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= Loved ( video game ) =
Loved is a browser @-@ based platform video game developed by Alexander Ocias , an Australian graphic designer and artist . Written in Adobe Flash , the game was built over the course of about half a year in Ocias ' spare time . Released online on 14 June 2010 onto various game hosting websites , it has garnered sizeable praise and scrutiny since its release , with critics finding the game to be thought @-@ provoking while having poor controls .
= = Gameplay = =
A narrator first asks players , " are you a man , or a woman ? " Players who select " man " are instead told they are a " girl " . Similarly , players who select " woman " are called a " boy " . Navigation is by arrow keys , which also control the ability to jump and duck . The narrator instructs players intermittently , sometimes to achieve goals but often to suggest actions that will kill the player character ( such as falling into a pit full of spikes ) . Players are sometimes , but not always , congratulated when following these instructions , while dissenting the narrator results in a barrage of insults . Both the player character and environment are in stark black and white , with a colourful motif appearing if the character disobeys the narrator 's instructions , or the visuals becoming more detailed but still in monochrome if the character decides to be compliant .
= = Development = =
Loved was built over the course of about half a year , transforming from the exploration genre to a mining- and building @-@ based adventure game before settling on the platform genre . Ocias worked on the game intermittently in his spare time , using his " bit of self @-@ taught programming knowledge " to code it . Although no libraries were used during development , Ocias expressed that he wished that he had during the end of production . Research was taken into achieving " certain little fiddly things , " Ocias explained , such as generating the text elements and instructing Flash to read his tile maps .
According to Ocias , the main themes of Loved were of dominance and power , but to provide a fuller answer would " defy the point of the game " . His intentions in making the game were to get people to think about the games they were playing — a direction he found much of the video game industry shying away from . The confrontational aspect of the game was motivated by two aspects : primarily to use " the resource of emotions " invoked by its risk and reward mechanic ; and secondly to absorb the awareness of people online . Expanding upon his inspirations , Ocias cited individual games such as The Last Guardian and Deus Ex : Human Revolution , along with companies such as Thatgamecompany and Eidos Montreal , as showing " greater depth " to video games as well as experimentation and research . Ocias ultimately stated that while he dislikes " force @-@ feeding " players , he would try to take a different approach both mechanically and thematically for his next game .
= = Release and reception = =
Loved was published as freeware onto Newgrounds and Kongregate , as well as Ocias 's official website , on 14 June 2010 . Since its release , the game has received sizeable praise and scrutiny from players , with some responding reminiscently over it . Duncan Geere of Wired dubbed it " great high @-@ brow lunchtime gaming " that exploits the paradox of video games being supposedly a better medium than music and films , despite most gamers being compliant by design . Writing for Rock , Paper , Shotgun , Kieron Gillen called the atmosphere " genuinely oppressive " and the game 's cogitation between free will and control " really quite excellent " . A review in the Italian magazine Dude named it one of their top 16 favourite independent games .
In interviewing Ocias , Justin Kranzl of Gamasutra called the experience of playing the game challenging of the " assumptions people may hold about the respective weight of narrative and play mechanics " . Kris Ligman of PopMatters called the controls frustrating and " only just playable " , but disregarded this as " all it needs in order to work " . Chris Priestman of Kill Screen found the game provoking of " gut reactions " and noted a sexual undercurrent throughout it . Referred to by Gillen , Michael Rose of IndieGames.com called the controls " a little wonky " , but concluded that it was " definitely worth giving a go " . Tim W. of the same website ranked the game second place of the top 10 browser platformers of 2010 . Rose later published in his book 250 Indie Games You Must Play that the game is worth playing twice to see the alternative endings based on the player 's decisions . Writing for the official website of G4 , Brittany Vincent called the game " especially curious " in its depiction of a dominant and submissive relationship and a " fantastic case " of the medium " pushing the margins of human emotion " .
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= 2008 Summer Olympics =
The 2008 Summer Olympic Games , officially known as the Games of the XXIX Olympiad ( Chinese : 第二十九届夏季奥林匹克运动会 ; pinyin : Dì Èrshíjiǔ Jiè Xiàjì Àolínpǐkè Yùndònghuì ) and commonly known as Beijing 2008 , was a major international multi @-@ sport event that took place in Beijing , China , from 8 to 24 August 2008 . A total of 10 @,@ 942 athletes from 204 National Olympic Committees ( NOCs ) competed in 28 sports and 302 events ( a total of one event more than the schedule of the 2004 Games ) . China became the 22nd nation to host the Olympic Games and the 18th to hold a Summer Olympic Games . It was the third time that the Summer Olympic Games were held in East Asia and Asia , after Tokyo , Japan , in 1964 and Seoul , South Korea , in 1988 .
The equestrian events were held in Hong Kong , making it the third time the events of the same Olympics were held under the jurisdiction of two different NOCs , while sailing was contested in Qingdao , and football events took place in several different cities .
Beijing was awarded the Games over four competitors on July 13 , 2001 , having won a majority of votes from members of the International Olympic Committee ( IOC ) after two rounds of voting . The Government of the People 's Republic of China promoted the Games and invested heavily in new facilities and transportation systems . A total of 37 venues were used to host the events , including 12 constructed specifically for use at the Games . The official logo of these Olympic Games , titled " Dancing Beijing " , refers to the host city by featuring a stylized calligraphic character jīng ( 京 , meaning capital ) . The Games were the most watched Olympics in history , attracting 4 @.@ 7 billion viewers worldwide . Some politicians and non @-@ governmental organizations criticized the choice of China as Olympic host because of the country 's human rights record , and protests by critics of China 's human rights record , with particular focus on Tibet , marred the international portion of the Olympic torch relay .
There were 43 world records and 132 Olympic records set at the 2008 Summer Olympics . An unprecedented 86 countries won at least one medal during the Games . Chinese athletes won the most gold medals , with 51 , and 100 medals altogether , while the United States had the most total medals with 110 . The final medal tally was led by host China , followed by the United States and Russia . Though there were several controversies , the games were deemed generally successful with the rising standard of competition amongst nations across the world .
= = Organization = =
= = = Bid = = =
Beijing was elected as the host city for the 2008 Summer Olympics on 13 July 2001 , during the 112th IOC Session in Moscow , defeating bids from Toronto , Paris , Istanbul , and Osaka . Prior to the session , five other cities ( Bangkok , Cairo , Havana , Kuala Lumpur , and Seville ) had submitted bids to the IOC , but failed to make the short list chosen by the IOC Executive Committee in 2000 . After the first round of voting , Beijing held a significant lead over the other four candidates . Osaka received only six votes and was eliminated . In the second round , Beijing was supported by a majority of voters , eliminating the need for subsequent rounds . Toronto 's bid was their 5th failure since 1960 ( failed bid for 1960 , 1964 , 1976 and 1996 games ) .
Members of the IOC did not disclose their votes , but news reports speculated that broad international support led to China 's selection , especially from developing nations who had received assistance from China in the construction of stadiums . The size of China , its increased enforcement of doping controls , and sympathy concerning its loss of the 2000 Summer Olympics to Sydney were all factors in the decision . Eight years earlier , Beijing had led every round of voting for the 2000 Summer Olympics before losing to Sydney by two votes in the final round .
Human rights concerns expressed by Amnesty International and politicians in both Europe and the United States were considered by the delegates , according to IOC Executive Director François Carrard . Carrard and others suggested that the selection might lead to improvements in human rights in China . In addition , a number of IOC delegates who had formerly been athletes expressed concern about heat and air quality during the Games , considering the high levels of air pollution in Beijing . China outlined plans to address these environmental concerns in its bid application .
= = = Costs = = =
On 6 March 2009 , the Beijing Organizing Committee for the Olympic Games reported that total spending on the games was " generally as much as that of the Athens 2004 Olympic Games " , which was equivalent to about US $ 15 billion . They went on to claim that surplus revenues from the Games would exceed the original target of $ 16 million . Other reports , however , estimated the total costs from $ 40 billion to $ 44 billion , which would make the Games " far and away the most expensive ever " .
Its budget has since been exceeded by the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi , which suffered from major cost overruns , causing the budget to exceed US $ 51 billion .
= = = Venues = = =
By May 2007 the construction of all 31 Beijing @-@ based Olympic Games venues had begun . The Chinese government renovated and constructed six venues outside Beijing as well as 59 training centres . The largest structures built were the Beijing National Stadium , Beijing National Indoor Stadium , Beijing National Aquatics Center , Olympic Green Convention Center , Olympic Green , and Beijing Wukesong Culture & Sports Center . Almost 85 % of the construction budget for the six main venues was funded by $ 2 @.@ 1 billion ( RMB ¥ 17 @.@ 4 billion ) in corporate bids and tenders . Investments were expected from corporations seeking ownership rights after the Olympics . Some events were held outside Beijing , namely football in Qinhuangdao , Shanghai , Shenyang , and Tianjin ; sailing in Qingdao ; and , because of the " uncertainties of equine diseases and major difficulties in establishing a disease @-@ free zone " , the equestrian events were held in Hong Kong .
The centrepiece of the 2008 Summer Olympics was the Beijing National Stadium , nicknamed " The Bird 's Nest " because of its nest @-@ like skeletal structure . The stadium hosted both the opening and closing ceremonies as well as the athletics competition . Construction of the venue began on December 24 , 2003 . The Guangdong Olympic Stadium was originally planned , constructed , and completed in 2001 to help host the Games , but a decision was made to construct a new stadium in Beijing . In 2001 , the city held a bidding process to select the best arena design . Several criteria were required of each design , including flexibility for post @-@ Olympics use , a retractable roof , and low maintenance costs . The entry list was narrowed to thirteen final designs . The bird 's nest model submitted by architects Jacques Herzog and Pierre de Meuron in collaboration with Li Xinggang of China Architecture Design and Research Group ( CADG ) was selected as the top design by both a professional panel and by a broader audience during a public exhibition . The selection of the design became official in April 2003 . Construction of the stadium was a joint venture among the original designers , project architect Stefan Marbach , artist Ai Weiwei , and a group of CADG architects led by Li Xinggang . Its $ 423 million cost was funded by the state @-@ owned corporate conglomerate CITIC and the Beijing State @-@ Owned Assets Management Company .
The 2008 Beijing Olympics caused traditional Hutong neighborhoods to be cleared for the construction of modern Olympic stadiums . In an effort to ensure success for the games , the government invested billions in building new infrastructure , although clearance to tiny , outdated neighborhoods in Beijing called hutongs resulted ( Petrun ) . Jim Yardley , a New York Times reporter interviews Pan Jinyu , a 64 @-@ year @-@ old local resident : " They [ the government ] don ’ t want foreigners to see this scarred old face " . Feng Shuqin and her husband , Zheng Zhanlin have lived in their house for 50 years and the family has owned the property before the Communists took control in 1949 . The government , trying to clear the area , has offered them to move with a compensatory sum of $ 175 @,@ 000 USD , but the family insists the land is worth $ 1 @.@ 4 million USD ( Yardley ) . Michael Meyer , an American who lives in the hutongs reported that a total of 500 @,@ 000 residents were relocated from their homes before the Olympics began ( Meyer ) .
= = = Transport = = =
To prepare for Olympic visitors , Beijing 's transportation infrastructure was expanded . Beijing 's airport underwent a major renovation with the addition of the new Terminal 3 , designed by architect Norman Foster . Within the city itself , Beijing 's subway was doubled in capacity and length , with the addition of 7 lines and 80 stations to the previously existing 4 lines and 64 stations . Included in this expansion was a new link connecting to the city 's airport . A fleet of thousands of buses , minibuses , and official cars transported spectators , athletes , and officials between venues .
In an effort to improve air quality , the city placed restrictions on construction sites and gas stations , and limited the use of commercial and passenger vehicles in Beijing . From June 20 through September 20 , passenger vehicle restrictions were placed on alternate days depending on the terminal digit of the car 's license plate . It was anticipated that this measure would take 45 % of Beijing 's 3 @.@ 3 million cars off the streets . The boosted public transport network was expected to absorb the demand created by these restrictions and the influx of visitors , which was estimated at more than 4 million additional passengers per day .
= = = Marketing = = =
The 2008 Summer Olympics emblem was known as Dancing Beijing . The emblem combined a traditional Chinese red seal and a representation of the calligraphic character jīng ( 京 , " national capital " , also the second character of Beijing 's Chinese name ) with athletic features . The open arms of the calligraphic word symbolized the invitation from China to the world to share in its culture . IOC president Jacques Rogge was very happy with the emblem , saying , " Your new emblem immediately conveys the awesome beauty and power of China which are embodied in your heritage and your people . "
The official motto for the 2008 Olympics was " One World , One Dream " ( 同一个世界 同一个梦想 ) . It called upon the whole world to join in the Olympic spirit and build a better future for humanity , and was chosen from over 210 @,@ 000 entries submitted from around the world . Following the announcement of the motto , the phrase was used by international advocates of Tibetan secession . Banners reading " One World , One Dream , Free Tibet " were unfurled from various structures around the globe in the lead up to the Beijing Olympics , such as from the San Francisco Golden Gate Bridge and the Sydney Opera House in Australia .
The mascots of Beijing 2008 were the five Fuwa , each representing both a colour of the Olympic rings and a symbol of Chinese culture . In 2006 , the Beijing Organizing Committee released pictograms of 35 Olympic disciplines ( for some multi @-@ discipline sports , such as cycling , a single pictogram was released ) . This set of sport icons was named the beauty of seal characters , because of each pictogram 's likeness to Chinese seal script .
= = = Media coverage = = =
The 2008 Games were the first to be produced and broadcast entirely in high definition by the host broadcaster . In comparison , American broadcaster NBC broadcast only half of the 2006 Turin Winter Games in HD . In their bid for the Olympic Games in 2001 , Beijing stated to the Olympic Evaluation Commission that there would be , " [ N ] o restrictions on media reporting and movement of journalists up to and including the Olympic Games . " However , some media outlets claimed that organizers ultimately failed to live up to this commitment .
According to Nielsen Media Research , 4 @.@ 7 billion viewers worldwide tuned into some of the television coverage , one @-@ fifth larger than the 3 @.@ 9 billion who watched the 2004 Olympic Games in Athens . American broadcaster NBC produced only 2 hours of online streaming video for the 2006 Winter Games but produced approximately 2 @,@ 200 hours of coverage for the 2008 Summer Games . CNN reported that , for the first time , " live online video rights in some markets for the Olympics have been separately negotiated , not part of the overall ' broadcast rights . ' " The new media of the digital economy was said to be growing " nine times faster than the rest of the advertising market . "
The international European Broadcasting Union ( EBU ) provided live coverage and highlights of all arenas only for certain territories on their website , Eurovisionsports.tv. Many national broadcasters likewise restricted the viewing of online events to their domestic audiences . The General National Copyright Administration of China announced that " individual ( sic ) and websites will face fines as high as 100 @,@ 000 yuan for uploading recordings of Olympic Games video to the internet " , part of an extensive campaign to protect the pertinent intellectual property rights . The Olympic Committee also set up a separate YouTube channel at Beijing 2008 .
= = = Theme song = = =
The theme song of the 2008 Olympic Games was " You and Me , " which was composed by Chen Qigang , the musical director of the opening ceremony . It was performed during the opening ceremony by Chinese singer Liu Huan and British singer Sarah Brightman .
= = Torch relay = =
The design of the 2008 Olympic Torch was based on traditional scrolls and used a traditional Chinese design known as the " Propitious Clouds " ( 祥云 ) . The torch was designed to remain lit in 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) winds , and in rain of up to 50 mm ( 2 in ) per hour .
The relay , with the theme " Journey of Harmony " , was met with protests and demonstrations by pro @-@ Tibet supporters throughout its journey . It lasted 130 days and carried the torch 137 @,@ 000 km ( 85 @,@ 000 mi ) — the longest distance of any Olympic torch relay since the tradition began at the 1936 Berlin Games . The torch relay was described as a " public relations disaster " for China by USA Today , with protests against China 's human rights record , particularly focused on Tibet . The IOC subsequently barred future Olympics organizers from staging international torch relays .
The relay began March 24 , 2008 , in Olympia , Greece . From there , it traveled across Greece to Panathinaiko Stadium in Athens , and then to Beijing , arriving on March 31 . From Beijing , the torch followed a route passing through every continent except Antarctica . The torch visited cities on the Silk Road , symbolizing ancient links between China and the rest of the world . A total of 21 @,@ 880 torchbearers were selected from around the world by various organizations and entities .
The international portion of the relay was problematic . The month @-@ long world tour encountered wide @-@ scale protests . After trouble in London involving attempts by protestors to put out the flame , the torch was extinguished in Paris the following day . The American leg in San Francisco on April 9 was altered without prior warning to avoid such disturbances , although there were still demonstrations along the original route . The relay was further delayed and simplified after the 2008 Sichuan earthquake hit western China .
The flame was carried to the top of Mount Everest on a 108 km ( 67 mi ) long " highway " scaling the Tibetan side of the mountain , built especially for the relay . The $ 19 @.@ 7 million blacktop project spanned from Tingri County of Xigazê Prefecture to the Everest Base Camp . In March 2008 , China banned mountaineers from climbing its side of Mount Everest , and later persuaded the Nepalese government to close their side as well , officially citing environmental concerns . It also reflected concerns by the Chinese government that Tibet activists may try to disrupt its plans to carry the Olympic torch up the world 's tallest peak .
The originally proposed route would have taken the torch through Taipei after leaving Vietnam and before heading for Hong Kong . However , the government of Taiwan ( then led by the independence @-@ leaning Democratic Progressive Party ) objected to this proposal , claiming that this route would make the portion of the relay in Taiwan appear to be part of the torch 's domestic journey through China , rather than a leg on the international route . This dispute , as well as Chinese demands that the flag and the national anthem of the Republic of China be banned along the route led the government of Taiwan to reject the proposal that it be part of the relay route , and the two sides of the Taiwan Strait subsequently blamed each other for injecting politics into the event .
= = Calendar = =
All times are in China Standard Time ( UTC + 8 )
In the following calendar for the 2008 Olympic Games , each blue box represents an event competition , such as a qualification round , on that day . The yellow boxes represent days during which medal @-@ awarding finals for a sport were held . Each bullet in these boxes is an event final , the number of bullets per box representing the number of finals that were contested on that day . On the left the calendar lists each sport with events held during the Games , and at the right how many gold medals were won in that sport . There is a key at the top of the calendar to aid the reader .
= = Olympic and world records = =
125 Olympic records including 37 world records were set in various events at the Games . In swimming , sixty @-@ five Olympic swimming records including 25 world records were broken due to the use of the LZR Racer , a specialized swimming suit developed by NASA and the Australian Institute of Sport . Only two swimming Olympic records remained intact after the Games .
= = Games = =
= = = Opening ceremony = = =
The opening ceremony officially began at 8 : 00 pm China Standard Time ( UTC + 8 ) on August 8 , 2008 in the Beijing National Stadium . The number 8 is associated with prosperity and confidence in Chinese culture , and here it was a triple eight for the date and one extra for time ( close to 08 : 08 : 08 pm ) . The ceremony was co @-@ directed by Chinese filmmaker Zhang Yimou and Chinese choreographer Zhang Jigang and featured a cast of over 15 @,@ 000 performers . The ceremony lasted over four hours and was reported to have cost over US $ 100 million to produce .
A rich assembly of ancient Chinese art and culture dominated the ceremony . It opened with the beating of Fou drums for the countdown . Subsequently , a giant scroll was unveiled and became the show 's centerpiece . The official song of the 2008 Olympics , titled " You and Me " , was performed by Britain 's Sarah Brightman and China 's Liu Huan , on a large spinning rendition of the globe . The last recipient in the Olympic Torch relay , former Chinese gymnast Li Ning ignited the cauldron , after being suspended into the air by wires and completing a lap of the National Stadium at roof height .
The opening ceremony was lauded by spectators and various international presses as " spectacular " and " spellbinding " . Hein Verbruggen , chairman of the IOC Coordination Commission for the XXIX Olympiad , called the ceremony " a grand , unprecedented success . "
= = = Events = = =
The program for the Beijing Games was quite similar to that of the 2004 Summer Olympics held in Athens . There were 28 sports and 302 events at the 2008 Games . Nine new events were held , including two from the new cycling discipline of BMX . Women competed in the 3000 metre steeplechase for the first time . Open water swimming events for men and women , over the distance of 10 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) , were added to the swimming discipline . Team events ( men and women ) in table tennis replaced the doubles events . In fencing , women 's team foil and women 's team sabre replaced men 's team foil and women 's team épée . Two sports were open only to men , baseball and boxing , while one sport and one discipline were open only to women , softball and synchronized swimming . Equestrian and mixed badminton are the only sports in which men and women compete together .
The following were the 302 events in 28 sports that were contested at the Games . The number of events contested in each sport is indicated in parentheses ( in sports with more than one discipline , as identified by the IOC , these are also specified ) .
In addition to the official Olympic sports , the Beijing Organising Committee was given special dispensation by the IOC to run a wushu competition in parallel to the Games . The Wushu Tournament Beijing 2008 saw 128 athletes from 43 countries participate , with medals awarded in 15 separate events ; however , these were not to be added to the official medal tally since Wushu was not on the programme of the 2008 Olympic Games .
= = = Closing ceremony = = =
The 2008 Summer Olympics Closing Ceremony concluded the Beijing Games on August 24 , 2008 . It began at 8 : 00 pm China Standard Time ( UTC + 8 ) , and took place at the Beijing National Stadium .
The Ceremony included handover of the Games from Beijing to London . Guo Jinlong , the Mayor of Beijing handed over the Olympic flag to the Mayor of London Boris Johnson , followed by a performance organized by the London Organising Committee of the Olympic Games and Paralympic Games ( LOCOG ) . This presentation included performances by guitarist Jimmy Page , and recording artist Leona Lewis . Footballer David Beckham was also featured during London 's presentation .
= = = Medal count = = =
Eighty @-@ seven nations earned medals , 54 of which won gold medals , both setting new records for Olympic Games . 118 participating countries did not win a medal . Athletes from China won 51 gold medals , the most of any nation at these Olympics , becoming the first nation other than the United States and Russia ( Soviet Union ) to lead in medals since Germany at the 1936 Summer Olympics . The United States team won the most medals overall , with 110 . Afghanistan , Mauritius , Sudan , Tajikistan and Togo won their first Olympic medals . Athletes from Mongolia ( which previously held the record for most medals without a gold ) and Panama won their nation 's first gold medals . An athlete from Serbia won its first medal under that name , having previously won medals as part of Yugoslavia and Serbia and Montenegro .
American swimmer Michael Phelps received a total of eight gold medals , more than any other Olympian in a single Olympic games , setting numerous world and Olympic records in the process . Jamaican sprinter Usain Bolt also set records in multiple events , completing the 100 m final with a time of 9 @.@ 69 seconds , surpassing his own previous world record . Russian @-@ born American gymnast Nastia Liukin won the all @-@ around gold medal in artistic gymnastics , becoming the third American woman to do so , following Mary Lou Retton in 1984 and Carly Patterson in 2004 .
These are the top ten nations that won medals in the 2008 Games .
= = Participating National Olympic Committees = =
All but one of the 205 recognized National Olympic Committees ( NOCs ) that existed as of 2008 participated in the 2008 Summer Olympics , the exception being Brunei . Three countries participated in the Olympic Games for their first time : the Marshall Islands , Montenegro and Tuvalu .
While not a full member recognized by the IOC and thus not allowed to compete formally in the Olympics , the Macau Sports and Olympic Committee sent a delegation to participate in the Wushu Tournament Beijing 2008 , being the only unrecognized National Olympic Committee to have taken part in the 2008 Summer Olympics . It also coordinated efforts with the Chinese Olympic Committee to organize the torch relay through Macau .
The Marshall Islands and Tuvalu gained National Olympic Committee status in 2006 and 2007 respectively , and 2008 was the first games in which they were eligible to participate . The states of Serbia and Montenegro , which participated at the 2004 Games jointly as Serbia and Montenegro , competed separately for the first time . The Montenegrin Olympic Committee was accepted as a new National Olympic Committee in 2007 . Neighboring Kosovo , however , did not participate . After the declaration of independence in Kosovo , the IOC specified requirements that Kosovo needs to meet before being recognized by the IOC ; most notably , it has to be recognized as independent by the United Nations . China and the United States had the largest teams , with 639 athletes for China and 596 for the United States .
More than 100 sovereigns , heads of state and heads of government as well as 170 Ministers of Sport attended the Beijing Olympic Games .
= = = National participation changes = = =
Athletes from the Republic of China ( Taiwan ) competed at the 2008 Games as Chinese Taipei ( TPE ) under the Chinese Taipei Olympic flag and using the National Banner Song as their official anthem . The participation of Taiwan was briefly in doubt because of disagreements over the name of their team in the Chinese language and concerns about Taiwan marching in the Opening Ceremony next to the special administrative region of Hong Kong . A compromise on the naming was reached , and Taiwan was referred to during the games as " Chinese Taipei , " rather than " China @-@ Taipei , " as the mainland China government had proposed . In addition , the Central African Republic was placed between Chinese Taipei and the Special Administrative Regions during the march of nations .
Starting in 2005 , North Korea and South Korea held meetings to discuss the possibility of sending a united team to the 2008 Olympics . The proposal failed , because of disagreements about how athletes would be chosen ; North Korea was demanding a certain percentage representation for its athletes . A subsequent attempt to broker an agreement for the two nations to walk together during the March of Nations failed as well , despite their having done so during the 2000 and 2004 Games .
On July 24 , 2008 , the International Olympic Committee ( IOC ) banned Iraq from competing in the 2008 Olympic Summer Games because of " political interference by the government in sports . " The IOC reversed its decision five days later and allowed the nation to compete after a pledge by Iraq to ensure " the independence of its national Olympics panel " by instituting fair elections before the end of November . In the meantime , Iraq 's Olympic Organisation was run by " an interim committee proposed by its national sports federations and approved by the IOC . "
Brunei Darussalam was due to take part in the 2008 Summer Olympic Games . However , they were disqualified on August 8 , having failed to register either of their two athletes . The IOC spokeswoman Emmanuelle Moreau said in a statement that " it is a great shame and very sad for the athletes who lose out because of the decision by their team not to register them . The IOC tried up until the last minute , midday Friday August 8 , 2008 , the day of the official opening , to have them register , but to no avail . " Brunei 's Ministry of Culture , Youth and Sports issued a press release stating that their decision not to participate was due to an injury to one of their athletes .
Georgia announced on August 9 , 2008 , that it was considering withdrawing from the Beijing Olympic Games because of the 2008 South Ossetia war , but it went on to compete while the conflict was still ongoing .
= = = Participation of athletes with disabilities = = =
South African swimmer Natalie du Toit , whose left leg was amputated following a motor scooter accident , qualified to compete at the Beijing Olympics . The five time gold medalist at the Athens Paralympics in 2004 made history by becoming the first amputee to qualify for the Olympic Games since Olivér Halassy in 1936 . She was able to compete in the Olympics rather than the Paralympics because she does not use a prosthetic leg while swimming . Polish athlete Natalia Partyka , who was born without a right forearm , competed in Table Tennis in both the 2008 Olympic Games and 2008 Paralympic Games .
= = Concerns and controversies = =
A variety of concerns over the Games , or China 's hosting of the Games , had been expressed by various entities , including allegations that China violated its pledge to allow open media access , various alleged human rights violations , its continuous support of repressive regimes ( such as Zimbabwe , Burma , Sudan and North Korea ) , air pollution in both the city of Beijing and in neighbouring areas , proposed boycotts , warnings of the possibility that the Beijing Olympics could be targeted by terrorist groups , disruption from pro @-@ Tibetan protesters , and religious persecutions .
There were also reports that several members of China 's women 's gymnastics team , including double gold medal winner He Kexin , were too young to compete under the Fédération Internationale de Gymnastique 's rules for Olympic eligibility , but all were exonerated after an official IOC investigation .
In the lead @-@ up to the Olympics , the government allegedly issued guidelines to the local media for their reporting during the Games : most political issues not directly related to the games were to be downplayed ; topics such as pro @-@ Tibetan independence and East Turkestan movements were not to be reported on , as were food safety issues such as " cancer @-@ causing mineral water . " As the 2008 Chinese milk scandal broke in September 2008 , there was widespread speculation that China 's desire for a perfect Games may have been a factor contributing towards the delayed recall of contaminated infant formula .
= = Legacy = =
The 2008 Olympic Games have been generally accepted by the world 's media as a logistical success . Many of the worst fears about the games failed to materialize : no terrorists struck Beijing ; no athlete protested at the podium ( though Swedish wrestler Ara Abrahamian tossed his bronze medal in disgust over judging ) , and the air quality – due largely to favorable weather patterns – was not as bad as many had feared beforehand despite being the worst in Olympics history . Hopes that hosting the Games would lead to improvements in human rights protections and rule of law in China , however , went unfulfilled .
Many in China viewed the Olympics as " an affirmation of a single nationalistic dream " and saw protests during the international torch relay as an insult to China . The Games also bolstered domestic support for the Chinese government , and for the policies of the Communist Party , giving rise to concerns that the Olympics would give the state more leverage to suppress political dissent , at least temporarily . Efforts to quell any unrest before and during the Games also contributed to a rapid expansion in the size and political clout of China 's internal security forces , and this growth continued through the following years . Reports also indicated that the Olympics boosted the political careers of pro @-@ Beijing politicians in Hong Kong , as many Chinese gold medal winners campaigned on behalf of the pro @-@ Beijing DAB during the 2008 election , although any trend towards greater identification by Hong Kongers with Mainland China appears to have been short @-@ lived .
The long @-@ term economic impact of the games on China and Beijing in particular is not yet clear . Some sectors of the economy may have benefited from the influx of tourists , and other sectors such as manufacturing lost revenue because of plant closings related to the government 's efforts to improve air quality . Four years after the Games , many of the specially constructed facilities were underused or even deserted . It is generally expected by economists that there will be no lasting effects on Beijing 's economy from the games .
Seven years after the 2008 Games , Beijing was awarded the 2022 Winter Olympics .
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= Trust No 1 =
" Trust No 1 " is the sixth episode of the ninth season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network on January 6 , 2002 . The episode was written by series creator Chris Carter and executive producer Frank Spotnitz , and directed by Tony Wharmby . " Trust No 1 " helps to explore the series ' overarching mythology . The episode received a Nielsen household rating of 5 @.@ 1 and was viewed by 8 @.@ 4 million viewers ; it garnered mixed to negative reviews from television critics , with many feeling that it portrayed the series ' characters in a way that was unfaithful to the show 's history .
The show centers on FBI special agents who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files ; this season focuses on the investigations of John Doggett ( Robert Patrick ) , Monica Reyes ( Annabeth Gish ) , and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) . In this episode , Scully is hopeful about reuniting with her former partner , Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) when a complete stranger offers new information about what drove him into hiding . Yet her trust in the stranger may place Mulder in even more danger , for the man turns out to be a super soldier .
" Trust No 1 " features former leading star Duchovny via the use of previously filmed footage . It was written in response to fans who felt that , during season eight , Mulder 's abduction was not dealt with until his miraculous return in " This is Not Happening " / " Deadalive " . Actor Terry O 'Quinn , who appears in this episode as the Shadow Man , had appeared as different characters in the second season episode " Aubrey " and the 1998 feature film and appeared as Peter Watts in The X @-@ Files sister show Millennium . The tagline for the episode is " They 're Watching . "
= = Plot = =
While at a coffee shop , Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) sees an infant crying and sees the infant 's mother , Patti , outside of the coffee shop arguing with her husband , who then drives off . Scully asks the mother if she is OK , and the mother leaves with her child . Meanwhile , Doggett and Reyes stake out the location where Doggett traced a tipster 's call to his cell phone . They see Patti 's husband , who they believe to be the tipster , walk inside the apparently abandoned building . Inside , the husband sits at a computer . The Shadow Man ( Terry O 'Quinn ) , who appears to be the husband 's boss , monitors Scully through surveillance .
Scully sees Patti a short time later , arguing with her husband , who drives off with their baby in the car . Scully approaches Patti , offering her assistance , and invites Patti inside . Scully convinces Patti to stay the night after learning she has nowhere else to go . The next morning , Patti turns off the baby monitor and removes William from his crib . Scully awakens when she gets a phone call from Doggett warning her that they the tipster they were following had just gone into her building . Scully then hears William cry and confronts Patti with her gun , telling her to put down her baby . Just then , Patti 's husband attempts to pick Scully 's lock , but is stopped by Doggett and Reyes . The husband reveals to Scully that he works for the NSA and has no name . He says he was not there to take William , but was there to retrieve his wife , as he knew she was upset . Patti says their daughter is just like William , and they only want to keep both children safe . The husband informs Scully , Doggett , and Reyes that they are being watched , and signals to Scully to close the window .
The husband reveals that he has discovered that their infant was part of the government 's “ Super Soldier ” project and begs her to call Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) out of hiding in order to give him this information . John Doggett ( Robert Patrick ) and Monica Reyes ( Annabeth Gish ) confirm that the couple 's story matches with what is known about the Super Soldiers . Initially , Doggett encourages Scully to contact Mulder . He believes the tipster has the names of super soldiers and that information would be vital to tracking the super soldiers down . The tipster indicates that he is willing to share this information with noone other than Mulder . Scully , fearful for Mulder 's safety , falsely claims not to know his whereabouts . All the while , she absent @-@ mindedly touches a printout of an email that Mulder sent her earlier .
Moments after Scully closes the drapes to her window , the Shadow Man calls her and tells her that she must get Mulder . The Shadow Man then tells her that she has one day to contact Mulder or else he will disappear with a list of the Super Soldiers ' identities . Scully refuses to contact Mulder unless she can meet with the Shadow Man face @-@ to @-@ face . The Shadow Man gives Scully detailed instructions about how and where to meet him , warning her that even a slight deviation from his instructions would mean that he would never contact her again . The Shadow Man tells her to drive a series of vehicles and to drive west until she is told to stop . He also tells her to change into a different outfit that he has in the trunk of the car she is driving . Scully reluctantly changes her clothing . The Shadow Man then comes face @-@ to @-@ face with Scully , and she questions him about how he knows her clothing size . During the meeting , the Shadow Man explains that he has been watching her for quite some time and , that , in addition to her clothing size , he knows everything about her including , " That one lonely night you invited Mulder to your bed . " The Shadow Man presses a button , causing the vehicle Scully had been driving to explode . Scully finally gives in and contacts Mulder ; she tells Doggett that before Mulder left , they had worked out a plan that , if Mulder was to return , he would be arriving by train . Doggett urges Scully to contact Mulder and tell him not to come , fearing that the Shadow Man is a set up , and that Mulder is in harm 's way . Scully replies that she wants to see Mulder , and that it is too late to call it off . Reyes , Doggett , and the husband / NSA agent cover Scully at the train station . However , as the train pulls up , the Shadow Man appears and guns down the husband / agent before approaching Scully . Before the Shadow Man can kill Scully , Doggett appears and shoots him twice , sending him falling onto the train tracks , where the train seemingly runs over him without stopping . Because there has been a shooting , much to Scully 's dismay , a train employee radios to the conductor to keep the train moving and not to stop at that station .
While Scully consoles Patti , whose husband just died in Scully 's arms , Doggett reports that he cannot find the Shadow Man 's body . Scully , fearful that he is a Super Soldier pursuing Mulder , chases after the train with Doggett and Reyes . An employee who works for the trail gets a call on his radio , saying that someone jumped off a train and into a rock quarry . Doggett and Reyes chase after someone they believe to be Mulder , while Scully goes deeper into the quarry . There , she is attacked by the Shadow Man . Suddenly , the Shadow Man is destroyed by the magnetite being mined from the quarry .
= = Production = =
" Trust No 1 " was written by series creator Chris Carter along with executive producer Frank Spotnitz ; it was directed by Tony Wharmby . The episode features former leading star David Duchovny via the use of previously shot footage . According to Matt Hurwitz and Chris Knowles in their book The Complete X @-@ Files , the episode includes themes " about Orwellian surveillance . " " Trust No 1 " was written in response to fans who felt that , during season eight , Mulder 's abduction was not dealt with until his miraculous return in " This is Not Happening " / " DeadAlive " . Despite this , series director Kim Manners was critical of this take on Mulder , noting , " The only thing I thought we didn 't do right during seasons eight and nine was that a lot of the shows were about Mulder , and I thought it was a mistake to make a series about a man that wasn 't standing in front of the camera . " The email addresses that Mulder and Scully use to communicate with each other were real addresses , created and maintained by Ten Thirteen Productions . The tagline for the episode is " They 're Watching " , changed from the usual " The Truth is Out There " .
Actor Terry O 'Quinn , who appears in this episode as the Shadow Man , had appeared as different characters in the second season episode " Aubrey " and the 1998 feature film . He had also played a recurring role as Peter Watts on Millennium , the sister series to The X @-@ Files , and appeared in the short @-@ lived series Harsh Realm . O 'Quinn later earned the nickname " Mr. Ten Thirteen " , due to his appearance in multiple shows and movies affiliated with Ten Thirteen Productions , the company that produced The X @-@ Files . His name is spelled Terrance Quinn in the opening credits .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Trust No 1 " first premiered on the Fox network in the United States on January 6 , 2002 . The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 5 @.@ 1 , meaning that it was seen by 5 @.@ 1 % of the nation 's estimated households and was viewed by 5 @.@ 4 million households , and 8 @.@ 4 million viewers . It was the 55th most watched episode of television that aired during the week ending March 3 . The episode eventually aired in the United Kingdom on BBC Two on December 8 , 2002 . The episode was later included on The X @-@ Files Mythology , Volume 4 – Super Soldiers , a DVD collection that contains episodes involved with the alien super soldiers arc .
The episode received mixed to negative reviews from television critics . Jessica Morgan from Television Without Pity gave the episode a B – grade . John Keegan from Critical Myth gave the episode a mixed review and awarded it a 6 out of 10 . He wrote , " Overall , this is not nearly as bad an episode as many people are making it out to be , but it ’ s not exactly a sterling piece of work , either . It feels like they were shooting for a ' Momento Mori ' [ sic ] , and wound up with a ' Zero Sum ' . This episode is interesting in the information it provides , and not much else . But in my opinion , it ’ s better than ' Lord of the Flies ' . "
Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode one star out of five . The two called the entry " an exercise in futility [ … ] at best " and argued that , because Duchovny had left the series , the sense of excitement that he might have made an appearance in the episode was completely gone . Furthermore , Shearman and Pearson heavily criticized Mulder and Scully 's characterization , calling Mulder a character the audience " can 't recognize any more " and Scully a " gullible patsy " . M.A. Crang , in his book Denying the Truth : Revisiting The X @-@ Files after 9 / 11 , was also critical of the script 's treatment of the characters , arguing that Mulder and Scully in this episode " sound nothing like the characters we have come to know " . He also lamented that the episode did not examine the central theme of electronic surveillance in greater detail . Tom Kessenich , in his book Examinations , wrote a largely negative review of the episode . He derided the series for making it appear that Mulder abandoned the woman he loved and his own child . He noted , " Just because it walks , talks , and sometimes acts like The X @-@ Files , doesn 't make it The X @-@ Files . "
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= Timothy M. Carney =
Timothy Michael Carney ( born July 12 , 1944 ) is a retired American diplomat and consultant . Carney served as a career Foreign Service Officer for 32 years , with assignments that included Vietnam and Cambodia as well as Lesotho and South Africa before being appointed as ambassador to Sudan and later in Haiti . Carney served with a number of U.N. Peacekeeping Missions , and until recently led the Haiti Democracy Project , an initiative launched under the presidency of George W. Bush to build stronger institutional foundations for the country 's long @-@ term relationship with the United States .
In 2003 , Carney was appointed to oversee America 's reconstruction efforts in Iraq after the war that deposed Saddam Hussein . After a long diplomatic career , Carney served as Executive Vice President of the Clinton @-@ Bush Haiti Fund , a non @-@ profit organization whose principal purpose was to assist Haiti 's redevelopment in the aftermath of the January 2010 earthquake until the Fund rolled over operations in December 2012 to a domestic Haitian non @-@ profit organization .
Carney 's appointment to diplomatic postings in countries that had often difficult relations with the United States earned him both praise and criticism from observers for his hands @-@ on diplomatic style . His strong views on Iraq 's reconstruction efforts after the war in 2003 were in part responsible for a wholesale change in the Bush administration 's strategy to stabilize the war @-@ torn nation . He also advocated engagement with Sudan at a time when White House officials and the C.I.A. wanted the U.S. Embassy closed in Khartoum .
= = Personal life = =
Carney was born in St. Joseph , Missouri and was raised and educated at military posts in the U.S. as well as abroad where his parents were stationed , including in Bad Tolz , Germany , Fort Bliss , Texas and Taipei , Taiwan . His father served in the United States Army in the early 1940s before being assigned to the Judge Advocate Generals Corps in 1948 . His mother , daughter of a surgeon in St. Joseph , raised Carney and his two siblings as the family moved from one military posting to another . He received his Bachelor of Science degree from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1966 and the U.S. Foreign Service sent him on a brief sabbatical to study at Cornell University from 1975 until 1976 , focusing on Southeast Asian studies as part of his career . Carney was a member of the board of the American Academy of Diplomacy and speaks Khmer , Thai and French fluently .
Carney is married to a free @-@ lance journalist , Victoria Butler . He has a daughter from a previous marriage . He and his wife , both writers , have published , with a British photographer , a photographic essay on the Sudan .
= = Foreign Service career = =
= = = Early assignments = = =
Carney began his Foreign Service Officer career in Vietnam in 1967 as a rotation officer based in Saigon for biographic and youth affairs and for commercial matters . He was then stationed in Lesotho as second of two officers in charge of consular , political and economic affairs until 1971 . In 1972 , he was appointed Second Secretary at the U.S. Mission in Phnom Penh , before returning to the United States to study at Cornell University in 1975 .
After spending a few years at the State Department 's Vietnam , Laos and Cambodia desk , Carney was appointed as U.S. consul in Udorn , Thailand and later as political officer in Bangkok during the third Indochina war from 1979 until 1983 . After serving three year stints as the political counselor to U.S. Missions in Jakarta , Indonesia and Pretoria , South Africa ( before Apartheid ended ) , Carney joined the U.S. Mission to the UN as political adviser for the 1989 UN General Assembly . On return to Washington he joined the White House National Security Council staff under President George H. W. Bush . He focused on Southeast Asian and Pacific Island affairs .
Carney cycled through several United Nations positions during the 1990s , serving from 1992 to 1993 as the Director of Information and Education of the UN Transitional Authority in Cambodia , in 1993 as the Special Political Adviser to the Special Representative of the UN Secretary General in Somalia , and in 1994 in the UN Observer Mission in South Africa as it prepared for the historic post @-@ Apartheid transition to democracy in 1994 . In 1994 , Carney was appointed as Deputy Assistant Secretary of State for South Asian Affairs . A year later , he would receive his first ambassadorial posting .
= = = U.S. Ambassador to Sudan = = =
Carney was appointed U.S. Ambassador to Sudan on 27 June 1995 during a period of turmoil in U.S.-Sudan relations . Osama bin Laden had fled Saudi Arabia for the safe confines of Khartoum a few years earlier , and Sudan 's alleged harboring and abetting of Muslim extremists on its soil was attracting attention of counterterrorism experts in the United States and abroad . Carney 's tenure as ambassador followed a tumultuous period during which his predecessor , Donald K. Petterson , had been forced to draw down embassy staff by half and send their families back to America when terrorist threats were made against U.S. diplomats stationed in Khartoum .
In late 1993 , Petterson was asked by officials in the Clinton administration to deliver a " non @-@ paper " ultimatum to Sudan 's Islamist leader , Hasan al @-@ Turabi , and the country 's president , Omar al @-@ Bashir . The document contained a brief list of talking points that were designed to warn Sudan 's top government officials about any involvement in alleged plots to kill U.S. diplomats working in Sudan . The alleged threats were based on evidence gathered by a foreign agent retained by the C.I.A. , data which would be used to justify Petterson 's reduction of American embassy personnel in Khartoum . The agent 's information would later be found to have been fabricated , and would force the C.I.A. to redact or delete up to 100 reports on Sudan . Petterson would later state that he did not believe the intelligence findings warranted a draw down in embassy staff .
Petterson 's compulsory delivery of the talking points based on faulty U.S. intelligence would set the stage for strained relations between Washington and Khartoum that lasted well into Carney 's early tenure as ambassador . In late 1995 , Carney was also asked to deliver a similar non @-@ paper message based on what he would later recount as having been poorly sourced U.S. intelligence .
In early 1996 , a few months after his credentials had been accepted , Carney met with senior Sudanese foreign ministry officials prior to vacating the U.S. embassy in Khartoum for the safer environs of Nairobi . He proposed tangible steps to recover the rapidly deteriorating relationship between Washington and Khartoum . In March 1996 , El Fatih Erwa , then minister of state for defense , was authorized by President Omar al @-@ Bashir to make several secret trips to the United States to hold talks with U.S. officials , including Carney and senior C.I.A. Africa experts , about U.S. sanctions policy against Sudan and what measures might be taken by the Bashir regime to lift them .
During a series of meetings in northern Virginia , Erwa was presented with a list of U.S. requirements , including demands for information about bin Laden and other radical Islamic groups encamped in Sudan . The U.S. also demanded that the Bashir regime stop hosting the Popular Arab and Islamic Congress conferences that were increasingly perceived in the west as global terrorist planning sessions . Carney argued with State Department , C.I.A. and other U.S. officials , including Susan Rice , then the National Security Council 's Africa Director , that Sudan 's Mukhabarat ( equivalent of the C.I.A. ) was amassing volumes of valuable intelligence on Islamist leaders through their pilgrimages to Khartoum for the PAIC conferences . In May 1996 , despite Carney 's efforts to persuade U.S. officials to reconcile with Khartoum on intelligence matters , the Clinton Administration demanded that Sudan expel bin Laden . The Saudi fugitive fled to Afghanistan . Carney was relegated to shuttling from Nairobi to Khartoum to engage in his ambassadorial duties . Carney ended his post as ambassador in November 1997 to move to Haiti .
= = = U.S. Ambassador to Haiti = = =
Carney arrived as U.S. Ambassador to Haiti on January 14 , 1998 . At the time of his appointment , Haiti was in political turmoil : former president , Jean @-@ Bertrande Aristide , was locked in a battle to retake power in the election of 2000 . Upon arrival in Haiti , Carney laid out U.S. concerns — lack of governance , lack of economic sustainability programs and an inability to prevent narco @-@ trafficking through Haiti as the first port of call by the Cali drug cartels from Colombia .
American policy in the region was ineffective at the time . Carney 's first task was to streamline reporting to Washington about ground realities in Haiti , as well as bringing in U.S. policymakers in to see firsthand what U.S. taxpayer dollars were funding in the country . Carney touted humanitarian successes of U.S. policy in Haiti , including success in preventing the spread of AIDS and providing lunch money to upwards of 500 @,@ 000 Haitian students each school day . Microcredit financing efforts were also on display , as was the U.S. Coast Guard to monitor Haiti 's coastline for Cali go @-@ fast boats laden with cocaine shipments bound for the U.S. mainland .
Structural problems remained , however , including widespread political and judicial corruption , as well as police malfeasance . Haiti nevertheless slowly developed a more active civil society . As Aristide made his comeback , Carney made plans to retire to the private sector , and on December 11 , 1999 , resigned his post . Shortly after his term as ambassador to Haiti had ended , U.S. Senator Mike DeWine commended Carney and his wife Vicki for their efforts to improve living conditions in Haiti on July 26 , 2000 , in a speech from the Senate floor , " ... Tim and his wife Vicki proudly represented the United States . Day in and day out , they were committed to helping the people of Haiti overcome their dismal surroundings and their dire circumstances . Tim and Vicki worked to alleviate hunger and poverty throughout the island and encouraged practical economic reforms . "
= = = Other assignments = = =
In March 2003 , Carney joined the staff of Lt. Gen. Jay Garner in Iraq and served for several months as a senior staff member in the Ministry of Industry and Minerals as part of the Coalition Provisional Authority ( CPA ) that governed Iraq in the aftermath of U.S. forces overthrowing the regime of Saddam Hussein . Upon arrival in Baghdad , he became critical of the plan set out by CPA , making clear that Iraq czar Paul Bremer 's ideological vision was impeding progress that could have been made to stabilize Iraq . He left Baghdad two months after arriving in April 2003 , disillusioned by an inability to execute a more pragmatic plan for Iraq 's reconstruction . Carney returned to Washington where he made known his disagreement with the Bremer plan . In 2007 , Under a significant reorganization of the Iraq reconstruction effort by the Bush administration that witnessed other policy dissenters return to Baghdad , Carney was asked by the State Department to return to the U.S. Embassy in Baghdad to oversee the overall U.S. effort to rebuild Iraq .
He has also lectured on areas of his expertise on Iraq since 2004 to assist in readying U.S. Army and National Guard contingents for their assignments in Iraq . In 2007 , Carney returned to Iraq from February until June to serve as Coordinator for Economic Transition and was again with the State Department as Head of the Interagency Election Support Team in Kabul from March until November 2009 . Throughout his long foreign service career , Carney advocated a policy of " constructive engagement " with rogue countries , often against policy prescriptions formulated by White House advisers in the administrations for whom he worked . Viewed as something of a maverick diplomat , he was often at odds with senior national security officials as well as political appointees on both sides of the aisle in Washington .
= = Haiti Democracy Project = =
The Haiti Democracy Project was officially launched at the Brookings Institution in November 2002 as a non @-@ profit organization . Its funding was raised from Haitian @-@ Americans and Haitians living in the United States , as well as other U.S. citizens . Its primary purpose was creating a more pragmatic and operative U.S. policy towards Haiti .
As Haiti 's economic situation had deteriorated during the second Aristide presidency , demonstrations proliferated everywhere throughout the nation and political dialogue broke down between opposition leaders and the Aristide government . Carney , who spoke at the inaugural event and later went on to become Chairman of the Board for the project , raised concerns about whether the United States government was paying attention to the gravity of problems that were beginning to affect Haiti 's stability systemically .
He criticized U.S. congressional leaders , particularly those in the Congressional Black Caucus , for a " do @-@ nothing " attitude towards Haiti , much of which he had seen firsthand during his tenure as ambassador .
The project was criticized as an elitist forum for wealthy right @-@ wing Haitians to promote their own agendas for Haiti 's future . Funding was provided , in material part , by controversial Haitian businessman Rodolphe Boulos who was involved in a pharmaceutical poisoning controversy in 1996 . The project was seen as a platform for giving opponents of the Aristede administration a hearing in Washington .
The Haiti Democracy Project 's report , published on May 4 , 2005 , was attacked for drawing only on government bodies and officials who had a vested interest in the report 's findings . Haiti 's police officials were found to be the only source of information , for example , in reporting on police actions during the Aristede administration 's time in office . Human rights findings were criticized for having " extreme bias " in the report .
= = Clinton @-@ Bush Haiti Fund = =
In the aftermath of the earthquake in Haiti on January 10 , 2010 , President Barack Obama asked former presidents Bill Clinton and George W. Bush to work together in raising funds for the rehabilitation and long @-@ term recovery of Haiti . The Clinton @-@ Bush Haiti Fund was created as a 501 ( c ) 3 organization and began operations in 2010 .
Carney served as executive vice president of the Fund until it ceased operations at the end of 2012 . Its purpose was to assist Haitians in developing sustainable paradigms for medium @-@ term and long @-@ term economic growth as well as creating jobs that stabilize its domestic economy . The Fund raised $ 54 million , and during its term , the Fund estimated that its programs sustained or created 7 @,@ 350 jobs , trained 20 @,@ 050 individuals , and had an additional positive impact on the conditions of more than 311 @,@ 000 Haitians .
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= Awake ( TV series ) =
Awake is an American television police procedural fantasy drama that originally aired on NBC for one season from March 1 to May 24 , 2012 . The pilot episode had an early release on Hulu on February 16 , 2012 , two weeks before the series ' premiere on television . The show 's central character is Michael Britten ( Jason Isaacs ) , a detective who works for the Los Angeles Police Department . Kyle Killen , the series ' creator , was primarily responsible for the program 's concept ; although he served as a writer , he avowed that writing episode scripts was difficult . Killen also served as an executive producer ( with David Slade ) of the pilot episode . Jeffrey Reiner and Howard Gordon then continued producing ( with Killen ) for Gordon 's Teakwood Lane Productions .
Michael lives in two separate realities after a car accident . In one reality ( where he wears a red wristband ) , his wife Hannah ( Laura Allen ) survives the accident ; in the other reality ( where he wears a green wristband ) , his son Rex ( Dylan Minnette ) survives . Michael does not know which reality is " real " and uses the wristbands to differentiate between the two . He sees two therapists : Dr. Jonathan Lee ( BD Wong ) in the " red reality " and Dr. Judith Evans ( Cherry Jones ) in the " green reality " . At work , Michael 's erratic behavior triggers clashes with his team ; they do not know about Michael 's uncanny ability to solve crimes using details from both realities .
Awake averaged 4 @.@ 8 million viewers per episode , ranking 125th in viewership for the 2011 – 12 season . A critical success , Awake 's cast was praised ( particularly Isaacs ' performance as Michael ) . On May 11 , after 11 of the 13 produced episodes had aired , the show was canceled due to low ratings , although NBC aired the remaining episodes in the series ' original time slot . Fans of the show created a " Save Awake " campaign to convince networks to revive the show , which was unsuccessful . Awake has been nominated for one award .
= = Production = =
= = = Conception = = =
Killen ( the series ' creator ) devised the concept of the program , described as a " police procedural about the life of a detective experiencing a parallel universe after a car accident involving his family . " NBC picked up the pilot episode of Awake in February 2011 , and green @-@ lit production of the show ( originally entitled REM ) in May .
Killen previously created the American television drama Lone Star ( 2010 ) for the Fox network ; it was canceled by the network ( due to low ratings ) after two episodes had aired . Jennifer Salke , president of the NBC entertainment division , encouraged Killen to develop a concept for a future television series after the cancellation of Lone Star . Killen said that the duality concept of Lone Star provided him with a good platform to explore new ideas for a potential television show . He felt that Awake had a concept similar to that of Lone Star , and wanted to continue the idea of living in " two spaces " .
Killen drew inspiration from the dreaming process : " The concept of the way your dreams feel real , the way you seem to experience them as something that you don 't blink at until something crazy happens that sort of bursts that balloon . I think I became interested in the question of what if nothing ever popped that balloon ? What if you couldn 't tell the difference between when you were awake and when you were asleep ? And then I started looking for a way to marry those two ideas up , and a few months later we had Awake . "
Within a few weeks Killen sent a rough draft of the script to his agent , Marc Korman . Korman phoned Salke , calling the script " remarkable " and praising Killen : " ... for a guy who has never written a procedural show in his life " , he was " making two cases work . " Initially , Salke and Korman hoped to sell acquisition rights to other networks ( including Fox ) . Although it successfully made its way into the lower executive branches of the company , the script was ultimately declined by Fox entertainment president Kevin Reilly . Gary Newman , chairman of 20th Century Fox Television , opted not to develop a deal with cable @-@ television networks . Believing it should be a broadcast @-@ network show , he did not accept the idea that the difference between cable and network dramas was their degree of intelligence .
Killen described Awake as neither supernatural drama nor science fiction . He contrasted it with the Fox television series Fringe , claiming that Fringe " asks you to delve into sci @-@ fi " ; Awake was described as a " human story " , with the crimes on the show emphasizing that level . In addition , Killen made the version of Michael 's reality the viewer is watching obvious with a subtle visual device ; in the reality where his son is alive ( the " green reality " ) , the background is layered with a watery blue filter ( Michael often wears blue in the series ) . In the reality where his wife is alive ( the " red reality " ) , the background is infused with a brighter , golden hue .
= = = Production team = = =
Awake is a co @-@ production of Letter Eleven and Howard Gordon 's Teakwood Lane Productions , in association with 20th Century Fox Television . Gordon was chosen as showrunner for the series by Killen , and commended the pilot script at first glance on a flight to New York . " I read the pilot , and once I got past my envy , I was struck by the voice , " he stated . " So few writers have real voices . Kyle is disarmingly self @-@ effacing ; and at the same time , he 's disarmingly confident . It 's that duality thing : On the one hand , he 's open ; on the other , he 's closed . " Gordon later compared the television series to The Good Wife : " The Good Wife has so many procedural aspects that they have to decide which format to use each week ... Why is this an Awake episode ? " He and Killen served as executive producers ( with David Slade and Jeffrey Reiner ) for the pilot episode .
The series ' episodes were written by Killen , Gordon , Evan Katz , Lisa Zwerling , Noelle Valdivia , Leonard Chang , Davey Holmes and David Graziano . Episodes were directed by Slade , Reiner , Sarah Pia Anderson , Aaron Lipstadt , Scott Winant , Adam Davidson , Michael Waxman , Nick Gomez , Laura Innes , Milan Cheylov and Miguel Sapochnik . Jason Isaacs , Keith Redmon , Ed Milkovich and Michael Klick produced the show . Feliks Parnell was the show 's primary cinematographer . Editors of the show were Paul Trejo and Nikc Berrisford ; principal photography for the pilot was completed at Fox Studios in Los Angeles , California .
= = = Casting = = =
In February 2011 , Isaacs was cast in the role of Michael Britten , the central character of the series . Gordon summarized the character : " He 's a guy who goes to sleep , wakes up , he 's with his wife , goes to sleep , wakes up , and he 's with his son . And so — and he 's a cop who sees clues and details that crossover [ sic ] from one world to the next , and he uses that insight to solve crimes . " " [ The main character ] was somebody that you couldn 't decide if you liked or hated , and I think that [ Michael ] ' s dilemma is something that we 're not only sympathetic for , but somehow we want him to win . " Producers of the show initially approached Michaela McManus to play Hannah Britten . However , Laura Allen was cast instead ; McManus obtained the role of Tara ( for which Allen originally auditioned ) .
In March 2011 , six roles were cast ( including Dylan Minnette as Rex Britten , Michael 's son ) . Minnette commended the series ' script , and noted that auditioning was quick . He stated , " The process of getting the job actually went by really fast because the first audition Kyle Killen [ ... ] was in the room , Jason [ Isaacs ] was in the room , the cast director was in the room and the director was in the room . David Slade . And they were all there , for the first audition and I was like ' Wow ! Okay . ' " Minnette received the role two weeks after his audition . Other cast members included Wilmer Valderrama and Steve Harris as Michael 's partner in each reality , while Cherry Jones and BD Wong 's characters were cast as Michael 's therapists in separate realities . Wong chose the role in lieu of his part on the police @-@ procedural television drama Law & Order : Special Victims Unit . In September 2011 , Innes garnered a recurring role in the series as Tricia Harper , Michael 's commanding officer . In January 2012 , Kevin Weisman was cast in a recurring role as Ed Hawkins , a detective in a separate division of the LAPD .
= = = Writing = = =
Killen said that writing the pilot episode 's script was one of the more @-@ difficult components of creating the show . He and his writing team would often get confused with exchanging and executing ideas for the script ; as a result they created outlines , distinguishing the separate realities with green or red ink . Slade edited the language to better separate the ideas . Stating that things are " initially confusing to us when we are just trying to break story , " he hoped that when viewers watched the pilot episode , they would be immediately oriented in the reality on screen at the time .
The complexity of the pilot 's script ( and the show 's concept ) was cited as a potential issue for the series . Salke considered that viewers enjoyed the series ' mythology as it affected the characters , despite the show 's Sliding Doors – like script . Upon reading the script , Isaacs felt that the show was complicated ; knowing which reality you are in was a " gift . " He stated that work for Awake was hard , but enjoyable . Isaacs later suggested that it might be too brooding for mainstream American television , and that it could potentially be the " U @-@ bend of scripts . " Despite such concerns , Gordon asserted that the concept of Awake was understandable if the viewer was attentive .
= = Series overview = =
Michael Britten , a detective with the Los Angeles Police Department ( LAPD ) , and his family are involved in a car accident . After the crash , Michael is confronted with two separate realities . His wife Hannah has ( apparently ) survived the accident ; however , in a second " reality " , his son Rex survives instead . To distinguish the two realities for the viewer , Michael wears a red wristband in the first reality and a green one in the second . Michael does not know which " reality " is real ; he has therapy sessions with Dr. Jonathan Lee in the " red reality " and Dr. Judith Evans in the " green " , both of whom attempt to diagnose what is happening to Michael . Each therapist sees it as a coping mechanism , insisting that the other reality is a dream . Dr. Lee is confrontational about the accident , while Dr. Evans is more nurturing . In the " red reality " Hannah plans to move to Portland , Oregon , but later decides against it ( partly due to Michael 's objections ) .
Before the crash Michael worked with his long @-@ time partner , Detective Isaiah Freeman ( known to his LAPD team as " Bird ) " . After the accident , Michael is assigned to Detective Efrem Vega in the " red reality . " Vega was previously an officer , when Bird was transferred to the western division to work with Detective Ed Hawkins . In the " green reality , " Michael stays with Bird and Efrem remains an officer . While working on cases in both realities , Michael begins to realize that the details of one case can help him with another case in the other reality . Due to this , he often clashes with his partners ( who are unaware of this ) . Rex and Hannah grieve each other 's death after the accident , coping in different ways : In the " red reality " Hannah begins to redecorate the house , while in the " green reality " Rex begins to play tennis with Hannah 's former partner Tara . In " Turtles All the Way Down " , in a dream Michael sees Hannah at a restaurant . He was " dreaming while he was dreaming " , and Hannah told Michael to give her " one last kiss goodbye " . This causes Dr. Evans to note that Michael realizes the " green reality " is life . However , soon afterwards Michael sees Rex and Hannah together and is happy .
Details surrounding the accident are slowly revealed as the series progresses . Shortly after the crash , Michael 's commanding officers ( Tricia Harper and Carl Kessel ) meet to talk about the accident and how they set up a " short " guy . Later a microphone at Ricky 's Tacos speaks to Michael , claiming that if he moved to Portland he would " never know the truth " . Michael slowly begins to remember what happened in the accident ; after realizing that Ed caused it , he speaks with Dr. Evans and Dr. Lee . His therapists insist that he is imagining it all to help cope with the pain . However , when Michael later breaks into Ed 's house Ed admits that he and an accomplice were hiding heroin at the Westfield Distribution Center ; " they decided he had to go " , after Michael began to uncover it . Michael does not know who " they " are , demanding that Ed tell him . Ed asks for protection before telling him , and attacks Michael when he is distracted . During the struggle Michael kills Ed , and Bird comes into the house after speaking to Dr. Evans . Michael later discovers that Carl and Tricia are involved in the setup . Tricia shoots Carl in the " green reality " ( in an attempt to hide her involvement in the accident ) , but is later imprisoned . At the end of the series finale ( " Turtles All the Way Down " ) , Michael sees Hannah and Rex together . Concerned about his odd behavior , they ask if he is all right . Michael replies , " I 'm perfect , " and closes his eyes .
Killen has said that he has seen interesting theories about the finale 's meaning . He says no theory is " wrong " except those which compared Awake 's finale to Dallas ( an American television soap opera ) or Newhart ( an American television sitcom ) . He supposed that there was the " überpossibility " that Michael was in a coma , or had a new third reality created , but it was not interpreted as " He woke up and his family was fine . He 'd just been having two nightmares . " Killen said " we actively fought against " the idea that the series was Michael 's dream ; what seeing his wife and son together " really represents is a further fracturing of his psyche " . A second season , Killen said , would have explored the idea of Michael 's wife and son both living but not ( necessarily ) a third reality . Another season also raised the possibility of Tara and Michael beginning a romantic relationship . Since the finale was written before the show 's cancellation , it was written so either reality could have been the " real " one : " [ the writers ] didn 't intend to have that mystery sewn up in [ ' Turtles All the Way Down ' ] " .
