCA dean in 1959 . Umali 's administration oversaw the creation of IRRI , SEARCA ( of which he was the first director ) , and the Department of Food Science and Technology . New facilities were also constructed under his Five @-@ Year Development Program .
In 1972 , UPCA requested Philippine President Ferdinand Marcos to allow the college to secede from the University of the Philippines due to the alleged withholding of its budget and the disapproval of curricular proposals . However , UP President Salvador P. Lopez strongly opposed the idea . A survey found that there was very little support for complete independence at UPCA . As a compromise , Lopez proposed the transformation of UP into a system of autonomous constituent universities . Finally , on 20 November 1972 , Presidential Decree No. 58 was signed , establishing UPLB as UP 's first autonomous campus , with UPCA , College of Forestry , Agricultural Credit and Cooperatives Institute , Dairy Training and Research Institute , and the Diliman @-@ based Agrarian Reform Institute as its first academic units . New colleges and research centers were created over the next few years , while the College of Veterinary Medicine was likewise transferred to UPLB from UP Diliman .
In 2010 Chancellor Luis Rey Velasco 's administration oversaw the implementation of a policy allowing for larger lecture classes to improve the " absorptive capacity " of the university by more than 500 students and to give them better access to some of the more seasoned professors . It increased the class size of 25 to 40 students to a much larger 120 to 175 for general education and foundation courses . The policy has been criticized by various groups in UPLB .
= = Campus = =
The UPLB campus consists of 14 @,@ 665 ha ( 36 @,@ 240 acres ) spread across the provinces of Laguna , Negros Occidental , and Quezon . UPLB 's equipment and facilities are worth some ₱ 11 @.@ 3 billion ( US $ 260 million ) according to official estimates .
= = = Los Baños campus = = =
The 1 @,@ 098 ha ( 2 @,@ 710 @-@ acre ) Los Baños campus houses UPLB 's academic facilities , as well as experimental farms for agriculture and biotechnology research . The more prominent buildings in the Los Baños campus , such as the Dioscoro L. Umali Hall , Main Library , and Student Union were designed by National Artist for Architecture Leandro Locsin . Other notable landmarks include the iconic Oblation , Alumni Plaza , Freedom Park , and Baker Memorial Hall .
UPLB is designated as caretaker of the 4 @,@ 347 ha ( 10 @,@ 740 @-@ acre ) Makiling Forest Reserve ( often referred to as the " upper campus , " in contrast to the " lower campus " set at the foot of Makiling ) . It houses facilities of the College of Forestry and Natural Resources , College of Public Affairs , and the University Health Service , among others . The reserve is home to diverse flora and fauna , and has more tree species than the continental United States ( an area 32 times bigger than the Philippines ) . It serves as an outdoor laboratory for students , mainly from the College of Forestry and Natural Resources .
= = = Land grants = = =
UPLB has three major land grants : the Laguna @-@ Quezon Land Grant , La Carlota Land Grant , and Laguna Land Grant .
The 5 @,@ 719 ha ( 14 @,@ 130 @-@ acre ) Laguna @-@ Quezon Land Grant is located in the towns of Real , Quezon , and Siniloan , Laguna , and was acquired in February 1930 . It covers some portions of the Sierra Madre mountain range , and currently hosts the university ’ s Citronella and lemongrass plantations . The 705 ha ( 1 @,@ 740 @-@ acre ) La Carlota Land Grant is situated in Negros Occidental , a province in the Western Visayas region . Acquired in May 1964 , it houses the PCARRD @-@ DOST La Granja Agricultural Research Center , which serves as a research center for various upland crops . Meanwhile , the 3 @,@ 336 ha ( 8 @,@ 240 @-@ acre ) Laguna Land Grant located in Paete , Laguna , also acquired in 1964 , is mostly undeveloped . Numerous parties have expressed interest in developing the land grants ; however , UPLB has not entertained the potential investors due to the " lack of a solid development plan . "
= = Organization and administration = =
As part of the University of the Philippines System , UPLB is governed by the 11 @-@ person UP Board of Regents , which is jointly chaired by the head of the Commission on Higher Education and the UP president .
The Board of Regents has the authority to approve the institution , merger , and abolition of degree programs as recommended by the UP president . It also has the power to confer degrees . The UP president , who is appointed by the Board of Regents , is the university 's chief executive officer and the head of the faculty .
UPLB is administered by a chancellor who is elected by the UP Board of Regents to a three @-@ year term . The chancellor may only serve for up to two terms . Under him are five vice @-@ chancellors specializing in administration , community affairs , instruction , planning and development , and research and extension .
The current chancellor is Fernando C. Sanchez , the ninth to hold the office . He assumed the post on 28 October 2014 .
UPLB , through the UP System , is a member of the Association of Pacific Rim Universities , a consortium of leading research universities in the Asia @-@ Pacific region .
= = = Funding = = =
UPLB 's endowment totaled some ₱ 4 billion ( US $ 90 million ) in 2010 , broken down into cash reserves ( ₱ 1 @.@ 7 billion / US $ 40 million ) , investments ( ₱ 745 million / US $ 17 million ) and national government subsidy ( ₱ 1 @.@ 19 billion / US $ 30 million ) .
This amount includes research funding from other sources , which was valued at ₱ 233 million ( US $ 5 @.@ 37 million ) in 2010 . The biggest source was Philippine government agencies , at ₱ 136 million ( US $ 3 @.@ 13 million ) , with the PCASTRD @-@ DOST as the largest contributor . This represents a 32 percent decrease from the previous year . Meanwhile , contributions from international and local private agencies increased 101 percent and 71 percent respectively . In all , outside sources contributed some ₱ 98 million ( US $ 2 @.@ 26 million ) .
To prepare for its centennial year , UPLB launched several Centennial Fund campaigns , the largest being the Centennial Building Fund , which aims to raise ₱ 2 billion ( US $ 46 @.@ 1 million ) for the " construction , repair and maintenance of academic buildings and dormitories " . Other Centennial Funds include the Centennial Celebration Fund and the Centennial Artists Endowment fund .
= = = Student government = = =
The University Student Council ( USC ) is the " highest governing body of all UPLB students . " Together with college student councils ( CSCs ) , it assembles as the Student Legislative Chamber and acts as the highest policy @-@ making body of the USC . The USC is composed of a chairperson , vice @-@ chairperson , 10 councilors , a representative for each college / school with less than 500 students , and an additional college representative for every 500 students in excess of the first 500 . Members are given one @-@ year terms . CSCs have a similar structure , but with a different number of councilors based on the student population .
The Student Disciplinary Tribunal ( SDT ) is responsible for sanctioning erring students . Common offenses include student misconduct and fraternity rumbles . The SDT is composed of a chairperson , two appointees of the chancellor , a student juror , and a parent juror .
= = Academics = =
UPLB offers 27 undergraduate and 82 graduate degree programs through its nine colleges and two schools . Majority of the programs award science degrees . It also awards high school diplomas through the University of the Philippines Rural High School ( UPRHS ) , a subunit of the College of Arts and Sciences , which acts as a laboratory for its BS Math and Science Teaching students .
The College of Arts and Sciences has the largest student population and the largest number of undergraduate degree programs ( 11 ) , while the College of Development Communication and College of Veterinary Medicine have the least number of programs ( one ) .
BS Agricultural Biotechnology , introduced in 2010 , is UPLB 's newest undergraduate degree program . Several degree programs that have been proposed include Chancellor Aspiras 's BA History , BA Political Science and BS Landscape Horticulture , and National Scientist Teodulo M. Topacio Jr . ' s comparative medicine program .
= = = Admission and graduation = = =
UPLB admits more than 2 @,@ 500 students and produces about 1 @,@ 800 graduates every year . Undergraduate admission is determined by the University of the Philippines College Admission Test ( UPCAT ) . Examinees that select UPLB as their preferred campus and garner a University Predicted Grade ( UPG ) within the standard cut @-@ off are automatically eligible for admission . Those who do not automatically qualify may file an appeal for reconsideration if their UPG is within the actual cut @-@ off , though the appeal process does not guarantee admission . The cut @-@ off scores may be adjusted according to a variety of factors . In 2010 , UPLB had a standard UPG cut @-@ off of 2 @.@ 42 while the actual cut @-@ off was 2 @.@ 8 ( this actual cut @-@ off was retained in 2011 ) . But in 2014 @-@ 2015 UPCAT , according to the Office of the University Registrar , UPLB had a standard cut off score of 2 @.@ 3 . Seventy percent of slots are given to incoming freshmen with the highest scores , while the remaining thirty percent are given to public high school students and members of minority groups . Before the UPCAT was used for admission , UPCA only admitted the top 5 percent of Philippine high school graduates .
High school freshman admission , on the other hand , is determined by the eight @-@ hour @-@ long UPRHS Entrance Examination . Only the top 125 examinees are admitted . Sophomore transferees take the two @-@ day UPRHS Validation Examination , and are admitted depending on the available slots .
UPLB has a substantial no @-@ show rate , with 42 percent of qualifiers opting not to enroll . The figures are worse for BS Forestry and Doctor of Veterinary Medicine programs , with no @-@ show rates of 65 percent and 62 percent , respectively . Other programs with poor enrollment numbers include BS Agriculture , BS Agricultural Engineering , and BS Agricultural Chemistry .
Normally , a student who completes the program may graduate with honors if his general weighted average ( GWA ) is 1 @.@ 75 or above . The title summa cum laude is awarded to graduates who obtain a GWA of 1 @.@ 20 or above , magna cum laude to graduates with a GWA of 1 @.@ 45 to 1 @.@ 20 , and cum laude to graduates with a GWA of between 1 @.@ 75 and 1 @.@ 45 . As of 2011 there have been 30 summa cum laudes who have graduated from UPLB .
= = = Tuition and financial aid = = =
The base tuition fee per unit in UPLB is ₱ 1 @,@ 000 ( US $ 23 ) . As with all UP constituents , UPLB implements the Socialized Tuition and Financial Assistance Program ( STFAP ) . Under the program , students with annual family incomes between ₱ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 ( US $ 23 @,@ 000 ) and ₱ 500 @,@ 000 ( US $ 11 @,@ 500 ) are charged the base tuition fee , while those with annual family incomes above ₱ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 are charged ₱ 1 @,@ 500 ( US $ 35 ) per unit . Students with annual family incomes between ₱ 500 @,@ 000 and ₱ 135 @,@ 000 ( US $ 3 @,@ 110 ) are charged ₱ 600 ( US $ 14 ) per unit ; those who have between ₱ 135 @,@ 000 and ₱ 80 @,@ 000 ( US $ 1 @,@ 840 ) are charged ₱ 300 ( US $ 7 ) ; while those who have below ₱ 80 @,@ 000 are not charged any fees . Additional financial assistance may be accessed through the Student Loan Board , which pays up to 80 percent of the tuition . Scholarship and loan programs are also offered by some UPLB units , such as the College of Veterinary Medicine .
The current rates were introduced in 2007 . Previously , base tuition was only ₱ 300 per unit ( since 1989 ) . Library and miscellaneous fees were also increased in 2007 , from ₱ 400 ( US $ 9 ) per student to ₱ 1 @,@ 100 ( US $ 25 ) and ₱ 2 @,@ 000 ( US $ 46 ) , respectively . New fees , such as internet and energy fees , were introduced . The USC sees the over 300 percent increase in tuition as the reason for the low enrollment rate and high student loan levels , which totaled some ₱ 14 million ( US $ 326 @,@ 000 ) in 2007 . Additionally , it criticizes the STFAP for allegedly being ineffective . Upon its introduction in 1989 , only 16 percent of students received discounts . The number fell to 12 percent in 2007 .
= = = Accreditation = = =
UPLB is identified by the Commission on Higher Education as a Center of Excellence in agricultural engineering , agriculture , biology , chemistry , development communication , forestry , information technology , mathematics , and veterinary medicine . It is a Center of Development in physics , environmental science and statistics . In addition , the Institute of Biological Sciences , Institute of Chemistry , and Institute of Mathematical Sciences and Physics have been recognized since 1983 as National Centers of Excellence in the Basic Sciences via presidential decree . Other Centers of Excellence by virtue of presidential decree are the Farming Systems and Soil Resources Institute , the Institute of Animal Science , the Institute of Food Science and Technology , the Institute of Plant Breeding , the National Crop Protection Center , and the National Institute of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology . In November 5 , 2014 , the BS Biology program offered by the Institute of Biological Sciences was certified as a standard accredited program by the ASEAN University Network as part of its ASEAN University Network @-@ Quality Assurance ( AUN @-@ QA ) System .
= = = Libraries and collections = = =
As of 2007 , UPLB 's 12 libraries , collectively referred to as the University Library , hold a total of 346 @,@ 061 volumes . It periodically receives publications from United Nations agencies ( including the UNFAO , UN @-@ HABITAT and UNU ) and the World Bank . It is a contributor to the International Information System for Agricultural Services and Technology , contributing nearly 30 @,@ 000 titles between 1975 – 2010 .
195 @,@ 282 of these volumes are housed at the Main Library , while the rest are in unit libraries . The Main Library also houses theses , digital sources , and 1 @,@ 215 serial titles , among other materials . It has a total floor area of 6 @,@ 336 m2 ( 68 @,@ 200 sq ft ) and a seating capacity of 510 , making it the largest library in UPLB .
One of UPLB 's unit libraries is the College of Veterinary Medicine @-@ Animal and Dairy Sciences Cluster Library . It has 17 @,@ 798 volumes and 198 serial titles , and a total floor area of 609 @.@ 25 m2 ( 6 @,@ 557 @.@ 9 sq ft ) . It claims to hold the largest collection on veterinary and animal sciences in the country .
UPLB manages the Museum of Natural History , which was established in 1976 at the foothills of Mt . Makiling . It holds over 200 @,@ 000 biological specimens , including half of the samplings from the Philippine Water Bug Inventory Project . More than half of the specimens belong to the entomological collection . While most of its collections are in its main building , some are housed in other UPLB units .
= = Research = =
UPLB hosts a number of international research institutes , including the Southeast Asian Regional Center for Graduate Study and Research in Agriculture , the ASEAN Center for Biodiversity , the International Rice Research Institute , the World Fish Center , the World Agroforestry Center , and the Asia Rice Foundation . The APEC Center for Technology Exchange and Training for Small and Medium Enterprises ( ACTETSME ) , established in 1996 through the initiative of then President Fidel V. Ramos during the Asia @-@ Pacific Economic Cooperation ( APEC ) Leaders ' Meeting in Seattle , USA , is also located at the university 's Science & Technology Park . Local research institutions such as the Department of Environment and Natural Resources ' Ecosystems Research and Development Bureau , Department of Science and Technology 's Forest Products Research and Development Institute , and Department of Agriculture 's Philippine Carabao Center are headquartered or have offices at the university . The main office of IRRI 's Philippine counterpart , the Philippine Rice Research Institute , used to be located at UPLB but was transferred to the Science City of Muñoz , Nueva Ecija in 1990 . It continues to maintain a research office at the university .
Two UPLB @-@ published journals , the Philippine Agricultural Scientist and the Philippine Journal of Veterinary Medicine , are listed in the SCImago Journal Rankings . SCImago gave these an h @-@ index ( a measure of " actual scientific productivity " and " apparent scientific impact " ) of 5 and 1 , respectively , for 2009 . These journals are also listed in the ISI Web of Knowledge , along with three other UPLB @-@ published journals : the Philippine Entomologist , Philippine Journal of Crop Science , and Asia Life Sciences .
= = = Research Centers = = =
The following are centers of excellence in research as proclaimed by Presidential Decrees :
National Institute of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology ( BIOTECH )
National Crop Protection Center ( NCPC )
University of the Philippines Los Baños Institute of Plant Breeding ( IPB )
Farming Systems and Soil Resources Institute ( FSSRI )
Institute of Animal Science ( IAS )
Dairy Training and Research Institute ( DTRI )
Institute of Food Science and Technology ( IFST )
Other research centers , extension centers and laboratories , and learning museums include :
Interdisciplinary Studies Centers :
= = = Biotechnology research = = =
UPLB operates a 155 ha ( 380 @-@ acre ) science and technology park . As of February 2010 , the park has hosted four companies engaged in biotechnology . The park serves as a location for the commercialization and application of UP technologies .
One of the earliest innovations of UPLB was the production of CAC 87 sugar cane in 1919 . This high @-@ yielding variety is resistant to fiji and mosaic viruses , and produces more sucrose than other varieties . Its derivatives significantly increased sugar cane production in the Philippines . Between 1921 and 1939 , cattle , poultry , and swine breeding programs produced new breeds , namely the Philamin ( a hybrid of the Hereford , Nellore and native cattle ) , Berkjala ( a variety of the Berkshire and local Jala @-@ Jala pig , resistant to hog cholera ) and the Los Baños Cantonese chicken , which produces more eggs .
Research in the 1960s allowed for the efficient mass production of macapuno ( a type of coconut with jelly @-@ like meat ) , while studies started in 1998 that produced delayed @-@ ripening papaya continue to this day . The research is credited for the increase in Philippine papaya production , with the 75 @,@ 896 @-@ metric @-@ ton ( 83 @,@ 661 @-@ short @-@ ton ) production of 2000 rising to 164 @,@ 100 metric tons ( 180 @,@ 900 short tons ) in 2007 . In 1974 , UPLB researchers discovered mango flower induction by potassium nitrate , making it possible for the fruit to be available all year round . It is credited for tripling yield and for " revolutionizing " the country 's mango industry .
In 2009 , UPLB researchers funded by the Department of Agriculture developed an abacá variety that is resistant to the abaca bunchy top virus . The virus , first detected in 1915 at Silang , Cavite , has since spread to various provinces in the country , and damaged more than 8 @,@ 000 ha ( 20 @,@ 000 acres ) of abacá plantations in 2002 alone . The university is working further to make it resistant to mosaic and abacá bract mosaic viruses .
In July 2010 , UPLB announced that the Leucinodes orbonalis @-@ resistant Bacillus thuringiensis ( Bt ) eggplant variety that it had been developing with Cornell University and Mahyco was ready for commercialization . On 17 February 2011 , Filipino and Indian Greenpeace activists trespassed UPLB 's Bay research farm and uprooted two Bt eggplants and more than 100 non @-@ genetically modified eggplants . The National Academy of Science and Technology and ranking UPLB officials condemned the incident , and have taken legal action .
= = = Biofuel research = = =
Pioneering efforts in biofuel research have been conducted at the university . Studies conducted in the 1930s found that gasoline with 15 @-@ 20 percent ethanol , dubbed " gasanol " , was more efficient than pure gasoline . Biofuel research in 2007 under the National Biofuel Program has considered new sources of biofuel , such as coconuts , Moringa oleifera , and sunflower seeds . Efforts have been concentrated on the Jatropha curcas due to its low maintenance and fast yield . Other fuel , such as coconut biofuel , were found to be too costly . Biofuel from Sorghum bicolor , Manihot esculenta crantz and Chlorella vulgaris are also being studied .
= = Student life = =
In 2008 , 2 @,@ 170 students were housed in the eight dormitories managed by UPLB . In the academic year 2011 – 2012 , fees for all UPLB dormitories increased by at least 25 percent from the previous rate of ₱ 350 ( US $ 8 ) a month . As with the previous dormitory fee increase of 221 percent in 1997 , making the dormitories " financially self @-@ supporting " was one of the reasons cited by the University Housing Office for the revision . The move was widely criticized by various groups . The University Housing Office projects ₱ 13 @,@ 818 @,@ 000 ( US $ 322 @,@ 000 ) in revenue for 2010 with a deficit of ₱ 586 @,@ 465 @.@ 59 ( US $ 13 @,@ 600 ) . according to official estimates . UPLB is currently building two new dormitories with 2 @,@ 000 square metres ( 22 @,@ 000 sq ft ) of floor area . The new dormitories are expected to accommodate 192 persons annually .
= = = Student Organizations = = =
As of December 2012 , there are 175 recognized student organizations in UPLB . Of these , 71 are academic , 15 are cultural , 2 are international , 2 are political , 10 are religious , 24 are socio @-@ civic , 5 are sports and recreational , 21 are varsitarian , while 12 and 13 are fraternities and sororities , respectively . Regional organizations were not recognized by UPLB prior to September 2008 , when the University of the Philippines Board of Regents repealed Chapter 72 Article 444 of the 1984 University of the Philippines Code , which states that " organizations which are provincial , sectional or regional in nature shall not be allowed in the University System . " Likewise , Section 3 of the code states that " the University of the Philippines System is a public , secular , non @-@ profit institution of higher learning . " Due to this , religious organizations have had some difficulty in getting recognized . Only recognized organizations are allowed to use UPLB facilities . The system of student organizations in UPLB is different from that of other UP constituents in that freshmen are not allowed to join any organization until they have earned at least 30 units .
= = = Loyalty Day = = =
Every October 10 , UPLB celebrates Loyalty Day , which has also become UPLB 's alumni homecoming . The celebration commemorates events in 1918 , when more than half of students and faculty ( 193 out of 300 students and 27 out of 32 faculty ) , including two women , enlisted in the Philippine National Guard for service in France during World War I. The volunteers never saw action , as the Allied Forces signed an armistice with Germany during the same year , essentially ending the war .
= = = Feb Fair = = =
The university holds a major campus fair , known as " Feb Fair " , during Valentine 's week . The fair was initially held to express opposition to martial law under Philippine President Ferdinand Marcos , who abolished student organizations and student councils .
= = = Media = = =
The militant UPLB Perspective is the official student publication of UPLB . The university administration has been repeatedly criticized for allegedly interfering in the selection process of its editor @-@ in @-@ chief . Other campus publications include UPLB Horizon and UPLB Link . Meanwhile , the College of Development Communication ( CDC ) publishes the experimental community newspaper Los Baños Times .
CDC runs the radio station DZLB 1116 , the oldest educational radio station in the Philippines . Founded in August 1964 with a broadcast power of 250 watts at 1210 kHz , the station serves as a distance education tool and training facility . It currently operates through a five @-@ kilowatt transmitter located near the main gate of the campus . The station was the 1994 recipient of the KBP Golden Dove Award for Best AM Radio Station as well as a Catholic Mass Media Award for Best Educational Radio Program in 2010 .
= = People = =
People associated with the university include alumni , faculty , and honorary degree recipients . Thirteen of them are National Scientists of the Philippines , namely Clare R. Baltazar , Julian Banzon , Gelia T. Castillo , Pedro Escuro , Francisco Fronda , Bienvenido Juliano , Ricardo Lantican , Eduardo Quisumbing , Dolores Ramirez , Francisco O. Santos , Teodulo Topacio , Dioscoro L. Umali , and Jose R. Velasco . All of them held academic posts in the university , while three of them were College of Agriculture deans .
Cabinet secretaries affiliated with UPLB include Ricardo Gloria ( Science and Technology ) , William Padolina ( Science and Technology ) , Arsenio Balisacan ( Socioeconomic Planning / NEDA ) , Cielito Habito ( Socioeconomic Planning / NEDA ) , Patricia Santo Tomas ( Labor ; Development Bank of the Philippines ) , Domingo Panganiban ( Agriculture ) , and Ramon Paje ( Environment and Natural Resources ) .
Members of Congress who attended UPLB include Teodoro Casiño , Maria Valentina Plaza , Isidro Ungab , Sergio Osmena III and Juan Miguel Zubiri . Nicanor Perlas , an agriculture graduate from UPLB , ran for the Philippine presidential election , 2010 . Both of its honorary degree recipients held influential roles in their respective countries ' politics . They are Salim Ahmed Salim , former Prime Minister of Tanzania , and Sirindhorn , Princess of Thailand .
Emil Q. Javier , president of the University of the Philippines from 1993 to 1999 , and Emerlinda Roman , the first female UP President , graduated from UPLB . Alumni who held ranking administrative posts at other universities include Rommel Banlaoi ( Vice President for Administrative Affairs of National Defense College of the Philippines ) , and Cristina Padolina ( president of Centro Escolar University since 2006 ) .
San Miguel Corporation Chairman Eduardo Cojuangco , Jr. and Enchanted Kingdom owners Cesar and Cynthia Mamon also attended UPLB .
Alumni who are active in the performing arts include composer Nilo Alcala , theater actor Terence Guillermo , and bossa nova singer Sabrina .
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= Uzumaki =
Uzumaki ( Japanese : うずまき , Spiral ) is a seinen horror manga series written and illustrated by Junji Ito . Appearing as a serial in the weekly manga magazine Big Comic Spirits from 1998 to 1999 , the chapters were compiled into three bound volumes by Shogakukan and published from August 1998 to September 1999 . In March 2000 , Shogakukan released an omnibus edition , followed by a second omnibus version in August 2010 . In North America , Viz Media serialized an English @-@ language translation of the series in its monthly magazine Pulp from February 2001 to August 2002 . Viz Media then published the volumes from October 2001 to October 2002 , with a re @-@ release from October 2007 to February 2008 , and published a hardcover omnibus edition in October 2013 .
The series tells the story of the citizens of Kurôzu @-@ cho , a fictional city which is plagued by a supernatural curse involving spirals . The story for Uzumaki originated when Ito attempted to write a story about people living in a very long row house , and he was inspired to use a spiral shape to achieve the desired length . Ito believes the horror of Uzumaki is effective due to its subversion of symbols which are normally positively portrayed in Japanese media , and its Lovecraftian theme of protagonists struggling against a mysterious force stronger than themselves .
The manga was adapted into two video games for the WonderSwan and a Japanese live @-@ action film directed by Higunchinsky . The manga has received generally positive reviews from English @-@ language critics . It was nominated for an Eisner Award in 2003 , and placed in the Young Adult Library Services Association 's list of the " Top 10 Graphic Novels for Teens " in 2009 .
= = Plot = =
Uzumaki follows a high @-@ school teenager Kirie Goshima ( 五島桐絵 ) , her boyfriend Shuichi Saito ( 斎藤秀一 ) , and the citizens of the small , fictional Japanese town of Kurôzu @-@ cho ( 黒渦町 , Black Vortex Town ) , which is cursed by supernatural events involving spirals . As the story progresses , Kirie and Shuichi witness how the spiral curse affects the people around them , causing the citizens to become obsessed or paranoid about spirals . Eventually Kirie is affected by the curse as well , when her hair begins to curl into an unnatural spiral pattern , drains her life energy to hypnotize the citizens , and chokes her whenever she attempts to cut it off . Shuichi is able to cut her hair and save her . The curse continues to plague the town , until a storm conjured by the curse destroys most of its structures . The only remaining buildings are ancient abandoned row houses , which the citizens are forced first to move into , and then begin expanding as they grow more and more crowded .
Kirie and Shuichi devise a plan to escape Kurôzu @-@ cho , but when they attempt to escape , their efforts are unsuccessful . After returning to the town , they discover that several years have passed since they left . The other citizens have expanded the row houses until they connect into a single structure forming a spiral pattern . Kirie and Shuichi decide to search for Kirie 's parents , which brings them to the center of the spiral . At the center , they fall down a pit , within which they discover the corpses of Kirie 's parents and an ancient city completely covered with spiral patterns . Shuichi urges Kirie to move forward and find a way to stop the curse , but she replies that she does not have the strength and wishes to stay with him . The two embrace each other , and their bodies twist and wrap together as a result of the curse . As they lie together , Kirie notes that the curse ended at the same time it began , and concludes that the curse is eternal , and all the events will repeat when a new Kurôzu @-@ cho is built where the previous one laid .
= = Development = =
Uzumaki was written and illustrated by Junji Ito . Junji Ito 's initial desire was to create a story about strange changes that would occur to people living in a very long , traditional Japanese row house . This story would have been based on Ito 's personal experience living in such a house as a child . During the process of finding a way to draw such a long building , Ito was inspired by the shape of a mosquito coil and decided he could make the building long by having it spiral . Ito has noted that the spiral is a " mysterious pattern " and described writing Uzumaki as an attempt to learn the secrets of the spiral . Ito sought inspiration by methods such as staring at spirals , researching spirals , creating spiral patterns by draining water from bath tubs , eating foods with spiral patterns , and raising snails . Looking back on the series in 2006 , Ito stated that while he was still uncertain what the spiral stood for , he thought it might be representative of infinity .
Uzumaki was influenced by the positive representation of spirals in media , which inspired Ito to subvert them to create horror , stating , " Usually spiral patterns mark character ’ s cheeks in Japanese comedy cartoons , representing an effect of warmth . However , I thought it could be used in horror if I drew it a different way . " The story in which Kirie 's hair is cursed by the spiral reflects a recurring theme in Ito 's work in which a heroine 's hair has a life of its own . Ito uses this imagery because it lends itself well to horror due to its association with the Japanese feminine ideal ( Yamato nadeshiko ) , as well as the unnerving flowing motions of long hair , which he describes as snakelike . Ito also noted that horror writer H.P. Lovecraft was one of his inspirations when creating Uzumaki , stating that the gradual development of the spiral curse was patterned on Lovecraft 's storytelling and that " [ Lovecraft 's ] expressionism with regard to atmosphere greatly inspires my creative impulse . "
= = Publication = =
The manga began as a serial in the weekly manga magazine Big Comic Spirits from 1998 to 1999 . Shogakukan compiled the chapters into three bound volumes and published them from August 1998 to September 1999 . To celebrate the release of the live @-@ action film , the manga series was released in an omnibus volume in March 2000 , with an additional " lost " chapter . Shogakukan released another omnibus edition on August 30 , 2010 , with the same content and additional commentary from Masaru Sato .
In North America , Viz Media serialized an English @-@ language translation of the series in its monthly magazine Pulp from the February 2001 issue to the August 2002 issue . It published volumes of the series from October 2001 to October 2002 . Viz Media re @-@ released the series with new covers from October 2007 to February 2008 , and published the omnibus volume in hardcover with twelve color pages on October 13 , 2013 . The series has also been translated into other languages , such as Spanish , French , Brazilian Portuguese , Polish , Swedish , Mandarin , Korean , and Serbian .
Notes
= = Related media = =
= = = Video games = = =
Two video games were developed and published by Omega Micott for the Bandai WonderSwan . The first , Uzumaki : Denshi Kaiki Hen ( うずまき 〜 電視怪奇篇 〜 , Spiral -Power Vision Strange Edition- ) , was released on February 3 , 2000 and is a visual novel retelling the events of the manga . Kirie Goshima 's actor , Erika Hatsune makes a special appearance . The second game , titled Uzumaki : Noroi Simulation ( うずまき 〜 呪いシミュレーション 〜 , Spiral -Curse Simulation- ) , was released on March 4 , 2000 and is a simulation game . Players are tasked by the Uzumaki Sennin ( うずまき仙人 , Spiral Master ) to spread the spiral curse . The objective is to spread the curse across the town and find hidden objects to gain more " Spiral Power " and progress the story . The title also includes a mini @-@ game involving one of the snail @-@ human hybrids .
= = = Live @-@ action film = = =
In 2000 , a live @-@ action adaptation of Uzumaki was released in Japan . Directed by Higunchinsky , it featured Eriko Hatsune as Kirie Goshima , Shin Eun @-@ kyung as Chie Maruyama , Fhi Fan as Shuichi Saito , Keiko Takahashi as Yukie Saito , Ren Osugi as Toshio Saito , and Hinako Saeki as Kyoko Sekino . The film consists of four parts ( " A Premonition " , " Erosion " , " Visitation " , and " Transmigration " ) , and as a result of being produced before the manga 's conclusion , uses a different ending than the manga . The film received a 54 percent approval rating on the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes , with the general consensus that " Uzumaki uses its creepy , David Lynch @-@ inspired atmospherics to effectively build a sense of dread , but ultimately fails to do anything with it . "
= = Reception = =
Uzumaki was nominated for an Eisner Award in the category of " Best U.S. Edition of Foreign Material " in 2003 . The Young Adult Library Services Association chose the first volume for its list of the " Top 10 Great Graphic Novels for Teens " in 2009 . The manga was also included on its list of the 53 " Great Graphic Novels for Teens " . Viz Media 's Deluxe edition ranked # 172 in Diamond 's Top 300 Graphic Novels on October 2013 with a total of 784 copies sold . IGN placed Uzumaki at # 2 under their " Top 10 Horror / Thriller Manga " list . About.com 's Deb Aoki placed Uzumaki in her list of recommended horror manga , describing it as a classic of the genre . Uzumaki appeared in 1001 Comics You Must Read Before You Die ( 2011 ) , and the reviewer wrote that it reminded him of the works of H.P. Lovecraft . MyM magazine praised the manga , calling it " one of the scariest manga series around . "
In Manga : The Complete Guide ( 2007 ) , Jason Thompson gave Uzumaki three and a half stars , and wrote that , taken as a whole , the manga succeeds as " an elegant and sometimes blackly humorous story of dreamlike logic and nihilism . " Thompson featured the manga again in his House of 1000 Manga blog , praising it for its originality , in that it revolved around " a certain nightmarish , fatalistic way of looking at the world " . Comics Alliance author and comic artist , Sara Horrocks , also praised the manga , stating " What makes Uzumaki such a strong work is how precise it is in it ’ s mechanics . It is meticulous in the way that a curse might be . "
For the first volume , Theron Martin from Anime News Network gave it a ' B ' , praising the art style and character designs , including Viz Media 's new cover design . He stated , however , that " some of the attempts at horror get too preposterous for their own good . " Greg Hackmann of Mania it an A , and praising both its " well @-@ honed " art and Ito 's ability to form an effective overarching plot out of Uzumaki 's loosely connected substories . Barb Lien @-@ Cooper of Sequential Tart gave it a 7 out of 10 , stating " The art is clean and simple . It works to help maintain the paranoia . The tone and pacing of this story are also just right . Altogether , one of the better horror stories I 've read this year . " Ken Haley of PopCultureShock gave it an ' A ' and praised Ito 's effective use of body horror , though he noted that some of the curse 's effects were more humorous than frightening .
For the second volume , Lien @-@ Cooper gave it 8 out of 10 stating , " What astounds me about Junji Ito 's work is its deceptive simplicity and its flawless execution . " Sheena McNeil , also from Sequential Tart , instead gave it a 9 out of 10 , citing the novel effects of the curse Ito invented . Hackmann , however , gave it a ' B ' , explaining that " Unfortunately , this shift in story format is largely a failed experiment : with the overarching escape storyline put on hiatus , a good number of these disconnected episodes degenerate into simple , " lookit , weird stuff happening " horrorfests that lack much of the creative spark exhibited throughout the first Uzumaki collection . "
When reviewing the third and final volume , Haley again gave it an ' A ' , praising Junji Ito for providing answers to questions previously asked but not answered in a heavy or mundane form . Lien @-@ Cooper gave the conclusion a 6 out of 10 , and criticized the initial ending as nonsensical and the expanded background given in " Galaxies " as uninteresting .
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= Show Boat =
Show Boat is a 1927 musical in two acts , with music by Jerome Kern and book and lyrics by Oscar Hammerstein II . Based on Edna Ferber 's best @-@ selling novel of the same name , the musical follows the lives of the performers , stagehands and dock workers on the Cotton Blossom , a Mississippi River show boat , over 40 years , from 1887 to 1927 . Its themes include racial prejudice and tragic , enduring love . The musical contributed such classic songs as " Ol ' Man River " , " Make Believe " and " Can 't Help Lovin ' Dat Man " .
The premiere of Show Boat on Broadway was a watershed moment in the history of American musicals . Compared to the trivial and unrealistic operettas , light musical comedies and " Follies " -type musical revues that defined Broadway in the 1890s and early 20th century , Show Boat " was a radical departure in musical storytelling , marrying spectacle with seriousness " . According to The Complete Book of Light Opera :
Here we come to a completely new genre – the musical play as distinguished from musical comedy . Now ... the play was the thing , and everything else was subservient to that play . Now ... came complete integration of song , humor and production numbers into a single and inextricable artistic entity .
The quality of the musical was recognized immediately by the critics , and Show Boat is frequently revived . Awards for Broadway shows did not exist in 1927 when the original production of the show premiered , nor in 1932 , when its first revival was staged . Late 20th @-@ century revivals of Show Boat have won both the Tony Award for Best Revival of a Musical ( 1995 ) and the Laurence Olivier Award for Best Musical Revival ( 1991 ) .
= = Background = =
In doing research for her proposed novel Show Boat , writer Edna Ferber spent several weeks on the James Adams Floating Palace Theatre in Bath , North Carolina , gathering material about a disappearing American entertainment venue , the river showboat . In a few weeks , she gained what she called a " treasure trove of show @-@ boat material , human , touching , true " . Jerome Kern was impressed by the novel and , hoping to adapt it as a musical , asked the critic Alexander Woollcott to introduce him to Ferber in October 1926 . Woollcott introduced them that evening during the intermission of Kern 's latest musical , Criss Cross .
Ferber was at first shocked that anyone would want to adapt Show Boat as a musical . After being assured by Kern that he did not want to adapt it as the typical frivolous " girlie " show of the 1920s , she granted him and his collaborator Oscar Hammerstein II the rights to set her novel to music . After composing most of the first @-@ act songs , Kern and Hammerstein auditioned their material for producer Florenz Ziegfeld , thinking that he was the person to create the elaborate production they felt necessary for Ferber 's sprawling work . Ziegfeld was impressed with the show and agreed to produce it , writing the next day , " This is the best musical comedy I have ever been fortunate to get a hold of ; I am thrilled to produce it , this show is the opportunity of my life ... " Show Boat , with its serious and dramatic nature , was considered an unusual choice for Ziegfeld , previously known mainly for revues such as the Ziegfeld Follies .