= = Characters and story arcs = =
= = = Main characters = = =
There are four main characters in each reality , totaling eight . Michael Britten ( the lead character ) is an LAPD detective who lives in both realities . Since he does not know which reality is " real " , he has routines to help him maintain the illusion of control ; however , he is also disorganized and sometimes behaves oddly . Michael is often confused , suffers from a sleep disorder and dislikes heights . He refuses treatment because he does not want closure for his family . Hannah Britten is Michael 's wife , who is grieving her son 's death . She was planned to have an unexpected pregnancy in the show 's second season . Rex Britten is Michael 's son , a teenage student who had previously been kidnapped . After school Rex often works on a motorbike with his best friend , Cole , at Cole 's house . He is emotional and angry over his mother 's death , keeping a tennis racket to deal with his grief . When Cole accidentally breaks it , Rex is enraged ; later , he apologizes .
Efrem Vega ( a detective in the " red reality " ) and Michael often argue about their cases , and is concerned about Michael 's erratic behavior . In " The Little Guy " , Vega and Michael are arguing about a case involving a short person when Captain Tricia Harper calls Michael into her office . Shortly afterwards , Michael puts Vega on the lead of a new case and the two become friends . Michael had previously worked with Bird in the " red reality , " but Bird is reassigned to a new division . Vega remains an officer in the " green reality " Bird and Michael now only work with each other as partners in the " green reality . " Michael sees two therapists : Dr. Jonathan Lee and Dr. Judith Evans . Dr. Lee claims that Michael 's two realities are problematic , and Dr. Evans states that they are " remarkable " . Rex 's tennis coach , Tara , only appeared in three episodes of the series . The character was planned as a potential love interest for Michael in the " green reality " near the end of the first season , but the writers abandoned that storyline ; Killen explained they would have explored this storyline during the second season .
= = = Recurring characters = = =
There are five recurring characters , all appearing in both realities . Captain Tricia Harper , Michael 's commanding officer at the precinct , was a co @-@ conspirator in Michael 's car accident ; however , it is hinted that her involvement was reluctant . Captain Carl Kessel ( commanding officer at Hawkins ' precinct ) hid heroin in a storage unit for himself and Harper , and was behind Michael 's car accident . For the crash the two used Ed Hawkins , on orders from Kessel .
Other recurring characters include Emma ( Daniela Bobadilla ) , Rex 's girlfriend . Pregnant with Rex 's baby , she was originally told to give it up for adoption ; however , after a talk with her father Joaquin ( Carlos Lacámara ) she is allowed to keep it . Cole , Rex 's best friend , is another recurring character . The two work on a motorbike together ; Cole lets Hannah ride it in the " red reality " , after she convinces him to finish it .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Awake received generally @-@ favorable reviews from critics . At Metacritic ( which assigns a weighted mean — out of 100 — based on reviews from mainstream critics ) the show received a weighted mean score of 75 from 29 reviews . It was the number @-@ two best @-@ reviewed show by Metacritic users for the 2011 – 12 season , with a user score of 8 @.@ 0 ( behind Revenge ) . TVLine called Awake in their review of 2012 the " most ambitious ill @-@ fated show " . Rachel Ray of The Daily Telegraph called the premiere episode " impressive " , while Tierney Bricker of E ! Online commented that he enjoyed the idea of a man living in two separate realities to stay in touch with the people he loves . NPR 's Linda Holmes said that the pilot laid the foundation for several emotional storylines , evaluating it among the strongest shows in recent memory and very engaging ( compared with similar shows ) .
James Poniewozik of Time noted that while its concept seemed melodramatic , the episode " focuses unflinchingly on the subject of loss , yet manages to be not a downer or painful to watch , but moving , absorbing and even hopeful . " He affirmed that the program effectively resolved the issues raised about the series , writing " Awake handles the confusion problem well : yes , it takes more concentration than a Law & Order , but it 's no Inception in its twistiness . Michael himself needs to hold on to markers to anchor his sense of reality — for instance , he wears a red and a green wristband in the existences in which his wife and his son are alive , respectively — and those help us follow along too . " Reuters ' Tim Molloy avouched that the episode was the " best new show of the season " : " Despite the most complicated narrative since ABC 's Lost kept skipping through time , Awake makes a fast , emotional connection that gives viewers an almost immediate stake in the lives of its compelling characters . "
RedEye journalist Curt Wagner stated that the series was smartly @-@ written , and praised its actors . BuddyTV writer Laurel Brown called the pilot a " great episode " . In his " A " -grade review , Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club said that the episode was a " great piece of televised art " , describing the script as " witty , warm , and soulful " . He praised Slade 's directing , calling the pilot episode " unique " and " wonderful " . " Pilot " was highly anticipated by Los Angeles Times journalist Robert Lloyd , who observed that " it promised to be one of the year 's best and most interesting new series . " In a pre @-@ broadcast review , Matt Fowler from IGN gave the pilot a 10 out of 10 , classifying it as a " masterpiece " . Writing for the New York Post , Michael Starr called Awake " compelling " .
Critics lauded the cast 's acting , specifically Isaacs ' performance . VanDerWerff concluded that the cast 's performances were " delicate and almost perfect " , while Wagner felt that Isaacs was well @-@ suited for the lead role and could easily captivate the audience ; " his touching , solid work grounds everything . He shows viewers what lengths one man in pain might go to hold onto those he loves . And it 's heartbreaking . " Denise Duguay of the Montreal Gazette thought that Isaacs evoked a " reservedness " and ambiguity which attracted viewers to his character . Tim Goodman of The Hollywood Reporter echoed this sentiment , writing , " He perfectly conveys a man struggling with two horrible options . " Poniewozik considered Isaacs " utterly compelling " , calling him " mature " , " soulful " , and " wearied " . Although Stuever felt that Isaacs failed to engage the audience , he praised the performances of Wong and Jones ; " Jones and Wong [ ... ] are excellent and even vaguely sinister as the dueling shrinks . "
Ken Tucker of Entertainment Weekly was keen on Isaacs ' acting in the series . " It helps enormously to have Isaacs playing the lead . This actor knows how to convey a gravity that contrasts well with the series ' airy concept , but he avoids becoming heavy and morose . " Fowler stated that Isaacs " delivers a graceful and subdued performance as a man who , on a daily basis , must taste both heaven and hell . A man full of guilt , but also gratitude . " Fowler noted that Allen and Minnette 's acting in the series deserved praise for playing characters dealing with loss without closure , while Starr called the casting " fine all @-@ around " . Critics from IGN and Paste contended that Isaacs ' performance deserved an Emmy Award . After Awake 's cancellation , Mareen Ryan of The Huffington Post hoped that new dramas on NBC would " achieve the kind of visual and emotional poetry that Awake did . " Robert Bianco from USA Today thought that Awake could become one of the season 's best new shows . As the series progressed , " Say Hello to My Little Friend " was generally considered the best episode since " Pilot " .
Some critics were less enthusiastic . Writing for The Washington Post , Hank Stuever felt that despite high ambitions the pilot episode was slow and drowsy . David Hinckley , in the New York Daily News , claimed that Awake " requires more work [ to understand ] than the average viewer is likely to put in " and described it as a show which would not fit into prime @-@ time television . " Game Day " , in contrast , received mixed reviews from IGN and The A.V. Club ; the publications gave it their lowest scores of the season . Zack Handlen , an A.V. Club critic , described the mysteries of " Game Day " " childishly simple " . In addition , " Ricky 's Tacos " was criticized for being too much like Law & Order : Special Victims Unit . Despite this , recurring guest star Dr. Banks ( Chris McGarry ) was well received by Handlen , who thought that he " [ was ] becoming [ his ] favorite secondary character on the show " . " Nightswimming " also received mixed reviews from critics . That episode 's " red reality " storylines were praised ; those for the " green reality " were considered " boring " . Handlen thought that if the " red reality " storyline was not featured in " Nightswimming " , it would not work as an episode ; Sepinwall thought the episode should not have gone into detail about the guest stars .
= = = U.S. television ratings = = =
Awake had low viewership and ratings throughout its original run . The premiere episode , which was originally broadcast on March 1 , 2012 , was watched 6 @.@ 2 million viewers ( the most @-@ viewed program in its time slot for NBC since April 2010 and an improvement over its lead @-@ in show , Up All Night ) . NBC also won the hour for the 18 – 49 audience , nearly doubling its numbers with those viewers over The Firm . Awake debuted slightly better than the previous drama occupying the slot in fall 2011 , Prime Suspect , which premiered with 6 @.@ 05 million total viewers and a 1 @.@ 8 / 5 @-@ percent share in the 18 – 49 demographic .
The second episode fell by 2 million viewers , running against The Mentalist on CBS and a rerun of GCB on ABC . Awake had its series low with the episode " Two Birds " , which premiered on May 17 , 2012 against the season finales of the ABC political drama Scandal and The Mentalist on CBS . Awake averaged 4 @.@ 81 million viewers per episode , ranking 125th in viewership for the 2011 – 12 season .
= = = Awards and accolades = = =
In June 2011 Awake was honored , along with seven others , with the Critics ' Choice Television Award for Most Exciting New Series , chosen by journalists who had seen the pilots . ET Online chose Isaacs as its first actor in their annual Emmy Preview , which predicts winners of particular Emmy Awards . ET Online reviewer Jarett Wieselman noted that Isaacs could snag an Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series nomination ; however , Isaacs was not on the list of nominees announced July 19 , 2012 . In 2013 , Zap2it included the show on their list of 22 great one @-@ season television shows .
= = = Fan base = = =
Awake generated viewer loyalty during its original three @-@ month broadcast run on NBC , with fans organizing to try and save the series from cancellation . Their efforts included a campaign entitled " Save Awake " , holding a " sleep blackout " ( fans wearing red and green wristbands with posters saying " Save Awake " ) outside major television networks in the United States , a letter @-@ writing campaign to networks such as Fox and CBS and a YouTube fan @-@ made video .
= = Distribution = =
Awake episodes premiered in March 2012 on NBC in the United States and the Global Television Network in Canada ( which had identical schedules ) . However , Global aired the series finale a day before its American premiere because the Canadian series Rookie Blue was broadcast in Awake 's time slot . It premiered on April 11 in Australia on W , and on May 4 in the United Kingdom and Ireland on Sky Atlantic . Fox picked up the rights to air the series in Asia , and debuted Awake on June 11 .
Episodes of the show are also available online at Netflix , Amazon Video , and the iTunes Store ( which offer all 13 episodes for purchase — with episodes originally appearing the day after their live airing — in standard @-@ definition and high @-@ definition ) . As of September 2012 , the final five episodes are available in streaming video on NBC 's official Awake webpage and Hulu . The first episode was made available two weeks before the series ' broadcast premiere ( on February 16 , 2012 ) on Hulu , YouTube ( its first seven minutes ) , and the iTunes Store .
= = Broadcast history = =
Awake consists of thirteen one @-@ hour episodes . The series originally aired in the United States at 10 : 00 pm ( EST ) Thursdays on NBC from March 1 to May 24 , 2012 ( although it was originally scheduled to premiere in fall 2011 ) . Awake debuted as a mid @-@ season replacement for The Firm , which moved to Saturday nights in the U.S. and Canada . The series ' final episode , " Turtles All the Way Down " , aired outside the television season on May 24 , 2012 . Low ratings resulted in NBC 's cancelling the show on May 11 , 2012 ( after eleven of the thirteen produced episodes were aired ) , although the network finished airing the remaining episodes in the series ' original time slot .
The A.V. Club opined that Awake 's slot ( opposite the hit drama The Mentalist ) contributed to the show 's failure . Film.com 's Gretchen Alice observed that Awake was in a " tough timeslot " , and NBC 's previous shows in that slot also fared poorly .
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= The Gift That Keeps Giving =
See The gift that keeps on giving for the catchphrase .
" The Gift That Keeps Giving " is a song by Super Furry Animals taken from their 2007 album , Hey Venus ! . It was given away as a free download single from the band 's official website on Christmas Day 2007 .
The song was conceived as a Christmas single as part of the band 's plans to make a " pop record " in parent album Hey Venus ! The title stems from sessions in 2004 for the extended live version of " The Man Don 't Give a Fuck " , at which the group 's engineer repeatably used the phrase . Critical response to " The Gift That Keeps Giving " was generally positive with the NME claiming it to be one of the best songs on Hey Venus ! and BBC Wales describing the track as " brain @-@ bendingly catchy " .
A Team D.A.D.D.Y. directed music video was made to accompany the track 's release as a single . The video features a spoilt child being showered with Christmas presents while poorer children are shown in tears due to their lack of gifts . Two different endings for the video were produced - in one Santa Claus is shown crucified on a cross while another sees Santa laid on the floor with an arrow through his head .
= = Origins and recording = =
In a 2008 interview with Uncut singer Gruff Rhys stated that " The Gift That Keeps Giving " was written as an " AOR Christmas single " following a visit to Japan where " they celebrate Christmas as a commercial holiday with all the decorations .. in one store they had Santa on a cross hanging from the wall ... so the Christmas single was just an excuse to have Santa on a cross on the cover " . Although the cover art did not in the end feature this scene , a crucified Santa does appear in the accompanying music video .
Speaking to British music magazine Artrocker Rhys offered another explanation as to the origins of the song :
The track was recorded at Miraval Studios , France along with the rest of Hey Venus !
= = Musical structure = =
" The Gift That Keeps Giving " is 3 minutes 20 seconds long and is in the key of D minor . The track begins with a phased guitar melody backed only by synthesizer , hi @-@ hat and occasional guitar chords . Cian Ciaran 's piano joins the mix as the song builds up with the introduction of drums at 25 seconds . Gruff Rhys begins singing after 39 seconds and is joined by sleighbells which accompany the lines " all the bells started ringing " shortly before the first chorus which features harmony backing vocals ( the first of many in the " falsetto @-@ laden " track ) singing the title phrase . Another verse and chorus follow before an instrumental verse at 1 minute 46 seconds featuring a trumpet solo playing around the vocal melody . The song " crescendos tenderly " with a double chorus before entering the outro which initially includes spoken word backing vocals chanting " giving again " and is " enhanced by a horn section that the Furries seem to be able to utilise more effectively than anyone else " .
= = Critical response = =
Critical reaction to " The Gift That Keeps Giving " was generally positive with the New Musical Express rating it as one of the best on parent album Hey Venus ! ; " [ it doesn 't so much raise ] the bar , as balances it on top of Mount Snowdon " going on to state : " From a foundation of ELO guitar cloud @-@ swells , Gruff 's Elvis Costello @-@ in @-@ a @-@ bubblegum @-@ bath voice wraps around tender trombone parps to create the band 's most beautiful moment since " Demons " . BBC Wales commented on the track 's Christmas links , describing " The Gift That Keeps Giving " as a " mellow , mellifluous , slow ode to the joys of the festive season ... lyrically incredibly simple ... brain @-@ bendingly catchy " . The Guardian meanwhile , stated that the song " might sound more California than Christmas " but still possesses the " obligatory sleighbells ... shaken throughout " . Much was made of the ' retro ' nature of the track with Yahoo Music UK claiming that the song is " a pure blue @-@ eyed soul tune , of the sort that Dan Penn and Spooner Oldham used to churn out four decades ago " and The Guardian describing it as a " gorgeous , Bacharach @-@ tinged haze " . In contrast the UCSD Guardian described " The Gift That Keeps Giving " as " jazzy " and " lo @-@ fi " and saw it as " a throw @-@ back to 2000 's experimental Mwng " .
Billboard noted that " the group 's penchant for sonic flourishes is used to subtle effect " on " The Gift That Keeps Giving " and went on to suggest that the track is representative of Hey Venus ! as a whole . Cokemachineglow , however , thought that the song " will be cast into the void , one daring , lonely piece of the first Super Furry Animals album to not succeed as a thorough unit " and , in their single review of " The Gift That Keeps Giving " , the NME suggested that the track wasn 't one of the group 's best .
The band 's decision to employ Japanese surrealist Keiichi Tanaami to produce the cover for Hey Venus ! and its singles received some criticism , not least because the artist had already used similar designs . In a 2005 interview with German magazine Komakino , keyboard player Cian Ciaran stated that the artwork for " The Gift ... " was unique , however , and praised the artist .
= = Music video = =
The video for " The Gift That Keeps Giving " was directed by Team D.A.D.D.Y. and revolves around a festive theme in keeping with the track 's release date of Christmas day .
The video opens with a spoilt child opening numerous Christmas presents including a toy train , a box full of kittens and a copy of Hey Venus ! ( which he throws over his shoulder in disgust ) . Towards the end of the video less privileged children are shown crying at their lack of presents before we cut back to the initial child who is surrounded by gifts while Santa Claus is seen in front of a log fire , crucified on a cross . An alternative ending instead features Santa lying on the floor with an arrow through his head .
Despite the apparently cynical nature of the video , BBC Wales asserts that it is " not meant to be read in any deeper level than ' ain 't Christmas brilliant ? ' "
= = Track listing = =
All songs by Super Furry Animals .
" The Gift That Keeps Giving " – 3 : 20
Although the track was initially reported to come with an " exclusive b @-@ side " this turned out not to be the case and only " The Gift That Keeps Giving " was made available .
= = Personnel = =
Gruff Rhys : Vocals
Huw Bunford : Guitar
Guto Pryce : Bass guitar
Cian Ciaran : keyboards
Dafydd Ieuan : Drums
Kris Jenkins : Percussion
Matt Sibley : Saxophone
Gary Alesbrook : Trumpet
Nick Atwood : Trombone
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= New Jersey Route 163 =
Route 163 is a short 0 @.@ 30 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 48 km ) long state highway in the county of Warren in New Jersey . The route , which is currently a stub , used to be the approach to the destroyed Delaware Bridge , which was a road bridge over the Delaware River , connecting the settlement of Delaware , New Jersey with Portland , Pennsylvania . Until 1953 , the bridge carried U.S. Route 46 over the river . The bridge has been destroyed , but the approaches are still state @-@ maintained . A still @-@ existing bridge carries an abandoned ex @-@ Delaware , Lackawanna and Western Railroad line across the river just north of the former road crossing . The unsigned Route 163 runs from US 46 north to a dead end on the east side of US 46 , all in Knowlton Township , New Jersey . From the dead end , the bridge approach continued northwest and west over US 46 to the bridge .
= = Route description = =
Route 163 begins north of an intersection with U.S. Route 46 and Roy Ace Road in the community of Delaware . The highway heads to the north along Lackawanna Road . Route 163 passes several residences to the north and a short stretch of homes to the south . There is a short intersection with an unnamed local road . After that intersection , Route 163 passes a truck stop that is visible on both Route 46 , which parallels to the south , and the short state highway . There is another short truck stop before an intersection with a return ramp to Route 46 . Route 163 officially terminates at a barricaded dead @-@ end near Hemlock Hill Road .
= = History = =
New Jersey Route 163 originated as an alignment of U.S. Route 46 ( co @-@ signed with New Jersey State Highway Route 6 ) . The alignment of 6 and 46 went along the alignment of the original State Highway Route 5 from the early 1920s , stretching from Newark to the bridge over the Delaware River at Delaware . The route was decommissioned when the 1927 renumbering occurred . After that renumbering , the route became State Highway Route 6 , a co @-@ designation to U.S. Route 46 , which had been assigned the prior year . The two highway designations remained intact until the 1953 renumbering , when Route 6 was decommissioned in favor of using the U.S. 46 designation . U.S. Route 46 was realigned once again when the Portland @-@ Columbia Toll Bridge opened in 1953 , when the alignment of the highway was changed to head along former State Highway Route 8 ( mostly New Jersey Route 94 ) , where it ended at U.S. Route 611 and NJ 94 , where its current terminus is located . After the realigning of the Delaware Bridge alignment , the route was renumbered to New Jersey Route 163 . Two years later , the Delaware Bridge was swept away in floods caused by Hurricane Connie and Diane in 1955 , which took out several other bridges over the Delaware .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Delaware , Warren County .
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= 2012 Summer Paralympics =
The 2012 Summer Paralympics , the fourteenth Summer Paralympic Games , and also more generally known as the London 2012 Paralympic Games , were a major international multi @-@ sport event for athletes with disabilities governed by the International Paralympic Committee ( IPC ) , that took place in London , England from 29 August to 9 September 2012 . These Paralympics were one of the largest multi @-@ sport events ever held in the United Kingdom after the 2012 Summer Olympics , and were the largest Paralympics ever : 4 @,@ 302 athletes from 164 National Paralympic Committees participated , with fourteen countries appearing in the Paralympics for the first time ever . A total of 503 events in 20 sports were held during these games ; for the first time since their suspension after the 2000 Paralympics , events for the intellectually disabled were also held in selected sports .
The lead @-@ up to these games prominently emphasized the return of the Paralympic movement to its spiritual birthplace : in 1948 , the British village of Stoke Mandeville first hosted the Stoke Mandeville Games , an athletics event for disabled British veterans of the Second World War held to coincide with the opening of the Summer Olympics in London . They were the first @-@ ever organized sporting event for disabled athletes , and served as a precursor to the modern Paralympic Games . Stoke Mandeville also co @-@ hosted the 1984 Summer Paralympics with Long Island , New York , after its original host , the University of Illinois at Urbana – Champaign , pulled out due to financial issues .
Organizers expected the Games to be the first Paralympics to achieve mass @-@ market appeal , fuelled by continued enthusiasm from the British public following the country 's successful performance at the Summer Olympics , awareness of the United Kingdom 's role in the history of the Paralympics , public attention surrounding South African sprinter Oscar Pistorius ( who , only just prior to the Paralympics , became the first double amputee to compete in the Summer Olympics alongside able @-@ bodied athletes ) , a major marketing campaign instituted by the Games ' local broadcaster , and growing media coverage of Paralympic sport . The games ultimately met these expectations , breaking records for ticket sales , heightening the profile of the Paralympics in relation to the Olympics , and prompting IPC president Philip Craven to declare them the " greatest Paralympic Games ever . "
= = Bidding process = =
As part of a formal agreement between the International Paralympic Committee and the International Olympic Committee established in 2001 , the winner of the bid for the 2012 Summer Olympics was also to host the 2012 Summer Paralympics . At the 117th IOC Session in Singapore , the rights to host the 2012 Summer Olympics and Paralympics were awarded to London .
= = Development and preparation = =
As with the Olympics , the 2012 Summer Paralympics were overseen by LOCOG and the Olympic Delivery Authority ( ODA ) . LOCOG was responsible for overseeing the staging of the games , while the ODA dealt with infrastructure and venues .
The Government Olympic Executive ( GOE ) within the Department for Culture , Media and Sport ( DCMS ) was the lead Government body for co @-@ ordinating the London 2012 Olympics and Paralympics . The GOE reported through the DCMS Permanent Secretary to the Minister for Sports and the Olympics Hugh Robertson . It focused on oversight of the Games , cross @-@ programme management and the London 2012 Olympic Legacy .
= = = Venues and infrastructure = = =
The 2012 Summer Paralympics used many of the same venues as the 2012 Summer Olympics , along with several new locations such as Eton Manor for wheelchair tennis and Brands Hatch for road cycling . London 's purpose @-@ built Olympic venues and facilities , including the Olympic Village itself , were designed to be accessible as possible so they could easily accommodate the Paralympics . Some venues also contained additional accessible seating areas during the Paralympics .
= = = Public transport = = =
Transport for London operated the Paralympic Route Network ( a downsized version of the Olympic Route Network operated during the Summer Olympics ) to facilitate road traffic between venues and facilities . The network provided 8 @.@ 7 miles ( 14 @.@ 0 kilometres ) of lanes specifically reserved for Paralympic athletes and officials . TfL continued to operate its Get Ahead of the Games website during the Paralympics , which provided updates and advice for commuters during the Games . Prior to the Games , concerns were raised by TfL commissioner Peter Hendy that London 's transportation system might not be able to handle the Paralympics adequately . He feared that the end of the school summer holiday ( which fell during the Games ) would result in increased traffic , and that commuters might not heed traffic warnings or change their travel behaviour as they had during the Olympics .
Sevenoaks railway station was designated as the preferred station for spectators travelling to watch the cycling at Brands Hatch . Organisers chose Sevenoaks over the closer Swanley railway station because of its " existing step @-@ free access and excellent transport links " , and because Swanley did not yet have a wheelchair lift . Whilst organisers did not believe that Swanley would be able to have wheelchair lifts installed by the start of the Paralympics , the station finished their installation by early August 2012 .
= = = Lead @-@ up and promotion = = =
= = = = Handover ceremony = = = =
The formal handover occurred during the closing ceremony of the 2008 Summer Paralympics in Beijing , when Mayor of London Boris Johnson received the Paralympic Flag from Mayor of Beijing Guo Jinlong . This was followed by a cultural presentation by Britain , which was similar to its presentation during the Olympics ' closing ceremony . It featured urban dance group ZooNation , the Royal Ballet , and Candoco , a physically integrated dance group , all dressed as London commuters and waiting for a bus by a zebra crossing . A double @-@ decker bus drove around the stadium , guided by Ade Adepitan , to music composed by Philip Sheppard . The top of the bus was open and folded down to show a privet hedge featuring London landmarks such as Tower Bridge , The Gherkin and the London Eye . Cherisse Osei , drummer for Mika , and Sam Hegedus then performed , before the top of the bus folded up into its original form , sporting multi @-@ coloured Paralympic livery . Both the Paralympic and Olympic flags were formally raised outside of London 's City Hall on 26 September 2008 . British Paralympians Helene Raynsford and Chris Holmes raised the Paralympic flag .
= = = = Paralympic Day and Super Saturday = = = =
On 8 September 2011 Trafalgar Square staged International Paralympic Day , hosted by Rick Edwards , Ade Adepitan and Iwan Thomas , to coincide with a visit to London by representatives of the IPC . The event celebrated the Paralympic Games , showcasing and demonstrating the 20 sports that would feature during the Games ( with some sessions also made inclusive to people with hearing disabilities ) . It also featured appearances by Paralympic athletes Oscar Pistorius , Ellie Simmonds and Sascha Kindred , and the unveiling of a bronze statue of Pistorius by Ben Dearnley . British Prime Minister David Cameron and London 's mayor Boris Johnson also appeared . Two days later on 10 September , supermarket chain Sainsbury 's and Channel 4 presented Sainsbury 's Super Saturday , a family event at Clapham Common . The event featured showcases of Paralympic sports , and a concert featuring pop music acts including Nicola Roberts , Olly Murs , The Wanted , Will Young , Pixie Lott , Dappy , Sugababes , The Saturdays , Chipmunk and Taio Cruz .
= = = = Channel 4 promotional campaign = = = =
Channel 4 , the host broadcaster of the 2012 Summer Paralympics in the United Kingdom , promoted its coverage of the Games with a multi @-@ platform advertising campaign that included television adverts , online content , and billboard advertising , some of which carrying the tagline " Thanks for the warm @-@ up . " Overall , Channel 4 's campaign aimed to change the public 's view of the Paralympics , encouraging viewers to see the Games as an " event in its own right " rather than as an afterthought to the Olympics . As part of the campaign , Channel 4 produced a two @-@ minute @-@ long trailer for its coverage entitled Meet the Superhumans , which was directed by Tom Tagholm with input from Deborah Poulton , 2012 Paralympic Project Leader and Alison Walsh , Editorial Manager of Disability , both at Channel 4 . The trailer , set to Public Enemy 's song " Harder Than You Think " , focused on the competitive and " superhuman " aspects of Paralympic sport , while acknowledging the personal events and struggles that reflected every athlete 's participation in the Games . Meet the Superhumans premiered on 17 July 2012 , and aired simultaneously as a " roadblock " advert on 78 different commercial television channels in the UK ( which included rival channels ITV1 and Sky1 ) .
The advert was met with critical acclaim : Adweek 's Tim Nudd declared it " the summer 's most stunning sports commercial " , while Simon Usborne of The Independent felt it was " an act of branding genius " and " a clear bid to bring the Paralympics from the sporting wings to centre stage . " The advert was seen by an estimated audience of 10 million viewers ; Channel 4 's marketing and communications chief Dan Brooke estimated that reaction to the advert through social media was double that of the première of the BBC 's trailer for its Olympics coverage .
Meet the Superhumans won a Golden Lion award at the Cannes Lions Festival in June 2013 , losing the overall award to Dumb Ways to Die . Sir John Hegarty , the jury president said of it : " When you 've got some really outstanding work it is tragic in some ways it can 't get a bigger award , but there can only be one grand prix " , while jury member Carlo Cavallone added " [ Meet the Superhumans ] is an amazing campaign , one of the golds that went through [ the judging process ] immediately ... Everyone felt it had the highest level of craft . It puts an issue that was really important before London 2012 to raise awareness of the Paralympics [ and ] they were hyper successful … Dumb Ways to Die was a tough contender . "
= = = = Royal Mail stamps and gold post boxes = = = =
In August 2009 Royal Mail unveiled a series of 30 stamps ( reflecting the 30th Olympiad ) about the coming Olympic and Paralympic Games . They were released in batches of ten between 2009 and July 2011 ; each stamp featured an Olympic or Paralympic sport and the London 2012 logo .
As it had done during the Olympics , Royal Mail honoured Britain 's Paralympic gold medallists by painting a post box gold in each of their home towns ( along with an additional post box outside the National Spinal Injuries Centre in Stoke Mandeville , in honour of its role in the Games ' history ) , and featured them on commemorative stamps released throughout the Games . Royal Mail originally planned only to release a series of six stamps with group portraits of Britain 's medallists ; however , the decision was met with backlash from critics , who argued that the organization was discriminating against Paralympians by not granting them the same individual recognition as their Olympian counterparts . Olympic shadow minister Tessa Jowell was also critical of Royal Mail 's plan , saying that the stamps were a symbolic aspect of Britain 's celebration of the Olympics and that " it would be a shame if this important symbol was not offered to our Paralympian heroes as well . "
Royal Mail initially defended its decision , arguing that it would have been " logistically and practically impossible " to issue individual stamps for each gold medallist , since it expected the British team to meet or exceed its performance at Beijing of 42 gold medals . As a result of the criticism , Royal Mail announced on 15 August 2012 that it would release individual stamps for each British gold medallist during the Paralympics .
= = = = Test events = = = =
Several Paralympics @-@ specific events were held during the London Prepares series of test events for the Olympic and Paralympic Games ; these included the London International Goalball Tournament , and the London Disability Grand Prix — which was also the first Paralympic event to be held at London 's Olympic Stadium .
= = = Torch relay = = =
The Paralympic torch relay began on 22 August , when groups of disabled and non @-@ disabled scouts kindled four Paralympic flames on the highest peaks of each nation of the United Kingdom ; Scafell Pike in England , Ben Nevis in Scotland , Slieve Donard in Northern Ireland , and Snowdon in Wales . On 24 August the four flames were used to light ceremonial cauldrons in London , Edinburgh , Belfast and Cardiff during special " Flame Festival " events ; smaller " Flame Celebration " events were also held in various communities over the bank holiday weekend .
On 28 August the four flames were united during a ceremony at Stoke Mandeville Stadium . The flame then travelled a 92 @-@ mile ( 148 @-@ kilometre ) route to Olympic Stadium in a 24 @-@ hour relay , with 580 torchbearers working in teams of five . After a two @-@ hour weather delay , a backup flame was taken straight to the stadium as a contingency , and the relay route was modified . However , as the opening ceremony 's parade of nations took longer than expected , the flame was able to arrive at Olympic Stadium in time .
= = = Ticketing = = =
2 @.@ 7 million tickets were offered in total , including event @-@ specific tickets and those granting access solely to the Olympic Park , along with multi @-@ event passes offered for ExCeL London and Olympic Park that were intended to allow spectators to discover a variety of Paralympic events . Unlike previous Paralympics , tickets were in extremely high demand , and the ticket allocation was increased from the originally planned 2 @.@ 5 million . Whilst the period during the Olympics has historically been the busiest for Paralympic sales , 1 @.@ 4 million tickets were already sold before the start of the Summer Olympics , already surpassing the total number sold in Sydney . The high demand resulted in technical issues with the Ticketmaster @-@ operated website , which led to complaints via social networking services by users who were struggling to order .
Organisers expected the first ever sell @-@ out in the history of the Paralympics . LOCOG 's chief executive Paul Deighton remarked that " the interest in attending the Paralympics has been extraordinary from the start . " This success was attributed to the enthusiasm surrounding Great Britain 's performance during the Olympics , fan interest in South African " Blade Runner " Oscar Pistorius ( a Paralympic athlete who was the first ever double amputee to compete in the Olympics ) , and affordable prices .
On 8 August LOCOG announced that 2 @.@ 1 million tickets had been sold ( 600 @,@ 000 in the previous month alone ) , breaking the record of 1 @.@ 8 million set in Beijing ( 1 @.@ 6 million tickets were also distributed by the Chinese government ) . IPC president Philip Craven congratulated London for this achievement , crediting it to " the insatiable appetite the public has for top class elite sport " , and noted it would be fitting for a Paralympics held in its spiritual birthplace to have filled venues . By the opening ceremony , 2 @.@ 4 million had been sold , with the remaining 100 @,@ 000 sold during the Games ; 10 @,@ 000 were offered each day . The last 800 tickets to the Opening Ceremony were distributed to police and the military , while Mayor Boris Johnson arranged for the distribution of 1 @,@ 100 to members of London 's youth athletics clubs . Due to popular demand , a further 100 @,@ 000 contingency tickets were released on 6 September ( which included multi @-@ event passes , and event tickets given up by sponsors and partners ) , along with 100 @,@ 000 giving access solely to the Olympic Park .
= = = Logo = = =
The 2012 Summer Paralympics used an emblem sharing a common design with that of the Summer Olympics — the first time this had ever been done . The logo , designed by Wolff Olins , was unveiled on 4 June 2007 , and is a representation of the number 2012 . The Paralympic version has its own distinct colour scheme , and substitutes the Olympic Rings with the Paralympic " agitos " .
= = = Mascots = = =
The official mascot of the 2012 Summer Paralympic Games , Mandeville , was unveiled alongside its Olympic counterpart Wenlock on 19 May 2010 . As characters , they are portrayed drops of steel from a steelworks in Bolton , and feature singular camera eyes — representing " focus " and the cameras being used to capture the Games . Mandeville is named in honour of Stoke Mandeville due to its significance in the origins of the Paralympics . Mandeville also wears a helmet emblazoned in the red , green , and blue colours of the Paralympic emblem .
= = = Opening ceremony = = =
The opening ceremony was held on 29 August at the Olympic Stadium . It was inspired by William Shakespeare 's play " The Tempest " and themed around the concept of " Enlightenment " . It featured appearances by theoretical physicist Stephen Hawking , along with actors Ian McKellen and Nicola Miles @-@ Wildin playing the roles of Prospero and Miranda from " The Tempest " . The ceremony also featured a performance by British electronic music group Orbital . The leading UK disabled theatre company Graeae played their version of the polio survivor Ian Dury 's 1981 protest song ' Spasticus Autisticus ' .
The final bearers of the Paralympic flame represented several generations of Paralympic athletes . Joe Townsend , a Royal Marine who lost both of his legs after stepping on a land mine on duty in Afghanistan ( who represented the future , as he plans to compete in Rio ) , delivered the flame to Olympic Stadium via a zipline from the ArcelorMittal Orbit tower . He passed the flame to long @-@ time British Five @-@ a @-@ side football captain David Clarke , who then passed it to the lighter of the Paralympic cauldron , Margaret Maughan , who was the winner of Britain 's first gold medal at the first official Paralympics , in Rome .
= = = Closing ceremony = = =
The closing ceremony was held on 9 September at the Olympic Stadium . Entitled " The Festival of the Flame " , the ceremony was themed around the gathering of people in celebration , and was directed by Kim Gavin , who also directed the closing ceremony of the Summer Olympics just a few weeks prior . The ceremony featured sequences set to a live performance by the British rock band Coldplay , who were accompanied by guest performers such as the British Paraorchestra ( who accompanied the band on " Strawberry Swing " , and also performed the Paralympic anthem ) , Barbadian singer Rihanna ( who performed her collaboration with Coldplay , " Princess of China " , and her solo hit " We Found Love " ) and American rapper Jay @-@ Z ( who performed " Run This Town " with Rihanna and Coldplay , and joined in a reprise of " Paradise " ) . To mark its hosting of the 2016 Summer Paralympics , the Paralympic flag was passed from Boris Johnson , Mayor of London to Eduardo Paes , Mayor of Rio de Janeiro . LOCOG chief Sebastian Coe and IPC president Philip Craven both congratulated London for its successful hosting of the Paralympics ; Coe was proud that both the Olympics and Paralympics in London could be labelled " Made in Britain " , while Sir Phillip felt that the Games were the " greatest Paralympic Games ever . " Ellie Simmonds and Jonnie Peacock shared the honour of extinguishing the Paralympic cauldron , sharing its last flame on torches to others throughout the stadium to represent its eternal spirit .
= = The Games = =
= = = Participating nations = = =
London 2012 had the largest number of athletes and participating nations of any Paralympic Games . A total of 4 @,@ 302 athletes from 164 countries competed in the Games . This represented an increase of 291 athletes and 18 countries from the 2008 Games , which had 4 @,@ 011 athletes from 146 countries .
Fourteen countries made their Paralympic début : Antigua and Barbuda , Brunei , Cameroon , Comoros , the Democratic Republic of the Congo , Djibouti , the Gambia , Guinea @-@ Bissau , Liberia , Mozambique , North Korea , San Marino , the Solomon Islands and the US Virgin Islands . Trinidad and Tobago returned to the Games for the first time since 1988 .
Andorra made its début in the Summer Paralympics , having already made three appearances at the Winter Paralympics . Malawi , which would have been making its debut at the Games , and Botswana , were both due to send delegations but withdrew hours before the opening ceremony citing a lack of government funds .
The following National Paralympic Committees sent delegations to compete :
= = = Sports = = =
The programme of the 2012 Summer Paralympics featured events in 20 sports . The number of events in each sport is noted in parentheses .
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= Art Houtteman =
Arthur Joseph Houtteman ( August 7 , 1927 – May 6 , 2003 ) was an American right @-@ handed pitcher in Major League Baseball who played for 12 seasons in the American League with the Detroit Tigers , Cleveland Indians and Baltimore Orioles . In 325 career games , Houtteman pitched 1 @,@ 555 innings and posted a win @-@ loss record of 87 – 91 , with 78 complete games , 14 shutouts , and a 4 @.@ 14 earned run average ( ERA ) .
Known on the sandlot for his pitching motion , Houtteman was signed by scout Wish Egan in 1945 at 17 years of age . He was recruited by major league teams , and joined a Tigers pitching staff that had lost players to injuries and World War II . After moving between the major and minor leagues over the next few years , he was nearly killed in an automobile accident just before the 1949 season . Houtteman rebounded from his injuries and went on to win 15 games that season and made his only All @-@ Star appearance in the following year .
He played three more seasons with the Tigers , then was sold to Cleveland , where he pitched for the pennant @-@ winning Indians during their 1954 season . After losing his starting job , he played two more seasons with the Indians before he was bought by the Orioles , and he finished his final season in Major League Baseball with them . Houtteman ended his baseball career in the minor leagues and became a sales executive in Detroit . In 2003 , Houtteman died at the age of 75 .
= = Early life = =
Art Houtteman was born in Detroit , Michigan , on August 7 , 1927 . He was a second @-@ generation American citizen ; his grandfather Joseph had emigrated from Belgium . The only son born to the Houtteman family , Art 's father , also named Arthur , vowed that his son would become a major league player by the time he turned 17 .
Houtteman played baseball at Detroit Catholic Central High School , where his pitching caught the attention of baseball scout Wish Egan , who praised Houtteman 's " perfect pitching motion " . Houtteman was signed by the Detroit Tigers late in 1944 and began to practice with the Tigers in spring training before the 1945 season along with fellow Detroit sandlot player Billy Pierce . He spent most of the 1945 season playing for Detroit 's top minor league affiliate , the Buffalo Bisons . But injuries plagued the Tigers ' pitching staff , and the 17 @-@ year @-@ old Houtteman was called up by the parent club and began his major league career .
= = Detroit Tigers = =
= = = Hard Luck Houtteman = = =
Due to Tiger pitching injuries , and with many top players still in the military late in World War II ( Houtteman was too young for the draft ) , he made his major league debut on April 29 . At 17 years old , he was the youngest player in the American League in the 1945 season before being optioned back to Buffalo , where on June 20 he threw seven no @-@ hit innings , facing only 22 batters in the process , but lost the game 2 – 0 in extra innings . He also appeared in 13 games as a relief pitcher , and finished his minor league season with no wins , two losses and an ERA of 5 @.@ 33 in just over 25 innings pitched . He was not on the active roster , and as a result did not pitch during the Tigers ' World Series victory over the Chicago Cubs .
Houtteman was the youngest major leaguer in 1946 but played only one game for the Tigers that season , allowing eight runs and fifteen hits in eight innings . He spent most of 1946 in the minor leagues , finished at 16 – 13 and led the league in strikeouts . At the end of the season , Houtteman was named by six of the eight International League managers as the top pitching prospect in the league , leading the league in strikeouts with 150 , pitching over 200 innings , finishing second in victories with 16 , and amassing an 11 – 2 road record . Minor league third baseman Johnny Bero liked Houtteman 's fielding ability so much that he called him " a fifth infielder . "
Despite his newfound top prospect status Houtteman remained in Buffalo at the beginning of the 1947 season before being recalled to the Tigers in July . He was relegated to the bullpen for a time , and saw little action . But after Hal Newhouser , Fred Hutchinson and Dizzy Trout were used in two days , Tiger manager Steve O 'Neill decided to start Houtteman against the Washington Senators for only the second start of his career . He tossed a five @-@ hit shutout and Tiger general manager Billy Evans said , " In 40 years I 've never seen a better pitching job by a first @-@ year pitcher . We now know that Houtteman is really a big leaguer " . He followed this with another five @-@ hit victory against the Boston Red Sox , then pitched a three @-@ hit shutout in September against the St. Louis Browns . He finished the season at 7 – 2 with a 3 @.@ 42 ERA , seven complete games and two shutouts . His performance in 1947 caught the attention of New York Yankees star and future Hall of Famer Joe DiMaggio , who said of Houtteman and Bob Lemon , " They have more stuff and more pitching sense than any other young fellows I 've seen come up in a long while " .
The 1948 Detroit Tigers season began with Houtteman in the starting rotation . Things started off poorly , however , as Houtteman lost his first eight decisions . Two of the first five losses , though , were by one run , and he had little run support . The 0 – 8 start and lack of run support led to his being called " Hard Luck Houtteman " in the media . His first victory that year came against the Senators , in which he also drove in the winning run . After winning his next start , he defeated the Philadelphia Athletics allowing only five hits , and avoided another loss . But he then lost eight more games and finished the season at 2 – 16 . His teammates and the media attributed this to bad luck rather than bad pitching , and still regarded him as a prime prospect . Newhouser said , " The kid has had nothing but bad luck since the season opened " , while Fred Hutchinson said , " He shouldn 't have lost more than three or four games had he gotten an even break " . But his 4 @.@ 66 ERA was only 0 @.@ 06 higher than the major league average .
As 1949 spring training began , Houtteman was nearly killed . In Lakeland , Florida on March 10 , while driving home from Florida Southern College , he crashed into a fruit truck fracturing his skull . Originally listed in critical condition ( a priest stood by to administer the last rites in extremis ) , he recovered rapidly and was able to talk with his teammates two days after the accident , telling them , " I 'll be able to pitch sooner than you " . Within two weeks , the Tigers were optimistic that Houtteman would be able to play again by June . As a result of the injuries to Houtteman and Yankee star catcher Yogi Berra due to car accidents , Cleveland Indians playing manager Lou Boudreau banned his players from driving , forcing the soon @-@ to @-@ be world champions to ride chartered buses to exhibition games .
= = = Ace of the staff = = =
Houtteman marked his return to the Tigers ' rotation on May 21 , 1949 , but he lost his first three decisions . His performance improved , however , as he began to earn more victories in the 1949 season . These wins included a five @-@ hit 2 – 1 victory over the New York Yankees on July 23 . Over the course of the season , Houtteman beat each American League club at least once and beat the Yankees and Red Sox three times . He finished the season with a 15 – 10 record , a 3 @.@ 71 ERA , 13 complete games , and two shutouts . He was placed in most valuable player ( MVP ) voting , and received three points and finished tied for 22nd with teammate Virgil Trucks . The Philadelphia Sports Writers Association honored him as the year 's " Most Courageous Athlete " because of his injury and comeback .
As the 1950 Detroit Tigers season started , Houtteman was on a high note , pitching all of spring training without allowing a walk . He won his tenth game of the season on June 28 , 1950 , and became the first pitcher to hit the 10 @-@ win mark alongside Bob Lemon . After the game , he told an Associated Press reporter that he was just about convinced that Lady Luck had decided to give him a break after kicking him around for the past two or three years . Houtteman said , " I 've been having a pretty good year and it sure feels good after some of the things that have happened to me " . A week into July , Houtteman notched his eleventh victory , and only lost five games , in a 6 – 1 win against the St. Louis Browns . Just a few days later , Houtteman was named to the All @-@ Star roster alongside fellow Tigers including Ted Gray , George Kell and Hoot Evers . In the 1950 All @-@ Star game , Houtteman pitched three innings and batted once . He allowed one earned run , three hits , and one walk , his one earned run coming in the ninth inning on a Ralph Kiner home run that made the game go to extra innings .
Houtteman continued his successful season in the second half . On August 19 , he faced the Browns and pitched a one @-@ hitter , and faced the minimum 27 batters in the process . Houtteman ended the season just short of Ted Gray 's prediction of 20 victories , and finished the season with a 19 – 12 record . He led the league in shutouts with four and was second in games started with 34 , second in innings pitched with 274 @.@ 7 , third in wins , and third in complete games with 21 . His ERA of 3 @.@ 54 was good for fifth in the American League . He also earned six points in MVP voting , and finished tied for 24th . On October 2 , the day after the 1950 season ended , Houtteman married Shelagh Marie Kelly . They met in New York 's Catskill Mountains at Grossinger 's Resort .
= = = Military and return to Tigers = = =
Before the start of the 1951 season , Houtteman was drafted into the United States Army . He had originally been classified 4F , or medically ineligible for the draft , because of a high school knee injury , and he felt that he was drafted only because he was a prominent athlete . He served in the heavy weapons division of the Army , where the roar of the big guns sent pains throbbing through Houtteman 's head and gave him severe headaches , which doctors believed was a lingering effect of the skull fracture three years earlier . As a result , the Army reclassified Houtteman as not fully qualified for combat duty . This led to a medical discharge on September 15 , 1951 . Speaking of his time in the Army , Houtteman said , " I spent most of my time in the Army hospital . I did play a little ball at Camp Pickett " , Virginia .
When he returned to the Tigers for spring training in 1952 , Tigers ' manager Red Rolfe noted , " Artie could be our best pitcher . He 's the slump @-@ breaking type , a guy who can throw a shutout once in a while " . After a poor season without Houtteman in 1951 , Rolfe predicted , " We 'll be back in the first division this season because Art Houtteman is back . Houtteman makes us at least a dozen games better than [ last year 's Tigers ' team ] " . Houtteman worked out in Detroit with pitcher Ted Gray over the winter before the 1952 season . Before the season started , Houtteman said , " It all depends on how I get off . I 'm anxious to get into the season . My arm doesn 't feel any different than it did in ' 50 . I hope I can do even better than my last year " . Houtteman also took number 21 on his uniform , the number he had when he first arrived with the Tigers , because he felt that it had given both him and teammate George Kell , who won a batting title with the number , good luck .
It appeared that " Hard Luck Houtteman " had returned as the 1952 Detroit Tigers season began . On April 2 , 1952 , just before the season started , Art lost his seven @-@ month @-@ old daughter in an automobile accident . In an April 26 matchup against the Cleveland Indians , with two outs in the bottom of the ninth , Houtteman was one out away from a no @-@ hitter when he threw a fastball that was " supposed to sink " but did not , which Harry hit for a single . Houtteman said , " This was the only pitch I shook Ginsberg off the whole game " , and for years afterwards , catcher Joe Ginsberg repeatedly said to Houtteman , " If you 'd listened to me , I 'd have you in the Hall of Fame " . Detroit won the game by a score of 13 – 0 . After losing his tenth game on June 22 , manager Red Rolfe moved Houtteman out of the starting rotation and into the bullpen . He finished the year with an 8 – 20 record and a 4 @.@ 36 ERA . His 20th loss came on September 21 against the Indians , and he became the first Tiger to lose 20 games since Bobo Newsom in 1941 . His disappointing season led to the possibility of a trade , with general manager Charlie Gehringer acknowledging that Houtteman might be traded if the right offer came along .
Houtteman spent the offseason selling cars and making public appearances for the Detroit Tigers . During the 1953 Detroit Tigers season there were rumors of possible trades for Houtteman , with the Yankees proposing the possibility of trading Hank Bauer , an infielder , and Gil McDougald for Houtteman . Gehringer said of Houtteman 's high trading price , " Art has always had good stuff — much too good to be a 20 @-@ game loser " . That season , he was used as both a starter and reliever during the season . However , he lost six straight decisions , and by the middle of June had a 2 – 6 record and a 5 @.@ 90 ERA . This marked the end of his career as a Tiger .
= = Cleveland Indians = =
On June 15 , 1953 , Houtteman was traded by the Tigers , along with Owen Friend , Joe Ginsberg and Bill Wight , to the Cleveland Indians for Ray Boone , Al Aber , Steve Gromek and Dick Weik . In July 1953 , he returned to Detroit to pitch against the Tigers . At the time , Houtteman admitted he wanted to be traded . He said , " The fans are down on me and I 'd do everybody a lot more good by being traded " . He was not content with the Tigers and said there were times when it seemed he " couldn 't wait to peel off his uniform after a game " . As a result of Indians ' pitching coach Mel Harder doing a " complete " overhaul , Houtteman was moved into the starting rotation , to replace Bob Feller . Houtteman finished the season in Cleveland with a 7 – 7 record , six complete games , one shutout , 109 innings pitched , and a 3 @.@ 80 ERA .
At the start of the 1954 Cleveland Indians season , Houtteman 's second daughter , Hollis Ann , was born on February 22 . His pitching continued to improve under Mel Harder , who " got me to quit experimenting and to seek my natural delivery " . The Indians used him when they could , especially in extra inning affairs . In the Indians ' first six extra inning games , Houtteman was used three times . As a result , Houtteman finished the season with a career @-@ high 11 complete games . The Indians also began to use Houtteman and Feller for doubleheaders with great success , as they had a 9 – 1 record after their first five doubleheaders . Houtteman finished the season with a 15 – 7 record , a 3 @.@ 35 ERA , and 188 innings pitched . In the 1954 World Series with the Indians , he pitched two innings in Game 3 against the New York Giants , allowing one run and striking out one batter .
The 1955 Cleveland Indians season originally planned to use Houtteman as the number four pitcher on the starting rotation , as he had been the previous year . He saw himself remaining the fourth starter , and said , " Herb Score won 't beat me out of the fourth starting job with the Indians " on April 11 . However , he became a spot starter , as he lost his starting position to Score , the " most talked @-@ about rookie in all the major league training camps " . He split starting time with Bob Feller and finished the season with a 10 – 6 record , a 3 @.@ 98 ERA , and three complete games . On December 29 , 1955 , Houtteman 's first son , Jeff , was born with assistance from National Football League player Leon Hart , who was visiting Houtteman and helped deliver the baby .
Houtteman remained a reliever during the 1956 Cleveland Indians season . He continued to get trade offers in 1956 , though , as the Chicago White Sox were willing to trade outfielder Jim Rivera for him . A three @-@ team , nine @-@ player deal involving Houtteman again becoming part of the White Sox along with George Strickland was also scrapped at the last second . Houtteman finished the 1956 season having only made 22 appearances on the mound , earning a 2 – 2 record . However , he had a high ERA of 6 @.@ 56 , his highest since 1946 , when he made one appearance .
As the 1957 Cleveland Indians season neared , tension was running high . There was talk about Houtteman 's being " in the doghouse " , or out of favor with the team 's management , during the 1956 season due to his lack of starts . According to sportswriter Hal Lebovitz , this was a result of the starting five for the Indians , including spot starter Feller , pitching very well during spring training . Houtteman was again brought up in trade rumors , along with Mike Garcia , since the Indians were loaded with pitching talent . When manager Al Lopez was replaced by Kerby Farrell , Houtteman did , in fact , land in Farrell 's doghouse . Farrell called him out front of his teammates after a poor performance in spring training . Houtteman pitched only four innings in three games for the Indians in 1957 .
= = Baltimore Orioles and minor leagues = =
Houtteman was put on the trading block before the 1957 season , but he drew no serious offers because Cleveland seemed desperate to trade him . On May 20 , after playing three games for the Indians , Houtteman was sold to the Baltimore Orioles for an undisclosed amount . Hal Lebovitz called Houtteman " a pitcher of considerable promise but who somehow has yet to cash in on it " , despite the fact that he was in his 12th and final major league season . During the 1957 Baltimore Orioles season , Houtteman made four relief appearances before he was demoted to the Vancouver Mounties of the Pacific Coast League . He was brought back up to the major league roster to pitch on September 22 , the final start of his major league career . In his final game , he pitched 2 ⅓ innings , allowing three runs on seven hits and throwing two strikeouts .
Just before the 1958 season began , Houtteman was cut by the Orioles , ending his major league career . Shortly after being cut , he signed on with the Charleston Senators , a farm club of the Tigers . He had a 3 @.@ 25 ERA and a 7 – 9 record for the Senators at the end of the 1958 season . In 1959 , the Kansas City Athletics decided to give him a tryout . However , despite what was described as an " impressive " performance , they cut Houtteman as they were looking for more youthful arms . Houtteman signed with the Portland Beavers of the Pacific Coast League , and posted a 6 – 9 record with an ERA of 3 @.@ 69 for the season . After the season ended , and after a third daughter , Sharon , was born in 1959 , Houtteman announced his retirement from baseball at the age of 32 .
= = Later life = =
After retiring from professional baseball , Houtteman kept baseball a part of his life and became a sports reporter for a television station in Detroit for a time . He later became a sales executive with Paragon Steel in Detroit , where he worked until reaching the age of retirement . He was in attendance for the last game at Tiger Stadium in 1999 . Houtteman died on May 6 , 2003 , at the age of 75 , of an apparent heart attack at his home in Rochester Hills , Michigan . He was survived by his wife , three children , and six grandchildren .
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= Asteroids ( video game ) =
Asteroids is an arcade space shooter released in November 1979 by Atari , Inc. and designed by Lyle Rains , Ed Logg , and Dominic Walsh . The player controls a spaceship in an asteroid field which is periodically traversed by flying saucers . The object of the game is to shoot and destroy asteroids and saucers while not colliding with either or being hit by the saucers ' counter @-@ fire . The game becomes harder as the number of asteroids increases .
Asteroids was one of the first major hits of the golden age of arcade games . The game sold over 70 @,@ 000 arcade cabinets and proved both popular with players and influential with developers . It has since been ported to multiple platforms . Asteroids was widely imitated and directly influenced Defender , Gravitar , and many other video games .
Asteroids was conceived during a meeting between Logg and Rains and used hardware developed by Howard Delman previously used for Lunar Lander . Based on an unfinished game titled Cosmos and inspired by Spacewar ! and Computer Space , both early shoot ' em up video games , Asteroids ' physics model and control scheme were derived by Logg from these earlier games and refined through trial and error . The game is rendered on a vector display in a two @-@ dimensional view that wraps around in both screen axes .
= = Gameplay = =
The objective of Asteroids is to destroy asteroids and saucers . The player controls a triangular ship that can rotate left and right , fire shots straight forward , and thrust forward . Once the ship begins moving in a direction , it will continue in that direction for a time without player intervention unless the player applies thrust in a different direction . The ship eventually comes to a stop when not thrusting . The player can also send the ship into hyperspace , causing it to disappear and reappear in a random location on the screen , at the risk of self @-@ destructing or appearing on top of an asteroid .
Each level starts with a few large asteroids drifting in various directions on the screen . Objects wrap around screen edges – for instance , an asteroid that drifts off the top edge of the screen reappears at the bottom and continues moving in the same direction . As the player shoots asteroids , they break into smaller asteroids that move faster and are more difficult to hit . Smaller asteroids are also worth more points . Two flying saucers appear periodically on the screen ; the " big saucer " shoots randomly and poorly , while the " small saucer " fires frequently at the ship . After reaching a score of 40 @,@ 000 , only the small saucer appears . As the player 's score increases , the angle range of the shots from the small saucer diminishes until the saucer fires extremely accurately . Once the screen has been cleared of all asteroids and flying saucers , a new set of large asteroids appears , thus starting the next level . The game gets harder as the number of asteroids increases until after the score reaches a range between 40 @,@ 000 and 60 @,@ 000 . The player starts with 3 lives after a coin is inserted and gains an extra life every 10 @,@ 000 points . When the player loses all his lives , the game ends .
Asteroids contains several bugs . The game slows down as the player gains 50 @-@ 100 lives , due to a programming error in that there is no limit for the permitted number of lives . The player can " lose " the game after more than 250 lives are collected .
= = Development and design = =
Asteroids was conceived by Lyle Rains and programmed by Ed Logg with collaborations from other Atari staff . Logg was impressed with the Atari 2600 ( then known as " Atari Video Computer System " ) and joined Atari 's coin @-@ op division and worked on Dirt Bike , which was never released due to an unsuccessful field test . He developed Super Breakout after hearing that Nolan Bushnell , founder of Atari , wanted Breakout updated . Paul Mancuso joined the development team as Asteroids ' technician and engineer Howard Delman contributed to the hardware . During a meeting in April 1979 , Rains discussed Planet Grab , a multiplayer arcade game later renamed to Cosmos . Logg did not know the name of the game , thinking Computer Space as " the inspiration for the two @-@ dimensional approach . " The unfinished game featured a giant , indestructible asteroid , so Rains asked Logg : " Well , why don ’ t we have a game where you shoot the rocks and blow them up ? " In response , Logg described a similar concept where the player selectively shoots at rocks that break into smaller pieces . Both agreed on the concept .
Asteroids was implemented on hardware developed by Delman and is a vector game , in which the graphics are composed of lines drawn on a vector monitor . Rains initially wanted the game done in raster graphics , but Logg , experienced in vector graphics , suggested an XY monitor because the high image quality would permit precise aiming . The hardware is chiefly a MOS 6502 executing the game program , and QuadraScan , a high @-@ resolution vector graphics processor developed by Atari and referred to as an " XY display system " and the " Digital Vector Generator ( DVG ) " .
The original design concepts for QuadraScan came out of Cyan Engineering , Atari 's off @-@ campus research lab in Grass Valley , California , in 1978 . Cyan gave it to Delman , who finished the design and first used it for Lunar Lander . Logg received Delman 's modified board with five buttons , 13 sound effects , and additional RAM , and used it to develop Asteroids . The size of the board was 4 by 4 inches , and it was " linked up " to a monitor .
Logg modeled the player 's ship , the five @-@ button control scheme , and the game physics after Spacewar ! , which he had played as a student at the University of California , Berkeley , but made several changes to improve playability . The ship was programmed into the hardware and rendered by the monitor , and was configured to move with thrust and inertia . The hyperspace button was not placed near Logg 's right thumb , which he was dissatisfied with , as he had a problem " tak [ ing ] his hand off the thrust button . " Drawings of asteroids in various shapes were incorporated into the game . Logg copied the idea of a high score table with initials from Exidy 's Star Fire .
The two saucers were formulated to be different from each other . A steadily decreasing timer that shortens intervals between saucer attacks was employed to keep the player from not shooting asteroids and saucers . The minimalist soundtrack features a " heartbeat " sound effect , which quickens as the game progresses . The game did not have a sound chip , so Delman created a hardware circuit for 13 sound effects by hand which was wired onto the board .
A prototype of Asteroids was well received by several Atari staff and engineers , who would " wander between labs , passing comment and stopping to play as they went . " Logg was often asked when he would be leaving by employees eager to play the prototype , so he created a second prototype specifically for staff to play . Atari went to Sacramento , California for testing , setting up prototypes of the game in local arcades to measure its potential success . The company also observed veteran players and younger players during focus group sessions at Atari itself . A group of old players familiar with Spacewar ! struggled to maintain grip on the thrust button and requested a joystick , whereas younger players accustomed to Space Invaders noted they get no break in the game . Logg and other Atari engineers observed proceedings and documented comments in four pages .
= = Reception and legacy = =
Asteroids was immediately successful upon release . It displaced Space Invaders by popularity in the United States and became Atari 's best selling arcade game of all time , with over 70 @,@ 000 units sold . Atari earned an estimated $ 150 million in sales from the game , and arcade operators earned a further $ 500 million from coin drops . Atari had been in the process of manufacturing another vector game , Lunar Lander , but demand for Asteroids was so high " that several hundred Asteroids games were shipped in Lunar Lander cabinets . " Asteroids was so popular that some video arcade operators had to install large boxes to hold the number of coins spent by players .
The saucer in the original game design was supposed to take a shot as soon as it appeared . This action was altered so there would be a delay before the saucer shoots , leading to " lurking " from players . Lurking is a strategy in which the player uses thrust to keep the ship in motion , leaves 1 or 2 asteroids undamaged , and hunts for saucers , allowing the player to pick off as many 1 @,@ 000 @-@ point UFOs as possible and play indefinitely on a single credit . Since the saucer could only shoot directly at the player 's position on the screen , the player could " hide " at the opposite end of the screen and shoot across the screen boundary , while remaining relatively safe . Complaints from operators losing revenue due to lurking led to the creation of an EPROM restricting such chances . Usage of the names of Saturday Night Live characters " Mr. Bill " and " Sluggo " to refer to the saucers in an Esquire article about the game led to Logg receiving a cease and desist letter from a lawyer with the " Mr. Bill Trademark . "
Asteroids received positive reviews from video game critics and has been regarded as Logg 's magnum opus . Brett Alan Weiss , writing for Allgame , likened the monochrome vector graphics to minimalism and viewed its sound effects as memorable . Weiss found its overall design to be near @-@ perfect and cites the intensity and controls as elements that make the game addicting . He admitted the game is easily understandable and " holds up extremely well over time . " William Cassidy , writing for GameSpy 's " Classic Gaming " , noticed its innovations , including being one of the first video games to track initials and allow players to enter their initials for appearing in the top 10 high scores , and commented , " the vector graphics fit the futuristic outer space theme very well . " Asteroids was ranked fourth on Retro Gamer 's list of " Top 25 Arcade Games " ; the Retro Gamer staff cited its simplicity and the lack of a proper ending as allowances of revisiting the game . Entertainment Weekly named Asteroids one of the top ten games for the Atari 2600 in 2013 . It was added to the Museum of Modern Art 's collection of video games . By contrast , in March 1983 the Atari 8 @-@ bit port won sixth place in Softline 's Dog of the Year awards " for badness in computer games " , Atari division , based on reader submissions .
The gameplay in Asteroids was imitated by many games that followed , mostly " Asteroid clones " . By December 1981 BYTE observed that " If imitation is the sincerest form of flattery , then [ Atari 's Asteroids has ] a lot to be proud of ... Its popularity has inspired numerous imitations " , including eight for personal computers . The Mattel Intellivision title Astrosmash was conceived as Avalanche ! after Meteor ! did not take up the cartridge 's entire ROM space . Meteor ! , an Asteroids clone , was cancelled to avoid a lawsuit and Avalanche ! was released as Astrosmash . The resultant game borrows elements from Asteroids and Space Invaders , both which also influenced Defender and Gravitar , two popular and often cloned arcade games.Quality Software 's Asteroids in Space ( 1980 ) , another Asteroids clone , was one of the best selling games for the Apple II and was voted one of the most popular software titles of 1978 @-@ 80 by Softalk magazine . Others include Acornsoft 's Meteors , Moons of Jupiter for the Commodore VIC @-@ 20 , and MineStorm for the Vectrex .
= = Arcade sequels = =
Released in 1981 , Asteroids Deluxe is the first sequel to Asteroids . Dave Shepperd edited the code and made enhancements to the game without Logg 's involvement . The onscreen objects were tinted blue , and hyperspace was replaced by a shield that depleted if used . The asteroids rotate , and the added killer satellite enemy breaks apart into three smaller ships when hit that home in on the player 's position . The arcade machine 's monitor displays vector graphics overlaying a holographic backdrop . The game is much harder than the original and does not allow saucers to be hunted — a common strategy for Asteroids high scores .
It was followed by Owen Rubin 's Space Duel in 1982 , featuring colorful geometric shapes and co @-@ op multiplayer gameplay .