Though Ziegfeld anticipated opening his new theatre on Sixth Avenue with Show Boat , the epic nature of the work required an unusually long gestation period and extensive changes during out @-@ of @-@ town tryouts . Impatient with Kern and Hammerstein and worried about their keeping too serious tone ( he strongly disliked the songs Ol ' Man River and Mis 'ry 's Comin ' Around ) , Ziegfeld decided to open his theatre in February 1927 with Rio Rita , a musical by Kern 's collaborator Guy Bolton . When Rio Rita proved to be a success , Show Boat 's Broadway opening was delayed until Rita could be moved to another theatre .
= = Synopsis = =
Note : Although the basic plot of Show Boat has always remained the same , over the years revisions and alterations were made by the creators , and over time by subsequent producers and directors . Some of these revisions were for length and some for convenience , as when a different actor played a certain role and was unable to perform a specialty piece written for the role 's creator . Some have been made to reflect contemporary sensitivities toward race , gender and other social issues .
Act I
In 1887 , the show boat Cotton Blossom arrives at the river dock in Natchez , Mississippi . The Reconstruction era had ended a decade earlier , and white @-@ dominated Southern legislatures have imposed racial segregation and Jim Crow rules . The boat 's owner , Cap 'n Andy Hawks , introduces his actors to the crowd on the levee . A fistfight breaks out between Steve Baker , the leading man of the troupe , and Pete , a rough engineer who had been making passes at Steve 's wife , the leading lady Julie La Verne , a mixed @-@ race woman who passes as white . Steve knocks Pete down , and Pete swears revenge , suggesting he knows a dark secret about Julie . Cap 'n Andy pretends to the shocked crowd that the fight was a preview of one of the melodramas to be performed . The troupe exits with the showboat band , and the crowd follows .
A handsome riverboat gambler , Gaylord Ravenal , appears on the levee and is taken with eighteen @-@ year @-@ old Magnolia ( " Nolie " ) Hawks , an aspiring performer and the daughter of Cap 'n Andy and his wife Parthenia Ann ( Parthy ) . Magnolia is likewise smitten with Ravenal ( " Make Believe " ) . She seeks advice from Joe , a black dock worker aboard the boat , who has returned from buying flour for his wife Queenie , the ship 's cook . He replies that there are " lots like [ Ravenal ] on the river . " As Magnolia goes inside the boat to tell her friend Julie about the handsome stranger , Joe mutters that she ought to ask the river for advice . He and the other dock workers reflect on the wisdom and indifference of " Ol ' Man River " , who doesn 't seem to care what the world 's troubles are , but " jes ' keeps rollin ' along " .
Magnolia finds Julie inside and announces that she 's in love . Julie cautions her that this stranger could be just a " no @-@ account river fellow " . Magnolia says that if she found out he was " no @-@ account " , she 'd stop loving him . Julie warns her that it 's not that easy to stop loving someone , explaining that she 'll always love Steve , singing a few lines of " Can 't Help Lovin ' Dat Man " . Queenie overhears – she is surprised that Julie knows that song as she has only heard " colored folks " sing it . Magnolia remarks that Julie sings it all the time , and when Queenie asks if she can sing the entire song , Julie obliges .
During the rehearsal for that evening , Julie and Steve learn that the town sheriff is coming to arrest them . Steve takes out a large pocket knife and makes a cut on the back of her hand , sucking the blood and swallowing it . Pete returns with the sheriff , who insists that the show cannot proceed , because Julie is a mulatto woman married to a white man , and local laws prohibit such miscegenation . Julie admits that her mother was black , but Steve tells the sheriff that he also has " black blood " in him , so their marriage is legal in Mississippi . The troupe backs him up , boosted by the ship 's pilot Windy McClain , a longtime friend of the sheriff . The couple have escaped the charge of miscegenation , but they still have to leave the show boat ; identified as black , they can no longer perform for the segregated white audience . Cap 'n Andy fires Pete , but in spite of his sympathy for Julie and Steve , he cannot violate the law for them .
Gaylord Ravenal returns and asks for passage on the boat . Andy hires him as the new leading man , and assigns his daughter Magnolia as the new leading lady , over her mother 's objections . As Magnolia and Ravenal begin to rehearse their roles and in the process , kiss for the first time ( infuriating Parthy ) , Joe reprises the last few lines of " Ol ' Man River " .
Weeks later , Magnolia and Ravenal have been a hit with the crowds and have fallen in love . As the levee workers hum " Ol ' Man River " in the background , he proposes to Magnolia , and she accepts . The couple joyously sings " You Are Love " . They make plans to marry the next day while Parthy , who disapproves , is out of town . Parthy has discovered that Ravenal once killed a man , and arrives with the Sheriff to interrupt the wedding festivities . The group learns that Ravenal was acquitted of murder . Cap 'n Andy calls Parthy " narrow @-@ minded " and defends Ravenal by announcing that he also once killed a man . Parthy faints , but the ceremony proceeds .
Act II
Six years have passed , and it is 1893 . Gaylord and Magnolia have moved to Chicago , where they make a precarious living from Gaylord 's gambling . At first they are rich and enjoying the good life , singing the song " Why Do I Love You ? " By 1903 , they have a daughter , Kim , and after years of varying income , they are broke and rent a room in a boarding house . Depressed over his inability to support his family , Gaylord abandons Magnolia and Kim . Frank and Ellie , two former actors from the showboat , learn that Magnolia is living in the rooms they want to rent . The old friends seek a singing job for Magnolia at the Trocadero , the club where they are doing a New Year 's show . Julie is working there . She has fallen into drinking after having been abandoned by Steve . At a rehearsal , she tries out the new song " Bill . " She appears to be thinking of Steve and sings it with great emotion . From her dressing @-@ room , she hears Magnolia singing " Can 't Help Lovin ' Dat Man " for her audition , the song which Julie taught her years ago . Julie secretly quits her job so that Magnolia can fill it , without learning of her sacrifice .
On New Year 's Eve , Andy and Parthy go to Chicago for a surprise visit to their daughter Magnolia . He goes to the Trocadero without his wife , and sees Magnolia overcome with emotion and nearly booed off stage . Andy rallies the crowd by starting a sing @-@ along of the standard , " After the Ball " . Magnolia becomes a great musical star .
More than 20 years pass , and it is 1927 . An aged Joe on the Cotton Blossom sings a reprise of " Ol ' Man River " . Cap 'n Andy has a chance meeting with Ravenal and arranges his reunion with Magnolia . Andy knows that Magnolia is retiring and returning to the Cotton Blossom with Kim , who has become a Broadway star . Kim gives her admirers a taste of her performing abilities by singing an updated , Charleston version of " Why Do I Love You ? " Ravenal sings a reprise of " You Are Love " to the offstage Magnolia . Although he is uncertain about asking her to take him back , Magnolia , who has never stopped loving him , greets him warmly and does . As the happy couple walks up the boat 's gangplank , Joe and the cast sing the last verse of " Ol ' Man River " .
Plot variants in 1951 film
The 1951 MGM film changed the final scenes of the story , as well as many small details . It reconciled Ravenal and Magnolia a few years after they separated , rather than 23 . By a chance meeting with Julie , Ravenal learns that Magnolia gave birth to his daughter . He returns to her and sees the child Kim playing . Magnolia sees them together and takes him back , and the family returns to the show boat . Joe and the chorus start singing " Ol ' Man River " as the scenes unfold , then the paddlewheel starts turning in tempo with the music , as the ship heads down river . Julie is shown , viewing from a distance . She had watched the scene from the shadows .
= = Musical numbers = =
The musical numbers in the original production were as follows :
= = = History of revisions = = =
The original production ran four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half hours during tryouts , but was trimmed to just over three by the time it got to Broadway . During previews , two songs , " Mis 'ry 's Comin ' Aroun " and " Let 's Start the New Year " , were cut from the show . " Mis 'ry 's Comin ' Aroun " was published in the complete vocal score , and fragments of it are also heard in the scoring , notably in the original 1927 overture and in the miscegenation scene . The song " Be Happy , Too " was also cut after the Washington , D.C. , tryout The 1988 studio cast album reinstated the entire song , and it was also included in the 1994 Hal Prince revival . " Let 's Start the New Year " was performed in the 1989 Paper Mill Playhouse production .
Two songs , " Till Good Luck Comes My Way " ( sung by Ravenal ) and " Hey Feller ! " ( sung by Queenie ) , were written mainly to cover scenery changes . They were discarded beginning with the 1946 revival , although " Till Good Luck " was included in the 1993 Harold Prince revival of the show . The comedy song , " I Might Fall Back On You , " was also cut beginning in 1946 . It was restored in the 1951 film version and several stage productions since the 1980s . On record , " Hey Feller ! " appears only on the 1988 EMI album . Kern and Hammerstein wrote two new songs for revivals and three more for the 1936 film version .
The Harold Fielding production in London in the early 1970s claimed to use the entire original score , but it omitted " Hey , Feller ! " and " In Dahomey " , among others . This cast album broke ground in being the first two @-@ LP version of Show Boat ever released .
The score also includes four songs not originally written for Show Boat : " Bill " was originally written by Kern and P. G. Wodehouse in 1917 and was reworked by Hammerstein for Show Boat . Two other songs not by Kern and Hammerstein , " Goodbye , My Lady Love " by Joseph E. Howard and " After the Ball " by Charles K. Harris , were included by the authors for historical atmosphere and are included in revivals . The New Year 's Eve scene features an instrumental version of " There 'll Be a Hot Time in the Old Town Tonight " .
Some of the following numbers have been cut or revised in subsequent productions , as noted below ( the songs " Ol ' Man River " , " Can 't Help Lovin ' Dat Man " , and " Bill " have been included in every stage and film production of Show Boat ) :
Overture – The original overture , used in all stage productions up to 1946 ( and heard on the three @-@ disc EMI / Angel CD for the first time in nearly 50 years ) , is based chiefly on the deleted song " Mis 'ry 's Comin ' Round " , as Kern wanted to save this song in some form . The song was restored in the Harold Prince 1994 revival of the show . The overture also contains fragments of " Ol ' Man River " , " Can 't Help Lovin ' Dat Man " , and a faster arrangement of " Why Do I Love You ? " The overtures for the 1946 revival and the 1966 Lincoln Center revival consist of medleys of songs from the show . All three overtures were arranged by the show 's orchestrator , Robert Russell Bennett , who orchestrated most of Kern 's later shows .
" Cotton Blossom " – This number is performed in all the stage productions , and shorter versions were used in the 1936 and 1951 film versions . It was not used in the 1929 film version .
" Where 's the Mate for Me ? " – Ravenal 's first song ; heard in all stage versions , partially sung in the 1936 film version , and sung complete in the 1951 film version . Not sung in the 1929 film version .
" Make Believe " – Performed in all stage versions , and in the 1936 and 1951 film versions , but not the 1929 film version .
" Life Upon the Wicked Stage " – This comic song is usually included in stage versions , but is heard in the 1936 film only in the orchestral score . Not included in the 1929 film , it is sung and danced in the 1951 film version .
" Till Good Luck Comes My Way " – Kern and Hammerstein cut it from the 1946 revival , but it was reinstated in the 1971 London stage revival . It is performed instrumentally in the 1936 film , and is omitted altogether in the 1929 and 1951 films .
" I Might Fall Back on You " – This was usually cut after 1946 , but it has been reinstated in revivals beginning in 1966 . It was absent from the 1929 and 1936 films , but included in the 1951 film .
" C 'mon Folks ( Queenie 's Ballyhoo ) " – Always included in the show , it was sung in the prologue to the 1929 film version , It was omitted from the 1936 film and performed instrumentally in the 1951 film .
" Olio Dance " – This is rarely performed now , since it was composed simply to cover a change of scenery . It is an orchestral piece that partially uses the melody of " I Might Fall Back on You " , and can be heard on the EMI 3 @-@ CD album ( as " Villain Dance " ) . The 1936 film substituted the new Kern @-@ Hammerstein number " Gallivantin ' Around " , performed as an olio by Irene Dunne ( as Magnolia ) in blackface . It was omitted from the 1989 PBS Paper Mill Playhouse production . Some modern productions move the song " I Might Fall Back on You " to this spot .
" You Are Love " – Kern considered this popular waltz to be the score 's weakest song : he tried unsuccessfully to eliminate it from the 1936 film version . It has never been cut from any stage production . It was shortened , and the introductory section was omitted , in both the 1936 and the 1951 films . It was not performed in the 1929 film .
" Act I Finale " – This was shortened in the 1936 film and omitted from the 1929 and 1951 films . Its midsection , banjo @-@ dominant , buck @-@ and @-@ wing dance theme became a repeating motif in the 1951 film , played onstage during the backstage miscegenation scene , and later as a soft @-@ shoe dance for Cap 'n Andy and granddaughter Kim .
" At the Chicago World 's Fair " – Used in all stage productions except for the Harold Prince 1994 revival , it was omitted from all the film versions , but an instrumental version was performed in the 1936 film .
" Why Do I Love You ? " – Used in all stage versions , this number was sung during the exit music to the 1929 film ; it was performed only as background music for the 1936 film , and was sung in the 1951 film version . In the 1994 Hal Prince revival , it was sung by Parthy .
" In Dahomey " – This was cut from the score after the 1946 Broadway production and has not been revived since due to its being potentially offensive , as well as unnecessary to the plot . It is sung at the Chicago World 's Fair by a group of supposedly African natives . They chant in a supposed African language before breaking into modern English , singing about how glad they are to return to their apartments after the day 's performance . It was not used in any film version of the show , but was included in the complete 1988 EMI recording and in a 1993 studio recording on the Jay label of the 1946 score .
" Goodbye , My Lady Love " – This is used only in American productions . It is included in the 1936 film , but not in the 1929 or 1951 films .
" After the Ball " – Performed in all stage productions and in both the 1936 and 1951 films , but not the 1929 one .
" Hey , Feller " – Used in nearly all stage productions up until 1946 , and sung in the prologue to the 1929 film . Not used in the 1936 film , but used as background score in the 1951 film during the opening post @-@ credits scene as the show boat arrives .
Additional numbers have been included in films and revivals as follows :
" Mis 'ry 's Comin ' Round " – Though this was cut from the original production , Kern ensured that it was published in the complete vocal score . The 1988 album reinstated it , and it was also included in the 1994 Hal Prince revival .
" Let 's Start the New Year " – Cut from the original production but performed in the 1989 Paper Mill Playhouse production .
" I Have The Room Above Her " is a romantic duet written by Kern and Hammerstein for Ravenal and Magnolia in the 1936 film . It was included in the 1994 Broadway revival .
" Gallivantin ' Around " is a cakewalk @-@ style number written by Kern and Hammerstein for Magnolia for the 1936 film .
" Ah Still Suits Me " is a comic duet written by Kern and Hammerstein for the 1936 film , and sung by the characters Joe and Queenie ( Paul Robeson and Hattie McDaniel ) . The number was also included in the 1989 Paper Mill Playhouse production .
" Nobody Else But Me " was written by Kern and Hammerstein for the 1946 Broadway revival , to be sung in the spot where Kim usually sings a reprise of " Why Do I Love You " . This was the last song written by Kern ; he died shortly before the 1946 production opened . In the 1971 London stage revival , the song was sung by Julie , in a new scene written especially for that production . It is not sung in any film version of the show , but was frequently heard in stage revivals up until about the 1980s .
" Dandies on Parade " is a dance number arranged for the 1994 Broadway production by David Krane , largely from Kern 's music .
= = Characters = =
= = = Principal roles = = =
Cap 'n Andy Hawks , the owner and captain of the Cotton Blossom show boat . He is the husband of Parthy Ann , and the father of Magnolia .
Magnolia Hawks , the daughter of Parthy and Cap 'n Andy . She marries Gaylord Ravenal and becomes the mother of Kim .
Gaylord Ravenal , a handsome river boat gambler . Later , the husband of Magnolia and father of Kim .
Julie La Verne , the leading lady of the troupe and the wife of Steve .
Steve Baker , the leading man of the Cotton Blossom and protective husband of Julie .
Parthy Ann Hawks , the stern wife of Cap 'n Andy .
Pete , the tough engineer of the Cotton Blossom who tries to flirt with Julie .
Joe , a dock worker on the boat , and the husband of Queenie .
Queenie , the ship 's cook and the wife of Joe .
Frank Schultz , a performer on the boat who often plays the villain characters . He is married to Ellie .
Ellie , a singer and dancer in an act with her husband Frank ..
Kim , the daughter of Magnolia and Gaylord .
Windy McClain , the pilot of the Cotton Blossom .
= = = Minor characters = = =
The Sheriff , the Stevedores , the Townspeople , the Dandies , the Dockworkers , the Gals , the Flappers , the Nuns , the Chorus , the Sightseers , the Barkers , the Jubilee Singers and Dahomey Dancers are all somewhat of ensemble parts . The Sheriff incriminates Julie and Steve by order of Pete . The Stevedores are the workers and performers of the Cotton Blossom . The Townspeople sing the opening song and others , and watch the performances of the show boat . The Dandies sing " At the Fair " with the Sightseers and Barkers . The Dockworkers sing with Joe in all the versions of " Ol ' Man River " . The Gals back up Frank and Ellie in most of their songs , including " I Might Fall Back on You " . The Flappers back up Kim during " Why Do I Love You ? ( reprise ) " . The Nuns sing " Nuns ' Processional " . The Chorus sings at Magnolia and Ravenal 's wedding . The Jubilee Singers and Dahomey Dancers sing " In Dahomey " .
= = Production history = =
= = = Original 1927 production = = =
Show Boat premiered in New York on December 27 , 1927 . Ziegfeld previewed the production in a pre @-@ Broadway tour from November 15 to December 19 , 1927 . The locations included the National Theatre in Washington , D.C. , the Nixon Theatre in Pittsburgh , the Ohio Theatre in Cleveland , and the Erlanger Theatre in Philadelphia . The show opened on Broadway at the Ziegfeld Theatre on December 27 , 1927 . The critics were immediately enthusiastic , and the show was a great popular success , running a year and a half , for a total of 572 performances .
The production was staged by Oscar Hammerstein II . Choreography for the show was by Sammy Lee . The original cast included Norma Terris as Magnolia Hawks and her daughter Kim ( as an adult ) , Howard Marsh as Gaylord Ravenal , Helen Morgan as Julie LaVerne , Jules Bledsoe as Joe , Charles Winninger as Cap 'n Andy Hawks , Edna May Oliver as Parthy Ann Hawks , Sammy White as Frank Schultz , Eva Puck as Ellie May Chipley , and Tess Gardella as Queenie . The orchestrator was Robert Russell Bennett , and the conductor was Victor Baravalle . The scenic design for the original production was by Joseph Urban , who had worked with Ziegfeld for many years in his Follies and had designed the elaborate new Ziegfeld Theatre itself . Costumes were designed by John Harkrider .
In his opening night review for the New York Times , Brooks Atkinson called the book 's adaptation " intelligently made " , and the production one of " unimpeachable skill and taste " . He termed Norma Terris " a revelation " ; Charles Winninger " extraordinarily persuasive and convincing " ; and Jules Bledsoe 's singing " remarkably effective " .
= = = Paul Robeson = = =
The character Joe , the stevedore who sings " Ol ' Man River " , was expanded from the novel and written specifically by Kern and Hammerstein for Paul Robeson , already a noted actor and singer . Although he is the actor most identified with the role and the song , he was unavailable for the original production due to its opening delay . Jules Bledsoe premiered the part . Robeson played Joe in four notable productions of Show Boat : the 1928 premier London production , the 1932 Broadway revival , the 1936 film version and a 1940 stage revival in Los Angeles .
Reviewing the 1932 Broadway revival , the critic Brooks Atkinson described Robeson 's performance : " Mr. Robeson has a touch of genius . It is not merely his voice , which is one of the richest organs on the stage . It is his understanding that gives ' Old Man River ' an epic lift . When he sings ... you realize that Jerome Kern 's spiritual has reached its final expression . "
= = = American revivals and 1936 film = = =
After closing at the Ziegfeld Theatre in 1929 , the original production toured extensively . The national company is notable for including Irene Dunne as Magnolia . Hattie McDaniel played Queenie in a 1933 West Coast production , joined by tenor Allan Jones as Ravenal .
Dunne was soon offered a contract by RKO Studios and appeared in the 1936 Universal Studios film adaptation of Show Boat , as did Jones as Ravenal and McDaniel as Queenie . The film also featured Charles Winninger ( Cap 'n Andy ) , Helen Morgan ( Julie ) , Sammy White ( Frank ) , and Francis X. Mahoney ( Rubberface ) recreating their original Broadway stage roles .
Show Boat was revived by Ziegfeld on Broadway in 1932 at the Casino Theatre with most of the original cast , but with Paul Robeson as Joe and Dennis King as Ravenal .
In 1946 , a major new Broadway revival was produced by Jerome Kern and Oscar Hammerstein II at the show 's original home , the Ziegfeld Theatre . The 1946 revival featured a revised score and new song by Kern and Hammerstein , and a new overture and orchestrations by Robert Russell Bennett . The show was directed by Hammerstein and Hassard Short and featured Jan Clayton ( Magnolia ) , Charles Fredricks ( Ravenal ) , Carol Bruce ( Julie ) , Kenneth Spencer ( Joe ) , Helen Dowdy ( Queenie ) , and Buddy Ebsen ( Frank ) . The successful production ran for 418 performances and then toured extensively . Kern , however , died just weeks before the January 5 , 1946 opening , making it the last show he worked on .
Additional New York revivals were produced in 1948 and 1954 at the New York City Center . The Music Theater of Lincoln Center company produced Show Boat in 1966 at the New York State Theater in a new production . It starred Barbara Cook ( Magnolia ) , Constance Towers ( Julie ) , Stephen Douglass ( Ravenal ) , David Wayne ( Cap 'n Andy ) , Margaret Hamilton ( Parthy ) and William Warfield ( Joe ) . It was produced by Richard Rodgers , and Robert Russell Bennett once again provided a new overture and revised orchestrations .
1983 brought a production at the Kennedy Center , Washington , D.C. , that starred Mickey Rooney as Cap 'n Andy , and another at the Uris Theatre in New York . The latter revival was presented by Douglas Urbanski and starred Donald O 'Connor as Cap 'n Andy .
In 1989 the Paper Mill Playhouse of Millburn , New Jersey , mounted a production which was noted for its intention to restore the show in accordance with the creators ' original intentions . The production restored part of the original 1927 overture and one number discarded from the show after the Broadway opening , as well as the song Ah Still Suits Me , written by Kern and Hammerstein for the 1936 film version . It was directed by Robert Johanson and starred Eddie Bracken as Cap 'n Andy . The Paper Mill production was preserved on videotape and broadcast on PBS .
Livent Inc. presented the most recent major production of Show Boat on Broadway in 1994 . Produced and directed by Harold Prince , it premiered in Toronto , Ontario , in 1993 prior to opening in New York on October 2 , 1994 , at the George Gershwin Theatre . It ran for 947 performances , Broadway 's longest @-@ running Show Boat to date . This production went on tour , playing at the Kennedy Center ; and it was also staged in London and Melbourne , Australia . Prince 's production revived interest in the show by tightening the book , dropping and adding songs cut in various productions , and highlighting its racial elements . Perhaps the most notable change in the score was Prince 's transforming " Why Do I Love You ? " from a duet between Magnolia and Ravenal to a lullaby sung by Parthy Ann to Magnolia 's baby girl . The change was partly to accommodate the song 's being performed by stage actress Elaine Stritch . The love duet for Magnolia and Ravenal , " I Have the Room Above Her " , originally written by Kern and Hammerstein for the 1936 film , was added to the production . Two new mime and dance " Montages " in Act 2 depicted the passage of time through changing styles of dance and music .
= = = London productions = = =
The original London West End production opened May 3 , 1928 , at the Theatre Royal , Drury Lane and featured among the cast , Cedric Hardwicke as Capt. Andy , Edith Day as Magnolia , Paul Robeson as Joe , and Alberta Hunter as Queenie . Mabel Mercer , later famed as a cabaret singer , was in the chorus . Other West End presentations include a 1971 production at the Adelphi Theatre , which ran for 909 performances .
The Hal Prince production ran at the Prince Edward Theatre in 1998 , and was nominated for the Olivier Award , Outstanding Musical Production ( 1999 ) . Other notable revivals in England have included the joint Opera North / Royal Shakespeare Company production of 1989 , which ran at the London Palladium in 1990 , and the 2006 production directed by Francesca Zambello , presented by Raymond Gubbay at London 's Royal Albert Hall . It was the first fully staged musical production in the history of that venue .
A production was transferred from Sheffield 's Crucible Theatre to London 's New London Theatre with previews beginning on April 9 , 2016 , and an official opening on April 25 , 2016 . Show Boat is directed by Daniel Evans using the Goodspeed Musicals version of the show . The cast includes Gina Beck as Magnolia , Lucy Briers as Parthy Ann and Malcolm Sinclair as Cap 'n Andy . Despite very favorable reviews , the show is scheduled to close at the end of August 2016 .
= = Media = =
= = = Film and television = = =
Show Boat has been adapted for film three times , and for television once .
1929 Show Boat . Universal . Released in silent and partial sound versions . Not a film version of the musical ; its plot is based on the original Edna Ferber novel . Immediately after the silent film was completed , a prologue with some music from the show was filmed and added to a part @-@ talkie version of the same film , which was released with two sound sequences .
1936 Show Boat . Universal . Directed by James Whale . A mostly faithful film version of the show , featuring four members of the original Broadway cast . Screenplay by Oscar Hammerstein II ; music arrangements by Robert Russell Bennett ; music direction and conducting by Victor Baraville .
1946 Till the Clouds Roll By . MGM . In this fictionalized film biography of composer Jerome Kern ( played by Robert Walker ) , Show Boat 's 1927 opening night on Broadway is depicted in a lavishly staged fifteen @-@ minute medley of six of the show 's songs . The number features Kathryn Grayson , Tony Martin , Lena Horne , Virginia O 'Brien , Caleb Peterson , and William Halligan as , respectively , Magnolia , Ravenal , Julie , Ellie , Joe , and Cap 'n Andy .
1951 Show Boat . MGM . Somewhat revised Technicolor film version . Follows the basic storyline and contains many songs from the show , but makes many changes in the details of plot and character . The most financially successful and frequently revived of the three film versions .
1989 A live performance by the Paper Mill Playhouse was videotaped for television and shown on Great Performances on PBS . It contains more of the songs ( and fewer cuts ) than any of the film versions . It includes the choral number " Let 's Start the New Year " , which was dropped from the show before its Broadway opening , and " Ah Still Suits Me " , a song written by Kern and Hammerstein for the 1936 film version of the show .
= = = Radio = = =
Show Boat was adapted for live radio at least seven times . Due to network censorship rules , many of the radio productions eliminated the miscegenation aspect of the plot . Notable exceptions were the 1940 Cavalcade of America broadcast and the 1952 Lux Radio Theatre broadcast .
Campbell Playhouse ( CBS Radio , March 31 , 1939 ) . Directed and introduced by Orson Welles . This was a non @-@ musical version of the story that was based more closely on Edna Ferber 's novel than on the musical . From the original stage cast Helen Morgan repeated her portrayal of Julie , here singing one song not from the musical . Welles portrayed Cap 'n Andy , Margaret Sullavan was Magnolia , and author Edna Ferber made her acting debut as Parthy . This version made Julie into an illegal alien who must be deported .
Cavalcade of America ( NBC Radio , May 28 , 1940 ) . A half @-@ hour dramatization with Jeanette Nolan , John McIntire , Agnes Moorehead and the Ken Christy Chorus . Although brief , it was remarkably faithful to the original show .
Lux Radio Theatre ( CBS , June 1940 ) . Introduced and produced by Cecil B. DeMille , it featured Irene Dunne , Allan Jones , and Charles Winninger , all of whom were in the 1936 film version . In this condensed version some songs from the show were sung , but Julie was played by a non @-@ singing Gloria Holden . This version made the biracial Julie a single woman . Only a few lines of Ol ' Man River were heard , sung by a chorus . While supposedly based on the 1936 film , this production used the ending of the original show , which the film did not use .
Radio Hall of Fame ( 1944 ) . This production featured Kathryn Grayson , playing Magnolia for the first time . Also in the cast were Allan Jones as Ravenal , Helen Forrest as Julie , Charles Winninger as Cap 'n Andy , Ernest Whitman as Joe , and Elvia Allman as Parthy .
The Railroad Hour ( ABC Radio , 1950 ) . Condensed to a half @-@ hour , this version featured singers Dorothy Kirsten , Gordon MacRae , and Lucille Norman . " Ol ' Man River " was sung by MacRae instead of by an African @-@ American singer . Explanation of Julie and Steve 's departure went completely unmentioned in this version .
Lux Radio Theatre ( CBS , February 1952 ) . A radio version of the 1951 MGM film featuring Kathryn Grayson , Ava Gardner , Howard Keel , and William Warfield from the film 's cast . Jay C. Flippen portrayed Cap 'n Andy . This version was extremely faithful to the 1951 film adaptation .
In 2011 , a two @-@ part version was broadcast on BBC Radio 4 in the Classic Serial spot . Solely based on the novel by Edna Ferber , it was dramatized by Moya O 'Shea , and was produced and directed by Tracey Neale . It starred Samantha Spiro as Magnolia , Ryan McCluskey as Ravenal , Nonso Anozie as Joe , Tracy Ifeachor as Queenie , Laurel Lefkow as Parthy , Morgan Deare as Cap 'n Andy and Lysette Anthony as Kim . Original music was by Neil Brand .
On June 16 , 2012 , a revival of the musical by Lyric Opera of Chicago was broadcast by WFMT @-@ Radio of Chicago . This production of Show Boat reinstated the songs Mis 'ry 's Comin ' Round , Till Good Luck Comes My Way and Hey , Feller ! . It marked the first time a virtually complete version of Show Boat had ever been broadcast on radio .
= = = Concert hall = = =
In 1941 , the Cleveland Orchestra , under the direction of Artur Rodziński , premiered the orchestral work Show Boat : A Scenario for Orchestra , a 22 @-@ minute orchestral work weaving together many themes from the show . Rodziński and the orchestra recorded it that same year , and there have been several modern recordings of the work since , notably one by John Mauceri and the Hollywood Bowl Orchestra .
= = = Selected recordings = = =
1928 – original London cast album , with the show 's original orchestrations . This was released in England on 78 rpm records years before being sold in the United States . Because the U.S. had not yet begun making original cast albums of Broadway shows , the 1927 Broadway cast as a whole was never recorded performing the songs , although Jules Bledsoe , Helen Morgan , and Tess Gardella did record individual numbers from it . The cast on the 1928 London album included Edith Day , Howett Worster , Marie Burke and Alberta Hunter . Due to contractual restrictions , cast member Paul Robeson was replaced on the album as Joe by his understudy , baritone Norris Smith . But that same year , Robeson , with the same chorus that accompanied him in the show , did record " Ol ' Man River " in its original orchestration . That recording was later released separately . His rendition appears on the EMI CD " Paul Robeson Sings ' Ol ' Man River ' and Other Favorites " .
1932 – studio cast recording on 78rpm by Brunswick Records . Later re @-@ released by Columbia Records on 78rpm , 33 @-@ 1 / 3rpm and briefly on CD . This recording featured Helen Morgan , Paul Robeson , James Melton , Frank Munn , and Countess Olga Albani , and was issued in conjunction with the 1932 revival of the show , although it was not strictly an " original cast " album of that revival . The orchestra was conducted by Victor Young , and the original orchestrations and vocal arrangements were not used .
1946 – Broadway revival cast recording . Issued on 78rpm , LP , and CD . The 78 @-@ RPM and LP versions were issued by Columbia , the CD by Sony . This was the first American recording of Show Boat which used the cast , conductor , and orchestrations of a major Broadway revival of the show . ( Robert Russell Bennett 's orchestrations for this revival thoroughly modified his original 1927 orchestrations . ) Jan Clayton , Carol Bruce , Charles Fredericks , Kenneth Spencer , and Colette Lyons were featured . Buddy Ebsen also appeared in the revival , but not on the album . Includes the new song " Nobody Else But Me " .
1951 – MGM Records soundtrack album , with cast members of the 1951 film version . The first film soundtrack of Show Boat to be issued on records . Appeared both on 45rpm and 33 @-@ 1 / 3rpm , later on CD in a much expanded edition . Actress Ava Gardner , whose singing voice was replaced by Annette Warren 's in the film , is heard singing on this album . The expanded version on CD contains both Warren 's and Gardner 's vocal tracks . This marked the recording debut of William Warfield , who played Joe and sang " Ol ' Man River " in the film . Orchestrations were by Conrad Salinger , Robert Franklyn , and Alexander Courage .
1956 – RCA Victor studio cast album conducted by Lehman Engel . This album featured more of the score on one LP than had been previously recorded . It featured a white singer , famed American baritone Robert Merrill , as both Joe and Gaylord Ravenal . Other singers included Patrice Munsel as Magnolia and Rise Stevens as Julie . Issued on CD in 2009 , but omitting Frank and Ellie 's numbers , which had been sung on the LP version by Janet Pavek and Kevin Scott . The original orchestrations were not used .
1958 – RCA Victor studio cast album . The first Show Boat in stereo , this recording starred Howard Keel ( singing " Ol ' Man River " as well as Gaylord Ravenal 's songs ) , Anne Jeffreys , and Gogi Grant , and did not use the original orchestrations . It was issued on CD in 2010 .
1959 – EMI British studio cast album . It featured Marlys Walters as Magnolia , Don McKay as Ravenal , Shirley Bassey as Julie , Dora Bryan as Ellie , and Inia Te Wiata singing " Ol ' Man River " .
1962 – Columbia studio cast album . Starring Barbara Cook , John Raitt , Anita Darian , and William Warfield , this was the first " Show Boat " recording issued on CD . Although Robert Russell Bennett was uncredited , this used several of his orchestrations for the 1946 revival of the show , together with some modifications .
1966 – Lincoln Center cast album . Issued by RCA Victor , it featured Cook , Constance Towers , Stephen Douglass , and William Warfield . Robert Russell Bennett 's orchestrations were modified even further . Also available on CD .
1971 – London revival cast album . Jazz singer Cleo Laine , soprano Lorna Dallas , tenor Andre Jobin , and bass @-@ baritone Thomas Carey were the leads . It used completely new orchestrations bearing almost no resemblance to Robert Russell Bennett 's . This was the first 2 @-@ LP album of Show Boat . It included more of the score than had been previously put on records . Issued later on CD .
1988 – EMI studio cast album . This is a three @-@ CD set which , for the first time , contained the entire score of the show , with the authentic 1927 orchestrations , uncensored lyrics , and vocal arrangements . The cast includes Frederica von Stade , Jerry Hadley , Teresa Stratas , Karla Burns , Bruce Hubbard , and Paige O 'Hara . The album is conducted by John McGlinn .
1993 – Toronto revival cast recording , starring Rebecca Luker , Mark Jacoby , Lonette McKee , Robert Morse , Elaine Stritch and Michel Bell ( as Joe ) .
There have been many other studio cast recordings of Show Boat in addition to those mentioned above . The soundtrack of the 1936 film version has appeared on a so @-@ called " bootleg " CD label called Xeno .
= = Racial issues = =
= = = Integration = = =
Show Boat boldly portrayed racial issues and was the first racially integrated musical , in that both black and white performers appeared and sang on stage together . Ziegfeld ’ s Follies featured solo African American performers such as Bert Williams , but would not have included a black woman in the chorus . Show Boat was structured with two choruses – a black chorus and a white chorus . One commentator noted that " Hammerstein uses the African @-@ American chorus as essentially a Greek chorus , providing clear commentary on the proceedings , whereas the white choruses sing of the not @-@ quite @-@ real . " In Show Boat Jerome Kern used the AABA @-@ chorus form exclusively in songs sung by African American characters ( Ole Man River , Can 't Help Lovin ' dat Man ) , a form that later would be regarded as typical of ' white ' popular music .
Show Boat was the first Broadway musical to seriously depict an interracial marriage , as in Ferber 's original novel , and to feature a character of mixed race who was " passing " for white . ( Although the musical comedy Whoopee ! ( 1930 ) , starring Eddie Cantor , supposedly depicted a romance between a mixed @-@ blood Native American man and a white woman , the man turns out to be white . )
= = = Language and stereotypes = = =
= = = = The word " nigger " = = = =
The show has generated controversy for the subject matter of interracial marriage , the historical portrayal of blacks working as laborers and servants in the 19th @-@ century South , and the use of the word niggers in the lyrics ( this is the first word in the opening chorus of the show ) . Originally the show opened with the black chorus onstage singing :
Niggers all work on the Mississippi .
Niggers all work while the white folks play –
Loadin ' up boats wid de bales of cotton ,
Gittin ' no rest till de Judgement Day .
In subsequent productions , " niggers " has been changed to " colored folk " , to " darkies " , and in one choice , " Here we all " , as in " Here we all work on the Mississippi . Here we all work while the white folks play . " In the 1966 Lincoln Center production of the show , produced two years after the Civil Rights Act of 1964 was passed , this section of the opening chorus was omitted rather than having words changed . The 1971 London revival used " Here we all work on the Mississippi " . The 1988 CD for EMI restored the original 1927 lyric , while the Harold Prince revival chose " colored folk " .
The Paper Mill Playhouse production , videotaped and telecast by PBS in 1989 , used the word " nigger " when said by an unsympathetic character , but otherwise used the word " Negro " .