In 1987 's Blasteroids , Ed Rotberg added " power @-@ ups , ship morphing , branching levels , bosses , and the ability to dock your ships in multiplayer for added firepower . " Blasteroids uses raster graphics instead of vectors .
= = Ports = =
Asteroids has been ported to multiple platforms , including much of Atari 's hardware ( Atari 2600 and 8 @-@ bit computers in 1981 , Atari 7800 in 1987 , Atari Lynx in 1994 ) and many other platforms . Released in 1981 , the 2600 port was the first game to use bank switching , a technique developed by Carl Nielsen 's group of engineers that increased available ROM space from 4 KB to 8 KB . Brad Stewart , the programmer tasked to work on the port , used bank switching to complete the game . A port for the Atari 5200 , identical to the Atari 8 @-@ bit computer version , was in development in 1982 , but was not published .
The Atari 7800 version was a launch title and features co @-@ operative play . The asteroids receive colorful textures , and the " heartbeat " sound effect remains intact . The game was included as part of the Atari Lynx title Super Asteroids & Missile Command , and featured in the original Microsoft Arcade compilation in 1993 , the latter with four other Atari video games : Missile Command , Tempest , Centipede , and Battlezone .
Activision made an enhanced version of Asteroids for PlayStation , Nintendo 64 , Microsoft Windows , and the Game Boy Color in 1998 . Doug Perry , writing for entertainment and video game journalism website IGN , praised the high @-@ end graphics – with realistic space object models , backgrounds , and special effects – for making Asteroids " a pleasure to look at " while being a homage to the original arcade version . The Atari Flashback series of dedicated video game consoles have included both the 2600 the arcade versions of Asteroids .
Published by Crave Entertainment on December 14 , 1999 , Asteroids Hyper 64 is the Nintendo 64 port of Asteroids . The game 's graphics were upgraded to 3D , with both the ship and asteroids receiving polygon models along static backgrounds , and it was supplemented with weapons and a multiplayer mode . IGN writer Matt Casamassina was pleased that the gameplay was faithful to the original but felt the minor additions and constant " repetition " was not enough to make the port " warrant a $ 50 purchase . " He was disappointed about the lack of music and found the sound effects to be of poor quality .
In 2001 , Infogrames released Atari Anniversary Edition for the Sega Dreamcast , PlayStation , and PC compatibles . Developed by Digital Eclipse , it included emulated versions of Asteroids and other old Atari games . Jeff Gerstmann of GameSpot criticized the Dreamcast version for its limitations , such as the presentation of vector graphics on a low resolution television set , which obscures the copyright text in Asteroids . The arcade and Atari 2600 versions of Asteroids , along with Asteroids Deluxe , were included in Atari Anthology for both Xbox and PlayStation 2 .
Released on November 28 , 2007 , the Xbox Live Arcade port of Asteroids has revamped HD graphics along with an added intense " throttle monkey " mode . Both Asteroids in its arcade and 2600 versions and Asteroids Deluxe were ported to Microsoft 's Game Room download service in 2010 . Glu Mobile released a mobile phone port of the game with supplementary features as well as the original arcade version .
Asteroids was included on Atari Greatest Hits Volume 1 for the Nintendo DS . Craig Harris , writing for IGN , noted that the Nintendo DS 's small screen can not properly display details of games with vector graphics .
= = Highest score = =
On November 13 , 1982 , 15 @-@ year @-@ old Scott Safran of Cherry Hill , New Jersey , set a world record of 41 @,@ 336 @,@ 440 points on the arcade game Asteroids , beating the 40 @,@ 101 @,@ 910 point score set by Leo Daniels of Carolina Beach on February 6 , 1982 . In 1998 , to congratulate Safran on his accomplishment , the Twin Galaxies Intergalactic Scoreboard searched for him for four years until 2002 , when it was discovered that he had died in an accident in 1989 . In a ceremony in Philadelphia on April 27 , 2002 , Walter Day of Twin Galaxies presented an award to the surviving members of Safran 's family , commemorating the Asteroid Champion 's achievement . On April 6 , 2010 , John McAllister broke Safran 's record with a high score of 41 @,@ 338 @,@ 740 in a 58 @-@ hour Internet livestream .
= = Film adaptation = =
In 2009 , Universal Studios obtained the rights to adapt Asteroids into a film , with Matthew Lopez as the scriptwriter and Lorenzo di Bonaventura as the producer . Universal will create the story from scratch , as done with Battleship , a film based on the Hasbro board game of the same name .
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= Apollo 16 =
Apollo 16 was the tenth manned mission in the United States Apollo space program , the fifth and penultimate to land on the Moon and the first to land in the lunar highlands . The second of the so @-@ called " J missions , " it was crewed by Commander John Young , Lunar Module Pilot Charles Duke and Command Module Pilot Ken Mattingly . Launched from the Kennedy Space Center in Florida at 12 : 54 PM EST on April 16 , 1972 , the mission lasted 11 days , 1 hour , and 51 minutes , and concluded at 2 : 45 PM EST on April 27 .
John Young and Charles Duke spent 71 hours — just under three days — on the lunar surface , during which they conducted three extra @-@ vehicular activities or moonwalks , totaling 20 hours and 14 minutes . The pair drove the Lunar Roving Vehicle ( LRV ) , the second produced and used on the Moon , 26 @.@ 7 kilometers ( 16 @.@ 6 mi ) . On the surface , Young and Duke collected 95 @.@ 8 kilograms ( 211 lb ) of lunar samples for return to Earth , while Command Module Pilot Ken Mattingly orbited in the Command / Service Module ( CSM ) above to perform observations . Mattingly spent 126 hours and 64 revolutions in lunar orbit . After Young and Duke rejoined Mattingly in lunar orbit , the crew released a subsatellite from the Service Module ( SM ) . During the return trip to Earth , Mattingly performed a one @-@ hour spacewalk to retrieve several film cassettes from the exterior of the Service Module .
Apollo 16 's landing spot in the highlands was chosen to allow the astronauts to gather geologically older lunar material than the samples obtained in the first four landings , which were in or near lunar maria . Samples from the Descartes Formation and the Cayley Formation disproved a hypothesis that the formations were volcanic in origin .
= = Crew = =
Mattingly had originally been assigned to the prime crew of Apollo 13 , but was exposed to the measles through Duke , at that time on the back @-@ up crew for Apollo 13 , who had caught it from one of his children . He never contracted the illness , but was nevertheless removed from the crew and replaced by his backup , Jack Swigert , three days before the launch . Young , a captain in the United States Navy , had flown on three spaceflights prior to Apollo 16 : Gemini 3 , Gemini 10 and Apollo 10 , which orbited the Moon . One of 19 astronauts selected by NASA in April 1966 , Duke had never flown in space before Apollo 16 . He served on the support crew of Apollo 10 and was a Capsule Communicator ( CAPCOM ) for Apollo 11 .
= = = Backup crew = = =
Although not officially announced , the original backup crew consisted of Fred W. Haise ( CDR ) , William R. Pogue ( CMP ) and Gerald P. Carr ( LMP ) , who were targeted for the prime crew assignment on Apollo 19 . However , after the cancellations of Apollos 18 and 19 were finalized in September 1970 this crew would not rotate to a lunar mission as planned . Subsequently , Roosa and Mitchell were recycled to serve as members of the backup crew after returning from Apollo 14 , while Pogue and Carr were reassigned to the Skylab program where they flew on Skylab 4 .
= = = Support crew = = =
Anthony W. England
Karl G. Henize
Henry W. Hartsfield , Jr .
Robert F. Overmyer
Donald H. Peterson
= = = Mission insignia = = =
The insignia of Apollo 16 is dominated by a rendering of an American eagle and a red , white and blue shield , representing the people of the United States , over a gray background representing the lunar surface . Overlaying the shield is a gold NASA vector , orbiting the Moon . On its gold @-@ outlined blue border , there are 16 stars , representing the mission number , and the names of the crew members : Young , Mattingly , Duke . The insignia was designed from ideas originally submitted by the crew of the mission .
= = Planning and training = =
= = = Landing site selection = = =
Apollo 16 was the second of the Apollo type J missions , featuring the use of the Lunar Roving Vehicle , increased scientific capability , and lunar surface stays of three days . As Apollo 16 was the penultimate mission in the Apollo program and there was no new hardware or procedures to test on the lunar surface , the last two missions ( the other being Apollo 17 ) presented opportunities for astronauts to clear up some uncertainties in understanding the Moon 's properties . Although previous Apollo expeditions , including Apollo 14 and Apollo 15 , obtained samples of pre @-@ mare lunar material , before lava began to upwell from the Moon 's interior and flood the low areas and basins , none had actually visited the lunar highlands .
Apollo 14 had visited and sampled a ridge of material that had been ejected by the impact that created the Mare Imbrium impact basin . Likewise , Apollo 15 had also sampled material in the region of Imbrium , visiting the basin 's edge . There remained the possibility , because the Apollo 14 and Apollo 15 landing sites were closely associated with the Imbrium basin , that different geologic processes were prevalent in areas of the lunar highlands far from Mare Imbrium . Several members of the scientific community remarked that the central lunar highlands resembled regions on Earth that were created by volcanic processes and hypothesized the same might be true on the Moon . They had hoped that scientific output from the Apollo 16 mission would provide an answer .
Two locations on the Moon were given primary consideration for exploration by the Apollo 16 expedition : the Descartes Highlands region west of Mare Nectaris and the crater Alphonsus . At Descartes , the Cayley and Descartes formations were the primary areas of interest in that scientists suspected , based on telescopic and orbital imagery , that the terrain found there was formed by magma more viscous than that which formed the lunar maria . The Cayley Formation 's age was approximated to be about the same as Mare Imbrium based on the local frequency of impact craters . The considerable distance between the Descartes site and previous Apollo landing sites would be beneficial for the network of geophysical instruments , portions of which were deployed on each Apollo expedition beginning with Apollo 12 .
At the Alphonsus , three scientific objectives were determined to be of primary interest and paramount importance : the possibility of old , pre @-@ Imbrium impact material from within the crater 's wall , the composition of the crater 's interior and the possibility of past volcanic activity on the floor of the crater at several smaller " dark halo " craters . Geologists feared , however , that samples obtained from the crater might have been contaminated by the Imbrium impact , thus preventing Apollo 16 from obtaining samples of pre @-@ Imbrium material . There also remained the distinct possibility that this objective had already been satisfied by the Apollo 14 and Apollo 15 missions , as the Apollo 14 samples had not yet been completely analyzed and samples from Apollo 15 had not yet been obtained .
It was decided to target the Apollo 16 mission for the Descartes site . Following the decision , the Alphonsus site was considered the most likely candidate for Apollo 17 , but was eventually rejected . With the assistance of orbital photography obtained on the Apollo 14 mission , the Descartes site was determined to be safe enough for a manned landing . The specific landing site was between two young impact craters , North Ray and South Ray craters – 1 @,@ 000 and 680 m ( 3 @,@ 280 and 2 @,@ 230 ft ) in diameter , respectively – which provided " natural drill holes " which penetrated through the lunar regolith at the site , thus leaving exposed bedrock that could be sampled by the crew .
After selecting the landing site for Apollo 16 , sampling the Descartes and Cayley formations , two geologic units of the lunar highlands , was determined by mission planners to be the primary sampling interest of the mission . It was these formations that the scientific community widely suspected were formed by lunar volcanism , but this hypothesis was proven incorrect by the composition of lunar samples from the mission .
= = = Training = = =
In preparing for their mission , in addition to the usual Apollo spacecraft training , Young and Duke , along with backup commander Fred Haise , underwent an extensive geological training program that included several field trips to introduce them to concepts and techniques they would use in analyzing features and collecting samples on the lunar surface . During these trips , they visited and provided scientific descriptions of geologic features they were likely to encounter . In July 1971 , they visited Sudbury , Ontario , Canada for geology training exercises , the first time U.S. astronauts did so . Geologists chose the area because of a 60 mi ( 97 km ) wide crater created about 1 @.@ 8 billion years ago by a large meteorite . The Sudbury Basin shows evidence of shatter cone geology familiarizing the Apollo crew with geologic evidence of a meteor impact . During the training exercises the astronauts did not wear space suits , but carried radio equipment to converse with each other and scientist @-@ astronaut Anthony W. England , practicing procedures they would use on the lunar surface .
In addition to the field geology training , Young and Duke also trained to use their EVA space suits , adapt to the reduced lunar gravity , collect samples , and drive the Lunar Roving Vehicle . They also received survival training and preparation for other technical aspects of the mission .
Command Module pilot Mattingly also received training in recognizing geological features from orbit by flying over the field areas in an airplane , and trained to operate the Scientific Instrument Module from lunar orbit .
= = Mission highlights = =
= = = Launch and outbound trip = = =
The launch of Apollo 16 was delayed one month from March 17 to April 16 . This was the first launch delay in the Apollo program due to a technical problem . During the delay , the space suits , a spacecraft separation mechanism and batteries in the Lunar Module ( LM ) were modified and tested . There were concerns that the explosive mechanism designed to separate the docking ring from the Command Module ( CM ) would not create enough pressure to completely sever the ring . This , along with a dexterity issue in Young 's space suit and fluctuations in the capacity of the Lunar Module batteries , required investigation and trouble @-@ shooting . In January 1972 , three months before the planned April launch date , a fuel tank in the Command Module was accidentally damaged during a routine test . The rocket was returned to the Vertical Assembly Building ( VAB ) and the fuel tank replaced , and the rocket returned to the launch pad in February in time for the scheduled launch .
The official mission countdown began on Monday , April 10 , 1972 , at 8 : 30 AM , six days before the launch . At this point the Saturn V rocket 's three stages were powered up and drinking water was pumped into the spacecraft . As the countdown began , the crew of Apollo 16 was participating in final training exercises in anticipation of a launch on April 16 . The astronauts underwent their final preflight physical examination on April 11 . On April 15 , liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen propellants were pumped into the spacecraft , while the astronauts rested in anticipation of their launch the next day .
The Apollo 16 mission launched from the Kennedy Space Center in Florida at 12 : 54 PM EST on April 16 , 1972 . The launch was nominal ; the crew experienced vibration similar to that of previous crews . The first and second stages of the Saturn V rocket performed nominally ; the spacecraft entered orbit around Earth just under 12 minutes after lift @-@ off . After reaching orbit , the crew spent time adapting to the zero @-@ gravity environment and preparing the spacecraft for Trans Lunar Injection ( TLI ) , the burn of the third @-@ stage rocket that would propel them to the Moon . In Earth orbit , the crew faced minor technical issues , including a potential problem with the environmental control system and the S @-@ IVB third stage 's attitude control system , but eventually resolved or compensated for them as they prepared to depart towards the Moon . After two orbits , the rocket 's third stage reignited for just over five minutes , propelling the craft towards the Moon at about 22 @,@ 000 mph ( 35 @,@ 000 km / h ) . Six minutes after the burn of the S @-@ IVB , the Command / Service Module , containing the crew , separated from the rocket and traveled for 15 m ( 49 ft ) before turning around and retrieving the Lunar Module from inside the expended rocket stage . The maneuver , known as transposition , went smoothly and the LM was extracted from the S @-@ IVB . Following transposition and docking , the crew noticed the exterior surface of the Lunar Module was giving off particles from a spot where the LM 's skin appeared torn or shredded ; at one point , Duke estimated they were seeing about five to ten particles per second . The crew entered the Lunar Module through the docking tunnel connecting it with the Command Module to inspect its systems , at which time they did not spot any major issues . Once on course towards the Moon , the crew put the spacecraft into a rotisserie " barbecue " mode in which the craft rotated along its long axis three times per hour to ensure even heat distribution about the spacecraft from the Sun . After further preparing the craft for the voyage , the crew began the first sleep period of the mission just under 15 hours after launch .
By the time Mission Control issued the wake @-@ up call to the crew for flight day two , the spacecraft was about 98 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 181 @,@ 000 km ) away from the Earth , traveling at about 5 @,@ 322 ft / s ( 1 @,@ 622 m / s ) . As it was not due to arrive in lunar orbit until flight day four , flight days two and three were largely preparatory days , consisting of spacecraft maintenance and scientific research . On day two , the crew performed an electrophoresis experiment , also performed on Apollo 14 , in which they attempted to prove the higher purity of particle migrations in the zero @-@ gravity environment . The remainder of day two included a two @-@ second mid @-@ course correction burn performed by the Command / Service Module 's Service Propulsion System engine to tweak the spacecraft 's trajectory . Later in the day , the astronauts entered the Lunar Module for the second time in the mission to further inspect the landing craft 's systems . The crew reported they had observed additional paint peeling from a portion of the LM 's outer aluminum skin . Despite this , the crew discovered that the spacecraft 's systems were performing nominally . Following the LM inspection , the crew reviewed checklists and procedures for the following days in anticipation of their arrival and the Lunar Orbit Insertion burn . Command Module Pilot Mattingly reported a " gimbal lock " warning light , indicating the craft was not reporting an attitude . Mattingly alleviated this by realigning the guidance system using the Sun and Moon . At the end of day two , Apollo 16 was about 140 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 260 @,@ 000 km ) away from Earth .
At the beginning of day three , the spacecraft was about 157 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 291 @,@ 000 km ) away from the Earth . The velocity of the craft steadily decreased , as it had not yet reached the lunar sphere of gravitational influence . The early part of day three was largely housekeeping , spacecraft maintenance and exchanging status reports with Mission Control in Houston . The crew performed the Apollo light flash experiment , or ALFMED , to investigate " light flashes " that were seen by the astronauts when the spacecraft was dark , regardless of whether or not their eyes were open , on Apollo lunar flights . This was thought to be caused by the penetration of the eye by cosmic ray particles . During the second half of the day , Young and Duke again entered the Lunar Module to power it up and check its systems , and perform housekeeping tasks in preparation for lunar landing . The systems were found to be functioning as expected . Following this , the crew donned their space suits and rehearsed procedures that would be used on landing day . Just before the end of flight day three at 59 hours , 19 minutes , 45 seconds after liftoff , while 178 @,@ 673 nautical miles ( 330 @,@ 902 km ) from the Earth and 33 @,@ 821 nautical miles ( 62 @,@ 636 km ) from the Moon , the spacecraft 's velocity began increasing as it accelerated towards the Moon after entering the lunar sphere of influence .
After waking up on flight day four , the crew began preparations for the maneuver that would brake the spacecraft into orbit around the Moon , or lunar orbit insertion . At a distance of 11 @,@ 142 nautical miles ( 20 @,@ 635 km ) from the Moon , the Scientific Instrument Module ( SIM ) bay cover was jettisoned . At just over 74 hours into the mission , the spacecraft passed behind the Moon , losing direct contact with Mission Control . While over the far side of the Moon , the Command / Service Module 's Service Propulsion System engine burned for 6 minutes and 15 seconds , braking the spacecraft into an orbit around the Moon with a low point ( pericynthion ) of 58 @.@ 3 and a high point ( apocynthion ) of 170 @.@ 4 nautical miles ( 108 @.@ 0 and 315 @.@ 6 km , respectively ) . After entering lunar orbit , the crew began preparations for the Descent Orbit Insertion ( DOI ) maneuver to further modify the spacecraft 's orbital trajectory . The maneuver was successful , decreasing the craft 's pericynthion to 10 @.@ 7 nautical miles ( 19 @.@ 8 km ) . The remainder of flight day four was spent making observations and preparing for activation of the Lunar Module , undocking , and landing the next day .
= = = Lunar surface = = =
The crew continued preparing for Lunar Module activation and undocking shortly after waking up to begin flight day five . The boom that extended the mass spectrometer out from the Command / Service Module 's Scientific Instruments Bay was stuck in a semi @-@ deployed position . It was decided that Young and Duke would visually inspect the boom after undocking from the CSM in the LM . They entered the LM for activation and checkout of the spacecraft 's systems . Despite entering the LM 40 minutes ahead of schedule , they completed preparations only 10 minutes early due to numerous delays in the process . With the preparations finished , they undocked in the LM Orion from Mattingly in the Command / Service Module Casper 96 hours , 13 minutes , 13 seconds into the mission . For the rest of the two crafts ' passes over the near side of the Moon , Mattingly prepared to shift Casper to a circular orbit while Young and Duke prepared Orion for the descent to the lunar surface . At this point , during tests of the CSM 's steerable rocket engine in preparation for the burn to modify the craft 's orbit , a malfunction occurred in the engine 's backup system . According to mission rules , Orion would have then re @-@ docked with Casper , in case Mission Control decided to abort the landing and use the Lunar Module 's engines for the return trip to Earth . After several hours of analysis , however , mission controllers determined that the malfunction could be worked around and Young and Duke could proceed with the landing . As a result of this , powered descent to the lunar surface began about six hours behind schedule . Because of the delay , Young and Duke began their descent to the surface at an altitude higher than that of any previous mission , at 20 @.@ 1 kilometers ( 10 @.@ 9 nmi ) . At an altitude of about 4 @,@ 000 m ( 13 @,@ 000 ft ) , Young was able to view the landing site in its entirety . Throttle @-@ down of the LM 's landing engine occurred on time and the spacecraft tilted forward to its landing orientation at an altitude of 2 @,@ 200 m ( 7 @,@ 200 ft ) . The LM landed 270 m ( 890 ft ) north and 60 m ( 200 ft ) west of the planned landing site at 104 hours , 29 minutes , and 35 seconds into the mission , at 2 : 23 : 35 UTC on April 21 .
After landing , Young and Duke began powering down some of the LM 's systems to conserve battery power . Upon completing their initial adjustments , the pair configured Orion for their three @-@ day stay on the lunar surface , removed their space suits and took initial geological observations of the immediate landing site . They then settled down for their first meal on the surface . After eating , they configured the cabin for their first sleep period on the Moon . The landing delay caused by the malfunction in the Command / Service Module 's main engine necessitated significant modifications to the mission schedule . Apollo 16 would spend one less day in lunar orbit after surface exploration had been completed to afford the crew contingency time to compensate for any further problems and to conserve expendables . In order to improve Young 's and Duke 's sleep schedule , the third and final moonwalk of the mission was trimmed from seven hours to five .
The next morning , flight day five , Young and Duke ate breakfast and began preparations for the first extra @-@ vehicular activity ( EVA ) , or moonwalk . After the pair donned and pressurized their space suits and depressurized the Lunar Module cabin , Young climbed out onto the " porch " of the LM , a small platform above the ladder . Duke handed Young a jettison bag full of trash to dispose of on the surface . Young then lowered the equipment transfer bag ( ETB ) , containing equipment for use during the EVA , to the surface . Young descended the ladder and , upon setting foot on the lunar surface , became the ninth human to walk on the Moon . Upon stepping onto the surface , Young expressed his sentiments about being there : " There you are : Mysterious and Unknown Descartes . Highland plains . Apollo 16 is gonna change your image . I 'm sure glad they got ol ' Brer Rabbit , here , back in the briar patch where he belongs . " Duke soon descended the ladder and joined Young on the surface , becoming the tenth and youngest human to walk on the Moon , at age 36 . After setting foot on the lunar surface , Duke expressed his excitement , commenting : " Fantastic ! Oh , that first foot on the lunar surface is super , Tony ! " The pair 's first task of the moonwalk was to unload the Lunar Roving Vehicle , the Far Ultraviolet Camera / Spectrograph ( UVC ) , and other equipment , from the Lunar Module . This was done without problems . On first driving the lunar rover , Young discovered that the rear steering was not working . He alerted Mission Control to the problem before setting up the television camera and planting the flag of the United States with Duke . The day 's next task was to deploy the Apollo Lunar Surface Experiments Package ( ALSEP ) ; while they were parking the lunar rover , on which the TV camera was mounted , to observe the deployment , the rear steering began functioning without explanation . While deploying a heat @-@ flow experiment ( that had burned up with the Lunar Module Aquarius on Apollo 13 and had been attempted with limited success on Apollo 15 ) , a cable was inadvertently snapped after getting caught around Young 's foot . After ALSEP deployment , they collected samples in the vicinity . About four hours after the beginning of EVA @-@ 1 , they mounted the lunar rover and drove to the first geologic stop , Plum Crater , a 36 m @-@ wide ( 118 ft ) crater on the rim of Flag crater , about 240 m ( 790 ft ) across . There , at a distance of 1 @.@ 4 km ( 0 @.@ 87 mi ) from the LM , they sampled material from the vicinity of Flag Crater , which scientists believed penetrated through the upper regolith layer to the underlying Cayley Formation . It was there that Young retrieved , at the request of Mission Control , the largest rock returned by an Apollo mission , a breccia nicknamed Big Muley after mission geology principal investigator William R. Muehlberger . The next stop of the day was Buster Crater , about 1 @.@ 6 km ( 0 @.@ 99 mi ) from the LM . There , Duke took pictures of Stone Mountain and South Ray Crater while Young deployed a magnetic field experiment . At that point , scientists began to reconsider their pre @-@ mission hypothesis that Descartes had been the setting of ancient volcanic activity , as the two astronauts had yet to find any volcanic material . Following their stop at Buster , Young did a demonstration drive of the lunar rover while Duke filmed with a 16 mm movie camera . After completing more tasks at the ALSEP , they returned to the LM to close out the moonwalk . They reentered the LM 7 hours , 6 minutes , and 56 seconds after the start of the EVA . Once inside , they pressurized the LM cabin , went through a half @-@ hour briefing with scientists in Mission Control , and configured the cabin for the sleep period .
Shortly after waking up on the morning of flight day six three and a half minutes early , they discussed with Mission Control in Houston the day 's timeline of events . The second lunar excursion 's primary objective was to visit Stone Mountain to climb up the slope of about 20 degrees to reach a cluster of five craters known as " Cinco Craters . " After preparations for the day 's moonwalk were completed , the astronauts climbed out of the Lunar Module . After departing the immediate landing site in the lunar rover , they arrived at the day 's first destination , the Cinco Craters , 3 @.@ 8 km ( 2 @.@ 4 mi ) from the LM . At 152 m ( 499 ft ) above the valley floor , the pair were at the highest elevation above the LM of any Apollo mission . After marveling at the view ( including South Ray ) from the side of Stone Mountain , which Duke described as " spectacular , " the astronauts gathered samples in the vicinity . After spending 54 minutes on the slope , they climbed aboard the lunar rover en route to the day 's second stop , station five , a crater 20 m ( 66 ft ) across . There , they hoped to find Descartes material that had not been contaminated by ejecta from South Ray Crater , a large crater south of the landing site . The samples they collected there , although their origin is still not certain , are , according to geologist Don Wilhelms , " a reasonable bet to be Descartes . " The next stop , station six , was a 10 m @-@ wide ( 33 ft ) blocky crater , where the astronauts believed they could sample the Cayley Formation as evidenced by the firmer soil found there . Bypassing station seven to save time , they arrived at station eight on the lower flank of Stone Mountain , where they sampled material on a ray from South Ray Crater for about an hour . There , they collected black and white breccias and smaller , crystalline rocks rich in plagioclase . At station nine , an area known as the " Vacant Lot , " which was believed to be free of ejecta from South Ray , they spent about 40 minutes gathering samples . Twenty @-@ five minutes after departing station nine , they arrived at the final stop of the day , halfway between the ALSEP site and the LM . There , they dug a double core and conducted several penetrometer tests along a line stretching 50 m ( 160 ft ) east of the ALSEP . At the request of Young and Duke , the moonwalk was extended by ten minutes . After returning to the LM to wrap up the second lunar excursion , they climbed back inside the landing craft 's cabin , sealing and pressurizing the interior after 7 hours , 23 minutes , and 26 seconds of EVA time , breaking a record that had been set on Apollo 15 . After eating a meal and proceeding with a debriefing on the day 's activities with Mission Control , they reconfigured the LM cabin and prepared for the sleep period .
Flight day seven was their third and final day on the lunar surface , returning to orbit to rejoin Mattingly in the Command / Service Module following the day 's moonwalk . During the third and final lunar excursion , they were to explore North Ray Crater , the largest of any of the craters any Apollo expedition had visited . After exiting Orion , the pair drove the lunar rover 0 @.@ 8 km ( 0 @.@ 50 mi ) away from the LM before adjusting their heading to travel 1 @.@ 4 km ( 0 @.@ 87 mi ) to North Ray Crater . The drive was smoother than that of the previous day , as the craters were shallower and boulders were less abundant north of the immediate landing site . Boulders gradually became larger and more abundant as they approached North Ray in the lunar rover . Upon arriving at the rim of North Ray crater , they were 4 @.@ 4 km ( 2 @.@ 7 mi ) away from the LM . After their arrival , the duo took photographs of the 1 km ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) wide and 230 m ( 750 ft ) deep crater . They visited a large boulder , taller than a four @-@ story building , which became known as ' House Rock ' . Samples obtained from this boulder delivered the final blow to the pre @-@ mission volcanic hypothesis , proving it incorrect . House Rock had numerous bullet hole @-@ like marks where micrometeoroids from space had impacted the rock . About 1 hour and 22 minutes after arriving , they departed for station 13 , a large boulder field about 0 @.@ 5 km ( 0 @.@ 31 mi ) from North Ray . On the way , they set a lunar speed record , traveling at an estimated 17 @.@ 1 kilometers per hour ( 10 @.@ 6 mph ) downhill . They arrived at a 3 m ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) high boulder , which they called ' Shadow Rock ' . Here , they sampled permanently shadowed soil . During this time , Mattingly was preparing the Command / Service Module in anticipation of their return approximately six hours later . After three hours and six minutes , they returned to the LM , where they completed several experiments and offloaded the rover . A short distance from the LM , Duke placed a photograph of his family and a United States Air Force commemorative medallion on the surface . Young drove the rover to a point about 90 m ( 300 ft ) east of the LM , known as the ' VIP site , ' so its television camera , controlled remotely by Mission Control , could observe Apollo 16 's liftoff from the Moon . They then reentered the LM after a 5 @-@ hour and 40 minute final excursion . After pressurizing the LM cabin , the crew began preparing to return to lunar orbit .
= = = Return to Earth = = =
Eight minutes before departing the lunar surface , CAPCOM James Irwin notified Young and Duke from Mission Control that they were go for liftoff . Two minutes before launch , they activated the " Master Arm " switch and then the " Abort Stage " button , after which they awaited ignition of Orion ’ s ascent stage engine . When the ascent stage ignited , small explosive charges severed the ascent stage from the descent stage and cables connecting the two were severed by a guillotine @-@ like mechanism . Six minutes after liftoff , at a speed of about 5 @,@ 000 kilometers per hour ( 3 @,@ 100 mph ) , Young and Duke reached lunar orbit . Young and Duke successfully rendezvoused and re @-@ docked with Mattingly in the Command / Service Module . To minimize the transfer of lunar dust from the LM cabin into the CSM , Young and Duke cleaned the cabin before opening the hatch separating the two spacecraft . After opening the hatch and reuniting with Mattingly , the crew transferred the samples Young and Duke had collected on the surface into the CSM for transfer to Earth . After transfers were completed , the crew would sleep before jettisoning the empty Lunar Module ascent stage the next day , when it was to be crashed intentionally into the lunar surface .
The next day , after final checks were completed , the expended LM ascent stage was jettisoned . Because of a failure by the crew to activate a certain switch in the LM before sealing it off , it initially tumbled after separation and did not execute the rocket burn necessary for the craft 's intentional de @-@ orbit . The ascent stage eventually crashed into the lunar surface nearly a year after the mission . The crew 's next task , after jettisoning the Lunar Module ascent stage , was to release a subsatellite into lunar orbit from the CSM 's Scientific Instrument Bay . The burn to alter the CSM 's orbit to that desired for the subsatellite had been cancelled ; as a result , the subsatellite lasted half of its anticipated lifetime . Just under five hours later , on the CSM 's 65th orbit around the Moon , its Service Propulsion System main engine was reignited to propel the craft on a trajectory that would return it to Earth . The SPS engine performed the burn flawlessly despite the malfunction that had delayed the lunar landing several days before .
At a distance of about 170 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 310 @,@ 000 km ) from Earth , Mattingly performed a " deep @-@ space " extra @-@ vehicular activity , or spacewalk , during which he retrieved several film cassettes from the CSM 's SIM bay . While outside the spacecraft , Mattingly set up a biological experiment , the Microbial Ecology Evaluation Device ( MEED ) . The MEED experiment was only performed on Apollo 16 . The crew carried out various housekeeping and maintenance tasks aboard the spacecraft and ate a meal before concluding the day .
The penultimate day of the flight was largely spent performing experiments , aside from a twenty @-@ minute press conference during the second half of the day . During the press conference , the astronauts answered questions pertaining to several technical and non @-@ technical aspects of the mission prepared and listed by priority at the Manned Spacecraft Center in Houston by journalists covering the flight . In addition to numerous housekeeping tasks , the astronauts prepared the spacecraft for its atmospheric reentry the next day . At the end of the crew 's final full day in space , the spacecraft was approximately 77 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 143 @,@ 000 km ) from Earth and closing at a rate of about 7 @,@ 000 feet per second ( 2 @,@ 100 m / s ) .
When the wake @-@ up call was issued to the crew for their final day in space by CAPCOM Tony England , it was about 45 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 83 @,@ 000 km ) out from Earth , traveling just over 9 @,@ 000 ft / s ( 2 @,@ 700 m / s ) . Just over three hours before splashdown in the Pacific Ocean , the crew performed a final course correction burn , changing their velocity by 1 @.@ 4 ft / s ( 0 @.@ 43 m / s ) . Approximately ten minutes before reentry into Earth 's atmosphere , the cone @-@ shaped Command Module containing the three crewmembers separated from the Service Module , which would burn up during reentry . At 265 hours and 37 minutes into the mission , at a velocity of about 36 @,@ 000 ft / s ( 11 @,@ 000 m / s ) , Apollo 16 began atmospheric reentry . At its maximum , the temperature of the heat shield was between 4 @,@ 000 and 4 @,@ 500 ° F ( 2 @,@ 200 and 2 @,@ 480 ° C ) . After successful parachute deployment and less than 14 minutes after reentry began , the Command Module splashed down in the Pacific Ocean 350 km ( 220 mi ) southeast of the island of Kiritimati ( or " Christmas Island " ) , 290 hours , 37 minutes , 6 seconds after liftoff . The spacecraft and its crew was retrieved by USS Ticonderoga . They were safely aboard the Ticonderoga 37 minutes after splashdown .
= = Lunar subsatellite PFS @-@ 2 = =
The Apollo 16 subsatellite ( PFS @-@ 2 ) was a small satellite released into lunar orbit from the Service Module . Its principal objective was to measure charged particles and magnetic fields all around the Moon as the Moon orbited Earth , similar to its sister spacecraft , PFS @-@ 1 , released eight months earlier by Apollo 15 . " The low orbits of both subsatellites were to be similar ellipses , ranging from 55 to 76 miles ( 89 to 122 kilometres ) above the lunar surface . "
" Instead , something bizarre happened . The orbit of PFS @-@ 2 rapidly changed shape and distance from the Moon . In 2 @-@ 1 / 2 weeks the satellite was swooping to within a hair @-@ raising 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) of the lunar surface at closest approach . As the orbit kept changing , PFS @-@ 2 backed off again , until it seemed to be a safe 30 miles away . But not for long : inexorably , the subsatellite 's orbit carried it back toward the Moon . And on May 29 , 1972 — only 35 days and 425 orbits after its release " — PFS @-@ 2 crashed into the Lunar surface .
In later years , through a study of many lunar orbiting satellites , scientists came to discover that most low lunar orbits ( LLO ) are unstable . PFS @-@ 2 had been placed , unknown to mission planners at the time , squarely into one of the most unstable of orbits , at 11 degrees orbital inclination , far from the four frozen lunar orbits discovered only later at 27 ° , 50 ° , 76 ° , and 86 ° inclination .
= = Spacecraft locations = =
The aircraft carrier USS Ticonderoga delivered the Apollo 16 Command Module to the North Island Naval Air Station , near San Diego , California , on Friday , May 5 , 1972 . On Monday , May 8 , 1972 , ground service equipment being used to empty the residual toxic reaction control system fuel in the Command Module tanks exploded in a Naval Air Station hangar . Forty @-@ six people were sent to the hospital for 24 to 48 hours observation , most suffering from inhalation of toxic fumes . Most seriously injured was a technician who suffered a fractured kneecap when the GSE cart overturned on him . A hole was blown in the hangar roof 250 feet above ; about 40 windows in the hangar were shattered . The Command Module suffered a three @-@ inch gash in one panel .
The Apollo 16 Command Module Casper is on display at the U.S. Space & Rocket Center in Huntsville , Alabama . The Lunar Module ascent stage separated 24 April 1972 but a loss of attitude control rendered it out of control . It orbited the Moon for about a year . Its impact site remained unknown until January 2016 , when it was discovered within Mare Insularum by the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter , approximately 160 mi ( 260 km ) southwest of Copernicus Crater .
Duke donated some flown items , including a lunar map , to Kennesaw State University in Kennesaw , Georgia . He left two items on the Moon , both of which he photographed . The most famous is a plastic @-@ encased photo portrait of his family ( NASA Photo AS16 @-@ 117 @-@ 18841 ) . The reverse of the photo is signed by Duke 's family and bears this message : " This is the family of Astronaut Duke from Planet Earth . Landed on the Moon , April 1972 . " The other item was a commemorative medal issued by the United States Air Force , which was celebrating its 25th anniversary in 1972 . He took two medals , leaving one on the Moon and donating the other to the Wright @-@ Patterson Air Force Base museum .
In 2006 , shortly after Hurricane Ernesto affected Bath , North Carolina , eleven @-@ year @-@ old Kevin Schanze discovered a piece of metal debris on the ground near his beach home . Schanze and a friend discovered a " stamp " on the 36 @-@ inch ( 91 cm ) flat metal sheet , which upon further inspection turned out to be a faded copy of the Apollo 16 mission insignia . NASA later confirmed the object to be a piece of the first stage of the Saturn V rocket that launched Apollo 16 into space . In July 2011 , after returning the piece of debris at NASA 's request , 16 @-@ year @-@ old Schanze was given an all @-@ access tour of the Kennedy Space Center and VIP seating for the launch of STS @-@ 135 , the final mission of the Space Shuttle program .
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= Jay Barbree =
Jay Barbree ( born November 26 , 1933 ) is a correspondent for NBC News , focusing on space travel . Barbree is the only journalist to have covered every manned space mission in the United States , beginning with the first American in space , Alan Shepard aboard Freedom 7 in 1961 , continuing through to the last mission of the Space Shuttle , Atlantis 's STS @-@ 135 mission in July 2011 . Barbree has been present for all 135 space shuttle launches , and every manned launch for the Mercury , Gemini , and Apollo eras . In total , Barbree has been witness to 166 manned space launches .
= = Early life = =
Barbree grew up on his family 's farm in Early County , Georgia , and entered the United States Air Force in 1950 , when he was only 16 years of age . Following the Air Force , Barbree began his broadcast journalism career at WALB in Albany , Georgia where , in 1957 , he saw Sputnik 's spent booster rocket orbiting in the sky and then wrote radio and TV reports about the Soviet Union 's launch of the first artificial satellite .
= = Career = =
= = = Reporting career = = =
Barbree was so interested in the space program , that he paid for his own ticket to get to Cape Canaveral , Florida in 1957 , and watched the attempted Vanguard launch . The failed launch was one Barbree would never forget : " There 's ignition . We can see the flames , " Barbree reported . " Vanguard 's engine is lit and it 's burning . But wait ... wait a moment , there 's ... there 's no liftoff ! It appears to be crumbling in its own fire ... It 's burning on the pad ... Vanguard has crumbled into flames . It failed ladies and gentlemen , Vanguard has failed . "
Early the next year , he returned and witnessed the successful launch of Explorer 1 on January 31 , 1958 , all the while calling in his reports to WALB . Eventually , Barbree was hired by radio station WEZY in Cocoa Beach , and worked as a traffic reporter , covering the space program as well .
Six months later , Barbree joined NBC as a part @-@ time space program reporter , eventually moving up to full @-@ time . Over the years , Barbree had been offered the opportunity to move to Washington , D.C. , or New York , but he turned down every offer , preferring to stay and report on what had quickly become his passion , spaceflight .
" This is a job where … you have to be , whether you like it or not , a certain member of the space family . "
In 1958 , while in a restroom , Barbree overheard a general and a NASA official , talking about an upcoming launch called " Project SCORE " , one of the earliest American satellites . This would become one of Barbree 's many " scoops " , when after a bit of digging , he found that President Dwight D. Eisenhower would use the satellite to broadcast a pre @-@ recorded Christmas message from outer space . When SCORE launched in 1958 , Barbree broadcast the story , knowing the military would not deny it once the satellite was in space .
In the early days of the space program , astronauts and reporters would often socialize together in Cocoa Beach , and had a very different relationship than they do today . Barbree described his relationship with the astronauts as a friend and confidant , often going out to dinner with them , or socializing together when the astronauts were in town . In his book , Barbree writes that in 1961 Alan Shepard told him an " off the record " fact : He was going to be the first American astronaut in space . Barbree noted that if he were to report this , it would not only jeopardize the friendships , but possibly his career as well , so he said nothing . Barbree also recounts a conversation with Gus Grissom about the astronaut ’ s concerns regarding Apollo not long before the fatal Apollo 1 fire . Barbree 's association with the astronauts had some unexpected bonuses as well , Neil Armstrong carried a gold coin to the moon on Apollo 11 for Barbree , and Pete Conrad flew several flags and patches on Apollo 12 , which Barbree later handed out to friends .
In the early 1980s , when NASA developed the Teacher in Space program , a similar program was developed , the Journalist in Space program . Barbree was one of forty finalists to be selected as a Journalist in Space . Both the teacher and journalist programs were discontinued after the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster .
In 1986 , following the Space Shuttle Challenger accident , Barbree placed a telephone call to a friend and retired employee of NASA , who — as a favor to Barbree — went to Kennedy Space Center , looked over the accident information and analysis being done , and later reported the early findings to Barbree . Consequently , Barbree was the first journalist to report on the source of the destruction of the Space Shuttle Challenger : Faulty O @-@ rings . He was also part of the NBC News Space Unit that won an Emmy award for NBC 's coverage of the Apollo 11 moon landing . Following the Space Shuttle Columbia accident , Barbree was the first reporter to break the news of an internal NASA memo expressing concerns about foam striking the orbiter 's left wing during ascent .
In 1995 , NASA awarded him with recognition for being the " only journalist known to have covered all 100 flights " . Among those present for the ceremony were several NASA officials , Alan Shepard , and shuttle commander Robert L. Gibson .
In 2011 , Barbree was honored by the Space Foundation as a recipient of the Douglas S. Morrow Public Outreach Award in recognition of the role he played in shaping the way the nation views and understands space .
At age seventy @-@ seven , Barbree is one of the longest @-@ serving network correspondents to work continuously on a single subject . He started working for NBC on July 21 , 1958 covering the space program , and continues in that capacity to the present . He has never missed a mission launch , despite suffering a heart attack while jogging along Cocoa Beach in 1987 , and being declared clinically dead for several minutes . Following his heart attack , he had bypass surgery , and still did not miss any launches .
Barbree covers the shuttle program and space missions for the cable network MSNBC , and NBC 's news reports covering missions . His contract with NBC runs through 2010 , allowing him to complete the coverage of the entire space shuttle program , and he has expressed hope that he will be there for the return to the moon missions .
= = = Career as author = = =
Barbree is the author or coauthor of seven books , including two memoirs . In 1993 , Shepard , fellow Mercury astronaut Deke Slayton , journalist Howard Benedict , and Barbree collaborated to write the book Moon Shot . Slayton was a participant in name only and died before the book was completed .
Barbree 's most recent book , " Live from Cape Canaveral : Covering the Space Race , from Sputnik to Today " , was released on August 28 , 2007 , to coincide with the 50th anniversary of spaceflight , that began with the Sputnik 1 launch on October 4 , 1957 . The foreword is written by Tom Brokaw . Barbree 's book attempts to illustrate how the media has changed in their coverage of the space programs , from the early enthusiasm to the relative disinterest in the program today . Barbree says he wrote the book because as he looked back over his career , when recalling all the people he 'd worked with , very few were left . Barbree claims that he told himself , " You 're the only one who has covered the whole program going all the way back to the beginning , and if you don 't tell the story , who is going to do it ? " It received generally poor reviews from space historians .
Barbree also collaborated with Martin Caidin on a number of non @-@ fiction works , such as Destination Mars : In Art , Myth and Science ( Penguin , 1997 , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 670 @-@ 86020 @-@ 3 ) and A Journey Through Time : Exploring the Universe with the Hubble Space Telescope ( Penguin , 1995 , ISBN 0 @-@ 670 @-@ 86018 @-@ 2 ) . Barbree also wrote the novelization of " Pilot Error " , an episode of The Six Million Dollar Man , a television series based upon Caidin 's novel Cyborg ( Warner , 1975 , ISBN 0 @-@ 446 @-@ 76835 @-@ 9 ) .
Over the years , Barbree has stated that he has stayed away from sensationalizing the space program , or those associated with it , and commented that he would not put some items that could be considered harmful into his newest book , stating " The whole idea of the book is not to hurt somebody . " Barbree attempts to illustrate this in his memoir by telling of a private investigator who approached him with an audio tape which allegedly contained proof of an extramarital affair involving an astronaut . Barbree told the investigator he would speak to his superiors , but then proceeded to erase the tape .
= = Personal life = =
Barbree has been married since 1960 to the former Jo Reisinger , whom he met while covering her participation in Florida beauty pageants . They live in Merritt Island . They have three children , Steve , Alicia , and Karla . Their son Scott died in infancy following a premature birth .
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= SMS Nassau =
SMS Nassau was the first dreadnought battleship built for the Imperial German Navy , a response to the launching of the British battleship HMS Dreadnought . Nassau was laid down on 22 July 1907 at the Kaiserliche Werft in Wilhelmshaven , and launched less than a year later on 7 March 1908 , approximately 25 months after Dreadnought was launched . She was the lead ship of her class of four battleships , which included Posen , Rheinland , and Westfalen .
Nassau saw service in the North Sea in the beginning of World War I , in the II Division of the I Battle Squadron of the German High Seas Fleet . In August 1915 , she entered the Baltic Sea and participated in the Battle of the Gulf of Riga , where she engaged the Russian battleship Slava . Following her return to the North Sea , Nassau and her sister ships took part in the Battle of Jutland on 31 May – 1 June 1916 . During the battle , Nassau collided with the British destroyer HMS Spitfire . Nassau suffered a total of 11 killed and 16 injured during the engagement .
After World War I , the bulk of the High Seas Fleet was interned in Scapa Flow . As they were the oldest German dreadnoughts , the Nassau @-@ class ships were for the time permitted to remain in German ports . After the German fleet was scuttled , Nassau and her three sisters were surrendered to the victorious powers as replacements for the sunken ships . Nassau was ceded to Japan in April 1920 . With no use for the ship , Japan sold her to a British wrecking firm which then scrapped her in Dordrecht , Netherlands .
= = Construction = =
Nassau was ordered under the provisional name Ersatz Bayern , as a replacement for the old Sachsen @-@ class ironclad Bayern . She was laid down on 22 July 1907 at the Kaiserliche Werft in Wilhelmshaven , under construction number 30 . Construction work proceeded under absolute secrecy ; detachments of soldiers were tasked with guarding the shipyard itself , as well as contractors that supplied building materials , such as Krupp . The ship was launched on 7 March 1908 ; she was christened by Princess Hilda of Nassau , and the ceremony was attended by Kaiser Wilhelm II and Prince Henry of the Netherlands , representing his wife 's House of Orange @-@ Nassau .
Fitting out work was delayed significantly when a dockyard worker accidentally removed a blanking plate from a large pipe , which allowed a large amount of water to flood the ship . The ship did not have its watertight bulkheads installed , so the water spread throughout the ship and caused it to list to port and sink 1 @.@ 6 m ( 5 ft 3 in ) to the bottom of the dock . The ship had to be pumped dry and cleaned out , which proved to be a laborious task . The ship ultimately was completed by the end of September 1909 . She was commissioned into the High Seas Fleet on 1 October 1909 , and trials commenced immediately . HMS Dreadnought , the ship that spurred Nassau 's construction , had been launched 2 February 1906 , some 25 months before Nassau . The ship cost the German navy 37 @,@ 399 @,@ 000 gold marks .
Nassau was 146 @.@ 1 m ( 479 ft 4 in ) long , 26 @.@ 9 m ( 88 ft 3 in ) wide , and had a draft of 8 @.@ 9 m ( 29 ft 2 in ) . She displaced 18 @,@ 873 t ( 18 @,@ 575 long tons ) with a normal load , and 20 @,@ 535 t ( 20 @,@ 211 long tons ) fully laden . The ship had a crew of 40 officers and 968 enlisted men . Nassau retained three @-@ shafted triple expansion engines with coal @-@ fired boilers instead of more advanced turbine engines . Her propulsion system was rated at 21 @,@ 699 ihp ( 16 @,@ 181 kW ) and provided a top speed of 20 knots ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) . She had a cruising radius of 8 @,@ 300 nautical miles ( 15 @,@ 400 km ; 9 @,@ 600 mi ) at a speed of 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) . This type of machinery was chosen at the request of both Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz and the Navy 's construction department ; the latter stated in 1905 that the " use of turbines in heavy warships does not recommend itself . " This decision was based solely on cost : at the time , Parsons held a monopoly on steam turbines and required a 1 million gold mark royalty fee for every turbine engine . German firms were not ready to begin production of turbines on a large scale until 1910 .
Nassau carried twelve 28 cm ( 11 in ) SK L / 45 guns in an unusual hexagonal configuration . Her secondary armament consisted of twelve 15 cm ( 6 in ) SK L / 45 guns and sixteen 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 in ) SK L / 45 guns , all of which were mounted in casemates . The ship was also armed with six 45 cm ( 18 in ) submerged torpedo tubes . One tube was mounted in the bow , another in the stern , and two on each broadside , on either ends of the torpedo bulkhead . The ship 's belt armor was 270 mm ( 11 in ) thick in the central portion of the hull , and the armored deck was 80 mm ( 3 in ) thick . The main battery turrets had 280 mm ( 11 in ) thick sides , and the conning tower was protected with 400 mm ( 16 in ) of armor plating .
= = Service history = =
On 16 October 1909 , Nassau and her sister Westfalen participated in a ceremony for the opening of the new third entrance in the Wilhelmshaven Naval Dockyard . They were still on trials in February 1910 , but they took part in the annual maneuvers of the High Seas Fleet . Nassau finished her trials on 3 May and joined the newly created I Battle Squadron of the High Seas Fleet . Over the next four years , the ship participated in the normal series of squadron and fleet maneuvers and training cruises . The one exception was the summer training cruise for 1912 when , due to the Agadir Crisis , the cruise only went into the Baltic . On 14 July 1914 , the annual summer cruise to Norway began . The threat of war , however , caused the Kaiser to cancel the cruise after two weeks , and by the end of July , the fleet was back in port . War between Austria @-@ Hungary and Serbia broke out on the 28th , and in the span of a week all of the major European powers had joined the conflict .
Nassau participated in most of the fleet advances into the North Sea throughout the war . The first operation was conducted primarily by Rear Admiral Franz von Hipper 's battlecruisers ; the ships bombarded the English coastal towns of Scarborough , Hartlepool , and Whitby on 15 – 16 December 1914 . A German battlefleet of 12 dreadnoughts — including Nassau — and eight pre @-@ dreadnoughts sailed in support of the battlecruisers . On the evening of 15 December , they came to within 10 nmi ( 19 km ; 12 mi ) of an isolated squadron of six British battleships . However , skirmishes between the rival destroyer screens in the darkness convinced the German fleet commander , Admiral Friedrich von Ingenohl , that the entire Grand Fleet was deployed before him . Under orders from Kaiser Wilhelm II to not risk the fleet , von Ingenohl broke off the engagement and turned the battlefleet back towards Germany .
= = = Battle of the Gulf of Riga = = =
In August 1915 , the German fleet attempted to clear the Gulf of Riga in order to facilitate the capture of Riga by the German army . To do so , the German planners intended to drive off or destroy the Russian naval forces in the area , which included the pre @-@ dreadnought battleship Slava and a number of gunboats and destroyers . The German naval force would also lay a series of minefields in the northern entrance to the gulf to prevent Russian naval reinforcements from being able to enter the area . The fleet that assembled for the assault included Nassau and her three sister ships , the four Helgoland @-@ class battleships , and the battlecruisers Von der Tann , Moltke , and Seydlitz . The force would operate under the command of Vice Admiral Franz von Hipper . The eight battleships were to provide cover for the forces engaging the Russian flotilla . The first attempt on 8 August was unsuccessful , as it had taken too long to clear the Russian minefields to allow the minelayer Deutschland to lay a minefield of her own .
On 16 August 1915 , a second attempt was made to enter the gulf : Nassau and Posen , four light cruisers , and 31 torpedo boats managed to breach the Russian defenses . On the first day of the assault , the German minesweeper T 46 was sunk , as was the destroyer V 99 . The following day , Nassau and Posen engaged in an artillery duel with Slava , resulting in three hits on the Russian ship that forced her to retreat . By 19 August , the Russian minefields had been cleared and the flotilla entered the gulf . However , reports of Allied submarines in the area prompted the Germans to call off of the operation the following day . Nassau and Posen remained in the Gulf until 21 August , and while there assisted in the destruction of the gunboats Sivuch and Korietz . Admiral Hipper later remarked that ,
" To keep valuable ships for a considerable time in a limited area in which enemy submarines were increasingly active , with the corresponding risk of damage and loss , was to indulge in a gamble out of all proportion to the advantage to be derived from the occupation of the Gulf before the capture of Riga from the land side . "
= = = Battle of Jutland = = =
Nassau took part in the inconclusive Battle of Jutland on 31 May – 1 June 1916 , in the II Division of the I Battle Squadron . For the majority of the battle , the I Battle Squadron formed the center of the line of battle , behind Rear Admiral Behncke 's III Battle Squadron , and followed by Rear Admiral Mauve 's elderly pre @-@ dreadnoughts of the II Battle Squadron . Nassau was the third ship in the group of four , behind Rheinland and ahead of Westfalen ; Posen was the squadron 's flagship . However , when the German fleet reorganized into a nighttime cruising formation , the order of the ships was inadvertently reversed , and so Nassau was the second ship in the line , astern of Westfalen .
Between 17 : 48 and 17 : 52 , eleven German dreadnoughts , including Nassau , engaged and opened fire on the British 2nd Light Cruiser Squadron ; Nassau 's target was the cruiser Southampton . Nassau is believed to have scored one hit on Southampton , at approximately 17 : 50 at a range of 20 @,@ 100 yd ( 18 @,@ 400 m ) , shortly after she began firing . The shell struck Southampton obliquely on her port side , but did not cause significant damage . Nassau then shifted her guns to the cruiser Dublin , but ceased firing by 18 : 10 . At 19 : 33 , Nassau came into range of the British battleship Warspite ; her main guns fired briefly , but after the 180 degree turn by the German fleet , the British ship was no longer within reach .
Nassau and the rest of the I Squadron were again engaged by British light forces shortly after 22 : 00 , including the light cruisers Caroline , Comus , and Royalist . Nassau followed her sister Westfalen in a 68 ° turn to starboard in order to evade any torpedoes that might have been fired . The two ships fired on Caroline and Royalist at a range of around 8 @,@ 000 yd ( 7 @,@ 300 m ) . The British ships turned away briefly , before turning about to launch torpedoes . Caroline fired two at Nassau ; the first passed close to her bows and the second passed under the ship without exploding .
At around midnight on 1 June , the German fleet was attempting to pass behind the British Grand Fleet when it encountered a line of British destroyers . Nassau came in contact with the destroyer Spitfire , and in the confusion , attempted to ram her . Spitfire tried to evade , but could not maneuver away fast enough , and the two ships collided . Nassau fired her forward 11 @-@ inch guns at the destroyer , but they could not depress low enough for Nassau to be able to score a hit . Nonetheless , the blast from the guns destroyed Spitfire 's bridge . At that point , Spitfire was able to disengage from Nassau , and took with her a 6 m ( 20 ft ) portion of Nassau 's side plating . The collision disabled one of Nassau 's 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) guns , and left a 3 @.@ 5 m ( 11 @.@ 5 ft ) gash above the waterline ; this slowed the ship to 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) until it could be repaired . During the confused action , Nassau was hit by two 4 in ( 10 cm ) shells from the British destroyers , which damaged her searchlights and inflicted minor casualties .
Shortly after 01 : 00 , Nassau and Thüringen encountered the British armored cruiser Black Prince . Thüringen opened fire first , and pummeled Black Prince with a total of 27 heavy @-@ caliber shells and 24 shells from her secondary battery . Nassau and Ostfriesland joined in , followed by Friedrich der Grosse . The heavy fire quickly disabled the British cruiser and set her alight ; following a tremendous explosion , she sank , taking her entire crew with her . The sinking Black Prince was directly in the path of Nassau ; to avoid the wreck , the ship had to steer sharply towards the III Battle Squadron . It was necessary for Nassau to reverse her engines to full speed astern in order to avoid a collision with Kaiserin . Nassau then fell back into a position between the pre @-@ dreadnoughts Hessen and Hannover . At around 03 : 00 , several British destroyers attempted another torpedo attack on the German line . At approximately 03 : 10 , three or four destroyers appeared in the darkness to port of Nassau ; at a range of between 5 @,@ 500 yd ( 5 @,@ 000 m ) to 4 @,@ 400 yd ( 4 @,@ 000 m ) , Nassau briefly fired on the ships before turning away 90 ° to avoid torpedoes .
Following her return to German waters , Nassau , her sisters Posen and Westfalen , and the Helgoland @-@ class battleships Helgoland and Thüringen , took up defensive positions in the Jade roadstead for the night . In the course of the battle , Nassau was hit twice by secondary shells , though these hits caused no significant damage . Her casualties amounted to 11 men killed and 16 men wounded . During the course of the battle , she fired 106 main battery shells and 75 rounds from her secondary guns . Repairs were completed quickly , and Nassau was back with the fleet by 10 July 1916 .
= = = Later operations = = =
Another fleet advance followed on 18 – 22 August , during which the I Scouting Group battlecruisers were to bombard the coastal town of Sunderland in an attempt to draw out and destroy Beatty 's battlecruisers . As only two of the four German battlecruisers were still in fighting condition , three dreadnoughts were assigned to the Scouting Group for the operation : Markgraf , Grosser Kurfürst ( or Großer Kurfürst ) , and the newly commissioned Bayern . The High Seas Fleet , including Nassau , would trail behind and provide cover . However , at 06 : 00 on 19 August , Westfalen was torpedoed by the British submarine HMS E23 , some 55 nautical miles ( 102 km ; 63 mi ) north of Terschelling ; the ship remained afloat and was detached to return to port . The British were aware of the German plans and sortied the Grand Fleet to meet them . By 14 : 35 , Admiral Scheer had been warned of the Grand Fleet 's approach and , unwilling to engage the whole of the Grand Fleet just 11 weeks after the close call at Jutland , turned his forces around and retreated to German ports .
Another sortie into the North Sea followed on 19 – 20 October . On 21 December , Nassau ran aground in the mouth of the Elbe . She was able to free herself , however , and repairs were effected in Hamburg at the Reihersteig Dockyard until 1 February 1917 . The ship was part of the force that steamed to Norway to intercept a heavily escorted British convoy on 23 – 25 April , though the operation was canceled when the battlecruiser Moltke suffered mechanical damage and had to be towed back to port . Nassau , Ostfriesland , and Thüringen were formed into a special unit for Operation Schlußstein , a planned occupation of St. Petersburg . On 8 August , Nassau took on some 250 soldiers in Wilhelmshaven and then departed for the Baltic . The three ships reached the Baltic on 10 August , but the operation was postponed and eventually canceled . The special unit was dissolved on 21 August and the battleships were back in Wilhelmshaven on the 23rd .
Nassau and her three sisters were to have taken part in a final fleet action at the end of October 1918 , days before the Armistice was to take effect . The bulk of the High Seas Fleet was to have sortied from their base in Wilhelmshaven to engage the British Grand Fleet ; Scheer — by now the Grand Admiral ( Großadmiral ) of the fleet — intended to inflict as much damage as possible on the British navy , to improve Germany 's bargaining position , despite the expected casualties . But many of the war @-@ weary sailors felt that the operation would disrupt the peace process and prolong the war . On the morning of 29 October 1918 , the order was given to sail from Wilhelmshaven the following day . Starting on the night of 29 October , sailors on Thüringen and then on several other battleships mutinied . The unrest ultimately forced Hipper and Scheer to cancel the operation .
= = = Fate = = =
Following the German collapse in November 1918 , a significant portion of the High Seas Fleet was interned in Scapa Flow . Nassau and her three sisters were not among the ships listed for internment , so they remained at German ports . During this period , from November to December , Hermann Bauer served as the ship 's commander . On 21 June 1919 , Rear Admiral Ludwig von Reuter , under the mistaken impression that the Armistice would expire at noon that day , ordered his ships be scuttled to prevent their seizure by the British . As a result , the four Nassau @-@ class ships were ceded to the various Allied powers as replacements for the ships that had been sunk . Nassau was awarded to Japan on 7 April 1920 , though the Japanese had no need for the ship . They therefore sold her in June 1920 to British ship @-@ breakers , who scrapped the ship in Dordrecht .
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= Antbird =
The antbirds are a large passerine bird family , Thamnophilidae , found across subtropical and tropical Central and South America , from Mexico to Argentina . There are more than 200 species , known variously as antshrikes , antwrens , antvireos , fire @-@ eyes , bare @-@ eyes and bushbirds . They are related to the antthrushes and antpittas ( family Formicariidae ) , the tapaculos , the gnateaters and the ovenbirds . Despite some species ' common names , this family is not closely related to the wrens , vireos or shrikes .
Antbirds are generally small birds with rounded wings and strong legs . They have mostly sombre grey , white , brown and rufous plumage , which is sexually dimorphic in pattern and colouring . Some species communicate warnings to rivals by exposing white feather patches on their backs or shoulders . Most have heavy bills , which in many species are hooked at the tip .
Most species live in forests , although a few are found in other habitats . Insects and other arthropods form the most important part of their diet , although small vertebrates are occasionally taken . Most species feed in the understory and midstory of the forest , although a few feed in the canopy and a few on the ground . Many join mixed @-@ species feeding flocks , and a few species are core members . To various degrees , around eighteen species specialise in following columns of army ants to eat the small invertebrates flushed by the ants , and many others may feed in this way opportunistically .
Antbirds are monogamous , mate for life , and defend territories . They usually lay two eggs in a nest that is either suspended from branches or supported on a branch , stump , or mound on the ground . Both parents share the tasks of incubation and of brooding and feeding the nestlings . After fledging , each parent cares exclusively for one chick .
Thirty @-@ eight species are threatened with extinction as a result of human activities . Antbirds are not targeted by either hunters or the pet trade . The principal threat is habitat loss , which causes habitat fragmentation and increased nest predation in habitat fragments .
= = Systematics = =
The antbird family Thamnophilidae used to be considered a subfamily , Thamnophilinae , within a larger family Formicariidae that included antthrushes and antpittas . Formerly , that larger family was known as the " antbird family " and the Thamnophilinae were " typical antbirds " . In this article , " antbird " and " antbird family " refer to the family Thamnophilidae .
Thamnophilidae was removed from Formicariidae , leaving behind the antthrushes and antpittas , due to recognition of differences in the structure of the breastbone ( sternum ) and syrinx , and Sibley and Ahlquist 's examination of DNA – DNA hybridization . The Thamnophilidae antbirds are members of the infraorder Tyrannides ( or tracheophone suboscines ) , one of two infraorders in the suborder Tyranni . The Thamnophilidae are now thought to occupy a fairly basal position within the infraorder , i. e. with regard to their relatives the antthrushes and antpittas , tapaculos , gnateaters , and also the ovenbirds . The sister group of the Thamnophilidae is thought to be the gnateaters . The ovenbirds , tapaculos , antthrushes and antpittas are thought to represent a different radiation of that early split .
The antbird family contains over 200 species , variously called antwrens , antvireos , antbirds and antshrikes . The names refer to the relative sizes of the birds ( increasing in the order given , though with exceptions ) rather than any particular resemblance to the true wrens , vireos or shrikes . In addition , members of the genus Phlegopsis are known as bare @-@ eyes , Pyriglena as fire @-@ eyes and Neoctantes and Clytoctantes as bushbirds . Although the systematics of the Thamnophilidae is based on studies from the mid @-@ 19th century , when fewer than half the present species were known , comparison of the myoglobin intron 2 , GAPDH intron 11 and the mtDNA cytochrome b DNA sequences has largely confirmed it . There are two major clades – most antshrikes and other larger , strong @-@ billed species as well as Herpsilochmus , versus the classical antwrens and other more slender , longer @-@ billed species – and the monophyly of most genera was confirmed .
The Thamnophilidae contains several large or very large genera and numerous small or monotypic ones . Several , which are difficult to assign , seem to form a third , hitherto unrecognised clade independently derived from ancestral antbirds . The results also confirmed suspicions of previous researchers that some species , most notably in Myrmotherula and Myrmeciza , need to be assigned to other genera . Still , due to the difficulties of sampling from such a large number of often poorly known species , the assignment of some genera is still awaiting confirmation .
= = Morphology = =
The antbirds are a group of small to medium @-@ sized passerines that range in size from the large giant antshrike , which measures 45 cm ( 18 in ) and weighs 150 g ( 5 @.@ 29 oz ) , to the tiny 8 @-@ cm ( 3 in ) pygmy antwren , which weighs 7 g ( 0 @.@ 25 oz ) . In general terms , " antshrikes " are relatively large @-@ bodied birds , " antvireos " are medium @-@ sized and chunky , while " antwrens " include most smaller species ; " antbird " genera can vary greatly in size . Members of this family have short rounded wings that provide good manoeuvrability when flying in dense undergrowth . The legs are large and strong , particularly in species that are obligate ant @-@ followers . These species are well adapted to gripping vertical stems and saplings , which are more common than horizontal branches in the undergrowth , and thus the ability to grip them is an advantage for birds following swarms of army ants . The claws of these antbirds are longer than those of species that do not follow ants , and the soles of some species have projections that are tough and gripping when the foot is clenched . Tarsus length in antbirds is related to foraging strategy . Longer tarsi typically occur in genera such as the Thamnophilus antshrikes that forage by perch @-@ gleaning ( sitting and leaning forward to snatch insects from the branch ) , whereas shorter tarsi typically occur in those that catch prey on the wing , such as the Thamnomanes antshrikes .
Most antbirds have proportionately large , heavy bills . Several genera of antshrike have a strongly hooked tip to the bill , and all antbirds have a notch or ' tooth ' at the tip of the bill which helps in holding and crushing insect prey . The two genera of bushbirds have upturned chisel @-@ like bills .
The plumage of antbirds is soft and not brightly coloured , although it is occasionally striking . The colour palette of most species is blackish shades , whitish shades , rufous , chestnut and brown . Plumages can be uniform in colour or patterned with barring or spots . Sexual dimorphism – differences in plumage colour and pattern between males and females – is common in the family . Overall the pattern within the family is for the males to have combinations of grey , black or white plumage and the females having buff , rufous and brown colours . For example , the male dot @-@ winged antwren is primarily blackish , whereas the female has rust @-@ coloured underparts . In some genera , such as Myrmotherula , species are better distinguished by female plumage than by male . Many species of antbirds have a contrasting ' patch ' of white ( sometimes other colours ) feathers on the back ( known as interscapular patches ) , shoulder or underwing . This is usually concealed by the darker feathers on the back but when the bird is excited or alarmed these feathers can be raised to flash the white patch. dot @-@ winged antwrens puff out white back patches , whereas in bluish @-@ slate antshrikes and white @-@ flanked antwrens the white patch is on the shoulder .
= = = Voice = = =
The songs and calls of antbirds are generally composed of repeated simple uncomplicated notes . The family is one of the suboscines ( suborder Tyranni ) which have simpler syrinxes ( " voiceboxes " ) than other songbirds . Nevertheless , their songs are distinctive and species @-@ specific , allowing field identification by ear . Antbirds rely on their calls for communication , as is typical of birds in dark forests . Most species have at least two types of call , the loudsong and the softsong . The functions of many calls have been deduced from their context ; for example some loudsongs have a territorial purpose and are given when birds meet at the edges of their territories , or during the morning rounds of the territory . Pairs in neighbouring territories judge the proximity of rivals by the degradation of the song caused by interference by the environment . In bouts of territorial defence the male will face off with the other male and the female with her counterpart . Loudsong duets are also potentially related to the maintenance of pair bonds . The functions of softsongs are more complex , and possibly related to pair @-@ bond maintenance . In addition to these two main calls a range of other sounds are made ; these include scolding in mobbing of predators . The calls of antbirds are also used interspecifically . Some species of antbirds and even other birds will actively seek out ant @-@ swarms using the calls of some species of ant @-@ followers as clues .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The distribution of the antbirds is entirely Neotropical , with the vast majority of the species being found in the tropics . A few species reach southern Mexico and northern Argentina . Some species , such as the barred antshrike , have a continental distribution that spans most of the South and Middle American distribution of the family ; others , such as the ash @-@ throated antwren , have a tiny distribution .
Antbirds are mostly birds of humid lowland rainforests . Few species are found at higher elevations , with less than 10 % of species having ranges above 2000 m ( 6500 ft ) and almost none with ranges above 3000 m ( 10000 ft ) . The highest species diversity is found in the Amazon basin , with up to 45 species being found in single locations in sites across Brazil , Colombia , Bolivia and Peru . The number of species drops dramatically towards the further reaches of the family 's range ; there are only seven species in Mexico , for example . Areas of lower thamnophilid diversity may contain localised endemics , however . The Yapacana antbird , for example , is restricted to the stunted woodlands that grow in areas of nutrient @-@ poor white @-@ sand soil ( the so @-@ called Amazonian caatinga ) in Brazil , Venezuela and Colombia . Some species are predominantly associated with microhabitats within a greater ecosystem ; for example , the bamboo antshrike is predominantly found in bamboo patches .
= = Behaviour = =
Antbirds are diurnal : they feed , breed and defend territories during the day . Many of the family are , however , reluctant to enter areas of direct sunlight where it breaks through the forest canopy . Antbirds will engage in anting , a behaviour in which ants ( or other arthropods ) are rubbed on the feathers before being discarded or eaten . While this has conventionally been considered a way to remove and control feather parasites , it has been suggested that for antbirds it may simply be a way to deal with the distasteful substances in prey items .
= = = Feeding = = =
The main component of the diet of all antbirds is arthropods . These are mostly insects , including grasshoppers and crickets , cockroaches , praying mantises , stick insects and the larvae of butterflies and moths . In addition antbirds often take spiders , scorpions and centipedes . They swallow smaller prey items quickly , whereas they often beat larger items against branches in order to remove wings and spines . Larger species can kill and consume frogs and lizards as well , but generally these do not form an important part of the diet of this family . Other food items may also be eaten , including fruit , eggs and slugs .
The family uses a number of techniques to obtain prey . The majority of antbirds are arboreal , with most of those feeding in the understory , many in the middle story and some in the canopy . A few species feed in the leaf litter ; for example , the wing @-@ banded antbird forages in areas of dense leaf @-@ litter . It does not use its feet to scratch the leaf litter , as do some other birds ; instead it uses its long bill to turn over leaves rapidly ( never picking them up ) . The antbirds that forage arboreally show a number of techniques and specialisations . Some species perch @-@ glean , perching on a branch watching for prey and snatching it by reaching forward , where others sally from a perch and snatch prey on the wing . In both cases birds will hop through the foliage or undergrowth and pause , scanning for prey , before pouncing or moving on . The time paused varies , although smaller species tend to be more active and pause for shorter times .
= = = = Mixed @-@ species feeding flocks = = = =
Many species participate in mixed @-@ species feeding flocks , forming a large percentage of the participating species within their range . Some of these are core or " nuclear species " . These nuclear species share territories with other nuclear species but exclude conspecifics ( members of the same species ) and are found in almost all flocks ; these are joined by " attendant species " . Loud and distinctive calls and conspicuous plumage are important attributes of nuclear species as they promote cohesion in the flock . The composition of these flocks varies geographically ; in Amazonia species of Thamnomanes antshrike are the leading nuclear species ; elsewhere other species , such as the dot @-@ winged antwrens and checker @-@ throated antwrens , fill this role . Other species of antwren and antbird join them along with woodcreepers , ant @-@ tanagers , foliage @-@ gleaners and greenlets . The benefits of the mixed flock are thought to be related to predation , since many eyes are better for spotting predatory hawks and falcons . Comparisons between multi @-@ species feeding flocks in different parts of the world found that instances of flocking were positively correlated with predation risk by raptors . For example , where Thamnomanes antshrikes lead the group they give loud warning calls in the presence of predators . These calls are understood and reacted to by all the other species in the flock . The advantage to the Thamnomanes antshrikes is in allowing the rest of the flock , which are typically gleaners , to act as beaters , flushing prey while foraging which the antshrikes can obtain by sallying . Similar roles are filled in other flocks by other antbird species or other bird families , for example the shrike @-@ tanagers . Within the feeding flocks competition is reduced by microniche partitioning ; where dot @-@ winged antwrens , checker @-@ throated antwrens and white @-@ flanked antwrens feed in flocks together , the dot @-@ wings feed in the densest vines , the white @-@ flank in less dense vegetation , and the checker @-@ throats in the same density as the latter but in dead foliage only .
= = = = Ant followers = = = =
Swarms of army ants are an important resource used by some species of antbird , and the one from which the family 's common name is derived . Many species of tropical ant form large raiding swarms , but the swarms are often nocturnal or raid underground . While birds visit these swarms when they occur , the species most commonly attended by birds is the Neotropical species Eciton burchellii , which is both diurnal and surface @-@ raiding . It was once thought that attending birds were actually eating the ants , but numerous studies in various parts of Eciton burchellii 's range has shown that the ants act as beaters , flushing insects , other arthropods and small vertebrates into the waiting flocks of " ant followers " . The improvement in foraging efficiency can be dramatic ; a study of spotted antbirds found that they made attempts at prey every 111 @.@ 8 seconds away from ants , but at swarms they made attempts every 32 @.@ 3 seconds . While many species of antbirds ( and other families ) may opportunistically feed at army ant swarms , 18 species of antbird are obligate ant @-@ followers , obtaining most of their diet from swarms . With only three exceptions , these species never regularly forage away from ant swarms . A further four species regularly attend swarms but are as often seen away from them . Obligate ant @-@ followers visit the nesting bivouacs of army ants in the morning to check for raiding activities ; other species do not . These species tend to arrive at swarms first , and their calls are used by other species to locate swarming ants .
Because army ants are unpredictable in their movements , it is impractical for obligate ant @-@ followers to maintain a territory that always contains swarms to feed around . Antbirds have evolved a more complicated system than the strict territoriality of most other birds . They generally ( details vary among species ) maintain breeding territories but travel outside those territories in order to feed at swarms . Several pairs of the same species may attend a swarm , with the dominant pair at the swarm being the pair which holds the territory that the swarm is in . In addition to competition within species , competition among species exists , and larger species are dominant . In its range , the ocellated antbird is the largest of the obligate ant @-@ following antbirds and is dominant over other members of the family , although it is subordinate to various species from other families ( including certain woodcreepers , motmots and the rufous @-@ vented ground cuckoo ) . At a swarm , the dominant species occupies positions above the central front of the swarm , which yields the largest amount of prey . Smaller , less dominant species locate themselves further away from the centre , or higher above the location of the dominant species , where prey is less plentiful .
= = = Breeding = = =
Antbirds are monogamous , in almost all cases forming pair bonds that last the life of the pair . Studies of the dusky antbird and the white @-@ bellied antbird did not find " infidelity " . In the white @-@ plumed antbird divorces between pairs are common , but , as far as known , this species is exceptional . In most species the pair defends a classic territory , although the nesting territories of ant followers are slightly different ( see feeding above ) . Territories vary in size from as small as 0 @.@ 5 ha for the Manu antbird , to 1500 m ( 5000 ft ) in diameter for the ocellated antbird . Ocellated antbirds have an unusual social system where the breeding pair forms the nucleus of a group or clan that includes their male offspring and their mates . These clans , which can number up to eight birds , work together to defend territories against rivals . Pair bonds are formed with courtship feeding , where the male presents food items to the female . In spotted antbirds males may actually feed females sufficiently for the female to cease feeding herself , although she will resume feeding once copulation has occurred . Mutual grooming also plays a role in courtship in some species .
The nesting and breeding biology of antbirds have not been well studied . Even in relatively well @-@ known species the breeding behaviour can be poorly known ; for example the nest of the ocellated antbird was first described in 2004 . Nests are constructed by both parents , although the male undertakes more of the work in some species . Antbird nests are cups of vegetation such as twigs , dead leaves and plant fibre , and they follow two basic patterns : either suspended or supported . Suspended cups , which may hang from forks in branches , or between two branches , are the more common style of nest . Supported nests rest upon branches , amongst vines , in hollows , and sometimes on mounds of vegetation on the ground . Each species nests at the level where it forages , so a midstory species would build its nest in the midstory . Closely related species nest in the same ways . For example , antvireos in the genus Dysithamnus are all suspension nesters .
Almost all antbirds lay two eggs . A few species of antshrike lay three eggs , and a smaller number of antbirds lay one egg , but this is unusual . Small clutch sizes are typical of tropical birds compared to more temperate species of the same size , possibly due to nest predation , although this is disputed . Both parents participate in incubation , although only the female incubates at night . The length of time taken for chicks to hatch is 14 – 16 days in most species , although some , such as the dusky antbird , can take as long as 20 days . The altricial chicks are born naked and blind . Both parents brood the young until they are able to thermoregulate , although , as with incubation , only the female broods at night . In common with many songbirds , the parents take faecal sacs for disposal away from the nest . Both parents feed the chicks , often bringing large prey items . When the chicks reach fledging age , after 8 – 15 days , attending parents call their chicks . As each chick leaves the nest it is cared for exclusively from then on by the parent that was present then . After the first chick fledges and leaves with a parent the remaining parent may increase the supply of food to speed up the process of fledging . After fledging , chicks spend the first few days well hidden as the parents bring them food . Chicks of some species may not become independent of the parents for as long as four months in some antwrens , but two months is more typical for the rest of the family .
= = Ecology = =
Antbirds are common components of the avifauna of some parts of the Neotropics and are thought to be important in some ecological processes . They are preyed upon by birds of prey , and their tendency to join flocks is thought to provide protection against such predation . The greater round @-@ eared bat preys on some antbird species , such as the white @-@ bibbed antbird and the scaled antbird ; the latter is the bat 's preferred prey . Nests , including incubating adults , chicks and eggs , are vulnerable to predators , particularly snakes but also nocturnal mammals . Nesting success is low for many species , particularly in areas of fragmented habitat .
It was once suggested that the relationship between the obligate and regular ant @-@ followers and the army ants , particularly Eciton burchellii , was mutualistic , with the ants benefiting by having the birds chase prey back down towards them . However , experiments where ant followers were excluded have shown that the foraging success of the army ants was 30 % lower when the birds were present , suggesting that the birds ' relationship was in fact parasitic . This has resulted in a number of behaviours by the ants in order to reduce kleptoparasitism , including hiding of secured prey in the leaf litter and caching of food on trails . It has been suggested that the depressive effect of this parasitism slows the development of E. burchellii swarms and in turn benefits other ant species which are preyed upon by army ants . The ant @-@ following antbirds are themselves followed by three species of butterfly in the family Ithomiinae which feed on their droppings . Bird droppings are usually an unpredictable resource in a rainforest , but the regular behaviour of ant followers makes the exploitation of this resource possible .
= = Status and conservation = =
As of April 2008 , 38 species are considered by the IUCN to be near threatened or worse and therefore at risk of extinction . Antbirds are neither targeted by the pet trade nor large enough to be hunted ; the principal cause of the decline in antbird species is habitat loss . The destruction or modification of forests has several effects on different species of antbirds . The fragmentation of forests into smaller patches affects species that are averse to crossing gaps as small as roads . If these species become locally extinct in a fragment , this reluctance to cross unforested barriers makes their re @-@ establishment unlikely . Smaller forest fragments are unable to sustain mixed @-@ species feeding flocks , leading to local extinctions . Another risk faced by antbirds in fragmented habitat is increased nest predation . An unplanned experiment in fragmentation occurred on Barro Colorado Island , a former hill in Panama that became an isolated island during the flooding caused by the creation of the Panama Canal . Numerous species of antbird formerly resident in the area were extirpated , in no small part due to increased levels of nest predation on the island . While the species lost from Barro Colorado are not globally threatened , they illustrate the vulnerability of species in fragmented habitats and help explain the declines of some species . The majority of threatened species have very small natural ranges . Some are also extremely poorly known ; for example the Rio de Janeiro antwren is known only from a single specimen collected in 1982 , although there have been unconfirmed reports since 1994 and it is currently listed as critically endangered . Additionally , new species are discovered at regular intervals ; the Caatinga antwren was described in 2000 , the acre antshrike in 2004 , the sincorá antwren in 2007 , and the description of a relative of the Paraná antwren discovered in 2005 in the outskirts of São Paulo is being prepared . While not yet scientifically described , conservation efforts have already been necessary , as the site of discovery was set out to be flooded to form a reservoir . Consequently , 72 individuals were captured and transferred to another locality .
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= Action of 26 April 1797 =
The Action of 26 April 1797 was a minor naval engagement during the French Revolutionary Wars in which a Spanish convoy of two frigates was trapped and defeated off the Spanish town of Conil de la Frontera by British ships of the Cadiz blockade . The British vessels , the ship of the line HMS Irresistible and the Fifth @-@ rate frigate HMS Emerald , were significantly more powerful than the Spanish frigates , which were on the last stage of a voyage carrying treasure from Havana , Cuba , to the Spanish fleet base of Cadiz .
The British commander , Captain George Martin , succeeded in chasing the Spanish vessels into the rocky Conil Bay , where they surrendered after a brief engagement in which the Spanish suffered significantly higher casualties than the British . One of the Spanish ships , the Santa Elena , was subsequently wrecked on the shore , while the other , the Ninfa , was captured and later recommissioned into the Royal Navy . The treasure carried on board the frigates , however , had been removed by a Spanish fishing boat before the battle and so did not fall into British hands .
= = Background = =
In late 1796 , with the French Revolutionary Wars three years old , a major shift occurred in the conflict when the Kingdom of Spain , until that point an enemy of the French Republic , abruptly changed sides following the signing of the Treaty of San Ildefonso . This reversal forced the British Royal Navy to retire from the Mediterranean Sea to preserve its lines of communication , falling back to the mouth of the Tagus River near Lisbon . From the Tagus , pressure was placed on the Spanish Navy by the erstwhile British Mediterranean Fleet under Vice @-@ Admiral Sir John Jervis , who organised a blockade of the main Spanish fleet base at Cádiz on the country 's Southern Atlantic coast . This resulted in the Battle of Cape St. Vincent on 14 February 1797 , when Jervis inflicted a stinging defeat on the Spanish fleet . The surviving Spanish ships limped back to Cádiz after the battle , and to ensure that they could not sail again without risking a repeat action , Jervis arranged a close blockade of the port so that by April there were 21 British ships of the line and numerous frigates watching the Spanish fleet at anchor .
The blockade of Cádiz was designed not only to contain the main Spanish fleet , but also to disrupt Spanish communications and transport . Cádiz was the principal port of Southern Spain and thus an important destination for shipping from across the Spanish Empire . This included numerous so @-@ called " treasure ships " , heavily armed warships that convoyed the gold and silver from the Spanish colonies in the Americas to the Spanish mainland . For centuries , Spanish treasure ships had been the ultimate prize for Royal Navy captains , and the sums of prize money involved were enormous . In October 1799 for example , a Spanish treasure convoy was captured off Vigo and the British captains alone were awarded £ 40 @,@ 730 each ( the equivalent of £ 3 @,@ 608 @,@ 900 as of 2016 ) .
= = Battle = =
At 06 : 00 on 26 April 1797 , the 74 @-@ gun ship of the line HMS Irresistible under Captain George Martin and the 36 @-@ gun frigate HMS Emerald under Captain Velterers Cornewall Berkeley were sailing at the southern edge of Jervis ' ( now known as Earl St. Vincent ) fleet . While cruising close to the Spanish coast two unknown ships were sighted . Martin immediately ordered his ships to give chase and the strangers fled with Martin 's vessels in pursuit . The new arrivals were two Spanish 34 @-@ gun frigates , the Santa Elena and Ninfa , bound to Cádiz from Havana with a cargo of silver specie . The captains of these Spanish ships had unwittingly sailed into the midst of the blockade fleet the previous night , but had had a fortunate encounter with a Spanish fishing vessel which had warned them of the danger . Acting quickly , the captains off @-@ loaded their treasure into the fishing boat with instructions to carry it safely into Cádiz .
The Spanish captains , recognising that they were outmatched by the larger British vessels , attempted to shelter in Conil Bay , a rocky stretch of coastline near the village of Conil de la Frontera to the north of Cape Trafalgar . At 14 : 30 they were discovered by Martin 's ships , which had to carefully negotiate a large rock formation known as the Laja de Cape Rocha which protected the head of the bay . With this obstacle successfully behind them , Irresistible and Emerald attacked the anchored Spanish frigates broadside to broadside . The action lasted an hour and a half , with the Spanish ships taking much the worst of the damage . At 16 : 00 , both battered Spanish vessels surrendered , although as the British ships launched boats to take possession of their prizes , the crew of Santa Elena hacked through the anchor cables and allowed their ship to drift onto the rocky shoreline where they disembarked and escaped inland .
= = Aftermath = =
Martin ordered Ninfa to be secured by his men and Santa Elena to be towed off the rocks with the intention of salvaging the vessel . The tow succeeded in freeing the wrecked ship , but she sank soon afterwards in the deeper water of Conil Bay . All of the treasure which the Spanish frigates had carried was subsequently safely transported into Cadiz by the fishing boat whose secret cargo was not suspected by the British blockade forces . Spanish losses in the engagement amounted to 18 killed and 30 wounded , the British losing one man killed and one wounded on Irresistible . Ninfa was subsequently purchased by the Royal Navy and commissioned as the 36 @-@ gun frigate HMS Hamadryad . In his dispatch to the Admiralty regarding the action , Earl St. Vincent noted that the action was " one of the most notable that had ever come under my observation " . The blockade of Cadiz remained in force with varying degrees of intensity for the remainder of the year , with the British fleet retiring to the Tagus during the winter .
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= HMS Defence ( 1861 ) =
HMS Defence was the lead ship of the Defence @-@ class armoured frigates ordered by the Royal Navy in 1859 . Upon completion in 1862 she was assigned to the Channel Fleet . The ship was paid off in 1866 to refit and be re @-@ armed and was briefly reassigned to the Channel Fleet again when she recommissioned in 1868 . Defence had brief tours on the North Atlantic and Mediterranean Stations , relieving other ironclads , from 1869 to 1872 before she was refitted again from 1872 to 1874 . She became guard ship on the Shannon when she recommissioned . The ship was transferred to the Channel Fleet again in 1876 and then became guard ship on the Mersey until 1885 . Defence was placed in reserve until 1890 when she was assigned to the mechanical training school in Devonport in 1890 . She was renamed Indus when the school adopted that name and served there until sold in 1935 .
= = Design and description = =
The Defence @-@ class ironclads were designed as smaller and cheaper versions of the Warrior @-@ class armoured frigates . This meant that they could not fit the same powerful engines of the Warrior @-@ class ships and were therefore 2 knots ( 3 @.@ 7 km / h ; 2 @.@ 3 mph ) slower and had far fewer guns . The naval architect Sir Nathaniel Barnaby , a future Constructor of the Navy , considered that in terms of combat a Defence @-@ class ship was worth one quarter of a Warrior .
HMS Defence was 280 feet ( 85 @.@ 3 m ) long between perpendiculars and 291 feet 4 inches ( 88 @.@ 80 m ) long overall . She had a beam of 54 feet 2 inches ( 16 @.@ 51 m ) and a draft of 26 feet 2 inches ( 8 @.@ 0 m ) . The ship displaced 6 @,@ 070 long tons ( 6 @,@ 170 t ) and had a ram in the shape of a plough . The hull was subdivided by watertight transverse bulkheads into 92 compartments and had a double bottom underneath the engine and boiler rooms . Defence was 128 feet 8 inches ( 39 @.@ 2 m ) shorter overall and displaced over 3 @,@ 000 long tons ( 3 @,@ 000 t ) less than the Warrior @-@ class ironclads .
= = = Propulsion = = =
The Defence @-@ class ships had one 2 @-@ cylinder trunk steam engine made by John Penn and Sons driving a single propeller . Four rectangular boilers provided steam to the engine . It produced a total of 2 @,@ 343 indicated horsepower ( 1 @,@ 747 kW ) . During sea trials on 10 February 1868 Defence had a maximum speed of 11 @.@ 23 knots ( 20 @.@ 80 km / h ; 12 @.@ 92 mph ) . The ship carried 450 long tons ( 460 t ) of coal , enough to steam 1 @,@ 670 nautical miles ( 3 @,@ 090 km ; 1 @,@ 920 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
The ironclads were barque @-@ rigged and had a sail area of 24 @,@ 500 square feet ( 2 @,@ 276 m2 ) . The lower masts and bowsprit were made of iron to withstand the shock of ramming . Defence could make about 10 @.@ 5 knots ( 19 @.@ 4 km / h ; 12 @.@ 1 mph ) under sail and the funnel was semi @-@ retractable to reduce wind resistance while under sail alone . The ship 's propeller could be hoisted up into the stern of the ship to reduce drag while under sail . She was re @-@ rigged as a barque from September 1864 to April 1866 before returning to her original ship rig .
= = = Armament = = =
The armament of the Defence @-@ class ships was intended to be 18 smoothbore , muzzle @-@ loading 68 @-@ pounder guns , eight on each side on the main deck and one each fore and aft as chase guns on the upper deck , plus four rifled breech @-@ loading 40 @-@ pounder guns as saluting guns . This was modified during construction to eight rifled 110 @-@ pounder breech @-@ loading guns , ten 68 @-@ pounders and four breech @-@ loading 5 @-@ inch ( 127 mm ) guns . Both breech @-@ loading guns were new designs from Armstrong and much was hoped of them . Six of the 110 @-@ pounder guns were installed on the main deck amidships and the other two became chase guns ; all of the 68 @-@ pounder guns were mounted on the main deck . Firing tests carried out in September 1861 against an armoured target , however , proved that the 110 @-@ pounder was inferior to the 68 @-@ pounder smoothbore gun in armour penetration and repeated incidents of breech explosions during the Battles for Shimonoseki and the Bombardment of Kagoshima in 1863 – 64 caused the navy to begin to withdraw the gun from service shortly afterwards .
The 7 @.@ 9 @-@ inch ( 201 mm ) solid shot of the 68 @-@ pounder gun weighed approximately 68 pounds ( 30 @.@ 8 kg ) while the gun itself weighed 10 @,@ 640 pounds ( 4 @,@ 826 @.@ 2 kg ) . The gun had a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 579 ft / s ( 481 m / s ) and had a range of 3 @,@ 200 yards ( 2 @,@ 900 m ) at an elevation of + 12 ° . The 7 @-@ inch ( 178 mm ) shell of the 110 @-@ pounder Armstrong breech @-@ loader weighed 107 – 110 pounds ( 48 @.@ 5 – 49 @.@ 9 kg ) . It had a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 150 ft / s ( 350 m / s ) and , at an elevation of + 11 @.@ 25 ° , a maximum range of 4 @,@ 000 yards ( 3 @,@ 700 m ) . The 110 @-@ pounder gun weighed 9 @,@ 520 pounds ( 4 @,@ 318 @.@ 2 kg ) . All of the guns could fire both solid shot and explosive shells .
Defence was rearmed during her 1867 – 68 refit with fourteen 7 @-@ inch and two 8 @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) rifled muzzle @-@ loading guns . The new guns were heavier so fewer could be carried . The shell of the 15 @-@ calibre 8 @-@ inch gun weighed 175 pounds ( 79 @.@ 4 kg ) while the gun itself weighed 9 long tons ( 9 @.@ 1 t ) . It had a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 410 ft / s ( 430 m / s ) and was credited with the ability to penetrate a nominal 9 @.@ 6 inches ( 244 mm ) of wrought iron armour at the muzzle . The 16 @-@ calibre 7 @-@ inch gun weighed 6 @.@ 5 long tons ( 6 @.@ 6 t ) and fired a 112 pounds ( 50 @.@ 8 kg ) shell . It was credited with the nominal ability to penetrate 7 @.@ 7 @-@ inch ( 196 mm ) armour .
= = = Armour = = =
The Defence @-@ class ships had a wrought iron armour belt , 4 @.@ 5 inches ( 114 mm ) thick , that covered 140 feet ( 42 @.@ 7 m ) amidships . The armour extended from upper deck level to 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) below it . 4 @.@ 5 @-@ inch transverse bulkheads protected the guns on the main deck . The armour was backed by 18 inches ( 460 mm ) of teak . The ends of the ship were left entirely unprotected which meant that the steering gear was very vulnerable . They were , however , sub @-@ divided into many watertight compartments to minimize any flooding .
= = Service = =
HMS Defence was laid down on 14 December 1859 by the Palmers Shipbuilding and Iron Company in Jarrow . She was launched on 24 April 1861 , commissioned on 4 December 1861 and completed on 12 February 1862 . After completion she served in the Channel Fleet until 1866 , when she paid off in Plymouth for refit and re @-@ armament . The ship returned to the Channel Fleet in 1868 , and in 1869 she was sent to the North America station to relieve HMS Royal Alfred . She served with the Mediterranean Fleet from 1871 to 1872 under the command of Captain Nowell Salmon , who had earned the Victoria Cross during the Indian Mutiny in 1857 . While recovering items lost when the ironclad HMS Lord Clyde grounded off Pantelleria , Defence damaged her propeller and rudder when she briefly grounded in the trough of a wave , and was nearly blown ashore herself in March 1872 . She was paid off again for a lengthy refit in Plymouth between 1872 and 1874 and became the guard ship on the Shannon until 1876 . The ship then rejoined the Channel Fleet until 1879 and was transferred with most of that fleet to the Mediterranean while the Mediterranean Fleet patrolled the Dardanelles during the Russo @-@ Turkish War of 1878 . Defence replaced her sister ship HMS Resistance as guard ship in the Mersey until 1885 , after which she saw no further sea @-@ going service . On 20 July 1884 the ship collided with HMS Valiant in Lough Swilly , damaging her bow and flooding some compartments . In 1890 she was converted into a floating workshop at Devonport , and was renamed HMS Indus in 1898 . She was sold for scrap at Devonport in August 1935 .
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= Inolvidable ( song ) =
" Inolvidable " ( " Unforgettable " ) is a song written by Julio Gutiérrez in 1944 . It is considered one of the most popular boleros released during the Cuban musical movement led by pianists . The song has been recorded by several performers , including Roberto Carlos , Diego El Cigala , Fania All @-@ Stars , Eydie Gormé , Danny Rivera , Tito Rodríguez and Bebo Valdés , among others .
In the song , the protagonist kisses different lips looking for new sensations , haunted by the memory of a past love . The song has experienced popular acclaim , especially with the version recorded by Mexican singer Luis Miguel on his album Romance released in 1991 . This version peaked at the top of the Billboard Top Latin Songs chart in the United States , and the album was deemed as responsible for reviving the bolero genre .
= = Background and composition = =
" Inolvidable " was written by Cuban pianist Julio Gutiérrez . Gutiérrez was born in Manzanillo , Cuba , and at age six he played piano and at 14 he directed his own orchestra . In 1940 , the Orchestra Casino de la Playa toured eastern Cuba , and on that tour Miguelito Valdés met Gutiérrez and suggested he should go to the capital ( Havana ) , where better opportunities would arise . Months later , Gutiérrez moved to the capital , and was hired as a pianist in the orchestra Casino de la Playa . " Inolvidable " , written in 1944 , was released during the Cuban musical movement led by pianists , in which Gutiérrez participated . Two songs composed by Gutiérrez , " Inolvidable " and " Llanto de Luna " ( " Crying Moon " ) , were highly successful boleros in Latin America . In 1992 , a compilation album including an instrumental version of the song performed by Gutiérrez was released .
Musically " Inolvidable " is a bolero . According to Rodrigo Bazán , in his book Y Si Vivo Cien Años ... Antología del Bolero en México , the song was not different from others that were released at the time about unhappy love , but differed from other popular genres that based their lyrics on the lack of love such as tango . With the song , Julio Gutiérrez joined the list of prominent boleristas in Cuba . Lyrically , the song presents the protagonist kissing different lips and looking for new sensations ( " He besado otras bocas buscando nuevas ansiedades " ) .
= = Performers = =
In 1963 , Tito Rodríguez recorded " Inolvidable " on his album From Tito Rodríguez with Love . The song became very successful , selling one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half million units . Musical ensemble Fania All @-@ Stars released their first studio album Tribute to Tito Rodríguez in 1976 and included a cover version of " Inolvidable " . The album was originally intended to feature the group in a supporting role for Rodríguez , but resulted in a tribute album after the singer died from leukemia in early 1973 . Brazilian singer @-@ songwriter Roberto Carlos included his version of the song on the album Quero Que Vá Tudo Pro Inferno in 1975 . Puerto @-@ Rican Danny Rivera recorded a tribute album titled Inolvidable Tito : A Mi Me Pasa lo Mismo Que a Usted , including a version of " Inolvidable " . The album received a Grammy Award nomination for Best Latin Pop Performance . In 1988 , American singer Eydie Gormé had her version of the track on the album De Corazón a Corazón . Cuban pianist Bebo Valdés and Spanish flamenco performer Diego El Cigala recorded the track for their collaborative album Lágrimas Negras . The album was produced in 2003 by Academy Award winner Fernando Trueba , sold 200 @,@ 000 units in Spain and won the Latin Grammy Award for Best Traditional Tropical Album .
= = = Luis Miguel version = = =
Mexican singer Luis Miguel released the 1991 album Romance , which was produced by Miguel and Mexican singer @-@ songwriter Armando Manzanero , and included a selection of classic boleros . The success of the album revived the interest for bolero , even though the new musical arrangements of the songs make them unrecognizable . Romance received a Grammy Award nomination for Best Latin Pop Album ( which it lost to Jon Secada 's Otro Día Más Sin Verte ) , was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America and sold seven million copies worldwide . The first single taken from the album was " Inolvidable " , a version that according to Carlos Monsiváis in his book Los Rituales del Caos , guarantees " the adoption of the past , and that the romantic sensibility is not dead . "
The track debuted in the Billboard Top Latin Songs chart ( formerly Hot Latin Tracks ) at number 30 in the week of November 23 , 1991 , climbing to the top ten three weeks later . " Inolvidable " peaked at number one on January 25 , 1992 , spending five weeks at the top of the chart . The song was number three on the Billboard Top Latin Songs Year @-@ End Chart of 1992 . In Mexico , the song and the following single ( " No Sé Tú " ) remained in the top of the charts for six months altogether .
A live version of " Inolvidable " was included on the EP América & En Vivo in 1992 and as a part of a medley with the rest of the singles taken from Romance on the live album Vivo ( 2000 ) . The track was also added to the compilation album Grandes Éxitos in 2005 .
= = = = Format and track listing = = = =
Mexican Promo CD Single
" Inolvidable " – 4 : 19
= = = = Credits and personnel = = = =
Credits adapted from the " Inolvidable " liner notes .
Luis Miguel – co @-@ production , vocals
Julio Gutiérrez – songwriting
Armando Manzanero – production
Bebu Silvetti – co @-@ production , arranging
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= Spanish conquest of Petén =
The Spanish conquest of Petén was the last stage of the conquest of Guatemala , a prolonged conflict during the Spanish colonisation of the Americas . A wide lowland plain covered with dense rainforest , Petén contains a central drainage basin with a series of lakes and areas of savannah . It is crossed by several ranges of low karstic hills and rises to the south as it nears the Guatemalan Highlands . The conquest of Petén , a region now incorporated into the modern republic of Guatemala , climaxed in 1697 with the capture of Nojpetén , the island capital of the Itza kingdom , by Martín de Ursúa y Arizmendi . With the defeat of the Itza , the last independent and unconquered native kingdom in the Americas fell to European colonisers .
Sizeable Maya populations existed in Petén before the conquest , particularly around the central lakes and along the rivers . Petén was divided into different Maya polities engaged in a complex web of alliances and enmities . The most important groups around the central lakes were the Itza , the Yalain and the Kowoj . Other groups with territories in Petén included the Kejache , the Acala , the Lakandon Ch 'ol , the Xocmo , the Chinamita , the Icaiche and the Manche Ch 'ol .
Petén was first penetrated by Hernán Cortés with a sizeable expedition that crossed the territory from north to south in 1525 . In the first half of the 16th century , Spain established neighbouring colonies in Yucatán to the north and Guatemala to the south . Spanish missionaries laid the groundwork for the extension of colonial administration in the extreme south of Petén from 1596 onwards , but no further Spanish entry of central Petén took place until 1618 and 1619 when missionaries arrived at the Itza capital , having travelled from the Spanish town of Mérida in Yucatán .
In 1622 a military expedition set out from Yucatán led by Captain Francisco de Mirones and accompanied by Franciscan friar Diego Delgado ; this expedition was a disaster , and the Spanish were massacred by the Itza . In 1628 the Manche Ch 'ol of the south were placed under the administration of the colonial governor of Verapaz within the Captaincy General of Guatemala . The Manche Ch 'ol unsuccessfully rebelled against Spanish control in 1633 . In 1695 a military expedition tried to reach Lake Petén Itzá from Guatemala ; this was followed in 1696 by missionaries from Mérida and in 1697 by Martín de Ursúa 's expedition from Yucatán that resulted in the final defeat of the independent kingdoms of central Petén and their incorporation into the Spanish Empire .
= = Geography = =
The modern department of Petén is located in northern Guatemala . It is bordered on the west by the Mexican state of Chiapas ; this border largely follows the course of the Usumacinta River . On the north side Petén is bordered by the Mexican state of Campeche and on the northwest by the Mexican state of Tabasco ; Petén is bordered on the east by Belize and on the south side by the Guatemalan departments of Alta Verapaz and Izabal .
The Petén lowlands are formed by a densely forested low @-@ lying limestone plain featuring karstic topography . The area is crossed by low east – west oriented ridges of Cenozoic limestone and is characterised by a variety of forest and soil types ; water sources include generally small rivers and low @-@ lying seasonal swamps known as bajos . A chain of fourteen lakes runs across the central drainage basin of Petén ; during the rainy season some of these lakes become interconnected . This drainage area measures approximately 100 kilometres ( 62 mi ) east – west by 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) north – south . The largest lake is Lake Petén Itzá , near the centre of the drainage basin ; it measures 32 by 5 kilometres ( 19 @.@ 9 by 3 @.@ 1 mi ) . A broad savannah extends south of the central lakes ; it has an average altitude of 150 metres ( 490 ft ) above mean sea level with karstic ridges reaching an average altitude of 300 metres ( 980 ft ) . The savannah features a compact red clay soil that is too poor to support heavy cultivation , which resulted in a relatively low level of pre @-@ Columbian occupation . It is surrounded by hills with unusually steep southern slopes and gentler northern approaches ; the hills are covered with dense tropical forest . To the north of the lakes region bajos become more frequent , interspersed with forest . In the far north of Petén the Mirador Basin forms another interior drainage region . To the south Petén reaches an altitude of approximately 500 metres ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) as it rises towards the Guatemalan Highlands and meets Paleozoic metamorphic rocks .
= = = Climate = = =
The climate of Petén is divided into wet and dry seasons , with the rainy season lasting from June to December , although these seasons are not clearly defined in the south . The climate varies from tropical in the south to semitropical in the north ; temperature varies between 12 and 40 ° C ( 54 and 104 ° F ) , although it does not usually drop beneath 18 ° C ( 64 ° F ) . Mean temperature varies from 24 @.@ 3 ° C ( 75 @.@ 7 ° F ) in the southeast around Poptún to 26 @.@ 9 ° C ( 80 @.@ 4 ° F ) around Uaxactún in the northeast . Highest temperatures are reached from April to June , and January is the coldest month ; all Petén experiences a hot dry period in late August . Annual precipitation is high , varying from a mean of 1 @,@ 198 millimetres ( 47 @.@ 2 in ) in the northeast to 2 @,@ 007 millimetres ( 79 @.@ 0 in ) in central Petén around Flores ( Nojpetén ) . The extreme southeast of Petén experiences the largest variations in temperature and rainfall , with precipitation reaching as much as 3 @,@ 000 millimetres ( 120 in ) in a year .
= = Petén before the conquest = =
The first large Maya cities developed in Petén as far back as the Middle Preclassic ( c . 600 – 350 BC ) , and Petén formed the heartland of the ancient Maya civilization during the Classic period ( c . AD 250 – 900 ) . The great cities that dominated Petén had fallen into ruin by the beginning of the 10th century AD with the onset of the Classic Maya collapse . A significant Maya presence remained into the Postclassic period after the abandonment of the major Classic period cities ; the population was particularly concentrated near permanent water sources .
Although there is insufficient data to accurately estimate population sizes at the time of contact with the Spanish , early Spanish reports suggest that sizeable Maya populations existed in Petén , particularly around the central lakes and along the rivers . Before their defeat in 1697 the Itza controlled or influenced much of Petén and parts of Belize . The Itza were warlike , and their martial prowess impressed both neighbouring Maya kingdoms and their Spanish enemies . Their capital was Nojpetén , an island city upon Lake Petén Itzá ; it has developed into the modern town of Flores , which is the capital of the Petén department of Guatemala . The Itza spoke a variety of Yucatecan Maya .
The Kowoj were the second in importance , and they were hostile towards their Itza neighbours . The Kowoj were located to the east of the Itza , around the eastern lakes : Lake Salpetén , Lake Macanché , Lake Yaxhá and Lake Sacnab . Other groups are less well known , and their precise territorial extent and political makeup remains obscure ; among them were the Chinamita , the Kejache , the Icaiche , the Lakandon Ch 'ol , the Mopan , the Manche Ch 'ol and the Yalain .
The Yalain appear to have been one of the three dominant polities in Postclassic central Petén , alongside the Itza and the Kowoj . The Yalain territory had its maximum extension from the east shore of Lake Petén Itzá eastwards to Tipuj in Belize . In the 17th century the Yalain capital was located at the site of that name on the north shore of Lake Macanché . At the time of Spanish contact the Yalain were allied with the Itza , an alliance cemented by intermarriage between the elites of both groups . In the late 17th century Spanish colonial records document hostilities between Maya groups in the lakes region , with the incursion of the Kowoj into former Yalain sites including Zacpeten on Lake Macanché and Ixlu on Lake Salpetén .
The Kejache occupied a territory to the north of the Itza , between the lakes and what is now Campeche . To the west of them was Acalan , inhabited by a Chontal Maya @-@ speaking group with their capital in the south of what is now Campeche state . The Ch 'olan Maya @-@ speaking Lakandon ( not to be confused with the modern inhabitants of Chiapas by that name ) controlled territory along the tributaries of the Usumacinta River spanning southwestern Petén in Guatemala and eastern Chiapas . The Lakandon had a fierce reputation among the Spanish . The Xocmo were another Ch 'olan @-@ speaking group ; they occupied the remote forest somewhere to the east of the Lakandon . Never conquered , the Xocmo escaped repeated Spanish attempts to locate them and their eventual fate is unknown ; they may be ancestors of the modern Lacandon people . The Manche Ch 'ol held territory in the extreme south of what is now the Petén department . The Mopan and the Chinamita had their polities in the southeastern Petén . The Manche territory was to the southwest of the Mopan .
= = Background to the conquest = =
Christopher Columbus discovered the Americas for the Kingdom of Castile and León in 1492 . By 1580 this had unified with neighbouring kingdoms to form one Spanish kingdom . Private adventurers thereafter entered into contracts with the Spanish Crown to conquer the newly discovered lands in return for tax revenues and the power to rule . In the first decades after the discovery , the Spanish colonised the Caribbean and established a centre of operations on the island of Cuba . They heard rumours of the rich empire of the Aztecs on the mainland to the west and , in 1519 , Hernán Cortés set sail with eleven ships to explore the Mexican coast . By August 1521 the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan had fallen to the Spanish . Within three years of the fall of Tenochtitlan the Spanish had conquered a large part of Mexico , extending as far south as the Isthmus of Tehuantepec . The newly conquered territory became New Spain , headed by a viceroy who answered to the Spanish Crown via the Council of the Indies . Cortés despatched Pedro de Alvarado with an army to conquer the Mesoamerican kingdoms of the Guatemalan Sierra Madre and neighbouring Pacific plain ; the military phase of the establishment of the Spanish colony of Guatemala lasted from 1524 to 1541 . The Captaincy General of Guatemala had its capital at Santiago de los Caballeros de Guatemala and covered a wide territory that also included the Mexican state of Chiapas as well as El Salvador , Honduras and Costa Rica . The Spanish imposed colonial rule over Yucatán between 1527 and 1546 , and over Verapaz from the 16th to the 17th centuries , leaving the area between – essentially Petén and much of Belize – independent long after surrounding peoples had been subjugated .
= = Impact of Old World diseases = =
A single soldier arriving in Mexico in 1520 was carrying smallpox and thus initiated the devastating plagues that swept through the native populations of the Americas . The European diseases that ravaged the indigenous inhabitants of the Americas also severely affected the various Maya groups of Petén . It is estimated that there were approximately 30 @,@ 000 Ch 'ol and Ch ’ olti ’ Maya in western Petén at the start of the 16th century . Between 1559 and 1721 they were devastated by a combination of disease , war and enforced relocations .
When Nojpetén fell in 1696 there were approximately 60 @,@ 000 Maya living around Lake Petén Itzá , including a considerable number of refugees from other areas . It is estimated that 88 % of the inhabitants died during the first decade of colonial rule because of disease and war . Although disease was responsible for the majority of deaths , internecine warfare between rival Maya groups and Spanish expeditions also took their toll .
= = Weaponry and armour = =
Conquistadors often wore steel armour that included chainmail and helmets . The Spanish were sufficiently impressed by the quilted cotton armour of their Maya enemies that they adopted it in preference to their own steel armour . Maya weaponry was not sufficiently powerful to justify the discomfort of wearing European armour . Quilted cotton armour , although still uncomfortably hot , was flexible and weighed much less . The Maya armour was adapted by the Spanish , who used knee @-@ length quilted cotton tunics and Spanish @-@ style caps . Horsemen wore long quilted cotton leg protectors ; their horses were also protected with padded cotton armour . After the final push to the Petén lakes in early 1697 , the Spanish recorded that they left with their garrison over 50 Dutch- and French @-@ made muskets , three 1 @-@ pound ( 0 @.@ 45 kg ) calibre light cannons ( piezas ) cast from iron and mounted on carriages , four iron and two bronze pedreros ( 2 @-@ chambered stone @-@ launchers ) and six of at least eight bronze light cannons ( known as esmiriles ) .
= = = Native weaponry = = =
The Spanish described the weapons of war of the Petén Maya as bows and arrows , fire @-@ sharpened poles , flint @-@ headed spears and two @-@ handed swords known as hadzab that were crafted from strong wood with the blade fashioned from inset obsidian ; these were similar to the Aztec macuahuitl . They had a thin , wide wooden shaft with obsidian or flint blades set into channels in the wood . The shaft was up to 80 centimetres ( 31 in ) long and was crafted from the hard , dark wood of a flowering tree ( Apoplanesia paniculata ) called chulul by the Maya . The bows used by the Maya were described as almost as high as a man and were made from the same chulul wood as the hadzab , with the bowstring fashioned from henequen fibre ; the bow was called a chuhul . Arrows were made from reeds with flint , bone or fishtooth arrowheads and flights crafted from feathers . In hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat the Maya used daggers with obsidian or flint blades set into a chulul @-@ wood handle , they were about 20 centimetres ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) long . Maya spears were referred to as nabte ; sometimes the tip was fire @-@ hardened , sometimes they were set with a stone blade . Spears were mainly used to thrust and slash but they could also be thrown as a javelin . The Maya used several different sizes of spear with the smaller spears probably employed as a missile ; the longer spears were a similar size as those used by the Spanish .
Distinguished Maya warriors entered battle wearing armour . The upper body was covered by a short jacket that was filled with rock salt , and the forearms and legs were protected with tight bindings of cloth or leather . The salt @-@ packed cotton armour was tough enough that even arrows could not penetrate it . Armour could be decorated and was often adorned with feathers . Commoners did not wear armour in battle , usually only wearing a loincloth and warpaint . Warriors carried shields made from two right @-@ angled wooden bars with deerskin stretched across them .
= = Strategies and tactics = =
The Spanish were aware that the Itza Maya had become the centre of anti @-@ Spanish resistance and engaged in a policy of encircling their kingdom and cutting their trade routes over the course of almost two hundred years . The Itza resisted this steady encroachment by recruiting their neighbours as allies against the Spanish advance . The Spanish engaged in a strategy of concentrating native populations in newly founded colonial towns , or reducciones ( also known as congregaciones ) . Native resistance to the new nucleated settlements took the form of the flight of the indigenous inhabitants into inaccessible regions such as the forest or joining neighbouring Maya groups that had not yet submitted to the Spanish . Those that remained behind in the reducciones often fell victim to contagious diseases .
In addition to military expeditions , a contract for conquest was issued to the Dominican Order , which engaged missionaries for the peaceful pacification of native populations so they would accept Roman Catholicism and submit to Spanish rule . This tactic worked in the neighbouring mountains of Verapaz to the south , although their success there was aided by the threat of Spanish garrisons stationed within striking distance . In the lowland Petén this approach was not so successful , since the Maya could disappear easily into the rainforest leaving the Spanish with deserted settlements . Likewise , the Franciscan Order engaged in generally peaceful attempts to incorporate the Maya into the Spanish Empire via the attempted Christian conversion of native leaders . The Franciscan Order routinely embraced the practice of missionary violence , including corporal punishment and the defence of the idea of " holy war " against non @-@ Christians . In many cases the Maya remained Christian only while the missionaries were present , and they would immediately become apostate as soon as the friars left . In Guatemala in the late 17th century , the Franciscan friar Francisco de Asís Vázquez de Herrera argued that war against apostate Indians was obligatory . Missionary penetration of Petén was not risk @-@ free , and many missionaries were killed in the region .
Independent Maya frequently attacked Christianised Maya settlements and encouraged such settlements to abandon their new religion and resist the Spanish . As Spanish military expeditions were launched against the Maya with increasing frequency , independent Maya communities began to request the presence of missionaries to avoid armed conflict . The Itza attempted to use neighbouring Maya groups , such as the Yalain , as a buffer against Spanish encroachment ; they may also have instigated rebellions by neighbouring groups that were already undergoing incorporation into the Spanish Empire . With Spanish attempts to penetrate the region divided between mutually independent colonial authorities in Yucatán and Guatemala , at times the Itza would be making peaceful overtures on one front while fighting on the other .
= = Cortés in Petén = =
In 1525 , after the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire , Hernán Cortés led an expedition to Honduras over land , cutting across the Itza kingdom in what is now the northern Petén Department of Guatemala . His aim was to subdue the rebellious Cristóbal de Olid , whom he had sent to conquer Honduras ; Olid had set himself up independently on his arrival in that territory . Cortés had 140 Spanish soldiers , 93 of them mounted , 3 @,@ 000 Mexican warriors , 150 horses , a herd of pigs , artillery , munitions and other supplies . He also had with him 600 Chontal Maya carriers from Acalan . They arrived at the north shore of Lake Petén Itzá on 13 March 1525 .
The Roman Catholic priests accompanying the expedition celebrated mass in the presence of Aj Kan Ek ' , the king of the Itza , who was said to be so impressed that he pledged to worship the cross and to destroy his idols . Cortés accepted an invitation from Kan Ek ' to visit Nojpetén ( also known as Tayasal ) , and crossed to the Maya city with 20 Spanish soldiers while the rest of his army continued around the lake to meet him on the south shore . On his departure from Nojpetén , Cortés left behind a cross and a lame horse that the Itza treated as a deity , attempting to feed it poultry , meat and flowers , but the animal soon died . The Spanish did not officially contact the Itza again until the arrival of Franciscan priests in 1618 , when Cortés ' cross was said to still be standing at Nojpetén .
From the lake , Cortés continued south along the western slopes of the Maya Mountains , a particularly arduous journey that took 12 days to cover 32 kilometres ( 20 mi ) , during which he lost more than two @-@ thirds of his horses . When he came to a river swollen with the constant torrential rains that had been falling during the expedition , Cortés turned upstream to the Gracias a Dios rapids , which took two days to cross and cost him more horses .
On 15 April 1525 the expedition arrived at the Maya village of Tenciz . With local guides they headed into the hills north of Lake Izabal , where their guides abandoned them to their fate . The expedition became lost in the hills and came close to starvation before they captured a Maya boy who led them to safety . Cortés found a village on the shore of Lake Izabal , perhaps Xocolo . He crossed the Dulce River to the settlement of Nito , somewhere on the Amatique Bay , with about a dozen companions , and waited there for the rest of his army to regroup over the next week . By this time the remnants of the expedition had been reduced to a few hundred ; Cortés succeeded in contacting the Spaniards he was searching for , only to find that Cristóbal de Olid 's own officers had already put down his rebellion . Cortés then returned to Mexico by sea .
= = Prelude to conquest = =
From 1527 onwards the Spanish were increasingly active in the Yucatán Peninsula , establishing several colonies and towns by 1544 , including Campeche and Valladolid in what is now Mexico . The Spanish impact on the northern Maya , encompassing invasion , epidemic diseases and the export of up to 50 @,@ 000 Maya slaves , caused many Maya to flee southwards to join the Itza around Lake Petén Itzá , within the modern borders of Guatemala .
Dominican missionaries were active in Verapaz and the southern Petén from the late 16th century through the 17th century , attempting non @-@ violent conversion with limited success . In the 17th century , the Franciscans came to the conclusion that the pacification and Christian conversion of the Maya would not be possible as long as the Itza held out at Lake Petén Itzá . The constant flow of escapees fleeing the Spanish @-@ held territories to find refuge with the Itza was a drain on the workforce managed by the encomienda system .
= = = Missions in southern Petén = = =
The first Catholic missionaries entered southern Petén in 1596 to convert the Manche Ch 'ol and the Mopan . The Q 'eqchi ' of Verapaz long had close ties with the Manche Ch 'ol . The colonial Maya towns of Cobán and Cahabón , in Alta Verapaz , traded quetzal feathers , copal , chile , cotton , salt and Spanish @-@ produced iron tools with their lowland Lakandon and Manche Ch 'ol neighbours , receiving cacao and achiote in exchange . Many Q 'eqchi ' from Verapaz fled Spanish control to settle among the Lakandón and Manche Ch 'ol . These fugitives strengthened the existing ties between the independent Ch 'ol and the Spanish @-@ controlled Maya of Verapaz ; the constant flow of Maya between colonial Verapaz and independent Petén led to religious syncretism that the Spanish religious authorities were unable to prevent . This relationship did not hinder the Spanish from using the Q 'eqchi ' to help conquer and reduce the Manche Ch 'ol .
From the middle of the 16th century the Dominican Order had been tasked with the peaceful conversion of the Ch 'ol of Verapaz and southern Petén , and their concentration into new colonial towns . The Itza became fearful that the newly converted Manche Ch 'ol would lead the Spanish to Nojpetén . In 1628 the towns of the Manche Ch 'ol were placed under the administration of the governor of Verapaz , with Dominican friar Francisco Morán as their ecclesiastical head . Morán favoured a more robust approach to the conversion of the Manche and moved Spanish soldiers into the region to protect against raids from the Itza to the north . The new Spanish garrison in an area that had not previously seen a heavy Spanish military presence provoked the Manche to revolt , which was followed by abandonment of the indigenous settlements . The Itza , worried about the southern approaches to their territory , may have instigated a Manche rebellion that took place in Lent 1633 .
Towards the end of the 17th century Spanish priorities changed , and the failure of the peaceful efforts of the Dominicans to convert the Ch 'ol combined with the increasing British presence in the Caribbean led the colonial authorities to end the Dominican monopoly and allow the Franciscans and other orders to enter the region ; military options were also viewed more favourably . Between 1685 and 1689 , the Q 'eqchi ' of Cobán and Cahabón were forced to assist the Spanish in their armed expeditions against the Manche Ch 'ol and in forcibly relocating them to Verapaz . These actions depopulated the southern Petén and led to the breakdown of the trade routes linking colonial Guatemala with the independent Maya of Petén . From 1692 to 1694 , Franciscan friars Antonio Margil and Melchor López were active among the Manche and Lakandon Ch 'ol . They were eventually expelled by the Ch 'ol ; upon their return to Santiago de Guatemala they proposed three invasion routes into southern Petén and neighbouring Chiapas . Throughout the 17th century , Spanish missionaries encountered considerable reticence among the Manche , until the Spanish finally decided to move them to an area where they could be more easily controlled . At the time of contact there were perhaps 10 @,@ 000 Manche ; these were devastated by war and disease , with the survivors relocated to Rabinal in the modern department of Baja Verapaz . After 1700 the Manche Ch 'ol ceased to play any part in the history of Petén .
The Mopan population has been estimated at between 10 @,@ 000 and 20 @,@ 000 people at the time of contact . In 1692 the Council of the Indies ordered that the Manche Ch 'ol and the Mopan be dealt with decisively . The population suffered the effects of war and disease , and the few survivors were moved into Spanish reducciones in southeastern Petén , before being moved to colonial settlements in other parts of Petén . In 1695 the colonial authorities decided to act upon a plan to connect the province of Guatemala with Yucatán , and soldiers commanded by Jacinto de Barrios Leal , president of the Royal Audiencia of Guatemala , conquered several Ch 'ol communities . The most important of these was Sakb 'ajlan on the Lacantún River in eastern Chiapas , now in Mexico , which was renamed as Nuestra Señora de Dolores , or Dolores del Lakandon , in April 1695 . This was one part of a three @-@ pronged attack against the independent inhabitants of Petén and neighbouring Chiapas ; a second group joined up with Barrios Leal having marched from Huehuetenango . The third group , under Juan Díaz de Velasco , marched from Verapaz against the Itza . Barrios Leal was accompanied by Franciscan friar Antonio Margil who served as an advisor as well as his personal confessor and chaplain to his troops . The Spanish built a fort and garrisoned it with 30 Spanish soldiers . Mercederian friar Diego de Rivas was based at Dolores del Lakandon , and he and his fellow Mercederians baptised several hundred Lakandon Ch 'ols in the following months and established contacts with neighbouring Ch 'ol communities .
Resistance against the Spanish continued , and hostile Ch 'ol killed several newly baptised Christian Indians . In early March 1696 such was the success of the friars that captain Jacobo de Alzayaga and the Mercederians decided to try to reach Lake Petén Itzá . They headed eastwards towards the Pasión River with 150 heavily armed soldiers plus native guides , travelling in five large canoes . They got as far as the savannah to the southeast of the lake before turning back for unknown reasons . Antonio Margil remained in Dolores del Lakandon until 1697 . The Ch 'ol of the Lacandon Jungle were resettled in Huehuetenango in the early 18th century .
= = Conquest of the central lakes = =
Nojpetén fell to a Spanish assault on 13 March 1697 , more than 150 years after the conquest of the rest of the Yucatán Peninsula and more than 160 years after the conquest of the Guatemalan Highlands . The lengthy delay in conquering the Petén region was due to a combination of its geographical remoteness and inhospitality and the fierce reputation of its Maya inhabitants . During this time the Itza used the Yalain as an eastern buffer against Spanish approach from Belize . The lengthy indirect contact between the Itza and the Spanish invaders allowed the Itza to develop an understanding of Spanish strategy and tactics that was honed over the period of almost two centuries that the Itza were surrounded by European @-@ dominated territories . This understanding distinguished the conquest of Petén from the 16th @-@ century conquests of the Aztecs , Maya and Incas . In contrast , the Spanish had a very poor understanding of the Itza and their neighbours and viewed them as ignorant savages whose kingdom was protected by Satan from the Christianising efforts of the Spanish Empire and the Roman Catholic Church . From the time that Hernán Cortés crossed Petén in the early 16th century , the Spanish mistakenly believed the king of the Itza ( the Aj Kan Ek ' ) was the overlord of the entire central Petén region .
= = = Early 17th century = = =
Following Cortés ' visit , no Spanish attempted to visit the warlike Itza inhabitants of Nojpetén for almost a hundred years . In 1618 two Franciscan friars set out from Mérida in Yucatán on a mission to attempt the peaceful conversion of the still pagan Itza in central Petén . Bartolomé de Fuensalida and Juan de Orbita were accompanied by some Christianised Maya . Andrés Carrillo de Pernía , a Criollo who was the alcalde of Bacalar ( a colonial official ) , joined the party at Bacalar and escorted them upriver as far as Tipuj , returning to Bacalar once he was certain of the friars receiving a good welcome there . After an arduous six @-@ month journey the travellers were well received by the current Kan Ek ' . They stayed at Nojpetén for some days in an attempt to evangelise the Itza , but the Aj Kan Ek ' refused to renounce his Maya religion , although he showed interest in the masses held by the Catholic missionaries . Kan Ek ' informed them that according to ancient Itza prophecy it was not yet time for them to convert . In the time since Cortés had visited Nojpetén , the Itza had made a statue of the deified horse . Juan de Orbita was outraged when he saw the idol and he immediately smashed it into pieces . Fuensalida was able to save the lives of the visitors from the infuriated natives by means of a particularly eloquent sermon that resulted in them being forgiven . Attempts to convert the Itza failed , and the friars left Nojpetén on friendly terms with Kan Ek ' .
The friars returned in 1619 , arriving in October and staying for eighteen days . Again Kan Ek ' welcomed them in a friendly manner , but this time the Maya priesthood were hostile and jealous of the missionaries ' influence upon the king . They persuaded Kan Ek 's wife to convince him to expel the unwelcome visitors . The missionaries ' lodgings were surrounded by armed warriors , and the friars and their accompanying servants were escorted to a waiting canoe and instructed to leave and never return . Juan de Orbita attempted to resist and was rendered unconscious by an Itza warrior . The missionaries were expelled without food or water but survived the journey back to Mérida .
Before the early 17th century , the western Petén had been heavily populated by Ch 'ol and Ch 'olti ' Maya and was an important trade route for the Itza . By the mid @-@ 17th century , these populations had been devastated by war , disease and the enforced movement of the inhabitants into colonial settlements , negating the economic importance of the region for the Itza . At the same time the Kejache were becoming important intermediaries between the Itza and Yucatán . The Putun Acalan subgroup of the Kejache had previously traded directly with the Itza but had been relocated by the Spanish . The remaining Kejache , devastated by disease and subject to the intense attentions of Spanish missionaries , were no longer able to supply the Itza directly and became middlemen instead .
= = = = Spanish setbacks in the 1620s = = = =
In March 1622 , governor of Yucatán Diego de Cardenas ordered captain Francisco de Mirones Lezcano to launch an assault upon the Itza ; he set out from Yucatán with 20 Spanish soldiers and 80 Mayas from Yucatán . His expedition was later joined by Franciscan friar Diego Delgado . The expedition first camped at IxPimienta ; in May they moved to Sakalum , southwest of Bacalar , where there was a lengthy delay while they waited for reinforcements . En route to Nojpetén , Delgado believed that the soldiers ' treatment of the Maya was excessively cruel , and he left the expedition to make his own way to Nojpetén with eighty Christianised Maya from Tipuj in Belize . In the meantime the Itza had learnt of the approaching military expedition and had become hardened against further Spanish missionary attempts . When Mirones learnt of Delgado 's departure , he sent 13 soldiers to persuade him to return or continue as his escort should he refuse . The soldiers caught up with him just before Tipuj , but he was determined to reach Nojpetén . From Tipuj , Delgado sent a messenger to Kan Ek ' , asking permission to travel to Nojpetén ; the Itza king replied with a promise of safe passage for the missionary and his companions . The party was initially received in peace at the Itza capital , but as soon as the Spanish soldiers let their guard down , the Itza seized and bound the new arrivals . The soldiers were sacrificed to the Maya gods , with their hearts cut from their chests and their heads impaled on stakes around the town . After the sacrifice of the Spanish soldiers , the Itza took Delgado , cut his heart out and dismembered him ; they displayed his head on a stake with the others . The fate of the leader of Delgado 's Maya companions was no better . With no word from Delgado 's escort , Mirones sent two Spanish soldiers with Bernardino Ek , a Maya scout , to learn their fate . When they arrived upon the shore of Lake Petén Itzá , the Itza took them across to their island capital and imprisoned them . They escaped to a canoe by the lakeshore but the two Spanish , slowed by their bonds , were soon recaptured . Ek escaped and returned to Mirones with the news .