Many critics believe that Kern and Hammerstein wrote the opening chorus to give a sympathetic voice to an oppressed people , and that they intended its use in an ironic way , as it had so often been used in a derogatory way . They wanted to alert the audience to the realities of racism :
'Show Boat begins with the singing of that most reprehensible word – nigger – yet this is no coon song ... [ it ] immediately establishes race as one of the central themes of the play . This is a protest song , more ironic than angry perhaps , but a protest nonetheless . In the singers ' hands , the word nigger has a sardonic tone ... in the very opening , Hammerstein has established the gulf between the races , the privilege accorded the white folks and denied the black , and a flavor of the contempt built into the very language that whites used about African Americans . This is a very effective scene .... These are not caricature roles ; they are wise , if uneducated , people capable of seeing and feeling more than some of the white folk around them .
The racial situations in the play provoke thoughts of how hard it must have been to be black in the South . In the dialogue , some of the blacks are called " niggers " by the white characters in the story . ( Contrary to what is sometimes thought , black slavery is not depicted in the play ; U.S. slavery was abolished by 1865 , and the story runs from the 1880s to the late 1920s . ) At first , it is shocking to believe they are allowed to use a word that negative at all in a play ... But in the context in which it is used , it is appropriate due to the impact it makes . It reinforces how much of a derogatory term " nigger " was then and still is today .
The word has not been used in any of the film versions of the musical . In the show , the Sheriff refers to Steve and Julie as having " nigger blood . " In the 1936 and 1951 film versions , this was changed to " Negro blood " . Likewise , the unsympathetic Pete calls Queenie a " nigger " in the stage version , but refers to her as " colored " in the 1936 film , and does not use either word in the 1951 film .
= = = = African @-@ American English = = = =
Those who consider Show Boat racially insensitive often note that the dialogue and lyrics of the black characters ( especially the stevedore Joe and his wife Queenie ) and choruses use various forms of African American Vernacular English . An example of this is shown in the following text :
Hey !
Where yo ' think you 're goin ' ?
Don 't yo ' know dis show is startin ' soon ?
Hey !
Jes ' a few seats left yere !
It 's light inside an ' outside dere 's no moon
What fo ' you gals dressed up dicty ?
Where 's yo ' all gwine ?
Tell dose stingy men o ' yourn
To step up here in line !
Whether or not such language is an accurate reflection of the vernacular of blacks in Mississippi at the time , the effect of its usage has offended some critics , who see it as perpetuating racial stereotypes . The character Queenie ( who sings the above verses ) in the original production was played not by an African American but by the Italian @-@ American actress Tess Gardella in blackface ( Gardella was perhaps best known for portraying Aunt Jemima in blackface ) . Attempts by non @-@ black writers to imitate black language stereotypically in songs like " Ol ' Man River " was alleged to be offensive , a claim that was repeated eight years later by critics of Porgy and Bess . But such critics sometimes acknowledged that Hammerstein 's intentions were noble , since " Ol ' Man River " ' was the song in which he first found his lyrical voice , compressing the suffering , resignation , and anger of an entire race into 24 taut lines and doing it so naturally that it 's no wonder folks assume the song 's a Negro spiritual . "
The theatre critics and veterans Richard Eyre and Nicholas Wright believe that Show Boat was revolutionary , not only because it was a radical departure from the previous style of plotless revues , but because it was a show written by non @-@ blacks that portrayed blacks sympathetically rather than condescendingly :
Instead of a line of chorus girls showing their legs in the opening number singing that they were happy , happy , happy , the curtain rose on black dock @-@ hands lifting bales of cotton , and singing about the hardness of their lives . Here was a musical that showed poverty , suffering , bitterness , racial prejudice , a sexual relationship between black and white , a love story which ended unhappily – and of course show business . In " Ol ' Man River " the black race was given an anthem to honor its misery that had the authority of an authentic spiritual .
= = = Revisions and cancellations = = =
Since the musical 's 1927 premiere , Show Boat has both been condemned as a prejudiced show based on racial caricatures and championed as a breakthrough work that opened the door for public discourse in the arts about racism in America . Some productions ( including one planned for June 2002 in Connecticut ) have been cancelled because of objections .
Such cancellations have been criticized by supporters of the arts . After planned performances by an amateur opera company in Middlesbrough , England were " stopped because [ they ] would be ' distasteful ' to ethnic minorities " , a local newspaper declared that the actions were " surely taking political correctness too far " . A British theatre writer was concerned that " the kind of censorship we 've been talking about – for censorship it is – actually militates against a truly integrated society , for it emphasizes differences . It puts a wall around groups within society , dividing people by creating metaphorical ghettos , and prevents mutual understanding " . Specifically , the cancellation was based on protests of plans to have all the black roles to be played in this production by white actors in blackface , as the company had no black members .
As attitudes toward race relations have changed , producers and directors have altered some content to make the musical more " politically correct " : " Show Boat , more than many musicals , was subject to cuts and revisions within a handful of years after its first performance , all of which altered the dramatic balance of the play . "
= = = 1993 revival = = =
The 1993 Hal Prince revival , originating in Toronto , was deliberately staged to cast attention on racial disparities ; throughout the production , African @-@ American actors constantly cleaned up messes , appeared to move the sets ( even when hydraulics actually moved them ) , and performed other menial tasks . After a New Year 's Eve ball , all the streamers fell on the floor and African Americans immediately began sweeping them away . A montage in the second act showed time passing using the revolving door of the Palmer House in Chicago , with newspaper headlines being shown in quick succession , and snippets of slow motion to highlight a specific moment , accompanied by brief snippets of Ol ' Man River . African @-@ American dancers were seen performing a specific dance , and this would change to a scene showing white dancers performing the same dance . This was meant to illustrate how white performers " appropriated " the music and dancing styles of African Americans . Earlier productions of Show Boat , even the 1927 stage original and the 1936 film version , did not go this far in social commentary .
During the production in Toronto , many black community leaders and their supporters expressed opposition to the show , protesting in front of the theatre , " shouting insults and waving placards reading SHOW BOAT SPREADS LIES AND HATE and SHOW BOAT = CULTURAL GENOCIDE " . Various theatre critics in New York , however , commented that Prince highlighted racial inequality in his production as to show its injustice , as well as to show the historical suffering of blacks . A critic noted that he included " an absolutely beautiful piece of music cut from the original production and from the movie [ " Mis 'ry 's Comin ' Round " ] ... a haunting gospel melody sung by the black chorus . The addition of this number is so successful because it salutes the dignity and the pure talent of the black workers and allows them to shine for a brief moment on the center stage of the showboat " .
= = = Analysis = = =
Many commentators , both black and non @-@ black , view the show as an outdated and stereotypical commentary on race relations that portrays blacks in a negative or inferior position . Douglass K. Daniel of Kansas State University has commented that it is a " racially flawed story " , and the African @-@ Canadian writer M. Nourbese Philip claims
The affront at the heart of Show Boat is still very alive today . It begins with the book and its negative and one @-@ dimensional images of Black people , and continues on through the colossal and deliberate omission of the Black experience , including the pain of a people traumatized by four centuries of attempted genocide and exploitation . Not to mention the appropriation of Black music for the profit of the very people who oppressed Blacks and Africans . All this continues to offend deeply . The ol ' man river of racism continues to run through the history of these productions and is very much part of this ( Toronto ) production . It is part of the overwhelming need of white Americans and white Canadians to convince themselves of our inferiority – that our demands don 't represent a challenge to them , their privilege and their superiority .
On the other hand , supporters of the musical believe that the depictions of racism should be regarded not as stereotyping blacks but rather satirizing the common national attitudes that both held those stereotypes and reinforced them through discrimination . In other words , just as quoting an out @-@ of @-@ context line from a play and claiming that it is the view of the playwright is absurd and deceptive , the fact that a dramatic or literary work portrays racist attitudes and institutions does not mean that it endorses them – in the words of The New Yorker theatre critic John Lahr :
Describing racism doesn 't make Show Boat racist . The production is meticulous in honoring the influence of black culture not just in the making of the nation 's wealth but , through music , in the making of its modern spirit . "
Broadway writers have long used the musical as a medium to call for tolerance and racial harmony , as in Finian 's Rainbow and ( by Hammerstein ) in South Pacific . As described by Joe Bob Briggs :
Those who attempt to understand works like Show Boat and Porgy and Bess through the eyes of their creators usually consider that the show " was a statement AGAINST racism . That was the point of Edna Ferber 's novel . That was the point of the show . That 's how Oscar wrote it ... I think this is about as far from racism as you can get . "
Perhaps the strongest argument in defense of Show Boat lies in an understanding of the socially concerned intentions , aims , and backgrounds of its authors . According to Rabbi Alan Berg , Kern and Hammerstein 's score to Show Boat is " a tremendous expression of the ethics of tolerance and compassion " . As Harold Prince ( not Kern , to whom the quote has been mistakenly attributed ) states in the original production notes to his 1993 production of the show :
Throughout pre @-@ production and rehearsal , I was committed to eliminate any inadvertent stereotype in the original material , dialogue which may seem " Uncle Tom " today ... However , I was determined not to rewrite history . The fact that during the 45 @-@ year period depicted in our musical there were lynchings , imprisonment , and forced labor of the blacks in the United States is irrefutable . Indeed , the United States still cannot hold its head high with regard to racism .
Oscar Hammerstein 's commitment to idealizing and encouraging tolerance theatrically started with his libretto to Show Boat . It can be seen in his later works , many of which were set to music by Richard Rodgers . Carmen Jones is an attempt to present a modern version of the classic French opera through the experiences of African Americans during wartime , and South Pacific explores interracial marriage and prejudice . Finally , The King and I deals with different cultures ' preconceived notions regarding each other and the possibility for cultural inclusiveness in societies .
Regarding the original author of Show Boat , Ann Shapiro states that
Edna Ferber was taunted for being Jewish ; as a young woman eager to launch her career as a journalist , she was told that the Chicago Tribune did not hire women reporters . Despite her experience of antisemitism and sexism , she idealized America , creating in her novels an American myth where strong women and downtrodden men of any race prevail ... [ Show Boat ] create [ s ] visions of racial harmony ... in a fictional world that purported to be America but was more illusion than reality . Characters in Ferber 's novels achieve assimilation and acceptance that was periodically denied Ferber herself throughout her life .
Whether or not the show is racist , many contend that productions of it should continue as it serves as a history lesson of American race relations . According to African @-@ American opera singer Phillip Boykin , who played the role of Joe in a 2000 tour ,
Whenever a show deals with race issues , it gives the audience sweaty palms . I agree with putting it on the stage and making the audience think about it . We see where we came from so we don 't repeat it , though we still have a long way to go . A lot of history would disappear if the show was put away forever . An artist must be true to an era . I 'm happy with it .
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= Love Is a Camera =
" Love Is a Camera " is a song performed by English recording artist Sophie Ellis @-@ Bextor for her fifth album Wanderlust ( 2014 ) . Ellis @-@ Bextor co @-@ wrote the song with Ed Harcourt , who also produced the track . Its lyrics recount the story of a woman who takes photos of her victims and keeps their souls in the pictures . Musically , the song features piano , guitars , double bass , and influences of tango and baroque . " Love Is a Camera " was serviced to hot adult contemporary radio stations in the United Kingdom as the third single from Wanderlust . The song was released on 23 June 2014 .
Upon release , its lyrics and composition attained praise and ambivalence from music critics . To accompany the song 's release , Sophie Muller was enlisted as the director for the music video of " Love Is a Camera " , which was filmed in the Italian city of Florence . Its storyline features Ellis @-@ Bextor impersonating two characters , one being a " temptress " and the other being an unsuspecting woman . The former convinces a man who is attracted to her , and the latter , to take their picture ; the unsuspecting characters are ultimately trapped in their portraits . The track has been performed during Ellis @-@ Bextor 's gigs , for promoting her record Wanderlust .
= = Composition and reception = =
" Love Is a Camera " was the first song to be developed for Ellis @-@ Bextor 's fifth record , Wanderlust . Ellis @-@ Bextor co @-@ wrote the song with its producer Ed Harcourt . Harcourt produced the track . David Farrell of PopMatters described the track as a " plodding tango " , while The Daily Telegraph writer Neil McCormick deemed it an " elaborate baroque quasi @-@ ballad " . From The Irish Times , Louise Bruton called the song a " hectic slice of vaudevillian fun " . Its instrumentation comprises " florid " guitar chords , " stalking " pianos and a double bass played by Harcourt . Andy Gill of The Independent credited the first two instruments with providing " an Iron Curtain feel " to the track . The final part of the song — characterised by Time Out reviewer Clare Considine as one of Wanderlust 's " more energetic moments " — incorporates a " gypsy polka " sound . During that part , Ellis @-@ Bextor 's voice is paired with an " increasingly frantic piano " .
The song 's lyrics were influenced by Russian folklore . Ellis @-@ Bextor denoted her literary choices — as a child and a student — as influences for the song , listing Russian fairytales , folk stories and Emily Dickinson 's works as examples . She took inspiration from the humour and mystery from the serial drama Twin Peaks . " Love Is a Camera " narrates the story of a " spooky old " woman who lives " in a house on the hill " , and takes pictures of individuals , only to preserve their souls in the photographs " behind glass " . Farrell interpreted that the protagonist took their photographs to " preserve their memories " .
Farrell exalted the lyricism of the song , stating that " Sophie 's music has never sounded so lyrically rich " and her " storytelling skills " were visible in it . Considine named the song a " welcome break from lullabies ( such as ' The Deer and the Wolf ' ) that risk monotony " on the album . Conversely , AllMusic 's Stephen Thomas Erlewine described " Love Is a Camera " as a " bogged down in pretension " moment in Wanderlust ; Erlewine went on to criticize the song 's " ceaseless pomp " . Kate Bennett of musicOMH wrote that " Love Is a Camera " was " more of the same " " heroine @-@ gazing @-@ forlornly @-@ into @-@ the @-@ distance . " She elaborated , " You 'd have to have a heart of cold , igneous rock not to enjoy [ this track ] just a little , but if you were never a member of your local youth theatre company the sticky @-@ sweetness of it all quickly becomes cloying . " The song peaked at number 32 on the UK Airplay Chart , while on the UK Indie chart it reached number 33 .
= = Release and promotion = =
As announced in a press release , " Love Is a Camera " was released as the third single of Wanderlust on 23 June 2014 . The song was serviced to hot adult contemporary stations in the United Kingdom ; it was included in the A @-@ List of BBC Radio 2 . A promotional Compact Disc single was sent out to radio stations , including a shortened version of the song , dubbed its " radio edit " .
Sophie Muller directed the music video for " Love Is a Camera " , which was released on 30 May 2014 . The video commences with Ellis @-@ Bextor , who impersonates an " eerie temptress " dressed in a black " ankle @-@ length , lace @-@ trimmed " gown , walking and dancing slowly inside a classical mansion . Exploring the divisions of her house , she starts adjusting picture frames , which hold monochromatic photographs of individuals . One of those pictures depicts a short @-@ haired woman , dressed in white — also played by Ellis @-@ Bextor — who starts mimicking the song , whilst in the frame . The story of the woman in the frame is told throughout the video — after crossing a field , she finds the mansion . Her photograph is taken by the dressed @-@ in @-@ black Ellis @-@ Bextor , and she is trapped in the frame . Whilst walking down a staircase , the " temptress " passes by a bearded man who stares at her interestingly . Both enter the mansion , where they drink ; the dressed @-@ in @-@ black Ellis @-@ Bextor holds his hand . She convinces him to take his photograph , and after realizing it is a trap , he tries to escape . However , the " temptress " finds him running and takes his photograph ; trapping him in a frame as well .
" Love Is a Camera " has been performed throughout Ellis @-@ Bextor 's 2014 tour in promotion of Wanderlust . Whilst singing the track , Ellis @-@ Bextor would reference her participation on Strictly Come Dancing and dance a " half @-@ hearted sway " , as musicOMH 's Helen Clarke described it . Reviewing her concert at the Bush Hall , James Lachno of The Daily Telegraph lauded Ellis @-@ Bextor 's performance of the song . Lachno stated , " [ It was ] one of the oddest , and best , songs of the night . " After attending Ellis @-@ Bextor 's concert at the Oran Mor , an anonymous writer for The Scotsman commented that the song " sounded grand in the live setting " .
= = Track listing = =
Promotional CD single
Details adapted from the liner notes of " Love Is a Camera " ' s CD single .
" Love Is a Camera " ( Radio edit ) – 3 : 21
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Wanderlust .
Sophie Ellis @-@ Bextor – lead vocals , songwriting
Ed Harcourt – backing vocals , guitar , keyboards , piano , production , samples , synth
Arnulf Lindner – double bass
Richard Woodcraft – engineering , mixing
Miles Showell – mastering
= = Weekly charts = =
= = Release history = =
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= Ricardio the Heart Guy =
" Ricardio the Heart Guy " is the seventh episode of the first season of the American animated television series Adventure Time . The episode was written and storyboarded by Bert Youn and Sean Jimenez , from a story by Merriwether Williams , Tim McKeon , and Adam Muto . It originally aired on Cartoon Network on April 26 , 2010 . The episode guest stars George Takei as the title character , Ricardio .
The series follows the adventures of Finn ( voiced by Jeremy Shada ) , a human boy , and his best friend and adoptive brother Jake ( voiced by John DiMaggio ) , a dog with magical powers to change shape and grow and shrink at will . In this episode , Finn believes that Princess Bubblegum 's ( voiced by Hynden Walch ) new friend , a heart named Ricardio , is evil , and is proven right after learning that Ricardio is the heart of the Ice King ( voiced by Tom Kenny ) . Ricardio reveals that he wants to " make out " with Bubblegum 's heart , but he is defeated by Finn and Jake .
Ricardio would become a minor recurring villain , reappearing in the fourth season entry " Lady & Peebles " . After the episode aired , series composer Casey James Basichis posted a video explaining his inspiration and the method in which he produced the music featured in the episode . Basichis largely scored the episode with opera music , because he felt the genre suited Ricardio . " Ricardio the Heart Guy " was watched by 1 @.@ 91 million people and received largely positive critical attention , with many reviews praising Takei 's voice work .
= = Plot = =
After the Ice King captures Princess Bubblegum , Finn and Jake manage to save her . Bubblegum is so happy that she decides to throw a party for Finn as a thank you . Finn makes a Paper Crane for Bubblegum as a gift , but Jake says that Finn has a crush on her , which Finn denies . When they arrive at the party , however , no one notices them ; everyone , including Bubblegum , is too preoccupied with a heart @-@ shaped man named Ricardio . He and Bubblegum begin discussing scientific topics on the dance floor , which leaves Finn feeling jealous .
Finn begins to think that Ricardio is a villain , but Jake just notes that Finn is jealous . However , the two spy on Ricardio to see if he is evil or not . They see Ricardio going into a dumpster and acquiring a rope and broken bottles . Then they see him throwing the Ice King into the dumpster , so they decide to question Ricardio about being a super @-@ villain . Finn punches Ricardio right when Bubblegum comes . Mad and upset , she takes Ricardio away . However , the Ice King soon crawls toward Finn and Jake , looking sickly . He reveals that Ricardio is actually his own heart , which gained sentience after the Ice King performed a failed love spell . Ricardio desires to cut out Bubblegum 's heart and make it his bride .
Finn and Jake race to Bubblegum 's castle and find her tied to a chair , with Ricardio about to rip her heart out . Finn and Jake then fight Ricardio and manage to beat him up . The Ice King crawls into the castle and places Ricardio back into his chest . Later during dinner , Bubblegum tells Finn that he does not need to be jealous anymore , but Finn denies that he was jealous in the first place .
= = Production = =
" Ricardio the Heart Guy " was written and storyboarded by Bert Youn and Sean Jimenez , from a story by Merriwether Williams , Tim McKeon , and Adam Muto . Directed by Larry Leichliter , the episode introduces the recurring villain Ricardio , played by George Takei , a character that Tom Kenny later called " the valentine from Hell " . Takei later reprised the role in the season four episode " Lady and Peebles " . Initial drafts of the character featured him looking more like an anthropomorphic heart , complete with arteries and ventricles . Ricardio is one of the few individuals in the Adventure Time universe to have a highly detailed face ; during the commentary for the episode , his design was compared to that of the face on the moon in the 1902 French silent film Le Voyage dans la Lune , based on H.G. Wells 's 1901 novel The First Men in the Moon .
After the episode aired , series composer Casey Basichis posted a video explaining his inspiration and method of producing the music featured in the episode . According to the video , Basichis created a " skeleton " of the score in his shower using his voice and a ukulele ; the audio was captured on a phone . Originally , the score was going to have a " New York City , taxi , and jazz " feel , but Basichis was unhappy with the genre choice , and changed the feel . For the music that played while the Ice King interacted with Ricardio , Basichis was inspired by the score from the original seven @-@ minute short . In addition , opera singer Karen Vuong lent her voice to the episode . According to Basichis , Vuong was able to record her vocals successfully in one take . Basichis chose opera because he knew it had a reputation for being " sickeningly intellectual " and " preoccupied with murder " , traits that he felt suited Ricardio .
= = Reception = =
" Ricardio the Heart Guy " first aired on Cartoon Network on April 26 , 2010 . The episode was watched by 1 @.@ 91 million viewers , and scored a 1 @.@ 3 / 2 percent Nielsen household rating , meaning that it was seen by 1 @.@ 3 percent of all households and 2 percent of all households watching television at the time of the episode 's airing . The episode first saw physical release as part of the 2011 Adventure Time : My Two Favorite People DVD , which included 12 episodes from the series ' first two seasons . It was later re @-@ released as part of the complete first season DVD in July 2012 ; commentary for the episode was also included on the DVD .
The episode garnered mostly positive reviews from critics . Matt Fowler of IGN , in a review of the My Two Favorite People DVD , noted that while " the idea of a walking , talking heart named Ricardio [ … ] who plans to cut out Princess Bubblegum 's heart is potent nightmare fuel " , the show nevertheless " finds a way to make that grim idea accessible and fun . "
Takei 's appearance as Ricardio gained critical favor . Charlie Anders of io9 named Takei 's appearance in the episode as one of his " greatest moments " , noting , " how could we have missed that Takei did the voice for this sleazy science @-@ talking heart on Adventure Time , our new favorite show ? " Tyler Foster of DVD Talk called Ricardio one of the highlights of the season . The A.V. Club reviewer Oliver Sava , in a review for " Lady & Peebles " , wrote that Ricardio is " always welcome on this series , largely due to Takei ’ s delightful voice work . " Furthermore , he praised the way that Takei delivered his lines , noting that " there ’ s a theatrical smarminess to his vocals that is a stark contrast to the Ice King ’ s nasality " , and that " Takei always sounds like he ’ s having a great time reading the ridiculous lines that are written for him . "
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= Restoration spectacular =
The Restoration spectacular , or elaborately staged machine play , hit the London public stage in the late 17th @-@ century Restoration period , enthralling audiences with action , music , dance , moveable scenery , baroque illusionistic painting , gorgeous costumes , and special effects such as trapdoor tricks , " flying " actors , and fireworks . These shows have always had a bad reputation as a vulgar and commercial threat to the witty , " legitimate " Restoration drama ; however , they drew Londoners in unprecedented numbers and left them dazzled and delighted .
Basically home @-@ grown and with roots in the early 17th @-@ century court masque , though never ashamed of borrowing ideas and stage technology from French opera , the spectaculars are sometimes called " English opera " . However , the variety of them is so untidy that most theatre historians despair of defining them as a genre at all . Only a handful of works of this period are usually accorded the term " opera " , as the musical dimension of most of them is subordinate to the visual . It was spectacle and scenery that drew in the crowds , as shown by many comments in the diary of the theatre @-@ lover Samuel Pepys . The expense of mounting ever more elaborate scenic productions drove the two competing theatre companies into a dangerous spiral of huge expenditure and correspondingly huge losses or profits . A fiasco such as John Dryden 's Albion and Albanius would leave a company in serious debt , while blockbusters like Thomas Shadwell 's Psyche or Dryden 's King Arthur would put it comfortably in the black for a long time .
= = Introductory : " A lion , a crocodile , a dragon " = =
The distinction between " legitimate " Restoration drama and the Restoration spectacular , or " musical spectacular , " or " Dorset Garden spectacular , " or " machine play " is one of degree rather than kind . All plays of the period featured music and dancing and some scenery , most of them also songs . Restoration heroic drama , for all its literariness , relied on opulent scenery . However , the true spectacular , of which Milhous counts only eight over the entire 1660 – 1700 Restoration period , was produced on a whole different scale . The spectacular is defined by the large number of sets and performers required , the vast sums of money invested , the potential for great profits , and the long preparation time needed . Milhous calculates a likely requirement of at least four to six months of planning , contracting , building , and rehearsing , to be compared with the four to six weeks of rehearsal time a new " legitimate " play would get .
Previous generations of theatre historians have despised the operatic spectaculars , perhaps influenced by John Dryden 's sour comments about expensive and tasteless " scenes , machines , and empty operas " . However , audiences loved the scenes and machines and operas , as Samuel Pepys ' diary shows . Dryden wrote several baroque machine plays himself . The first , The State of Innocence ( 1677 ) , was never staged , as his designated company , the King 's , had neither the capital nor the machinery for it : a dramatisation of John Milton 's Paradise Lost , it called for " rebellious angels wheeling in the air , and seeming transfixed with thunderbolts " over " a lake of brimstone or rolling fire " . The King 's Company 's Theatre Royal , Drury Lane was not up to lakes of rolling fire ; only the " machine house " at Dorset Garden was , and that belonged to the competition , the Duke 's Company . When the two companies had merged in the 1680s and Dryden had access to Dorset Garden , he wrote one of the most visual and special @-@ effects @-@ ridden machine plays of the entire Restoration period , Albion and Albanius ( 1684 – 85 ) :
The Cave of PROTEUS rises out of the Sea ; it consists of several arches of Rock @-@ work adorned with mother @-@ of @-@ pearl , coral , and abundance of shells of various kinds . Through the arches is seen the Sea , and parts of Dover @-@ pier ; in the middle of the Cave is PROTEUS asleep on a rock adorned with shells , & c. like the Cave . ALBION and ACACIA seize on him ; and while a symphony is playing , he sinks as they are bringing him forward , and changes himself into a Lion , a Crocodile , a Dragon , and then to his own shape again ; he comes forward to the front of the stage , and sings . "
How were such effects produced , and how did they look ? The crocodile etc. obviously used the floor trap , but was it an illusionistically painted figure worked with sticks , or a man in a crocodile suit ? There are no extant drawings or descriptions of machinery and sets for the Restoration theatre , although some documentation exists for court masques from the first half of the 17th century , notably the work of Inigo Jones and his pupil John Webb . One reason for the lack of information for the public theatres is that stage effects , and particularly machines , were trade secrets . Inventors of theatrical effects took great pains to hold on to their secrets , and the playhouses guarded their machine workings as zealously as a magician guards her or his tricks .
What the technology and the visual experiences were can only be tenuously inferred from stage directions . Milhous concludes from a review of Dorset Garden performances that " at a conservative estimate " the theatre was equipped to fly at least four people independently , and had some very complex floor traps for " transformations " such as that of Proteus . The plates printed in the first edition of Elkanah Settle 's Empress of Morocco ( 1673 ) ( see detail , top right ) are the only pictures of actual Restoration stage sets . Pepys ' mentions of stage effects in his diary , 1660 – 68 , give the modern reader some help in visualising what audiences saw in the 1660s , and even more in entering into their enthusiasms , but the 1660s were still early days . There are scarcely any descriptions or reactions preserved from the heyday of the machine play in the 1670s – 90s , although a general idea of its technology can be gathered from the better @-@ documented French and Italian opera scenery which inspired Thomas Betterton at Dorset Garden Theatre .
= = 1625 – 1660 : Court masques and stealth performances = =
In the early 17th century , moveable " scenes " — painted wings and backdrops — and technical " machines " or " devices " for flying and other special effects were used in the masques produced for and by the court of Charles I. In William Davenant 's Salmacida Spolia ( 1640 ) , for instance , the last of the court masques before the Civil War , Queen Henrietta Maria ( pregnant at the time ) makes her entrance " descending by a theatrical device from a cloud . " As early as 1639 , Davenant had obtained a royal patent authorising construction of a large new public theatre with technology that would allow such effects and accommodate music , scenery , and dancing . Such an invasion of court @-@ drama technique in the public theatre met opposition from " legitimate " dramatists , and before the opposition could be overcome , the war had closed down the theatres in 1642 .
The public stage ban 1642 – 60 imposed by the Puritan regime represents a long and sharp break in dramatic tradition , but was still never completely successful in suppressing the ideologically hateful make @-@ believe of play @-@ acting . Performances in grand private houses were not unusual , and could have quite elaborate sets , as can be seen from the extant drawings for the original performance of Davenant 's opera The Siege of Rhodes ( 1656 ) at his home Rutland House . This was public theatre in all but name , as Davenant charged 5 shillings for admission . Some professional actors also managed to scrape a living and evade the authorities in stealth acting companies in London , such as that of Michael Mohun at the Red Bull Theatre . Professional writers from the previous era were growing middle @-@ aged , biding their time , and hoping for the monarchy to be restored . By the later 1650s , it was becoming obvious that that time was at hand , and William Davenant , for example , stepped up his theatrical activities .
= = 1660s : Company competition = =
= = = William Davenant , impresario = = =
When the public performance ban was lifted at the Restoration of the monarchy in 1660 , Charles II immediately encouraged the drama and took a personal interest in the scramble for acting licences and performance rights which followed . Two middle @-@ aged pre @-@ Commonwealth playwrights notable for their loyalty during Charles ' exile emerged from the struggle with royal Letters Patent for new , or refurbished , patent theatre companies : Thomas Killigrew and William Davenant . Killigrew was able to take over Michael Mohun 's skilled veteran troupe for his " King 's Company " and to start with " what was essentially a going concern " ( Hume ) , with the added advantage of the traditional performance rights Mohun brought with him for practically the whole classic repertory of William Shakespeare , Ben Jonson , and the Beaumont and Fletcher team . The competition , Davenant 's " Duke 's Company " , seemed doomed to a secondary position with its young , scratched @-@ together troupe and scarcely any performance rights . They were only allowed to put on abridged and modernized versions of Shakespeare plays , and a few that Davenant had written . However , Davenant , " a brilliant impresario " ( Hume ) , was soon able to turn the tables on Killigrew by realising his old pre @-@ Civil War dream of music , dance , and spectacular visual effects on the public stage .
During the autumn of 1660 , while the Duke 's Company was still getting financed ( mostly by means of the actors buying company shares ) and having temporary quarters set up , the King 's Company offered a string of well @-@ received productions . Their new albeit traditional theatre in Vere Street was already fully operational . The devoted playgoer Samuel Pepys called it " the finest playhouse ... that ever was in England " in his diary , a sentiment he would need to revise many times over the coming decade , and recorded his awe at seeing Michael Mohun , " who is said to be the best actor in the world " , act on its stage . Davenant was far behind , but daringly put all his capital into the outfitting of a new superior playhouse in Lincoln 's Inn Fields ( simultaneously , with great foresight , prying loose the rising young star Thomas Betterton from the King 's Company ) , and perfectly hit public taste .
= = = Changeable scenery = = =
Lincoln 's Inn Fields opened on 28 June 1661 , with the first " moveable " or " changeable " scenery used on the British public stage , i.e. wings or shutters that ran in grooves and could be smoothly and mechanically changed between or even within acts . The production was a revamped version of Davenant 's own five @-@ year @-@ old opera The Siege of Rhodes . It is not known who painted the scenes or shutters , or whether continental craftsmen were responsible for the technical construction , but the result was such a sensation that it brought Charles II to a public theatre for the first time . The competing King 's Company suddenly found itself playing to empty houses , as Pepys notes on 4 July :
I went to the theatre [ in Vere Street ] and there I saw Claracilla ( the first time I ever saw it ) , well acted . But strange to see this house , that use to be so thronged , now empty since the opera begun — and so will continue for a while I believe .
The Siege of Rhodes " continued acting 12 days without interruption with great applause " according to the prompter John Downes in his " historical review of the stage " Roscius Anglicanus ( 1708 ) . This was a remarkable run for the limited potential audience of the time . As four more acclaimed Duke 's Company productions " with scenes " followed at Lincoln 's Inn Fields in the course of 1661 ( including Hamlet ) , all highly admired by Pepys , the King 's Company had no other recourse than to hastily commission a changeable @-@ scenery playhouse of their own . Bowing to the inevitable just seven months after the opening of Lincoln 's Inn Fields , Killigrew and his actors signed orders for a new , even more magnificent , theatre in Bridges Street . This theatre , the first step in the war of spectacle escalation of the 1660s , was so full when Pepys and his wife went to see an opera there that " they told us we could have no room " . The large , yet compact , Restoration playhouses , with audience capacities from 700 ( Bridges Street ) to upwards of 2 @,@ 000 ( the next house on the same site , the Theatre Royal , Drury Lane , finished in 1674 ) , were enormous investments , financed through selling shares in the companies , which were thus bound to make more and more money from ticket sales . Not only the theatres and their technical equipment , but the flats painted for a single performance , the special effects , and the elaborate stage clothes , were extremely expensive . Audiences appreciated both luxury and appropriateness of décor and costume : Pepys was quite capable of going several times to see a play that , as such , he disliked , purely for the pleasure of viewing striking and innovative scenery like " a good scene of a town on fire " . The companies struggled to outdo each other in catering to these expensive tastes , with precarious finances and the ever @-@ present consciousness that the investments could literally burn to the ground in a few hours . When the theatre in Bridges Street did burn down in January 1672 , with its entire stock of scenery and costumes , it was an economic blow from which the King 's Company 's never recovered .
The Duke 's Company , operating smoothly under what soon became Davenant 's and Thomas Betterton 's joint management , consistently led the way while the King 's lagged further and further behind , moving only in forced response and suffering from chronic management conflict between Killigrew and powerful actor shareholders like Michael Mohun and Charles Hart , who insisted on actor @-@ centred " talk " drama . The difference can be traced in Pepys ' regular preference for performances at the Duke 's , and in his ever @-@ renewed admiration for Betterton 's acting . In December 1667 , the King 's Company even ceased acting for some days because of a quarrel between Mohun and Hart . With the escalation of expense , days with zero takings were a very serious matter . The crowning grand investment of the Duke 's Company was totally beyond the King 's means to respond to : the " machine house " at Dorset Garden .
= = 1670s : Machine theatre = =
= = = Dorset Garden Theatre = = =
An era came to an end in 1668 with two events : Davenant died suddenly , leaving a messy ownership situation for the Duke 's Company , and Pepys ' eyesight forced him to stop keeping a diary . Thomas Betterton , though formally a minority shareholder , continued to run the Duke 's Company , and , in the spirit of Davenant , commissioned the most elaborate of the Restoration playhouses , the theatre at Dorset Garden ( or Dorset Gardens ) , with a flat for himself on top . Although the Dorset Garden Theatre quickly became a famous and glamorous venue , very little is concretely known about the building and outfitting of it : a vague and undocumented tradition ascribes its design to Christopher Wren . The absence of Pepys ' record means that performance data for the next decades are only patchily known .
= = = " Obliged to the French " = = =
The machines at Dorset Garden and several of the most flamboyant production concepts realised through them were strongly influenced by the French opera and tragédie en machines . Paris was home to the most elaborate visual and musical stage productions in Europe , and Betterton travelled to Paris in the summer of 1671 to learn from the sensation of the season , the comédie @-@ ballet Psyché by Molière , Corneille , and Quinault , to music by Lully . " For several things concerning the decoration of the play , I am obliged to the French " , acknowledged Thomas Shadwell in the introduction to his own Psyche in 1674 . Even more directly influential were the French operatic visits to London , which sparked off a new interest in opera proper in London audiences . In a brilliant move , the King 's Company , all but bankrupt after the crushing blow of the fire in Bridges Street , invited the French musician Robert Cambert to perform his opera Ariadne as one of the first productions at their new playhouse in Drury Lane . The Duke 's Company responded to the visual gorgeousness of this guest appearance with a Shakespearean extravaganza at Dorset Garden : Shadwell 's adaptation of Davenant 's and Dryden 's version of Shakespeare 's Tempest , a piece designed to show off the new machinery :
The Front of the Stage is open 'd , and the Band of 24 Violins , with the Harpsicals and Theorbo 's which accompany the Voices , are plac 'd between the Pit and the Stage . While the Overture is playing , the Curtain rises , and discovers a new Frontispiece , joyn 'd to the great Pylasters , on each side of the Stage ... Behind this is the Scene , which represents a thick Cloudy Sky , a very Rocky Coast , and a Tempestuous Sea in perpetual Agitation . This Tempest ( suppos 'd to be rais 'd by Magick ) has many dreadful Objects in it , as several Spirits in horrid shapes flying down amongst the Sailers , then rising and crossing in the Air . And when the Ship is sinking , the whole House is darken 'd , and a shower of Fire falls upon ' em . This is accompanied with Lightning , and several Claps of Thunder , to the end of the Storm .
This multiplication of effects at the very outset of the play served as a shock and foretaste of what the audience would find farther along .