Soon afterwards , on 27 January 1624 , an Itza war party led by AjK 'in P 'ol caught Mirones and his soldiers off guard and unarmed in the church at Sakalum and slaughtered them . Spanish reinforcements led by Juan Bernardo Casanova arrived too late ; the Spanish soldiers had been sacrificed , hanged and beheaded , with their corpses burned and impaled on stakes at the entrance to the village ; Mirones and the Franciscan priest had been bound to the church posts and then sacrificed with their hearts cut out . A number of local Maya men and women had also been hanged but not decapitated , and the attackers had burned the town .
Following these massacres , Spanish garrisons were stationed in several towns in southern Yucatán , and rewards were offered for the whereabouts of AjK 'in P 'ol . The Maya governor of Oxkutzcab , Fernando Kamal , set out with 150 Maya archers to track the warleader down ; they succeeded in capturing the Itza captain and his followers , together with silverware from the looted Sakalum church and items belonging to Mirones . The prisoners were taken back to the Spanish captain Antonio Méndez de Canzo , interrogated under torture , tried , and condemned to be hanged , drawn and quartered . They were decapitated , and the heads were displayed in the plazas of towns throughout the colonial Partido de la Sierra in what is now Mexico 's Yucatán state . These events ended all Spanish attempts to contact the Itza until 1695 . In the 1640s internal strife in Spain distracted the government from attempts to conquer unknown lands ; the Spanish Crown lacked the time , money or interest in such colonial adventures for the next four decades .
= = = Late 17th century = = =
In 1692 Basque nobleman Martín de Ursúa y Arizmendi proposed to the Spanish king the construction of a road from Mérida southwards to link with the Guatemalan colony , in the process " reducing " any independent native populations into colonial congregaciones ; this was part of a greater plan to subjugate the Lakandon and Manche Ch 'ol of southern Petén and the upper reaches of the Usumacinta River . The original plan was for the province of Yucatán to build the northern section and for Guatemala to build the southern portion , with both meeting somewhere in Ch 'ol territory ; the plan was later modified to pass further east , through the kingdom of the Itza .
= = = = Spanish – Itza diplomatic contacts , 1695 = = = =
In December 1695 the Spanish colonial authorities in Mérida received a diplomatic visit sent by the Aj Kan Ek ' . The diplomatic contact had been negotiated by Spanish captain Francisco Hariza y Arruyo , alcalde of Bacalar @-@ at @-@ Chunjujub ' . Hariza had sent a Christian Maya ambassador to Nojpetén from Tipuj in April 1695 , who arrived around the same time that the Itza were preparing to defend themselves against a Spanish party entering from Guatemala ; nonetheless the emissary was received in peace and despatched back to Hariza with promises of submission to Spain . In August Hariza travelled to Mérida in the company of a group of seven Tipuj natives offering submission to Spain . Four members of this party were not from Tipuj at all , but were Itza diplomats sent incognito from Yalain to discuss possible peaceful contacts with the colonial authorities . The leader of the Itza delegation was AjChan , a nephew of the Itza king . When friar Avendaño was in Mérida in September 1695 between attempts to reach Nojpetén , he met with the Itza – Yalain delegation and was able to give an account of them when he travelled through Yalain after visiting Nojpetén in January 1696 . AjChan and his companions returned to Nojpetén in November but did not stay long before leaving for Mérida again .
In December , Kan Ek ' despatched AjChan to negotiate peace with Spain , with three Itza companions . They were accompanied to Mérida by a small number of Mopans from the Tipuj region . AjChan , through family ties and marriage , had a key role as a middleman between the Itza , Yalain and Kowoj ; he also had family ties with the semi @-@ Christianised Maya at Tipuj , and his mother was from Chichen Itza in the northern Yucatán . His marriage to a Kowoj woman had been an attempt , ultimately unsuccessful , to defuse Itza – Kowoj hostility . Kan Ek ' sent AjChan to Mérida with a message of peaceful submission to the Spanish Empire in an attempt to solidify his own position as sole ruler of the Itza , even if this meant sacrificing Itza independence from Spain . The Itza king 's uncle and the Kowoj were fundamentally opposed to any negotiations with the Spanish and viewed AjChan 's embassy as treachery . The Spanish were unaware of the tensions between different Maya factions in central Petén , which by now had escalated into a state of inter @-@ Maya warfare . AjChan was baptised as Martín Francisco on 31 December 1695 , with Martín de Ursúa , governor of Yucatán , acting as his godfather .
The arrival of AjChan and his subsequent baptism was an important diplomatic coup for Ursúa , who used the visit for his own political advancement , promoting the embassy as the peaceful final submission of the Itza kingdom to the Spanish Crown . This formal submission of the Itza kingdom to Spain was a critical turning point , since from a Spanish legal viewpoint the Itza were now subjects and the royal prohibition on military conquest could be sidestepped . AjChan left Mérida with his companions and a Spanish escort in the middle of January 1696 and arrived back at Tipuj around the end of the month . After a few days at Tipuj he learnt of violent events unfolding around Lake Petén Itzá including the battle at Ch 'ich ' and the subsequent killing of two Franciscans . Fearing the response of his Spanish escort , he abandoned them and fled back to Yalain .
= = = = García de Paredes ' entry from Yucatán , March – April 1695 = = = =
The governor of Yucatán , Martín de Ursúa y Arizmendi , began to build the road from Campeche south towards Petén . At the beginning of March 1695 , Ursúa ordered captain Alonso García de Paredes to explore this road ; García led a group of 50 Spanish soldiers , accompanied by native guides , muleteers and labourers . García had previous experience from military expeditions around Sajkab 'chen ( near modern Xcabacab in southern Campeche state ) The expedition advanced some way south of Sajkab 'chen into Kejache territory , which began at Chunpich , about 5 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) north of the modern border between Mexico and Guatemala . He rounded up some natives to be moved into colonial settlements , but met with armed Kejache resistance . A skirmish ensued at a Kejache village , resulting in the deaths of eight Kejache warriors . Prisoners taken during the skirmish informed García that many independent Maya lived in the area , both Kejache and others . García decided to retreat around the middle of April , probably to escort captured Kejache back to Sajkab 'chen to be put to work on García 's encomienda . Captain García reported back to Ursúa on 21 April 1695 .
= = = = Díaz de Velasco and Cano 's entry from Verapaz , March – April 1695 = = = =
In March 1695 , captain Juan Díaz de Velasco set out from Cahabón in Alta Verapaz with 70 Spanish soldiers , accompanied by a large number of Maya archers from Verapaz , and native muleteers ; four Dominican friars led by Criollo friar Agustín Cano accompanied the expedition . Theoretically the Spanish soldiers were provided solely as an escort for the Dominicans . The Guatemalan expedition , under orders of President Jacinto de Barrios Leal , were secretly trying to reach the Itzas before Martín de Ursúa could reach them from Yucatán ; the existence of the expedition was carefully concealed during all communications between Guatemala and the governor of Yucatán . It formed a part of a three @-@ pronged attack against the independent inhabitants of Petén and neighbouring Chiapas ; the other two expeditions were launched against the Lakandon .
The expedition proceeded northwards through Ch 'ol territory and into Mopan territory ; there they camped at Mopan town ( modern San Luis ) . Due to their fear of their warlike Itza neighbours , both the Ch 'ol and the Mopans claimed not to know of any paths to Lake Petén Itzá . The Spanish were held up at Mopan for several days by supply problems and desertions among their native carriers . The Dominicans took advantage of the delay to proselytise the Mopans and Cano wrote that he had converted four caciques ( native chiefs ) there , although Taxim Chan , king of the Mopans , had fled with many of the local inhabitants . Cano believed that the Mopans were ruled by the king of the Itzas .
= = = = = First skirmish = = = = =
The Spanish believed that by pressing ahead to Lake Petén Itzá they would link up with a simultaneous expedition headed by President Barrios himself , unaware that Barrios had not reached the region . Díaz de Velasco sent out a scouting party of 50 musketeers accompanied by native archers on 6 April . They soon found evidence of recent Itza camps in the area , estimated to be a month old . The scouts found a clear road heading north to the Itza kingdom , and the army set off along it . The main force camped about ten leagues ( 26 miles or 42 km ) south of the lake , while a smaller scouting party was sent off ahead ; this consisted of two Spanish soldiers , two archers and two muleteers from Verapaz , with two Ch 'ol @-@ speaking native interpreters . The scouting party advanced to the savannah just to the south of Lake Petén Itzá , where they encountered about 30 Itza hunters armed with spears , shields and bows , accompanied by hunting dogs . The hunters drew their weapons and prepared to fight , but the Mopan interpreter was instructed to explain that the Spanish party were traders who came in peace , accompanied by missionaries . The Spanish began to suspect that the interpreter was plotting against them with the Itza hunters , and one of the Verapaz archers dragged him out from among the hunters . The encounter degenerated into a scuffle , and the Itzas once again drew weapons . The Spanish fired their muskets , fatally wounding two hunters , and a Verapaz Indian charged the Itzas with a machete . The hunters fled , leaving the scouting party in possession of the food and arrows at the hunting camp .
= = = = = Second skirmish = = = = =
Five days after this skirmish , Antonio Machuca led a party of 12 musketeers , 25 archers and 13 muleteers to try to find President Barrios , to scout a river route to the lake and to capture another interpreter , the previous one no longer being trusted . The main party arrived on the savannah near the lake . The following night one of the advance party came back into camp with an Itza prisoner , captured after a fierce struggle with the scouts . Interrogation of the prisoner revealed that he was from a high @-@ ranking Itza lineage , and that he had been sent out to find the Spanish party and to see if they came as traders or invaders . The rest of Machuca 's scouting party soon returned to the main camp , reporting that they had camped four leagues ( approximately 10 @.@ 4 miles or 16 @.@ 7 km ) from the lake , where they encountered another hunting party of about " a dozen " Itzas . The Spanish tried to use their interpreter to talk to them but the Itzas responded with a volley of arrows . The Spanish musketeers tried to respond with musketfire , but found their gunpowder too wet to fire properly . The Itza warriors charged upon them with spears , axes and machetes , and the ensuing hand @-@ to @-@ hand battle lasted an hour , during which six of the Itzas were killed ; the rest finally retreated . Thanks to their padded cotton armour , the Spanish party received no injuries from the skirmish . The Spanish pursued the fleeing Itzas and another fierce skirmish ensued , lasting another hour during which most of the remaining Itzas were killed . Three Itzas escaped , and their leader was rendered unconscious with machete blows to the head ; he was taken prisoner and later made a full recovery . Machuca 's party reached the lakeshore and could see Nojpetén across the water , but saw such a large force of Itzas that they retreated south , back to the main camp .
An Itza account of this encounter reached the colonial authorities in Yucatán via Tipuj . The Itza reported that the Guatemalan party approached on horseback to within sight of Nojpetén , and about thirty curious Itzas gathered to talk to the intruders , whereupon they were attacked by the Spanish , resulting in the deaths of thirty Itzas , the capture of one and yet more wounded . A Christian Maya emissary from Bacalar @-@ at @-@ Chunjujub ' , Yucatán , was in Nojpetén around this time , and reported that the Itza gathered 3 @,@ 000 – 4 @,@ 000 warriors ready to repulse Díaz de Velasco 's party .
= = = = = Retreat to Guatemala = = = = =
On 24 April , the first prisoner escaped from the main camp ; the same day that the injured second prisoner was taken in by Machuca and his men . Interrogation of the new prisoner , who turned out to be an Itza nobleman , revealed that the Itza kingdom was in a state of high alert to repel the Spanish . Friar Cano met with his fellow Dominicans to discuss what should be done , having had information from both Machuca and his prisoner that the Itza were ready for war . The Dominicans were highly critical of the Spanish soldiers ' readiness to open fire on poorly armed natives who offered no real threat to them , and suspected that President Barrios was nowhere near the lake ; furthermore the Spanish were beginning to succumb to sickness , and the Verapaz Indian recruits were deserting daily . Díaz agreed with the Dominicans ; two muleteers had already died from sickness , and he recognised that the size of his expedition was not sufficient for a full confrontation with the Itza nation . The expedition almost immediately withdrew back to Cahabón . The new prisoner , AjK 'ixaw was later taken back to Santiago de los Caballeros de Guatemala , where the Dominicans questioned him in detail . In Guatemala AjK 'ixaw learnt Spanish and returned to Petén in 1696 as a guide and interpreter for another expedition , before turning on his captors . After the Spanish retreated to Guatemala , rumours ran rife among the Itza and Kowoj that they would return to engage in wholesale slaughter of the Maya population ; large tracts of territory were abandoned in response , including many towns in an area stretching from Lake Petén Itzá eastwards to Tipuj and southwards to Mopán .
= = = = García de Paredes ' entry from Yucatán , May 1695 = = = =
When captain García de Paredes unexpectedly returned to Campeche in early May 1695 , governor Martín de Ursúa was already preparing reinforcements for his expedition . With García 's arrival , he was immediately allocated the extra soldiers . On 11 May Ursúa ordered García to begin a second expedition southwards and was allotted 100 salaried Maya to accompany him . These workers were to be paid three pesos per month and received a suspension of their obligations to supply encomienda work and tribute . García paid for additional Spanish soldiers from his own funds , as did José Fernández de Estenos , a Campeche resident who was to serve as second @-@ in @-@ command . The final force numbered 115 Spanish soldiers and 150 Maya musketeers , plus Maya labourers and muleteers ; the final tally was more than 400 people , which was regarded as a considerable army in the impoverished Yucatán province . Ursúa also ordered two companies of Maya musketeers from Tek 'ax and Oxk 'utzkab ' to join the expedition at B 'olonch 'en Kawich , some 60 kilometres ( 37 mi ) southeast of the city of Campeche . Bonifacio Us was captain of the Tek 'ax company ; Diego Uk was that of the Oxk 'utzkab ' company . Marcos Pot was overall " cacique captain " of these two Maya companies ; all three officers were Maya . A Maya company from Sajkab 'chen served as elite musketeers charged with rounding up forest Maya into the reducciones ; this company was excused from heavy labour duties . Non @-@ Maya soldiers were a mix of Spanish , mestizos ( mixed race Spanish and native ) and mulattos ( mixed race Spanish and black ) .
On 18 May Ursúa requested three missionaries to support the expedition from the Franciscan provincial superior , friar Antonio de Silva ; by 30 May three friars were ready to join the Spanish force , accompanied by a lay brother who had not yet taken vows . In addition , Silva sent another group of Franciscans led by friar Andrés de Avendaño , who was accompanied by another friar and a lay brother . This second group was only to remain with García while convenient for them to do so , and were to continue onwards independently to Nojpetén to make contact with the Itzas , with the tacit approval of Ursúa . In fact Avendaño and his party left Mérida on 2 June , a week before the party assigned to García . On 23 June Ursúa received a message informing him of the occupation of Sakb 'ajlan ( Dolores del Lakandon ) by Guatemalan troops . By this time García was at Tzuktok ' , near the Kejache border . Although Ursúa 's purported plan , as authorised by the Spanish crown , was to build a road uniting Yucatán with Guatemala , he now realised that he was in a race to conquer the Itza kingdom ; President Barrios of Guatemala had reached Sakb 'ajlan and was returning to Santiago to prepare another expedition , and Guatemalan soldiers had already reached the lakeshore of Petén Itzá . Any linking road to Dolores del Lakandon would have passed through sparsely inhabited territory ; instead the Yucatecan surveyor plotted a route due south directly to the lake where it could connect with the south road via Cahabón in Verapaz . This route would leave Dolores del Lakandon and the Lakandon Ch 'ol isolated to the west . Ursúa issued new orders to García dissimulating his desire to conquer the Itza . His letter ordered García to link up with President Barrios at Dolores del Lakandon , and gave him a precise route that would take him instead to the lake . A short time after receiving these orders , García ordered the construction of a fort at Chuntuki , some 25 leagues ( approximately 65 miles or 105 km ) north of Lake Petén Itzá . This would serve as the main military base for the Camino Real ( " Royal Road " ) project ; the supply base was at Kawich , under the command of Juan del Castillo y Arrué . On 27 July Ursúa authorised the creation of three new militia companies of 25 men apiece to reinforce García . Two were Spanish companies and one was a mixed @-@ race company consisting of mestizos and pardos .
= = = = = Skirmish at Chunpich = = = = =
The Sajkab 'chen company of native musketeers pushed ahead with the road builders from Tzuktzok ' to the first Kejache town at Chunpich , which the Kejache had fled , leaving behind a substantial amount of food . The company 's officers sent for reinforcements from García at Tzuktok ' but before any could arrive some 25 Kejache returned to Chunpich with baskets to collect their abandoned food . The nervous Sajkab 'chen sentries feared that the residents were returning en masse and discharged their muskets at them , with both groups then retreating . The musketeer company then arrived to reinforce their sentries and charged into battle against approaching Kejache archers . Several musketeers were injured in the ensuing skirmish , and the Kejache retreated along a forest path without injury , mocking the invaders . The Sajkab 'chen company followed the path and found two more deserted settlements with large amounts of abandoned food . They seized the food and retreated back along the path .
= = = = = Reinforcements = = = = =
Around 3 August García moved his entire army forward to Chunpich , and by October Spanish soldiers had established themselves near the source of the San Pedro River . By November Tzuktok ' was garrisoned with 86 soldiers and more at Chuntuki ; in that month García once again returned to Campeche . By December 1695 Ursúa was under pressure to complete the conquest of the Itza , and he approved the despatch of reinforcements along the Camino Real to join the main garrison . The reinforcements included 150 Spanish and pardo soldiers and 100 Maya soldiers , together with labourers and muleteers . An advance group of 150 mixed Maya and non @-@ Maya soldiers met up with García at Campeche and proceeded southwards along the Camino Real towards the San Pedro River . The rest of the reinforcements did not leave Campeche until March 1696 .
= = = = Avendaño 's entry from Yucatán , June 1695 = = = =
In May 1695 Antonio de Silva had appointed two groups of Franciscans to head for Petén ; the first group was to join up with García 's military expedition . The second group was to head for Lake Petén Itza independently . This second group was headed by friar Andrés de Avendaño . Avendaño was accompanied by friar Antonio Pérez de San Román , lay brother Alonso de Vargas and six Maya Christians recruited from Mérida and towns en route to Campeche . This latter group left Mérida on 2 June 1695 and made its way to Juan del Castillo y Arrué 's supply base at Kawich , set up to support García 's military expedition . On 24 June Avendaño 's party left Kawich and set off across sparsely inhabited territory . On 29 June they arrived at an abandoned Maya temple , which he referred to by the name Nojku , meaning " Big Temple " . The Spanish had already passed through and had broken many " idols " but the friars climbed the temple and managed to find about 50 additional ceremonial sculptures , which they destroyed ; they also placed a cross inside . The other group of friars , on their way to join García , passed through Nojku a few days later and found that local Maya had already placed new offerings within . Avendaño 's group continued southwards and found increasing signs of habitation and arrived at the military camp of captain José Fernández de Estenos at the deserted Maya town of Nojt 'ub ' , which had been cleared by the Spanish under García some sixteen years previously .
Avendaño continued south along the course of the new road , finding increasing evidence of Spanish military activity , with the rounding up of local inhabitants and raiding of fields and orchards for provisions by Spanish troops . The Franciscans overtook García at B 'uk 'te , about 12 kilometres ( 7 @.@ 5 mi ) before Tzuktok ' . Avendaño 's party arrived at Tzuktok ' , near the Kejache border , by 10 July and left two weeks later , around the same time that García arrived there with his captives rounded up at B 'uk 'te for forced labour . Before leaving , the Franciscans protested to García and his officers about the poor treatment of the local inhabitants ; the officers promised better treatment of the Maya in future . On 3 August García advanced to Chunpich but tried to persuade Avendaño to stay behind to minister to the prisoners from B 'uk 'te . Avendaño instead split his group and left in secret with just four Christian Maya companions , seeking the Chunpich Kejache that had attacked one of García 's advance companies and had now retreated into the forest . He was unable to find the Kejache but did manage to get information regarding a path that led southwards to the Itza kingdom . He met four exhausted Sajkab 'chen musketeers who were carrying a letter addressed to him from captain Fernández de Estenos . This letter explained that further south there were various deserted Maya towns with only rotten maize abandoned by their occupiers . Avendaño returned to Tzuktok ' and reconsidered his plans ; the Franciscans were short of supplies , and the forcefully congregated Maya that they were charged with converting were disappearing back into the forest daily . Additionally , the Spanish officers ignored the concerns of the friars and García was abducting local Maya women and children to be taken back to his encomienda for forced labour . The Franciscans set upon a different , ultimately unsuccessful , plan ; they would follow the road back north to Jop 'elch 'en near Campeche city and attempt to reach the Itza via Tipuj . This route was blocked when the secular clergy prevented the Franciscans from attempting it . Antonio de Silva ordered Avendaño to return to Mérida , and he arrived there on 17 September 1695 . The other group of Franciscans , led by Juan de San Buenaventura Chávez , continued following the roadbuilders into Kejache territory , through IxB 'am , B 'atkab ' and Chuntuki ( modern Chuntunqui near Carmelita , Petén ) .
= = = = San Buenaventura among the Kejache , September – November 1695 = = = =
Juan de San Buenaventura 's small group of Franciscans had arrived in Chuntuki on 30 August 1695 , and found that the army had opened the road southwards for another seventeen leagues ( approximately 44 @.@ 2 miles or 71 @.@ 1 km ) , almost half way to Lake Petén Itzá , but returned to Chuntuki due to the seasonal rains . San Buenaventura was accompanied by friar Joseph de Jesús María , lay friar Tomás de Alcoser and lay brother Lucas de San Francisco . With Avendaño 's return to Mérida , provincial superior Antonio de Silva despatched two additional friars to join San Buenaventura 's group : Diego de Echevarría and Diego de Salas . One of these was to convert the Kejache in Tzuktok ' , and the other was to do the same at Chuntuki . Although initially reluctant to permit the group to continue into Itza territory , by late October García de Paredes had relented and acquiesced to de Silva 's instructions for San Buenaventura and his original companions to continue to Nojpetén , although it appears that this never happened . On 24 October San Buenaventura wrote to the provincial superior reporting that the warlike Kejache were now pacified and that they had told him that the Itza were ready to receive the Spanish in friendship . On that day 62 Kejache men had voluntarily come to Chuntuki from Pak 'ek 'em , where another 300 Kejache resided . San Buenaventura sent lay brother Lucas de San Francisco to convince them to relocate to the Chuntuki mission . Lucas de San Francisco destroyed the idols in Pak 'ek 'em but the inhabitants were not brought to the mission because of worries about feeding the new arrivals . Instead , in early November 1695 , friar Tomás de Alcoser and brother Lucas de San Francisco were sent to establish a mission at Pak 'ek 'em , where they were well received by the cacique and his pagan priest . Pak 'ek 'em was sufficiently far from the new Spanish road that it was free from military interference , and the friars oversaw the building of a church in what was the largest mission town in Kejache territory . A second church was built at B 'atkab ' to attend to over 100 K 'ejache refugees who had been gathered there under the stewardship of friar Diego de Echevarría ; a further church was established at Tzuktok ' , overseen by Diego de Salas .
= = = = Avendaño 's entry from Yucatán , December 1695 – January 1696 = = = =
Franciscan Andrés de Avendaño left Mérida on 13 December 1695 , and arrived in Nojpetén around 14 January 1696 ; he followed the new road as far as possible then continued towards Nojpetén with local Maya guides . He was accompanied by friars Antonio Pérez de San Román , Joseph de Jesús María and Diego de Echevarría , and by lay brother Lucas de San Francisco ; some of these he collected on his journey south along the Camino Real . On 5 January they caught up with and passed the main contingent of the army at B 'atkab ' , continuing to Chuntuki . From Chuntuki they followed an Indian trail that led them past the source of the San Pedro River and across steep karst hills to a watering hole by some ruins , which was recorded as Tanxulukmul by Avendaño . From Tanxulukmul they followed the small Acté River to a Chak 'an Itza town called Saklemakal . They arrived at the western end of Lake Petén Itzá to an enthusiastic welcome by the local Itza .
Unknown to the Franciscans , the northern Chak 'an Itza province of the Itza kingdom was allied with the Kowoj and was at war with the Itza king . The Chak 'an Itzas carried off most of the gifts that the Spanish party had brought for the Itza king , in an effort to hinder friendly relations developing . The following day , the current Aj Kan Ek ' travelled across the lake with eighty canoes to greet the visitors at the Chak 'an Itza port town of Nich , on the west shore of Lake Petén Itza . The Franciscans returned to Nojpetén with Kan Ek ' and baptised over 300 Itza children over the following four days . Avendaño tried to convince Kan Ek ' to convert to Christianity and surrender to the Spanish crown , without success . The Franciscan friar tried to convince the Itza king that the K 'atun 8 Ajaw , a twenty @-@ year Maya calendrical cycle beginning in 1696 or 1697 , was the right time for the Itza to finally embrace Christianity and to accept the king of Spain as overlord . The king of the Itza , like his forebear , cited Itza prophecy and said the time was not yet right . He asked the Spanish to return in four months , at which time the Itza would convert and swear fealty to the King of Spain .
On 19 January AjKowoj , the king of the Kowoj , arrived at Nojpetén and spoke with Avendaño , arguing against the acceptance of Christianity and Spanish rule . The discussions between Avendaño , Kan Ek ' and AjKowoj exposed deep divisions among the Itza – and the apparent treachery of the Itza king in offering his kingdom to the Spanish undermined Kan Ek 's power over his own people . Kan Ek ' learnt of a plot by the Kowoj and their Chak 'an Itza allies to ambush and kill the Franciscans , and the Itza king advised them to return to Mérida via Tipuj . The Itza king 's efforts to save his Spanish guests effectively ended his power to rule ; from that point on anti @-@ Spanish sentiment governed Itza responses to the Spanish . The Franciscans were guided to Yalain where they were well received but while they were there the Yalain heard rumours of battle and a Spanish advance towards Lake Petén Itzá . The Franciscans were shown a path that led to Tipuj but their Yalain guides soon abandoned them . The Spanish friars became lost and suffered great hardships , including the death of one of Avendaño 's companions , but after a month wandering in the forest found their way back to Chuntuki and from there made their way back to Mérida .
= = = = Battle at Ch 'ich ' , 2 February 1696 = = = =
Kan Ek ' had sent emissaries to Mérida in December 1695 to inform Martín de Ursúa that the Itza would peacefully submit to Spanish rule . By mid @-@ January captain García de Paredes had advanced from B 'atkab ' to the advance portion of the Camino Real at Chuntuki . By now he only had 90 soldiers plus labourers and porters , with many of his soldiers deserting as the force advanced towards Lake Petén Itzá ; they were further delayed by the necessity of building an oar @-@ powered longboat ( or piragua ) to cross the San Pedro River . Soon after Avendaño 's flight eastward from Nojpetén , a group of 60 Maya warriors entered Chuntuki in full warpaint and bearing weapons ; they claimed to have been sent by Avendaño to collect religious regalia and another friar . This was not the case , and they were almost certainly a scouting party sent by the Kowoj and their Chak 'an Itza allies to see what progress the Spanish army was making along the road . They spoke with García and then rapidly departed without taking any of the items that they had supposedly been sent to collect . García despatched two Kejache scouts to the lakeshore to discover Avendaño 's whereabouts ; at the same time Avendaño 's Kejache guides were returning to Chuntuki from Nojpetén with news of Avendaño 's flight . The Itzas at the lake handed over an open letter written by Avendaño before his departure from Nojpetén as a token of friendship between the Itza and the Spanish . Friar Juan de San Buenaventura was enthused by the letter and wished to travel on to Nojpetén himself .
García sent captain Pedro de Zubiaur , his senior officer , on towards the lake . He arrived at Lake Petén Itza with 60 musketeers , friar San Buenaventura and another Franciscan and allied Yucatec Maya warriors . They were also accompanied by about 40 Maya porters . On 2 February the expedition was approached by two Itza warriors who told them of a recent battle between a Guatemalan expedition and the Itza ; these two Itzas guided the party to a nearby Itza settlement , and the letter from Avendaño was shown to captain Zubiaur , convincing him that he could advance safely . The port town of Ch 'ich ' was abandoned but a large number of canoes approached , judged to be as many as 300 by the Spanish captain , bearing perhaps 2 @,@ 000 Itza warriors . The warriors began to mingle freely with the Spanish party and began to load the Spanish supplies into the canoes with a promise of transporting the expedition across to Nojpetén , with one soldier in each canoe . The Franciscans readily boarded the canoes , with two soldiers as an escort . A scuffle then broke out ; a dozen more of the Spanish party were forced into canoes , and two porters were beaten to death . One of the captured Spanish soldiers was immediately decapitated . At this point the Spanish soldiers opened fire with their muskets , and the Itza retreated across the lake with their prisoners .
The Spanish party retreated from the lake shore and regrouped on open ground where they were surrounded by about 2 @,@ 000 Itza warriors who attempted to disarm them ; the Itzas managed to seize another Spaniard and immediately struck off his head . At this point about 10 @,@ 000 Itza archers appeared from canoes concealed among the lakeside mangroves , and Zubiaur ordered his men to fire a volley that killed between 30 and 40 Itzas . Realising that they were hopelessly outnumbered , the Spanish retreated towards Chuntuki , abandoning their captured companions to their fate . A Christian Maya musketeer and six other Indians fled at the start of the battle and took news to García that the entire expedition had been slaughtered ; Zubiaur and the survivors of his expedition marched back into the base camp at Chuntuki two days later . Ursúa later reported that the Spanish prisoners were taken back to Nojpetén where they were all killed ; this was also confirmed by AjChan at a later date . The bones of the dead were said to have been found by the Spanish after the final assault on Nojpetén in 1697 ; AjK 'in Kan Ek ' , the Itza high priest , later reported that he had bound San Buenaventura and his companion into cross shapes and cut out their hearts .
This turn of events convinced Martín de Ursúa that Kan Ek ' would not surrender peacefully , and he began to organise an all @-@ out assault on Nojpetén . The enlistment of previously authorised reinforcements was now urgent , but was hindered when 70 of 100 soldiers mutinied and never reached García 's camp . Work on the road was redoubled and about a month after the battle at Ch 'ich ' the Spanish arrived at the lakeshore , now supported by artillery . Again a large number of canoes gathered , and the nervous Spanish soldiers opened fire with cannons and muskets ; no casualties were reported among the Itza , who retreated and raised a white flag from a safe distance .
= = = = Amésqueta 's entry from Verapaz , February – March 1696 = = = =
The Guatemalan authorities were unaware of ongoing contacts between the colonial authorities in Yucatán and the Itza . In the second half of 1695 President Barrios began planning another expedition against the Itza from Verapaz , following harsh criticism of Juan Díaz de Velasco 's retreat from near Lake Petén Itzá in April of that year . Barrios died in November , and oidor José de Escals became acting head of the Guatemalan colonial administration . He appointed oidor Bartolomé de Amésqueta to lead the next expedition against the Itza . Amésqueta marched his men through torrential rain from Cahabón to Mopán , arriving on 25 February 1696 ; the Guatemalans were still unaware of the clashes between García 's forces and the Itza . Amésqueta 's expedition was suffering from shortages of native labour and supplies . Twenty @-@ five of his 150 men were sick , and his advance stalled as the force rested up at Mopán . Captain Díaz de Velasco volunteered to lead a party of 25 men ahead to the lake ; he was accompanied by Dominican friars Cristóbal de Prada and Jacinto de Vargas . He was also accompanied by AjK 'ixaw , the Itza nobleman who had been taken prisoner on Díaz 's previous expedition , who served as a trusted guide , scout and translator . They set out from Mopán on 7 March and left some sick soldiers with some supplies after five days , they then caught up with an advance party of roadbuilders and their military escort at Río Chakal . The two forces combined , giving Díaz a force of 49 soldiers and 34 porters and archers from Verapaz . Once they arrived at IxB 'ol , near the shore of Lake Petén Itzá , AjK 'ixaw was sent ahead as an emissary to Nojpetén .
= = = = = Amésqueta 's attempt to locate Díaz de Velasco = = = = =
Back in Mopán , Amésqueta had received additional supplies and decided to catch up with his advance party . He left Mopán on 10 March 1696 with friar Agustín Cano and about 10 soldiers . He arrived at Chakal a week later but there was still no word from Díaz or AjK 'ixaw . On 20 March Amésqueta left Chakal with 36 men and four days ' supplies to find Díaz 's party , whom he assumed would be nearby . After two days travelling in intense heat they met up with some Verapaz porters that Díaz had left behind . They followed Díaz 's trail to the shore of Lake Petén Itzá near to the Itza capital . As they scouted along the south shore they were shadowed by about 30 Itza canoes , and more Itzas approached by land but kept a safe distance . There were plentiful signs that Díaz 's party had passed that way , and Amésqueta assumed that they had crossed to Nojpetén . He wrote a letter to Díaz , which was passed to an Itza onlooker who indicated he would deliver it . Various Itzas now approached the party , including a nobleman who exchanged gifts with Amésqueta . During various attempts at communication to verify Díaz 's whereabouts the Itza became agitated and responded angrily , although no @-@ one in the Spanish party could understand the Itza language . The Itzas indicated that the Spanish should proceed to the lakeshore along a narrow path and embark in the small canoes that were stationed nearby . One of Amésqueta 's officers recognised an Indian among the Itzas as a Mopan who had served as a soldier in Díaz 's first expedition and thought that the Mopan was trying to tell him not to trust the Itzas .
Amésqueta was extremely suspicious of the small canoes being supplied , knowing that the Itza had 30 @-@ man canoes ; he was also aware that tricking enemies into small canoes was a favoured tactic among the lowland Maya to separate and kill Spanish intruders . He suspected that AjK 'ixaw had betrayed them and that this was precisely what had happened to Díaz and his men . As nightfall approached , low on rations , in a vulnerable location and with no sign of Díaz and his men , Amésqueta retreated from the lakeshore and his men took up positions on a small hill nearby . In the early hours of the morning he ordered a retreat by moonlight , using just a few torches . They arrived back at Chakal on 25 March and from there retreated to San Pedro Mártir on 9 April , beset by worsening conditions , a hurricane , sickness and rumours of enemies . The battered expedition set up a base camp nine leagues ( approximately 23 @.@ 4 miles or 37 @.@ 7 km ) north of Mopan .
= = = = = Fate of Díaz de Velasco 's expedition = = = = =
Writing after the fall of Nojpetén , friar Cano described the ultimate fate of Díaz de Velasco and his companions ; he claimed to have received the information from interviews with the soldiers from Yucatán who had stormed the Itza capital and from Ch 'ol witnesses , although there were no Ch 'ol at Nojpetén . Díaz 's party arrived at the lakeshore and were told by local Itza that Franciscan friars were at Nojpetén . They were wary at first and asked for proof , upon which an Itza messenger brought them a rosary as a token . Looking across the lake they saw men dressed as friars calling to them to come across , these were Itza dressed in the habits of the two Franciscans who had recently been killed at the island . Díaz and his companions then boarded the Itza canoes , leaving thirty Maya porters with their mules and supplies .
Once on the lake the Itza overturned some of the canoes and killed some of Díaz 's men ; others were wounded and dragged ashore to be killed . Díaz , the Dominicans and two other men were in a large canoe that was not overturned and were taken to Nojpetén where a fierce struggle ensued as Díaz attempted to defend himself with his sword , killing several Itzas . The two other men were immediately killed while the friars were beaten and tied to X @-@ shaped crosses before having their hearts cut out . Across the lake , the Itza attacked the porters guarding the expedition supplies and killed all of them . The Itza killed a total of 87 expedition members , including 50 soldiers , two Dominicans and about 35 Maya helpers . The remains of the small group that were killed on Nojpetén were later retrieved by the Spanish after the fall of the city and were taken back to Santiago de los Caballeros de Guatemala for burial .
= = = = = Aftermath of Amésqueta 's entry = = = = =
Over the following weeks scouts were sent out to try to make contact with local Mopan and Ch 'ol communities , including Chok Ajaw , AjMay , IxB 'ol and Manche without success – most of the natives had fled , leaving the forest deserted . At San Pedro Mártir he received news of AjChan 's embassy to Mérida in December 1695 and the formal surrender of the Itza to Spanish authority . Unable to reconcile the news with the loss of his men at Lake Petén Itzá , and with appalling conditions in San Pedro Mártir , Amésqueta abandoned the unfinished fort . Friar Cano recommended to the new Guatemalan president that the Ch 'ol be moved to Verapaz where they could be properly administered . As a result of the failed expedition , Cano 's recommendation was accepted , the fort was dismantled and any Maya that could be captured across a wide swathe of southern Petén was forcibly relocated to Belén near Rabinal in Verapaz . This relocation was brutal and ruthless and was condemned by several high @-@ ranking colonial officials , including oidor José de Escals and even by Amésqueta .
= = = Fall of Nojpetén = = =
The Itzas ' continued resistance had become a major embarrassment for the Spanish colonial authorities , and soldiers were despatched from Campeche to take Nojpetén once and for all . The final assault was made possible by the gradual opening of the road from Mérida to Petén ; by December 1696 this road had reached the lake shore although it was unfinished and still almost impassable in places . By this time the deep divisions between the political leaders of the Itza were such that a unified defence of the Itza kingdom had become impossible .
= = = = Final preparations = = = =
In late December 1696 the Chak 'an Itza attacked the large Kejache mission town of Pak 'ek 'em ; they abducted almost all the inhabitants and burned the church . The demoralised Spanish garrison at Chuntuki buried their weapons and ammunition and retreated five leagues ( approximately 13 miles or 21 km ) back towards Campeche . From late December 1696 to the middle of January 1697 Ursúa sent parties of soldiers and workmen along the road towards the lake ; the first group was commanded by Pedro de Zubiaur and had instructions to begin building a galeota , a large oar @-@ powered warship . This group was followed by reinforcements bringing supplies , including light and heavy weapons , gunpowder and food . On 23 January Ursúa left Campeche with more soldiers and muleteers , bringing the total number of soldiers arriving as reinforcements to 130 . The Spanish fortified their positions at Ch 'ich ' and deployed heavy artillery for its defence .
Martín de Urzúa y Arizmendi arrived on the western shore of lake Petén Itzá with his soldiers on 26 February 1697 , and once there built the heavily @-@ armed galeota attack boat , which was assembled at Ch 'ich ' over a space of 12 days in early March . The galeota had a keel of 30 cubits or 14 @.@ 4 metres ( 47 ft ) ; it had 12 oars on each side and a rudder with an iron screw . The galeota carried 114 men and at least five artillery pieces , including a pieza ( light cannon ) and four pedreros ( mortars ) . The piragua longboat used to cross the San Pedro River was also transported to the lake to be used in the attack on the Itza capital ; this boat had 6 oars and a rudder .
From 28 February onwards the Spanish expedition was repeatedly approached by hostile Itzas , who sometimes shot arrows in the direction of the intruders but inflicted no casualties . At the same time , small groups of curious Itzas mingled freely with the Spanish and received trinkets from them such as belts , necklaces and earrings .
= = = = Assault on Nojpetén = = = =
On 10 March , Itza and Yalain emissaries arrived at Ch 'ich ' to negotiate with Ursúa . First came AjChan who had already met him in Mérida ; he was followed by Chamach Xulu , the ruler of the Yalain . Kan Ek ' then sent a canoe with a white flag raised bearing emissaries , including the Itza high priest , who offered peaceful surrender . Ursúa received the embassy in peace and invited Kan Ek ' to visit his encampment three days later . On the appointed day Kan Ek ' failed to arrive ; instead Maya warriors massed both along the shore and in canoes upon the lake .
Ursúa decided that any further attempts at peaceful incorporation of the Itza into the Spanish Empire were pointless , and a waterbourne assault was launched upon Kan Ek 's capital on the morning of 13 March . The encampment at Ch 'ich ' was left defended by 25 Spanish soldiers , three Maya musketeers and several artillery pieces . Ursúa boarded the galeota with 108 soldiers , two secular priests , five personal servants , the baptised Itza emissary AjChan and his brother @-@ in @-@ law and an Itza prisoner from Nojpetén . The attack boat was rowed east from Ch 'ich ' towards the Itza capital ; half way across the lake it encountered a large fleet of canoes spread in an arc across the approach to Nojpetén , covering about 600 metres ( 2 @,@ 000 ft ) from one shore to another – Ursúa simply gave the order to row through them . A large number of defenders had gathered along the shore of Nojpetén and on the roofs of the city . As the galeota approached , more canoes put out from the shore and the Spanish were surrounded . Once they had surrounded the galeota , Itza archers began to shoot at the invaders . Ursúa gave orders to his men not to fire but arrows wounded several soldiers ; one of the wounded soldiers discharged his musket and at that point the officers lost control of their men . The defending Itza soon fled from the withering Spanish gunfire .
The city fell after a brief but bloody battle in which many Itza warriors died ; the Spanish suffered only minor casualties . The Spanish bombardment caused heavy loss of life on the island ; the surviving Itza abandoned their capital and swam across to the mainland with many dying in the water . After the battle the surviving defenders melted away into the forests , leaving the Spanish to occupy an abandoned Maya town . Martín de Ursúa planted his standard upon the highest point of the island and renamed Nojpetén as Nuestra Señora de los Remedios y San Pablo , Laguna del Itza ( " Our Lady of Remedy and Saint Paul , Lake of the Itza " ) . The Itza nobility fled , dispersing to Maya settlements throughout Petén ; in response the Spanish scoured the region with search parties . Kan Ek ' was soon captured with help from the Yalain Maya ruler Chamach Xulu ; The Kowoj king ( Aj Kowoj ) was also soon captured , together with other Maya nobles and their families . With the defeat of the Itza , the last independent and unconquered native kingdom in the Americas fell to the European colonisers .
= = = = Aftermath = = = =
Martín de Ursúa had little interest in administering the newly conquered territory and delegated its control to military officers who he did very little to support , either militarily or financially . With Nojpetén safely in the hands of the Spanish , Ursúa returned to Mérida , leaving Kan Ek ' and other high @-@ ranking members of his family as prisoners of the Spanish garrison at Nuestra Señora de los Remedios y San Pablo , isolated among the hostile Itza and Kowoj who still dominated the mainland . The garrison was reinforced in 1699 by a military expedition from Santiago de los Caballeros de Guatemala , accompanied by mixed @-@ race ladino civilians who came to found their own town around the military camp . The settlers brought disease with them , which killed many soldiers and colonists and swept through the indigenous population . The Guatemalans stayed just three months before returning to Santiago de los Caballeros de Guatemala , taking the captive Itza king with them , together with his son and two of his cousins . The cousins died on the long journey to Santiago ; Ajaw Kan Ek ' and his son spent the rest of their lives under house arrest in the colonial capital .
When the Spanish conquered the Petén lakes in 1697 , the Yalain were initially cooperative and assisted in the capture of the king of the Itza . At this time Yalain was ruled by Chamach Xulu . The Yalain leadership encouraged Christian conversion as a means of maintaining peace with the occupying Spanish forces . As time went on , Yalain cooperation with the Spanish appears to have decreased . Soon after the conquest , the Yalain fled their settlements to avoid foraging Spanish parties that were abducting Maya women for " service " at their barracks . At this time , such was the hostility that was felt towards the occupying forces that the inhabitants of the Yalain settlements preferred to burn their fields and break all their pottery rather than leave anything for the Spanish . The Yalain capital is recorded as having been burned in 1698 .
= = Final years of conquest = =
In the late 17th century , the small population of Ch 'ol Maya in southern Petén and Belize was forcibly removed to Alta Verapaz , where the people were absorbed into the Q 'eqchi ' population . After the conquest , the colonial administration of Petén was divided between the ecclesiastical authorities in Yucatán and secular administration as part of the Captaincy General of Guatemala . There was never a strong Spanish presence in the area , which remained remote , although the Spanish built a fortress @-@ prison , the Castillo de Arismendi ; it was finished in 1700 .
The distance from Nuestra Señora de los Remedios y San Pablo ( formerly Nojpetén ) to Mérida , combined with the difficult terrain and the hostility of the natives led to the road from Yucatán falling into a state of disrepair . In 1701 Ursúa y Arezmendi realised that the road was in such a poor state that the Spanish garrison could not be supplied from Yucatán . He wrote to the King of Spain , requesting that Petén be transferred from the jurisdiction of Yucatán to the Audiencia Real of Guatemala . In 1703 Ursúa 's petition was granted , with the condition that the ecclesiastical authority over Petén would pass to the Dominican Order .
Between 1703 and 1753 , reducciones were established at San José and San Andrés on Lake Petén Itzá , Santa Ana just south of the lake , and at San Luis , Santo Toribio and Dolores in the south ( not to be confused with Dolores del Lakandon ) . Each of these mission towns had its own minister who answered to the vicario general with the Spanish garrison at Nuestra Señora de los Remedios y San Pablo . In the first decades of the 18th century , churches were built in five colonial towns : Dolores , Remedios , San Andrés , San José and Santo Toribio . The church in Dolores was built in 1708 ; the construction was probably overseen by Juan Antonio Ruiz y Bustamante . In 1699 there were nine priests in Petén but thereafter there was usually a shortage of clergy in colonial Petén . In spite of the objections of the Dominicans who had been working in southern Petén , the Franciscans continued to provide clergy from Yucatán , and it was the Franciscans who oversaw the spiritual welfare of Petén during the colonial period .
AjTut was one of the lords of the northern Chak 'an Itza province of the conquered Itza kingdom ; friar Avendaño had met him during his expedition to Nojpetén . After the conquest he relocated from the north shore of Lake Petén Itzá to Mompana , a region lying between Lake Yaxha and the Classic period ruins of Tikal . For some years after the conquest he established the Mompana region as a refuge from the Spanish and engaged in internecine war against the surviving Kowoj to the south .
= = = Reductions around Lake Petén Itzá = = =
At the time of the fall of Nojpetén , there are estimated to have been 60 @,@ 000 Maya living around Lake Petén Itzá , including a large number of refugees from other areas . It is estimated that 88 % of them died during the first ten years of colonial rule owing to a combination of disease and war . Although disease was responsible for the majority of deaths , Spanish expeditions and internecine warfare between indigenous groups also played their part .
Catholic priests from Yucatán founded several mission towns around Lake Petén Itzá in 1702 – 1703 . The first towns to be concentrated into colonial reducciones were Ixtutz , which became the new town of San José , and neighbouring San Andrés , both on the north shore of Lake Petén Itzá . They were first subjugated by one of Ursúa 's officers , Cristobal de Sologaistoa , before being passed into the care of the Dominican friars for the Christian conversion of the inhabitants . Surviving Itza and Kowoj were resettled in the new colonial towns by a mixture of persuasion and force . Kowoj and Itza leaders in these mission towns rebelled against their Spanish overlords in 1704 and almost retook Nojpetén , but although well @-@ planned , the rebellion was quickly crushed . Its leaders were executed , and most of the mission towns were abandoned ; by 1708 only about 6 @,@ 000 Maya remained in central Petén . The reductions failed in large part because the missionaries charged with converting the inhabitants could not speak the Itza language .
= = Legacy of the conquest = =
Martín de Ursúa used his conquest of the Itza as a stepping stone to achieving the coveted post of Governor @-@ General of the Philippines , which he took up in 1709 . European @-@ introduced diseases devastated the native population of Petén , with the effects of disease compounded by the psychological impact of defeat . The population around Lake Petén Itzá numbered between 20 @,@ 000 and 40 @,@ 000 in 1697 . By 1714 , a census recorded just over 3 @,@ 000 individuals in Spanish Petén , including non @-@ Indians . This number would not have included the so @-@ called " wild " Maya living in the forest far from Spanish administration and control . By 1700 the new colonial capital of Petén was mainly inhabited by colonists , soldiers and convicts . During the second half of the 18th century , adult male Indians were heavily taxed , often being forced into debt peonage . Western Petén and neighbouring Chiapas remained sparsely populated , and the Maya inhabitants avoided contact with the Spanish .
San José , on the northwest shore of lake Petén Itzá , is the home of the last surviving speakers of the Itza language . The surname Kowoj still survives , but the Kowoj and Itza have fully merged and no longer exist as separate ethnicities . In modern times there is a history of conflict between San José ( the former Itza town of Chakok 'ot ) and neighbouring San Andrés ( the former Kowoj @-@ allied town of Chak 'an ) , and this mutual hostility probably represents ancient hostility between the Itza and the Kowoj .
= = Historical sources = =
Hernán Cortés described his expedition to Honduras in the fifth letter of his Cartas de Relación , in which he details his crossing of what is now Guatemala 's Petén Department . Bernal Díaz del Castillo accompanied Cortés on the expedition to Honduras . He wrote a lengthy account of the conquest of Mexico and neighbouring regions , the Historia verdadera de la conquista de la Nueva España ( " True History of the Conquest of New Spain " ) . His account was finished around 1568 , some 40 years after the campaigns it describes ; it includes his own description of the expedition . In 1688 colonial historian Diego López de Cogolludo detailed the expeditions of the Spanish missionaries Bartolomé de Fuensalida and Juan de Orbita in 1618 and 1619 in his Los trés siglos de la dominación española en Yucatán o sea historia de esta provincia ( " The three centuries of Spanish domination in Yucatán , or the history of this province " ) ; he based it upon Fuensalida 's report , which is now lost .
Franciscan friar Andrés Avendaño y Loyola recorded his own account of his late 17th century journeys to Nojpetén , written in 1696 and entitled Relación de las entradas que hize a la conversión de los gentiles Ytzaex ( " Account of the expeditions that I made to convert the Itza heathens " ) . When the Spanish finally conquered Petén in 1697 they produced a vast quantity of documentation . Juan de Villagutierre Soto @-@ Mayor was a Spanish colonial official who first held the post of relator of the Royal Chancery of Vallodalid and later as that of the Council of the Indies . As such he had access to the large amount of colonial documents stored in the General Archive of the Indies . From these he produced his Historia de la Conquista de la Provincia de el Itza , reduccion , y progressos de la de el Lacandon , y otras naciones de indios barbaros , de la mediacion de el Reyno de Guatimala , a las provincias del Yucatan en la América Septentrional ( " History of the Conquest of the Province of the Itza , reduction , and advances in that of the Lakandon , and other nations of barbarous indians , and the intervention of the Kingdom of Guatemala , and the provinces of Yucatan in Northern America " ) . This was first published in Madrid in 1701 and detailed the history of Petén from 1525 through to 1699 .
= = Archaeology = =
Ursúa referred to the western port town of Ch 'ich ' as Nich . The modern name for a point on the south side of the bay is Punta Nijtún , which is probably derived from the colonial Yucatec nix tun , meaning stone ramp . Archaeologists carried out excavations at the lake shore at Punta Nijtún and discovered a stone ramp there , which was probably built by Ursúa 's troops to launch his galeota .
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= Skyfall =
Skyfall is the 23rd James Bond film produced by Eon Productions and released in 2012 . It features Daniel Craig in his third performance as James Bond , and Javier Bardem as Raoul Silva , the film 's villain . It was directed by Sam Mendes and written by Neal Purvis , Robert Wade and John Logan , and features an Academy Award @-@ winning theme , sung by Adele . It was distributed by Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer ( MGM ) and Columbia Pictures .
The story centres on Bond investigating an attack on MI6 ; the attack is part of a plot by former MI6 agent Raoul Silva to humiliate , discredit and kill M as revenge against her for betraying him . The film sees the return of two recurring characters to the series after an absence of two films : Q , played by Ben Whishaw , and Moneypenny , played by Naomie Harris . Skyfall is the last film of the series for Judi Dench , who played M , a role that she had played in the previous six films . The position is subsequently filled by Ralph Fiennes ' character , Gareth Mallory , though Dench would make a brief appearance in the next Bond film , Spectre .
Mendes was approached to direct the film after the release of Quantum of Solace in 2008 . Development was suspended when MGM encountered financial troubles and did not resume until December 2010 ; during this time , Mendes remained attached to the project as a consultant . The original screenwriter , Peter Morgan , left the project during the suspension . When production resumed , Logan , Purvis , and Wade continued writing what became the final version of the script . Filming began in November 2011 and primarily took place in the United Kingdom , with smaller portions shot in China and Turkey .
Skyfall premiered in London at the Royal Albert Hall on 23 October 2012 and was released in the United Kingdom on 26 October 2012 and the United States on 9 November 2012 . It was the first James Bond film to be screened in IMAX venues , although it was not filmed with IMAX cameras . The film 's release coincided with the 50th anniversary of the series , which began with Dr. No in 1962 . Skyfall was positively received by critics , being praised for its performances — particularly those of Craig , Bardem and Dench — writing and script , cinematography , Mendes ' direction , Thomas Newman 's score , and the action scenes . It was the 14th film to gross over $ 1 billion worldwide , and the first Bond film to do so . It became the seventh @-@ highest @-@ grossing film at the time , the highest @-@ grossing film in the UK , the highest @-@ grossing film in the series , the highest @-@ grossing film worldwide for both Sony Pictures and MGM , and the second @-@ highest @-@ grossing film of 2012 . The film won several accolades , including two BAFTA Awards , two Academy Awards and two Grammys .
= = Plot = =
In Istanbul , MI6 agents James Bond and Eve Moneypenny chase a mercenary , Patrice , who has stolen a computer hard drive containing details of undercover agents . As Bond and Patrice fight atop a train , M , the head of MI6 , orders Eve to shoot Patrice from long range . Eve misses and inadvertently hits Bond , who falls into a river . Bond is presumed dead , and Patrice escapes .
In the aftermath of the operation , M comes under political pressure from Gareth Mallory , the chairman of the British parliament 's Intelligence and Security Committee , to retire . On her return from the meeting , MI6 's servers are hacked , and M receives a taunting message via computer moments before the MI6 building explodes , killing eight employees . Bond , who used his presumed death to retire , learns of the attack and returns to London . Although he fails a series of physical and psychological examinations , M approves his return to the field . Bond is ordered to identify Patrice 's employer , recover the stolen hard drive , and kill Patrice . He meets with Q , MI6 's new quartermaster , who gives him a pistol that will only shoot when Bond is holding it and a radio beacon .
In Shanghai , Bond follows Patrice into a skyscraper , but is unable to prevent him from killing his target . The two fight , but Patrice falls to his death before Bond can learn of his employer 's identity . Searching Patrice 's equipment , Bond finds a gambling chip intended as payment for the assassination , which leads him to a casino in Macau . Bond is approached by Séverine , Patrice 's accomplice , and asks to meet her employer . She warns him that he is about to be killed by her bodyguards , but promises to help Bond if he will kill her employer . Bond thwarts the attack and joins Séverine on her yacht . They travel to an abandoned island off the coast of Macau , where they are taken prisoner by the crew and delivered to Séverine 's employer , Raoul Silva . A former MI6 agent , Silva has turned to cyberterrorism , and orchestrated the attacks on MI6 . Silva kills Séverine , but Bond captures Silva for rendition to Britain .
At MI6 's underground headquarters , Q attempts to decrypt Silva 's laptop but inadvertently enables it to access the MI6 systems , allowing Silva to escape from MI6 custody . Bond realises that Silva wanted to be captured as part of a plan to kill M , whom he resents for leaving him to die after being captured years earlier . Bond gives chase through the tunnel network under London . Silva attacks M during a public inquiry into her handling of the stolen hard drive . Bond arrives in time to repel Silva 's attack , and M is hurried from the building by her aide , Bill Tanner .
Bond takes M to Skyfall , his family estate and childhood home in Scotland . Laying a trap , he instructs Q to leave an electronic trail for Silva to follow , a decision Mallory supports . Bond and M are met by Kincade , the Skyfall gamekeeper . The trio set up a series of booby traps throughout the house . When Silva 's men arrive , Bond , M and Kincade manage to kill most of them , but M is wounded . Silva arrives by helicopter with a second party and much heavier weapons , so Bond sends M and Kincade off through a secret tunnel to a chapel on the grounds . Bond detonates gas canisters and retreats down the same tunnel as M and Kincade . The resulting blast causes the helicopter to crash , destroying the house and killing all but a handful of Silva 's men .
Silva survives and , spotting Kincade 's torch beam , follows Kincade and M to the chapel . He forces his gun into M 's hand , begging her to kill them both . Bond arrives and kills Silva by throwing a knife into his back . M , however , succumbs to her wound and dies . Following M 's funeral , Eve — formally introducing herself to Bond as Eve Moneypenny — retires from field work to become secretary for the new head of MI6 , Mallory , who assumes the title of M.
= = Cast = =
Daniel Craig as James Bond , agent 007 .
Judi Dench as M , the head of MI6 and Bond 's superior .
Javier Bardem as Raoul Silva ( born Tiago Rodriguez ) , an ex @-@ MI6 operative @-@ turned @-@ cyberterrorist .
Ralph Fiennes as Gareth Mallory , chairman of the Intelligence and Security Committee .
Naomie Harris as Eve Moneypenny , an MI6 field agent .
Bérénice Lim Marlohe as Séverine , Raoul Silva 's associate .
Albert Finney as Kincade , the gamekeeper of the Skyfall estate .
Ben Whishaw as Q , the MI6 quartermaster .
Rory Kinnear as Bill Tanner , the MI6 Chief of Staff .
Ola Rapace as Patrice , a mercenary .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Production of Skyfall was suspended throughout 2010 because of MGM 's financial troubles . They resumed pre @-@ production following MGM 's exit from bankruptcy on 21 December 2010 and , in January 2011 , the film was officially given a release date of 9 November 2012 by MGM and the Broccoli family , with production scheduled to start in late 2011 . Subsequently MGM and Sony Pictures announced that the UK release date would be brought forward to 26 October 2012 , two weeks ahead of the US release date , which remained scheduled for 9 November 2012 . The film 's budget is estimated to have been between US $ 150 million and $ 200 million , compared to the $ 200 million spent on Quantum of Solace . Skyfall was part of year @-@ long celebrations of the 50th anniversary of Dr. No and the Bond film series . According to producer Michael G. Wilson , a documentary crew was scheduled to follow production of the film to celebrate the anniversary .
= = = Pre @-@ production = = =
After the release of Quantum of Solace in 2008 , producer Barbara Broccoli commented that Skyfall , untitled at the time , may continue the plot of the Quantum organisation , introduced in Casino Royale and continued in Quantum of Solace . Ultimately , Skyfall was a stand @-@ alone film .
In August 2011 the Serbian newspaper Blic stated that Bond 23 would be entitled Carte Blanche and would be an adaptation of the recent continuation novel by Jeffery Deaver . On 30 August Eon Productions officially denied any link between Bond 23 and Carte Blanche , stating that " the new film is not going to be called Carte Blanche and will have nothing to do with the Jeffery Deaver book " . On 3 October 2011 15 domain names including ' jamesbond @-@ skyfall.com ' and ' skyfallthefilm.com ' were reported to have been registered on behalf of MGM and Sony Pictures by Internet brand @-@ protection service MarkMonitor . This led to supposition in the media that the film had been given the name " Skyfall " . These reports were not confirmed at the time by Eon Productions , Sony or MGM . Skyfall was later confirmed as the title at a press conference on 3 November 2011 , during which co @-@ producer Barbara Broccoli said that the title " has some emotional context which will be revealed in the film " . The title refers to the name of Bond 's childhood home " Skyfall " , and the setting for the film 's finale .
= = = = Casting = = = =
The main cast of Skyfall was officially announced at a press conference held at the Corinthia Hotel in London on 3 November 2011 , 50 years to the day after Sean Connery was announced to play James Bond in the film Dr. No . Daniel Craig returned as James Bond for the third time , saying he felt lucky to have the chance to appear as 007 . Director Sam Mendes described Bond as experiencing a " combination of lassitude , boredom , depression [ and ] difficulty with what he 's chosen to do for a living " . Judi Dench returned as M for her seventh and final appearance in the role . Over the course of the film , M 's ability to run MI6 is repeatedly called into question , culminating in a public inquiry into her running of the service .
Javier Bardem was cast as the film 's principal villain , Raoul Silva , a cyberterrorist who is seeking revenge against those he holds responsible for betraying him . Bardem described Silva as " more than a villain " , while Craig stated that Bond has a " very important relationship " to Silva . In casting the role , director Sam Mendes admitted that he lobbied hard for Bardem to accept the part . Mendes saw the potential for the character to be recognised as one of the most memorable characters in the series and wanted to create " something [ the audience ] may consider to have been absent from the Bond movies for a long time " . He felt that Bardem was one of the few actors up to the task of becoming " colourless " and existing within the world of the film as something more than a function of the plot . In preparing for the role , Bardem had the script translated into his native Spanish to better understand his character , which Mendes cited as being a sign of the actor 's commitment to the film . Bardem dyed his hair blond for the role after brainstorming ideas with Mendes to come up with a distinct visual look for the character , which led some commentators to observe a similarity between the character and WikiLeaks founder Julian Assange . Bérénice Marlohe was cast as Séverine , a character who had been saved from the Macau sex trade by Silva and now works as his representative . Marlohe described her character as being " glamorous and enigmatic " , and that she drew inspiration from GoldenEye villain Xenia Onatopp ( played by Famke Janssen ) in playing Séverine .
Ralph Fiennes was cast as Gareth Mallory , a former lieutenant colonel in the British Army and now the chairman of the Intelligence and Security Committee , which gives him the authority to regulate MI6 . At the end of the film , Mallory becomes the head of MI6 , assuming the title of M. During production , Fiennes stated that he could not say anything specific about the role other than that it was a " really interesting part which is really quite fun " . To play the returning character of Miss Moneypenny , Naomie Harris was cast . Harris ' role was initially presented as that of Eve , an MI6 field agent who works closely with Bond . Despite ongoing speculation in the media that Harris had been cast as Miss Moneypenny , this was not confirmed by anyone involved in production of the film , with Harris herself even going so far as to dismiss claims that Eve was in fact Moneypenny , stating that " Eve is not remotely office @-@ bound " . According to Harris , Eve " [ believes ] she is Bond 's equal , but she is really his junior " . Another character returning to the series was Q , played by Ben Whishaw . Mendes had initially declined to confirm which part Whishaw would play , and later said the idea of the re @-@ introduction was his , saying " I offered ideas about Moneypenny , Q and a flamboyant villain and they said yes " . To play the part of Kincade , Mendes cast Albert Finney . The producers briefly considered approaching Sean Connery to play the role in a nod to the 50th anniversary of the film series , but elected not to as they felt Connery 's presence would be seen as stunt casting and disengage audiences from the film .
= = = = Crew = = = =
Skyfall was directed by Sam Mendes , who first signed on to the project shortly after Quantum of Solace was released , and remained on board as a consultant during the period of uncertainty surrounding MGM 's financial situation . Mendes , who had previously worked with Craig on Road to Perdition , was approached after seeing Craig in a production of A Steady Rain . The two met after a performance , where Craig broached the subject of directing a Bond film for the first time . Mendes was at first hesitant to accept the job as directing a Bond film had no appeal to him , but he did not reject the offer immediately because of Craig 's involvement and enthusiasm for the project ; Mendes described Craig 's casting and performance in Casino Royale as being precisely what he felt the Bond franchise needed in its lead actor . He agreed to direct after meeting with producers Michael G. Wilson and Barbara Broccoli and seeing the early direction the film was going to take . Speculation in the media suggested that Mendes had commissioned rewrites of the script to " [ remove ] action scenes in favour of ' characterful performances ' " with the intention of bidding for an Academy Award . Mendes denied the reports , stating that the film 's planned action scenes were an important part of the overall film .