= = = Dorset Garden specials = = =
The technical capacities of Dorset Garden were little used for Restoration comedy , and , while most heroic drama included some scenes that showed off the perspective stage or used some of the simpler machines , spectacle on this limited scale could be just as well staged at Drury Lane . The plays for which Dorset Garden was built , the " machine plays " of the 1670s and 1680s and the operas of the 1690s , were a category to themselves , different from ordinary serious drama : more static , more mythological , much more gorgeous , infinitely more expensive . So elaborate was the scale of these productions , and so long each preparation time , that only five " machine plays " were produced during the 1670s ; yet they were hugely important for the finances of the Duke 's Company , mostly in a positive sense . They were Davenant 's version of Macbeth ( 1672 – 73 ) , Settle 's Empress of Morocco ( probably 1673 ) , Shadwell / Dryden / Davenant 's Tempest ( 1673 – 74 ) , Thomas Shadwell 's long @-@ awaited Psyche ( 1674 – 75 ) , and Charles Davenant 's Circe ( 1676 – 77 ) .
Psyche had not one , but two , extremely elaborate sets for each of five acts . This is the setting for the beginning of Act 3 :
The Scene is the Palace of Cupid , compos 'd of wreath 'd Columns of the Corinthian Order ; the Wreathing is adorn 'd with Roses , and the Columns have several little Cupids flying about ' em , and a single Cupid standing upon every Capital . At a good distance are seen three Arches , which divide the first Court from the other part of the Building : The middle Arch is noble and high , beautified with Cupids and Festoons , and supported with Columns of the foresaid Order . Through these Arches is seen another Court , that leads to the main Building , which is at a mighty distance . All the Cupids , Capitals and Inrichments of the whole Palace are of Gold . Here the Cyclops are at work at a forge , forging great Vases of Silver . The Musick strikes up , they dance , hammering the Vases upon Anvils . After the Dance , Enter Vulcan .
( The gold cupids on the columns are due to come to life and jump off . ) The use of perspective scenery and many arches is evident here , creating an illusion of the first court being " at a good distance " and the next " at a mighty distance " . This creation of fake depth was a favourite device , repeated when the scene changed halfway through the act :
The scene changes to the principal street of the city , with vast numbers of people looking down from the tops of houses , and out of the windows and balconies , which are hung with tapestry . In this street is a large triumphal arch , with columns of the Doric order , adorned with the statues of Fame and Honour , & c. beautified with festoons of flowers ; all the enrichments of gold . Through this arch , at a vast distance , in the middle of a piazza , is seen a stately obelisk .
The numbers of performers used , mainly dancers , is clearly staggering compared to the regular comedy or serious play , where the norm was something like 10 – 15 actors plus a few extras . Although actual numbers are generally vague in these mass scene stage directions , dance scenes like that of the cyclops , and all the cupids who will join them on the floor minutes later , rely on coordination , choreography , and generous collective effects . Of course the many highly paid dancers would be busy in many roles , returning as townspeople after the scene change of Act 3 with most of the gold paint hastily washed off , and entranced looking upwards to see " Mars and Venus meet in the air in their chariots , his drawn by horses , and hers by doves " .
Each production was a gamble . The aspect of the machine plays that posterity knows most about is their economics , as this was what the old prompter Downes most vividly recalled when he wrote his Roscius Anglicanus in 1708 . The scenery alone for Psyche cost more than £ 800 , which can be related to the entire annual box office takings for the company of £ 10 @,@ 000 . Ticket prices for these performances would be raised to up to four times normal . Both Psyche and The Tempest actually complained of the production costs in their epilogues , hinting pointedly that the public ought to reward the " poor players " for their risk @-@ taking and for offering splendours that had so far been reserved for royal masques :
We have stak 'd all we have to treat you here ,
And therefore , Sirs , you should not be severe .
We in one Vessel have adventur 'd all ;
The loss , should we be Shipwrack 'd , were not small .
...
Poor Players have this day that Splendor shown ,
Which yet but by Great Monarchs has been done .
The audience apparently agreed , transfixed by such sights as Venus ascending into the heavens and " being almost lost in the clouds " , whereupon " Cupid flies up and gets into her chariot , and brings her back " , followed by Jupiter appearing on a flying eagle . Psyche turned out highly profitable . It is altogether a pattern that the 1670s productions did make money , while those of the 1680s and 1690s barely broke even or were actual economic disasters .
= = = Parody : " Fire , apples , nuts " = = =
Even after the King 's Company got their new well @-@ appointed playhouse in Drury Lane in 1674 , they could not take full advantage of it , as they lacked the capital to mount competitive spectaculars . Instead , they attempted to simultaneously capitalise on and snipe at the Duke 's most successful mid @-@ 1670s offerings by mounting several burlesques or parodies of them , written by Thomas Duffett . The records for the mid @-@ 1670s are particularly incomplete , and neither exact dates nor the public reaction to Duffett 's pieces are known , but even the printed versions , pale shadows of Duffett 's travesty spectacles , have proved highly amusing to modern critics . The first of them , The Empress of Morocco , caricatured simultaneously Settle 's Empress of Morocco and the sumptuous new Dorset Garden production of Davenant 's Macbeth adaptation , with Duffett 's three witches flying in over the pit on brooms at the high point of the action , followed by the descent of Heccate over the Stage " in a glorious chariot , adorned with pictures of hell and devils , and made of a large wicker basket " . The Mock Tempest improves on the shower of fire over the audience in the Dorset Garden pseudo @-@ Shakespearean tempest scene with a rain of " fire , apples , nuts " .
= = 1680s : Political spectacular = =
There was no investment in spectaculars during the political unrest of 1678 – 84 with the Popish Plot and the Exclusion Crisis , lean years for theatre . In 1682 , the companies merged , making Dorset Garden 's technical resources available to Dryden , who rapidly got over his principled objection to the superficiality of " spectacle " and " empty operas " . The orgy of machinery and extravagant visuals that he went on to write , Albion and Albanius ( 1684 – 85 ) , is quoted in the " Introductory " section , with the cave of Proteus rising out of the sea . Here is Juno in her flying peacock machine :
The Clouds divide , and JUNO appears in a Machine drawn by Peacocks ; while a Symphony is playing , it moves gently forward , and as it descends , it opens and discovers the Tail of the Peacock , which is so large , that it almost fills the opening of the Stage between Scene and Scene .
Unusual visual allegory in this Tory panegyric of Charles II and the House of Stuart includes a figure representing the radical Whig leader Anthony Ashley @-@ Cooper , 1st Earl of Shaftesbury " with fiend 's wings , and snakes twisted round his body ; he is encompassed by several fanatical rebellious heads , who suck poison from him , which runs out of a tap in his side . " In an investor 's nightmare , while Dryden 's propaganda piece was in preparation , Charles II died , James II succeeded him , and the Monmouth Rebellion which Shaftesbury had fomented broke out . On the very day of the premiere , June 3 , 1685 , the Duke of Monmouth landed in the west . " The nation being in a great consternation " , recollected Downes , " it was performed but six times , which not answering half the charge they were at , involved the company very much in debt . " This traumatic fiasco ruled out all further operatic spectacle investment until the calmer times after the Glorious Revolution of 1689 .
= = 1690s : Opera = =
While the monopoly United Company 's takings were being bled off by Davenant 's shyster sons , one of whom , Alexander , was forced to flee the country in 1693 and other predatory investors , Thomas Betterton continued to act as de facto day @-@ to @-@ day manager and producer , enjoying a budget on the scale of Cecil B. DeMille . In the early 1690s , he staged the three real operas of the Restoration spectacular genre , or the shows usually so designated : Dioclesian ( 1689 – 90 ) by Massinger / Fletcher / Betterton ; King Arthur ( 1690 – 91 ) by John Dryden ; and The Fairy @-@ Queen ( 1691 – 92 ) , adapted from Shakespeare 's A Midsummer Night 's Dream by perhaps Elkanah Settle , all of them graced by music by Henry Purcell , and together perhaps a sign of the coming 18th @-@ century vogue for Italian opera . The lavish variety entertainment Dioclesian , adapted by Betterton , with many monsters , dragons , and machines , from Massinger and Fletcher 's History of Dioclesian , was very popular throughout the 1690s and made a lot of money for the United Company . So did Dryden 's much more serious King Arthur , the first operatic entertainment that Hume is prepared to consider an artistic success , with Purcell 's marvellous music a major part of the entertainment and the songs " for once well integrated into the play " .
At the very end of its history , the economics of the Restoration spectacular spiralled out of control with the magnificent production of The Fairy Queen in the 1691 – 92 season . It was a great popular success , but so stuffed with special effects and so expensive that it nevertheless proved impossible to make money from it . As Downes recalls : " Though the court and town were wonderfully satisfied with it ... the expenses in setting it out being so great , the company got little by it . " Its twelve @-@ foot @-@ high working fountain and six dancing real live monkeys have become notorious in theatre history .
The spectacular play died out with the Restoration period , but spectacle would continue on the English stage as the splendours of Italian grand opera hit London in the early 18th century . The dangerous Restoration economic spiral of the ever @-@ more @-@ expensive machine plays would teach 18th- and 19th @-@ century theatrical entrepreneurs to dispense with playwrighting altogether and minimise the cast , utilising any number of surprising effects and scenes in the dumbshow of pantomime and Harlequin , without attendant costs in music , dramatists , and cast .
There have been a small number of attempts to resurrect the Restoration spectacular as a background to modern cinema : Terry Gilliam 's The Adventures of Baron Munchausen features at its start perhaps the most accurate reconstruction , with painted scenery , mechanisms and lighting effects typical of the period .
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= Ben Gascoigne =
Sidney Charles Bartholemew " Ben " Gascoigne AO ( 11 November 1915 – 25 March 2010 ) was a New Zealand @-@ born Australian optical astronomer and expert in photometry who played a leading role in the design and commissioning of Australia 's largest optical telescope , the Anglo @-@ Australian Telescope , one of the world 's most important astronomical facilities . Born in Napier , New Zealand , Gascoigne trained in Auckland and at the University of Bristol , before moving to Australia during World War II to work at the Commonwealth Solar Observatory at Mount Stromlo in Canberra . He became skillful in the design and manufacture of optical devices such as telescope elements .
Following the war , Gascoigne and astronomer Gerald Kron used newly modernised telescopes at Mount Stromlo to determine that the distance between our galaxy and the Magellanic Cloud dwarf galaxies had been underestimated by a factor of two . Because this measurement was used to calibrate other distances in astronomy , the result effectively doubled the estimated size of the universe . They also found that star formation in the Magellanic Clouds had occurred more recently than in the Milky Way ; this overturned the prevailing view that both had evolved in parallel . A major figure at Mount Stromlo Observatory , Gascoigne helped it develop from a solar observatory to a centre of stellar and galactic research , and was instrumental in the creation of its field observatory in northern New South Wales , Siding Spring Observatory . When the British and Australian governments agreed to jointly build the Anglo @-@ Australian Telescope at Siding Spring , Gascoigne was involved from its initial conception and throughout its lengthy commissioning , taking its first photograph . Gascoigne was made an Officer of the Order of Australia for his contributions to astronomy and to the Anglo @-@ Australian Telescope .
Gascoigne and his wife , artist Rosalie Gascoigne , had three children . After he retired , Gascoigne wrote several works on Australian astronomical history . He acted as Rosalie 's photographer and assistant , using his technical skills to make her artworks resilient for public display .
= = Early life = =
Ben Gascoigne 's parents met and married in Levin , New Zealand , just before the First World War . They soon moved to Napier , where Gascoigne was born in 1915 . He attended Auckland Grammar School , and won a scholarship to Auckland University College ( now the University of Auckland ) a year before he was due to finish high school . Faced with a choice between studying history or the sciences , he chose the latter because he had a severe stammer and thought that it would be less of an impediment . He completed both a Bachelor 's degree and a Master 's qualification in science , securing Honours in both mathematics and physics , finishing his studies in 1937 . Despite these achievements , he did not consider himself to be practically trained , saying : " I was still very much a theorist , with no practical physics at all . The professor in Auckland used to wince when I walked past the cupboard in which the good instruments were kept ! "
In 1933 , while studying at the University , he met his future wife Rosalie Norah King Walker , although they did not marry for another decade . Rosalie completed a Bachelor of Arts while Gascoigne was studying in Auckland ; she also studied at Auckland 's teacher training college while he was in Bristol .
Although Gascoigne had always intended to study mathematics at Cambridge , an event occurred that significantly shaped his career . In 1931 , an earthquake in New Zealand killed Michael Hiatt Baker , a young traveller from Bristol , and his parents established a postgraduate scholarship in his memory , for study at the University of Bristol , which Gascoigne won and took up in 1938 . During his thesis studies at Bristol , Gascoigne developed a diffraction theory of the Foucault test that is used for evaluating the shape of large telescope mirrors . He completed his doctorate in physics in 1941 , but by then war had broken out in Europe , and he had already returned to New Zealand on the last available ship .
= = War service 1940 – 1945 = =
Returning to a job in the physics department at Auckland , Gascoigne worked on military optics , developing gun sights and rangefinders , although he did not remain there for long . Richard van der Riet Woolley , director of the Commonwealth Solar Observatory in Canberra ( now Mount Stromlo Observatory ) , sought out Gascoigne because his " experience in optical work [ was ] unique " and Gascoigne was " trained in a way that no one else in Australia has been qualified " . When in 1941 Gascoigne was offered a research fellowship by Woolley , he moved to Canberra . The Solar Observatory staff had similar responsibilities to those Gascoigne had held in New Zealand . His first task was to design an anti @-@ aircraft gun sight , and he was also involved in a range of other military optical projects . In 1944 , the Melbourne Observatory , home to the Commonwealth Time Service , was closed . Gascoigne reestablished the Time Service at Mount Stromlo , using two Shortt @-@ Synchronome clocks and astronomical observing equipment that he and his colleagues adapted ; the Time Service remained at Mount Stromlo until 1968 . The knowledge and experience Gascoigne gained during the war proved valuable . He was at the only facility in Australia where optical work could be done , from design and manufacture to assembly and testing . Gascoigne developed a wide range of skills and " finished up quite practical , especially with a screwdriver . "
A decade after Gascoigne first met Rosalie in New Zealand , she travelled to Canberra , and on 9 January 1943 they were married . Their first son , Martin , was born in November , and their second , Thomas , was born in 1945 .
= = Mount Stromlo = =
Following the end of the war Woolley redirected the Commonwealth Observatory from solar research towards the study of stars and galaxies . It took time to get the old and unused telescopes back up to working condition : they had to be overhauled and refurbished , and in one case rebuilt from scrap . Woolley got funding approval from the Prime Minister for construction of a 74 @-@ inch telescope , but it would not be finished for years . Gascoigne began to work in the nascent field of photoelectric photometry , using electrical devices to measure the brightness of stars more accurately than had been possible using photographic techniques . In 1951 , with equipment brought by visiting astronomer Gerald Kron from California 's Lick Observatory , he observed Cepheid variable stars , which are used to measure astronomical distances . Granted nine months of observing time on the Observatory 's Reynolds 30 @-@ inch reflector telescope – an extraordinary opportunity – Gascoigne , Kron and others surveyed Cepheid stars in both the Small Magellanic Cloud and , later , the Large Magellanic Cloud . They also examined the colours of star clusters in the Small Cloud . The research produced remarkable results : " it meant that the Magellanic Clouds were twice as far away as was previously thought , and if then the baseline is twice as long , the size of the universe is doubled . " It also showed that star formation in the Magellanic Clouds had occurred more recently than in the Milky Way . The results overturned the prevailing view that our galaxy and the Magellanic Clouds had evolved in parallel . Gascoigne said of his work :
When suddenly all this dropped into place , after I had been working away at it for quite a while , measuring more Cepheids in our own Galaxy and some in the Large Cloud , the feeling of triumph , the great feeling that I had really done something , was wonderful . I had joined the professional astronomers . Not only that , but I truly understood a problem , a proper problem ...
Subsequent research confirmed what were described as pioneering results , arrived at through very innovative techniques .
In 1949 , the Gascoignes ' third child , daughter Hester , was born . Like many Observatory personnel , the Gascoignes lived in a staff residence on Mount Stromlo , which was a long difficult trip away from Canberra . It was cold and lonely , particularly for Rosalie , but they enjoyed the outdoors , and the landscape inspired Rosalie 's creativity and later her artistic career . In 1960 they relocated to Deakin in suburban Canberra , and in the late 1960s they moved to another suburb , Pearce .
In 1957 , administrative responsibility for the Commonwealth Observatory was transferred from the Australian Government 's Department of the Interior to the Australian National University ( ANU ) , a move supported by both its director , Richard Woolley , and Gascoigne . This was an era of significant change at Mount Stromlo : in January 1956 Woolley had resigned as director of Mount Stromlo to take up a position as Astronomer Royal and director of the Royal Observatory Greenwich . He was replaced by Bart Bok , whom Gascoigne liked and under whose directorship he played a significant role . Also in 1957 , the Mount Stromlo team began searching for a new field observatory site , due to the increased light pollution from Canberra 's growth . The search was vigorously promoted by Bok , and after an examination of 20 possible locations , two were shortlisted : Mount Bingar , near Griffith , New South Wales , and Siding Spring , near Coonabarabran , New South Wales . Gascoigne was one of a group of scientists who visited Siding Spring Mountain as part of the search , and he was one of those who advocated this choice :
We had to climb the last bit on foot ... [ I was ] the first astronomer to set foot on Siding Spring . I liked the look of the place right away , partly because it had such good features for astronomy – for example , the north and west faces had sheer cliffs that were very good for draining away the cold air – and because of its beautiful outlook , on the edge of the national park . It really is a wonderful place to be .
In 1962 , Siding Spring was selected , and by 1967 Siding Spring Observatory was fully operational .
At the end of Woolley 's directorship , the 74 @-@ inch telescope he had initiated finally came online . Gascoigne , looking for a new research project and keen to use the new telescope , took up the study of globular clusters , compact groups of tens of thousands of ancient stars of similar age . With a new design of photometer , he was able to measure the exceptionally faint stars in these clusters . Gascoigne determined that the clusters in the Magellanic Clouds were both young and old , and had quite different characteristics to those in the Milky Way : this information was important for modelling the evolution of galaxies .
In 1963 , Gascoigne developed a device , known as an optical corrector plate , which allowed wide field photography on the new 40 @-@ inch telescope at Siding Spring . Such corrector plates were subsequently used on many telescopes and became known as Gascoigne correctors . During this period he was also active in supporting the establishment of a national research organisation for astronomers , the Astronomical Society of Australia . It held its first meeting in 1966 , and Gascoigne was made its first vice @-@ president .
When Bok retired as Stromlo 's director in early 1966 , Gascoigne became acting director for three months until the arrival of Bok 's replacement , American astronomer Olin J. Eggen . Eggen was an enormously productive scientist , but was " enigmatic " , " somewhat gruff " and selective in the friendships he formed . Although Eggen and Gascoigne had previously collaborated on research projects , when Eggen arrived to take up the post , he and Gascoigne did not get on well , in contrast to Gascoigne 's relationships with other astronomers . Gascoigne said of Eggen : " he made it clear I had no further part in running the Observatory . I was given no information , saw no documents , attended no meetings , and was asked for no advice , not even in optical matters . "
= = Anglo @-@ Australian Telescope = =
In 1963 Gascoigne published an article in the journal Nature titled " Towards a Southern Commonwealth Observatory " . Gascoigne was then given a significant opportunity that became the focus of the remainder of his paid academic career : to help establish one of the world 's largest optical telescopes , at Siding Spring . In the early 1960s , the Australian and British governments proposed a partnership to build a joint optical telescope facility , and Gascoigne was among the experts involved . Former Mount Stromlo director and now head of the Greenwich observatory , Richard Woolley , was prominent in supporting the project from the British end . In 1967 , the two governments formally agreed to collaborate on the construction of a large telescope , to be known as the Anglo @-@ Australian Telescope ( AAT ) . Given the existing infrastructure of the ANU 's Siding Spring Observatory , the site was readily agreed as the location for the AAT . Gascoigne was one of the four members of the Technical Committee established to guide the telescope 's development . He provided leadership on the design and optics of the new telescope , and was made the chief commissioning astronomer in 1974 .
A bitter struggle over the management and operation of the new facility went on for some years . The Australian National University and the director at Stromlo , Olin Eggen , wanted the telescope to be under the control of the University while other Australian astronomers , including some at Stromlo , and the British wanted it established independently . Gascoigne 's co @-@ authored history of the telescope states that " None of the eight fellow of the Australian Academy of Science [ Gascoigne was one of them ] supported the ANU " and in 1973 the debate was resolved in favour of an independent structure , the Anglo @-@ Australian Observatory . Gascoigne was one of only a few Stromlo employees who ended up working on the AAT for an extended period during its establishment phase : the Anglo @-@ Australian Observatory chose to offer short @-@ term positions rather than academic tenure like that at the ANU .
The work at Siding Spring was rewarding , but it could also be dangerous . During construction , Gascoigne constantly warned colleagues to take care on the elevated catwalks around the telescope . However , Gascoigne himself was almost killed when , while working one night around the telescope structure , he fell seven metres to the floor of the observatory , narrowly missing " a massive steel structure with long protruding bolts " . He survived , and was the first to take a photograph using the telescope , on 26 or 27 April 1974 . Gascoigne was so pleased with the quality of the optics that he said he wanted a number describing the hyperboloid shape of the mirror ( 1 @.@ 1717 ) engraved on his headstone . The site quickly became one of the world 's most important astronomical observatories and was for many years home to world @-@ leading astrophotographer David Malin . The successes of the AAT have been documented in annual reports by its Board , while a 2008 analysis of the relative impacts of astronomical observing facilities placed the AAT in the top three , coming after only the Sloan Digital Sky Survey and the W. M. Keck Observatory ( both telescopes built more than two decades later ) . For Gascoigne , it was " a wonderful thing to be associated with – the high point in my life . "
It was during the period of Gascoigne 's association with the Anglo @-@ Australian telescope that he and his wife commissioned architect Theo Bischoff to design a house for them , which was planned and constructed between 1967 and 1969 . Bischoff , who was responsible for numerous Canberra residences , designed a modernist home to the detailed , if contrasting , instructions from his client couple , who in turn were heavily influenced by their negative experiences with Canberra housing , particularly their home on Mount Stromlo . Based on Gascoigne 's interest in optics , and Rosalie 's strong visual sense as an artist , the resulting design " was based on maximising the potential for observation " , creating " a form of habitable optical instrument " .
= = Artist 's assistant and historian = =
By the middle of 1975 , the Anglo @-@ Australian Telescope was fully operational , and Gascoigne was offered a job with the new telescope , based in Sydney . By this time his wife was emerging as a significant artist who relied on the landscapes and materials around their home for her inspiration . Gascoigne decided to return to the Australian National University in Canberra ; he retired a few years later in 1980 , and supported Rosalie in her work .
Gascoigne completed a course in welding and became his wife 's assistant , making " her assemblies of ' found objects ' safer and more durable " . He also catalogued and photographed her work , describing himself as " artist 's handyman , cook , and archivist . " Rosalie Gascoigne 's artistic career came late – she was almost 60 when she held her first solo shows – and her rise was " meteoric " ; five public galleries purchased works from her early exhibitions . She died in 1999 . In 2008 , Gascoigne donated Rosalie 's final major work , a ten @-@ panel installation titled Earth ( 1999 ) , to the National Gallery of Australia .
As well as being an astronomer , Gascoigne was a scholar of the history of Australian astronomy . He wrote histories of major telescopes , such as the Melbourne Telescope and the AAT . He wrote biographies for the Australian Dictionary of Biography , including those of the first trained astronomer at Canberra 's Mount Stromlo Observatory , William Bolton Rimmer , and pioneering Australian astronomer Robert Ellery .
Gascoigne died on 25 March 2010 . A memorial service was held at St John 's Church in Reid , Canberra , on 12 April .
= = Recognition and legacy = =
Gascoigne was widely respected for his astronomical skills and his generous nature . English astronomer and writer Sir Fred Hoyle , at one time the Chairman of the AAT , gave Gascoigne considerable credit for the telescope 's success , and astronomer Harry Minnett likewise credited him , together with Roderick Oliver Redman , for the telescope 's extremely good optics . Former AAT director Russell Cannon regarded Gascoigne as a world leader in his field , as well as being " a delightful man " . Historian of astronomy Ragbir Bhathal considered Gascoigne to have been an important figure in Australian astronomy , responsible for substantial advances in the field .
In 1966 , Gascoigne was elected a fellow of the Australian Academy of Science . He was made an Honorary Fellow of the Astronomical Society of Australia ; became the first person to be elected as an Honorary Member of the Optical Society of Australia ; and was the first Australian to be elected as an Associate of the Royal Astronomical Society . On 11 June 1996 , Gascoigne was made an Officer of the Order of Australia for his contributions to astronomy and to the AAT . On 1 January 2001 , he was awarded the Centenary Medal , for his service to society and to astronomy .
= = Select bibliography = =
Scientific journal articles
Kron , Gerald E. ; White , Howard S. ; Gascoigne , S. C. B. ( 1953 ) . " Red and Infrared Magnitudes for 138 Stars Observed as Photometric Standards " . Astrophysical Journal 118 : 502 . Bibcode : 1953ApJ ... 118 .. 502K. doi : 10 @.@ 1086 / 145778 .
Gascoigne , S. C. B. ; Burr , E. J. ( 1956 ) . " Surface photometry of the globular clusters 47 Tucanae and Omega Centauri " . Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 116 ( 5 ) : 570 . Bibcode : 1956MNRAS.116 .. 570G. doi : 10 @.@ 1093 / mnras / 116 @.@ 5 @.@ 570 .
Kron , G.E. ; Gascoigne , S. C. B. ; White , H. S. ( 1957 ) . " Red and infrared magnitudes for 282 stars with known trigonometric parallaxes " . Astronomical Journal 62 : 205 – 220 . Bibcode : 1957AJ ..... 62 .. 205K. doi : 10 @.@ 1086 / 107521 .
Gascoigne , S. C. B. ( 1966 ) . " Colour @-@ magnitude diagrams for nine globular @-@ like clusters in the Magellanic Clouds " . Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 134 : 59 . Bibcode : 1966MNRAS.134 ... 59G. doi : 10 @.@ 1093 / mnras / 134 @.@ 1 @.@ 59 .
Gascoigne , S. C. B. ( 1969 ) . " Further observations of Magellanic cloud cepheids " . Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 146 : 1 . Bibcode : 1969MNRAS.146 .... 1G. doi : 10 @.@ 1093 / mnras / 146 @.@ 1 @.@ 1 .
Books
Gascoigne , S. C. B. ; Proust , Katrina M. ; Robins , Malcolm Owen ( 1990 ) . The creation of the Anglo @-@ Australian Observatory . Cambridge UK : Cambridge University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 521 @-@ 35396 @-@ 3 .
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= Hadropithecus =
Hadropithecus is a medium @-@ sized , extinct genus of lemur , or strepsirrhine primate , from Madagascar that includes a single species , Hadropithecus stenognathus . Due to its rarity and lack of sufficient skeletal remains , it is one of the least understood of the extinct lemurs . Both it and Archaeolemur are collectively known as " monkey lemurs " or " baboon lemurs " due to body plans and dentition that suggest a terrestrial lifestyle and a diet similar to that of modern baboons . Hadropithecus had extended molars and a short , powerful jaw , suggesting that it was both a grazer and a seed predator .
The monkey lemurs are considered to be most closely related to the living indriids and the recently extinct sloth lemurs , although recent finds had caused some dispute over a possible closer relation to living lemurids . Genetic tests , however , have reaffirmed the previously presumed relationship . Hadropithecus lived in open habitat in the Central Plateau , South , and Southwest regions of Madagascar . It is known only from subfossil or recent remains and is considered to be a modern form of Malagasy lemur . It died out around 444 – 772 CE , shortly after the arrival of humans on the island .
= = Etymology = =
The common names that Hadropithecus shares with Archaeolemur , " monkey lemurs " and " baboon lemurs " , come from their dental and locomotor adaptations , which resemble that of modern African baboons . The genus Hadropithecus is derived from the Greek words αδρος , hadros , meaning " stout " or " large " , and πίθηκος , pithekos , meaning " ape " . The species name derives from the Greek root στενο- , steno- , meaning " narrow " , and γναθος , gnathos , meaning " jaw " or " mouth " .
= = Classification and phylogeny = =
Hadropithecus stenognathus is classified as the sole member of the genus Hadropithecus and belongs to the family Archaeolemuridae . This family in turn belongs to the infraorder Lemuriformes , which includes all the Malagasy lemurs . The species was formally described in 1899 from a mandible ( lower jaw ) found at Andrahomana cave in southeastern Madagascar by paleontologist Ludwig Lorenz von Liburnau , who thought it represented an ape . A year later , Lorenz von Liburnau also described Pithecodon sikorae based on photographs of a skull , which upon further review turned out to be a juvenile version of Hadropithecus stenognathus . In a publication from 1902 , he declared that Hadrophithecus stenognathus was not an ape , but a lemur . Over 100 years later , the rarity of its skeletal remains has made this species one of the least understood species of subfossil lemur .
Based on similarities in their skull and teeth , it was later thought that monkey lemurs ( Hadropithecus and Archaeolemur ) were a sister group to the living indriids and the recently extinct sloth lemurs ( family Palaeopropithecidae ) . However , there was some debate over whether the monkey lemurs or the sloth lemurs were more closely related to today 's indriids . The monkey lemurs had skulls that more closely resembled the indriids , but their teeth were very specialized and unlike those of the indriids . The sloth lemurs , on the other hand , had teeth like the indriids , but very specialized skulls . The matter was settled with the discovery of new skeletons of Babakotia and Mesopropithecus , two genera of sloth lemur , both of which had indriid @-@ like skulls and teeth . More recently , postcranial remains of Hadropithecus found in the early 2000s prompted the suggestion that the monkey lemurs were more closely related to the lemurids . However , DNA sequencing has reaffirmed the sister group status of the monkey lemurs to indriids and sloth lemurs .
= = Anatomy and physiology = =
Hadropithecus stenognathus has been estimated to have weighed between 27 and 35 kg ( 60 and 77 lb ) and to have been roughly as large as Archaeolemur , although more gracile . Newer subfossil finds , however , suggest that Hadropithecus may have been more robust , and more like a gorilla than a baboon . It may also have been less agile than Old World monkeys . Both lemurs were quadrupedal ( walked on four legs ) . There is no evidence of cursoriality ( adaptations specifically for running ) in either species , and although Hadropithecus could have climbed trees , it lacked adaptations for leaping or suspension .
Although fewer postcranial remains have been discovered for Hadropithecus than for Archaeolemur , what has been found indicates that both were adapted for a terrestrial or semi @-@ terrestrial lifestyle , an unusual trait for lemurs . Both genera had short limbs and a powerful build . Due to its specialized dentition and likely diet , Hadropithecus is thought to have been the more terrestrial of the two , since Archaeolemur may have sent more time foraging and sleeping in the trees . Both genera also have shortened hands and feet , an adaptation for walking on the ground .
The face of Hadropithecus was shortened and adapted to heavy stress from chewing . The monkey lemurs had highly specialized teeth , but Hadropithecus went further by specializing in strong grinding . It had expanded molars that wore down quickly , much like those of ungulates , and its posterior premolars acted like molars to extend the grinding surface . It also had a robust mandible to facilitate crushing hard objects . Even the strepsirrhine toothcomb was reduced in this species . Its dental formula was 2 @.@ 1 @.@ 3 @.@ 31 @.@ 1 @.@ 3 @.@ 3 × 2 = 34
The skulls of both Hadropithecus and Archaeolemur indicate that monkey lemurs had relatively large brains compared to the other subfossil lemurs , with Hadropithecus having an estimated endocranial volume of 115 ml .
= = Ecology = =
Like all other lemurs , Hadropithecus was endemic to Madagascar . Because it died out only recently and is only known from subfossil remains , it is considered to be a modern form of Malagasy lemur . It once ranged across the Central Plateau , South , and Southwest regions of Madagascar . Within its original range , there were few other lemurs to overlap its ecological niche , and it has been shown to be the only subfossil lemur to consume both C3 and C4 ( or CAM ) plants , an indication that it lived in more open habitats and had a varied diet . Its physiology and dentition suggest that it may have been much like the Gelada Baboon in locomotion and diet , acting as a manual grazer ( picking grass with the hands ) since its teeth were well @-@ adapted for grinding either grass or seeds . Microwear patterns on its teeth , as well as its overly large molars , indicate it processed hard objects like nuts or seeds , making it a seed predator . More recent microwear analysis suggests differences between Gelada Baboons and Hadropithecus , indicating that this extinct lemur may not have been a grazer , but strictly a hard object processor .
= = Extinction = =
Because of the low number of subfossil finds , Hadropithecus is thought to have been rare , and it died out sooner than its sister taxon , Archaeolemur . Both disappeared shortly after the arrival of humans to the island , but being a large , specialized , terrestrial grazer , Hadropithecus would have faced more pressure from domestic livestock , introduced pigs , and spreading human populations than its more generalized cousin . The last known record was radiocarbon dated to around 444 – 772 CE .
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= Nine Inch Nails live performances =
Nine Inch Nails , an industrial rock band fronted by Trent Reznor , did various live performances throughout the world , including tours in North America , South America , Europe , Australia , Japan , and China . While Reznor controls the creative and musical direction of Nine Inch Nails in @-@ studio , the touring band performs different arrangements of the songs in live settings . In addition to regular concerts , the band has performed in both supporting and headlining roles at festivals such as Woodstock ' 94 , Lollapalooza 1991 and 2008 , as well as many other one @-@ off performances including the MTV Video Music Awards . Prior to their 2013 tour , the band played 938 gigs .
Nine Inch Nails ' live performances contrast with its in @-@ studio counterpart . Reznor writes and performs nearly all Nine Inch Nails studio material , with occasional instrumental and vocal contributions from others artists . However , Reznor has typically assembled groups of backing musicians to interpret songs for tours and other live performances . Keyboardist Alessandro Cortini said that " if you see the show and you 're used to the CDs it 's pretty clear that the studio entity is different from the live entity " .
The only constant member of the live band is Reznor . Live Nine Inch Nails performances are typically accompanied by lighting , stage , and video projection effects . Since 1999 , the visual design components of live shows have been curated by Reznor with Rob Sheridan . Three tours have been chronicled on live albums and tour documentaries .
Critical and commercial response to Nine Inch Nails live performances has generally been positive . Critics have pointed to the concerts ' aggressive on @-@ stage dynamic and visual designs as high points . Reznor decided in 2008 to cease touring with the band after a 2009 farewell tour . The band resumed touring in 2013 , with the group planning a set of concerts in the U.S. beginning September 28 .
= = History = =
= = = Pretty Hate Machine Tour Series ( 1988 – 1991 ) = = =
Reznor assembled the first live line @-@ up in 1988 to support the Canadian industrial music band Skinny Puppy on tour . The three @-@ piece band consisted of Reznor on guitars and lead vocals , Ron Musarra on drums , and Chris Vrenna on keyboards . The band was poorly received , however , and they were asked to leave the tour after 10 dates . After the Skinny Puppy tour the band was rearranged and expanded to include a fourth member ; Musarra departed and Vrenna moved to drums , Gary Talpas , Nick Rushe , and later David Hymes contributed on keyboards , while Richard Patrick was added as guitarist .
Nine Inch Nails toured North America as an opening act for The Jesus and Mary Chain in 1990 , and later for Peter Murphy . During these tours , Reznor began to smash equipment while on stage , and Rockbeat interviewer Mike Gitter attributed the band 's early success to this aggressive attitude . In 1991 , the band undertook a world tour that continued through the first Lollapalooza festival , where , according to biographer Martin Huxley , they " stole the show " . New Musical Express had a sentiment after the performance , describing the show as " genuinely frightening " , and asking the reader to " decide for yourself if it 's choreographed chaos or unbridled grievous bodily harm " . Nine Inch Nails was then invited to open for Guns N ' Roses on their European Tour , though they were reportedly poorly received yet again . Before the Lollapalooza date , Chris Vrenna left the band due to a fall out with Reznor , and was replaced for the remainder of the tour by drummer Jeff Ward . Vrenna would rejoin the band for the Self @-@ Destruct tour in 1994 . At the conclusion of the Pretty Hate Machine tour , Richard Patrick left the group to form his own band , Filter .
= = = Self @-@ Destruct ( 1994 – 1995 ) = = =
After the 1994 release of The Downward Spiral , the live band embarked on the Self @-@ Destruct tour in support of the album . The Nine Inch Nails live band embarked on the Self Destruct tour in support of The Downward Spiral . Chris Vrenna and James Woolley performed drums and keyboards respectively , Robin Finck replaced Richard Patrick on guitar and bassist Danny Lohner was added to the line @-@ up . The stage set @-@ up consisted of dirty curtains which would pulled down and up for visuals shown during songs such as " Hurt " . The back of the stage was littered with darker and standing lights , along with very little actual ones . The tour debuted the band 's grungy and messy image in which they would come out in ragged clothes slathered in corn starch . The concerts were violent and chaotic , with band members often injuring themselves . They would frequently destroy their instruments at the end of concerts , attack each other , and stage @-@ dive into the crowd .
The tour included a set at Woodstock ' 94 broadcast on Pay @-@ per @-@ view and seen in as many as 24 million homes . The band being covered in mud was a result of pre @-@ concert backstage play , contrary to the belief that it was an attention @-@ grabbing ploy , thus making it difficult for Reznor to navigate the stage : Reznor pushed Lohner into the mud pit as the concert began and saw mud from his hair going into his eyes while performing . Nine Inch Nails was widely proclaimed to have " stolen the show " from its popular contemporaries , mostly classic rock bands , and its fan base expanded . The band received considerable mainstream success thereafter , performing with significantly higher production values and the addition of various theatrical visual elements . Its performance of " Happiness in Slavery " from the Woodstock concert earned the group a Grammy Award for Best Metal Performance in 1995 . Entertainment Weekly commented about the band 's Woodstock ' 94 performance : " Reznor unstrings rock to its horrifying , melodramatic core--an experience as draining as it is exhilarating " . Despite this acclaim , Reznor attributed his dislike of the concert to its technical difficulties .