Peter Morgan was originally commissioned to write a script , but left the project when MGM filed for bankruptcy and production of the film stalled ; despite his departure , Morgan later stated that the final script was based on his original idea , retaining what he described as the film 's " big hook " . Director Mendes adamantly denied this , stating that it was " just not true " and that Morgan 's script treatment had been discarded once Mendes agreed to direct . The final script was written by Bond screenwriting regulars Neal Purvis , Robert Wade and John Logan . Logan recounted being brought into the project by his long @-@ time friend Sam Mendes , describing the process between Mendes and the writers as " very collaborative " , and that writing Skyfall was one of the best experiences he had had in scripting a film . British playwright Jez Butterworth also provided uncredited contributions .
Roger Deakins signed on as cinematographer , having previously worked with Mendes on Jarhead and Revolutionary Road . Dennis Gassner returned as production designer , the costume designer was Jany Temime , Alexander Witt was director of the second unit , the stunt co @-@ ordinator was Gary Powell and Chris Corbould supervised the special effects , while the visual effects supervisor was Steve Begg . All have worked on previous Bond films . Daniel Kleinman returned to design the film 's title sequence after stepping aside to allow graphic design studio MK12 to create the Quantum of Solace sequence .
= = = = Location scouting = = = =
Sam Mendes and Barbara Broccoli travelled to South Africa for location scouting in April 2011 . With the film moving into pre @-@ production in August , reports emerged that shooting would take place in India , with scenes to be shot in the Sarojini Nagar district of New Delhi and on railway lines between Goa and Ahmedabad . The production crew faced complications in securing permission to close sections of the Konkan Railway . Similar problems in obtaining filming permits were encountered by production crews for The Dark Knight Rises and Mission : Impossible – Ghost Protocol . Permission was eventually granted to the Bond production crew ; however , the production ultimately did not shoot in India .
= = = Filming = = =
Principal photography was scheduled to take up to 133 days , although the actual filming took 128 . Filming began on 7 November 2011 in and around London , with the cinematographer Roger Deakins using Arri Alexa digital cameras to shoot the entire film . Scenes were shot in London Underground stations , Smithfield car park in West Smithfield , the National Gallery , Southwark , Whitehall , Parliament Square , Charing Cross station the Old Royal Naval College in Greenwich , Cadogan Square and Tower Hill . St Bartholomew 's Hospital was used as the filming location for the scene in which Bond enters MI6 's underground headquarters , while the Old Vic Tunnels underneath Waterloo Station in London served as the MI6 training grounds . For the meeting between Q and Bond , production worked during the National Gallery 's closing hours at night . The Department of Energy and Climate Change was used in the scene when Bond stood on the roof near the end of the film . The Vauxhall Bridge and Millbank was closed to traffic for filming the explosion at the MI6 headquarters at Vauxhall Cross . Unlike The World Is Not Enough , which also featured an explosion at the building — which was filmed at a large @-@ scale replica — the explosion in Skyfall was added digitally in post @-@ production . Shooting of the finale was planned to take place at Duntrune Castle in Argyll , but was cancelled shortly after filming began . Glencoe was instead chosen for filming of these scenes . Although supposedly based in Scotland , Bond 's family home of Skyfall was constructed on Hankley Common in Surrey using plywood and plaster to build a full @-@ scale model of the building .
Production moved to Turkey in March 2012 , with filming reported to be continuing until 6 May . Production was expected to take three months in the country . Adana stands in for the outskirts of Istanbul in the film . A group of Turkish teenagers infiltrated a closed set in a railway sidings in Adana to film rehearsals of a fight scene on top of a train before being caught by security . The train scene depicted in trailers showed the Varda Viaduct outside Adana . Bond stunt double Andy Lister dived backwards off the 300 @-@ foot drop for the scene . A crane was set up on a train carriage to hold a safety line . Parts of Istanbul — including the Spice Bazaar , Yeni Camii , the Main Post Office , Sultanahmet Square and the Grand Bazaar — were closed for filming in April . Store owners in the affected areas were reportedly allowed to open their shops , but were not allowed to conduct business , instead being paid TRY750 ( $ 418 ) per day as compensation . Production faced criticism for allegedly damaging buildings while filming a motorcycle chase across rooftops in the city . Michael G. Wilson denied these claims , pointing out that the film crew had removed sections of rooftops before filming began and replaced them with replicas for the duration of the shoot ; when filming finished , the original rooftops would be restored . The production team negotiated with 613 part owners of the Calis Beach in Fethiye , to film along the coastline .
Mendes confirmed that China would be featured in the film , with shooting scheduled to take place in Shanghai and " other parts " of the country . John Logan described that production deliberately sought out locations that were " in opposition " to London with an exotic quality that made them " places for Bond to be uncomfortable " . Many scenes were not filmed on location in Shanghai . Instead , the Virgin Active pool in London 's Canary Wharf acted as Bond 's hotel pool in Shanghai , and the entrance to London 's fourth tallest building , Broadgate Tower , was also lit up to look like an office building there ; for the aerial footage of Shanghai , the crew received rare access to shoot from a helicopter on loan from the Chinese government . The interior of the Golden Dragon casino in Macau where Bond met Séverine was constructed on a sound stage at Pinewood , with 300 floating lanterns and two 30 @-@ foot high dragon heads lighting the set . Additional scenes were filmed at Ascot Racecourse , standing in for Shanghai Pudong International Airport . The first official image from the film was released on 1 February 2012 , showing Daniel Craig on set at Pinewood Studios , within a recreation of a skyscraper in Shanghai .
Set reports dated April 2012 recorded that scenes would be set on Hashima Island , an abandoned island off the coast of Nagasaki , Japan . In actuality , the scene was set on an unnamed island off the coast of Macau , though based on the real @-@ life Hashima . Sam Mendes explained that the location was a hybrid of a set and computer @-@ generated images . Production chose to include the Hashima model after Daniel Craig met with Swedish film @-@ maker Thomas Nordanstad whilst shooting The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo in Stockholm . Nordanstad , who produced a short documentary on Hashima Island in 2002 entitled Hashima , recalled Craig taking extensive notes on the island at the time of the meeting , but was unaware of his interest in it until Skyfall was released .
The film was later converted into the IMAX format for projection in IMAX cinemas . Deakins was unaware that the film was to be released on IMAX until after he had made the decision to shoot the film with the Arri Alexa cameras , and was unhappy with the IMAX tests made from his footage as the colours " didn 't look great " . After exploring the IMAX system further and discovering that the IMAX Corporation was using their proprietary re @-@ mastering process , Deakins had further tests made without the process and found that " the images looked spectacular on the big IMAX screen " , quelling his doubts about the format .
= = = Music = = =
Thomas Newman , who worked with Sam Mendes as composer for American Beauty , Road to Perdition , Jarhead and Revolutionary Road , replaced David Arnold as composer , becoming the ninth composer in the series ' history . When asked about the circumstances surrounding his departure from the role , David Arnold commented that Newman had been selected by Mendes because of their work together , rather than because of Arnold 's commitment to working with director Danny Boyle as composer for the Opening Ceremony of the 2012 Summer Olympics . The soundtrack album was released on 29 October 2012 in the United Kingdom and on 6 November 2012 in the United States .
In October 2012 British singer @-@ songwriter Adele confirmed that she had written and recorded the film 's theme song with her regular songwriter , Paul Epworth . She later posted the cover for the " Skyfall " sheet music on Twitter , crediting the songwriting to herself and Epworth , with arrangements to both Epworth and orchestrator J. A. C. Redford . The song was released online at 0 : 07 am BST on 5 October 2012 , a day dubbed " James Bond Day " by the producers as it marked 50 years to the day of the release of Dr. No .
The song was nominated for and won the Academy Award for Best Original Song . It was the first time a Bond song had won , and only the fourth time one had been nominated . " Skyfall " also won the Brit Award for Best British Single at the 2013 BRIT Awards .
The film also features Charles Trenet 's 1938 song , " Boum ! " during scenes in which Silva shows Bond around his abandoned island , and The Animals ' 1964 cover of John Lee Hooker 's song , " Boom Boom " when Silva assaults Skyfall in the film 's finale .
= = Release and reception = =
The premiere of Skyfall was on 23 October 2012 at the Royal Albert Hall in London . The event was attended by Charles , Prince of Wales , and his wife Camilla , Duchess of Cornwall . The film was released in the UK three days later on 26 October and into US cinemas on 8 November . Skyfall was the first Bond film to be screened in IMAX venues and was released into IMAX cinemas in North America a day earlier than the conventional cinema release .
Skyfall attracted some criticism from the National Sexual Violence Resource Center which , without having screened the film , expressed concern that Bond " abuses his power and authority " in a scene that suggests Bond initiates sexual intercourse with Séverine , a former victim of sex trafficking .
= = = Box office = = =
Skyfall earned $ 1 @.@ 109 billion worldwide , and is the highest @-@ grossing film worldwide for Sony Pictures and the second @-@ highest @-@ grossing film of 2012 . On its opening weekend , it earned $ 80 @.@ 6 million from 25 markets . In the UK the film grossed £ 20 @.@ 1 million on its opening weekend , making it the second @-@ highest Friday @-@ to @-@ Sunday debut ever behind Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2 . It also achieved the second @-@ highest IMAX debut ever behind The Dark Knight Rises . The film set a record for the highest seven @-@ day gross with £ 37 @.@ 2 million , surpassing previous record holder Deathly Hallows – Part 2 ( £ 35 @.@ 7 million ) . By 9 November 2012 the film had earned over £ 57 million to surpass The Dark Knight Rises as the highest @-@ grossing film of 2012 , and the highest @-@ grossing James Bond film of all time in the UK . After 40 days of release the total UK gross stood at £ 94 @.@ 28 million , making Skyfall the highest @-@ grossing film in the UK , surpassing the £ 94 @.@ 03 million of Avatar . By 30 December 2012 , it became the first film to gross more than £ 100 million ( $ 161 @.@ 6 million ) in the UK . Skyfall 's takings at the box office saw it become only the 14th film and first Bond film to gross over $ 1 billion , making it the seventh highest @-@ grossing film ever made at the time and taking it past the inflation @-@ adjusted amount of $ 1 @.@ 047 billion earned by Thunderball .
Skyfall set an opening weekend record in Switzerland ( $ 5 @.@ 3 million ) and recorded the second @-@ largest opening weekend for a Hollywood film in India of 2012 ( $ 5 @.@ 1 million ) , as well as grossing $ 14 @.@ 3 million on its opening weekend in France . In Austria , it achieved the second @-@ highest opening weekend ever ( $ 3 @.@ 4 million ) behind The Lord of the Rings : The Return of the King , while in Finland , it scored the largest opening weekend when excluding previews ( $ 1 @.@ 47 million ) .
In North America , the film opened in 3 @,@ 505 cinemas , the widest opening for a Bond film . The film earned $ 2 @.@ 4 million from midnight showings on its opening day and a further $ 2 @.@ 2 million from IMAX and large @-@ format cinemas . CinemaScore polls reported that the average grade filmgoers gave the film was an " A " on an A + to F scale . Skyfall went on to gross $ 30 @.@ 8 million on its opening day in the US and Canada , and $ 88 @.@ 4 million in its opening weekend , the biggest debut yet for a Bond film . By the end of its theatrical run , the film earned $ 304 @,@ 360 @,@ 277 in the United States and Canada , making it the fourth highest @-@ grossing film of 2012 in these regions .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Skyfall received " generally positive reviews from critics and fans " , according to the GlobalPost . Rotten Tomatoes sampled 348 reviewers and judged 93 % of the reviews to be positive , while the film scored 81 out of 100 on Metacritic based on 49 reviews . A number of critics , including Kate Muir , reviewing for The Times , Philip French , writing in The Observer , IGN 's Daniel Krupa and the reviewers for the Irish Independent and the Daily Record , all asked whether Skyfall was the best Bond film produced . The Daily Telegraph 's film reviewer , Robbie Collin , considered Skyfall to be " often dazzling , always audacious " , with excellent action sequences in a film that contained humour and emotion . Todd McCarthy of The Hollywood Reporter thought that Skyfall was " dramatically gripping while still brandishing a droll undercurrent of humor " , going on to say that it was a film that had " some weight and complexity to it " . Variety 's Peter DeBruge suggested that the film 's greatest strength lay in its willingness to put as much focus on characterisation as it did action set @-@ pieces , allowing the two to co @-@ exist rather than compete for the audience 's attention , while Manohla Dargis , reviewing for The New York Times , considered Skyfall to be " a superior follow @-@ up to Casino Royale " which is " opulent rather than outlandish and insistently , progressively low @-@ key " . Kim Newman , reviewing the film for Empire , concluded , " Skyfall is pretty much all you could want from a 21st Century Bond : cool but not camp , respectful of tradition but up to the moment , serious in its thrills and relatively complex in its characters but with the sense of fun that hasn 't always been evident lately " . Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times gave the film 4 out of 4 stars , describing it as " a full @-@ blooded , joyous , intelligent celebration of a beloved cultural icon " . Reviewing for the New Statesman , Ryan Gilbey saw that " nostalgia permeates the movie " , going on to say that " sometimes the old ways are the best " .
A number of reviewers praised Daniel Craig in Skyfall . Roger Ebert believed that in Skyfall " Daniel Craig [ takes ] full possession of a role he previously played unconvincingly " ; Philip French commented that " Craig manages to get out of the shadow of Connery " ; while Daniel Krupa thought Craig 's Bond was a " defining performance " for " a great actor " . Edward Porter , writing in The Sunday Times , considered that " Craig has developed an authoritative Bond persona , dry and intelligent " . Ryan Gilbey thought Craig had " relaxed into Bond without losing any steeliness " .
The supporting cast also received praise . Roger Ebert reflected that Skyfall " at last provides a role worthy of Judi Dench , one of the best actors of her generation . She is all but the co @-@ star of the film , with a lot of screen time , poignant dialogue , and a character who is far more complex and sympathetic than we expect in this series " . Jenny McCartney , writing in The Sunday Telegraph , agreed , describing Dench as " compellingly luminous " in the film , and the one that " the camera caresses most meaningfully and often " . McCartney thought Javier Bardem played Silva " with worrisome élan " , while Henry K Miller considered his character " the most authentically Bondian Bond villain in decades " . A number of critics noted the strength of the supporting cast ; Kim Newman found the " warmth and gravitas " of Finney 's performance noteworthy , while other reviewers , including Edward Porter , Daniel Krupa and The Playlist 's Oliver Lyttelton , singled out Ralph Fiennes as Mallory and Ben Whishaw as Q.
Ann Hornaday , writing for The Washington Post , thought Sam Mendes had reinvigorated the series , with Skyfall being " sleek , crisp , classy ... exhibiting just the right proportion of respect for legacy and embrace of novelty " . Henry K. Miller of Sight & Sound agreed , and praised Mendes , who he thought was worthy of directing more Bond films . Kim Newman also praised Mendes ' direction of the action sequences . The work of cinematographer Roger Deakins also received praise : Newman commented that he " delivers the most impressive visuals this series has had since the 1960s " , and Miller described the film as " dazzlingly photographed " .
The film did not escape criticism , with reviews pointing to its two and a half @-@ hour running time , and the final third of the film being " protracted " , and not matching the first two thirds in its momentum as the underlying flaws in the film . Xan Brooks of The Guardian , in an otherwise positive review , criticised the " touchy @-@ feely indulgence " of " the bold decision to open Bond up – to probe at the character 's back @-@ story and raise a toast to his relationship with M " . Daniel Krupa also singled out Naomie Harris as " awkward " and having a " virtually non @-@ existent chemistry " with Daniel Craig . Similarly Philip French in The Observer tempered his praise for the film by highlighting " some lazy repetition " and argued , " the badinage is often perfunctory and Bond is as usual captured too easily and too easily escapes " . Edward Porter , writing in The Sunday Times , considered that while aspects of the film were " achieved with wit and panache " , he found that the climax to the film was slightly disappointing , although the " weaknesses in the final stages are not serious , however , and the film 's brief epilogue is wonderful " .
= = = Home media = = =
Skyfall was released on DVD , Blu @-@ ray and digital HD in the US on 12 February 2013 , and in the UK on 18 February 2013 .
= = = Accolades = = =
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= Goosebumps =
Goosebumps is a series of children 's horror fiction novellas by American author R. L. Stine , published by Scholastic Publishing . The stories follow child characters , who find themselves in scary situations . From 1992 to 1997 , 62 books were published under the Goosebumps umbrella title . Various spin @-@ off series were written by Stine : Goosebumps Series 2000 , Give Yourself Goosebumps , Tales to Give You Goosebumps , Goosebumps Triple Header , Goosebumps HorrorLand , and Goosebumps Most Wanted . Another series , Goosebumps Gold , was never released . Goosebumps has spawned a television series and merchandise , as well as a feature film , starring Jack Black as R. L. Stine .
Since the release of its first novel , Welcome to Dead House , in July 1992 , the series has sold over 350 million books worldwide in 32 languages . Individual books in the series have been listed in several bestseller lists , including the New York Times Best Seller list for children .
= = Structure and genre = =
The Goosebumps series falls under the children 's fiction , horror and thriller genres , although Stine characterizes the series as " scary books that are also funny " . Each book features different child characters and settings . The primary protagonists are middle class and can be either male or female . The primary protagonists of a Goosebumps story are often situated in a remote location or somehow isolated from typical societal conventions . This can range anywhere from comfortable suburban areas to boarding schools , foreign villages or campsites . Books typically feature characters who either recently moved to a new neighborhood or are sent to stay with relatives .
The books in the Goosebumps series feature similar plot structures with fictional children being involved in scary situations . The books are mostly written in first person narrative , often concluding with twist endings . They contain surreal horror , with characters encountering the strange and supernatural . The author has plot devices that he follows throughout his Goosebumps books . Stine says he does not have any death in his stories , and the children in his novels are never put into situations that would be considered too serious . He attributed the success of his books to their absence of drugs , depravity and violence .
= = Inspiration and themes = =
Books and characters in the series were inspired by books and films . For example , the character Slappy the Dummy was inspired by the literary classic The Adventures of Pinocchio . Some of Stine 's ideas for the books also came from real life ; Stine got the idea for the book The Haunted Mask after his son , Matt , had a Halloween mask that he had trouble getting off . Stine also uses his childhood fears to help him write his books . The author said , " Luckily , I have a great memory . As I write a story , I can remember what it feels like to be afraid and panicky " . Stine states that he often thinks of a title to a novel first , then lets the title lead him to a story .
Two common themes in the series are children triumphing over evil and children facing horrid or frightening situations and using their own wit and imagination to escape them . Stine does not attempt to incorporate moral lessons into his novels , and says his books are " strictly reading motivation " .
= = Original Goosebumps series = =
Following the success of Stine 's young adult horror novels , the co @-@ founder of Parachute Press ( the company that developed the series ) , Joan Waricha , persuaded him to write scary books for younger children . Stine says the name for the book series came to him after he saw a TV station 's ad in TV Guide that stated " It ’ s goosebumps week on Channel 11 " . He originally signed a six @-@ book deal with the publisher Scholastic , but went on to write 62 books in the original series , the first book being Welcome to Dead House , released in July 1992 . The series was originally aimed at girls , but both boys and girls enjoyed the series equally with half of Stine 's fan mail being sent from boys . The cover illustrations for this series were first done by Tim Jacobus . Twenty @-@ nine of the books from the original series were later re @-@ released with new artwork under the Classic Goosebumps rename .
= = Spin @-@ off series = =
The books in the Tales to Give You Goosebumps and Goosebumps Triple Header series were written as short story anthologies , featuring a collection of stories in each book . From 1994 to 1997 , six Tales to Give You Goosebumps books were published . Two Goosebumps Triple Header books were released from 1997 to 1998 , beginning with Three Shocking Tales of Terror : Book 1 .
Fifty Give Yourself Goosebumps books were published from 1995 to 2000 , starting with Escape from the Carnival of Horrors . The books in this series were written as gamebooks , featuring multiple endings . The books in this series were ghostwritten by several authors , including Kathryn Lance and Stine 's sister @-@ in @-@ law Megan Stine . Many of the cover illustrations for this series were done by Mark Nagata .
Due to declining Goosebumps sales and increasing competition , Scholastic and R. L. Stine decided to create Goosebumps Series 2000 . From 1998 to 2000 , 25 books in the series were published , beginning with Cry of the Cat . The books in this series were written in a similar format and featured similar content to the original series , but Stine classified them as being " much scarier . " The covers in this series were illustrated by Tim Jacobus .
The books in the Goosebumps Gold series appeared on illustrator Tim Jacobus 's website and marketing sites but were never released . In this series , Stine intended to write a sequel to The Haunted Mask II ( The Haunted Mask Lives ! ) , and a sequel to Welcome to Dead House ( Happy Holidays from Dead House ) . It was one of the two book series by Stine that was planned to be released in 2000 ( the other was The Nightmare Room ) .
The series was renewed in 2008 following the release of the first book in the Goosebumps HorrorLand series , Revenge of the Living Dummy , that was published on April 1 , 2008 . Before the 2008 release of Revenge of the Living Dummy , there had not been a Goosebumps book published in almost 10 years . Stine decided to start writing Goosebumps books again after receiving mail asking him to write new books in the series . Nineteen Goosebumps HorrorLand books were published , and books in the series mainly featured two stories . The series continued in 2012 with new stories featuring some of the series ' most memorable villains , including Slappy the Dummy , the Lawn Gnomes and others . The first book of the spin @-@ off series Goosebumps Most Wanted , Planet of the Lawn Gnomes , was released in October 2012 .
= = Achievements , reception and controversy = =
= = = Achievements = = =
Following the release of the first novel in the series , the books quickly became popular , selling a million copies a month soon after they first appeared , and four million copies a month by the mid @-@ 1990s . Individual Goosebumps books appeared in the New York Times Best Seller list for children and the USA Today bestseller list . In 2001 , Publishers Weekly listed 46 books in the series in its list of bestselling children 's paperback books of all @-@ time . Goosebumps was a bestseller in many countries , including the United States , the United Kingdom , France , and Australia .
In 1996 , the book series accounted for almost 15 % of Scholastic 's annual revenue . Following the decline of Goosebumps sales in 1997 , Scholastic 's sales had dropped 40 % . The decline in Goosebumps book sales had made front page news of most newspaper business sections , which Patrick Jones stated " demonstrates the impact and importance of R. L. Stine . One writer , it seems , influences the fate of an entire company " .
As of 2008 , the Goosebumps series maintains an 82 % brand awareness among children 7 – 12 . It is listed as the number two bestselling children 's book series of all time and as Scholastic 's bestselling children 's book series of all time . By 2014 , according to Scholastic , there were 350 million copies of Goosebumps books sold in 32 languages , including Chinese , Czech , Spanish , and Hebrew . As of 2008 , the book series sells about two million copies annually .
Three books from the Goosebumps series have won the Nickelodeon Kids ' Choice Awards for Favorite Book : Deep Trouble in 1995 ( the award category 's first year ) , the book Tales to Give You Goosebumps in 1996 , and Deep Trouble II in 1998 . In 2000 , the series was ranked as the number two children 's books by the National Education Association , as chosen by children .
= = = Reception = = =
Slate 's Katy Waldman classified a classic Goosebumps story as " funny , icky , and just a bit menacing " . Following the release of the first Goosebumps HorrorLand book , Publishers Weekly stated in a starred review that the new Goosebumps series was " deliciously chilling " . Two reviewers of the Goosebumps books did not feel that the books were high quality literature . U.S. News & World Report 's Marc Silver thought the series was " quite tame " . He called the Goosebumps books " subliterature " , stating the plotting in the books was careless and that characters in the stories rarely grew . Roderick McGillis , from the academic journal Bookbird , described the books as camp , writing the books " are so artificial , so formulaic , so predictable , so repetitive " . McGillis also felt that the content of the Goosebumps series is " thin in the extreme " .
Stine 's books have a reputation for getting children excited about reading , which the writer is very proud of . James Carter , writing in Talking Books : Children 's Authors Talk About the Craft , Creativity and Process of Writing , stated " regarding Point Horrors and Goosebumps , I feel that anything that children read avidly is a good thing " . Librarian and writer Patrick Jones commented that " [ t ] he real horror is a culture where kids , especially boys , don 't read — and Stine has done his best to stop that turn of the screw from happening in his lifetime " .
= = = Book challenges = = =
Goosebumps was listed 15th in the list of most frequently challenged books during 1990 – 1999 and 94th in the list of top banned / challenged books during 2000 – 2009 by the American Library Association ( ALA ) . According to the ALA , a challenge is an attempt by a person or group to remove or restrict materials from a library or school curriculum . The series was challenged for being too frightening for young people and depicting occult or satanic themes . By 1997 , the ALA was informed of 46 challenges , over 75 % of which occurred in school libraries . The rest of the challenges were held in public libraries or the location of the challenges were unknown . In 1997 , a hearing by the Anoka @-@ Hennepin School District to ban the books was broadcast by C @-@ SPAN . In the hearing , most of the parents and children felt the books should not be banned , and the school district 's book review committee decided to keep the books .
= = Adaptations and merchandise = =
= = = Audiobooks = = =
Walt Disney Records and Scholastic Audiobooks have adapted Goosebumps into numerous audiobooks from 1996 @-@ present .
= = = Television adaptation = = =
In the 1990s , a Goosebumps TV series was produced in Canada by Protocol Entertainment in association with Scholastic Productions . The TV anthology series ran for four seasons from 1995 to 1998 , premiering on the Fox network on October 27 , 1995 . The series mainly featured plots based on the Goosebumps books , among them The Haunted Mask and Cuckoo Clock of Doom . The TV series aired in over 100 countries and it was the number one rated children 's TV show for three years in the United States . Margaret Loesch , formerly the CEO of Fox Kids , offered Scholastic a TV deal after her son responded positively to the Goosebumps book Say Cheese and Die she had bought for him a day earlier . A book series , titled Goosebumps Presents , was based on the TV series .
= = = Film adaptation = = =
The first attempt at a Goosebumps film was in 1998 , which Tim Burton was going to produce . Chris Meledandri , the president of Fox Family Films , said : " I think you 'll see us tackling a scale of story that would be prohibitive to do on the small screen " . However , the film did not materialize since they could not find a script they liked or determine which book or monster to adapt . In 2008 , Columbia Pictures acquired rights to create a Goosebumps film , with Neal H. Moritz and Deborah Forte , the latter of whom developed the TV series , producing the film . Duo Scott Alexander and Larry Karaszewski were hired as screenwriters and wrote the original script for the film . They felt that the individual books in the series were too short to adapt into a film , so they chose instead to do a fake biographical film in which R. L. Stine writes a book and all the monsters within it become real .
On January 14 , 2012 , it was reported that a new draft of the screenplay was written by Darren Lemke . Lemke co @-@ wrote the screenplays for Shrek Forever After and Bryan Singer 's Jack the Giant Slayer . In September 2013 , it was revealed that Jack Black was to play a fictionalized version of R. L. Stine " whose scary characters literally leap off the page , forcing him to hide from his own creepy creations " . Rob Letterman was also confirmed as the director , which would reunite him with Black , after working together on Shark Tale and Gulliver 's Travels .
It was announced in February 2014 that Dylan Minnette was cast as Zach Cooper , and Odeya Rush was cast as R. L. Stine 's fictional daughter , Hannah . In the film , which was released on October 16 , 2015 , Hannah 's father R. L. Stine keeps all the monsters in the series locked up in his books . When Zach unintentionally releases the monsters from the books , Zach , Hannah , and Stine team up in order to put the monsters back where they came from . Principal photography on the film began on April 23 , 2014 in Candler Park in Atlanta ; they also shot the film in Conyers and Madison , Georgia . Principal photography ended on July 16 , 2014 .
= = = Games = = =
There are four Goosebumps video games , two of which have been created for the PC by DreamWorks Interactive . A 1996 game entitled Escape from HorrorLand is an interactive sequel to the book One Day at HorrorLand , and a 1997 game entitled Attack of the Mutant was based on the book of the same name . Scholastic released a Goosebumps video game in October 2008 entitled Goosebumps HorrorLand , based on the series of the same name . Another video game , Goosebumps : The Game , a prequel to the 2015 film , was released on October 13 , 2015 . Goosebumps : Night of Scares , a mobile game based on the film and the book series was released for iOS and Android devices on October 15 of the same year .
The books One Day at HorrorLand and A Night in Terror Tower were adapted into two separate board games in 1996 . Both games were published by Milton Bradley and designed by Craig Van Ness .
= = = Other media = = =
Goosebumps has spawned merchandise , including T @-@ shirts , board games , puzzles , hats , fake skulls , dolls , bike helmets , fake blood , and boxer shorts . Goosebumps was also adapted into a stage play by Rupert Holmes in 1998 . Goosebumps has an official website , which garners 1 @.@ 5 million page views each month as of 2008 . An attraction based on the series , the Goosebumps HorrorLand Fright Show and FunHouse , opened in October 1997 at Disney @-@ MGM Studios 's New York Street . Before it closed , the attraction consisted of a stage play which featured characters from the series ; this show played five times a day . The attraction also featured a funhouse , called the Goosebumps HorrorLand Hall of Mirrors , which contained a maze of mirrors along with other props and gags from the series . In 2008 , it was announced that Sally Corporation would market Goosebumps rides .
A comic book series , titled Goosebumps Graphix , was written based on books from the original series . There were three books published in the series ; the first one , Creepy Creatures , was published on September 1 , 2006 .
= = Legal dispute = =
In November 1996 , Scholastic , the publisher of the series , and Parachute Press , the developer of the series , agreed to a new contract . Scholastic retained control of book publishing and the TV series , but gave Parachute Press merchandising rights to the series . In September 1997 , following a dispute between Scholastic and Parachute Press , Scholastic accused Parachute Press of breaching the contract . Scholastic claimed that Parachute Press had been making merchandising deals and issuing press releases without Scholastic 's required consent , and had begun withholding payments from them . In November 1997 , Parachute responded by alleging Scholastic had repudiated its financial obligations , claiming Scholastic had voided its rights to publish 54 books . Parachute Press filed a lawsuit , which followed with numerous other suits and counter lawsuits over who controls certain rights to the series . In 2003 , the two sides reached an agreement , with Scholastic receiving the Goosebumps trademark and all other rights to the series for US $ 9 @.@ 65 million .
= = Note = =
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= Rejtan ( painting ) =
Rejtan , or the Fall of Poland ( Polish : Rejtan . Upadek Polski ) is an oil painting by the Polish artist Jan Matejko , finished in 1866 , depicting the protest of Tadeusz Rejtan ( lower right ) against the First Partition of Poland during the Partition Sejm of 1773 . Both a depiction of a historical moment , and an allegory for the surrounding period of Polish history , the painting is one of Matejko 's most famous works , and an iconic picture of an emotional protest .
= = Historical context = =
Tadeusz Rejtan was a deputy in the Sejm ( parliament ) of the Polish @-@ Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1773 , infamously known as the Partition Sejm . The Sejm convened to review the demands of three Commonwealth 's neighbours ( the Russian Empire , Prussia and Austria ) in order to legalize their territorial demands , known as the First Partition of Poland . The Sejm operated under threat of foreign forces present in the Commonwealth , and with a significant number of deputies either bribed or threatened by foreign diplomats . The three powers officially justified their actions as a compensation for dealing with a troublesome neighbor and restoring order through military intervention in the civil war ( the War of Bar Confederation ) ; in fact all three were interested in territorial gains .
On 21 April that year , Rejtan , in a dramatic gesture at the Sejm , is said to have bared his chest and laid himself down in a doorway , blocking the way with his own body in a dramatic attempt to stop the other members from leaving the chamber where the debate was being held . Leaving of the chamber would have signified an end to the discussion , and the acceptance of the motion , meaning the acceptance of foreign territorial demands .
= = Scene description = =
The painting portrays this scene , although as usual with Matejko 's work , it sacrifices some historical reality for more dramatic presentation . It serves as an allegory for all three Partitions of Poland ( 1772 , 1793 , 1795 ) and portrays a number of major historical figures of this era . Rejtan is the most visible , occupying the entire right side of the painting , in the midst of his dramatic pose which has been compared to Liberty Leading the People . His position on this painting exemplifies the golden ratio .
To his left , in the center , are the " traitors " , many of them on the Russian payroll , and future members of the Targowica Confederation . Adam Poniński , marshal of the Sejm , pointing in red court dress , either demands that Rejtan leaves or points to the armed Russian guards outside the door ; he holds a simple wooden walking stick instead of a more elaborate marshall 's staff , which Rejtan stole a day earlier . Behind him are bishop Ignacy Massalski and Prince Antoni Stanisław Czetwertyński @-@ Światopełk . To his right , Hetman Franciszek Ksawery Branicki hides his face in his hands ; which likely was Matejko 's solution for a prosaic problem — he probably did not have access to a likeness of Branicki . Szczęsny Potocki , with the blue sash , looks to the ground , embarrassed . Behind the overturned chair , his father , Franciszek Salezy Potocki , also embarrassed , drops a quill pen and looks away . Between the two Potockis Jacek Małachowski is engaged in discussion with Samuel Korsak , while Karol Radziwiłł simply observes the situation , amused . On the ground , turned over , lies an amchair , with Branicki 's hat and a coin purse , from which the coins spill towards Poniński , alluding to the real reason he is intent on concluding the debate .
To the left of the elder Potocki , the seated primate of Poland , Michał Jerzy Poniatowski , is engaged in a conversation with the chancellor Michał Fryderyk Czartoryski , both ignoring the disruption . Behind them in the blue waistcoat , King Stanisław August Poniatowski , annoyed , stands up from the throne , wanting to leave , and looking at his pocket watch .
From the gallery , the scene is observed by one of the main architects of the partitions , Russian ambassador Nicholas Repnin . He is seated between two ladies , likely Izabela Lubomirska and either Elżbieta Grabowska or Izabela Czartoryska . To his right , another important symbol is shown in the painting of Russian Tsarina Catherine of Russia . Finally , in the open doors , behind Rejtan , stands a Russian soldier ( although in reality the Sejm was " guarded " not by Russian , but by Prussian troops ) .
The only person clearly sympathetic to Rejtan is a young man in the middle of the room , holding in his hands a saber and a rogatywka , symbolizing the supporters of the anti @-@ Russian Bar Confederation , and future insurgents from the Polish Uprisings in the Russian partition .
= = History , reception and significance = =
Matejko began work on this painting in August 1864 and finished it in November 1866 . It was one of many paintings portraying key historical moments in the history of Poland that he would create over his life . Matejko however did not simply illustrate the history , he intended his paintings to have powerful educational and emotional values .
The work caused a scandal in contemporary , still @-@ partitioned Poland ; it was discussed even before its unveiling . It offended a number of society figures , many tracing direct lineage to the major magnate families whose members are portrayed in the painting as traitors to the Polish cause . There were a number of critical reviews of the work in the contemporary press , Matejko received anonymous threats , and some aristocrats are said to have considered buying the painting only to destroy it . Some accused him of defeatism , pessimism , exploiting public sentiment over a historical scandal for contemporary publicity ; it was thus criticized by notable artists such as Józef Ignacy Kraszewski and Cyprian Norwid . In Paris , a French @-@ Polish aristocrat , Count Alexandre Joseph Colonna @-@ Walewski , campaigned against including it in an exhibition . The painting , however , quickly garnered supporters , who in turn reproduced modified copies of it , replacing historical figures with major contemporary critics . Responding to the public outcry , Matejko painted a response — a painting titled Judgement on Matejko ( Wyrok na Matejkę , 1867 ) , in which he portrayed his execution by some of his most vocal critics .
Serious art critics had less emotional , but also mixed , opinions of the work . It was received less favourably by Józef Szujski and Stanisław Tarnowski , but praised by painters Henryk Siemiradzki and Artur Grottger . Comments of Wojciech Korneli Stattler are interpreted by different authors as either praise , or critique . In Paris , displayed at Exposition Universelle , 1867 the painting received a gold medal . While in Poland the painting 's context and message was clearly understood , the work , displayed in Paris , proved to be too obscure for the audience there , with few understanding the complex , historical context ; some French critics interpreted it as a painting of a gambling hall . It is said , however , to have been well understood by the Russian visitors to the French gallery , some of whom are said to have been interested in acquiring the painting , which was commended by Poles as " they bought the real ones , might as well buy the painted ones , too " . Eventually , however , the painting was acquired by Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria for 50 @,@ 000 franks . It was shown at a gallery in Vienna , and eventually ended up at the Hofmuseum . Thanks to the efforts of minister Juliusz Twardowski it was purchased by the government of the Second Polish Republic in 1920 . As part of the Wawel Royal Castle National Art Collection it has been on a public display in the Royal Castle in Warsaw since 1931 , with the exception of the period of World War II , when it was briefly looted by the Nazis .
The painting is usually interpreted as criticism of the Russian interference in Polish political affairs , and the collaboration of treasonous Polish aristocrats . By the end of World War I it was already seen as a priceless artifact of Polish culture . The painting was positively interpreted in communist Poland as a symbol of critique of the Polish nobility , blamed for their selfishness leading to the partitions . More recently , the painting has been interpreted as the symbol of solitary protest , and a moral justification of dissent , even when such a protest is known to be futile , ignored by most . It has also been described as an iconic picture of an emotional protest and a symbol of desperate , patriotic protest . In the 1980s the painting inspired a protest song by Jacek Kaczmarski . Over time , the painting has become famous in Poland ; Walter M. Cummins notes that the scene from this work was " made familiar to every Polish child by [ this ] frequently reproduced painting " .
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= Summerhill ( book ) =
Summerhill : A Radical Approach to Child Rearing is a book about the English boarding school Summerhill School by its headmaster A. S. Neill . It is known for introducing his ideas to the American public . It was published in America on November 7 , 1960 , by the Hart Publishing Company and later revised as Summerhill School : A New View of Childhood in 1993 . Its contents are a repackaged collection from four of Neill 's previous works . The foreword was written by psychoanalyst Erich Fromm , who distinguished between authoritarian coercion and Summerhill .
The seven chapters of the book cover the origins and implementation of the school , and other topics in childrearing . Summerhill , founded in the 1920s , is run as a children 's democracy under Neill 's educational philosophy of self @-@ regulation , where kids choose whether to go to lessons and how they want to live freely without imposing on others . The school makes its rules at a weekly schoolwide meeting where students and teachers each have one vote alike . Neill discarded other pedagogies for one of the innate goodness of the child .
Despite selling no advance copies in America , Summerhill brought Neill significant renown in the next decade , wherein he sold three million copies . The book was used in hundreds of college courses and translated into languages such as German . Reviewers noted Neill 's charismatic personality , but doubted the project 's general replicability elsewhere and its overstated generalizations . They put Neill in a lineage of experimental thought , but questioned his lasting contribution to psychology . The book begat an American Summerhillian following , cornered an education criticism market , and made Neill into a folk leader .
= = Background = =
Summerhill : A Radical Approach to Child Rearing was written by A. S. Neill and published by Hart Publishing Company in 1960 . In a letter to Neill , New York publisher Harold Hart suggested a book specific for America devised of parts from four of Neill 's previous works : The Problem Child , The Problem Parent , The Free Child , and That Dreadful School . Neill liked his idea and gave the publisher wide liberties in the manuscript 's preparation , preferring to write a preface or appendix in reflection on the writings . In rereading his work , he realized he disagreed with his earlier statements on Freudian child analysis . Neill later regretted the liberties he afforded the publisher , particularly his removal of Wilheim Reich 's name from the book and index , since Neill saw Reich as an influential figure . They also struggled over issues of copyrights . Neill did not contest his disagreements , as he was eager to see the book published .
The publisher and Neill disagreed over the choice of author for the book 's foreword . Seeing forewords as more of an American tradition , Neill preferred not to have one , but suggested Henry Miller , an American author who had recently written Neill a fan letter and whose Tropic series was banned in the United States . Hart didn 't think Miller 's introduction would help the book and approached Margaret Mead , who refused on the grounds of Neill 's connection with Reich . Several months later , psychoanalyst and sociologist Erich Fromm agreed to the project , and found consensus with Neill and the publisher . Fromm 's introduction placed Summerhill in a history of backlash against progressive education and claimed that the " perverted " implementation of child freedom was more at fault than the idea of child freedom itself . He wrote that Summerhill was one of few schools that provided education without fear or hidden coercion , and that it carried the goals of " the Western humanistic tradition " : " reason , love , integrity , and courage " . Fromm also highlighted adult confusion about non @-@ authoritarianism and how they mistook coercion for genuine freedom .
A revised edition was edited by Albert Lamb and released by St. Martin 's Press as Summerhill School : A New View of Childhood in 1993 .
= = Summary = =
Summerhill is A. S. Neill 's " aphoristic and anecdotal " account of his " famous " " early progressive school experiment in England " founded in the 1920s , Summerhill School . The book 's intent is to demonstrate the origins and effects of unhappiness , and then show how to raise children to avoid this unhappiness . It is an " affirmation of the goodness of the child " . Summerhill is the story of Summerhill School 's origins , its programs and pupils , how they live and are affected by the program , and Neill 's own educational philosophy . It is split into seven chapters that introduce the school and discuss parenting , sex , morality and religion , " children 's problems " , " parents ' problems " , and " questions and answers " .
The school is run as a democracy , with students deciding affairs that range from the curriculum to the behavior code . Lessons are non @-@ compulsory . Neill emphasizes " self @-@ regulation " , personal responsibility , freedom from fear , " freedom in sex play " , and loving understanding over moral instruction or force . In his philosophy , all attempts to mold children are coercive in nature and therefore harmful . Caretakers are advised to " trust " in the natural process and let children self @-@ regulate such that they live by their own rules and consequently treat with the highest respect the rights of others to live by their own rules . Neill 's " self @-@ regulation " constitutes a child 's right to " live freely , without outside authority in things psychic and somatic " — that children eat and come of age when they wants , are never hit , and are " always loved and protected " . Children can do as they please until their actions affect others . In an example , a student can skip French class to play music , but cannot disruptively play music during the French class . Against the popular image of " go as you please schools " , Summerhill has many rules . However , they are decided at a schoolwide meeting where students and teachers each have one vote apiece . This does not necessarily mean total cessation to the children , as Neill thought adults were right to bemoan child destruction of property . He considered this tension between adult and child living styles to be natural . Neill felt that most schoolwork and books kept children from their right to play , and that learning should only follow play and not be mixed " to make [ work ] palatable " . Neill found that those students interested in college would complete the prerequisites in two years and of their own volition .
The 45 @-@ person coeducational school with pupils aged five to fifteen is presented as successful and having reformed " problem children " into " successful human beings " . Some became professionals and academics . In Summerhill , Neill blames many of society 's problems on the " miseducation in conventional schools " . He felt that society 's institutions prevented " real freedom in individuals " . Thus , Summerhill was created as a place for children to be free to be themselves . Neill discarded many kinds of dogma ( " discipline , ... direction , ... suggestion , ... moral training , .. religious instruction " ) and put sole faith in the belief of the innate goodness of children .
= = Reception = =
The book debuted in America on November 7 , 1960 during the week of John Kennedy 's election . At the time of the book 's release , Neill was unknown in the United States , and not a single bookseller purchased an advance copy . Summerhill brought him international renown over the next decade . The book sold 24 @,@ 000 copies in its first year , 100 thousand in 1968 , 200 thousand in 1969 , two million total by 1970 , and three million by 1973 . Summerhill was included in over 600 American university courses , and a 1969 translation for West Germany ( The Theory and Practice of Anti @-@ Authoritarian Education ) sold over a million copies in three years . In the wake of the book 's success , publisher Harold Hart started the American Summerhill Society in New York City , of which Paul Goodman was a founding member .
Multiple reviewers stressed the school 's reliance on Neill as a charismatic figure , which begat doubts of the institution 's general replicability . Sarah Crutis ( The Times Literary Supplement ) asked whether teachers would have the " time , patience , and personality " to use Neill 's methods . " Their extremes of endurance may sometimes sound masochistic " , wrote D. W. Harding ( New Statesman ) , and Richard E. Gross ( The Social Studies ) added that Neill 's " extremes ... go far beyond good sense " . Danica Deutsch ( Journal of Individual Psychology ) concluded that the school 's lessons curbed the child 's sense of social responsibility and other society @-@ preserving functions . Jacob Hechler ( Child Welfare ) said that what Neill described as love — a combination of " caring and noninterference " — was very hard to bring to bear . The New Yorker called Neill " a fiery crusader " with " deep understanding of children " , and Morris Fritz Mayer ( Social Service Review ) read Neill as having the " wrath and eloquence of a biblical prophet " with a belief in children and " unyielding attack against pathological and phony values in education " that " one cannot help admiring " . Willard W. Hartup ( Contemporary Psychology ) positioned Neill as closer to a psychotherapist than a teacher , especially as the philosophy undergirding Summerhill " derives from Freud " . Gene Phillips ( The Annals of the American Academy ) described Neill as the " essential ingredient of the democratic ethic that ... America needs " .
Margaret Mead ( American Sociological Review ) considered the book more of a historical document for later generations to analyze " than anything that can be taken at its face value " . She wrote the school to be " unique " and " counter @-@ pointed to the emphases and excesses " of its era , which she credited to Neill 's " rare charismatic personality " . To Mead , Summerhill 's moral battles had passed since the 1920s , as Neill 's audience already agreed with his views on frank discussions about sex and the primacy of student interest . She added that his contemporaries had moved on to " rebelling against a contentless freedom " that prioritized emotional education over intellectual lessons . Similarly , Crutis ( The Times Literary Supplement ) noted Neill 's approach as less " sensational " in its method than expected , and asserted that 1960s psychologists would agree with the stance to not guilt children for masturbating and to tell the truth about the origin of babies . Morton Reisman ( The Phi Delta Kappan ) upheld the book 's subtitle and agreed that the book was " radical " in comparison to conventional American morality and education .
Multiple reviewers noted points of overgeneralization in the book . Crutis continued that criticism of individual aspects of the school , such as its stance against uniform curriculum , was justified . R. G. G. Price ( Punch ) remarked that the school was presented as having little intellectual or aesthetic zeal , and that Neill 's statement against teaching algebra to eventual repairmen was " the most shameful sentence ever written by an educational pioneer " . Hartup ( Contemporary Psychology ) and Harding ( New Statesman ) saw no evidence towards whether Summerhill students were successful by standards other than Neill 's , particularly in academic distinction . The Saturday Review quoted from the British Inspectors report that the school was " unimpressive " — despite laudatory student " will and ... interest , ... their achievements are rather meager . " Mead presaged that Summerhill could create " uncritical behavior " among parents unfamiliar with the pedagogical field , and that the book 's " essential positive contribution " , belief in child self @-@ regulation , could be forgotten within the book 's radicalism .
John Vaizey ( The Spectator ) spotlighted the book 's emphasis on " the innate goodness of children " and how the progressive school movement 's emphasis on freedom had spread into the public schools . Vaizey put Neill 's Summerhill in a disappearing lineage of post @-@ World War I experimental schools that focused on freedom from directed games , classics curriculum , and prudery . He wrote in 1962 that " Summerhill is clearly one of England 's greatest schools " and that the decline of this experimental school tradition was a tragedy . Still , Deutsch ( Journal of Individual Psychology ) wrote that Summerhill had not been " duplicated " in the four decades since its creation . The Booklist noted Neill 's " scant credit " awarded to prior progressive and experimental schools , and added that the addition of a British inspection report added objective credibility to the book . Hartup ( Contemporary Psychology ) described Neill 's style as " bewitchingly direct , even epigrammatic " though also " patchy " , leaving many discussions incomplete .
Reviewers described the book as both convincing and not . The New Yorker wrote that skeptical readers would find the book convincing . Crutis ( The Times Literary Supplement ) thought the book would lead readers to ask why " the principles of progressive education " were not more accepted in England . Reisman ( The Phi Delta Kappan ) wrote that even the sections dedicated to the origins of neuroses were " still noteworthy , challenging , and provocative " . He wrote that the book 's impact is in its " realistic demonstration of how children can be helped to become happy people " without guilt , hate , and fear . On the other hand , the Saturday Review doubted children wanted or benefitted from lack of adult authority . Hartup ( Contemporary Psychology ) thought that the book , while stimulating , left questions as to its actual contribution past an " experiment in applied psychoanalysis " , with " clinical procedure ... alternatively inspired , naive , and hair @-@ raising " . He called Neill " an excellent devil 's advocate for educators " but unhelpful in resolving the ailments of mass education .
Harry Elmer Barnes called the book one of the most exciting and challenging in the field of education since Émile . ( This said , Hartup of Contemporary Psychology said Summerhill was closer to Freud 's Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality than to Émile and criticized Neill 's psychoanalytic overemphases . ) The psychoanalyst Benjamin Wolstein put Neill 's work alongside that of John Dewey , and Sir Herbert Read likened Neill to Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi and Henry Caldwell Cook . David Carr characterized the book as centered on moral education , despite Neill 's recurrent insistence on the danger of moral teachings . Scholar Richard Bailey agreed with Carr 's characterization .
= = Legacy = =
Richard Bailey wrote that the book " marked the birth of an American cult " with Neill and Summerhill at its center as Americans began to emulate the school and form support institutions . Bailey added that Summerhill 's style was accessible and humorous compared to the era 's moralizing literature , and unpretentious and simple compared to Deweyan thought . The book cornered an education criticism market , and made Neill into a " reluctant " folk leader . Timothy Gray wrote that the book aroused an education reform movement with directives advocated by Herb Kohl , Jonathan Kozol , Neil Postman , and Ivan Illich . Fifty years after the book was first released , Astra Taylor wrote that the idea of Summerhill selling millions of copies in the 2012 American education climate " seems absurd " .
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= Accurate News and Information Act =
The Accurate News and Information Act was a statute passed by the Legislative Assembly of Alberta , Canada , in 1937 , at the instigation of William Aberhart 's Social Credit government . It would have required newspapers to print " clarifications " of stories that a committee of Social Credit legislators deemed inaccurate , and to reveal their sources on demand .
The act was a result of the stormy relationship between Aberhart and the press , which dated to before the 1935 election , in which the Social Credit League was elected to government . Virtually all of Alberta 's newspapers — especially the Calgary Herald — were critical of Social Credit , as were a number of publications from elsewhere in Canada . Even the American media had greeted Aberhart 's election with derision .
Though the act won easy passage through the Social Credit @-@ dominated legislature , Lieutenant @-@ Governor of Alberta John C. Bowen reserved royal assent until the Supreme Court of Canada evaluated the act 's legality . In 1938 's Reference re Alberta Statutes , the court found that it was unconstitutional , and it never became law .
= = Aberhart and the press = =
= = = Before the 1935 election = = =
William Aberhart 's Social Credit League , running candidates for the first time , won a large majority in the 1935 Alberta election on the strength of promises to use a new economic theory called social credit to end depression conditions in the province . It did so against the almost uniform opposition of the news media . Some of the province 's major newspapers were loyal to one of the traditional parties : the Edmonton Bulletin , for example , had supported the Liberals since its inception .
Aberhart initially laid out his economic agenda in only vague terms , and by early 1935 his opponents , including Premier Richard Gavin Reid of the United Farmers of Alberta , were trying to force him to commit to a specific plan . The Calgary Herald took up this call , going so far as to offer Aberhart a full page to lay out his approach in detail . Aberhart refused , on the grounds that he considered the Herald 's coverage of him to be unfair . He frequently attacked the newspaper in speeches around the province , and on April 28 suggested that his followers boycott it and other unfriendly newspapers . The boycott was successful to the extent that it drove at least one newspaper out of business . The Herald responded to the boycott by asking " Is everyone opposed to the political opinions and plans of Mr. Aberhart to be boycotted ? He has invoked a most dangerous precedent and has given the people of this province a foretaste of the Hitlerism which will prevail if he ever secures control of the provincial administration . "
Shortly before the election , the Herald began to run cartoons by Stewart Cameron , a virulently anti @-@ Aberhart cartoonist . The day before the election , it ran one featuring a car , labelled " the people " , travelling along " Aberhart Highway No. 1 " and arriving at a railway crossing . A train , labelled " common sense " , was approaching from around the bend , along tracks labelled " fundamental facts " . Aberhart leans out the " S.C. Signal Tower " advising the car " All 's clear . Don 't stop , look or listen . "
Though the Herald was the most strident in its opposition to Aberhart and Social Credit , the Bulletin , the Edmonton Journal , the Medicine Hat News , the Lethbridge Herald , and many smaller papers all , in the words of Athabasca University historian Alvin Finkel , " attacked Social Credit viciously as a chimera which , if placed in power , would wreck Alberta 's chances for economic recovery . " Of the province 's major papers , only the Calgary Albertan provided even lukewarm support .
So frustrated were the Social Crediters with the newspapers ' hostility that in 1934 they founded their own , the Alberta Social Credit Chronicle , to spread their views . The Chronicle , in addition to acting as Aberhart 's mouthpiece , carried guest editorials by such figures as British fascist leader Oswald Mosley and anti @-@ semitic priest Charles Coughlin .
= = = Post @-@ election = = =
Media reaction to Social Credit 's 1935 victory , in which it won 56 of 63 seats in the Legislative Assembly of Alberta , was almost uniformly negative . The Herald opined that " the people of Alberta have made a most unfortunate decision and may soon see the folly of it . " Even the Albertan expressed its wish that social credit be first tried in " Scotland , or Ethiopia or anywhere but Alberta . " Reaction across Canada was also negative ; the St. Catharines Standard called the results " a nightmare that passeth all understanding " and the Montreal Star accused Albertans of voting for " an untried man and a policy whose workings he ostentatiously refused to explain before polling day . " American newspapers were less restrained : the Chicago Tribune asked " Greetings to the Canadians . Who 's loony now ? " and the Boston Herald 's headline screamed " Alberta goes crazy " .
The relationship did not improve once Aberhart took office . In January 1935 , H. Napier Moore wrote two articles for Maclean 's casting doubt on Aberhart 's honesty and his ability to follow through on his election promises . The American Collier 's Weekly ran a profile that mocked Aberhart 's appearance , taking note of his " vast colorless face " and his " narrow , left slanted mouth with soft , extra @-@ heavy , bloodless lips which don 't quite meet and through which he breathes wetly . " Finkel , finding fault with both sides of the Aberhart @-@ press feud , states
The major newspapers of the province opposed virtually everything the government did . Virtually every reform instituted was made to sound more draconian than it actually was . The conservative views of the owners and editors often interfered with the objective presentation of news reports , although perhaps not to the extent that the government claimed . In many cases , the papers simply concentrated on the very real chaos and confusion in government ranks and required few embellishments to make the government look bad .
The Herald lured Stewart Cameron away from working on Disney 's Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs to make him its first ever staff cartoonist ; Cameron devoted himself full @-@ time to the ridicule of Aberhart . Though Social Credit staffer turned journalistic historian John Barr argues that the media 's unswerving hostility to Aberhart may have benefited him politically by allowing him to " depict the press as a mere tool of Eastern financial and commercial interests " , by January 1936 Aberhart was telling the listeners of his weekly gospel radio show that he was " glad there will be no newspapers in heaven . "
To help combat the negative press , Aberhart resolved to gain control of the Albertan , the one paper of note to show him any support . He formed a company that acquired an option to purchase it , and used his radio program to promote the purchase of shares by Social Credit supporters . The other newspapers criticized him for using what was nominally a gospel program to promote stock sales . The plan came to naught , as most Social Credit supporters were too poor to buy newspaper stock , and the only interested buyers were beneficiaries of government patronage , chiefly liquor interests . Even so , the Albertan became the official organ of Social Credit , an editorial decision that doubled its circulation .
Aberhart reacted bitterly to the media 's hostility . In a September 20 , 1937 , radio broadcast , he said of the press " these creatures with mental hydrophobia will be taken in hand and their biting and barking will cease . " Four days later , a special session of the Legislative Assembly of Alberta opened , with the Accurate News and Information Act figuring prominently on its order paper .
= = Statute = =
The 1937 Social Credit backbenchers ' revolt had forced Aberhart to abdicate a portion of his power to the newly created Social Credit Board , which consisted of five Social Credit backbenchers charged with supervising a commission of experts . While the initial plan was to have this commission headed by C. H. Douglas , social credit 's British founder , Douglas did not like Aberhart and did not view his approach to social credit as consistent with its true form . He refused to come . Instead , he sent two subordinates , L. D. Byrne and G. F. Powell . These surrogates were charged with recommending legislation to implement social credit in Alberta . Their first round of proposals , which included measures imposing government control on banks and prohibiting any person from challenging the constitutionality of any Alberta law in court without receiving the approval of the Lieutenant @-@ Governor in Council , was disallowed by the federal government . The second round included the Accurate News and Information Act .
The act empowered the chair of the Social Credit Board to require a newspaper to reveal the names and addresses of its sources , as well as the names and addresses of any writers , including of unsigned pieces . Non @-@ compliance would result in fines of up to $ 1 @,@ 000 per day , and prohibitions on the publishing of the offending newspaper , of stories by offending writers , or of information emanating from offending sources . The act also required newspapers to print , at the instruction of the chair of the Social Credit Board , any statement " which has for its object the correction or amplification of any statement relating to any policy or activity of the Government of the Province . "
The act was attacked by opposition politicians as evidence of the government 's supposed fascism , and alienated even the Albertan . The international press was also cutting : one British paper referred to Aberhart as " a little Hitler " . Later commentators have been no more favourable : Finkel calls the act evidence of the " increasingly authoritarian nature of the Aberhart regime " , and even Barr , generally sympathetic to Social Credit , calls it " a harsh blow to free speech " .
Lieutenant @-@ Governor John C. Bowen , mindful of the federal government 's disallowance of the Social Credit Board 's earlier legislation , reserved royal assent of the act and its companions until their legality could be tested at the Supreme Court of Canada . This was the first use of the power of reservation in Alberta history , and in the summer of 1938 Aberhart 's government announced the elimination of Bowen 's official residence , his government car , and his secretarial staff . Aberhart biographers David Elliott and Iris Miller and Ernest Manning biographer Brian Brennan attribute this move to revenge for Bowen 's reservation of assent .
= = Aftermath = =
Bowen put a stop to the Accurate News and Information Act , at least temporarily , but Aberhart 's fight against the press continued : on March 25 , 1938 , a resolution of the Social Credit @-@ dominated legislature ordered that Don Brown , a reporter for the Edmonton Journal , be jailed " during the pleasure of the assembly " for allegedly misquoting Social Credit backbencher John Lyle Robinson on the inclusion of chiropractors in the Workman 's Compensation Act . Brown was never actually jailed ; the next day , in response to negative publicity from across Canada , the legislature passed another resolution , ordering " the release of Mr. Don C. Brown from custody . " In Barr 's view , " the government was made to look less ominous than silly . "
Around the same time , the Supreme Court ruled on the Reference re Alberta Statutes . It found that the Accurate News and Information Act , along with the others submitted to it for evaluation , was ultra vires ( beyond the powers of ) the Alberta government . In the case of the Accurate News and Information Act , the court found that the Canadian constitution included an " implied bill of rights " that protected freedom of speech as being critical to a parliamentary democracy .
For its leadership in the fight against the act , the Pulitzer Prize committee awarded the Edmonton Journal a bronze plaque , the first time it honoured a non @-@ American newspaper . Ninety @-@ five other newspapers , including the Calgary Albertan , Edmonton Bulletin , Calgary Herald , Lethbridge Herald , and Medicine Hat News , were presented with engraved certificates .
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= Taare Zameen Par =
Taare Zameen Par ( titled Like Stars on Earth internationally ) is a 2007 Indian drama film produced and directed by Aamir Khan . Darsheel Safary stars as eight @-@ year @-@ old Ishaan , and Khan plays his art teacher . Creative director and writer Amole Gupte initially developed the idea with his wife Deepa Bhatia , who served as the film 's editor . Visual effects are by Tata Elxsi 's Visual Computing Labs , and the title animation — the first use of clay animation in a Bollywood film — was created by Dhimant Vyas . Shankar – Ehsaan – Loy composed the film 's score , and Prasoon Joshi wrote the lyrics for many of the songs . Principal photography took place in Mumbai and in Panchgani 's New Era High School , and some of the school 's students make appearances .
The film explores the life and imagination of Ishaan , an eight @-@ year @-@ old dyslexic child . Although he excels in art , his poor academic performance leads his parents to send him to a boarding school . Ishaan 's new art teacher suspects that he is dyslexic and helps him to overcome his disability . The film made its theatrical debut in India on 21 December 2007 , and UTV Home Entertainment released a DVD for Indian audiences in 2008 . Disney 's later release of the international edition DVD marked the first purchase of distribution rights for an Indian film by a global company .
Taare Zameen Par has received numerous awards , including the Filmfare Best Film Award for 2008 and the 2008 National Film Award for Best Film on Family Welfare . It was India 's official entry for the 2009 Academy Awards Best Foreign Film , but did not progress to the short @-@ list .
= = Plot = =
Ishaan Nandkishore Awasthi ( Darsheel Safary ) is an eight @-@ year @-@ old boy who dislikes school and fails every test or exam . He finds all subjects difficult , and is belittled and berated by his teachers and classmates . But Ishaan 's internal world is full of wonders that he is unable to convey to others , magical lands filled with colour and animated animals . He is an artist whose talent is unrecognised .
Ishaan 's father , Nandkishore Awasthi ( Vipin Sharma ) , is a successful executive who expects his children to excel . His mother , housewife Maya Awasthi ( Tisca Chopra ) , is frustrated by her inability to educate her son . Ishaan 's elder brother , Yohaan ( Sachet Engineer ) , is an exemplary scholar and athlete , which Ishaan is frequently reminded of .
After receiving a particularly poor academic report , Ishaan 's parents send him to a boarding school . There he sinks into a state of fear and depression , despite being befriended by Rajan ( Tanay Chheda ) , a physically disabled boy and one of the top students in the class .
Ishaan 's situation changes when a new art teacher , Ram Shankar Nikumbh ( Aamir Khan ) , joins the school 's faculty . An instructor at the Tulips School for young children with developmental disabilities , Nikumbh 's teaching style is markedly different from that of his strict predecessor , and he quickly observes that Ishaan is unhappy and contributes little to class activities . He reviews Ishaan 's work and concludes that his academic shortcomings are indicative of dyslexia .
On his day off , Nikumbh sets off to Mumbai , to visit Ishaan 's parents . Nikumbh is surprised to learn that Ishaan is passionate about painting , and shows great talent in art . Nikumbh then asks Mr Awasthi as to why he sent Ishaan to a boarding school . Mr Awasthi replies that Ishaan was an ill mannered boy and was a poor student . Nikumbh shows Ishaan 's mother her son 's notebooks and gives an analysis of the script . Nikumbh deduces that Ishaan has severe difficulty in understanding letters and words . Mr Awasthi tries to dismiss it as a mere excuse for Ishaan 's laziness . Nikumbh demonstrates what Ishaan experiences every day at school . He states that Ishaan has dyslexia as well as he may be having other conditions , which make him a difficult child .
Mr Awasthi bluntly categorizes it as mental retardation , but Nikumbh criticizes him . Nikumbh argues that Ishaan is an above average child and processes information differently . He further states that Mr Awasthi failed to understand Ishaan and as a result the latter is facing low self @-@ esteem and no longer paints .
Nikumbh returns , and subsequently brings up the topic of dyslexia in class , and offers a list of famous people who were dyslexic . Later , Nikumbh reveals to Ishaan , that he too is a dyslexic and faced problems similar to Ishaan . Nikumbh then visits the school 's principal and obtains his permission to become Ishaan 's tutor . He attempts to improve Ishaan 's reading and writing by using remedial techniques developed by dyslexia specialists ; Ishaan soon develops an interest in language and mathematics , and his grades improve .
Towards the end of the school year Nikumbh organises an art fair for the staff and students . The competition is judged by artist Lalita Lajmi . Ishaan , with his strikingly creative style , is declared the winner and Nikumbh , who paints Ishaan 's portrait , the runner @-@ up . The principal announces that Nikumbh has been hired as the school 's permanent art teacher . When Ishaan 's parents meet his teachers on the last day of school they are left speechless by the transformation they see in him . Overcome with emotion , Ishaan 's father thanks Nikumbh . As Ishaan is getting into the car to leave with his parents for summer vacations , he turns around and runs toward Nikumbh . The film ends with a freeze frame shot of Nikumbh tossing Ishaan into the air .
= = Cast = =
Darsheel Safary as Ishaan Nandkishore Awasthi : In looking for an actor to play the central figure of Ishaan , writer Amole Gupte turned to Shiamak Davar 's Summer Funk workshops . Gupte had several boys informally audition by explaining to him how they would react to scripted situations from the film . Of his decision to cast Darsheel Safary , Gupte recalls that " it was a tough call . But Darsheel has the mischief in his eyes to be Ishaan . Everyone just naturally gravitated towards him . "
Aamir Khan as Ram Shankar Nikumbh ( " Nikumbh Sir " ) : Gupte , who based the character on his art teacher Ramdas Sampat Nikumbh , initially asked Akshaye Khanna to play the role .
Tanay Chheda as Rajan Damodran : Ishaan 's classmate at New Era High School .
Sachet Engineer as Yohaan Nandkishore Awasthi ( " Dada " ) : Ishaan 's elder brother .
Tisca Chopra as Maya Awasthi ( " Maa " ) : Ishaan 's mother , who gave up her career to raise her children . Chopra tended to speak softly during filming and was subsequently required to re @-@ record some scenes using automated dialogue replacement .
Vipin Sharma as Nandkishore Awasthi ( " Papa " ) : Ishaan 's " strict , hard , dominating father " . Part of the reason for Sharma 's casting was his " extremely strong and dominating " face that " exudes harshness . " Described by Khan as " naturally polite " and sensitive , Sharma was instructed to lower his voice to sound " harsh " and " dominating " .
Girija Oak as Jabeen , Nikumbh 's co @-@ worker
Bugs Bhargava and Shankar Sachdev as Sen Sir and Tiwari Sir : Two teachers at New Era High School , whose attitude towards Ishaan softens as his grades improve and he wins the art contest . The roles are caricatures of teachers in general .
M. K. Raina as the principal of New Era High School .
Lalita Lajmi as herself in a cameo role . It was her first appearance as an actor .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
The husband and wife team of Amole Gupte and Deepa Bhatia developed the story that would eventually become Taare Zameen Par as a way of understanding why some children cannot conform to a conventional educational system . Their initial work began as a short story that evolved into a screenplay over seven years . Deepa Bhatia later stated in an interview with The Hindu that her original inspiration was not dyslexia but rather the childhood of Japanese filmmaker Akira Kurosawa , who performed poorly in school . Her goal was thus to explore the story of " a child who did not fit into the school stream . " She referenced a specific moment in Kurosawa 's biography where he began to excel after meeting an attentive art teacher , and noted that this scene " became the inspiration for how a teacher could transform the life of a student " .
In developing the character of a young boy based on Kurosawa , Bhatia and Gupte explored some possible reasons why he failed in school . Their research led them to groups such as the Maharashtra Dyslexia Association and Parents for a Better Curriculum for the Child ( PACE ) . Dyslexia eventually became the central topic and theme of the film . The pair worked with dyslexic children to research and develop the screenplay , basing characters and situations on their observations . Bhatia and Gupte carefully concealed the children 's identities in the final version of the script .
Khan and Gupte first met in college . Khan has said that he admired Gupte 's abilities as an actor , writer , and painter . Three years before the film 's release Gupte brought Khan to the project as a producer and actor . Gupte himself was to direct , but the first week 's dailies were a great disappointment to Khan , who " lost faith in Amol and his capability of translating on screen what he had so beautifully written on paper " . Khan was on the verge of withdrawing his participation in the film because of these " creative differences " , but Gupte kept him onboard by stepping down as director . Contrary to Khan 's claim , Gupte lashed out saying that after the wrap @-@ up party , Khan announced that he was the director of the film , despite Gupte acting as director . Had it been necessary to hire a third party , production would have been postponed for 6 – 8 months as the new director prepared for the film . Keen to keep Safary as Ishaan — the actor might have aged too much for the part had production been delayed — Khan took over the role of director . Taare Zameen Par was Khan 's first experience in the dual role of actor and director . He has admitted that the transition was challenging , stating that while he had always wanted to direct a film , it was unknown territory for him . Gupte remained on set , " guiding [ Khan ] and , at times , even correcting [ him ] " .
= = = Title and translation = = =
Initially the film was to retain the short story 's title of " High Jump " , because of Ishaan 's inability to achieve the high jump in gym class . This subplot — filmed but later cut — tied into the original ending for the movie . In this rendition , a " ghost image " separates from Ishaan after the art competition and runs to the sports field ; the film would end on a freeze frame of Ishaan successfully making the leap . Khan , however , was unhappy with that proposed ending and convinced Gupte to rewrite it .
With the working title no longer relevant , Khan , Gupte , and Bhatia discussed several alternatives , eventually deciding on Taare Zameen Par . Possible translations of this title include Stars on the Ground and Stars on Earth . According to Khan :
Taare Zameen Par is a film about children and it is a film which celebrates the abilities of children . Taare Zameen Par is a title which denotes that aspect . It is a title with a very positive feel to it . All the kids are special and wonderful . They are like stars on earth . This particular aspect gave birth to the title .
= = = Filming = = =
Principal photography for the film took place in India over five months . Khan spent his first two days as director blocking the first scene to be filmed — Ishaan returning home from school and putting away his recently collected fish — and becoming comfortable with his new responsibilities . Believing that the audience should not be aware of the camera , he chose a simple shooting style for the film that involved relatively little camera movement .
At the same time , Khan also made use of illusory camera tricks . For example , the opening scene of Ishaan collecting fish outside his school was shot on location and at Film City . Shots focusing on Ishaan took place at the former , while those involving the gutter terrarium were filmed at a water tank at the latter . The tank 's water often became murky because the mud would rise to the top , forcing production to constantly empty and refill it . Due to this hindrance , the scene took eight hours to film . The film 's next sequence involved Ishaan playing with two dogs . To compensate for the " absolutely petrified " Safary , most joint shots used a body double , though other portions integrated close @-@ up shots of the actor . Ishaan 's nightmare — he becomes separated from his mother at a train station and she departs on a train while he is trapped in a crowd — was filmed in Mumbai on a permanent railway @-@ station set . To work around the train set piece 's immobility , production placed the camera on a moving trolley to create the illusion of a departing train . For the sequences related from the mother 's point of view — shot from behind the actress — Chopra stood on a trolley next to a recreated section of the train 's door .
All the school sequences were filmed on location . The production team searched for a Mumbai school with an " oppressive " feel to establish the " heaviness of being in a metropolitan school " , and eventually chose St. Xavier 's School . As the school is situated along a main road filming took place on weekends , to minimise the background noise , but an early scene in which Ishaan is sent out of the classroom was filmed on the day of the Mumbai Marathon . The production staff placed acrylic sheets invisible to the naked eye on the classroom windows to mask the sounds of nearby crowds and helicopters . New Era High School served as Ishaan 's boarding school . The change of setting was a " breath of fresh air " for the production crew , who moved from Ishaan 's small house in Chembur to the " vast , beautiful environs " of Panchgani .
Production relied on stock footage for the brief scene of a bird feeding its babies . Khan carefully selected a clip to his liking , but learned three weeks before the film 's release that the footage was not available in the proper format . With three days to replace it or else risk delaying the release , Khan made do with what he could find . He says that he " cringes " every time he sees it .
= = = Children = = =
Real schoolchildren participated throughout the movie 's filming . Khan credited them with the film 's success , and was reportedly very popular with them . Furthermore , Khan placed a high priority on the day @-@ to @-@ day needs of his child actors , and went to great lengths to attend to them . The production staff made sure that the students were never idle , and always kept them occupied outside of filming . New Era Faculty Coordinator Douglas Lee thought the experience not only helped the children to learn patience and cooperation , but also gave them a better understanding of how they should behave towards children like Ishaan who have problems in school . Because filming at New Era High School occurred during the winter holiday , those portraying Ishaan 's classmates gave up their vacation to participate . To fill out the campus background , students from nearby schools were also brought in . A total of 1 @,@ 500 children were used for wide @-@ shots of the film 's art @-@ fair climax ; medium shots only required 400 students .
New to acting , the children often made errors such as staring into the camera , and Khan resorted to unorthodox methods to work around their rookie mistakes . For example , an early scene in the film featured a school assembly ; Khan wanted the students to act naturally and to ignore the principal 's speech , but recognised that this would be a difficult feat with cameras present . First Assistant Director Sunil Pandey spoke continuously in an attempt to " bore the hell out of [ them ] " , and they eventually lost interest in the filming and behaved normally . A later scene involved Nikumbh enlightening his class about famous people who suffer from dyslexia , and the children 's responses to his speech were the last portion to be filmed . Having already spent 3 – 4 days hearing the dialogue the children 's reactions were " jaded " . Khan opted to film them while he recited a tale , and manipulated his storytelling to achieve the varying spontaneous reactions . The following scene had the children playing around a nearby pond . Horrified when he learned that the water was 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) deep , Khan recruited four lifeguards in case a child fell in .
Khan found it important that the audience connect the film to real children , and had Pandey travel throughout India filming documentary @-@ style footage of children from all walks of life . Those visuals were integrated into the end credits .
= = = Art and animation = = =
While claymation has been used in Indian television commercials , the film 's title sequence — a representation of Ishaan 's imagination — marked its first instance in a Bollywood film . Khan gave claymation artist Dhimant Vyas free rein over the various elements . The storyboarding took one and a half months and the shooting required 15 days . The " 3 into 9 " sequence , in which Ishaan delves into his imagination to solve a math problem , was originally conceived as a 3D animation . Halfway through its creation , however , Khan felt it was not turning out as he had envisioned it . Khan scrapped the project and hired Vaibhav Kumaresh , who hand @-@ drew the scene as a 2D animation .
Artist Samir Mondal composed Ishaan and Nikumbh 's art @-@ fair watercolour paintings . He held a workshop with the schoolchildren , and incorporated elements from their artwork into Ishaan 's . Mondal also instructed Khan on a painter 's typical mannerisms and movements . Gupte created the rest of Ishaan 's artwork and Assistant Art Director Veer Nanavati drew Ishaan 's flipbook . The art department 's designs for Ishaan 's school notebooks disappointed Khan , who had familiarised himself with dyslexic writing . Using his left hand , Khan instead wrote it himself .
= = = Musical sequences = = =
The musical sequence of " Jame Raho " establishes the characters of the four members of Ishaan 's family ; for example , the father is hardworking and responsible , and Yohaan is an " ideal son " who does all the right things . A robotic style of music overlaps most of the sequence — this is mirrored by the machine @-@ like morning routines of the mother , father , and Yohaan — but changes for Ishaan 's portion to imply that he is different from the rest . This concept is furthered by speed ramping and having the camera sway with the music to create a distinct style . The twilight scenes of " Maa " were a particular issue for the production crew . Because the specific lighting only lasted ten to fifteen minutes a day , the scenes took nearly ten evenings to film . Production at one time considered having a child singing , but ultimately deemed it too over the top and felt it would connect to more people if sung by an adult . Shankar initially performed the song as a sample — they planned to replace him with another singer — but production eventually decided that his rendition was best .
Ishaan 's truancy scene — he leaves school one day after realising that his mother has not signed his failed math test — originally coincided with the song " Kholo Kholo , " but Khan did not believe it worked well for the situation . In his opinion , the accompanying song should focus on what a child wants — to be free — and be told from the first @-@ person perspective instead of " Kholo Kholo " ' s second person . When Khan took over as director , he opted to use " Mera Jahan " — a song written by Gupte — and moved " Kholo Kholo " to the art fair . Viewers of test screenings were divided over the truancy scene . Half thoroughly enjoyed it but the rest complained that it was too long , did not make sense , and merely showed " touristy " visuals of Mumbai . Khan nevertheless kept the scene , because he " connected deeply " with it and felt that it established Ishaan 's world .
Shiamak Davar choreographed the dance sequence of " Bum Bum Bole , " and was given free rein over its design . He had intended to use 40 students from his dance school , but Khan did not want trained dancers . Davar gave the children certain cues and a general idea of what to do , but left the style and final product up to them to avoid a choreographed appearance . Time constraints meant that while Khan was busy filming " Bum Bum Bole , " Ram Madhvani took over as director for " Bheja Kum " . The latter sequence , containing a " fun @-@ filled " song of rhythmic dialogue , allowed the audience to perceive how Ishaan sees the world and written languages . It was intended to represent " a young boy 's worst nightmare , in terms of ... the worst thing that he can think of " ; Madhvani based the visual concept on his son 's fear of " creepy @-@ crawlies " such as cockroaches , dragonflies , and lizards . Tata Elxsi 's Visual Computing Labs made the creatures out of the English alphabet and numbers , although Khan insisted they include the Hindi alphabet as not all the audience would be familiar with English . The chalkboard writing 's transformation into a snake was included to surprise the audience and " end the song on a high note . "
In writing the song " Taare Zameen Par , " lyricist Prasoon Joshi followed the theme of " however much you talk about children , it 's not enough . " Every line throughout the song describes children , and only one repeats : " Kho Naa Jaaye Yeh / Taare Zameen Par " ( " Let us not lose these / Little stars on earth " ) . The song is mostly set to the annual day performance by the developmentally disabled children of Tulips School . Actual students from Tulips School and Saraswati Mandir participated , and were filmed over a period of five days . The sequence originally featured numerous dance performances , but was trimmed down when test audiences found it too long . A song accompanying the scene in which Ishaan 's mother is watching home videos of her son was also cut , and replaced with background music after test audiences expressed their opposition to yet another song .
= = = Background music = = =
Timing and other aspects are usually planned when scoring a film , but Khan chose to take a more improvised approach . Instead of using a studio , he and the trio Shankar – Ehsaan – Loy recorded it at Khan 's home in Panchgani , to clear their heads and not be in the mindset of the city . As they watched the film , Khan pointed out when he wanted music to begin and of what type . Ehsaan Noorani noted that this strategy allowed the score to have a " spontaneity to it . "
Different styles of background music were used to convey certain things . For example , a guitar is played when Ishaan is tense or upset , sometimes with discordant notes . The music of the opening scene — the recurring " Ishaan 's Theme , " which represents the character 's peace of mind — overpowers the background noise to show that Ishaan is lost in his own world ; the noise becomes louder after he snaps back to reality . But the scene in which Nikumbh explains dyslexia to Ishaan 's family took the opposite approach . Silent at first , the music is slowly introduced as the father begins to understand his son 's dilemma . The almost seven @-@ minute long scene scarcely used any background music , to slow the pace and make it seem more realistic .
= = Release = =
= = = Box office = = =
Taare Zameen Par was released worldwide on 21 December 2007 , although countries such as Australia , Malaysia , New Zealand , and Fiji opened it on 20 December . It debuted in India with 425 prints , although revenue @-@ sharing issues between the film 's distributors and theatre owners caused some slight delays . The movie grossed ₹ 150 million ( US $ 2 @.@ 2 million ) domestically within the first three days . Its theatre occupancy in Mumbai dropped to 58 percent during its third week , but climbed back to 62 percent the following week — this brought the total to ₹ 770 million ( US $ 11 million ) — after the Maharashtra government granted the film exemption from the entertainment tax . Anticipating further tax exemption in other states , world distributor PVR Pictures circulated 200 more prints of the film . The film completed its domestic run with $ 19 @,@ 779 @,@ 215 . To reach more audiences , the film was later dubbed in the regional languages of Tamil and Telugu . Both were scheduled for release on 12 September 2008 , the former under the title Vaalu Nakshatram . It grossed $ 1 @,@ 223 @,@ 869 in the US by its seventh week , and £ 351 @,@ 303 in the UK by its ninth week . Reports regarding the film 's worldwide gross have conflicted , with sources citing ₹ 889 @.@ 7 million ( US $ 13 million ) , ₹ 1 @.@ 07 billion ( US $ 16 million ) , ₹ 1 @.@ 31 billion ( US $ 19 million ) , and ₹ 1 @.@ 35 billion ( US $ 20 million ) .
= = = Protests in Gujarat = = =
In response to Khan 's support for the Narmada Bachao Andolan and his criticism of Chief Minister Narendra Modi , approximately 50 activists of the Sardar Patel Group conducted protests outside of PVR and INOX theatres in Vadodara , Gujarat . The group also issued statements to all the multiplexes of Gujarat , suggesting that the film not be screened unless Khan apologised for his comments . The INOX cinema eventually boycotted the film ; INOX Operations Manager Pushpendra Singh Rathod stated that " INOX is with Gujarat , and not isolated from it " .
= = = International Dyslexia Association = = =
The International Dyslexia Association screened Taare Zameen Par on 29 October 2008 in Seattle , Washington . Khan noted in his official blog that there were about 200 people in the audience and that he was " curious to see the response of a non @-@ Indian audience to what we had made . " He felt some concern that Taare Zameen Par was shown in a conference room rather than a cinema hall and was projected as a DVD rather than as a film . He said that the showing concluded to an " absolutely thunderous standing ovation " which " overwhelmed " him and that he " saw the tears streaming down the cheeks of the audience . " Khan also noted that the reaction to the film " was exactly as it had been with audiences back home in India " .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Taare Zameen Par received several positive reviews . Subhash K. Jha suggests that the film is " a work of art , a water painting where the colors drip into our hearts , which could easily have fallen into the motions of over @-@ sentimentality . Aamir Khan holds back where he could easily resort to an extravagant display of drama and emotions . " Rajeev Masand of CNN @-@ IBN argued that the true power of the film lies in its " remarkable , rooted , rock @-@ solid script which provides the landscape for such an emotionally engaging , heart @-@ warming experience . " Manish Gajjar from the BBC stated that the film " touches your heart and moves you deeply with its sterling performances . [ It is ] a film full of substance ! " Jaspreet Pandohar , also of BBC , posited that Taare Zameen Par is a " far cry from the formulaic masala flicks churned out by the Bollywood machine , " and is " an inspirational story that is as emotive as it is entertaining ; this is a little twinkling star of a movie . " Furthermore , Aprajita Anil of Screen gave the film four stars and stated , " Taare Zameen Par cannot be missed . Because it is different . Because it is delightful . Because it would make everyone think . Because it would help everyone grow . Because very rarely do performances get so gripping . And of course because the ' perfectionist ' actor has shaped into a ' perfectionist ' director . " In addition , filmmaker Anurag Kashyap stated that , " Taare Zameen Par took me back to my hostel days . If you take away the dyslexia , it seems like my story . The film affected me so deeply that I was almost left speechless . After watching the film , I was asked how I liked Taare Zameen Par . I could not talk as I was deeply overwhelmed . "
However , there were some criticisms . Jha 's only objection to the film was Nikumbh 's " sanctimonious lecture " to Ishaan 's " rather theatrically @-@ played " father . Jha found this a jarring " deviation from the delectable delicacy " of the film 's tone . Although she applauded the film overall and recommended " a mandatory viewing for all schools and all parents " , Nikhat Kazmi of The Times of India believed the second half was " a bit repetitive , " the script needed " taut editing , " and Ishaan 's trauma " [ seemed ] a shade too prolonged and the treatment simplistic . " Despite commending the " great performances " and excellent directing , Gautaman Bhaskaran of The Hollywood Reporter , too , suggested that the movie " suffers from a weak script . " Likewise , Derek Kelly of Variety criticised it for what he described as its " touchy @-@ feely @-@ ness " attention to " a special needs kid 's plight . " Kelly also disliked the film for being " so resolutely caring ... and devoid of real drama and interesting characters " that " it should have ' approved by the Dyslexia Assn . ' stamped on the posters . "
= = = Scholarly response = = =
In his article " Taare Zameen Par and dyslexic savants " featured in the Annals of Indian Academy of Neurology , Ambar Chakravarty noted the general accuracy of Ishaan 's dyslexia . Though Chakravarty was puzzled by Ishaan 's trouble in simple arithmetic — a trait of dyscalculia rather than dyslexia — he reasoned it was meant to " enhance the image of [ Ishaan 's ] helplessness and disability " . Labeling Ishaan an example of " dyslexic savant syndrome " , he especially praised the growth of Ishaan 's artistic talents after receiving help and support from Nikumbh , and deemed it the " most important ( and joyous ) neurocognitive phenomenon " of the film . This improvement highlights cosmetic neurology , a " major and therapeutically important issue " in cognitive neuroscience and neuropsychology .
Likewise , in their article " Wake up call from ' Stars on the Ground ' " for the Indian Journal of Psychiatry , T. S. Sathyanarayana Rao and V. S. T. Krishna wrote that the film " deserves to be vastly appreciated as an earnest endeavor to portray with sensitivity and empathetically diagnose a malady in human life " . They also felt it blended " modern professional knowledge " with a " humane approach " in working with a dyslexic child . However , the authors believed the film expands beyond disabilities and explores the " present age where everyone is in a restless hurry " . The pair wrote , " This film raises serious questions on mental health perspectives . We seem to be heading to a state of mass scale mindlessness even as children are being pushed to ' perform ' . Are we seriously getting engrossed in the race of ' achievement ' and blissfully becoming numb to the crux of life i.e. , experiencing meaningful living in a broader frame rather than merely existing ? " The film depicts how " threats and coercion are not capable of unearthing rich human potentialities deeply embedded in children " , and that teachers should instead map their strengths and weakness . With this in mind , the author felt that Khan " dexterously drives home the precise point that our first priority ought to be getting to know the child before making any efforts to fill them with knowledge and abilities " . Overall , the pair found a " naive oversimplification " in the film . With India " only recently waking to recognizing the reality and tragedy of learning disability " , however , they " easily [ forgave the film 's fault ] under artistic license " .
= = = Public response = = =
The film raised awareness of the issue of dyslexia , and prompted more open discussions among parents , schools , activists , and policymakers . Anjuli Bawa , a parent @-@ activist and founder of Action Dyslexia Delhi , said that the number of parents who visit her office increased tenfold in the months following the film 's release . Many began taking a more proactive approach by contacting her after noticing problems , rather than using her as a last resort . Gupte himself received " many painful letters and phone calls " from Indian parents . He noted , " Fathers weep on the phone and say they saw the film and realized that they have been wrong in the way they treated their children . This is catharsis . "
These reactions have also brought about a change in policies . The film , only ten days after its debut , influenced the Central Board of Secondary Education to provide extra time to special children — including the visually impaired , physically challenged and dyslexic — during exams . In 2008 , Mumbai 's civic body also opened 12 classrooms for autistic students . In Chandigarh , the education administration started a course to educate teachers on how to deal with children with learning disabilities .
= = = Accolades = = =
Among its many awards , Taare Zameen Par won the Filmfare Best Film Award for 2008 , as well as the National Film Award for Best Film on Family Welfare . Khan 's directorial role and Safary 's performance were recognized at the 2008 Zee Cine Awards , 2008 Filmfare Awards , and 4th Apsara Film & Television Producers Guild Awards .
= = = = 2009 Academy Awards submission and Slumdog Millionaire = = = =
Taare Zameen Par was initially acclaimed as India 's official entry for the 2009 Academy Awards Best Foreign Film , but after it failed to progress to the short list , a debate began in the Indian media as to why Indian films never win Academy Awards . Speculation for the reasons behind Taare Zameen Par 's failed bid included Rediff.com 's Arthur J. Pai 's observation that it lacked mainstream media attention ; AMPAS jury member Krishna Shah criticised its length and abundance of songs .
Khan claimed that he was " not surprised " that Taare Zameen Par was not included in the Academy Award shortlist , and argued , " I don ’ t make films for awards . I make films for the audience . The audience , for which I have made the film , really loved it and the audiences outside India have also loved it . What I am trying to say is that film has been well loved across the globe and that for me it is extremely heartening and something that I give very high value to . "
The Indian news media also frequently compared Taare Zameen Par 's nomination failure with the British film Slumdog Millionaire 's multiple Academy Award nominations and wins , and noted that other Indian films in the past were overlooked . Film critic Rajeev Masand argued that it is difficult to compare the two films and noted that Slumdog Millionaire was being marketed in a way that Indian films such as Taare Zameen Par could not compete with . In this context , Slumdog Millionaire actor Mahesh Manjrekar stated , " I ’ m sad that Aamir ’ s Taare Zameen Par didn ’ t make it to the final round of the Oscars . I thought it to be way better than Slumdog [ Millionaire ] ... , without taking away anything from Boyle and the kids . But , Indian movies are underestimated there . "
= = = Home media = = =
UTV Home Entertainment released the film on DVD in India on 25 July 2008 . It was launched at Darsheel Safary 's school , Green Lawns High School , in Mumbai . Aamir Khan , Tisca Chopra , Vipin Sharma , Sachet Engineer , and the rest of the cast and crew were present . In his speech , Khan stated , " Darsheel is a very happy child , full of life and vibrant . I am sure it 's because of the way his parents and teachers have treated him . I must say Darsheel 's principal Mrs. Bajaj has been extremely supportive and encouraging . The true test of any school is how happy the kids are and by the looks of it , the children here seem really happy . "
Walt Disney Company Home Entertainment , which acquired 33 percent of UTV Software Communications , bought the DVD rights for distribution in North America , the United Kingdom , and Australia for ₹ 70 million ( US $ 1 @.@ 0 million ) . This marked " the first time an international studio has bought the video rights of an Indian film . " Retitling it Like Stars on Earth , Disney released the film in Region 2 on 26 October 2009 , in Region 1 on 12 January 2010 , and in Region 4 on 29 March 2010 . A three @-@ disc set , the Disney version features the original Hindi audio soundtrack with English subtitles or another dubbed in English , as well as bonus material such as audio commentary , deleted scenes , and the musical soundtrack .
= = Soundtrack = =
The soundtrack for Taare Zameen Par was released on 4 November 2007 under the label T @-@ Series . The music is mainly composed by Shankar @-@ Ehsaan @-@ Loy , with lyrics by Prasoon Joshi . However , " Mera Jahan " was scored by Shailendra Barve and written by Gupte , with the latter also composing " Ishaan 's Theme . " Joshi received the National Film Award for Best Lyrics , and Shankar Mahadevan won the National Film Award for Best Male Playback Singer for " Maa . "
Joginder Tuteja of Bollywood Hungama praised the variety of genres present in the soundtrack and the lack of remixes . He gave it an overall rating of 3 @.@ 5 out of 5 stars , calling it a " zero compromise album " that " stays true to the film 's spirit " . Planet Bollywood 's Atta Khan rated it 9 out of 10 , noting that the soundtrack " unquestionably lives up to all expectations " . He felt that it maintained an " all round polished nature " and " is destined to become a classic " . Although he , too , enjoyed the musical variety , he believed the composers overused the guitar and synthesizers . Sukanya Verma of Rediff.com gave the soundtrack a score of 3 out of 5 , commenting , " Taare Zameen Par isn 't your regular soundtrack about fluttering hearts and sleepless nights . What makes these delicate and whimsical creations special is their underlying innocence . "
= = DVD references = =
Khan , Aamir ( 12 January 2010 ) . Like Stars on Earth DVD commentary ( DVD ) . Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment .
Various ( 12 January 2010 ) . Like Stars on Earth Bonus Disc : The Making ... ( DVD ) . Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment .
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= Boiling frog =
The boiling frog is an anecdote describing a frog slowly being boiled alive . The premise is that if a frog is put suddenly into boiling water , it will jump out , but if it is put in cold water which is then brought to a boil slowly , it will not perceive the danger and will be cooked to death . The story is often used as a metaphor for the inability or unwillingness of people to react to or be aware of threats that rise gradually .
While some 19th @-@ century experiments suggested that the underlying premise is true if the heating is sufficiently gradual , according to contemporary biologists the premise is false : a submerged frog gradually heated will jump out .
= = The science = =
As part of advancing science , several experiments observing the reaction of frogs to slowly heated water took place in the 19th century . In 1869 , while doing experiments searching for the location of the soul , German physiologist Friedrich Goltz demonstrated that a frog that has had its brain removed will remain in slowly heated water , but an intact frog attempted to escape the water when it reached 25 ° C.
Other experiments showed that frogs did not attempt to escape gradually heated water . An 1872 experiment by Heinzmann demonstrated that a normal frog would not attempt to escape if the water was heated slowly enough , which was corroborated in 1875 by Fratscher .
Goltz raised the temperature of the water from 17 @.@ 5 ° C to 56 ° C in about ten minutes , or 3 @.@ 8 ° C per minute , in his experiment which prompted normal frogs to attempt to escape , whereas Heinzmann heated the frogs over the course of 90 minutes from about 21 ° C to 37 @.@ 5 ° C , a rate of less than 0 @.@ 2 ° C per minute . In " On the Variation of Reflex Excitability in the Frog induced by changes of Temperature " ( 1882 ) William Thompson Sedgwick writes : " in one experiment by Scripture the temperature was raised at a rate of 0 @.@ 002 ° C per second , and the frog was found dead at the end of 2 ½ hours without having moved . "
In 1888 Sedgwick explained the apparent contradiction between the results of these experiments as a consequence of different heating rates used in the experiments : " The truth appears to be that if the heating be sufficiently gradual , no reflex movements will be produced even in the normal frog ; if it be more rapid , yet take place at such a rate as to be fairly called ' gradual ' , it will not secure the response of the normal frog under any circumstances " .
Modern sources tend to dispute that the phenomenon is real . In 1995 , Professor Douglas Melton , of the Harvard University Biology department , said , " If you put a frog in boiling water , it won 't jump out . It will die . If you put it in cold water , it will jump before it gets hot — they don 't sit still for you . " Dr. George R. Zug , curator of reptiles and amphibians at the National Museum of Natural History , also rejected the suggestion , saying that " If a frog had a means of getting out , it certainly would get out . "
In 2002 Dr. Victor H. Hutchison , Professor Emeritus of Zoology at the University of Oklahoma , with a research interest in thermal relations of amphibians , said that " The legend is entirely incorrect ! " . He described how the critical thermal maximum for many frog species has been determined by contemporary research experiments : as the water is heated by about 2 ° F , or 1 @.@ 1 ° C , per minute , the frog becomes increasingly active as it tries to escape , and eventually jumps out if the container allows it .
= = Use = =
= = = As metaphor = = =
The boiling frog story is generally offered as a metaphor cautioning people to be aware of even gradual change lest they suffer eventual undesirable consequences . It may be invoked in support of a slippery slope argument as a caution against creeping normality . It is also used in business to reinforce that change needs to be gradual to be accepted . Oppositely , the expression " boiling frog syndrome " is sometimes used as shorthand to invoke the pitfalls of standing pat .
The story has been retold many times and used to illustrate widely varying viewpoints . Among them : in 1960 about sympathy towards the Soviet Union during the Cold War ; in 1980 about the impending collapse of civilization anticipated by survivalists ; in the 1990s about inaction in response to climate change and staying in abusive relationships . It has also been used by libertarians to warn about slow erosion of civil rights .
In the 1996 novel The Story of B , environmentalist author Daniel Quinn spends a chapter on the metaphor of the boiling frog , using it to describe human history , population growth and food surplus . Pierce Brosnan 's character Harry Dalton mentioned it in the 1997 disaster movie Dante 's Peak in reference to the accumulating warning signs of the volcano 's reawakening . Al Gore used a version of the story in a New York Times op ed , in his presentations and the 2006 movie An Inconvenient Truth to describe ignorance about global warming . In the movie version the frog is rescued before it is harmed . This use of the story was referenced ironically by writer / director Jon Cooksey in the title of his 2010 comedic documentary How to Boil a Frog .
Christopher Brookmyre used Boiling a Frog as the title of his novel that used gradual political corruption as a background to the thriller .
Law professor and legal commentator Eugene Volokh commented in 2003 that regardless of the behavior of real frogs , the boiling frog story is useful as a metaphor , comparing it to the metaphor of an ostrich with its head in the sand . Economics Nobel laureate and New York Times op @-@ ed writer Paul Krugman used the story as a metaphor in a July 2009 column , while pointing out that real frogs behave differently . Journalist James Fallows has been advocating since 2006 for people to stop retelling the story , describing it as a " stupid canard " and a " myth " . But following Krugman 's column , he declared " peace on the boiled frog front " and said that using the story is fine as long as you point out it 's not literally true .
= = = In philosophy = = =
In philosophy the boiling frog story has been used as a way of explaining the sorites paradox . It describes a hypothetical heap of sand from which individual grains are removed one at a time , and asks if there is a specific point when it can no longer be defined as a heap .
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= SMS Magdeburg =
SMS Magdeburg ( " His Majesty 's Ship Magdeburg " ) was a lead ship of the Magdeburg class of light cruisers in the German Kaiserliche Marine ( Imperial Navy ) . Her class included three other ships : Breslau , Strassburg , and Stralsund . Magdeburg was built at the AG Weser shipyard in Bremen from 1910 to August 1912 , when she was commissioned into the High Seas Fleet . The ship was armed with a main battery of twelve 10 @.@ 5 cm SK L / 45 guns and had a top speed of 27 @.@ 5 knots ( 50 @.@ 9 km / h ; 31 @.@ 6 mph ) . Magdeburg was used as a torpedo test ship after her commissioning until the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , when she was brought to active service and deployed to the Baltic .
In the Baltic , Magdeburg fired the first shots of the war against the Russians on 2 August , when she shelled the port of Libau . She participated in a series of bombardments of Russian positions until late August . On the 26th , she participated in a sweep of the entrance to the Gulf of Finland ; while steaming off the Estonian coast , she ran aground off the island of Odensholm and could not be freed . A pair of Russian cruisers appeared and seized the ship . Fifteen crew members were killed in the brief engagement . They recovered three intact German code books , one of which they passed to the British . The ability to decrypt German wireless signals provided the British with the ability to ambush German units on several occasions during the war , including the Battle of Jutland . The Russians partially scrapped Magdeburg while she remained grounded before completely destroying the wreck .
= = Design = =
Magdeburg was ordered under the contract name " Ersatz Bussard " and was laid down at the AG Weser shipyard in Bremen in 1910 and launched on 13 May 1911 , after which fitting @-@ out work commenced . She was commissioned into the High Seas Fleet on 20 August 1912 . The ship was 138 @.@ 7 meters ( 455 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 13 @.@ 5 m ( 44 ft ) and a draft of 4 @.@ 4 m ( 14 ft ) forward . She displaced 4 @,@ 570 t ( 4 @,@ 500 long tons ; 5 @,@ 040 short tons ) at full combat load . Her propulsion system consisted of two sets of AEG @-@ Vulcan steam turbines driving two 3 @.@ 4 @-@ meter ( 11 ft ) propellers . They were designed to give 25 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 19 @,@ 000 kW ) , but reached 33 @,@ 482 shp ( 24 @,@ 968 kW ) in service . These were powered by sixteen coal @-@ fired Marine @-@ type water @-@ tube boilers , although they were later altered to use fuel oil that was sprayed on the coal to increase its burn rate . These gave the ship a top speed of 27 @.@ 5 knots ( 50 @.@ 9 km / h ; 31 @.@ 6 mph ) . Magdeburg carried 1 @,@ 200 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 200 long tons ) of coal , and an additional 106 tonnes ( 104 long tons ) of oil that gave her a range of approximately 5 @,@ 820 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 780 km ; 6 @,@ 700 mi ) at 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) . She had a crew of 18 officers and 336 enlisted men .
The ship was armed with twelve 10 @.@ 5 cm SK L / 45 guns in single pedestal mounts . Two were placed side by side forward on the forecastle , eight were located amidships , four on either side , and two were side by side aft . The guns had a maximum elevation of 30 degrees , which allowed them to engage targets out to 12 @,@ 700 m ( 41 @,@ 700 ft ) . They were supplied with 1 @,@ 800 rounds of ammunition , for 150 shells per gun . She was also equipped with a pair of 50 cm ( 19 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes with five torpedoes submerged in the hull on the broadside . She could also carry 120 mines . The ship was protected by a waterline armored belt that was 60 mm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) thick amidships . The conning tower had 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick sides , and the deck was covered with up to 60 mm thick armor plate .
= = Service history = =
After her commissioning , Magdeburg was used as a torpedo test ship . Following the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , she was assigned to the Baltic Sea , under the command of Rear Admiral Robert Mischke . Magdeburg fired the first shots of the war with Russia on 2 August when she shelled the Russian port of Libau while Augsburg laid a minefield outside the harbor . The Russians had in fact already left Libau , which was seized by the German Army . The minefield laid by Augsburg was poorly marked and hindered German operations more than Russian efforts . Magdeburg and the rest of the Baltic forces then conducted a series of bombardments of Russian positions , including one ten days later , on 12 August , where Magdeburg shelled the Dagerort lighthouse . On 17 August , Magdeburg , Augsburg , three destroyers , and the minelayer Deutschland encountered a pair of powerful Russian armored cruisers , Admiral Makarov and Gromoboi . The Russian commander , under the mistaken assumption that the German armored cruisers Roon and Prinz Heinrich were present , did not attack and both forces withdrew .
Prince Heinrich , the overall commander of the Baltic naval forces , replaced Mischke with Rear Admiral Behring . Behring ordered another operation for 26 August to sweep for Russian reconnaissance forces in the entrance to the Gulf of Finland . Early that morning , Magdeburg ran aground off the lighthouse at Odensholm on the Estonian coast . Her escorting destroyer , V.26 , attempted to pull her free but was unable to do so and began taking off part of Magdeburg 's crew . While the evacuation was going on , the Russian cruisers Bogatyr and Pallada appeared and shelled the stranded cruiser . The Germans destroyed the forward section of the ship , but could not complete her destruction before the Russians reached the ship . Fifteen crew members from Magdeburg were killed in the attack . The German code books were also not destroyed ; the Russians were able to recover three of the books along with the current encryption key . They passed one copy to the British Royal Navy via a pair of Russian couriers on 13 October . The Russian Navy partially scrapped the ship in situ and eventually destroyed the wreck .
The capture of the code books proved to provide a significant advantage for the Royal Navy . The Admiralty had recently created a deciphering department known as Room 40 to process intercepted German wireless signals . With the code books and cipher key , the British were able to track the movements of most German warships ; this information could be passed on to the Admiral John Jellicoe , the commander of the Grand Fleet . This allowed the British to ambush parts of or the entire German fleet on several occasions , most successfully at the Battles of Dogger Bank in January 1915 and Jutland in May 1916 .
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= Russian battleship Potemkin =
The Russian battleship Potemkin ( Russian : Князь Потёмкин Таврический , Kniaz Potemkin Tavricheskiy , " Prince Potemkin of Tauris " ) was a pre @-@ dreadnought battleship built for the Imperial Russian Navy 's Black Sea Fleet . She became famous when the crew rebelled against the officers in June 1905 ( during that year 's revolution ) , now viewed as a first step towards the Russian Revolution of 1917 . The mutiny later formed the basis of Sergei Eisenstein 's 1925 silent propaganda film The Battleship Potemkin .
After the mutineers sought asylum in Constanța , Romania , and the Russians recovered the ship , her name was changed to Panteleimon . She accidentally sank a Russian submarine in 1909 and was badly damaged when she ran aground in 1911 . During World War I , Panteleimon participated in the Battle of Cape Sarych in late 1914 . She covered several bombardments of the Bosphorus fortifications in early 1915 , including one where she was attacked by the Turkish battlecruiser Yavuz Sultan Selim – Panteleimon and the other Russian pre @-@ dreadnoughts present drove her off before she could inflict any serious damage . The ship was relegated to secondary roles after the first dreadnought battleship entered service in late 1915 . She was by then obsolete and was reduced to reserve in 1918 in Sevastopol .
Panteleimon was captured when the Germans took Sevastopol in May 1918 and was handed over to the Allies after the Armistice in November 1918 . Her engines were destroyed by the British in 1919 when they withdrew from Sevastopol to prevent the advancing Bolsheviks from using them against the White Russians . She was abandoned when the Whites evacuated the Crimea in 1920 and was finally scrapped by the Soviets in 1923 .
= = Design and construction = =
= = = Planning = = =
Planning began in 1895 for a new battleship that would utilize a slipway slated to become available at the Nikolayev Admiralty Shipyard in 1896 . The Naval Staff and the commander of the Black Sea Fleet , Vice Admiral K. P. Pilkin , agreed on a copy of the Peresvet @-@ class battleship design , but they were overruled by General Admiral Grand Duke Alexei Alexandrovich . The General Admiral decided that the long range and less powerful 10 @-@ inch ( 254 mm ) guns of the Peresvet class were inappropriate for the narrow confines of the Black Sea , and ordered the design of an improved version of the battleship Tri Sviatitelia instead . The improvements included a higher forecastle to improve the ship 's seakeeping qualities , Krupp cemented armour and Belleville boilers . The design process was complicated by numerous changes demanded by various departments of the Naval Technical Committee . The ship 's design was finally approved on 12 June 1897 , although design changes continued to be made that slowed the ship 's construction .
= = = Construction and sea trials = = =
Construction of Potemkin began on 27 December 1897 and she was laid down at the Nikolayev Admiralty Shipyard on 10 October 1898 . She was named in honour of Prince Grigory Potemkin , a Russian soldier and statesman . The ship was launched on 9 October 1900 and transferred to Sevastopol for fitting out on 4 July 1902 . She began sea trials in September 1903 and these continued , off and on , until early 1905 when her gun turrets were completed .
= = Description = =
Potemkin was 371 feet 5 inches ( 113 @.@ 2 m ) long at the waterline and 378 feet 6 inches ( 115 @.@ 4 m ) long overall . She had a beam of 73 feet ( 22 @.@ 3 m ) and a maximum draught of 27 feet ( 8 @.@ 2 m ) . She displaced 12 @,@ 900 long tons ( 13 @,@ 100 t ) , 420 long tons ( 430 t ) more than her designed displacement of 12 @,@ 480 long tons ( 12 @,@ 680 t ) . Potemkin 's crew consisted of 26 officers and 705 enlisted men .
= = = Power = = =
The ship had a pair of three @-@ cylinder vertical triple @-@ expansion steam engines , each of which drove one propeller , that had a total designed output of 10 @,@ 600 indicated horsepower ( 7 @,@ 900 kW ) . Twenty @-@ two Belleville boilers provided steam to the engines at a pressure of 15 atm ( 1 @,@ 520 kPa ; 220 psi ) . The eight boilers in the forward boiler room were oil @-@ fired and the remaining 14 were coal @-@ fired . During her sea trials on 31 October 1903 , she reached a top speed of 16 @.@ 5 knots ( 30 @.@ 6 km / h ; 19 @.@ 0 mph ) . Leaking oil caused a serious fire on 2 January 1904 that caused the navy to convert her boilers to coal firing at a cost of 20 @,@ 000 rubles . She carried a maximum of 1 @,@ 100 long tons ( 1 @,@ 100 t ) of coal at full load that provided a range of 3 @,@ 200 nautical miles ( 5 @,@ 900 km ; 3 @,@ 700 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
= = = Armament = = =
The main armament consisted of four 40 @-@ calibre 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) guns mounted in twin gun turrets fore and aft of the superstructure . The electrically operated turrets were derived from the design of those used by the Petropavlovsk @-@ class battleships . These guns had a maximum elevation of + 15 ° and their rate of fire was very slow , only one round every four minutes during gunnery trials . They fired a 745 @-@ pound ( 337 @.@ 7 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 792 ft / s ( 851 m / s ) . At an elevation of + 10 ° the guns had a range of 13 @,@ 000 yards ( 12 @,@ 000 m ) . Potemkin carried 60 rounds for each gun .
The sixteen 45 @-@ calibre , six @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) Canet Pattern 1891 quick @-@ firing ( QF ) guns were mounted in casemates . Twelve of these were placed on the sides of the hull and the other four were positioned at the corners of the superstructure . They fired shells that weighed 91 @.@ 4 lb ( 41 @.@ 46 kg ) with a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 600 ft / s ( 792 m / s ) . They had a maximum range of 12 @,@ 602 yards ( 11 @,@ 523 m ) when fired at an elevation of + 20 ° . The ship stowed 160 rounds per gun .
Smaller guns were carried for close @-@ range defence against torpedo boats . These included fourteen 50 @-@ calibre Canet QF 75 @-@ millimetre ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) guns : four in hull embrasures and the remaining 10 mounted on the superstructure . The ship carried 300 shells for each gun . They fired an 11 @-@ pound ( 4 @.@ 9 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 700 ft / s ( 820 m / s ) to a maximum range of 7 @,@ 005 yards ( 6 @,@ 405 m ) . She also mounted six 47 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) Hotchkiss guns . Four of these were mounted in the fighting top and two on the superstructure . They fired a 2 @.@ 2 @-@ pound ( 1 @.@ 00 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 400 ft / s ( 430 m / s ) .
Potemkin had five underwater 15 @-@ inch ( 381 mm ) torpedo tubes : one in the bow and two on each broadside . She carried three torpedoes for each tube . While the model of torpedo in use changed over time , the first torpedo that the ship would have been equipped with was the M1904 . It had a warhead weight of 150 pounds ( 70 kg ) and a speed of 33 knots ( 61 km / h ; 38 mph ) with a maximum range of 870 yards ( 800 m ) .
In 1907 , telescopic sights were fitted for the 12 @-@ inch and 6 @-@ inch guns . Either later that year , or in 1908 , 2 @.@ 5 @-@ meter ( 8 ft 2 in ) rangefinders were installed . The bow torpedo tube was removed in 1910 – 11 as was the fighting top . The following year , the main gun turret machinery was upgraded and the guns were modified to improve their rate of fire to one round every 40 seconds .
Two 57 @-@ millimetre ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) guns were mounted on the ship 's superstructure on 3 – 6 June 1915 and they were supplemented by two 75 mm AA guns , one on top of each turret , probably during 1916 . In February of that year , the ship 's four remaining torpedo tubes were removed . At some point during World War I , her 75 mm guns were also removed .
= = = Protection = = =
The maximum thickness of the Krupp cemented armour waterline belt was nine inches ( 229 mm ) which reduced to eight inches ( 203 mm ) abreast the magazines . It covered 237 feet ( 72 @.@ 2 m ) of the ship 's length and two @-@ inch ( 51 mm ) plates protected the waterline to the ends of the ship . The belt was 7 feet 6 inches ( 2 @.@ 3 m ) high , of which 5 feet ( 2 m ) was below the waterline , and tapered down to a thickness of five inches ( 127 mm ) at its bottom edge . The main part of the belt terminated in seven @-@ inch ( 178 mm ) transverse bulkheads .
Above the belt was the upper strake of six @-@ inch armour that was 156 feet ( 47 @.@ 5 m ) long and closed off by six @-@ inch transverse bulkheads fore and aft . The upper casemate protected the six @-@ inch guns and was five inches thick on all sides . The sides of the turrets were ten inches ( 254 mm ) thick and they had a two @-@ inch roof . The conning tower 's sides were nine inches thick . The nickel @-@ steel armour deck was two inches thick on the flat amidships , but 2 @.@ 5 inches ( 64 mm ) thick on the slope connecting it to the armour belt . Fore and aft of the armoured citadel , the deck was three inches ( 76 mm ) to the bow and stern . In 1910 – 11 , additional one @-@ inch ( 25 mm ) armour plates were added fore and aft ; their exact location is unknown , but they were probably used to extend the height of the two @-@ inch armour strake at the ends of the ship .
= = Service = =
= = = The mutiny = = =
During the Russo @-@ Japanese War of 1904 – 05 , many of the Black Sea Fleet 's most experienced officers and enlisted men were transferred to the ships in the Pacific to replace losses . This left the fleet with primarily raw recruits and less capable officers . With the news of the disastrous Battle of Tsushima in May 1905 morale dropped to an all @-@ time low , and any minor incident could be enough to spark a major catastrophe . Taking advantage of the situation , plus the disruption caused by the ongoing riots and uprisings , the Central Committee of the Social Democratic Organization of the Black Sea Fleet , called " Tsentralka " , had started preparations for a simultaneous mutiny on all of the ships of the fleet , although the timing had not been decided .
On 27 June 1905 , Potemkin was at gunnery practice near Tendra Island off the Ukrainian coast when many enlisted men refused to eat the borscht made from rotten meat partially infested with maggots . The uprising was triggered when Ippolit Giliarovsky , the ship 's second in command , allegedly threatened to shoot crew members for their refusal . He summoned the ship 's marine guards as well as a tarpaulin to protect the ship 's deck from any blood in an attempt to intimidate the crew . Giliarovsky was killed after he mortally wounded Grigory Vakulinchuk , one of the mutiny 's leaders . The mutineers killed seven of the Potemkin 's eighteen officers , including Captain Evgeny Golikov , and captured the torpedo boat Ismail ( No. 627 ) . They organized a ship 's committee of 25 sailors , led by Afanasi Matushenko , to run the battleship .
The committee decided to head for Odessa flying a red flag and arrived there later that day at 22 : 00 . A general strike had been called in the city and there was some rioting as the police tried to quell the strikers . The following day the mutineers refused to land armed sailors to help the striking revolutionaries take over the city , preferring instead to await the arrival of the other battleships of the Black Sea Fleet . Later that day the mutineers aboard the Potemkin captured a military transport , Vekha , that had arrived in the city . The riots continued as much of the port area was destroyed by fire . On the afternoon of 29 June , Vakulinchuk 's funeral turned into a political demonstration and the army attempted to ambush the sailors who participated in the funeral . In retaliation , the ship fired two six @-@ inch shells at the theatre where a high @-@ level military meeting was scheduled to take place , but missed .
The government issued an order to send two squadrons to Odessa either to force the Potemkin crew to give up or sink the battleship . Potemkin sortied on the morning of 30 June to meet the three battleships Tri Sviatitelia , Dvenadsat Apostolov , and Georgii Pobedonosets of the first squadron , but the loyal ships turned away . The second squadron arrived with the battleships Rostislav and Sinop later that morning , and Vice Admiral Aleksander Krieger , acting commander of the Black Sea Fleet , ordered the ships to proceed to Odessa . Potemkin sortied again and sailed through the combined squadrons as Krieger failed to order his ships to fire . Captain Kolands of Dvenadsat Apostolov attempted to ram Potemkin and then detonate his ship 's magazines , but he was thwarted by members of his crew . Krieger ordered his ships to fall back , but the crew of Georgii Pobedonosets mutinied and joined Potemkin .
The following morning , loyalist members of Georgii Pobedonosets retook control of the ship and ran it aground in Odessa harbor . The crew of Potemkin , together with Ismail , decided to sail for Constanța later that day where they could restock food , water and coal . The Romanians refused to provide the supplies , backed by the presence of their small protected cruiser Elisabeta , so the ship 's committee decided to sail for the small , barely defended port of Theodosia in the Crimea where they hoped to resupply . The ship arrived on the morning of 5 July , but the city 's governor refused to give them anything other than food . The mutineers attempted to seize several barges of coal the following morning , but the port 's garrison ambushed them and killed or captured 22 of the 30 sailors involved . They decided to return to Constanța that afternoon .
Potemkin reached its destination at 23 : 00 on 7 July and the Romanians agreed to give asylum to the crew if they would disarm themselves and surrender the battleship . Ismail 's crew decided the following morning to return to Sevastopol and turn themselves in , but Potemkin 's crew voted to accept the terms . Captain Negru , commander of the port , came aboard at noon and hoisted the Romanian flag and then allowed the ship to enter the inner harbor . Before the crew disembarked , Matushenko ordered that the Potemkin 's Kingston valves be opened so Potemkin would sink to the bottom .
= = = Later service = = =
When Rear Admiral Pisarevsky reached Constanța on the morning of 9 July , he found the Potemkin half sunk in the harbor and flying the Romanian flag . After several hours of negotiations with the Romanian Government , the battleship was handed over to the Russians . Later that day , the Saint Andrew 's flag was raised over the battleship . She was then easily refloated by the navy , but the salt water had damaged her engines and boilers . She left Constanța on 10 July , having to be towed back to Sevastopol , where she arrived on 14 July . The ship was renamed Panteleimon ( Russian : Пантелеймон ) , after Saint Pantaleon , on 12 October 1905 . Some members of Panteleimon 's crew joined a mutiny that began aboard the cruiser Ochakov in November , but it was easily suppressed as both ships had been earlier disarmed .
Panteleimon received an experimental underwater communications set in February 1909 . Later that year , she accidentally rammed and sank the submarine Kambala at night on 11 June , killing the 16 crewmen aboard the submarine .
While returning from a port visit to Constanța in 1911 , Panteleimon ran aground on 2 October . It took several days to refloat her and make temporary repairs , and the full extent of the damage to her bottom was not fully realized for several more months . The ship participated in training and gunnery exercises for the rest of the year ; a special watch was kept to ensure that no damaged seams were opened while firing . Permanent repairs , which involved replacing her boiler foundations , plating , and a large number of her hull frames , lasted from 10 January to 25 April 1912 . The navy took advantage of these repairs to overhaul her engines and boilers .
= = = World War I = = =
Panteleimon , flagship of the 1st Battleship Brigade , accompanied by the pre @-@ dreadnoughts Evstafi , Ioann Zlatoust , and Tri Sviatitelia , covered the pre @-@ dreadnought Rostislav while she bombarded Trebizond on the morning of 17 November 1914 . They were intercepted the following day by the Ottoman battlecruiser Yavuz Sultan Selim ( the ex @-@ German SMS Goeben ) and the light cruiser Mdilli on their return voyage to Sevastopol in what came to be known as the Battle of Cape Sarych . Despite the noon hour the conditions were foggy ; the capital ships initially did not spot each other . Although several other ships opened fire , hitting the Goeben once , Panteleimon held fire because her turrets could not see the German ships before they disengaged .
Tri Sviatitelia and Rostislav bombarded Ottoman fortifications at the mouth of the Bosphorus on 18 March 1915 , the first of several attacks intended to divert troops and attention from the ongoing Gallipoli Campaign , but fired only 105 rounds before sailing north to rejoin Panteleimon , Ioann Zlatoust and Evstafi . Tri Sviatitelia and Rostislav were intended to repeated the bombardment the following day , but were hindered by heavy fog . On 3 April , Yavuz Sultan Selim and several ships of the Turkish navy raided the Russian port at Odessa ; the Russian battleship squadron sortied to intercept them . The battleships chased Yavuz Sultan Selim the entire day , but were unable to reach effective gunnery range and were forced to break off the chase . On 25 April Tri Sviatitelia and Rostislav repeated their bombardment of the Bosporus forts . Tri Sviatitelia , Rostislav and Panteleimon bombarded the forts again on 2 and 3 May . This time a total of 337 main gun rounds were fired in addition to 528 six @-@ inch shells between the three battleships .
On 9 May 1915 , Tri Sviatitelia and Panteleimon returned to bombard the Bosphorus forts , covered by the remaining pre @-@ dreadnoughts . Yavuz Sultan Selim intercepted the three ships of the covering force , although no damage was inflicted by either side . Tri Sviatitelia and Pantelimon rejoined their consorts and the latter scored two hits on Yavuz Sultan Selim before she broke off the action . The Russian ships pursued her for six hours before giving up the chase . On 1 August , all of the Black Sea pre @-@ dreadnoughts were transferred to the 2nd Battleship Brigade , after the more powerful dreadnought Imperatritsa Mariya entered service . On 1 October the new dreadnought provided cover while Ioann Zlatoust and Pantelimon bombarded Zonguldak and Evstafi shelled the nearby town of Kozlu . The ship bombarded Varna twice in October 1915 ; during the second bombardment on 27 October , she entered Varna Bay and was unsuccessfully attacked by two German submarines stationed there .
Panteleimon supported Russian troops in early 1916 as they captured Trebizond and participated in an anti @-@ shipping sweep off the northwestern Anatolian coast in January 1917 that destroyed 39 Ottoman sailing ships . On 13 April 1917 , after the February Revolution , the ship was renamed Potemkin @-@ Tavricheskiy ( Russian : Потёмкин @-@ Таврический ) , and then on 11 May renamed Borets za svobodu ( Russian : Борец за свободу – Freedom Fighter ) .
= = = Reserve and decommissioning = = =
She was placed in reserve in March 1918 and was captured by the Germans at Sevastopol in May . They handed the ship over to the Allies in December 1918 after the Armistice . The British wrecked her engines on 19 April 1919 when they left the Crimea to prevent the advancing Bolsheviks from using her against the White Russians . Thoroughly obsolete by this time , the ship was captured by both sides during the Russian Civil War , but was abandoned by the White Russians when they evacuated the Crimea in November 1920 . Borets za svobodu was scrapped beginning in 1923 , although she was not stricken from the Navy List until 21 November 1925 .
= = Legacy = =
The immediate effects of the mutiny are difficult to assess . It may have influenced Tsar Nicholas II 's decisions to end the Russo @-@ Japanese War and accept the October Manifesto , as the mutiny demonstrated that his régime no longer had the unquestioning loyalty of the military . The mutiny 's failure did not stop other revolutionaries from inciting insurrections later that year , including the Sevastopol Uprising . Vladimir Lenin , leader of the Bolshevik Party , called the 1905 Revolution , including the Potemkin mutiny , a " dress rehearsal " for his successful revolution in 1917 . The Communists seized upon it as a propaganda symbol for their party and unduly emphasized their role in the mutiny . In fact , Matushenko explicitly rejected the Bolsheviks because he and the other leaders of the mutiny were Socialists of one type or another and cared nothing for Communism .
The mutiny was memorialized most famously by Sergei Eisenstein in his 1925 silent film Battleship Potemkin , although the French silent film " La Révolution en Russe " ( " Mutiny on a Man @-@ of @-@ War in Odessa " or " Revolution in Odessa " , 1905 ) , directed by Ferdinand Zecca or Lucien Nonguet ( or both ) , was the first film to depict the mutiny , preceding Eisenstein 's far more famous film by 20 years . Filmed shortly after the Bolshevik victory in the Russian Civil War of 1917 – 22 , with the derelict battleship Dvenadsat Apostolov standing in for the broken @-@ up Potemkin , Eisenstein recast the mutiny into a predecessor of the November Revolution of 1917 that swept the Bolsheviks to power . He emphasized their role , and implied that the mutiny failed because Matushenko and the other leaders were not better Bolsheviks . Eisenstein made other changes to dramatize the story , ignoring the major fire that swept through Odessa 's dock area while Potemkin was anchored there , combining the many different incidents of rioters and soldiers fighting into a famous sequence on the steps ( today known as Potemkin Stairs ) , and showing a tarpaulin thrown over the sailors to be executed .
In accordance with the Marxist doctrine that history is made by collective action , not individuals , Eisenstein forbore to single out any person in his film , but rather focused on the " mass protagonist " . Soviet film critics hailed this approach , including the dramaturge and critic , Adrian Piotrovsky , writing for the Leningrad newspaper " Krasnaia gazeta " :
The hero is the sailors ' battleship , the Odessa crowd , but characteristic figures are snatched here and there from the crowd . For a moment , like a conjuring trick , they attract all the sympathies of the audience : like the sailor Vakulinchuk , like the young woman and child on the Odessa Steps , but they emerge only to dissolve once more into the mass . This signifies : no film stars but a film of real @-@ life types .
Similarly , theatre critic Alexei Gvozdev wrote in the journal Artistic Life ( Zhizn ikusstva ) : " In Potemkin there is no individual hero as there was in the old theatre . It is the mass that acts : the battleship and its sailors and the city and its population in revolutionary mood . "
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= IQ classification =
IQ classification is the practice by IQ test publishers of labeling IQ score ranges with category names such as " superior " or " average " . There are several publishers of tests of cognitive abilities . No two publishers use exactly the same classification labels , which have changed from time to time since the beginning of intelligence testing in the early twentieth century .
IQ scores have been derived by two different methods since the advent of cognitive ability tests . The first method historically was the " ratio IQ " , based on estimating a " mental age " of the test @-@ taker ( rounded to a specified number of years and months ) , which was then divided by the test @-@ taker 's " chronological age " ( rounded to a specified number of years and months ) . For example , a mental age score of thirteen years and zero months for a test @-@ taker with the chronological age ten years and zero months results in a quotient of 1 @.@ 3 after doing the division . The division result was then multiplied by 100 so that scores could be reported without decimal points . Thus the score in the example would be reported as IQ 130 .
The current scoring method for all IQ tests is the " deviation IQ " . In this method , an IQ score of 100 means that the test @-@ taker 's performance on the test is at the median level of performance in the sample of test @-@ takers of about the same age used to norm the test . An IQ score of 115 means performance one standard deviation above the median , a score of 85 performance one standard deviation below the median , and so on . Lewis Terman and other early developers of IQ tests noticed that most child IQ scores come out to approximately the same number by either procedure . Deviation IQs are now used for standard scoring of all IQ tests in large part because they allow a consistent definition of IQ for both children and adults . By the current " deviation IQ " definition of IQ test standard scores , about two @-@ thirds of all test @-@ takers obtain scores from 85 to 115 , and about 5 percent of the population scores above 125 .
Historically , even before IQ tests were invented , there were attempts to classify people into intelligence categories by observing their behavior in daily life . Those other forms of behavioral observation are still important for validating classifications based primarily on IQ test scores . Both intelligence classification by observation of behavior outside the testing room and classification by IQ testing depend on the definition of " intelligence " used in a particular case and on the reliability and error of estimation in the classification procedure .
All IQ tests show variation in scores even when the same person takes the same test over and over again . IQ scores also differ for a test @-@ taker taking tests from more than one publisher at the same age . The various test publishers do not use uniform names or definitions for IQ score classifications . All these issues must be kept in mind when interpreting an individual 's IQ scores , because they all can result in different IQ classifications for the same person at different times .
= = Variance in individual IQ classification = =
IQ tests generally are reliable enough that most people ages ten and older have similar IQ scores throughout life . Still , some individuals score very differently when taking the same test at different times or when taking more than one kind of IQ test at the same age . For example , many children in the famous longitudinal Genetic Studies of Genius begun in 1921 by Lewis Terman showed declines in IQ as they grew up . Terman recruited school pupils based on referrals from teachers , and gave them his Stanford – Binet IQ test . Children with an IQ above 140 by that test were included in the study . There were 643 children in the main study group . When the students who could be contacted again ( 503 students ) were retested at high school age , they were found to have dropped 9 IQ points on average in Stanford – Binet IQ . More than two dozen children dropped by 15 IQ points and six by 25 points or more . Yet parents of those children thought that the children were still as bright as ever , or even brighter .
Because all IQ tests have error of measurement in the test @-@ taker 's IQ score , a test @-@ giver should always inform the test @-@ taker of the confidence interval around the score obtained on a given occasion of taking each test . IQ scores are ordinal scores and are not expressed in an interval measurement unit . Besides the inherent error band around any IQ test score because tests are a " sample of learned behavior " , IQ scores can also be misleading because test @-@ givers fail to follow standardized administration and scoring procedures . In cases of test @-@ giver mistakes , the usual result is that tests are scored too leniently , giving the test @-@ taker a higher IQ score than the test @-@ taker 's performance justifies . Some test @-@ givers err by showing a " halo effect " , with low @-@ IQ individuals receiving IQ scores even lower than if standardized procedures were followed , while high @-@ IQ individuals receive inflated IQ scores .
IQ classifications for individuals also vary because category labels for IQ score ranges are specific to each brand of test . The test publishers do not have a uniform practice of labeling IQ score ranges , nor do they have a consistent practice of dividing up IQ score ranges into categories of the same size or with the same boundary scores . Thus psychologists should specify which test was given when reporting a test @-@ taker 's IQ . Psychologists and IQ test authors recommend that psychologists adopt the terminology of each test publisher when reporting IQ score ranges .
IQ classifications from IQ testing are not the last word on how a test @-@ taker will do in life , nor are they the only information to be considered for placement in school or job @-@ training programs . There is still a dearth of information about how behavior differs between persons with differing IQ scores . For placement in school programs , for medical diagnosis , and for career advising , factors other than IQ must also be part of an individual assessment .
The lesson here is that classification systems are necessarily arbitrary and change at the whim of test authors , government bodies , or professional organizations . They are statistical concepts and do not correspond in any real sense to the specific capabilities of any particular person with a given IQ . The classification systems provide descriptive labels that may be useful for communication purposes in a case report or conference , and nothing more .
= = IQ classification tables for current tests = =
There are a variety of individually administered IQ tests in use in the English @-@ speaking world . Not all report test results as " IQ " , but most now report a standard score with a median score level of 100 . When a test @-@ taker scores higher or lower than the median score , the score is indicated as 15 standard score points higher or lower for each standard deviation difference higher or lower in the test @-@ taker 's performance on the test item content .