The main leg of the tour featured Marilyn Manson as the supporting act , who Reznor had recently signed to his Nothing Records label . At the time , Marilyn Manson featured bassist Jeordie White ( then playing under the pseudonym " Twiggy Ramirez " ) , who would later play bass with Nine Inch Nails from 2005 to 2007 . After another tour leg supporting the remix album Further Down the Spiral , Nine Inch Nails contributed to the Alternative Nation Festival in Australia and subsequently embarked on the Dissonance Tour , which included 26 separate performances with co @-@ headliner David Bowie . Nine Inch Nails was the opening act for the tour , and its set transitioned into Bowie 's set with joint performances of both bands ' songs . However , the crowds reportedly did not respond positively to the pairing due to their creative differences .
The tour concluded with " Nights of Nothing " , a three @-@ night showcase of performances from Nothing Records bands Marilyn Manson , Prick , Meat Beat Manifesto , and Pop Will Eat Itself , which ended with an 80 @-@ minute set from Nine Inch Nails . Kerrang ! described the Nine Inch Nails set during the Nights of Nothing showcase as " tight , brash and dramatic " , but was disappointed at the lack of new material . On the second of the three nights , Richard Patrick was briefly reunited with the band and contributed guitar to a performance of " Head Like a Hole " . After the Self Destruct tour , Chris Vrenna , member of the live band since 1988 and frequent contributor to Nine Inch Nails studio recordings , left the act permanently to pursue a career in producing and to form Tweaker .
= = = Fragility ( 1999 – 2000 ) = = =
In support of Nine Inch Nails ' third full @-@ length studio album , The Fragile , the live @-@ band reformed for the Fragility tour . The lineup remained largely the same from the Self @-@ Destruct tour , featuring Finck , Clouser , and Lohner . To replace long @-@ time member Vrenna , Reznor held open auditions to find a new drummer , eventually picking then @-@ unknown Jerome Dillon . Dillon would remain a member of the live band until 2005 .
Nine Inch Nails ' record label at the time , Interscope Records , reportedly refused to fund the promotional tour following The Fragile 's lukewarm sales . Reznor instead committed himself to fund the entire tour out of his own pocket , concluding that " The reality is , I ’ m broke at the end of the tour , " but also adding " I will never present a show that isn ’ t fantastic . "
The Fragility tour began in late 1999 , running until mid @-@ 2000 , and was broken into two major legs , Fragility 1 @.@ 0 and Fragility 2 @.@ 0 respectively . Destinations included Europe , Japan , New Zealand , Australia , and North America . Before the first Fragility performance date in Spain , Nine Inch Nails opened their final rehearsal in London to 100 fans . Kick @-@ starting the tour was a performance of the title track from The Fragile at the MTV Video Music Awards . Atari Teenage Riot opened for Nine Inch Nails during Fragility 1 @.@ 0 , and A Perfect Circle for Fragility 2 @.@ 0 . At the time , A Perfect Circle featured Josh Freese on drums , who would later replace Dillon and play drums for Nine Inch Nails from 2005 to 2007 . The tour featured increasingly large production values , including a triptych video display created by contemporary video artist Bill Viola . Rolling Stone magazine named the Fragility the best tour of 2000 .
In 2002 , the tour documentary And All That Could Have Been was released featuring a collection of performances from the Fragility 2 @.@ 0 tour . While making the DVD , Reznor commented on the tour in retrospect by saying " I thought the show was really , really good when we were doing it " , but later admitted that he " can 't watch [ the DVD ] at all . I was sick for most of that tour and I really don 't think it was Nine Inch Nails at its best " .
= = = Live : With Teeth ( 2005 – 2006 ) = = =
Following the release of With Teeth in 2005 , the live band was reassembled for the Live : With Teeth tour . Since the previous tour five years earlier , much of band had moved on in their careers , and only drummer Jerome Dillon rejoined . To find replacements , Reznor held auditions during December 2004 . He stated that keyboardist Alessandro Cortini " fit in immediately " , though he had trouble finding a guitarist to replace Robin Finck until auditioning Aaron North .
The tour began with a series of small @-@ club performances early in 2005 . The band told journalists they were " pleasantly surprised by the interest " of fans despite their lengthy absence . This initial leg of the tour also included a headlining performance at Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival . The band followed with a North American arena tour in autumn 2005 , supported by Queens of the Stone Age , Death From Above 1979 , Autolux , and Saul Williams . Williams performed on stage with Nine Inch Nails at the Voodoo Music Experience festival during a headlining appearance in hurricane @-@ stricken New Orleans , Reznor 's former home . To conclude the With Teeth era of the band , Nine Inch Nails completed a tour of North American amphitheaters in the summer of 2006 , joined by Bauhaus , TV on the Radio , and Peaches . The 2007 release Beside You in Time features performances from the North American arena tour , the North American amphitheater tour , and a number of studio rehearsals .
Nine Inch Nails were scheduled to perform at the 2005 MTV Movie Awards , but dropped themselves from the show due to a disagreement with the network over the use of an unaltered image of George W. Bush as a backdrop to the band 's performance of " The Hand that Feeds " . Soon afterwards , Reznor wrote on the official Nine Inch Nails website : " apparently , the image of our president is as offensive to MTV as it is to me " . MTV replied by saying they respected Reznor 's point of view , but were " uncomfortable " with the performance being " built around partisan political statements " . A performance by the Foo Fighters replaced Nine Inch Nails ' time slot on the show .
During the first arena performance in 2005 , Dillon was forced to stop midway through the show and was subsequently hospitalized . His condition was later diagnosed as a non @-@ life @-@ threatening cardiac disorder , a consequence of his thyroid medication . Dillon later remarked that when he was ready to return he encountered " complete apathy and no sympathy " from Reznor and Nine Inch Nails management . Reznor in turn wrote that Dillon 's " recollection of the events leading to his departure from the band is once again inaccurate " . Josh Freese initially replaced Dillon for two shows before Alex Carapetis joined the band for the remainder of the arena tour . Freese eventually replaced Carapetis and joined the band on a permanent basis .
= = = Performance 2007 ( 2007 ) = = =
Having taken a break from touring to complete work on Year Zero , Nine Inch Nails began a world tour in 2007 , including their first ever performance in China . Reznor continued to tour with the same band he concluded the Live : With Teeth tour , which was composed of North , White , Freese , and Cortini . Supporting acts included Ladytron , Unkle , The Dandy Warhols , Alec Empire , and Serena Maneesh .
The Year Zero project included an alternate reality game of the same name , with much of the game revolving around various live shows . During a Nine Inch Nails concert in Lisbon , Portugal , a USB flash drive was found in a bathroom stall containing a high @-@ quality MP3 of the track " My Violent Heart " , a song from the then @-@ unreleased album . A second USB drive was found after a concert in Barcelona , containing the track " Me , I 'm Not " . Following the release of Year Zero the focus of the tour shifted towards debuting and promoting tracks from the new album . While some of these songs were performed by all 5 band members as conventional guitar @-@ driven rock songs , two of them ( " Me , I 'm Not " and " The Great Destroyer " ) were played by Reznor , guitarist North and keyboard player Cortini as a 3 piece , using a combination of live guitars and pre @-@ programmed samples triggered onstage with computers and manipulated in real time using Ableton software .
In April 2007 , Nine Inch Nails fans received in @-@ game telephone @-@ calls in which they were invited to a " resistance meeting " in Los Angeles . At the meeting , fans attended a fictional Art is Resistance meeting , and were later rewarded by an unannounced performance by Nine Inch Nails . The concert was cut short as the meeting was raided by a fictional SWAT team and the audience was rushed out of the building .
Later that year , the Honolulu Star @-@ Bulletin reported that the September 18 show in Honolulu would be the last performance of the current incarnation of the Nine Inch Nails live band . Reznor told the newspaper " at this point , I want to switch things around a bit . Nine Inch Nails as a rock band configuration , we 've done it and we 've done it again . I see other ways I can present the material in concert , more challenging , something new . I don 't want it to go stale " . In the same article , Reznor also admitted that " the idea of five guys playing loud music [ for ] two hours ... has got to change once finances come into play , especially performing in markets outside of the mainland U.S. I want to whittle things down " .
= = = Lights in the Sky ( 2008 ) = = =
The seventh and eighth major Nine Inch Nails studio @-@ releases , Ghosts I – IV and The Slip , were released in March and May 2008 respectively . Both albums feature contributions from live @-@ band member Alessandro Cortini . Since the release of Ghosts I – IV , a 25 @-@ date tour was announced in several North American cities . Cortini and Freese returned as members from the previous tour , while Robin Finck rejoined the band . The lineup was initially to include Rich Fownes , but before any scheduled performances it was revealed that Justin Meldal @-@ Johnsen would instead be contributing on bass guitar .
Supporting acts for the tour include Deerhunter , Crystal Castles , Does It Offend You , Yeah ? , Ghostland Observatory , A Place to Bury Strangers , and White Williams . In early June , a tour EP was released for free on the Nine Inch Nails website featuring four songs from the supporting artists and one from Nine Inch Nails . The files are DRM @-@ free MP3s that are fully tagged , and included with the download are desktop wallpapers and a printable tour poster .
The band headlined the 2008 Lollapalooza festival , the 2008 Virgin Festival , and the first Pemberton Music Festival . In May 2008 , Nine Inch Nails announced that premium seating for all the upcoming 2008 tour shows would be offered in a pre @-@ sale for fans who registered at the official Nine Inch Nails website . In an effort to combat ticket scalpers , each concert ticket will list the purchaser 's legal name . The ticketing process was previously used for smaller pre @-@ sales and was available exclusively to fan club members . On July 26 , Reznor introduced an " unplugged " portion into the live show in which the band steps to the front of the stage about an hour into the show , with Reznor on vibraphone and bassist Meldal @-@ Johnsen playing an upright bass . The 20 @-@ minute jazzy , acoustic set is taken mostly from Ghosts I - IV . The stage show also featured mesh LED curtains that projected various visuals , ranging from falling rain to static to a ruined city , and made the band appear to be playing on " a stage that appeared to be constructed entirely out of lights . " Nine Inch Nails later confirmed that the tour was to extend to South America and it was thought this would be the last Americas set of dates but soon after Reznor announced yet more North American dates including two dates in tourist capital Florida .
On October 8 , 2008 , after finishing up their last show in South America , Reznor posted on the official Nine Inch Nails website blog that Josh Freese would be leaving the band following the completion of the current tour . Shortly after , it was announced that Alessandro Cortini would also be leaving the band . On November 15 , 2008 , Reznor announced via the official Nine Inch Nails website that Ilan Rubin of Lostprophets would be replacing Freese after his departure at the end of 2008 . No replacement was announced for Cortini , and the band subsequently toured as a 4 @-@ piece without a full @-@ time keyboard player .
= = = NIN | JA / Wave Goodbye ( 2009 ) = = =
In 2008 , Reznor decided to put Nine Inch Nails on indefinite hiatus . He later clarified that " NIN as a touring live band or live band that 's on the road all the time [ would be ] stopping " after a comprehensive tour , but that he would continue to produce music thereafter .
After a set of shows in Australia and New Zealand , Nine Inch Nails embarked on a North American tour of amphitheatres with Jane 's Addiction and Street Sweeper Social Club dubbed " NIN / JA 2009 " . Concerts in Europe and Asia were also announced before Reznor added a series of smaller @-@ venue shows in New York , Chicago , and Los Angeles . The final show was on September 10 , 2009 .
= = = Festival Circuit / Tension ( 2013 @-@ 2014 ) = = =
In February 2013 , Trent Reznor announced that Nine Inch Nails would begin touring once more , with festival performances in the summer , arena performances in the fall , and worldwide performances throughout 2014 . After Eric Avery and Adrian Belew dropped out during rehearsals , the festival tour lineup featured Alessandro Cortini , Josh Eustis , Robin Finck , Trent Reznor , and Ilan Rubin .
= = Visual elements = =
Visual elements employed during Nine Inch Nails concerts have often included numerous lighting , stage and projection effects employed to accompany and augment presentation . Prior to the Fragility tour in 2000 , Reznor reflected that " I ’ ve adopted a philosophy of the way to present Nine Inch Nails live that incorporates a theatrical element . I want it to be drama . I want my rock stars to be larger than life , you know ? The Kurt Cobains of the world , I ’ m sick of that shit . I don ’ t want a gas station attendant being my hero . I grew up with Gene Simmons . I grew up with Ziggy Stardust . "
Many songs are typically accompanied with specially designed visual aids , including synchronized lighting effects and projected stock @-@ footage montages . Early performances of the song " Hurt " , for example , were accompanied by a projected montage of clouds , charred bodies , mushroom clouds , maggots , and war refugees , a performance of which is featured in the song 's music video . Recent performances of the song , however , have featured less lighting effects .
Since 1999 , the visual presentation of Nine Inch Nails live shows have been directed by Rob Sheridan , while Bill Viola designed a large triptych display for the Fragility tour . The images displayed on the triptych focused on storm and water imagery . And All That Could Have Been features an audio commentary track by Viola describing the display and his inspirations for it .
For the Live : With Teeth tour , Roy Bennett and Martin Phillips were responsible for the lighting design and stage design respectively . Bennett explained in a 2005 interview that much of the lighting was done using a series of LED lights arranged in " stalactites or stalagmites [ formations ] to tie in to the album artwork " . DLP projectors were also used to project images onto a gauze screen in front of the stage .
Using the gauze projection @-@ screen , Phillips , Reznor , and Sheridan devised a " gag " where they projected " a sheet of glass shattering onto a downstage kabuki scrim that would drop as the glass shatters fell . ... We settled on Trent swinging his guitar at the gauze [ and ] shattering it , but with all the pieces falling up as the [ screen ] flew out " . This technique can be seen in the tour documentary Beside You in Time . In contrast to the lighting of previous tours , Performance 2007 featured minimal lighting that was designed to shadow Reznor and the band .
The visual elements of the live shows has been subject to much commentary . The Boston Globe described the Fragility tour as " one of the most outstanding light shows in memory " . A reviewer from the Contra Costa Times described a Live : With Teeth performance as being " heightened by just the right amount of dark purple or blue spotlights , with up @-@ lighting from the stage front , giving the band a horror @-@ flick feel " .
= = Live releases = =
Nine Inch Nails has released one album and three videos featuring the live band . Closure , a double VHS set released in 1997 , features live performances from the Self @-@ Destruct Tour , including a performance of " Hurt " with David Bowie during the Dissonance Tour . The video has been out of print since its initial release , and all attempts to re @-@ release the video on DVD have failed . A deluxe two @-@ disc DVD version of Closure was delivered to Interscope Records in 2004 and indefinitely delayed from being released . However , both discs appeared on BitTorrent networks in December 2006 , presumably leaked by Trent Reznor himself . And All That Could Have Been , which features performances from the Fragility 2 @.@ 0 tour , was released in 2002 as a live CD and double DVD . An easter egg in the DVD version features a performance with Marilyn Manson at Madison Square Garden of the songs " Starfuckers , Inc . " and Manson 's " The Beautiful People " . In 2007 , Nine Inch Nails released Beside You in Time , featuring performances from the Live : With Teeth tour . The DVD also features rehearsal footage , music videos , and still photographs from the tour .
= = Live band members = =
The configuration of the band has evolved since first touring in 1988 . Early incarnations of the band had three people playing guitars , drums , keyboards , and samplers . Later incarnations replaced the keyboards and samplers with an additional guitarist , and incarnations after that added a multi @-@ instrumentalist whose main role was as a bassist but also played guitars and keyboards on a number of songs . Finally , the live component of Nine Inch Nails has settled as a five @-@ piece band since the Self Destruct tour from 1994 . On the Performance 2007 tour , some songs from the Year Zero album were performed as a 3 piece band , featuring Reznor , keyboard player Alessandro Cortini and guitarist Aaron North , using a combination of live guitars and triggered loops . In September 2007 , Reznor expressed his interest in moving away from the " rock band configuration " to explore " other ways [ to ] present the material in concert " , though once again the 2008 incarnation consisted of five positions , but adding a variety of instruments not normally used in Nine Inch Nails such as double bass , various percussion instruments , steel guitar , vibraphone and other acoustic instruments as well as sampled sounds triggered from a variety of electronic instruments . No replacement was hired for keyboard player Alessandro Cortini after he left the band in late 2008 , and the 2009 live band is a four @-@ piece , with the role of keyboard player being shared between all members .
Describing the selection process , early contributor Chris Vrenna told Gannett News " coming from the same emotional background , I feel , is more important than how well you can play your instrument . That 's one reason that makes our shows more intense when we 're up there ... We found people that understood that . It makes us stronger " . Reznor described his selection of the earliest incarnations of the live band by saying " I 'm not in the position to offer somebody a thousand dollars a week to rehearse ... So I took some young guys who were malleable , who would basically do what I want them to do but expand on it . The only context I 've worked with them in so far is , ' Here are the songs , here are your parts , learn them . ' "
Between major tours , live band members have on occasion contributed instrumental performances to official Nine Inch Nails releases , though creative control and direction has always been the responsibility of Reznor . Live @-@ band members who have contributed to major Nine Inch Nails studio releases are denoted by a " # " below . Most members provide backing vocals during live performances .
Personnel
Live guests
Mike Garson # – piano ( September 2009 at the Henry Fonda Theater for the song Just Like You Imagined )
= = Guest artists and collaborations = =
Through the years , Reznor has invited many prominent musicians on stage with his band to perform material outside the usual range of Nine Inch Nails songs :
During Lollapalooza ' 91 Jane 's Addiction members Dave Navarro and Eric Avery played guitars alongside Gibby Haynes and Ice @-@ T for the last song of the band 's set , " Head Like a Hole " .
In early 1995 , Adam Ant and Marco Pirroni joined Nine Inch Nails on stage to perform " Physical " and other Adam and the Ants songs .
During the Dissonance tour , Nine Inch Nails co @-@ headlined with David Bowie . Throughout the tour , Nine Inch Nails would perform first and segue into Bowie 's band . The two bands would play a mixture of Nine Inch Nails and David Bowie songs . Nine Inch Nails would eventually leave the stage and Bowie and his band would continue with their own set .
Marilyn Manson appeared on stage at during a concert at Madison Square Garden in 2000 to sing " Starfuckers , Inc . " and " The Beautiful People " . This performance is featured as an Easter Egg in the And All That Could Have Been DVD .
During the Live : With Teeth amphitheater tour , Nine Inch Nails and Peter Murphy of Bauhaus performed the Pere Ubu song " Final Solution " , which was also a solo hit for Murphy . For the last show , they collaborated to cover Joy Division 's " Dead Souls " , which Nine Inch Nails has regularly played since 1994 . Also during this tour , Reznor , Murphy , and other musicians performed four unique sets of their favorite songs on radio stations around the country .
Ben Weinman and Greg Puciato of The Dillinger Escape Plan joined Nine Inch Nails on stage during the encore of their performance at the Adelaide leg of the 2009 Soundwave Festival to perform Wish and joined again on the Perth leg with the full band . On June 15 , 2009 The Dillinger Escape Plan joined Nine Inch Nails on stage at Bonnaroo performing " Wish " .
During the Wave Goodbye tour in 2009 Nine Inch Nails invited many special guests to perform with them . The guest appearances included Gary Numan , Peter Murphy , Atticus Ross , Danny Lohner , Mike Garson , Dave Navarro , Eric Avery , Saul Williams , The Dillinger Escape Plan , and Health .
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= The Teen Idles =
The Teen Idles were an American hardcore punk band formed in Washington , D.C. in September 1979 . Consisting of teenagers Nathan Strejcek , Geordie Grindle , Ian MacKaye and Jeff Nelson , the Idles ' recorded two demo sessions and the 1980 Minor Disturbance EP before they broke up in November 1980 . The influential independent record label Dischord Records was originally created with the sole purpose of releasing the Teen Idles 7 " record . They were an early landmark in the D.C. hardcore movement , and MacKaye and Nelson would later form the seminal punk outfit Minor Threat .
The Teen Idles were among the first punk rock groups from the early 1980s hardcore movement to break out of their regional scene to tour and sell nationally . Inspired by other American punk bands like the Cramps and Bad Brains , the Teen Idles ' music was an early version of hardcore punk , and an attempt , in the words of MacKaye , " to get away from a really corrupted music . " Their appearances , lyrics and musical style sought to revive a punk movement that they believed had lost its original zeal .
= = History = =
= = = Formation = = =
In 1978 , Washingtonian teenager Ian MacKaye discovered punk rock through a local college radio station , Georgetown University 's WGTB . He met Jeff Nelson , a classmate of his , after Nelson set off a pipe bomb outside their school and MacKaye went to investigate . The two became friends and quickly discovered their shared interest in punk . MacKaye and Nelson saw their first punk show in January 1979 — a benefit concert by the Cramps for WGTB . The concert inspired the pair ; MacKaye later admitted , " It blew my mind because I saw for the first time this huge , totally invisible community that had gathered together for this tribal event . [ ... ] I thought , ' This appeals to me . This is the world I think I can breathe in . This is what I need . ' "
After seeing a Bad Brains concert , MacKaye and Nelson began playing in a punk band , the Slinkees , with school friends George Grindle and Mark Sullivan . The Slinkees played a single show before Sullivan went to college . After a failed attempt to recruit MacKaye 's friend Henry Garfield ( later Henry Rollins ) , the band recruited Nathan Strejcek as a vocalist . The Slinkees soon renamed themselves the Teen Idles . After touring and practising for several months , the band recorded two demo sessions at a local studio in February and April 1980 , despite the engineer and a visiting band openly laughing as they recorded . They also began playing at house parties and pizza parlors , and opened for Bad Brains at an art gallery , in a dilapidated row house in the Adams @-@ Morgan neighborhood , called Madam 's Organ .
To revive the fervor of punk , which the band felt was being distorted by new wave , the Idles sought to look as intimidating as possible . They shaved their heads , grew mohawks and wore various punk accessories . Nelson and MacKaye even drove thumbtacks into the soles of their boots so they would make an " ominous clacking " sound when they walked . The band 's visual presentation was at odds with their demeanor ; according to MacKaye , " in our shows and within our own community , we were totally goofy guys . We were painfully honest — we didn 't shoplift , we didn 't vandalize , we didn 't spray @-@ paint . [ ... ] We don 't do anything — everybody just hates us because of the way we look . "
After a number of concerts in D.C. opening for bands such as the Untouchables , the Idles decided to tour the West Coast in August 1980 . Along with roadies Garfield and Sullivan , the band traveled to California . They were immediately hassled by police upon their arrival , and after challenging the police , Nelson was handcuffed for an hour . When the Teen Idles eventually began their tour , they were refused entry at Los Angeles ' Hong Kong Cafe because of their age . Originally due to open for the Dead Kennedys and the Circle Jerks , they settled for playing the next night , opening for the Mentors and a band called Puke , Spit and Guts in exchange for just $ 15 . The Teen Idles impressed those at the venue ; MacKaye later said " People were freaked out by how fast [ we played ] . "
Upon returning to D.C. , the Teen Idles were asked by Skip Groff , owner of the Washington record store Yesterday and Today , to record some tracks at Inner Ear , a small recording studio in Arlington , Virginia . They were introduced to engineer and owner Don Zientara ( the " studio " was a four @-@ track recorder at Zientara 's house ) . The Teen Idles played live in the basement while Zientara engineered and Groff produced . Seven tracks were recorded in total . However , the band were undecided about what to do with the tapes and eventually shelved them .
= = = Breakup and Minor Disturbance = = =
In late 1980 , the Teen Idles decided to break up , mostly because Grindle had fallen out with Nelson . Grindle 's new girlfriend , a born @-@ again Christian , disapproved of the band , causing Grindle to question his role . Tensions between Grindle and Nelson , who was an outspoken atheist , escalated until Grindle decided to quit . Their last show was on November 6 , when they opened for SVT at the 9 : 30 Club . It was a key event for the popularity of all @-@ ages shows — where alcohol was not for sale , and thus no age restriction for admission . Previously , at the Mabuhay Gardens in California , the band were allowed entry to the club only after big Xs were drawn on their hands — this showed that they were under the legal drinking age . The Idles suggested this to 9 : 30 's management , and vowed that if youths were caught drinking , the club could ban them . The management agreed ; the Teen Idles ' final show passed without incident .
After a year in existence , the band had earned $ 700 total . They now faced two options : divide the money among the members , or press the recordings they had made with Zientara at Inner Ear . Choosing the latter , Nelson , Strejcek and MacKaye formed Dischord Records with Groff 's help , to release the recordings . The band sent the tapes to a pressing plant in Nashville , Tennessee that specialized in pressing country music records . Initially puzzled by the request to put eight songs on a 7 " record , they pressed 1 @,@ 000 copies . For the cover , the band took apart another 7 " record sleeve and used it as a template for their own cover design . They photocopied it on 11 " × 17 " paper , which the band members cut out with scissors , folded and glued by hand , then into these inserted the records and lyric sheets . Released in January 1981 Minor Disturbance was a local success , receiving radio air @-@ play and reviews from fanzines such as Touch and Go , which meant that Dischord now had enough money to release records by other bands .
After the Teen Idles disbanded , Grindle chose not to pursue a career in music . By the time of Minor Disturbance 's release , Nelson and MacKaye had already formed Minor Threat . The new band 's first show was on December 17 , 1980 . Strejcek became involved in the running of Dischord , until Nelson and MacKaye , disappointed by his lack of effort , " decided to take it back . " The Teen Idles appeared on a number of hardcore @-@ punk compilations throughout the 1980s and 1990s . Dischord , to celebrate their one hundredth release , issued Teen Idles in 1996 , comprising the two demo sessions the band had recorded in February and April 1980 .
= = Musical style and outlook = =
According to journalist Michael Azerrad , the Teen Idles " played proto @-@ hardcore tunes that skewered their social milieu " . MacKaye later explained in the hardcore documentary Another State of Mind : " When I became a punk , my main fight was against the people who were around me — friends . " When MacKaye was thirteen he moved to Palo Alto , California for nine months . On his return , his friends had begun taking drugs and drinking . He remarked , " I said , ' God , I don 't want to be like these people , man . I don 't fit in at all with them . ' So it was an alternative . "
The graphic emblem most associated with the Straight Edge movement is a black " X " , typically drawn onto the wearers hands with a marker . According to MacKaye , " We were in San Francisco , and we played a place called Mabuhay Gardens . They figured out we were underage , and they wouldn 't let us play . We worked out a deal with their management that we just wanted to play and we weren 't going to drink , so they got a marker and put a big ' X ' on our hand , So we came back to Washington D.C. and went to this nightclub , the 9 : 30 , and said ' Hey look , we 're not going to drink and we will put this ' X ' on our hand . If you see us drinking you can throw us out forever . We are not going to drink , we just came to see the music . ' " The band adopted the marking , and though it was initially meant to signify youth , it became a wider emblem for bands prepared to play to audiences under the legal age to be served alcohol . MacKaye noted that at the time the symbol " wasn 't supposed to signify straight edge — it was supposed to signify kids . It was about being young punk rockers ... it represents youth . "
Most of the band 's lyrics were written by MacKaye . Like the group 's appearance , their lyrical subject matter reacted against the then dominant New Wave scene , and the perceived complacency that many first @-@ wave punk bands , including the Clash and the Damned seemed to have fallen into by the early 1980s . In " Fleeting Fury " , Strejcek pleads , " The clothes you wear have lost their sting / So 's the fury in the songs you sing " . The Teen Idles were strongly influenced by punk bands in Washington and California , such as Bad Brains , Black Flag , and the Germs . These band 's influence is reflected in The Teen Idles ' songs , which consisted mostly of Strejcek shouting over a one @-@ two hardcore beat , with MacKaye and Grindle providing short and speedy riffs , interspersed with quick guitar solos from Grindle .
= = Discography = =
All Teen Idles records were issued by Dischord Records
Minor Disturbance , 7 " EP , 1981
3 songs on Flex Your Head , compilation LP , 1982
First EP reissued as part of Four Old 7 " s on a 12 " , 1984
First EP reissued on Dischord 1981 : The Year in 7 " s , 1995
Teen Idles ( 1980 demos ) , 1996
1 song on 20 Years of Dischord , compilation 3 @-@ CD box set , 2002
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= 1866 Atlantic hurricane season =
The 1866 Atlantic hurricane season was originally one of only four Atlantic hurricane seasons in which every known tropical cyclone attained hurricane status , along with 1852 , 1858 , and 1884 . Initially , there were three known storms during the season , but a re @-@ analysis confirmed the increased activity . There were also two other systems that were included as tropical cyclones at one time , although both were considered to have been other storms already in the database . All tropical activity occurred between the middle of July and the end of October . There may have been additional unconfirmed tropical cyclones during the season . Meteorologist Christopher Landsea estimates that up to six storms were missed from the official database , due to small tropical cyclone size , sparse ship reports , and relatively unpopulated coastlines .
Every storm but the fourth hurricane affected land during the season . The first hurricane hit Matagorda , Texas in July , the only one of the season to hit the United States as a hurricane . A month later a hurricane made two landfalls in Mexico . The third hurricane of the season formed near Bermuda and was last observed along the southern coast of Newfoundland . A few weeks later another storm executed a similar track , although it struck Newfoundland as a hurricane and caused damage . The most notable storm of the season was the Great Nassau Hurricane , which killed at least 383 people in the Turks and Caicos , Bahamas , and the western Atlantic Ocean . It attained winds of 140 mph ( 220 km / h ) , which is a Category 4 on the modern @-@ day Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale . The final hurricane developed over the Bahamas and later struck New Jersey , producing strong winds and high tides across New England .
= = Timeline = =
= = Storms = =
= = = Hurricane One = = =
The first hurricane of the season was observed on July 11 , when a schooner encountered heavy seas to the south of the Florida Panhandle . As the hurricane moved westward , it remained a short distance off the Gulf Coast of the United States , bringing strong winds to New Orleans on July 12 . High tides surrounded the lighthouse at Timbalier Bay for about 24 hours , prompting the lighthouse keeper to resign from loneliness and from fear of the weather .
On July 15 , the hurricane moved ashore near Matagorda Bay in Texas , with winds estimated around 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) , or a Category 2 on the Saffir @-@ Simpson scale . At landfall , the minimum barometric pressure was estimated at 969 mbar ( 28 @.@ 61 inHg ) . The hurricane 's strong winds broke all of the boats from their moorings in the Matagorda harbor . Four ships were either lost or wrecked , and one schooner was washed ashore . The storm dissipated early on July 16 after progressing further inland .
= = = Hurricane Two = = =
On August 13 , a ship encountered a severe hurricane in the eastern Caribbean Sea . Based on observations , it is estimated the hurricane attained winds of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) . There were no reports for several days , although based on continuity it is estimated the storm passed south of Jamaica on August 15 . The following day , the hurricane struck the eastern Yucatán Peninsula , washing seven boats ashore . It is estimated to have weakened to a tropical storm while moving over land , although the system re @-@ intensified into a hurricane in the Bay of Campeche . It made its second and final landfall near Veracruz before dissipating on August 18 .
= = = Hurricane Three = = =
The third hurricane of the season was first encountered on September 4 by a ship 200 mi ( 320 km ) north of Bermuda ; the vessel sustained damage to its foretopmast . The storm affected another ship later that day , leaving similar heavy damage . Tracking generally northeastward , the hurricane was last observed on September 7 near Newfoundland .
= = = Hurricane Four = = =
On September 18 and for two days subsequently , a barque sailed through a hurricane near the Cape Verde islands . The vessel was en route from New York to Shanghai , but due to a leak from the storm it had to return to New York for repairs . Aside from a single reported location , the track of the hurricane is unknown . Winds were estimated around 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) .
= = = Hurricane Five = = =
A ship named " Honduras " observed the fifth hurricane of the season on September 22 to the south @-@ southeast of Nova Scotia . The ship lost its masts and sails from the storm , and based on the observations the winds were estimated around 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) . Additional ship reports indicated the hurricane maintained a northeast track toward Newfoundland . Late on September 23 , the hurricane made landfall in south @-@ central Newfoundland , although it quickly weakened to tropical storm intensity . The winds spread across much of the island , severing the telegraphs in and around St. John 's . Late on September 24 , the storm was last observed to the north of the island .
= = = Hurricane Six = = =
Known as the Great Nassau Hurricane of 1866 , the sixth hurricane of the season was also the longest @-@ lasting . The brig Jarien encountered the hurricane on September 24 to the west @-@ southwest of the Cape Verde islands . The track is unknown for the following five days , until another ship reported a hurricane about 20 miles ( 32 km ) north of Anegada in the British Virgin Islands . The hurricane affected the Leeward Islands , washing several ships ashore and destroying a pier in St. Thomas . On September 30 through the following day , the cyclone moved through the Turks and Caicos Islands , becoming what was considered " one of the most terrific hurricanes ever known " . About 75 % of the population was left homeless and moneyless .
After affecting the Turks and Caicos Islands , the hurricane passed through the Bahamas . The eye crossed over Nassau , where a barometric pressure of 938 mbar ( 27 @.@ 70 inHg ) was reported . Based on this observation , the hurricane is estimated to have had sustained winds of 140 mph ( 220 km / h ) . The hurricane struck without warning in the Bahamas , either washing ashore or sinking every ship but one in Nassau . In addition , strong winds downed trees and destroyed roofs . Every building in Nassau was damaged or destroyed . After moving through the islands , the hurricane curved northeastward , affecting dozens of other ships and wrecking four . On October 4 , it passed north of Bermuda , where it produced Force 11 winds on the Beaufort scale . The hurricane was last observed on October 5 to the southeast of Atlantic Canada . Along its path through the Turks and Caicos , the Bahamas , and the western Atlantic , the hurricane killed at least 383 people , making it among the 100 deadliest Atlantic hurricanes as of 1997 .
= = = Tropical Storm Seven = = =
The final storm of the season was first observed on October 28 over the Bahamas , and may have been a hybrid or subtropical cyclone . It moved north @-@ northwestward through the island chain , followed by a turn to the north @-@ northeast over the western Atlantic . Several ships encountered the tropical storm , and one lost their supply of molasses . On October 30 , the cyclone , at the time transitioning to extratropical , struck on the southern end of Long Beach Island with winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) . As it moved through the northeastern United States , the storm dropped heavy rainfall , causing flooding near Jersey City and Hoboken , New Jersey . In Brooklyn , the storm moved the rail cars off their tracks , while in Providence , Rhode Island the winds destroyed three buildings and wrecked the roofs of two others . Further northeast , the storm disrupted shipping and cut telegraph lines , although no fatalities were reported . The post @-@ tropical storm was last observed over Vermont late on October 30 .
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= Mandodari =
Mandodari ( Sanskrit : मंदोदरी Mandodarī , lit . " soft @-@ bellied " ; ) was the queen consort of Ravana , the king of Lanka , according to the Hindu epic Ramayana . The Ramayana describes Mandodari as beautiful , pious , and righteous . She is extolled as one of the Panchakanya ( " five virgins " ) , the recital of whose names is believed to dispel sin .
Mandodari was the daughter of Mayasura , the King of the Asuras ( demons ) , and the apsara ( celestial nymphs ) Hema . Mandodari bears three sons : Meghanada ( Indrajit ) , Atikaya , and Akshayakumara . According to some Ramayana adaptations , Mandodari is also the mother of Rama 's wife Sita , who is infamously kidnapped by Ravana . Despite her husband 's faults , Mandodari loves him and advises him to follow the path of righteousness . Mandodari repeatedly advises Ravana to return Sita to Rama , but her advice falls on deaf ears . Her love and loyalty to Ravana are praised in the Ramayana .
Different versions of the Ramayana record her ill @-@ treatment at the hands of Rama 's monkey generals . Some versions say they disturb a sacrifice by Ravana , and some that they destroy her chastity , which was the last protection for Ravana 's life . Hanuman tricks her into disclosing the location of a magical arrow which Rama uses to kill Ravana . After Ravana 's death , Vibhishana — Ravana 's younger brother who joins forces with Rama and is responsible for Ravana 's death — marries Mandodari on the advice of Rama . [ Citation needed . Going by unauthentic versions is meaningless )
= = Birth = =
The Uttara Ramayana narrates a story about the birth of Mandodari . Mayasura ( Maya ) , the son of sage Kashyapa is married to the apsara ( heavenly nymph ) Hema . They have two sons , Mayavi and Dundubhi , but long for a daughter , so they start performing penances to seek the favour of the god Shiva .
Meanwhile , an apsara named Madhura arrives at Mount Kailash , the abode of Shiva , to pay her respects . In absence of his wife Parvati , Madhura has clandestine coitus with Shiva . When Parvati returns , she finds traces of ashes from Shiva ’ s body on the breasts of Madhura . Agitated , Parvati curses Madhura and sends her to live in a well as a frog for twelve years . Shiva consoles Madhura and says she will become a beautiful woman and be married to a great valorous man . After twelve years , Madhura becomes a beautiful maiden again and cries out loudly from the well . Mayasura and Hema , who are performing penance nearby , answer her call and adopt her as their daughter . They bring her up as Mandodari .
= = Marriage and later life = =
Ravana comes to the house of Mayasura and falls in love with Mandodari . Mandodari and Ravana are soon married with Vedic rites . Mandodari bears Ravana three sons : Meghanada , Atikaya , and Akshayakumara . Mandore , a town located 9 km north of Jodhpur , is believed to be the native place of Mandodari . Ravana is treated as a son @-@ in @-@ law among some local Brahmins and has a temple dedicated to him here .
Despite Ravana 's faults , Mandodari loves him and is proud of his strength . She is aware of Ravana 's weakness towards women . A righteous woman , Mandodari tries to lead Ravana to righteousness , but Ravana always ignores her advice . She advises him to not to subdue the Navagraha , the nine celestial beings that govern one 's destiny , and not to seduce Vedavati , who would be reborn as Sita and cause the destruction of Ravana .
Ravana kidnaps Sita , the wife of Rama , the exiled prince of Ayodhya , who is an incarnation of the god Vishnu . Mandodari advises Ravana to return Sita to Rama , but to no avail . Mandodari knows this lust will bring the downfall of Ravana .
Mandodari is described as a beautiful woman in Valmiki 's Ramayana . When Hanuman , the monkey messenger of Rama , comes to Lanka in search of Sita , he is stupefied by Mandodari 's beauty when he enters Ravana 's bed chambers and mistakes Mandodari for Sita . When Hanuman finally finds Sita , he finds Ravana threatening to kill Sita unless she marries him . Ravana raises his sword to behead Sita when she refuses . Mandodari saves Sita by holding Ravana 's hand . Mandodari says that the murder of a woman is a heinous sin and thus Ravana should not kill Sita . She asks Ravana to entertain himself with his other wives and give up the idea of having Sita as his wife . Ravana spares Sita 's life , but does not give up his wish to marry Sita . Though Mandodari considers Sita inferior to her in beauty and ancestry , Mandodari acknowledges Sita 's devotion to Rama and compares her to goddesses like Sachi and Rohini .
When all attempts for a peaceful return of Sita fail , Rama declares war on Ravana 's Lanka . Before the final battle against Rama , Mandodari makes a last attempt to dissuade Ravana , but to no avail . Finally , Mandodari stands by her husband in the final battle like an obedient and faithful wife , though she also advises her son Meghanada , alias Indrajit ( " One who had conquered Indra ; the god @-@ king of heaven " ) , to not to fight Rama .
The Valmiki Ramayana narrates : When all of Ravana 's sons and warriors die , Ravana organizes a yajna ( " fire sacrifice " ) to assure his victory . Rama sends a troop of monkeys headed by Hanuman and the monkey prince Angada to destroy this yajna . The monkeys create havoc in Ravana 's palace , but Ravana continues the yajna . Angada drags Mandodari by her hair in front of Ravana . Mandodari pleads to her husband to save her and reminds him what Rama is doing for his wife . The enraged Ravana abandons the yajna and strikes Angada with his sword . With the yajna disturbed , Angada 's purpose is served and he leaves Mandodari and escapes . Mandodari again implores Ravana to surrender Sita to Rama , but he refuses . Other Ramayana adaptations present more gruesome descriptions of the incident . The Krittivasi Ramayan narrates that the monkeys dragged Mandodari .
Ravana fights the final duel with Rama . Rama fails to kill Ravana with his ordinary arrows , but finally kills with a magical arrow . While Valmiki 's Ramayana narrates that the magical arrow was given to Rama by Indra , in other versions the magical arrow is hidden in Mandodari 's bed chambers or under her bed . While Mandodari is engrossed in worshipping the goddess Parvati for Ravana 's wellbeing , Hanuman comes to her disguised as a Brahmin . After winning her confidence , he tricks her into revealing the secret location of the arrow . Hanuman seizes the arrow and gives it to Rama , leading to Ravana 's end . Mandodari appears at the death scene of Ravana in a disarrayed state and laments his death . In this battle , Mandodari loses her husband , her sons , and her kinsmen .
After the death of Ravana , Rama advises Vibhishana to take Mandodari as his wife , even though he already has a wife . A theory suggests that Ravana 's race may have had matrilineal families and thus , to restore order in the kingdom after Ravana 's death , it was necessary for Vibhishana to marry the reigning queen to get the right to rule . Another theory suggests it may be a non @-@ Aryan custom to marry the reigning queen . The marriage between Mandodari and Vibhishana is purely an " act of statesmanship " , rather than a marriage based on their " mutual sexual interference " . Mandodari may have agreed to marry Vibhishana , her younger brother @-@ in @-@ law , as this would lead the kingdom to prosperity and stability as allies of Rama 's Ayodhya , and she would continue to have a say in governance . Another reason for the marriage is as an alternative to suicide for the widowed Mandodari , which is averted by Rama .
= = Mother of Sita ? = =
Though Valmiki 's Ramayana does not record Mandodari as being the mother of Sita , some later adaptations of the Ramayana depict Mandodari as the mother of Sita or at least the cause of the latter 's birth .
The Adbhuta Ramayana narrates : Ravana used to store the blood of sages he killed in a large pot . The sage Gritsamada was practicing penance to acquire the goddess Lakshmi as his daughter . He stored milk from Darbha grass and purified it with mantras in a pot so that Lakshmi would inhabit it . Ravana poured the milk from this pot into his blood pot . Mandodari is frustrated seeing the evil deeds of Ravana , so she decides to commit suicide by drinking the contents of the blood @-@ pot , which is described to be more poisonous than poison . Instead of dying , Mandodari gets pregnant with the incarnation of Lakshmi due to the power of Gritsamada 's milk . Mandodari buries the foetus in Kurukshetra , where it is discovered by Janaka , who named her Sita .
The Devi Bhagavata Purana says : When Ravana wants to marry Mandodari , Maya warns him that her horoscope indicated her first @-@ born would destroy her clan and should be killed . Ignoring Maya 's advice , Ravana buries his first child by Mandodari in a casket in Janaka ’ s city , where it is discovered and grew up as Sita . Jain adaptations of the Ramayana like Vasudevahindi , Uttara @-@ purana , and others also state that Sita is the daughter of Ravana and Mandodari , and is abandoned when she is prophesied to be the cause of the end of Ravana and his family .
In the Malay Seri Rama and the Indonesian @-@ Javanese Rama Keling , Ravana wants to possess Mandodari , the mother of Rama , but instead marries a pseudo @-@ Mandodari , who looks like the real one . Rama 's father has a union with this pseudo @-@ Mandodari , resulting in the birth of Sita , who is nominally Ravana 's daughter .
According to the Ananda Ramayana , king Padmaksha had a daughter named Padma - an incarnate of the goddess Lakshmi . When her marriage is organized , Rakshasas ( demons ) kill the king . The grief @-@ stricken Padma jumps into fire . Ravana discovers her body , which had turned into five jewels , in the fire and takes it to Lanka sealed in a box . Mandodari opens the box and finds Padma inside it . She advises Ravana to cast off the box containing the ill @-@ fated Padma , who led to the doom of her father . When the lid of the box is closed , Padma curses Ravana that she will return to Lanka and cause his doom . Ravana buries the box in the city of Janaka , who discovers Padma and brings her up as Sita .
= = Assessment = =
Ahalyā draupadi kuntī tārā mandodari tathā
pañcakanyā smarenityaṃ mahapātaka nāśanaṃ
Remembering ever the virgins five -Ahalya , Draupadi , Kunti , Tara and Mandodari
Destroys the greatest of sins .
Hindus remember the panchakanya - the five virgins or maidens in this daily prayer , though none of them is considered an ideal woman who could be emulated . Mandodari , with Ahalya and Tara , belong to the Ramayana , while the rest are from the Mahabharata . Among the five elements , Mandodari is equated to water , " turbulent on the surface and deep in her spiritual quest " . The writer Dhanalakshmi Ayyer says :
Her story is a reminder that the universal denigration of a group , based on the behaviour of a few , cannot cloud the greatness of the individual . Mandodari defies the stereotype of this racism . She is simple , unswerving , and self @-@ effacing , driven by the light of knowledge which gives meaning to solid materialism in an age that is shrouded by impulse , passion , and desire . She is the instrument that awakens the mind and counsels reason when irrationality becomes the core being . That she goes unheard and unheeded does not change her path . To her , the dharmic part is inward @-@ looking , while the role of the dutiful wife is the external self . Mandodari thought that her duty to her husband on issues of morals and values ended with her telling him what she thought of his actions . She neither put up any brave fight to stop him nor considered it her duty to do so .
Mandodari 's role is short in the Ramayana but very important . She is described as a pious and righteous royal lady . Compared to the rest of the panchakanya , Mukherjee considers Mandodari 's life as " less colourful and eventful " . He adds : " Mandodari seldom got prominence ... Her image lacks substance and fades quickly " , though he stresses on her love and loyalty towards her husband . Pradip Bhattacharya , author of the book Panchkanya : Women of Substance notes that " there is hardly anything special that Valmiki ( Ramayana ) has written about her ( Mandodari ) except that she warns her husband to return Sita and has enough influence to prevent his raping her . "
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= Adrift ( 1911 film ) =
Adrift is a 1911 American silent short drama film produced by the Thanhouser Company and directed by Lucius J. Henderson . The film depicts a story of a young artist whose lack of success leads him to attempt suicide . Before he can carry out the act , his daughter follows and stops him . He confesses to his wife and she thanks her child , providing the inspiration for the artist to complete a great painting . It brings him success and he grows distant from his wife and becomes interested in another woman whom he was commissioned by . Once again saved by his daughters actions , whose crying moves the woman to break off the relationship with the artist . The artist destroys the painting and learns a moral lesson .
The film was advertised to the American churchgoer as a moral picture . The film was generally well received by critics , but the faults of story for the sake of a moral lesson was noted . Adrift , like all other American silents of the day , had no musical accompaniment , but a letter written into a trade publication provides a score for the drama . The film is presumed lost .
= = Plot = =
An official synopsis of the film was published in The Moving Picture World states : " Jack Thorne , a young artist , finds his efforts unappreciated , and he and his wife and little daughter are on the verge of starvation . The final blow comes when his last painting , on which he had built much hope , was rejected by a rich man , whom an artist chum kindly brought to the impoverished studio . Jack decides that he can struggle no longer . Unseen by his wife , he picks up his revolver , puts it in his pocket and goes out , intending to end everything . But his little daughter has watched him ; she follows him and stays his hand . Her prayers and entreaties bring him to a realization of what his rash act would mean to the two helpless ones that would be left behind . Penitent and remorseful , he accompanies his child back to their poor home . There he confesses to his wife that it was only the child 's timely interference that saved him from ending it all . The mother drops on her knees beside her child , and clasping her in her arms , raises grateful eyes to Heaven in a prayer of thankfulness . Jack , looking up suddenly , sees the beautiful group of mother and child , with a light as if from Heaven upon them . Realizing that [ this ] is the inspiration and subject for which he has sought in vain , he calls for them not to move , and at once begins his great painting of them , which brings him fame and wealth . "
" But with wealth , the artist becomes dissatisfied with his wife , and is infatuated with a beautiful society woman whose portrait he is painting . The couple , happy in poverty , are now rapidly drifting on the shoals of matrimonial disaster , but the child saves them . She is weeping one day when Miss Brent , the society woman , enters the room . Miss Brent , who has never seen the child before , asks the cause of her sorrow , and tries to comfort her . The child tells her , and Julia 's heart is touched . Though she has contempt [ u ] ously ignored the wife , she feels that she cannot ruin the life of the helpless child , even to win the artist 's love . On the spur of the moment , she writes a farewell note to Jack , and gives it to the child , saying that it will cure all her sorrow . Then she goes out of their lives forever . Jack realizes , when he sees that his child is the messenger , why Julia has broken with him . An outsider had made a sacrifice to save the future of little Marie , when he , her father , who had always loved her , had selfishly forgotten his duty . Remorsefully , he tears up the letter , and destroys the painting , not angrily , but as a symbol that he had cast the original out of his life . Then he makes peace with his wife and daughter , who are joyfully ready to forgive , and tells them that their love will keep him [ on ] the right path for the rest of his life , and that the lesson he has been taught will never be forgotten . "
= = Cast = =
William Garwood as the artist
Lucille Younge as the artist 's wife
Marie Eline as the young daughter
Katherine Horn as the society woman
= = Production = =
The single reel drama was directed by Lucius J. Henderson . Henderson was an important director at the Thanhouser Company who began directing in the late autumn of 1910 . It is unknown how many film 's Henderson directed prior to the release of Adrift , but one prior credit When Love Was Blind was released two weeks prior , on January 24 , 1911 . The New York Dramatic Mirror on February 4 , 1914 , stated that Henderson had directed about 150 one and two reel dramas for the Thanhouser Company .
= = = Musical accompaniment = = =
Musical accompaniment for the silent films were not provided by the studios , and the Thanhouser productions were no exception . The musical program for the screenings were decided and played by the individual accompanists . At times , musical accompaniments were shared in trade journals and the musical accompaniment for Adrift was provided by an unnamed writer from Oklahoma in The Moving Picture World . The suggestion was to begin with a waltz until the friend pats the artist on the shoulder , when All I Get is Sympathy is played . The suggestion for I Don 't Know Where I 'm Going completes the scene and Life 's A Funny Proposition follows the artist packing up until the artist pulls out the gun . A soft hurry follows as the girl confronts her father , leading to a crescendo at the climax .
Then the accompanist returns to Life 's A Funny Proposition until the father is sitting down in the house . What 's the Use of Dreaming leads to Gee , But It 's Great to Meet a Friend with the arrival of a friend . A waltz accompanies the gallery scene until the picture is shown , leading to Some Day When Dreams Come True as the artist becomes famous . The introduction with the society woman is accompanied by How Do You Do Miss Josephine and then by So Long Mary as she exits . No Place Like Home begins the next scene until the wife recognizes the emotional distancing of her husband when All I Ask is Love is played . The studio scene begins with I Love My Wife , But Oh You Kid and leads to Be Sweet to Me Kid or Next to your Mother ... with Nobody 's Little Girl during the crying scene .
The unnamed accompanist was using a range of works and shortened some titles in the letter , but these works are identifiable . They include :
All I Get Is Sympathy ( circa 1906 ) by Irving Berlin
I Don 't Know Where I 'm Going , But I 'm on My Way ( 1906 ) by Arthur Collins
Life 's a Funny Proposition After All ( 1904 ) by George M. Cohan
Gee , But It 's Great To Meet a Friend From Your Home Town ( 1910 ) by William Tracey and Jas . McGavisk
What 's the Use of Dreaming ( 1907 ) by Irving Gillette
How Do You Do Miss Josephine ( 1909 ) by Collins & Harlan
No Place Like Home may be a reference to Home ! Sweet Home ! ( 1823 ) by Henry Bishop or There 's No Place Like Home ( 1902 ) by Byron G. Harlan
So Long Mary ( 1905 ) by George M. Cohan
All That I Ask of You is Love ( 1910 ) by Edgar Selden and Herbert Ingraham
I Love I Love I Love My Wife ( But Oh ! You Kid ! ) ( 1909 ) by Jimmy Lucas and Harry Von Tilzer
Be Sweet To Me Kid ( 1907 ) by Joseph Howard
Next to Your Mother , Who do you Love ? ( 1909 ) by Irving Berlin
Nobody 's Little Girl ( 1907 ) by Jack Drislane and Theodore Morse
= = Release and reception = =
The Thanhouser Company released Adrift on February 3 , 1911 . The film was advertised as being of a moral picture and targeted towards the American churchgoer as an example of a film that would change the views of the demographic towards film productions in general . The Thanhouser advertisement in the Moving Picture News said " [ Adrift ] is a useful film with a big , simple moral that would do much to reconcile the Church to the Motion Picture — if the former knew that this sort of film was so much in evidence . " It saw a wide release across the United States , with showings in Pennsylvania , Indiana , Missouri , Kansas , and New Hampshire . One of the last advertisements for the film 's showing was in September 1913 .
The film was positively reviewed by critics , but contained within the reviews were often criticism on the execution of the story and plot . A review in the The Moving Picture World was positive to the moral lesson the film asserted and found the acting to be satisfactory . Walton of the The Moving Picture News criticized the type of film as invoking sudden and unnatural changes in character for the sake of a moral lesson . The child 's influence and ability to bring sense to her father was seen as cheap theatrics , but ended with the assertion that the film was not second rate for employing such theatrics . The New York Dramatic Mirror was positive , but said that the scene upon which the little girl follows her father was not believable because she was unaware of her father 's intentions to kill himself . The film is presumed lost .
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= USS Chickasaw ( 1864 ) =
USS Chickasaw was an ironclad Milwaukee @-@ class river monitor built for the United States Navy during the American Civil War . The ship participated in the Battle of Mobile Bay in August 1864 , during which she was lightly damaged , and the bombardments of Forts Gaines and Morgan as Union troops besieged the fortifications defending the bay . In March – April 1865 , Chickasaw again supported Union forces during the Mobile Campaign as they attacked Confederate fortifications defending the city of Mobile , Alabama .
She was placed in reserve after the end of the war and sold in 1874 . Her new owners converted Chickasaw into a train ferry in 1881 and renamed her Gouldsboro . The ship was later converted into a barge and remained in use until she sank sometime during the 1950s . Her wreck was discovered in the Mississippi River in New Orleans in 2003 , although there are no plans to raise her .
= = Description = =
Chickasaw was 229 feet ( 69 @.@ 8 m ) long overall and had a beam of 56 feet ( 17 @.@ 1 m ) . The ship had a depth of hold of 8 feet 6 inches ( 2 @.@ 6 m ) and a draft of 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) . She was 970 tons burthen and displaced 1 @,@ 300 long tons ( 1 @,@ 300 t ) . Her crew numbered 138 officers and enlisted men .
The ship was powered by two 2 @-@ cylinder horizontal non @-@ condensing steam engines , each driving two propellers , using steam generated by seven tubular boilers . The engines were designed to reach a top speed of 9 knots ( 17 km / h ; 10 mph ) . Chickasaw carried 156 long tons ( 159 t ) of coal .
The ship 's main armament consisted of four smoothbore , muzzle @-@ loading 11 @-@ inch Dahlgren guns mounted in two twin @-@ gun turrets . Unlike her sisters , both of her turrets were designed by John Ericsson . Each gun weighed approximately 16 @,@ 000 pounds ( 7 @,@ 300 kg ) and could fire a 136 @-@ pound ( 61 @.@ 7 kg ) shell up to a range of 3 @,@ 650 yards ( 3 @,@ 340 m ) at an elevation of + 15 ° .
The cylindrical turrets were protected by eight layers of wrought iron 1 @-@ inch ( 25 mm ) plates . The sides of the hull consisted of three layers of one @-@ inch plates , backed by 15 inches ( 380 mm ) of pine . The deck was heavily cambered to allow headroom for the crew on such a shallow draft and it consisted of iron plates .75 inches ( 19 mm ) thick . The pilothouse , positioned behind and above the fore turret , was protected by 3 inches ( 76 mm ) of armor .
= = Construction and service = =
James Eads was awarded the contracts for all four of the Milwaukee @-@ class ships . He subcontracted Chickasaw to Gaylord , Son and Co. of St. Louis , Missouri who laid down the ship in 1862 . She was the first U.S. Navy ship to be named after the Indian tribe , and was launched on 10 February 1864 . Chickasaw was brought to Mound City , Illinois , on the Ohio River , on 8 May for fitting out and commissioned on 14 May 1864 .
After commissioning , Chickasaw patrolled the Mississippi River against Confederate raids and ambushes for several months . She was transferred to Rear Admiral David Farragut 's West Gulf Blockading Squadron on 9 July , together with her sister Winnebago . The ship required some time to refit at New Orleans and prepare for the voyage to Mobile across the Gulf of Mexico , so the two sisters did not depart New Orleans until 29 July . On the voyage down the Mississippi to the Pass A Loutre , Chickasaw was forced to anchor overnight because of steering problems and the two ships did not cross the sandbar at the mouth of the pass until the evening of the following day . Once in the Gulf , Chickasaw was taken under tow by the sidewheel gunboat Tennessee for the voyage across the Gulf . The two ships were forced to stop at Ship Island so Chickasaw 's engines could be repaired . That required only a day and the sidewheel gunboat Metacomet towed the monitor the rest of the way .
Farragut briefed Lieutenant Commander George H. Perkins , Chickasaw 's commander , on his ship 's intended role in the battle . The larger , more heavily armed monitors Tecumseh and Manhattan were to keep the ironclad ram CSS Tennessee away from the vulnerable wooden ships while they were passing Fort Morgan and then sink her . Chickasaw and Winnebago were to engage the fort until all of the wooden ships had passed . The four monitors would form the starboard column of ships , closest to Fort Morgan , with Chickasaw in the rear , while the wooden ships formed a separate column to port . The eastern side of the channel closest to Fort Morgan was free of obstacles , but " torpedoes " , as mines were called at the time , were known to be present west of a prominent black buoy in the channel .
The two Milwaukee @-@ class ships bombarded Fort Morgan for about an hour and a half while the wooden ships passed through the mouth of Mobile Bay . Chickasaw fired 75 rounds at the fort beginning at 07 : 10 ; the return fire badly damaged her funnel so that the crew was forced to use tallow and coal tar to generate enough steam to keep the ship in the fight . She engaged the Tennessee two hours later until the ironclad surrendered at 10 : 40 . The Confederate ironclad was shooting at the wooden ships at this time at point @-@ blank range in a chaotic melee with both sides making multiple attempts to ram each other . Chickasaw remained off the Tennessee 's stern through their engagement and fired on her at ranges between 10 to 50 yards ( 9 @.@ 1 to 45 @.@ 7 m ) . None of her 52 shells penetrated their target 's armor , but they did jam shut several of the armored shutters that protected the aft gun ports , including the stern gun port at 09 : 40 . Perkins claimed that his ship shot away the Tennessee 's flagstaff , smokestack and the exposed steering chains that controlled her rudder . Chickasaw was struck 11 times during the action , with one shot penetrating her deck that set some of the crew 's hammocks on fire . Two of Chickasaw 's sailors , Chief Boatswain 's Mate Andrew Jones and Master @-@ at @-@ Arms James Seanor , were later awarded the Medal of Honor for their actions during the battle .
Later that day , the ship captured a barge out from under the guns of Fort Powell , a fortification guarding another entrance to Mobile Bay further north . Chickasaw fired 25 shots at the fort and was struck once , another hit on her smokestack . On 6 August , the ship bombarded Fort Gaines for two hours in support of troops besieging the fort . Beginning on 13 August , she intermittently bombarded Fort Morgan until the fort surrendered on 23 August . Between 15 – 17 August , Chickasaw was operating further north in Mobile Bay and engaged several of the ships defending Mobile without result .
In March – April 1865 , Chickasaw bombarded fortifications during the Battles of Spanish Fort and Fort Blakley . Together with the ironclad Cincinnati and the steamboat Nyanza , under the overall command of Captain Edward Simpson , Chickasaw sailed up the Tombigbee River on 9 May 1865 to Nanna Hubba Bluff where Simpson accepted the surrender of the casemate ironclad Nashville , the gunboats Baltic and Morgan , and the river boat Black Diamond from Commodore Ebenezer Ferrand . The monitor remained in the vicinity of Mobile Bay until 3 July when she sailed for New Orleans .
= = Post @-@ war career and heritage = =
Upon her arrival at New Orleans on 6 July , Chickasaw was decommissioned . She temporarily bore the name Samson between 15 June and 10 August 1869 before resuming her original name . She was sold on 12 September 1874 to the New Orleans Pacific Railway Company who modified the ship into a coal barge with the name of Samson . The railroad converted the ship into a train ferry in 1880 and changed her to side @-@ wheel propulsion under the name Gouldsboro . She was sold in the 1940s to the New Orleans Coal & Bisso Towboat Co. and converted into a work barge . It sank off the Greenville Bend of the Mississippi River in New Orleans sometime during the 1950s .
The wreck of the Gouldsboro was discovered when a section of riverbank collapsed in 2003 and the Army Corps of Engineers surveyed the area in 2004 to determine how best to stabilize the riverbank . There are no plans to raise the wreck , but the Corps of Engineers will preserve it in place .
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= California State Route 209 =
State Route 209 ( SR 209 ) was a state highway in the U.S. state of California , connecting Cabrillo National Monument with the interchange of Interstate 5 ( I @-@ 5 ) and I @-@ 8 in San Diego , passing through the neighborhoods of Point Loma . The majority of the route was along Rosecrans Street ; it also included Cañon Street and Catalina Boulevard leading to the tip of Point Loma .
The Rosecrans Street portion of SR 209 corresponded to the original routing of the historic La Playa Trail . Rosecrans Street was paved in the late 1900s through the community of Roseville , and was added to the state highway system in 1933 as Route 12 . SR 209 was designated in the 1964 state highway renumbering , and a full interchange with I @-@ 5 and I @-@ 8 was completed in 1969 . The designation was removed from the state highway system in 2003 and responsibility for the road was transferred to the city of San Diego .
= = Route description = =
The route began at a turnaround next to the Old Point Loma Lighthouse in the Cabrillo National Monument , near the southern tip of Point Loma . Heading north along the crest of the Point Loma peninsula , it passed through Fort Rosecrans Military Reservation and Fort Rosecrans National Cemetery before exiting the former through a gate and entering the Wooded Area neighborhood of Point Loma as Catalina Boulevard . SR 209 passed through this residential neighborhood and provided access to Point Loma Nazarene University . The SR 209 designation then made a right turn onto Cañon Street , curved to the southeast , and went downhill to the bayside location of the old La Playa Trail . At the intersection with Rosecrans Street , the designation made a turn to the northeast at a right angle onto Rosecrans .
As it continued northeast through the Roseville and Loma Portal neighborhoods , SR 209 intersected both Harbor Boulevard and Nimitz Boulevard before passing along the northwestern edge of the Naval Training Center San Diego ( now closed and redeveloped as Liberty Station ) and providing access to the Marine Corps Recruit Depot San Diego at Barnett Street . SR 209 continued from Midway Drive northeast to the intersection of Sports Arena Boulevard and Camino del Rio West , where the highway continued north onto the latter , terminating at the ramps leading into the interchange with I @-@ 5 and I @-@ 8 .
In 1996 , SR 209 had an annual average daily traffic ( AADT ) of 2 @,@ 600 at the southern end in Cabrillo National Monument , and 61 @,@ 000 at the northern end at the I @-@ 5 / I @-@ 8 junction , the latter of which was the highest AADT for the highway .
= = History = =
The Rosecrans Street portion of the highway followed the route of the historic La Playa Trail , the oldest European trail on the west coast , which connected the Spanish settlements in Old Town and Mission San Diego de Alcala with the ship loading and unloading area at La Playa .
In February 1907 , a petition to construct a railway line along Rosecrans Street from 38th Street to MacAuley Street was introduced to the San Diego City Council . By July , work was to begin on grading Rosecrans Street through what was known as the city of Roseville in preparation for construction of the Point Loma Electric Railway line . The work was briefly disrupted due to a labor dispute , but by June 1908 , two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) of the 2 @.@ 5 miles ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) had been paved . By March 1909 , railroad tracks were being placed along Rosecrans Street . The city assumed maintenance of the road on May 1 , after it had been paved from Tide Street to Ocean Beach . Private citizens paid for over $ 100 @,@ 000 of the costs , and the city was to pay for $ 12 @,@ 000 , according to an agreement made in 1904 . However , by December the bill had not been paid by the city due to a lack of funds , and the construction company filed a claim ; on December 29 , the city agreed to pay $ 12 @,@ 000 , using funds from the water department .
The termination of the Point Loma streetcar line was considered in 1923 , but the San Diego Electric Railway decided to keep it running after residents opposed the idea of using buses instead . However , by 1946 , bus lines were in place on Rosecrans Street , and a petition for increased bus service to Point Loma was given to the city in October 1947 .
The new divided highway known as Rosecrans Boulevard from Lytton Street to Canon Street was dedicated on June 5 , 1940 , and was a part of the state highway system extending to Cabrillo National Monument , which served as the western end of Legislative Route 12 . Before this project , it was a two @-@ lane road that had issues such as traffic congestion and flooding . A monument marking La Playa Trail at Avenida de Portugal and Rosecrans Street that had been installed in 1934 was removed by the construction in the 1940s ; however , a replacement was installed in 2010 . Another of the six monuments was moved out of the median near the Midway Drive intersection to a commercial area that same year . During the 1950s , the route from Lytton Street and Rosecrans Street to Pacific Highway was considered a part of US 80 .
SR 209 was designated in the 1964 state highway renumbering . Plans for an interchange between I @-@ 5 , I @-@ 8 , SR 209 , and SR 109 date from 1965 , although several concerns had to be taken into account , including the preservation of historical Old Town and keeping traffic through the area moving during construction . The goal was to begin construction in 1966 , and complete the interchange in 1969 . There were concerns about a $ 3 billion shortfall in funding during May 1966 , which caused the San Diego Chamber of Commerce Highway Committee to recommend the completion of SR 109 as a project .
Construction had begun on September 22 , 1966 , and the interchange was to replace the intersection of Pacific Highway and Rosecrans Street . The cost of the interchange was projected to be $ 10 @.@ 86 million . The eight @-@ lane freeway was projected to relieve traffic in the Frontier Street area coming from the San Diego Sports Arena . Completion of both the interchange and SR 109 was planned for early 1969 . The ramp from south I @-@ 5 to Camino del Rio opened in February 1968 , with the remainder of the project to be completed in summer 1969 . The entire project was completed in September , with the road scheduled to open in October ; just a few months before , the routing of SR 209 had been determined . The routing of SR 109 was officially added to I @-@ 8 in 1972 .
In 1971 , there was a state proposal to remove SR 209 from the state highway system , which the City of San Diego objected to . However , SR 209 was deleted from the system in 2003 , and had been given to the City of San Diego in 2001 .
= = Major intersections = =
Except where prefixed with a letter , postmiles were measured on the road as it was in 1964 , based on the alignment that existed at the time , and do not necessarily reflect current mileage . R reflects a realignment in the route since then , M indicates a second realignment , L refers an overlap due to a correction or change , and T indicates postmiles classified as temporary ( for a full list of prefixes , see the list of postmile definitions ) . Segments that remain unconstructed or have been relinquished to local control may be omitted . The entire route was in San Diego , San Diego County .
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= Julie Kavner =
Julie Deborah Kavner ( born September 7 , 1950 ) is an American film and television actress , voice actress and comedian . She first attracted notice for her role as Valerie Harper 's character 's younger sister Brenda in the sitcom Rhoda for which she won a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series . She is best known for her voice role as Marge Simpson on the animated television series The Simpsons . She also voices other characters for the show , including Jacqueline Bouvier , and Patty and Selma Bouvier .
Known for her improvisation and distinctive " honeyed gravel voice , " Kavner was cast in her first professional acting role as Brenda Morgenstern in Rhoda in 1974 . She received the Primetime Emmy Award in 1978 and three more nominations for playing the character . Following Rhoda , Kavner was cast in The Tracey Ullman Show , which debuted in 1987 . The Tracey Ullman Show included a series of animated shorts about a dysfunctional family . Voices were needed for the shorts , and the producers decided to ask Kavner to voice Marge . The shorts would eventually be spun off into The Simpsons .
Kavner has been described as " nearly reclusive " ; part of her contract says that she will never have to promote The Simpsons on video . For her work as Marge , Kavner received another Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Voice @-@ Over Performance in 1992 and an Annie Award nomination for her performance as the character in The Simpsons Movie .
Typically cast as a " woman who is supportive , sympathetic or self @-@ effacingly funny , " Kavner grew to dislike playing such roles . In 1992 , she starred in This Is My Life , her first leading role in a feature film . Kavner has also appeared in live @-@ action roles in seven films written by Woody Allen , and in the Adam Sandler comedy Click .
= = Early life = =
Kavner was born in Los Angeles , California , on September 7 , 1950 , the second daughter of Rose , a family counselor , and David Kavner , a furniture manufacturer , and grew up in Southern California . She decided to pursue a career in acting because " There was nothing else I wanted to do , ever . " She attended Beverly Hills High School ( which she later admitted she hated ) , where she was " something of a loner " , and unsuccessfully tried out for several plays . John Ingle , formerly the chairman of the Beverly Hills High School art department , later commented that Kavner was " excellent at improvisation but she wasn 't an ingenue and not that castable at that age . "
After graduating from high school , Kavner attended San Diego State University and majored in drama , being cast in several productions including a role as Charlotte Corday in Marat / Sade , becoming known for her improvisation and ability to do both comedy and drama . After graduating in 1971 she got a day job as a typist at the UCLA School of the Arts and Architecture .
= = Career = =
= = = Early career = = =
In 1973 , Kavner auditioned for a role as one of Rhoda Morgenstern 's sisters in The Mary Tyler Moore Show . David Davis , producer of the show , had convinced her to audition for the part , but decided to cast another actress instead . A year later , Rhoda Morgenstern became the leading character in a spin @-@ off called Rhoda . Kavner was cast in her first professional acting role as Brenda Morgenstern , sister of the eponymous character . Rhoda ran on CBS from September 9 , 1974 , to December 1978 . She received four Primetime Emmy Award nominations for Outstanding Continuing Performance by a Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series for playing Brenda , winning in 1978 . She also received four Golden Globe Award nominations . In 1975 , she received Daytime Emmy Award nomination for her starring role in the daytime special The Girl Who Couldn 't Lose .
Following Rhoda , Kavner had a guest appearance on Taxi and appeared in the 1985 comedy Bad Medicine as well as the 1987 film Surrender , both of which were box office failures . She appeared in the television movies Revenge of the Stepford Wives , No Other Love and A Fine Romance , and shot a television pilot . She also starred in several stage plays , including a play called It Had to be You at a dinner theater in Canada , Particular Friendships in New York in 1981 , and Two for the Seesaw , directed by Burt Reynolds . Woody Allen first saw Kavner one night while he was watching Rhoda in the 1970s . He thought that she was remarkable and later offered her a role in his 1986 film Hannah and Her Sisters . Kavner agreed , and credits Allen and the film with rejuvenating her career .
Kavner was then cast as a sidekick to Tracey Ullman in The Tracey Ullman Show , which debuted on Fox in 1987 . Kavner described the show as , " like being back in school , a chance to play a wide variety of characters , some really vicious people , to not rest on laurels , to not play it safe . " Kavner commented , " What I do is not mimicry or an impersonation , but more of an assimilation . [ On The Tracey Ullman Show ] we did a lot of looking at people to find out who to base our characters on . We did our homework on our lunch hour . " She received four Primetime Emmy Award nominations for Best Individual Performance in a Variety or Music Program .
= = = The Simpsons = = =
Kavner became most famous for her role as Marge Simpson on the animated television show The Simpsons , a show that continues to the present . The Tracey Ullman Show included a series of animated shorts about the dysfunctional Simpson family . Voices were needed for the shorts , so the producers decided to ask Kavner and fellow cast member Dan Castellaneta to voice Marge and Homer rather than hire more actors . Kavner has what Hilary de Vries of The New York Times described as a " honeyed gravel voice " . Kavner says her distinctive voice is due to " a bump on [ her ] vocal cords . "
Although Marge is her most famous character , Kavner 's favorite characters to voice are her sisters Patty and Selma Bouvier because " they 're really funny and sad at the same time . " Series creator Matt Groening instructed Kavner to voice the duo as characters who " suck the life out of everything . " Both have similar raspy voices , but Patty 's voice is more masculine and has a lower register , while Selma 's voice is a little sweeter . Kavner also provides the voices of every other female member of the Bouvier family , including Marge 's mother Jacqueline , Great @-@ Aunt Gladys ( a dead relative who was introduced on season four 's " Selma 's Choice " ) , and an unnamed grandmother seen on the season six episode " Fear of Flying " .
Part of Kavner 's contract says that she will never have to promote The Simpsons on video and she rarely performs Marge 's voice in public because she believes it " destroys the illusion . People feel these are real people . " Kavner takes recording sessions seriously and feels that voice acting is , " a little more limiting than live acting . And I have nothing to do with my character 's movement . " Nancy Cartwright , who voices Bart Simpson , said in her book My Life as a 10 @-@ Year @-@ Old Boy that Kavner is " a workhorse of an actor " with " extraordinary professionalism and quiet work ethic , " and notes that she is rarely late for recording sessions .
Until 1998 , Kavner was paid $ 30 @,@ 000 per episode . During a pay dispute in 1998 , Fox threatened to replace the six main voice actors with new actors , going as far as preparing to cast new voices . However , the dispute was soon resolved and she received $ 125 @,@ 000 per episode until 2004 when the voice actors demanded that they be paid $ 360 @,@ 000 an episode . The issue was resolved a month later , and Kavner earned $ 250 @,@ 000 per episode . After salary re @-@ negotiations in 2008 , the voice actors received approximately $ 400 @,@ 000 per episode . Three years later , with Fox threatening to cancel the series unless production costs were cut , Kavner and the other cast members accepted a 30 percent pay cut , down to just over $ 300 @,@ 000 per episode .
At the 44th Primetime Emmy Awards , Kavner received a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Voice @-@ Over Performance for voicing Marge in the season three episode " I Married Marge " . In 2004 , Kavner and Dan Castellaneta won a Young Artist Award for " Most Popular Mom & Dad in a TV Series " . For her performance in The Simpsons Movie , Kavner was nominated for " Best Voice Acting in an Animated Feature " at the 2007 Annie Awards , but lost to Ian Holm from Ratatouille . Kavner 's emotional performance in the movie got positive reviews and one critic said she " gave what must be the most heartfelt performance ever to find its way into a movie based on an irreverent cartoon . " Some scenes in the movie , such as Marge 's emotional video message to Homer , were recorded over one hundred times , leaving Kavner exhausted .
= = = Further career = = =
Many of Kavner 's roles have been described by New York Times writer Hilary de Vries as a " woman who is supportive , sympathetic or self @-@ effacingly funny . " Kavner grew to despise playing such roles , saying " If it smacks of Brenda Morgenstern , I won 't take the job . " She had a supporting role as Eleanor Costello , a nurse who befriends Robin Williams ' character in the Academy Award nominated film Awakenings . Kavner interviewed several nurses in preparation for the role , and Penny Marshall , the director of the film , described Kavner as " a low @-@ maintenance actor [ ... ] You never have to worry about giving [ her ] back @-@ story for her characters . " In 1992 , Kavner starred in This Is My Life , her first leading role in a feature film . Kavner played Dottie Ingels , an aspiring stand @-@ up comedian who starts neglecting her family when her career begins to take off . Kavner described Dottie as " really selfish " but admitted , " I liked the role for that very reason . " Kavner had been asked to play a character with a smaller role in the film , but Joe Roth , at the time the chairman of 20th Century Fox , suggested that they cast a lesser known actress in the lead role . Nora Ephron , the writer of This Is My Life , said Kavner " has so little vanity that it is almost shocking . Not only does she have no demands as an actress — ' How big is my trailer , what 's in my refrigerator ? ' — but she will do anything for the character if it makes sense to her . "
Kavner has frequently appeared in Woody Allen films , having roles in Hannah and Her Sisters ( 1986 ) , Radio Days ( 1987 ) , New York Stories ( 1989 ) , Alice ( 1990 ) , Shadows and Fog ( 1991 ) , the television movie Don 't Drink the Water ( 1994 ) and Deconstructing Harry ( 1997 ) . Allen described her as " a naturally funny person . When she does a scene you listen to her and look at her and the prism through which it 's all filtered is funny . " Kavner believes he is " a true filmmaker , one that has something to say , continually experimenting on different themes within his own film @-@ making , " adding that " anything [ Allen ] ever does , I always want to do , [ ... ] I don 't even have to read it . "
She has done voice @-@ over work in films such as The Lion King 1 ½ , Dr. Dolittle and an uncredited role as an announcer in A Walk on the Moon . Her most recent live @-@ action film was a role of the mother of Adam Sandler 's character in Click . She has also worked with Tracey Ullman in the HBO sketch comedy series Tracey Takes On ....
= = Personal life = =
Kavner leads a private , " nearly reclusive " life , " discreet and guarded beyond the usual reticent star routine . " She rarely makes public appearances and refuses to allow herself to be photographed at work , especially in the studio while doing The Simpsons . Her partner is retired producer David Davis ; they have lived together since 1976 . In a 1992 interview with The New York Times , Kavner said she was considering retiring , " except for doing three days a year for Woody [ Allen ] , " but felt that if she did retire , she would receive a script she wanted " to do more than life itself " .
= = Filmography = =
= = = Film = = =
= = = Television = = =
= = = Video games = = =
The Simpsons ( 1991 ) – Marge Simpson
Storybook Weaver ( 1994 ) - Mayzie Bird
The Simpsons Cartoon Studio ( 1996 ) – Marge Simpson
Virtual Springfield ( 1997 ) – Marge Simpson , Patty and Selma Bouvier
Simpsons Bowling ( 1999 ) – Marge Simpson , Patty and Selma Bouvier
The Simpsons Wrestling ( 2001 ) – Marge Simpson
The Simpsons : Road Rage ( 2001 ) – Marge Simpson
The Simpsons Skateboarding ( 2002 ) – Marge Simpson
The Simpsons : Hit & Run ( 2003 ) – Marge Simpson , Patty and Selma Bouvier
Storybook Weaver Deluxe ( 2004 ) - Mayzie Bird
The Simpsons Game ( 2007 ) – – Marge Simpson , Patty and Selma Bouvier
The Simpsons : Tapped Out ( 2012 ) – Marge Simpson , Patty and Selma Bouvier
= = = Music video = = =
" Do the Bartman " ( 1990 ) – Marge Simpson
= = = Theme park = = =
The Simpsons Ride ( 2008 ) – Marge Simpson , Patty and Selma Bouvier
= = Awards = =
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= Gordon Roberts ( ice hockey ) =
Gordon William " Doc " Roberts ( September 5 , 1891 – September 1 , 1966 ) was a Canadian professional ice hockey forward who played for the Ottawa Hockey Club and Montreal Wanderers of the National Hockey Association ( NHA ) and the Vancouver Millionaires and Seattle Metropolitans of the Pacific Coast Hockey Association ( PCHA ) . He was a member of the Ottawa team that defended the Stanley Cup in a 1910 challenge ; Roberts scored seven goals in two games in his team 's victory over the Edmonton Hockey Club . He moved to Montreal in 1910 where he was consistently among the NHA 's leading scorers with the Wanderers while also studying medicine at McGill University .
While in Montreal , Roberts attended McGill University where he studied to become a physician . Following his graduation , he settled in British Columbia to begin his medical career . Continuing his hockey career , Roberts joined the Vancouver Millionaires where he was named a PCHA all @-@ star at left wing and led the league in scoring with 43 goals in 1916 – 17 . He retired from hockey in 1918 following a season in Seattle before Vancouver lured him back to the game one year later . Roberts left the sport again in 1920 and his medical career ultimately took him to Oakland , California where he practiced for over 40 years . He was posthumously inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1971 .
= = Playing career = =
Roberts participated in several sports in his youth . In addition to hockey , he played lacrosse and football . Roberts focused on hockey , however , and played for several teams in his hometown of Ottawa . He was the leading scorer of the Ottawa City Hockey League in 1908 – 09 as a member of the Emmitts Hockey Club with 19 goals in six games .
When he turned professional in 1909 by joining the Ottawa Hockey Club , Roberts was one of the youngest players in his league at the age of 18 years . He scored three goals with the team in a single game in the short @-@ lived Canadian Hockey Association before Ottawa jumped to the National Hockey Association ( NHA ) for the remainder of the season . In nine NHA games , Roberts recorded 13 goals . Ottawa was the defending Stanley Cup champions and , during the season , were challenged for the trophy by the Alberta champion Edmonton Hockey Club in January 1910 . The Ottawa Citizen described Roberts as being the star of the first game . The paper praised his defensive checking in addition to his four goals scored in an 8 – 4 victory . He added three goals in the second game as Ottawa retained control of the Stanley Cup by a 21 – 11 aggregate score .
Having enrolled at McGill University to study medicine , Roberts moved to Montreal . He continued to play hockey and lacrosse but could not play football as McGill was unable to have him certified as an amateur . Also ineligible to play collegiate hockey , he joined the Montreal Wanderers for the 1910 – 11 NHA season . Roberts played only four NHA games that year , but thereafter was consistently one of the league 's leading scorers . Following a pair of 16 @-@ goal seasons , Roberts finished second in league scoring with 31 goals in 1913 – 14 and with 29 in 1914 – 15 . He was also named a league all @-@ star in 1914 .
Roberts found it difficult to both study and play hockey , but praised the support of his classmates and the faculty in helping him earn his degree . He had to complete an extra year of schooling after failing his second year , but graduated from McGill in 1916 . Following an 18 @-@ goal season in 1915 – 16 , he left Montreal to take up practice in British Columbia . Roberts continued his hockey career and joined the Vancouver Millionaires of the Pacific Coast Hockey Association ( PCHA ) . He led the PCHA in scoring with 43 goals – in 23 games – and was named a league all @-@ star on left wing . His medical career took him to Seattle and as a result , he joined the Seattle Metropolitans for the 1917 – 18 PCHA season . He retired in 1918 to focus on his medical career in the Howe Sound region of British Columbia , but was lured back to the PCHA by the Millionaires for the 1919 – 20 season . He scored 16 goals in 22 games for Vancouver before permanently retiring from hockey .
= = Playing style = =
Roberts was considered by his contemporaries to be one of the greatest left wings in the sport 's history . His wrist shot , one of the most fearsome of the pre @-@ 1927 era , became the stuff of legend across the country , in both the PCHA and NHA . Roberts was sometimes described as being the inventor of the " curved shot " , preceding and outmatching players such as Harry Cameron , Babe Dye and Didier Pitre . Bernie Morris , and Hall of Famers Frank Foyston and Lester Patrick all attested to the unrivalled effectiveness and dramatic trajectory of Roberts ’ shot . Clint Benedict , often considered the greatest goalie of the 1893 @-@ 1926 era also gave praise to Roberts ’ accuracy coupled with his ability to curve the puck .
Roberts was noted for being able to get his shot off at very bad angles from close in , as well as drive it in from far outside the reach and typical positional range of defenceman .
Notwithstanding his shooting prowess , Roberts was also well regarded for his stamina and skating ability , as well as being an above @-@ average defensive checker . Despite being a physical player , Roberts ( like his contemporary Frank Nighbor ) was noted for his gentlemanly conduct on the ice – which he may have used to protect himself from retaliation :
“ Montreal boss George Kennedy told a story of a game against the Montreal Wanderers in which Pitre was being tripped and butt @-@ ended by rugged winger Gordon Roberts .
Kennedy screamed at Pitre , ‘ Are you afraid of Roberts ? ’
‘ No , sure not , ’ was Pitre 's surprised response .
‘ Well , why don 't you hit him back ? ’ Kennedy snapped .
‘ How can I hit back ? ’ Pitre asked . ‘ Roberts , he is very polite , very nice . Each time I fall , he helps me get up and apologizes and says it is an accident ... can I hit a man who is apologizing to me ? No , never , it is not done . ’ ' ”
= = Personal life = =
Born September 5 , 1891 , and raised in Ottawa , Roberts was the youngest of ten children ; he had eight brothers and a sister . His brother Laurie was also a doctor and athlete , while another brother , Eddie , fought and died in the First World War . Roberts returned east in 1922 where he did post @-@ graduate studies in New York . The Ottawa Senators , then of the National Hockey League , attempted to bring him out of retirement again and Cornell University sought his services as a lacrosse coach . Roberts turned down both offers and chose to retain focus on his medical career ; He moved to California where he taught for a time at Stanford University Hospital . By 1925 , he settled in Oakland where he practiced as an obstetrician for over 40 years . Roberts also acted as a referee at California Hockey League games . Roberts died September 1 , 1966 , and in 1971 was posthumously inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame .
= = Career statistics = =
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= SMS Graudenz =
SMS Graudenz was the lead ship of her class of light cruisers . She had one sister ship , SMS Regensburg . The ship was built by the German Kaiserliche Marine ( Imperial Navy ) in the Kaiserliche Werft shipyard in Kiel , laid down in 1912 and commissioned into the High Seas Fleet in August 1914 , days after the outbreak of World War I. She was named for the then @-@ German town of Graudenz ( now Grudziądz , Poland ) . The ship was armed with a main battery of twelve 10 @.@ 5 cm SK L / 45 guns and had a top speed of 27 @.@ 5 knots ( 50 @.@ 9 km / h ; 31 @.@ 6 mph ) .
Graudenz saw extensive service during World War I , including serving as part of the reconnaissance screen for the battlecruisers of the I Scouting Group during the raid on Scarborough , Hartlepool and Whitby in December 1914 . The ship also took part in the Battle of Dogger Bank in January 1915 , and the Battle of the Gulf of Riga in August 1915 . She had been damaged by a mine and was unable to participate in the Battle of Jutland in May 1916 . She was assigned to the planned final operation of the High Seas Fleet in October 1918 , weeks before the end of the war , but a major mutiny forced the cancellation of the plan . After the end of the war , the ship was ceded to Italy as a war prize and commissioned into the Italian Navy as Ancona ; she remained in service until 1937 when she was stricken and broken up for scrap .
= = Design = =
Graudenz was ordered under the contract name " Ersatz Prinzess Wilhelm " and was laid down at the Kaiserliche Werft shipyard in Kiel in 1912 and was launched on 25 October 1913 . At her launch , the mayor of Graudenz , Dr. Kühnast , christened the ship . She was commissioned into the High Seas Fleet on 10 August 1914 . The ship was 142 @.@ 7 meters ( 468 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 13 @.@ 8 m ( 45 ft ) and a draft of 5 @.@ 75 m ( 18 @.@ 9 ft ) forward . She displaced 6 @,@ 382 t ( 6 @,@ 281 long tons ; 7 @,@ 035 short tons ) at full combat load . Her propulsion system consisted of two sets of Marine steam turbines driving two 3 @.@ 5 @-@ meter ( 11 ft ) propellers . They were designed to give 26 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 19 @,@ 000 kW ) . These were powered by ten coal @-@ fired Marine @-@ type water @-@ tube boilers and two oil @-@ fired double @-@ ended boilers . These gave the ship a top speed of 27 @.@ 5 knots ( 50 @.@ 9 km / h ; 31 @.@ 6 mph ) . Graudenz carried 1 @,@ 280 t ( 1 @,@ 260 long tons ) of coal , and an additional 375 t ( 369 long tons ) of oil that gave her a range of approximately 5 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 200 km ; 6 @,@ 300 mi ) at 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) . She had a crew of 21 officers and 364 enlisted men .
The ship was armed with twelve 10 @.@ 5 cm SK L / 45 guns in single pedestal mounts . Two were placed side by side forward on the forecastle , eight were located amidships , four on either side , and two in a superfiring pair aft . The guns had a maximum elevation of 30 degrees , which allowed them to engage targets out to 12 @,@ 700 m ( 41 @,@ 700 ft ) . These were later replaced with seven 15 cm SK L / 45 guns and two 8 @.@ 8 cm SK L / 45 anti @-@ aircraft guns . She was also equipped with a pair of 50 cm ( 19 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes with five torpedoes submerged in the hull on the broadside . Two deck @-@ mounted launchers were added when the gun armament was upgraded . She could also carry 120 mines . The ship was protected by a waterline armored belt that was 60 mm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) thick amidships . The conning tower had 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick sides , and the deck was covered with up to 60 mm thick armor plate .
= = Service history = =
Graudenz 's first operation was the raid on Yarmouth on 3 November 1914 . She formed part of the reconnaissance screen for the battlecruisers of Rear Admiral Franz von Hipper 's I Scouting Group , along with the cruisers Kolberg and Strassburg . The bombardment was conducted without incident , but on the return , the armored cruiser Yorck struck a German mine outside Wilhelmshaven and sank . She was also present for the raid on Scarborough , Hartlepool and Whitby on 15 – 16 December 1914 . After completing the bombardment of the towns , the Germans began to withdraw , though British forces moved to intercept them . Graudenz , Stralsund , Strassburg , and two flotillas of torpedo boats steamed between two British squadrons . In the heavy mist , which reduced visibility to less than 4 @,@ 000 yd ( 3 @,@ 700 m ) , only Stralsund was spotted , though only briefly . The Germans were able to use the bad weather to cover their withdrawal . Graudenz again screened for the I Scouting Group for the sortie out to the Dogger Bank on 24 January 1915 . In the ensuing Battle of Dogger Bank , the large armored cruiser Blücher was sunk .
In August 1915 , Graudenz went into the Baltic for a major operation to clear the Gulf of Riga of Russian naval forces . Eight dreadnoughts and three battlecruisers from the High Seas Fleet were detached for the operation . Graudenz participated in the second attack on 16 August , led by the dreadnoughts Nassau and Posen . The minesweepers cleared the Russian minefields by the 20th , allowing the German squadron to enter the Gulf . The Russians had by this time withdrawn to Moon Sound , and the threat of Russian submarines and mines in the Gulf prompted the Germans to retreat . The major units of the High Seas Fleet were back in the North Sea before the end of August . Graudenz struck a mine in mid 1916 , and was in drydock for repairs in May 1916 . As a result , she was unavailable for the fleet operation that resulted in the Battle of Jutland on 31 May − 1 June 1916 . For the remainder of the war , she served as a torpedo boat flotilla leader .
By October 1918 , Graudenz was assigned to the II Scouting Group , which was to participate in a final , climactic attack by the High Seas Fleet . The planned operation called for raids on Allied shipping in the Thames estuary and Flanders to draw out the Grand Fleet . Graudenz , Karlsruhe and Nürnberg were assigned to the force tasked with attacking Flanders . On the morning of 29 October 1918 , the order was given to sail from Wilhelmshaven the following day . Starting on the night of 29 October , sailors on Thüringen and then on several other battleships mutinied . The unrest ultimately forced Hipper and Scheer to cancel the operation . Commodore Andreas Michelsen organized a force of light craft , including light cruisers , destroyers , and U @-@ boats to oppose a possible British attack while the heavy units of the fleet were in disarray ; he chose Graudenz as his flagship .
Graudenz served with the newly reorganized Reichsmarine in the aftermath of the war , through 1919 . She was stricken from the naval register on 10 March 1920 and surrendered to the Allies as a war prize . She was transferred to Italy on 1 June 1920 under the name " E " in the French port of Cherbourg . She was placed in Italian service and renamed Ancona . She was overhauled starting in 1921 through 1924 . Her coal storage space was reduced from 1 @,@ 280 t ( 1 @,@ 260 long tons ; 1 @,@ 410 short tons ) to 900 metric tons ( 890 long tons ; 990 short tons ) and her oil bunker capacity was correspondingly increased from 375 t ( 369 long tons ; 413 short tons ) to 1 @,@ 520 t ( 1 @,@ 500 long tons ; 1 @,@ 680 short tons ) . Ancona was commissioned into the Italian Navy on 6 May 1925 . She was provided with equipment to handle an Macchi M.7 seaplane in 1926 . The ship 's bow and forecastle were lengthened between 1928 and 1929 to mount a catapult for the seaplane . She remained in service until 1932 when she was placed in reserve in Taranto . She was stricken on 11 March 1937 and subsequently broken up .
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= Love Like This ( Natasha Bedingfield song ) =
" Love Like This " is a song performed by British pop singer Natasha Bedingfield . It was included on Bedingfield 's second North American album , Pocketful of Sunshine , and features vocals from reggae pop singer Sean Kingston . The song was written by Bedingfield , Kingston , Louis Biancaniello , Rico Love , Ryan Tedder , Sam Watters , and Wayne Wilkins , while production was handled by Biancaniello , Love , Tedder , and Watters under their production group , The Runawayz . Its lyrics discuss finding love with a person who has " been there all your life and has always loved you , but you 've never noticed it until now " . The official remix features vocals from rapper Lil Wayne and a slightly different beat , produced by Jim Jonsin .
The song was released in North America on 2 October 2007 to mixed reviews from critics . It was released in the United Kingdom and Ireland on 7 April 2008 . The song was a commercial success , reaching the top 20 on the majority of the charts it entered , and topped the Billboard Hot Dance Club Play chart in the United States . On 12 March 2008 , " Love Like This " was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America .
= = Background = =
In 2007 , Bedingfield began writing and recording new material for her second North American album Pocketful of Sunshine . Producer J. R. Rotem had been working with Bedingfield on the album . Rotem introduced Bedingfield to reggae pop singer / rapper Sean Kingston , who was also recording with Rotem . Bedingfield decided to work with Kingston because she " just Liked his thing " . In an interview with Digital Spy , she said that she respected rappers and seemed to " have a little thing with rappers " since she had previously worked with Estelle , Eve and Bizarre from D12 .
= = Composition = =
The song was written by Bedingfield , Kingston , Wayne Wilkins , Louis Biancaniello , Rico Love , Ryan Tedder from the band OneRepublic , and Sam Watters from the group Color Me Badd . It was also produced by Biancaniello , Love , Tedder , and Watters together in their production team , The Runawayz . The song is composed in the key of F major and set in common time . Bedingfield 's vocals span from C4 to F5 . The Auto Tune effect is heard in a few parts of the song . In the song , Bedingfield discusses finding love with a person who has always " been there all your life " , but that " you 've never noticed it until now " . According to her , it is all about realizing how that person is actually the " love of your life " .
= = Critical reception = =
" Love Like This " received mixed reviews from critics . Chuck Taylor in a review for Billboard described the song as a " jaunty , youthful track that clears home base and should propel Nat forward " , while Chris Boeckmann of Stylus Magazine called it " useless " and a " dud " . Michael Slezak of Entertainment Weekly found the song left him " feeling absolutely nothing " . Slezak was unimpressed with the pairing of Bedingfield and Kingston , writing " it 's as if two people who I 'm not entirely convinced can sing got together and recorded a heavily focus @-@ grouped song , then ran their vocals through a giant computer " .
In a review for About.com , Bill Lamb called the song " irrepressibly sunny , but forgettable " . In another review of the song , Lamb wrote that Kingston 's vocals " serve no purpose other than providing an extra element for the single 's marketing campaign " .
= = Chart performance = =
" Love Like This " was officially solicited to radio in the United States on 20 September 2007 . The song was released as a download on 2 October 2007 , and debuted at number 19 on the Billboard Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart . The following week the song rose to number four , before debuting on the Hot 100 chart at number 94 . Fifteen weeks later " Love Like This " reached number 11 . The song did well on pop @-@ oriented charts , reaching number 10 on the Pop 100 chart and number 10 on the Top 40 Mainstream chart . The single had crossover success in the dance charts , where it reached number one on the Hot Dance Club Play chart and number 17 on the Hot Dance Airplay chart . The song has sold over one million digital downloads and has been certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America .
Elsewhere , " Love Like This " was largely successful , reaching number nine in Canada and number five in New Zealand . In the United Kingdom , the song debuted at number 27 on 25 March 2008 . Four weeks later , it reached number 20 and remained on the singles chart for seven weeks .
= = Music video = =
The music video was directed by Gil Green and produced by Merge @ Crossroads . Filmed in Los Angeles , California , the video features Bedingfield reuniting with a love from her past . The video begins with Bedingfield singing in a park . She then meets up with a boyfriend ( played by model Josh Slack ) from her past . The two then remember the good times they had together while sitting on a picnic bench . The video concludes with Bedingfield singing and dancing at a house party . Scenes of Kingston in front of an ice cream truck and at the house party are intercut throughout the video .
The video premiered on Bedingfield 's official US website on 27 October 2007 . In 2008 , the video reached number 2 on VH1 's VSpot Top 20 Countdown in the United States .
= = Formats and track listings = =
These are the formats and track listings of major single releases of " Love Like This " .
= = Personnel = =
Natasha Bedingfield – lead vocals
Sean Kingston – vocals
Ravaughn Brown - backing vocals
Keith Gretlein , Nate Hertweck , Matt Serrecchio - assistant engineer
Greg Ogan - vocal engineering
The Runawayz - mixing
David Kutch - mastering
Ryan Tedder -vocals , producer , composer
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
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= Poughkeepsie , Tramps and Thieves =
" Poughkeepsie , Tramps and Thieves " is the eleventh episode of the third season of the American mystery television series Veronica Mars , and the fifty @-@ fifth episode overall . Written by executive producer Diane Ruggiero and directed by John T. Kretchmer , the episode premiered on The CW on January 30 , 2007 . The series depicts the adventures of Veronica Mars ( Kristen Bell ) as she deals with life as a college student while moonlighting as a private detective .
In this episode , Veronica is hired by Max ( Adam Rose ) a student who is looking for his beloved , Chelsea , but Veronica learns that Chelsea is actually a prostitute hired to make Max lose his virginity . Meanwhile , Keith finds the official police report of Dean O 'Dell 's death . In addition , Veronica asks Logan about his past , eventually finding out that he had sex with Madison Sinclair ( Amanda Noret ) when they were broken up .
Adam Rose makes his second appearance in " Poughkeepsie , Tramps and Thieves " , while the episode was one of Thomas 's favorites of the season , particularly enjoying scenes between Logan and Veronica , Veronica and Keith , and Chelsea and Max . In its initial broadcast , the episode received 2 @.@ 69 million viewers and mixed reviews from television critics , with critics being divided over the case of the week and the development of Veronica and Logan 's romance . Eric Goldman of IGN thought that the episode was " extremely witty and fast @-@ paced " , while Rowan Kaiser , writing for The A.V. Club , believed that the episode suffered from a " lack of development for Max 's character . "
= = Background = =
Veronica Mars is a student who progresses from high school to college while moonlighting as a private investigator under the tutelage of her detective father . In each episode , Veronica solves a different stand @-@ alone case while working to solve a more complex mystery . In addition , there is usually a major mystery throughout episodes that takes Veronica longer to solve . In the case of the third season , there are two standalone cases with nine and six episodes , respectively , followed by five episodes without a major story arc . " Poughkeepsie , Tramps and Thieves " is the second episode to solely focus on the mystery of Dean O 'Dell 's ( Ed Begley , Jr . ) death , with the previous one being " Show Me the Monkey " ; the previous story arc , a serial rape , was solved in " Spit & Eggs " .
= = Plot synopsis = =
After a lunch with Logan , Veronica notices that the Hearst Lampoon ’ s offices were egged . Veronica is approached by a mysterious student , Max , hires her to find his beloved , Chelsea , who is engaged , in a week , or else he threatens to kill himself . They spent one night talk together talking . He tells her that she sent him a text message . Veronica quickly finds out that Max ’ s friends hired Chelsea , a prostitute , in order to make him be more confident with girls . His roommate sent him a text message in order to help him get over her . Keith receives the police report of Dean O ’ Dell ’ s death , but he doesn ’ t find anything useful in it . Veronica hires the two prostitutes who might be Chelsea , and one of them is Chelsea . She is incredibly happy to see Max , surprising both Veronica and Logan .
As Max and Chelsea ( whose real name is Wendy ) make out on the couch , Madison ( Amanda Noret ) appears , looking for Dick . Keith interrogates the Lilith house girls , who have alibis for the Dean ’ s death . A battered prostitute appears at Logan ’ s door and takes Wendy away , citing problems with their pimp , leaving Max heartbroken . Veronica finds a stain of purple makeup on a towel , and she immediately deduces that Wendy conned Max out of $ 1 @,@ 000 . Veronica blackmails a judge in order to secure the $ 1 @,@ 000 back . Veronica and Logan ask each other personal questions in an attempt to become more intimate , but it fails . At the bus locker at which Veronica instructed the judge to leave the money , she instead finds a note that tells Veronica and Max to get in a limo . In the limo , they find Wendy ’ s pimp , who is actually a woman . She tells them that she actually did fall in love with Max , but that she needed money for other reasons .
Max immediately pays $ 10 @,@ 000 in order for Wendy to be forgiven , under the condition that he doesn ’ t tell anyone about the judge . Unexpectedly , Wendy shows up at Max ’ s door . Keith informs Veronica that Nish ’ s alibi doesn ’ t check out for the Dean ’ s car but that it was likely true for Mindy ’ s car , putting her under suspicion . Max and Wendy ’ s relationship becomes difficult , and she leaves the following morning , claiming that he has acted differently towards her after he found out her occupation . Max pays back Veronica in $ 1 bills he received from Wendy , indicating that she had returned to stripping . Madison tells Veronica that she and Logan had sex when he and Veronica were broken up .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by executive producer Diane Ruggiero and directed by John T. Kretchmer , marking Ruggiero 's sixteenth and penultimate writing credit and Kretchmer 's twelfth directing credit . One scene in the episode depicts Veronica and Max sitting in the backseat of a vehicle with Chelsea 's pimp ( a woman ) and several bodyguards . Kretchmer decided to place one of the physically domineering bodyguards between Max and Veronica for comedic effect . In addition , Thomas noted that the actress of the pimp , Jackie Debatin , appeared in a similar role in an episode of The Office several weeks after the episode aired . The scene in which Keith , in a Sheriff 's uniform , spots Don Lamb in his car was difficult to edit because although there was initially no radio music playing , Michael Muhney , the actor of Lamb , was moving his mouth as if singing lyrics . Thomas reported difficulty in finding a song that would match the movements .
Adam Rose makes his second appearance in " Poughkeepsie , Tramps and Thieves " , after being a suspect in " Hi , Infidelity " . From the very beginning of his appearances , Rose 's character , Max , was planned to begin a romantic relationship with Mac . When Rose received the call that he would be appearing in more episodes for a romantic storyline with Mac , Rose , who was roommates with the actor of Bronson , another Mac love interest , stated , " But I thought that 's what my roommate was doing . " Thomas called the scene in which Chelsea paints Max 's toenails one of his favorite scenes involving no series regulars , noting that it was nearly a three @-@ minute scene .
Thomas enjoyed Brianne Davis 's , the actress of Chelsea , performance so much that he called her and complimented her after filming ended , while Peter Roth expressed interest in giving her a job on another show . The episode was scored by Mark Lanegan , with whom Thomas had gone to elementary school . Thomas was favorable towards the scene in which Veronica and Logan discuss his past , stating that the scene could have dragged due to its length but that it did not . When scripting the scene , there was a discussion in the writers ' room regarding what the extent of Veronica 's jealousy could be , with Thomas and Ruggiero , who Thomas described as " naturally jealous people " , winning out and making Veronica more envious rather than less . For the scene in which Veronica asks Keith about the report on Dean O 'Dell 's suicide by humorously requiring him to sing what he has found , Colantoni gave nine different musical impressions of his dialogue , " I finally got the police report on the Dean 's suicide ! "
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
In its original broadcast in the United States , " Poughkeepsie , Tramps and Thieves " was viewed by 2 @.@ 69 million viewers , ranking 92nd of 100 in the weekly rankings .
= = = Reviews = = =
" Poughkeepsie , Tramps and Thieves " received mixed reviews from television critics . Eric Goldman of IGN rated the episode an 8 @.@ 2 out of 10 , indicating that it was " great " . He was positive towards many aspects of the episode , particularly the first half , while he was more mixed or negative towards the conclusion of the main storyline as well as the romantic development . He wrote that " The first half of this episode was extremely witty and fast @-@ paced . " However , he thought that the Max @-@ Chelsea storyline should have ended earlier in the episode , and that " love sick , mopey Logan has gotten very old . " However , he was complimentary towards Keith 's plotline . Rowan Kaiser , writing for The A.V. Club , had mixed feelings towards the episode , being critical of the case of the week while enjoying some of the secondary storylines . While stating that the episode suffered from " the lack of exploration of Max 's character " and Wendy being underdeveloped , he elaborated that " those are generally minor quibbles with a decent standalone episode , however . " He went on to praise the Logan @-@ Veronica dynamic and Keith 's investigation into the Dean 's death .
Alan Sepinwall , on his blog What 's Alan Watching ? , was mostly positive towards the episode , praising the crew 's decision to focus on the mysteries of the week , stating that " if the last couple of episodes are an indication , maybe done @-@ in @-@ one is in the right direction . " He found that he was invested in the case @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week , while he felt as though the Dean O 'Dell plotline was not advancing quickly enough . Keith McDuffee of AOL TV was critical of nearly all aspects of the episode , stating that he was missing the longer story arcs and that once the mystery of Dean O 'Dell 's murder ended , the show would be relatively aimless . In addition , he decried Mac , Wallace , Piz , and Parker 's absences , saying , " I miss the ' gang ' . " Television Without Pity gave the episode a " B- " .
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= Cyathus striatus =
Cyathus striatus , commonly known as the fluted bird 's nest , is a common saprobic bird 's nest fungus with a widespread distribution throughout temperate regions of the world . This fungus resembles a miniature bird 's nest with numerous tiny " eggs " ; the eggs , or peridioles , are actually lens @-@ shaped bodies that contain spores . C. striatus can be distinguished from most other bird 's nest fungi by its hairy exterior and grooved ( striated ) inner walls . Although most frequently found growing on dead wood in open forests , it also grows on wood chip mulch in urban areas . The fruiting bodies are encountered from summer until early winter . The color and size of this species can vary somewhat , but they are typically less than a centimeter wide and tall , and grey or brown in color . Another common name given to C. striatus , splash cups , alludes to the method of spore dispersal : the sides of the cup are angled such that falling drops of water can dislodge the peridioles and eject them from the cup . The specific epithet is derived from the Latin stria , meaning " with fine ridges or grooves " .
= = Taxonomy = =
Cyathus striatus was first described by William Hudson in his 1778 work Flora Anglica as Peziza striata . Carl Ludwig Willdenow transferred it to Cyathus in 1787 .
= = Description = =
The " nest " , or peridium , is usually about 7 to 10 mm in height and 6 to 8 mm in width , but the size is somewhat variable and specimens have been found with heights and widths of up to 1 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 59 in ) . The shape typically resembles a vase or inverted cone . The outer surface ( exoperidium ) ranges in color from slightly brownish to grayish buff to deep brown ; the exoperidium has a shaggy or hairy texture ( a tomentum ) , with the hairs mostly pointing downward . The inner surface of the peridium ( the endoperidium ) is striated or grooved , and shiny . Young specimens have a lid , technically called an epiphragm , a thin membrane that covers the cup opening . The epiphragm is hairy like the rest of the exoperidial surface , but the hairs often wear off leaving behind a thin white layer stretched across the lid of the cup . As the peridium matures and expands , this membrane breaks and falls off , exposing the peridioles within . The peridium is attached to its growing surface by a mass of closely packed hyphae called an emplacement ; in C. striatus the maximum diameter of the emplacement is typically 8 – 12 mm , and often incorporating small fragments of the growing surface into its structure .
Peridiole structure
The peridioles are about 1 to 1 @.@ 5 mm wide and rarely up to 2 mm wide . They are disc @-@ shaped , but may appear angular due to pressure from neighbouring peridioles . Peridioles may be dark , or a drab gray if still covered with a thin membrane called a tunica .
Peridioles in C. striatus are sheathed and attached to the endoperidium by complex cords of mycelia known as a funiculus in the singular . The funiculus is differentiated into three regions : the basal piece , which attaches it to the inner wall of the peridium , the middle piece , and an upper sheath , called the purse , connected to the lower surface of the peridiole . Inside the purse and middle piece is a coiled thread of interwoven hyphae called the funicular cord , attached at one end to the peridiole and at the other end to an entangled mass of hyphae called the hapteron . When dry the funiculus is brittle , but when wet it is capable of long extension .
= = = Microscopic characteristics = = =
The basidia , the spore @-@ bearing cells , are club @-@ shaped with long stalks . They typically hold 4 spores that are sessile , that is , attached directly to the surface of the basidium , rather than by a short stalk ( a sterigmata ) . Spores measure about 15 to 20 µm long by 8 to 12 µm wide . They are elliptical , smooth , hyaline , and notched at one end . During development , the spores are separated from the basidia when the latter collapse and gelatinize along with other cells lining the inner walls of the peridiole . The spores expand in size somewhat after being detached from the basidia .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Cyathus striatus is a saprobic fungus , deriving its nutrition from decaying organic material , and is typically found growing in clusters on small twigs or other woody debris . It is also common on mulch under shrubs . The features of the microenvironment largely influence the appearance of C. striatus ; all else being equal , it is more likely to be found in moist , shallow depressions than elevated areas . It is very widespread in temperate areas throughout the world , growing in summer and fall . The fungus has been recorded from Asia , Europe , North America , Central America , South America , and New Zealand .
= = Life cycle = =
Cyathus striatus can reproduce both asexually ( via vegetative spores ) , or sexually ( with meiosis ) , typical of taxa in the basidiomycetes that contain both haploid and diploid stages . Basidiospores produced in the peridioles each contain a single haploid nucleus . After the spores have been dispersed into a suitable growing environment , they germinate and develop into homokaryotic hyphae , with a single nucleus in each cell compartment . When two homokaryotic hyphae of different mating compatibility groups fuse with one another , they form a dikaryotic mycelia in a process called plasmogamy . After a period of time and under the appropriate environmental conditions , fruiting bodies may be formed from the dikaryotic mycelia . These fruiting bodies produce peridioles containing the basidia upon which new spores are made . Young basidia contain a pair of haploid sexually compatible nuclei which fuse , and the resulting diploid fusion nucleus undergoes meiosis to produce haploid basidiospores . The process of meiosis in C. striatus has been found to be similar to that of higher organisms .
= = Spore dispersal = =
The cone shaped fruiting body of Cyathus striatus makes use of a splash @-@ cup mechanism to help disperse the spores . When a raindrop hits the interior of the cup with the optimal angle and velocity , the downward force of the water ejects the peridioles into the air . The force of ejection rips open the funiculus , releasing the tightly wound funicular cord . The hapteron attached to the end of the funiculus is adhesive , and when it contacts a nearby plant stem or stick , the hapteron sticks to it ; the funicular cord wraps around the stem or stick powered by the force of the still @-@ moving peridiole ( similar to a tetherball ) . The peridioles degrade over time to eventually release the spores within , or they may be eaten by herbivorous animals and redeposited after passing through the digestive tract .
= = Bioactive compounds = =
Cyathus striatus has proven to be a rich source of bioactive chemical compounds . It was first reported in 1971 to produce " indolic " substances ( compounds with an indole ring structure ) as well as a complex of diterpenoid antibiotic compounds collectively known as cyathins . Several years later , research revealed the indolic substances to be compounds now known as striatins . Striatins ( A , B and C ) have antibiotic activity against fungi imperfecti , and various Gram @-@ positive and Gram @-@ negative bacteria . C. striatus also produces sesquiterpene compounds called schizandronols . It also contains the triterpene compounds glochidone , glochidonol , glochidiol and glochidiol diacetate , cyathic acid , striatic acid , cyathadonic acid and epistriatic acid . The latter four compounds were unknown prior to their isolation from C. striatus .
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= Penmon =
Penmon is a promontory , village and ecclesiastical parish on the south @-@ east tip of the Isle of Anglesey in Wales , about 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) east of the town of Beaumaris . It is in the community of Llangoed . The name comes from Welsh : pen ( which can mean " head " , " end " or " promontory " ) and Môn , which is the Welsh word for Anglesey . It is the site of a historic monastery and associated 12th @-@ century church . Walls near the well next to the church may be part of the oldest remaining Christian building in Wales . Penmon also has an award @-@ winning beach and the Anglesey Coastal Path follows its shores . Quarries in Penmon have provided stone for many important buildings and structures , including Birmingham Town Hall and the two bridges that cross the Menai Strait . The area is popular with locals and visitors alike for its monuments , tranquillity , bracing air and fine views of Snowdonia to the south across the Menai Strait .
= = History = =
According to tradition , the community at Penmon grew up around a monastery ( clas ) established in the early 6th century by Saint Seiriol on land provided by his brother Saint Einion , king of Llyn . Although Seiriol eventually removed himself to a hermitage on nearby Puffin Island , the monastery prospered and two crosses were set up at its gate . In 971 , Vikings destroyed much of Penmon . The two crosses and the decorated font remain from this time . During the 12th century , the abbey church was rebuilt under Gruffudd ap Cynan and Owain Gwynedd . In the 13th century , under Llywelyn ap Iorwerth , monasteries started a newer more regular kind of rule , and Penmon became an Augustinian priory with conventional buildings . The priory expanded . After surviving the conquest of Wales by King Edward , it was eventually dissolved in 1538 . The buildings were transferred to the ownership of the Bulkeleys of Beaumaris , a prominent local family , and are still in use today . The Bulkeleys also used most of the land for a deer park , and built the dovecot near the church .
= = Climate = =
The average temperature and rainfall figures taken between 1971 and 2000 at the Met Office weather station in Colwyn Bay , around 10 miles east of Penmon ( and also by the sea ) are set out in the table below . When compared to the corresponding figures for Wales as a whole , the area can be seen to be both warmer and drier than the average location in Wales throughout the whole year .
= = Demographics = =
The author of A History of Anglesey , written in 1775 , said of Penmon that there were " plenty of oysters , remarkable large , the poor find constant employ in the dredge , and in pickling the fish for foreign consumption . " The population in 1801 was 169 . The 1831 census recorded that there were 51 adult males ( over 20 years old ) and that the majority of residents were labourers or servants , with over half the male adult workers being employed in agriculture . After reaching a high of 291 in 1821 , the population declined to a low of 213 in 1871 . The population rose thereafter so that it was 300 in 1931 .
The Imperial Gazetteer of England and Wales of 1870 @-@ 2 noted that millstone , good limestone and marble were found in the area . It also recorded that the population was 240 and that there were 53 houses , with the property being " divided among a few " . In fact , the number of houses in Penmon did not exceed 60 throughout the 19th century , first reaching 60 in 1901 .
At the time of the 2001 census , Llangoed ward ( which includes the parish of Penmon ) had a population of 1 @,@ 275 . About 60 % of residents in the area had been born in Wales , with about 36 % having been born in England . About 63 % of residents were able to use the Welsh language to some degree . 99 @.@ 76 % of residents identified as White , and 0 @.@ 24 % as Black or Black British . Compared to Anglesey as a whole , Llangoed ward had a lower proportion of residents aged 0 – 4 years ( 4 @.@ 78 % compared to 5 @.@ 4 % ) and a higher proportion of residents aged 65 or over ( 25 @.@ 02 % compared to 18 @.@ 86 % ) . The general health of the population of Llangoed ward was poorer than that of Anglesey generally : 12 @.@ 47 % said that their health was " not good " ( Anglesey : 10 @.@ 53 % ) and 25 @.@ 73 % reported a " limiting long @-@ term illness " ( Anglesey : 22 @.@ 38 % ) .
= = Places of interest = =
Penmon has some interesting buildings with histories to match . These buildings ( the Priory and church , the dovecot and the well ) are close together on the site of the old monastery . There is also an island of note nearby , Puffin Island .
= = = Penmon Priory = = =
The monastery ( called St. Seiriol 's monastery ) grew in size and had a wooden church building by the 10th century . This wooden building was , however , destroyed in 971 and then rebuilt in the 12th century in stone , from 1120 to 1123 . The oldest parts of the Priory Church of St Seiriol date to 1140 . It survived the initial Norman invasion of Gwynedd between 1081 and 1100 , defended by Prince Gruffudd ap Cynan of Gwynedd . The priory church was enlarged in the early 13th century , at the time of the Augustinian Rule . There are records for the election of Priors in the Calendar of Patent Rolls back to 1306 , when one Iowerth the Prior is mentioned . The dining hall was on the first floor , with a cellar below and dormitory above . In the 16th century , a kitchen and a warming house were added at the east of the building . The eastern range of buildings has gone , but the southern one , containing the refectory with a dormitory above , still stands .
Llywelyn Fawr and his successors made the church wealthy , giving it land . This was taken away at the time of the Dissolution of the Monasteries in 1536 but the church survived . The priory was in decline before 1536 in any event , and had only the Prior and two other members at that time .
St. Seiriol 's Church , which was the centrepiece of the monastery , is now part of the Rectorial benefice of Beaumaris , within the Diocese of Bangor . The church was given a grant by the Welsh Assembly Government of £ 20 @,@ 570 in May 2004 . This was to repair the leadwork , the rainwater goods , repointing and limewashing of the tower roof and the superstructure of the building . Another building in Penmon , the Priory House ( which is set around the cloister court of the church ) , received £ 21 @,@ 600 . This was to repair the chimneys , the walls , the windows and the roof of the house .
= = = Penmon crosses = = =
The two medieval crosses that once stood in front of the monastery ( from the 10th century ) are still in existence today , but are now inside the church . One cross is larger but badly weathered ( because it stood outside until 1977 , in a deer park ) . It is almost complete except for about 30 centimetres between the top of the shaft and the head . The other cross is smaller , not as weathered but has an arm of the cross cut off because it was used as a lintel for the refectory windows . It has a modern stone base unlike the other cross .
= = = St Seiriol 's Well = = =
As was often the case with Celtic churches from this period , the church was associated with a well . It was built by the monks of Penmon and was believed to have healing powers by some people visiting it . It is probably one of the oldest buildings in Penmon . It has been said that the lower stone walls near the well were part of Seiriol 's church in the 6th century ; if so , this would make it the oldest remaining Christian building in Wales . A small chamber surrounds the well . In modern times , water from the well has been used as a symbol of Anglesey by the island 's representatives at the launch ceremony of the 10th International Island Games ( held in Guernsey in June 2003 ) and the 11th Island Games ( held in the Shetland Islands in July 2005 ) .
= = = Dovecot = = =
The dovecot ( also spelt dovecote ) standing near the church was probably built in about 1600 , in Elizabethan times , by Sir Richard Bulkeley for housing pigeons for their eggs and meat . It has a large domed roof with a cupola on top so birds could fly in and out . Inside the dovecot were 1 @,@ 000 nesting boxes , with a pillar in the centre supporting a revolving ladder to provide access to the nesting boxes . The central pillar remains , but the ladder is now gone .
= = = Puffin Island = = =
St. Seiriol established a cell and a community on Puffin Island ( in Welsh , Ynys Seiriol or Seiriol 's Island ) half a mile from the coast at the same time as he founded the monastery . There is a tower of a 12th @-@ century church on Puffin Island still . There is a tradition that St. Seiriol and perhaps Maelgwn Gwynedd ( king of Gwynedd in the first half of the 6th century ) were buried there . The island once had large numbers of puffins and guillemots . However , rats reduced the bird population to 40 in the 1890s .
In 1748 , Lewis Morris made a hydrographic survey of the coast of Wales and suggested that the tower of the ruined church on the island be converted into a lighthouse . However , this suggestion was not implemented . On 17 August 1831 , The Rothesay Castle , a wooden @-@ hulled paddle steamer on a day trip from Liverpool , sank in very heavy seas . Of more than 140 on board , only 23 people survived . Afterwards , the Trwyn Du Lighthouse and a lifeboat station were built to try to prevent similar tragedies . The lifeboat station was closed in 1915 as it had been superseded by a lifeboat at Beaumaris . In its years of operation , the Penmon lifeboats saved at least 143 lives .
= = = Beach = = =
The beach at Penmon has been awarded a 2006 Seaside Award by the " Keep Wales Tidy " group . To be awarded the yellow and blue flag , beaches have to meet mandatory standard water quality and must be clean , safe and well @-@ managed . Penmon is classified for these purposes as being a " rural " beach and as a result the standards for a Seaside Award differ from those applied for " resort " beaches , which are expected to have a wider selection of facilities such as toilets and car parks . The beach has been awarded the flag from 2003 onwards .
= = Popular culture = =
Penmon was featured in film when it was used ( along with Snowdonia ) as the setting for The Fever , a 2004 film starring Vanessa Redgrave and Angelina Jolie . The region was used , at the choice of a London @-@ based production company , to represent an Eastern Europe country . Jolie had filmed in North Wales in 2002 for Lara Croft Tomb Raider : The Cradle of Life and had apparently been " enchanted " by the scenery . The scenes involving Jolie and Redgrave were shot in February 2003 . Filming took place at the Priory and the dovecot was used to depict a deserted church . Extras from Gwynedd and Anglesey were also used in filming . Penmon Priory has also been used for the BBC programme Songs of Praise , featuring Aled Jones ( who comes from Llandegfan , a village about seven miles from Penmon ) and also for filming the 1960s television show Danger Man starring Patrick McGoohan .
= = Notable residents = =
Akira The Don , independent Pop and Hip @-@ Hop musician , lived in the village for some time in his youth and blames the " bleak and depressing " nature of the landscape for making him " a moodly little bugger " . [ sic ]
= = Geology = =
There are many geological features in Penmon , including fossils of brachiopods , a tunnel under a cliff and the cliff itself . The cliff is made up of limestone and shale , in alternating layers . It has been moved many times due to faults fracturing and moving the beds of rock , and there are distinct lines where the beds have been moved . The cliff is approximately eight metres high ; however , the distribution of limestone and shale is different near the top and bottom of the cliff . There is a gradual change of shale to limestone ; near the bottom there is a lot more shale per metre of rock and nearer the top there is a lot more limestone . The cliff has been struck by several faults , causing it to look unstable ; rocks fall from it from time to time . Penmon is close to the sea , thus making it prone to erosion . Quite a lot of the cliff has been eroded away , thus causing an arch to form under the cliff . The shale has eroded away faster than the limestone beds , and as such , has caused thinner beds of limestone between to collapse . This is the reason the arch is only a few metres high and does not extend further , where there are less shale beds . Faults passing through the cliff have displaced the beds , one such fault almost 23 cm , causing a ledge halfway through the tunnel .
The grey @-@ brown veined limestone quarried in the area is known as " Penmon marble " . Brachiopod fossils are sometimes found in it . The largest of the Penmon quarries , Dinmor Park , was worked for limestone by Dinmor Quarries Ltd from about 1898 until the 1970s . Penmon limestone ( along with limestone from Llanddona , Moelfre and Holyhead ) was used to build Birmingham Town Hall and help with the reconstruction of Liverpool and Manchester following the destruction caused by World War II . The stone was also used in the construction of the Menai Suspension Bridge ( completed in 1826 ) and the Britannia Bridge ( completed in 1850 ) .
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= Stripped ( Christina Aguilera album ) =
Stripped is the fourth studio album by American recording artist Christina Aguilera . It was released on October 22 , 2002 by RCA Records . Looking to transition from the teen pop styles of her self @-@ titled debut album ( 1999 ) , Aguilera took creative control over her next album project , both musically and lyrically . She also changed her public image and established her new alter ego , " Xtina " . Musically , its music incorporates pop and R & B with influences from many different genres , including soul , metal , rock , hip hop , gospel and Latin music . Lyrically , most of the songs from the album discuss the theme of self @-@ respect , while a few other songs talk about sex and feminism . As executive producer , Aguilera enlisted many new collaborators for the album .
Upon its release , Stripped received generally mixed reviews from music critics , most of them criticized its lack of musical focus , while some of them called it an album for grown @-@ ups . However , the album received multiple Grammy Award nominations , including one win . Commercially , Stripped debuted at number two on the US Billboard 200 with first @-@ week sales of 330 @,@ 000 copies . Consequently , it was certified quadruple platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for shipping over four million copies in the region alone . The album also charted within the top five of charts in Canada , Europe , the Netherlands , Ireland , New Zealand and the United Kingdom . It was Aguilera 's best @-@ performing album in the United Kingdom , becoming the 29th and 40th best @-@ selling album of the decade and millennium there respectively , with 1 @.@ 9 million copies sold . As of 2015 , Stripped has sold over 13 million copies worldwide .
Five singles were released from the album . The lead single " Dirrty " was met with criticism and controversy due to its sexual music video but was an international hit on the charts . The follow @-@ up " Beautiful " was praised by critics and garnered chart success worldwide . The last three singles ; " Fighter " , Can 't Hold Us Down " and " The Voice Within " became top 10 hits in various countries . Aguilera performed several songs from Stripped live during a number of shows , notably during the 2002 MTV Europe Music Awards , the American Music Awards of 2003 , and the 2003 MTV Video Music Awards . Two concert tours were held to promote the album , the Justified and Stripped Tour ( 2003 ) and The Stripped Tour ( 2003 ) .
= = Background = =
Following the release of her self @-@ titled debut album in 1999 , Aguilera had achieved major success with four worldwide hits , including " Genie in a Bottle " and " What a Girl Wants " . Following that , she continued to garner major success with " Lady Marmalade " ( 2001 ) , a cover of LaBelle which features Lil ' Kim , Pink and Mýa . Despite the international success , Aguilera was unsatisfied with the music and image that her management , Steve Kurtz , had created for her , having been marketed as a bubblegum pop singer because of the genre 's financial lure . She mentioned plans for her next album to have more musical and lyrical depth . By late 2000 , Aguilera decided not to continue the contact with Kurtz . After terminating Kurtz 's services , Irving Azoff was hired as her new manager . Following the managerial shakeup , Aguilera decided to create her new style of music on the following album . She also used her new alter ego , " Xtina " . She also changed her public appearance and persona , with her hair dyed black and nude photographs on magazine covers .
Aguilera further commented about the event with USA Today , " When you 're part of a pop phenomenon , you have so many opinions shoved down your throat . People try to tell you what you should do , how you should act , what you should wear , who you should be with . At the time things started happening for me , it was popular to be the squeaky @-@ clean , cookie @-@ cutter pop singer . But that role didn 't speak to me , because it 's so boring and superficial " .
= = Recording = =
In late 2000 , Aguilera started to record her then @-@ upcoming material . The recording sessions took place in studios around California and New York City , including Electric Lady Studios in New York , The Enterprise Studios in Burbank , California , Conway Recording Studios , The Record Plant and NRG Recording Studios in Hollywood . According to Aguilera , the recording sessions were much longer than she thought . She further explained that lots of things came up during that time , including her first break @-@ up with her first boyfriend Jorge Santos . Aguilera also believed that the lyrics of Stripped were so personal , and her vocals " represent a rawer , more bare @-@ bones approach as well , with less of the ostentatious riffing that has miffed critics in the past " . She stated , " I did the vocal gymnastics thing because it was fun . That 's why I like blues , too , because you can experiment more with that side of your voice . But I thought the lyrics on this record are so personal , deep and good that I wanted to make them stand out more than what I could do with my voice technically " .
On her new album , entitled Stripped , Aguilera enlisted a wide range of songwriters and producers , notably Alicia Keys , Scott Storch , and Linda Perry . Perry was one of the biggest influences to Aguilera during the making of the album . The singer stated , " She taught me that imperfections are good and should be kept because it comes from the heart . It makes things more believable and it 's brave to share them with the world . " Keys was featured on the track " Impossible " , which was recorded at Electric Lady Studios in New York City . Another notable producer is Storch ; he wrote and produced a total of seven songs from Stripped , including two singles . He stated that during the making of Stripped , Aguilera was one of his friends that he cared most ; however Storch didn 't produce her fifth studio album Back to Basics ( 2006 ) , later it resulted a feud between the two artists , which was stated by Aguilera in one of the track from Back to Basics , " F.U.S.S. " .
= = Composition = =
= = = Musical style = = =
Musically , Stripped is a pop and R & B album which incorporates elements of many different genres , including soul , metal , hip hop , rock , rock and roll , gospel and Latin . The album broke her teen pop root in the self @-@ titled debut album in 1999 . According to Aguilera , she wanted to be " real " in her next records because she was " overworked " at the time she was " a part of the big craze pop phenomenon " . Multiple critics criticized its musical style , calling it a lack of musical concentration . On Stripped , Aguilera became the writer of most of the songs . She also revealed that Perry 's songwriting on Pink 's album Missundaztood ( 2001 ) inspired Aguilera a lot . She further commented , " I wasn 't a big fan of the Dallas Austin songs , but I really , really loved the Linda Perry song " .
= = = Songs and lyrical content = = =
The album 's opening track , " Stripped Intro " , describes her musical changes as she sings , " Sorry that I speak my mind / Sorry don 't do what I 'm told " . The follow @-@ up " Can 't Hold Us Down " featuring Lil ' Kim is an R & B and hip hop song which incorporates elements from dancehall toward its end . Lyrically , it talks about the theme of feminism , and was suggested that it is toward rapper Eminem and Fred Durst . The third track " Walk Away " is a piano ballad where she uses a " clever " metaphor to talk about an abusive relationship . It is followed by the fourth track and third single from Stripped , " Fighter " , which incorporates strong elements from rock and arena rock . It talks about a woman wants to thank a man who has done something wrong to her , and was inspired by Aguilera 's unhappy childhood . It is followed @-@ up by the interlude " Primer Amor Interlude " , the flamenco @-@ inspired latin pop track " Infatuation " , and the interlude " Loves Embrace Interlude " , respectively .
" Loving Me 4 Me " is a " sultry " classic R & B ballad . The follow @-@ ups " Impossible " featuring Keys incorporates a piano theme , and " Underappreciated " talks about the pain of a break @-@ up . The piano ballad " Beautiful " , which talks about the theme of self @-@ respect , was deemed as the album 's highlight by many critics , who praised its overall production . The next track " Make Over " is a salsa and dance @-@ rock song that features a garage @-@ rock beat . It was sued in the United Kingdom for illegally sampling the Sugababes ' song " Overload " , The Guardian also noted similarities between the two songs . Later , the ASCAP organization had added the songwriting credits of Sugababes to the song . " Cruz " is a rock ballad that is musically similar to works of Michael Bolton . The two next tracks , " Get Mine , Get Yours " and " Dirrty " talk about the theme of sexual intercourse , and have been described as " majestically filthy " . The latter is the remake of Redman 's " Let 's Get Dirty ( I Can 't Get in da Club ) " ( 2001 ) , and also features the rapper . The follow @-@ up is the interlude " Stripped Pt . 2 " . The empowering ballad " The Voice Within " talks about trusting oneself . " I 'm OK " is a ballad which incorporates strings and discusses Aguilera 's abusive childhood with her father , and the final song from the album , " Keep on Singin ' My Song " , incorporates elements from drum and bass with gospel choir .
= = Singles = =
" Dirrty " was serviced as the lead single from the album on September 14 , 2002 . Perry and Aguilera 's management wanted to release " Beautiful " as the lead single . However , Aguilera wanted to release a seriously " down and dirty " song to announce her comeback , so RCA Records decided to release it as the first single . Upon its release , the song received mixed reviews from critics ; some of whom criticized its sound and negatively compared it to Britney Spears ' " I 'm a Slave 4 U " , while the others chose it as a stand @-@ out track from Stripped . Its accompanying music video , directed by David LaChapelle , was criticized due to its sexual content , and sparked protests in Thailand . However , it was a worldwide hit , achieving certifications in Australia , New Zealand , Switzerland , and the United Kingdom .
The album 's second single , " Beautiful " was written solely by Perry . Rush @-@ released following the controversial " Dirrty " on November 16 , 2002 , " Beautiful " garnered positive critical reception . Commercially , the single gained impact on charts worldwide , peaking within the top five in many countries , as well as achieving certifications in the United States , Australia , New Zealand and the United Kingdom . Its music video , directed by Jonas Åkerlund , garnered positive reaction from media outlets by touching on anorexia nervosa , homosexuality , bullying , self @-@ esteem , and transgender issues . The video was honored at the 14th GLAAD Media Awards due to its positive portrayal of the LGBT community . " Beautiful " was listed as one of the greatest songs throughout the 2000s decade by Rolling Stone and VH1 .
" Fighter " was released as the third single from Stripped on March 13 , 2003 . The single was well received by most critics , as well as managed chart success in several countries and achieved gold certification in the United States and Australia . Its accompanying music clip , directed by Floria Sigismondi , was inspired by the director 's dark theatrics and moths . The album 's four single " Can 't Hold Us Down " featuring Kim , was released on July 8 , 2003 . It garnered mixed reviews from music journalism , and gained moderate success commercially , achieving gold certification in Australia . The album 's fifth and final single " The Voice Within " , was released October 27 , 2003 . Critics complimented the simple piano ballad , which talks about the theme of self @-@ respect . Both music videos for the two songs were directed by LaChapelle , who previously directed the clip for " Dirrty " . On March 14 , 2008 , the song " Walk Away " entered the Danish Tracklisten chart at number 35 , despite not being released as a single .
= = Promotion = =
= = = Touring = = =
Aguilera also supported Stripped by embarking on two different tours . In summer 2003 , Justin Timberlake and Aguilera embarked on the Justified and Stripped Tour , which took place in North America . Talking about the tour , Timberlake revealed that " She 's got one of the most amazing voices I 've ever heard . That homegirl can sing ... this is why I am standing here " . Several tour dates were cancelled and rescheduled due to the collapse of lightning systems . An extended play entitled Justin & Christina was released exclusively at Target Stores in July 2003 to promote the tour . The CD contains four remixes of Aguilera and Timberlake 's songs from their two albums , and two new tracks . In late 2003 , The Stripped Tour , the former 's extension , happened without Timberlake 's acts . The tour took place in Europe , Japan and Australia . The former grossed total US $ 30 @,@ 261 @,@ 670 , becoming the sixteenth highest @-@ grossing tour of 2003 . In summer 2004 , Aguilera was expected to return to North American during the second leg of the tour . However , the 29 tour dates were cancelled in the last minute due to the singer 's vocal strain . On November 15 , 2008 , an accompanying video release of the tour , Stripped Live in the U.K. , was released worldwide . On December 8 , 2004 , a compilation album which includes Stripped and the DVD was released in the United Kingdom .
= = = Live performances = = =
Promotion for Stripped started on October 28 , 2002 , when Aguilera appeared at Chicago radio station B96 's Halloween Bash and performed four songs from the album , " Dirrty " , " Get Mine , Get Yours " , " Beautiful " and " Impossible " . The same day Aguilera performed " Beautiful " on the Late Show with David Letterman , wearing a black gown , a black fedora , and black heels . She also performed " Dirrty " and " Beautiful " on Top of the Pops ; later the show was broadcast in October 2002 . On November 1 , 2002 , Aguilera appeared on The Today Show and performed " Beautiful " and " Impossible " . On November 4 , 2002 , Aguilera was invited as a guest on The Daily Show to promote Stripped . At the 2002 MTV Europe Music Awards , Aguilera performed " Dirrty " with rapper Redman on November 14 , 2002 , racreating the stage as a boxing ring while entering the stage riding a motorcycle and wearing chaps during the performance , as seen in the music video for the song . On December 15 , 2002 , she performed " Dirrty " during the 2002 VH1 Awards . On January 13 , 2003 , Aguilera performed " Beautiful " and " Impossible " on the American Music Awards .
Aguilera gave a performance of " Beautiful " on Saturday Night Live on March 15 , 2003 , where she also sang " Fighter " . At the 2003 MTV Video Music Awards , Aguilera performed with Madonna , Britney Spears and Missy Elliott during the ceremony a medley of Madonna 's songs " Like a Virgin " and " Hollywood " and Elliott 's " Work It " on August 23 , 2003 . Towards the end of " Hollywood " , Madonna kissed both Aguilera and Spears during the performance , making huge tabloid stories and fuss from the public , and marking it as one of the most iconic performances from the MTV Video Music Awards history . Later that night , she also performed " Dirrty " and " Fighter " with Redman and guitarist Dave Navarro . On January 16 , 2004 , she performed " Walk Away " on the Late Show with David Letterman . On February 8 , 2004 , Aguilera performed " Beautiful " at the 2004 Grammy Awards , where she also won a Grammy Award for the song .
= = Critical reception = =
At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the album received an average score of 55 , based on 14 reviews , which indicates " mixed or average reviews " . Billboard was positive toward the album , writing that the album is " a must @-@ heard recording rich with pleasantly surprising depth " . In a mixed review , E ! Online wrote , " If she had just shown up and sang her ass off , Stripped would 've been a better show " . Josh Kun from Spin commented , " As an artistic statement , Stripped is all over the place – it 's a move toward hip @-@ hop , it 's a move toward rock , it 's ghetto , it 's Disney " . Jancee Duncan of Rolling Stone provided a three @-@ out @-@ of @-@ five @-@ stars rating for the album , calling it an album for grown @-@ ups , yet criticized its lack of musical concentration . Blender wrote a mixed review , yet commenting that it is better than Britney Spears ' works . Writing for BBC Music , Jacqueline Hodges said that the album " is as full @-@ on bold and over the top as most of Christina 's outfits ... much of this seems to be an exercise in stretching the vocal chords to weak backing tracks " . Jim Wirth for NME commented that Stripped is a Mariah Carey album . Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine commented that the album is " so overproduced and overwrought that it could easily pass for a Janet album " .
In a negative way , The Village Voice criticized the album as a " nü @-@ Mariah on mood stabilizers , extended with pseudo @-@ pastiches of semi @-@ popular songs " . Todd Burns for Stylus Magazine was also negative toward the album , giving it an " F " score and wrote , " in between ten to twelve mediocre / good songs , we have eight to ten songs that would be better served as B @-@ sides " . Q provided a two @-@ out @-@ of @-@ five @-@ stars rating and commented that " Sadly , bra @-@ burning rhetoric and gospel warbling make poor substitutes for addictive songs " . AllMusic 's editor Stephen Thomas Erlewine also wrote a negative review , commenting that the album is " the sound of an artist who was given too much freedom too early and has no idea what to do with it " . Writing for The New York Times , Jon Pareles also provided a negative review , commenting that Stripped " is a blast of excess that risks alienating Ms. Aguilera 's old fans without luring new ones , and it 's bursting with misguided energy " .
Stripped garnered multiple Grammy Awards nominations . At the 2003 Grammy Awards , the lead single " Dirrty " gained a nomination for Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals . A year later , the album was nominated for Best Pop Vocal Album , while " Beautiful " garnered one win for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance and one nomination for Song of the Year . " Can 't Hold Us Down " was also nominated for Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals that year .
= = Commercial performance = =
According to Nielsen SoundScan , Stripped debuted at number two on the US Billboard 200 with first @-@ week sales of 330 @,@ 000 copies ( only behind Eminem 's 8 Mile , which debuted at number one with first @-@ week sales of 702 @,@ 000 copies ) . The album stayed on the chart until 2004 , and was certified quadruple platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America . By December 2009 , Nielsen SoundScan reported that Stripped had sold 4 @,@ 234 @,@ 000 copies in the region , became her second highest @-@ selling album in the United States , only behind Christina Aguilera , which had sold 8 @,@ 207 @,@ 000 copies . As of August 2014 , the album has sold over 4 @,@ 383 @,@ 000 copies in the country alone . In Canada , Stripped debuted at number three on the Canadian Albums Chart with first @-@ week sales of 14 @,@ 000 copies , and was eventually certified triple platinum by Music Canada .
Elsewhere , Stripped also garnered commercial success . In the United Kingdom , the album debuted at number 19 , and peaked at number two there . It became Aguilera 's best @-@ performing album in the country , spending 102 weeks within the top 100 of the chart , and was certified six times platinum by British Phonographic Industry . Throughout Europe , Stripped also peaked within the top ten charts of several countries , including Denmark , the Netherlands , Germany , Ireland , and Norway . Due to its success in the continent , Stripped was certified triple platinum by the European International Federation of the Phonographic Industry ( IFPI ) for shipping more than three millions copies in the region and was the best selling pop album by a female that year . In Australia , the album garnered quadruple platinum certification by the Australian Recording Industry Association for shipments of 280 @,@ 000 copies in the country , despite only peaking at number seven on the chart . As of June 2006 , Stripped had sold over 12 million copies worldwide .
= = Impact and legacy = =
Following its release and five successful singles , Stripped became one of Aguilera 's strongest albums on charts . In the United States , the album became the tenth best @-@ selling album of 2003 , and Aguilera was ranked as the fifth most successful pop artist of the year . She also became the most successful pop female act throughout the year , with six chart entries . Likewise , Aguilera was the fourth most successful female musical act on the Billboard 200 chart , and the thirteenth overall . Due to the successful single releases , the magazine ranked Aguilera as the second best @-@ selling female singles artist on the Hot 100 , only behind Beyoncé , and the Top Female Mainstream Top 40 act .
In the United Kingdom , the album became the 29th best @-@ selling album there throughout the 2000s decade , becoming the second highest @-@ selling album by a US female artist in the country during the decade , only behind Norah Jones ' Come Away with Me . As of 2011 , the album had sold 1 @,@ 850 @,@ 852 copies alone in the UK , and was ranked at number 73 on the list of 100 best @-@ selling albums in the United Kingdom during the same time . As of October 2013 , a total of 1 @,@ 900 @,@ 000 copies of Stripped were sold in the United Kingdom . By 2015 , Official Charts Company revealed that Stripped had become the 40th best selling album of the millennium .
Selena Gomez 's second studio album Revival cited Stripped as one of her inspirations saying “ That ’ s one of my favorite albums and that was kind of what I started off Revival as , some sort of story . I mean , that album for her was incredible — ’ Beautiful , ’ ’ Can ’ t Hold Us Down , ’ all of that — that ’ s the stuff that I love , ” she said . “ That was an album , that was complete on my record . I have ’ Rise , ’ ’ Survivors , ’ ’ Revival , ’ ’ Kill Em With Kindness . ’ My stuff is full on , it ’ s an album , it ’ s a piece , it ’ s something that I ’ m proud of . ”
The album was included in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die .
= = Awards and nominations = =
= = Track listing = =
Notes
^ a signifies a vocal producer
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits are taken from the liner notes of Stripped .
Production
Musicians
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
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= Lobaria pulmonaria =
Lobaria pulmonaria is a large epiphytic lichen consisting of an ascomycete fungus and a green algal partner living together in a symbiotic relationship with a cyanobacterium — a symbiosis involving members of three kingdoms of organisms . Commonly known by various names like tree lungwort , lung lichen , lung moss , lungwort lichen , oak lungs or oak lungwort , it is sensitive to air pollution and is also negatively affected by habitat loss and changes in forestry practices . Its population has declined across Europe and L. pulmonaria is considered endangered in many lowland areas . The species has a history of use in herbal medicines , and recent research has corroborated some medicinal properties of lichen extracts .
= = Description = =
It is a foliose lichen and its leaf @-@ like thallus is green , leathery and lobed with a pattern of ridges and depressions on the upper surface . Bright green under moist conditions , it becomes brownish and papery when dry . This species often has a fine layers of hairs , a tomentum , on its lower surface . The cortex , the outer protective layer on the thallus surface , is roughly comparable to the epidermis of a green plant . The thallus is typically 5 – 15 centimetres ( 2 @.@ 0 – 5 @.@ 9 in ) in diameter , with individual lobes 1 – 3 centimetres ( 0 @.@ 39 – 1 @.@ 18 in ) wide and up to 7 cm long . The asexual reproductive structures soredia and isidia are present on the thallus surface . Minute ( 0 @.@ 5 – 1 @.@ 5 mm in diameter ) cephalodia — pockets of cyanobacteria — are often present on the lower surface of the thallus ; these spots are conspicuously darker than the green surface of the thallus . Like other foliose lichens , the thallus is only loosely attached to the surface on which it grows .
= = = Photobionts = = =
The thallus contains internal structures known as cephalodia , characteristic of three @-@ membered lichen symbioses involving two photobionts ( the photosynthetic symbionts in the fungal @-@ algal lichen relationship ) . These internal cephalodia , found between the " ribs " of the thallus surface , arise when blue @-@ green algae ( from the genus Nostoc ) on the thallus surface are enveloped during mycobiont growth . Structurally , cephalodia consist of dense aggregates of Nostoc cells surrounded by thin @-@ walled hyphae — this delimits them from the rest of the thallus which contains a loose structure of thick @-@ walled hyphae . Blue @-@ green cyanobacteria can fix atmospheric nitrogen , enhancing nutrient availability for the lichen . The other photobiont of L. pulmonaria is the green algae Dictyochloropsis reticulata .
= = Reproduction = =
L. pulmonaria has the ability to form both vegetative propagation and sexual propagules at an age of about 25 years . In sexual reproduction , the species produces small reddish @-@ brown discs known as apothecia containing asci , from which spores are forcibly released into the air ( like ballistospores ) . Based on studies of ascospore germination , it has been suggested that L. pulmonaria spores use some mechanism to inhibit germination — the inhibition is lifted when the spores are grown in a synthetic growth medium containing an adsorbent like bovine serum albumin or α @-@ cyclodextrin .
Dispersal by vegetative propagules ( via soredia or isidia ) has been determined as the predominant mode of reproduction in L. pulmonaria . In this method , the protruding propagules become dry and brittle during the regular wet / dry cycles of the lichen , and can easily crumble off the thallus . These fragments may develop into new thalli , either at the same locale or at a new site after dispersal by wind or rain . A number of steps are required for the development of the vegetative propagules , including the degeneration of the thallus cortex , replication of green algal cells , and entanglement of fungal hyphae with the green algal cells . This steps lead to an increase in internal pressure which eventually breaks through the cortex . Continued growth leads to these granules being pushed upwards and out of the thallus surface .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
It has a wide distribution in Europe , Asia , North America and Africa , preferring damp habitats with high rainfall , especially coastal areas . It is the most widely distributed and most common Lobaria species in North America . Associated with old @-@ growth forests , its presence and abundance may be used as an indicator of forest age , at least in the Interior Cedar @-@ Hemlock biogeoclimatic zone in eastern British Columbia . It is also found in pasture @-@ woodlands . It usually grows on the bark of broad @-@ leaved trees such as oak , beech and maple but will also grow on rocks . In the laboratory , L. pulmonaria has been grown on nylon microfilaments . Various environmental factors are thought to affect the distribution of L. pulmonaria , such as temperature , moisture ( average humidity , rapidity and frequency of wet @-@ dry cycles ) , sunlight exposure , and levels of air pollution . Attempts to quantitatively evaluate the contribution of these factors to lichen growth is difficult because differences in the original environment from which the lichen thalli are collected will greatly affect heat and desiccation tolerances .
Due to declining population , L. pulmonaria is considered to be rare or threatened in many parts of the world , especially in lowland areas of Europe . The decline has been attributed to industrial forestry and air pollution , particularly acid rain . L. pulmonaria , like other lichens containing a blue @-@ green algal component , are particularly susceptible to the effects of acid rain , because the subsequent decrease in pH reduces nitrogen fixation through inhibition of the algal nitrogenase enzyme .
= = Chemical compounds = =
L. pulmonaria is known to contain a variety of acids common to lichens , such as stictic acid , desmethyl stictic acid , gyrophoric acid , tenuiorin , constictic acid , norstictic acid , peristictic acid , and methylnorstictic acid . These compounds , collectively known as depsidones , are known to be involved in defense against grazing herbivores like lichen @-@ feeding molluscs . It also contains the sugar alcohols D @-@ arabitol , volemitol , in addition to several carotenoids ( total content > 10 mg / kg ) , such as alpha carotene , beta carotene , and beta cryptoxanthin . The upper cortex of the lichen contains melanins that screen UV and PAR radiation from the photobiont . The synthesis of melanin pigments in the lichen increases in response to greater solar irradiation , and shade @-@ adapted thalli are greenish @-@ grey in the air @-@ dry state , while sun @-@ exposed thalli can be dark brown in color . This adaptation helps protect the photosymbiont D. reticulata , known to be relatively intolerant to high light levels .
Also known to be present are various steroids , namely ergosterol , episterol , fecosterol , and lichesterol .
= = Uses = =
= = = Medicinal = = =
Its shape somewhat resembles the tissue inside lungs and therefore it is thought to be a remedy for lung diseases based on the doctrine of signatures . The lichen 's common English names are derived from this association . Gerard 's book The Herball or General Historie of plants ( 1597 ) recommends L. pulmonaria as medicinally valuable . It is still used for asthma , urinary incontinence and lack of appetite . In India it is used as a traditional medicine to treat hemorrhages and eczema , and it is used as a remedy for coughing up blood by the Hesquiaht in British Columbia , Canada . An ethnophytotherapeutical survey of the high Molise region in central @-@ southern Italy revealed that L. pulmonaria is used as an antiseptic , and is rubbed on wounds .
A hot @-@ water extract prepared using this species has been shown to have anti @-@ inflammatory and ulcer @-@ preventing activities . Also , methanol extracts were shown to have a protective effect on the gastrointestinal system of rats , possibly by reducing oxidative stress and reducing the inflammatory effects of neutrophils . Furthermore , methanol extracts also have potent antioxidative activity and reducing power , probably due to the presence of phenolic compounds .
= = = Other uses = = =
L. pulmonaria has also been used to produce an orange dye for wool , in the tanning of leather , in the manufacture of perfumes and as an ingredient in brewing .
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