= = = Wechsler Intelligence Scales = = =
The Wechsler intelligence scales were originally developed from earlier intelligence scales by David Wechsler . The first Wechsler test published was the Wechsler – Bellevue Scale in 1939 . The Wechsler IQ tests for children and for adults are the most frequently used individual IQ tests in the English @-@ speaking world and in their translated versions are perhaps the most widely used IQ tests worldwide . The Wechsler tests have long been regarded as the " gold standard " in IQ testing . The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale — Fourth Edition ( WAIS – IV ) was published in 2008 by The Psychological Corporation . The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children — Fifth Edition ( WISC – V ) was published in 2014 by The Psychological Corporation , and the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence — Fourth Edition ( WPPSI – IV ) was published in 2012 by The Psychological Corporation . Like all current IQ tests , the Wechsler tests report a " deviation IQ " as the standard score for the full @-@ scale IQ , with the norming sample median raw score defined as IQ 100 and a score one standard deviation higher defined as IQ 115 ( and one deviation lower defined as IQ 85 ) .
Psychologists have proposed alternative language for Wechsler IQ classifications . Note especially that the term " borderline " , which implies being very close to being intellectually disabled , is replaced in the alternative system by a term that doesn 't imply a medical diagnosis .
= = = Stanford – Binet Intelligence Scale Fifth Edition = = =
The current fifth edition of the Stanford – Binet scales ( SB5 ) was developed by Gale H. Roid and published in 2003 by Riverside Publishing . Unlike scoring on previous versions of the Stanford – Binet test , SB5 IQ scoring is deviation scoring in which each standard deviation up or down from the norming sample median score is 15 points from the median score , IQ 100 , just like the standard scoring on the Wechsler tests .
= = = Woodcock – Johnson Test of Cognitive Abilities = = =
The Woodcock – Johnson III NU Tests of Cognitive Abilities ( WJ III NU ) was developed by Richard W. Woodcock , Kevin S. McGrew and Nancy Mather and published in 2007 by Riverside . Note that the WJ III classification terms are not applied to the same score ranges as for the Wechsler or Stanford – Binet tests .
= = = Kaufman Tests = = =
The Kaufman Adolescent and Adult Intelligence Test was developed by Alan S. Kaufman and Nadeen L. Kaufman and published in 1993 by American Guidance Service . Kaufman test scores " are classified in a symmetrical , nonevaluative fashion " , in other words the score ranges for classification are just as wide above the median as below the median , and the classification labels do not purport to assess individuals .
The Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children , Second Edition was developed by Alan S. Kaufman and Nadeen L. Kaufman and published in 2004 by American Guidance Service .
= = = Cognitive Assessment System = = =
The Das @-@ Naglieri Cognitive Assessment System test was developed by Jack Naglieri and J. P. Das and published in 1997 by Riverside .
= = = Differential Ability Scales = = =
The Differential Ability Scales Second Edition ( DAS – II ) was developed by Colin D. Elliott and published in 2007 by Psychological Corporation . The DAS @-@ II is a test battery given individually to children , normed for children from ages two years and six months through seventeen years and eleven months . It was normed on 3 @,@ 480 noninstitutionalized , English @-@ speaking children in that age range . The DAS @-@ II yields a General Conceptual Ability ( GCA ) score scaled like an IQ score with the median standard score set at 100 and 15 standard score points for each standard deviation up or down from the median . The lowest possible GCA on the is DAS – II is 44 , and the highest is 175 .
= = = Reynolds Intellectual Ability Scales = = =
Reynolds Intellectual Ability Scales ( RIAS ) were developed by Cecil Reynolds and Randy Kamphaus . The RIAS was published in 2003 by Psychological Assessment Resources .
= = Historical IQ classification tables = =
Lewis Terman , developer of the Stanford – Binet Intelligence Scales , based his English @-@ language Stanford – Binet IQ test on the French @-@ language Binet – Simon test developed by Alfred Binet . Terman believed his test measured the " general intelligence " construct advocated by Charles Spearman ( 1904 ) . Terman differed from Binet in reporting scores on his test in the form of intelligence quotient ( " mental age " divided by chronological age ) scores after the 1912 suggestion of German psychologist William Stern . Terman chose the category names for score levels on the Stanford – Binet test . When he first chose classification for score levels , he relied partly on the usage of earlier authors who wrote , before the existence of IQ tests , on topics such as individuals unable to care for themselves in independent adult life . Terman 's first version of the Stanford – Binet was based on norming samples that included only white , American @-@ born subjects , mostly from California , Nevada , and Oregon .
Rudolph Pintner proposed a set of classification terms in his 1923 book Intelligence Testing : Methods and Results . Pintner commented that psychologists of his era , including Terman , went about " the measurement of an individual 's general ability without waiting for an adequate psychological definition . " Pintner retained these terms in the 1931 second edition of his book .
Albert Julius Levine and Louis Marks proposed a broader set of categories in their 1928 book Testing Intelligence and Achievement . Some of the terminology in the table came from contemporary terms for classifying individuals with intellectual disabilities .
The second revision ( 1937 ) of the Stanford – Binet test retained " quotient IQ " scoring , despite earlier criticism of that method of reporting IQ test standard scores . The term " genius " was no longer used for any IQ score range . The second revision was normed only on children and adolescents ( no adults ) , and only " American @-@ born white children " .
A data table published later as part of the manual for the 1960 Third Revision ( Form L @-@ M ) of the Stanford – Binet test reported score distributions from the 1937 second revision standardization group .
David Wechsler , developer of the Wechsler – Bellevue Scale of 1939 ( which was later developed into the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale ) popularized the use of " deviation IQs " as standard scores of IQ tests rather than the " quotient IQs " ( " mental age " divided by " chronological age " ) then used for the Stanford – Binet test . He devoted a whole chapter in his book The Measurement of Adult Intelligence to the topic of IQ classification and proposed different category names from those used by Lewis Terman . Wechsler also criticized the practice of earlier authors who published IQ classification tables without specifying which IQ test was used to obtain the scores reported in the tables .
In 1958 , Wechsler published another edition of his book Measurement and Appraisal of Adult Intelligence . He revised his chapter on the topic of IQ classification and commented that " mental age " scores were not a more valid way to score intelligence tests than IQ scores . He continued to use the same classification terms .
The third revision ( Form L @-@ M ) in 1960 of the Stanford – Binet IQ test used the deviation scoring pioneered by David Wechsler . For rough comparability of scores between the second and third revision of the Stanford – Binet test , scoring table author Samuel Pinneau set 100 for the median standard score level and 16 standard score points for each standard deviation above or below that level . The highest score obtainable by direct look @-@ up from the standard scoring tables ( based on norms from the 1930s ) was IQ 171 at various chronological ages from three years six months ( with a test raw score " mental age " of six years and two months ) up to age six years and three months ( with a test raw score " mental age " of ten years and three months ) . The classification for Stanford – Binet L @-@ M scores does not include terms such as " exceptionally gifted " and " profoundly gifted " in the test manual itself . David Freides , reviewing the Stanford – Binet Third Revision in 1970 for the Buros Seventh Mental Measurements Yearbook ( published in 1972 ) , commented that the test was obsolete by that year .
The first edition of the Woodcock – Johnson Tests of Cognitive Abilities was published by Riverside in 1977 . The classifications used by the WJ @-@ R Cog were " modern in that they describe levels of performance as opposed to offering a diagnosis . "
The revised version of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale ( the WAIS @-@ R ) was developed by David Wechsler and published by Psychological Corporation in 1981 . Wechsler changed a few of the boundaries for classification categories and a few of their names compared to the 1958 version of the test . The test 's manual included information about how the actual percentage of persons in the norming sample scoring at various levels compared to theoretical expectations .
The Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children ( K @-@ ABC ) was developed by Alan S. Kaufman and Nadeen L. Kaufman and published in 1983 by American Guidance Service .
The fourth revision of the Stanford – Binet scales ( S @-@ B IV ) was developed by Thorndike , Hagen , and Sattler and published by Riverside Publishing in 1986 . It retained the deviation scoring of the third revision with each standard deviation from the median being defined as a 16 IQ point difference . The S @-@ B IV adopted new classification terminology . After this test was published , psychologist Nathan Brody lamented that IQ tests had still not caught up with advances in research on human intelligence during the twentieth century .
The third edition of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale ( WAIS @-@ III ) used different classification terminology from the earliest versions of Wechsler tests .
= = Classification of low @-@ IQ individuals = =
The earliest terms for classifying individuals of low intelligence were medical or legal terms that preceded the development of IQ testing . The legal system recognized a concept of some individuals being so cognitively impaired that they were not responsible for criminal behavior . Medical doctors sometimes encountered adult patients who could not live independently , being unable to take care of their own daily living needs . Various terms were used to attempt to classify individuals with varying degrees of intellectual disability . Many of the earliest terms are now considered very offensive .
In current medical diagnosis , IQ scores alone are not conclusive for a finding of intellectual disability . Recently adopted diagnostic standards place the major emphasis on adaptive behavior of each individual , with IQ score just being one factor in diagnosis in addition to adaptive behavior scales , and no category of intellectual disability being defined primarily by IQ scores . Psychologists point out that evidence from IQ testing should always be used with other assessment evidence in mind : " In the end , any and all interpretations of test performance gain diagnostic meaning when they are corroborated by other data sources and when they are empirically or logically related to the area or areas of difficulty specified in the referral . "
In the United States , a holding by the Supreme Court in the case Atkins v. Virginia , 536 U.S. 304 ( 2002 ) bars states from imposing capital punishment on persons with mental retardation , defined in subsequent cases as persons with IQ scores below 70 . This legal standard continues to be actively litigated in capital cases .
= = Classification of high @-@ IQ individuals = =
= = = IQ classification and genius = = =
Francis Galton ( 1822 – 1911 ) was a pioneer in investigating both eminent human achievement and mental testing . In his book Hereditary Genius , writing before the development of IQ testing , he proposed that hereditary influences on eminent achievement are strong , and that eminence is rare in the general population . Lewis Terman chose " ' near ' genius or genius " as the classification label for the highest classification on his 1916 version of the Stanford – Binet test . By 1926 , Terman began publishing about a longitudinal study of California schoolchildren who were referred for IQ testing by their schoolteachers , called Genetic Studies of Genius , which he conducted for the rest of his life . Catherine M. Cox , a colleague of Terman 's , wrote a whole book , The Early Mental Traits of 300 Geniuses , published as volume 2 of The Genetic Studies of Genius book series , in which she analyzed biographical data about historic geniuses . Although her estimates of childhood IQ scores of historical figures who never took IQ tests have been criticized on methodological grounds , Cox 's study was thorough in finding out what else matters besides IQ in becoming a genius . By the 1937 second revision of the Stanford – Binet test , Terman no longer used the term " genius " as an IQ classification , nor has any subsequent IQ test . In 1939 , Wechsler specifically commented that " we are rather hesitant about calling a person a genius on the basis of a single intelligence test score . "
The Terman longitudinal study in California eventually provided historical evidence on how genius is related to IQ scores . Many California pupils were recommended for the study by schoolteachers . Two pupils who were tested but rejected for inclusion in the study because of IQ scores too low for the study grew up to be Nobel Prize winners in physics , William Shockley , and Luis Walter Alvarez . Based on the historical findings of the Terman study and on biographical examples such as Richard Feynman , who had an IQ of 125 and went on to win the Nobel Prize in physics and become widely known as a genius , the current view of psychologists and other scholars of genius is that a minimum level of IQ , no lower than about IQ 125 , is strictly necessary for genius ; but that level of IQ is sufficient for development of genius only when combined with the other influences identified by Cox 's biographical study : opportunity for talent development along with the characteristics of drive and persistence . Charles Spearman , bearing in mind the influential theory that he originated of conceiving intelligence as made up of a " general factor " as well as " special factors " more specific to particular mental tasks , may have summed up the research the best when he wrote in 1927 , " Every normal man , woman , and child is , then , a genius at something , as well as an idiot at something . "
= = = IQ classification and giftedness = = =
A major point of consensus among all scholars of intellectual giftedness is that there is no generally agreed definition of giftedness . Although there is no scholarly agreement about identifying gifted learners , there is a de @-@ facto reliance on IQ scores for identifying participants in school gifted education programs . In practice , many school districts in the United States use an IQ score of 130 , including about the upper 2 or 3 percent of the national population , as a cut @-@ off score for inclusion in school gifted programs .
As long ago as 1937 , Lewis Terman pointed out that error of estimation in IQ scoring increases as IQ score increases , so that there is less and less certainty about assigning a test @-@ taker to one band of scores or another as one looks at higher bands . Current IQ tests also have large error bands for high IQ scores . As an underlying reality , such distinctions as those between " exceptionally gifted " and " profoundly gifted " have never been well established . All longitudinal studies of IQ have shown that test @-@ takers can bounce up and down in score , and thus switch up and down in rank order as compared to one another , over the course of childhood . Some test @-@ givers claim that IQ classification categories such as " profoundly gifted " are meaningful , but those are based on the obsolete Stanford – Binet Third Revision ( Form L @-@ M ) test . The highest reported standard score for most IQ tests is IQ 160 , approximately the 99.997th percentile ( leaving aside the issue of the considerable error in measurement at that level of IQ on any IQ test ) . IQ scores above this level are dubious as there are insufficient normative cases upon which to base a statistically justified rank @-@ ordering . Moreover there has never been any validation of the Stanford – Binet L @-@ M on adult populations , and there is no trace of such terminology in the writings of Lewis Terman . Although two current tests attempt to provide " extended norms " that allow for classification of different levels of giftedness , those norms are not based on well validated data .
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= Undisputed Attitude =
Undisputed Attitude is the seventh studio album by American thrash metal band Slayer . The album consists almost entirely of punk rock / hardcore punk cover songs . Also included are two songs written by guitarist Jeff Hanneman in 1984 and 1985 for a side project called Pap Smear , and the closing track , Gemini , the only Slayer original on the record . The cover songs on the album were originally recorded by the bands Minor Threat , T.S.O.L. , D.R.I. , D.I. , Dr. Know , The Stooges and Verbal Abuse , whose work was prominently featured with the inclusion of cover versions of five of their songs . A video was also released of Slayer 's version of the song " I Hate You " by Verbal Abuse . Released on May 28 , 1996 through American Recordings , Undisputed Attitude peaked at number 34 on the Billboard 200 chart .
= = Recording = =
Undisputed Attitude was recorded at Capital Studios in Los Angeles , California with producer Dave Sardy , while Reign in Blood producer Rick Rubin served as executive producer . Recorded in three to four weeks , the album was largely the brainchild of guitarist Kerry King , who stated that the songs chosen were from highly influential bands who " made Slayer what it is " . The album was initially to feature material from classic heavy metal artists such as Judas Priest , UFO , and Deep Purple . However , after several rehearsals " things didn 't pan out " according to King , so the band instead elected to cover punk songs .
Slayer considered covering 1960s psychedelic rock band The Doors as they were an influence to vocalist and bassist Tom Araya . When asked which track they considered recording , Araya responded , " Maybe ' When the Music 's Over ' , ' Five to One ' , something like that . " A cover of Black Flag 's " Rise Above " was suggested by Rubin , although was shelved after the band was not sure how to arrange it musically .
Guitarist Jeff Hanneman had written four unreleased songs in 1984 – 1985 while in the side project Pap Smear with Slayer drummer Dave Lombardo and Suicidal Tendencies guitarist Rocky George . The band chose the best two , namely " Ddamm ( Drunk Drivers Against Mad Mothers ) " and " Can 't Stand You " . " Gemini " was written by King and Araya several months before entering the recording studio . King asserts it is the only Slayer song on the album . The song begins as a sludge / doom number , before becoming a more typical Slayer song .
The band 's cover of Minor Threat 's " Guilty of Being White " raised questions about a possible message of white supremacy . The controversy involved the changing of the refrain " guilty of being white " to " guilty of being right " , at the song 's ending . This incensed Minor Threat frontman Ian MacKaye , who stated " that is so offensive to me " . King said the lyric was altered for " tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek " humor , saying that the band thought racism was " ridiculous " at the time .
= = Reception = =
Undisputed Attitude was released on May 28 , 1996 , and peaked at number 34 on the Billboard 200 album chart . Paul Kott of AllMusic commented that " Undisputed Attitude , while not perfect , is a fitting tribute to the bands that inspired Slayer to break from the traditional metal mold . " Sandy Masuo of Rolling Stone reasoned : " some punk purists will undoubtedly cry foul , but when the dust settles it 's hard to argue with Slayer 's mettle . " Entertainment Weekly 's Chuck Eddy dubbed Slayer 's cover interpretations " generic hardcore @-@ punk " , and observed that the group " seem to think that playing as fast and rigidly as possible makes for harder rock -- but it 's just lazy shtick . "
Reviewing 2003 Slayer box set Soundtrack to the Apocalypse , Adrien Begrand of PopMatters dismissed the effort as " easily the weakest album in the Slayer catalogue " , while Westword Online 's Michael Roberts dubbed the record their " biggest mistake . " Araya has since stated that he " knew it wouldn 't do very well , people want to hear Slayer ! The real die @-@ hards picked up on it and that was expected . "
= = Track listing = =
= = = European edition = = =
Tracks 1 @-@ 9 remain the same .
= = = Japanese edition = = =
Tracks 1 @-@ 9 remain the same .
= = Personnel = =
= = = Slayer = = =
Tom Araya – lead vocals , bass
Jeff Hanneman – guitar
Kerry King – guitar
Paul Bostaph – drums
= = = Production and artwork = = =
Dave Sardy – producer , mixing
Rick Rubin – executive producer
Greg Gordon – engineer
Ralph Cacciurri ; Bryan Davis ; Jim Giddens ; Bill Smith – assistant engineers
Stephen Marcussen – mastering
Wes Benscoter – artwork , illustrations
Dennis Keeley – photography
Michael Lavine – front cover photo , photography
Dirk Walter – art direction , design
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= Cindy McCain =
Cindy Lou Hensley McCain ( born May 20 , 1954 ) is an American businesswoman , philanthropist , and humanitarian , and the wife of United States Senator and 2008 Republican presidential nominee John McCain of Arizona .
She was born and raised in Phoenix , Arizona , as the daughter of wealthy beer distributor Jim Hensley . After receiving bachelor 's and master 's degrees from the University of Southern California , she became a special education teacher . She married John McCain in 1980 and they had three children together , in addition to adopting another . From 1988 to 1995 , she founded and operated a nonprofit organization , the American Voluntary Medical Team , which organized trips by medical personnel to disaster @-@ stricken or war @-@ torn third @-@ world areas . During this time , she became addicted to painkillers for several years and resorted to having a physician write illegal prescriptions on her behalf . She reached an agreement with the government in which no charges were filed against her .
Upon her father 's death in 2000 , she inherited majority control and became chair of Hensley & Co . , one of the largest Anheuser @-@ Busch beer distributors in the United States . She participated in both of her husband 's presidential campaigns and , in 2008 , drew both positive and negative scrutiny for her appearance , demeanor , wealth , spending habits , and financial obligations . She continues to be an active philanthropist and serves on the boards of Operation Smile , Eastern Congo Initiative , CARE and HALO Trust , frequently making overseas trips in conjunction with their activities . During the 2010s she has become prominent in the fight against human trafficking .
= = Early life and education = =
Cindy Lou Hensley was born in Phoenix , Arizona , to James Hensley , who founded Hensley & Co . , and Marguerite " Smitty " Hensley ( née Johnson ) . She was raised as the only child of her parents ' second marriages and grew up on Phoenix 's North Central Avenue in affluent circumstances . ( Dixie L. Burd , who is the daughter of Marguerite Smith through a prior relationship , is her half @-@ sister , as is Kathleen Hensley Portalski , daughter of Jim Hensley and his first wife , Mary Jeanne Parks . ) Cindy Hensley was named Junior Rodeo Queen of Arizona in 1968 . She went to Central High School in Phoenix , where she was named Best Dressed as a senior and graduated in 1972 .
Hensley enrolled at the University of Southern California . She joined the socially conservative Kappa Alpha Theta sorority as a freshman , and had many leadership roles in the house during her four years there . Hensley graduated with a Bachelor of Arts in education in 1976 . She continued on at USC , and received a Master of Arts in special education in 1978 . There she participated in a movement therapy pilot program that laid the way for a standard treatment for children with severe disabilities ; she published the work Movement Therapy : A Possible Approach in 1978 . Declining a role in the family business , she worked for a year as a special education teacher dealing with children with Down syndrome and other disabilities at Agua Fria High School in Avondale , Arizona .
= = Marriage and family = =
Hensley met John McCain in April 1979 at a military reception in Hawaii . He was the U.S. Navy liaison officer to the United States Senate and almost eighteen years her senior . McCain and Hensley quickly began a relationship , traveling between Arizona and Washington to see each other . John McCain then pushed to end his marriage of fourteen years ; Carol McCain and John McCain stopped cohabiting in January 1980 , and Carol accepted a divorce in February 1980 , effective in April 1980 . John and Cindy were married on May 17 , 1980 at the Arizona Biltmore Hotel in Phoenix . They signed a prenuptial agreement that kept most of her family 's assets under her name ; they have since kept their finances apart and file separate income tax returns .
Her father 's business and political contacts helped John McCain to gain a foothold in Arizona politics . She campaigned with her husband door to door during his successful first bid for U.S. Congress in 1982 , and was heavily involved in campaign strategy . Her wealth from an expired trust from her parents provided significant loans to the campaign and helped it survive a period of early debt .
Once John McCain was elected , the couple moved to Alexandria , Virginia . She spent two months in late 1983 writing handwritten notes on over 4 @,@ 000 Christmas cards to be sent to constituents and others . She was considered an outsider who was snubbed by the Washington congressional social scene , in part because Carol McCain was a popular figure in town , and she grew homesick for Arizona . She had several miscarriages .
She moved back to Arizona in early 1984 and gave birth to the couple 's daughter , Meghan , later that year . She subsequently gave birth to sons John Sidney IV ( known as " Jack " ) in 1986 and James ( known as " Jimmy " ) in 1988 . Their fourth child , Bridget , was adopted in 1991 . Cindy McCain 's parents lived across the street and helped her raise the children ; her husband was frequently in Washington and she typically only saw him on weekends . In his absence , she organized elaborate fund @-@ raisers for him and expanded their home .
In April 1986 , Cindy and her father invested $ 359 @,@ 100 in a shopping center project with Phoenix banker Charles Keating . This , combined with her role as a bookkeeper who later had difficulty finding receipts for family trips on Keating 's jet , caused complications for her husband during the Keating Five scandal , when he was being examined for his role regarding oversight of Keating 's bank .
= = American Voluntary Medical Team = =
= = = Founding and mission = = =
In 1988 , inspired by a vacation that she took four years earlier to substandard medical facilities on Truk Lagoon , Cindy McCain founded the American Voluntary Medical Team ( AVMT ) . It was a non @-@ profit organization that organized trips for doctors , nurses and other medical personnel to provide MASH @-@ like emergency medical care to disaster @-@ struck or war @-@ torn third @-@ world areas such as Micronesia , Vietnam ( before relations were normalized between them and the U.S. ) , Kuwait ( arriving five days after the conclusion of the Gulf War ) , Zaire ( to help refuges from the Rwandan genocide ) , Iraq , Nicaragua , India , Bangladesh , and El Salvador . She led 55 of these missions over the next seven years , each of which were at least two weeks in duration . AVMT also supplied treatment to poor sick children around the world . In 1993 , Cindy McCain and the AVMT were honored with an award from Food for the Hungry .
= = = Adoption = = =
In 1991 , the AVMT went to Dhaka , Bangladesh , to provide assistance following the 1991 Bangladesh cyclone . While at Mother Teresa 's Dhaka orphanage , the Sisters of Charity of Mother Teresa Children 's Home , McCain met two infant girls she felt needed to be brought to the United States for medical treatment . She decided to adopt one of the girls , later named Bridget , with her husband readily agreeing ; the adoption became final in 1993 . She helped coordinate the adoption of the other little girl for family friend Wes Gullett .
= = = Prescription drug addiction = = =
In 1989 , Cindy McCain developed an addiction to Percocet and Vicodin , opioid painkillers , which she initially took to alleviate pain following two spinal surgeries for ruptured discs and to ease emotional stress during the Keating Five affair . The addiction progressed to where she was taking upwards of twenty pills a day , and she resorted to having an AVMT physician write illegal prescriptions in the names of three AVMT employees without their knowledge . In 1992 , her parents staged an intervention to force her to get help ; she told her husband about her problem , attended a drug treatment facility , began outpatient sessions and ended her three years of addiction . Surgery in 1993 resolved her back pain .
In January 1993 , Tom Gosinski , an AVMT employee who had discovered her illegal drug use , was terminated on budgetary grounds . Subsequently , he tipped off the Drug Enforcement Administration about her prior actions and a federal investigation ensued . McCain 's defense team , led by John McCain 's Keating Five lawyer John Dowd , secured an agreement with the U.S. Attorney 's office for McCain , a first @-@ time offender , which avoided charges while requiring her to pay financial restitution , enroll in a diversion program and do community service . Meanwhile , in early 1994 , Gosinski filed a wrongful termination lawsuit against McCain , in which he alleged she ordered him to conceal " improper acts " and " misrepresent facts in a judicial proceeding " ; he told her he would settle for $ 250 @,@ 000 . In response , Dowd characterized this request as blackmail , and requested Maricopa County attorney Rick Romley to investigate Gosinski for extortion . In the end , Gosinski 's credibility was undermined by testimony in Romley 's report from other charity staffers who asserted Gosinski privately vowed to blackmail McCain were he ever fired , and both Gosinski 's lawsuit and the extortion investigation against him were dropped .
Knowing that prosecutors were about to publicly disclose her past addiction , McCain preemptively revealed the story to reporters , saying that she was doing so willingly : " Although my conduct did not result in compromising any missions of AVMT , my actions were wrong , and I regret them ... if what I say can help just one person to face the problem , it 's worthwhile . "
= = = Aftermath = = =
AVMT concluded its activities in 1995 in the wake of the McCain prescription narcotics controversy . That year , McCain founded a new organization , the Hensley Family Foundation , which donates monies towards children 's programs in Arizona and nationally . She was largely a stay @-@ at @-@ home mom during the balance of the 1990s . She also held positions as vice president , director , and vice chair of Hensley & Co . In the mid @-@ 1990s , she began suffering from severe migraine headaches , for a while keeping them secret from her husband and minimizing their effect to the rest of her family . Her attacks often resulted in trips to the emergency room , were caused by many different triggers , and she tried many different treatments .
= = Role in 2000 presidential campaign = =
Although wary of the media and still having no love for the political world , McCain was active in her husband 's eventually unsuccessful campaign for President of the United States in 2000 . She mostly provided good cheer , without discussing her opinions about national policy . She impressed Republican voters with her elegance at coffee shops and other small campaign settings , where she frequently referred to her children , carpooling and charity work .
McCain was upset by the notorious smear tactics against her husband in the South Carolina primary that year . These included allegations involving her adopted daughter Bridget that she found " despicable " , as well as insinuations that McCain herself was currently a drug addict . Though deeply wounded by the attacks for a long time , Cindy McCain eventually forgave those responsible . She was chosen as the chair of the Arizona delegation to the 2000 Republican National Convention .
= = Between presidential campaigns = =
In 2000 , she became chair of the now $ 300 million @-@ a @-@ year Hensley & Co. following her father 's death . It is one of the largest Anheuser @-@ Busch beer distributors in the United States . Cindy , her children , and one of John McCain 's children from his first marriage , together own 68 percent of the company . As chair , her role takes the form of consultations with the company CEO on major initiatives such as new products , new plants or employee welfare , rather than that of an active physical presence . She does not have operational control of Hensley , and Anheuser @-@ Busch considers her to be an absentee owner . By 2007 , she had an annual income of over $ 400 @,@ 000 from Hensley and an estimated net worth of $ 100 million . She also owned at least $ 2 @.@ 7 million worth of shares of Anheuser @-@ Busch stock . With her children , she owns a minority stake in the Arizona Diamondbacks baseball team .
McCain became actively involved with Operation Smile in 2001 , taking parts in its medical missions to Morocco , Vietnam and India . She was honored by the organization in 2005 and sits on its board of directors . McCain joined the board of directors of CARE in 2005 . She is on the board of the HALO Trust , and has visited operations to remove landmines in Cambodia , Sri Lanka , Mozambique , and Angola . She makes financial contributions to these organizations via her family trust and views her role as watching them in the field to ensure they are frugal and their money is being spent effectively . On occasion she has criticized foreign regimes on human rights grounds , such as Myanmar 's military junta .
In April 2004 , McCain suffered a near @-@ fatal stroke caused by high blood pressure , although she was still able to attend some events . After several months of physical therapy to overcome leg and arm limitations , she made a mostly full recovery , although she still suffered from some short @-@ term memory loss and difficulties in writing . She owns a home in Coronado , California , next to the Hotel del Coronado ; her family had vacationed in Coronado growing up , and she has gone there for recuperation and family get @-@ togethers . She or her family own other residential and commercial real estate in California , Arizona and Virginia and , including rental properties , McCain herself owns ten homes and part of three office complexes . She is an amateur pilot and race car driver .
= = Role in 2008 presidential campaign = =
She was active and visible in her husband 's second presidential campaign during 2007 and 2008 , despite not wanting her husband to run initially due to bad memories of their 2000 experience and worries the effect on her children , especially son Jimmy who was headed to serve in the Iraq War . She eventually supported her husband in his goals , but defined her own campaign roles ; she frequently returned to Arizona to attend to domestic duties or interrupted campaigning for her overseas charitable work . She preferred to travel with her husband and introduce him rather than act as a campaign surrogate with a separate schedule . She wore her hair in a fashionable but severe style and was sometimes seen with an unsmiling countenance in her appearances . In August 2008 , a member of the public shook her hand very vigorously , aggravating her existing carpal tunnel syndrome condition and causing her to slightly sprain her wrist . The campaign exacerbated her migraine headaches and she sometimes had to wear dark glasses to shield herself from bright lights . The pressures of the campaign also brought out a range of behaviors between her and her husband , varying from moments of great tenderness and concern to raging arguments that dismayed their staffs .
McCain stated that the American public wanted a First Lady of the United States who would tend toward a traditional role in that position . She would not attend Cabinet meetings , but would continue her involvement in overseas non @-@ profit organizations and would urge Americans to do the same globally or locally . She envisioned herself as a possible figurehead for humanitarian work , along the lines of Diana , Princess of Wales . She continued to expand her roles in such organizations , joining in April 2008 the board of Grateful Nation Montana , which provides scholarships and services to the children of Montana service personnel killed in Iraq and Afghanistan .
She made statements critical of the Bush administration for not deploying enough troops during the Iraq War . Her close examination of the financial books of the McCain campaign during the first part of 2007 convinced the candidate that its profligate spending could not go on and led to the drastic mid @-@ year reduction of the campaign 's staff and scope . In February 2008 , McCain made news by being critical of Michelle Obama , the wife of Democratic presidential candidate Barack Obama , who had said , " And let me tell you something : For the first time in my adult lifetime I am really proud of my country . " McCain , who was genuinely offended by the remark , replied : " I am proud of my country . I don 't know about you — if you heard those words earlier — I am very proud of my country . " Also in February 2008 , she publicly appeared beside her husband during a press conference in response to a newspaper report regarding his connection to a lobbyist .
McCain faced media scrutiny about her wealth , spending habits , and financial obligations . At first declining to release her separate income tax returns , saying it was a privacy issue and that she would not do so even if she became First Lady , she later released the first two pages of her 2006 return , which showed $ 6 million in income for that year ( including nearly $ 570 @,@ 000 in itemized deductions and more than $ 1 @.@ 7 million paid in federal income taxes ) . The campaign said that any decisions about how to handle her role in Hensley & Co. if she became First Lady would not be made until that time . While she stood to gain a considerable profit from the agreed @-@ upon acquisition of Anheuser @-@ Busch by the Belgian company InBev , she was initially under some political pressure to help oppose the deal and keep Anheuser @-@ Busch under American ownership .
In June 2008 , a Rasmussen Reports poll found that 49 percent of voters viewed Cindy McCain favorably and 29 percent unfavorably , while an ABC News / Washington Post poll found figures of 39 percent and 25 percent respectively . Her style and fashion sense was the subject of much media scrutiny . McCain was compared to former first lady Nancy Reagan , due to both her style and wardrobe as well as her demeanor . Early in the campaign , some recipes attributed to Cindy McCain turned out to be copied from other sources ; the campaign attributed the problem to an error by an intern .
Cindy McCain spoke on both the opening and final nights of the early September 2008 Republican National Convention . On the first night , truncated due to national attention regarding Hurricane Gustav , she appeared with First Lady Laura Bush to deliver short remarks encouraging support for hurricane relief efforts along the Gulf Coast , and on the last night , she introduced the seven McCain children and spoke about how her husband 's love for his country had been passed on to them . In October 2008 , she increased the intensity of her public remarks against Obama 's candidacy , speaking with surprising vitriol in accusing the Obama campaign of being the dirtiest in history and saying of his position against a war @-@ funding bill , " The day that Senator Obama cast a vote not to fund my son when he was serving sent a cold chill through my body . " The stresses of the campaign caused the 5 @-@ foot @-@ 7 @-@ inch ( 1 @.@ 70 m ) McCain 's weight to fall under 100 pounds ( 45 kg ) . On November 4 , 2008 , she fought back tears in an appearance as the McCain campaign reached its final day and subsequent loss to Obama .
= = Subsequent activities = =
After the election , Cindy McCain was approached about appearing on Dancing With the Stars . She seriously considered participating , but according to John McCain , was concerned that her surgically replaced knee would not be able to withstand the rigors of the competition .
Continuing her humanitarian aid work with a January 2009 trip to Dubai , India , and Cambodia , she said that she was relieved that the campaign was over and that , while it had been " wild and nuts " at times , it had also been " a remarkable experience to be a contender for the highest office in the land . " She said the ongoing global economic crisis was adversely affecting humanitarian organizations , and she expressed hope that President Obama would be successful in dealing with it .
She expressed support for LGBT rights by appearing alongside her daughter Meghan at an April 2009 convention of the Log Cabin Republicans , and posing for the NOH8 Campaign , a gay rights project opposed to California Proposition 8 , a ballot measure banning same @-@ sex marriage . The following year she appeared in another NOH8 public service announcement against bullying , and in it appeared to break with her husband 's position and express support for repeal of the " Don 't ask , don 't tell " policy prohibiting gays from serving openly in the U.S. military . But she subsequently tweeted that " I fully support the NOH8 campaign and all it stands for and am proud to be a part of it . But I stand by my husband 's stance on DADT . "
In September 2009 , she spoke about her migraines publicly for the first time and decided to speak at the International Headache Congress about raising awareness for sufferers . During her husband 's eventually successful 2010 senatorial re @-@ election campaign , she rarely made public appearances .
McCain appeared in March 2011 alongside Eastern Congo Initiative founder Ben Affleck to testify before a panel of the House Foreign Affairs Committee on behalf of continued monetary assistance to the Democratic Republic of Congo , in an environment where the Republican @-@ controlled House was looking to make significant cuts to foreign aid . She has noted the difficulty of getting attention to some of the topics she feels most strongly about ; at a Futures Without Violence summit in 2012 , she said , " When I talk about rape in Congo , people turn their backs and run , especially the men . "
In late 2013 and early 2014 , McCain used the occasion of Super Bowl XLVIII to highlight her concerns about sex trafficking in the United States , an issue that she had begun working on in conjunction with The McCain Institute . She campaigned for legislation to address the problem at both the federal and state levels . She also served as co @-@ chair of the Arizona Governor Jan Brewer 's Task Force on Human Trafficking .
In April 2015 , during the Sedona Forum , Cindy McCain and actress Demi Moore discussed ways to end sex trafficking . Later in that year she staged appearances with Heidi Heitkamp , Democratic Senator from North Dakota , to discuss human trafficking in that state and elsewhere . She said of trafficking , " Everybody has seen it ; they just didn 't know what they were looking at . " She praised Obama and Congress for passage of the Justice for Victims of Trafficking Act of 2015 and , together with Malika Saada Saar , executive director of the Human Rights Project for Girls , started the No Such Thing Campaign to end the use of the term " child prostitute " , saying " there are only victims and survivors of child rape . "
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= The X @-@ Files ( season 7 ) =
The seventh season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files commenced airing on the Fox network in the United States on November 7 , 1999 , concluded on May 21 , 2000 , and consists of twenty @-@ two episodes . Taking place after the destruction of the Syndicate , this season marks the end of various other story lines ; during this season , Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) learned the true fate of his sister , Samantha . The season concludes with Mulder being abducted by aliens and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) learning that she is pregnant .
Before the broadcasting for the season began , Duchovny sued Fox and eventually announced his decision to leave the show . As a result , the season would be the last to feature Duchovny in a full @-@ time capacity , although he would return in later seasons as an intermittent main character . Due to this eventual character change , this season would be the last to feature the original opening sequence for the series , as the two later years updated the intro in an attempt to renew and revive the series .
The seventh season premiere " The Sixth Extinction " , debuted with a Nielsen rating of 10 @.@ 6 and was viewed by 17 @.@ 82 million viewers , marking a noticeable drop in viewership since the sixth season . The series fell from number 12 to number 29 for the 1999 – 2000 television year . Critically , the show 's seventh season received mixed to positive reviews ; many reviewers felt that the show still produced good episodes , but that it was the weakest of the Duchovny and Anderson seasons of the show .
= = Plot overview = =
After the events of the season six finale , Walter Skinner ( Mitch Pileggi ) and Michael Kritschgau ( John Finn ) are desperately attempting to find the truth behind the so @-@ called alien object . Meanwhile , Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) is still imprisoned by his own frenetic brain activity . Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) and Skinner are unaware of FBI Special Agent Diana Fowley 's ( Mimi Rogers ) duplicity — she is working for Cigarette Smoking Man ( William B. Davis ) . Scully then travels to Africa to unravel the secrets of the alien artifacts , finding something that looks like a spaceship buried under the shoreline off the Côte d 'Ivoire coast . The object may prove that life originated elsewhere , and all religion is based on the Navajo contact with alien life . Unsuccessful , Scully returns from Africa to revisit Mulder in Washington , D.C. , but instead she finds out that he has disappeared . She contacts Kritschgau and Skinner to find her partner . Cigarette Smoking Man has taken Mulder to a place where all his problems seem to have disappeared . Fowley helps Scully locate Mulder , which leads to her death at the hands of Cigarette Smoking Man .
While investigating a bizarre disappearance of a young girl from her home , Mulder becomes obsessed with the number of children who have vanished in similar circumstances . Scully fears that he is emotionally involved due to his sister 's disappearance . At the same time it is revealed to him that his mother , Teena Mulder ( Rebecca Toolan ) , committed suicide . He then tries to prove that his mother did not take her own life , but is ultimately forced to accept that his mother 's death was by her own hand . He is led by a man whose son disappeared years earlier to another truth — that his sister may be among the souls taken by " walk @-@ ins " , saving the souls of children doomed to live unhappy lives . Together they locate evidence that proves that Samantha was abducted by Cigarette Smoking Man and was forced to live in a now @-@ abandoned US Army base . It is later revealed that Samantha had become a " walk @-@ in " spirit .
Mulder and Scully investigate a case which leads them back to Oregon , the site of their first case together . With a series of Alien abductions taking place , Mulder and Scully are contacted by Billy Miles ( Zachary Ansley ) . Scully falls ill during the investigation and returns to Washington , D.C. Cigarette Smoking Man contacts Marita Covarrubias ( Laurie Holden ) and Alex Krycek ( Nicholas Lea ) , in an attempt to revive the government conspiracy . With Covarrubias unwilling to assist , and Krycek seeking revenge , they contact Mulder after he visits an alien crash site . Skinner and Mulder return to Oregon , while Scully is hospitalized in Washington , D.C. Mulder becomes trapped by an alien device , and is abducted by an Alien Bounty Hunter ( Brian Thompson ) together with Miles and several others . Skinner returns to Washington , D.C. where Scully informs him that she is pregnant .
= = Production = =
= = = Background = = =
After five seasons in Vancouver , Canada , production of The X @-@ Files moved to Los Angeles . The X @-@ Files ' sixth season was the first season of the show to be filmed in the new location . The move was instigated by Duchovny in order to facilitate his work in films as well as to give him a chance to be nearer to his wife , Téa Leoni . Series creator Chris Carter opposed the move , but Fox network officials eventually made the decision to film in California . Although the move was unpopular with some members of the cast and crew , both series director Kim Manners and Anderson supported the move , although less vocally than Duchovny . Many fans accused the show of " Hollywood @-@ izing " by adding notable guests stars as well as making the plots simpler and more enjoyable for mass audiences . Furthermore , the move to Los Angeles also meant a drastic increase in production costs .
= = = Development = = =
Originally , the mythology for season seven was supposed to continue from and show the ramifications of the " Two Fathers " / " One Son " story arc . Frank Spotnitz , in an interview , explained that the mythology episodes for season seven would feature " characters you saw in ' One Son ' coming back " and explore " what happens now that the conspiracy has been destroyed , what are the politics of the new landscape that exists . [ … ] There are aliens from outer space , two different races that are warring with each other . " In addition , he said that the then @-@ planned series finale would feature " the big idea that Chris [ Carter ] had in the beginning . " However , these ideas never came to pass , and the season finale , " Requiem " , segued directly into the eighth season premiere " Within " . Duchovny later revealed that , had the show ended , the final three episodes would have been devoted to the myth @-@ arc .
While filming was underway for the seventh season , many members of the crew felt that the show had entered into its final season . Executive producer Frank Spotnitz later explained , " There was a pretty strong sentiment inside and outside the show that it was time to call it a day . " Because the show 's producers felt that the show was nearing its end , many story arcs were ended in the season . The fourth episode , " Millennium " was written as a way to bring closure to the recently cancelled Carter @-@ created series of the same name . The episode features Lance Henriksen reprising his role as Frank for the last time . The eleventh episode , " Closure " , features Mulder discovering what happened to his sister . The idea to close the story arc received mixed reactions from various production and crew members . However , many of the show 's producers realized that the time had come to answer one of the show 's biggest questions . Paul Rabwin noted that , " It 's been seven years . I don 't think any of us are going to miss Samantha Mulder . That device and motivation were very strong in the early years of the show . But as the years have gone by , the speculation kind of melted away . " As the season progressed , however , the idea of producing another season emerged . Paul Rabwin explained that , " we found ourselves starting to get energized again . [ ... ] As we got toward the end of the season , everyone was kind of hopeful . "
The season also saw several of the show 's cast write their own episodes . Series co @-@ star Gillian Anderson directed and wrote her first episode of the series , " all things " . Anderson originally approached Carter about writing and directing an episode of the series during the sixth season . Anderson crafted a script that would see Scully pursuing a " deeply personal X @-@ File , one which in [ she ] is taken down a spiritual path when logic fails her " . Anderson had only a rough outline of the script until one day she wrote a majority of the story in one sitting . She explained , " A certain concept began to form , [ and ] I just wrote the entire outline for ' all things ' right then and there . It all just kind of came together on the page " . The next day , Anderson pitched the script to Carter , who approved of the " personal and quiet " characteristics of the story . In addition , series regular Davis wrote his only episode , " En Ami " . Davis approached Carter with his idea about Cigarette Smoking Man trying to seduce Scully with medical knowledge , and Carter , who was intrigued , responded positively to the idea . He assigned executive producer Spotnitz to work with Davis and craft a full @-@ fledged script . The script went through many revisions . Because Cigarette Smoking Man was able to manipulate Scully , Carter later referred to the " En Ami " as " the creepiest episode of the year . "
= = = Lawsuit = = =
Before the season aired , David Duchovny filed a lawsuit against 20th Century Fox . Duchovny was upset because , he claimed , that Fox had undersold the rights to its own affiliates , thereby costing him huge sums of money . Originally , in the contract , Duchovny was eligible for an estimated five percent , but , according to him , he " had seen only a fraction " of the money . Eventually , the lawsuit was settled , and Duchovny was awarded a settlement of about $ 20 million . The lawsuit put strain on Duchovny 's professional relationships . Although his lawsuit never called Chris Carter a defendant , their friendship was notably impacted . One anonymous source noted that " the whole lawsuit thing revealed that Carter knew ( Duchovny ) was getting screwed and didn 't warn him . Carter proved where his loyalties lay with his actions . "
Neither Carter nor Duchovny were contracted to work on the series beyond the seventh season ; however , Fox entered into negotiations near the end of season in order to bring the two on board for an eighth season . After the airing of " Requiem " , Duchovny expressed his intentions to leave the series . He explained , " I was kind of a free agent after season seven , and to me , there was not much else to do in terms of the character . So it was really about me wanting to pursue other parts of my career as a writer , director , and actor . " Rumors began spreading — and were eventually confirmed — that , since Duchovny had not expressed an interest to appear as a main character in the eighth season , that another character would take Mulder 's place . Many fans on the internet believed that Mitch Pileggi , who portrayed Walter Skinner , would take the role ; Pileggi later called this guess " ridiculous . "
= = = Crew = = =
Series creator Chris Carter also served as executive producer and showrunner and wrote six episodes . Spotnitz continued as executive producer and wrote five episodes . Vince Gilligan continued as co @-@ executive producer and wrote six episodes . John Shiban was promoted to supervising producer and wrote two episodes . David Amann was promoted to co @-@ producer and wrote two episodes . Jeffrey Bell was promoted to story editor and wrote two episodes . Cyberpunk novelists William Gibson and Tom Maddox returned to write their second of two episodes for the series . Cast member Duchovny wrote two episodes in the season , while other cast members Anderson and Davis also wrote an episode each . New writers in the seventh season included Steven Maeda and Greg Walker , who wrote one episode ; and Chip Johannessen who wrote a single freelance episode . Other producers included Paul Rabwin and Bernadette Caulfield , and Michelle MacLaren who joined as co @-@ executive producer .
Producing @-@ directors for the show included producer Rob Bowman , supervising producer Manners , and co @-@ executive producer Michael Watkins , who directed the bulk of the episodes for the season . Bowman directed two episodes for his final season on the series , Manners directed seven , and Watkins directed three . Cast members David Duchovny and Gillian Anderson each directed one episode each . Series creator Chris Carter directed a single episode , while series writer Vince Gilligan made his television directorial debut . Other directors for the season included Thomas J. Wright who directed three episodes , with Robert Lieberman , Cliff Bole , and Paul Shapiro each directing one .
= = Cast = =
= = = Main cast = = =
David Duchovny as Special Agent Fox Mulder ( 22 episodes )
Gillian Anderson as Special Agent Dana Scully ( 22 episodes )
= = = Recurring cast = = =
= = = = Also starring = = = =
Mitch Pileggi as Walter Skinner ( 11 episodes )
William B. Davis as Cigarette Smoking Man ( 4 episodes )
Nicholas Lea as Alex Krycek ( 2 episodes )
= = = = Guest starring = = = =
= = Episodes = =
Episodes marked with a double dagger ( ) are episodes in the series ' Alien Mythology arc .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
The seventh season of The X @-@ Files debuted with " The Sixth Extinction " on November 7 , 1999 . This episode earned a Nielsen rating of 10 @.@ 6 , with a 16 share , meaning that roughly 10 @.@ 6 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 16 percent of households watching television , were tuned into the episode . The episode was viewed by 17 @.@ 82 million people , an increase from the sixth season 's finale , " Biogenesis " , which was viewed by 15 @.@ 86 million viewers . However , the debut marked a decrease from the sixth season debut , " The Beginning " , which garnered 20 @.@ 34 million viewers . As the season continued , however , ratings began to drop . The season hit a low with the eighteenth episode , " Brand X " , which was viewed by 10 @.@ 81 million viewers . The season finale , " Requiem " , earned a Nielsen rating of 8 @.@ 9 , with a 14 share , and was viewed by 15 @.@ 26 million viewers , marking a 14 percent drop in viewers when compared to the season premiere , and a 4 percent drop in viewers when compared to the previous season finale . The series was ranked at number 29 during the 1999 – 2000 television season , finishing with an average of 14 @.@ 2 million viewers .
During 2000 , companies were paying Fox $ 225 @,@ 000 for every 30 @-@ second spot that would air between acts of The X @-@ Files . Many Information technology ( IT ) companies were buying commercials during the show , largely due to the fact that " many [ ' coders IT geeks ' ] get their weekly fix of science fiction from this prime @-@ time show . "
= = = Reviews = = =
The seventh season received moderately positive reviews from critics , although increasingly critical reviews were more common this season . While critics enjoyed many of the episodes , many also felt that , as a whole , the season was the weakest of the show 's original seven . Eric Mink of the New York Daily News praised the season , noting that it was " proof that The X @-@ Files still has more than enough creative life in it to justify an eighth season " . He called many of the stand @-@ alone episodes " wonderfully creepy " and noted that the season possessed a " terrific bunch of episodes " . Thomas Doherty from Cinefantastique gave the season a mixed review and noted that the series was hurt by the partnership between Mulder and Scully " settl [ ing ] into the comfortable groove of a modern two career marriage — supportive , professionally rewarding , and utterly sexless . " Further , he noted that " the most entertaining episode lately have been the self parodies , where killer cockroaches scurry and living dead roam , or where ( in the Duchovny written and directed episode ) Scully and Mulder are played by Téa Leoni and Garry Shandling in a motion picture only slightly more ludicrous than a 1998 motion picture called The X @-@ Files . " Doherty argued that the " self @-@ parody " style of the series caused viewers to not take it seriously anymore , explaining that , " No longer going for the big chill , Carter and company are winking at their audience , as if to say : even we can 't pretend to believe in this muddled mishmash anymore . " Tom Kessenich , in his book Examination : An Unauthorized Look at Seasons 6 – 9 of the X @-@ Files , was positive towards the first half of the season , but soon saw the episodes in more of a negative light . He wrote , " A season that began with such hope ended with a sense of sorrow given the end result of the season @-@ long backstage wheeling and dealing [ a reference to David Duchovny 's lawsuit ] . Not even the magnificent season finale [ … ] could erase the nagging doubts I had that a series that had been so amazing for so long would soon embark upon a new course wrought with pitfalls and turmoil . " The A.V. Club noted that while the first eight seasons of The X @-@ Files were " good @-@ to @-@ great " , the seventh season of the show was " flagging " and possessed " significant problems .
The episodes themselves received a variety of reviews . Some were positively received : several reviews praised the episode " X @-@ Cops " , the show 's highly promoted cross @-@ over with the police reality show COPS . One review from the New York Daily News called the outing " exceptionally clever " whereas Starpulse named the episode the funniest of the series . The Duchovny @-@ penned " Hollywood A.D. " was praised for its self @-@ reflexive comedy by several reviews . Other episodes were more harshly received . Anderson 's writing debut , " all things " was critiqued for being " dull " and " heavy @-@ handed " . " Brand X " , on the other hand , was called " a waste of an episode . "
= = = Accolades = = =
The seventh season earned the series six Primetime Emmy Award nominations , with three wins . The episode " First Person Shooter " won for Outstanding Sound Mixing for a Drama Series and Outstanding Special Visual Effects for a Series . The episode " Theef " won for Outstanding Makeup for a Series . Other nominations included Mark Snow for Outstanding Music Composition for a Series ( Dramatic Underscore ) for " Theef " , the episode " First Person Shooter " for Outstanding Sound Editing for a Series , and " Rush " for Outstanding Special Visual Effects for a Series . The series , as well as Gillian Anderson , won a Teen.com Entertainment Award for Best Drama Series and Best Actress in a Series , respectively . Other nominations included two Screen Actors Guild Award nominations for David Duchovny and Gillian Anderson , an Environmental Media Awards nomination for " Brand X " , and an International Monitor Award nomination for " Rush " .
= = DVD release = =
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= Baleen whale =
Baleen whales ( systematic name Mysticeti ) , known earlier as whalebone whales , form a parvorder of the infraorder Cetacea ( whales , dolphins and porpoises ) . They are a widely distributed and diverse parvorder of carnivorous marine mammals . Mysticeti comprise the families Balaenidae ( right whales ) , Balaenopteridae ( rorquals ) , Cetotheriidae ( the pygmy right whale ) , and Eschrichtiidae ( the gray whale ) . There are currently 15 species of baleen whale . While cetaceans were historically thought to have descended from mesonychids , molecular evidence supports them as relatives of even @-@ toed ungulates ( Artiodactyla ) . Baleen whales split from toothed whales ( Odontoceti ) around 34 million years ago .
Baleen whales range in size from the 20 ft ( 6 m ) and 6 @,@ 600 lb ( 3 @,@ 000 kg ) pygmy right whale to the 112 ft ( 34 m ) and 190 t ( 210 short tons ) blue whale , which is also the largest creature on earth . They are sexually dimorphic . Baleen whales can have streamlined or large bodies , depending on the feeding behavior , and two limbs that are modified into flippers . Though not as flexible and agile as seals , baleen whales can swim very fast , with the fastest able to travel at 23 miles per hour ( 37 km / h ) . Baleen whales use their baleen plates to filter out food from the water by either lunge @-@ feeding or gulp @-@ feeding . Baleen whales have fused neck vertebrae , and are unable to turn their head at all . Baleen whales have two blowholes . Some species are well adapted for diving to great depths . They have a layer of fat , or blubber , under the skin to keep warm in the cold water .
Although baleen whales are widespread , most species prefer the colder waters around the Northern and Southern poles . Gray whales are specialized for feeding on bottom @-@ dwelling mollusks . Rorquals are specialized at lunge @-@ feeding , and have a streamlined body to reduce drag while accelerating . Right whales gulp @-@ feed , meaning they use their enlarged head to effectively take in a large amount of water and sieve the slow @-@ moving prey . Males typically mate with more than one female ( polygyny ) , although the degree of polygyny varies with the species . Male strategies for reproductive success vary between performing ritual displays ( whale song ) or lek mating . Calves are typically born in the spring and summer months and females bear all the responsibility for raising them . Mothers fast for a relatively long period of time over the period of migration , which varies between species . Baleen whales produce a number of vocalizations , notably the songs of the humpback whale .
The meat , blubber , baleen , and oil of baleen whales have traditionally been used by the indigenous peoples of the Arctic . Once relentlessly hunted by commercial industries for these products , cetaceans are now protected by international law . However , the North Atlantic right whale is ranked critically endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature . Besides hunting , baleen whales also face threats from marine pollution and ocean acidification . It has been speculated that man @-@ made sonar results in strandings . They have rarely been kept in captivity , and this has only been attempted with juveniles or members of one of the smallest species .
= = Taxonomy = =
Baleen whales are cetaceans classified under the parvorder Mysticeti , and consist of four extant families : Balaenidae ( right whales ) , Balaenopteridae ( rorquals ) , Cetotheriidae ( pygmy right whale ) , and Eschrichtiidae ( gray whale ) . Balaenids are distinguished by their enlarged head and thick blubber , while rorquals and gray whales generally have a flat head , long throat pleats , and are more streamlined than Balaenids . Rorquals also tend to be longer than the latter . Cetaceans ( whales , dolphins , and porpoises ) and artiodactyls are now classified under the order Cetartiodactyla , often still referred to as Artiodactyla ( given that the cetaceans are deeply nested with the artiodactyls ) . The hippopotamus and pygmy hippopotamus are the closest living relatives to baleen whales , aside from toothed whales , and together with cetaceans form the suborder Whippomorpha .
= = = Classification = = =
Balaenidae consists of two genera : Eubalaena ( right whales ) and Balaena ( the bowhead whale , B. mysticetus ) . Balaenidae was thought to have consisted of only one genus until studies done through the early 2000s reported that bowhead whales and right whales are morphologically ( different skull shape ) and phylogenically different . According to a study done by H. C. Rosenbaum ( of the American Museum of Natural History ) and colleagues , the North Pacific ( E. japonica ) and Southern right ( E. australis ) whales are more closely related to each other than to the North Atlantic right whale ( E. glacialis ) .
Rorquals consist of two genera ( Balaenoptera and Megaptera ) and nine species : the fin whale ( B. physalus ) , the Sei whale ( B. borealis ) , Bryde 's whale ( B. brydei ) , Eden 's whale ( B. edeni ) , the blue whale ( B. musculus ) , the common minke whale ( B. acutorostrata ) , the Antarctic minke whale ( B. bonaerensis ) , Omura 's whale ( B. omurai ) , and the humpback whale ( M. novaeangliae ) . In a 2012 review of cetacean taxonomy , Alexandre Hassanin ( of the Muséum National d 'Histoire Naturelle ) and colleagues suggested that , based on phylogenic criteria , there are four extant genera of rorquals . They recommend that the genus Balaenoptera be limited to the fin whale , have minke whales fall under the genus Pterobalaena , and have Rorqualus contain the Sei whale , Bryde 's whale , Eden 's whale , the blue whale , and Omura 's whale .
Cetotheriidae consists of only one living member : the pygmy right whale ( Caperea marginata ) . The first descriptions date back to the 1840s of bones and baleen plates resembling a smaller version of the right whale , and was named Balaena marginata . In 1864 , it was moved into the genus Caperea after a skull of another specimen was discovered . Six years later , the pygmy right whale was classified under the family Neobalaenidae . Despite its name , the pygmy right whale is more genetically similar to rorquals and gray whales than to right whales . A study published in 2012 , based on bone structure , moved the pygmy right whale from the family Neobalaenidae to the family Cetotheriidae , making it a living fossil ; Neobalaenidae was elevated down to subfamily level as Neobalaeninae .
Eschrichtiidae consists of only one living member : the gray whale ( Eschrichtius robustus ) . The two populations , one in the Sea of Okhotsk and Sea of Japan and the other in the Mediterranean Sea and East Atlantic , are thought to be genetically and physiologically dissimilar . The gray whale is traditionally placed as the only living species in its genus and family . However , DNA analysis by studies , such as the one by Takeshi Sasaki ( of the Tokyo Institute of Technology ) and colleagues , indicates certain rorquals , such as the humpback whale , Megaptera novaeangliae , and the fin whale , Balaenoptera physalus , are more closely related to the gray whale than they are to some other rorquals , such as the minke whale , Balaenoptera acutorostrata .
= = = Etymology = = =
The taxonomic name " Mysticeti " ( / ˈmɪstʌsɛtiː / ) apparently derives from a translation error in early copies of Aristotle 's Historia Animalium ( in Ancient Greek ) , in which " ὁ μῦς τὸ κῆτος " ( ho mus to kētos , " the mouse , the whale so called " ) was mistakenly translated as " ὁ μυστικῆτος " ( ο mustikētos , " the Mysticetus " ) , which D. W. Rice ( of the Society for Marine Mammalogy ) in his 1998 work assumed was an ironic reference to the animals ' great size . An alternate name for the parvorder is " Mystacoceti " ( from Greek μύσταξ " mustache " + κῆτος " whale " ) , which , although obviously more appropriate and occasionally used in the past , has been superseded by " Mysticeti " ( junior synonym ) .
Mysticetes are also known as baleen whales because of the presence of baleen . These animals rely on their baleen plates to sieve plankton and other small organisms from the water . The term " baleen " ( Middle English baleyn , ballayne , ballien , bellane , etc . ) is an archaic word for " whale " , derived from the Latin word balæna .
Right whales got their name because of whalers preferring them over other species ; they were essentially the " right whale " to catch .
= = = Differences between families = = =
Rorquals use throat pleats to expand their mouth which allows them to feed more effectively . However , rorquals need to build up water pressure in order to expand their mouth , leading to a lunge @-@ feeding behavior . Lunge @-@ feeding is where a whale rams a bait ball ( a swarm of small fish ) at high speeds . Rorquals generally have a streamlined physique to reduce drag in the water while doing this . Balaenids rely on their huge head , as opposed to the rorquals ' throat pleats , to feed effectively . This feeding behavior allows them to grow very big and bulky , without the necessity for a streamlined body . They have callosities , unlike other whales , with the exception of the bowhead whale . Rorquals have a higher proportion of muscle tissue and tend to be negatively buoyant , whereas right whales have a higher proportion of blubber and are positively buoyant . The gray whale is easily distinguished from other extant cetaceans by its sleet @-@ gray color , a dorsal ridge ( knuckles on the back ) , and its gray @-@ white scars left from parasites . Like in the rorquals , their throat pleats increase the capacity of their throat , allowing them to filter larger volumes of water at once . Gray whales are bottom @-@ feeders , meaning they sift through sand to get their food . They usually turn on their side and scoop up sediment into their mouth and filter out benthic creatures like amphipods , which leaves a noticeable mark on their head . The pygmy right whale is easily confused with minke whales because of their similar characteristics , such as its small size , throat pleats , dark gray top , light gray bottom , and a light eye @-@ patch .
= = = Evolutionary history = = =
Mysticeti split from Odontoceti ( toothed whales ) 34 million years ago during the Eocene . Their evolutionary link to archaic toothed cetaceans ( Archaeoceti ) remained unknown until the extinct Janjucetus hunderi was discovered in the early 1990s in Victoria , Australia . Like a modern baleen whale , Janjucetus had baleen in its jaw and had very little biosonar capabilities . However , its jaw also contained teeth , with incisors and canines built for stabbing and molars and premolars built for tearing . These early mysticetes were exceedingly small compared to modern baleen whales , with species like Mammalodon measuring no greater than 10 feet ( 3 m ) . It is thought that their size increased with their dependence on baleen . The discovery of Janjucetus and others like it suggests that baleen evolution went through several transitional phases . Species like Mammalodon colliveri had little to no baleen , while later species like Aetiocetus weltoni had both baleen and teeth , suggesting they had limited filter feeding capabilities ; later genera like Cetotherium had no teeth in their mouth , meaning they were fully dependent on baleen and could only filter feed .
Fucaia buelli is the earliest mysticete , dating back to 33 million years ago ( mya ) . Measuring only 6 @.@ 6 feet ( 2 m ) , it is the smallest extant baleen whale . It is only known from its teeth ; they suggest a suction feeding behavior , much like that of beaked whales . Like other early toothed mysticetes , or " archaeomysticetes " , F. buelli had heterodont dentition . Archaeomysticetes from the Oligocene are the Mammalodontidae ( Mammalodon and Janjucetus ) from Australia . They were small with shortened rostra , and a primitive dental formula ( 3 @.@ 1 @.@ 4 @.@ 33 @.@ 1 @.@ 4 @.@ 3 ) . In baleen whales , enlarged mouths adapted for suction feeding evolved before specializations for bulk filter feeding . In the toothed Oligocene mammalodontid Janjucetus , the symphysis is short and the mouth enlarged , the rostrum is wide , and the edges of the maxillae are thin , indicating an adaptation for suction feeding . The aetiocetid Chonecetus still had teeth , but the presence of a groove on the interior side of each mandible indicates the symphysis was elastic , which would have enabled rotation of each mandible , an initial adaptation for bulk feeding like in modern mysticetes .
The lineages of rorquals and right whales split almost 20 mya . It is unknown where this occurred , but it is generally believed that they , like their descendants , followed plankton migrations . These primitive mysticetes had lost their heterodont dentition in favor of baleen , and are believed to have lived on a specialized benthic , plankton , or copepod diet like modern mysticetes . Mysticetes experienced their first radiation in the mid @-@ Miocene . Balaenopterids grew bigger during this time , with species like Balaenoptera sibbaldina rivaling the blue whale in terms of size . It is thought this radiation was caused by global climate change and major tectonic activity ( the Antarctic Circumpolar Current ) .
The first toothless ancestors of Mysticetes appeared before the first radiation in the late Oligocene . Eomysticetus and others like it showed no evidence in the skull of echolocation abilities , suggesting they mainly relied on their eyesight for navigation . The eomysticetes had long , flat rostra that lacked teeth and had external nares located halfway up the dorsal side of the snout . Though the palate is not well @-@ preserved in these specimens , they are thought to have had baleen and been filter feeders . Miocene baleen whales were preyed upon by larger predators like killer sperm whales and Megalodon .
= = Anatomy = =
= = = Motion = = =
When swimming , baleen whales rely on their flippers for locomotion in a wing @-@ like manner similar to penguins and sea turtles . Flipper movement is continuous . While doing this , baleen whales use their tail fluke to propel themselves forward through vertical motion while using their flippers for steering , much like an otter . Some species leap out of the water , which may allow them to travel faster . Because of their great size , baleen whales are not flexible or agile like dolphins , and none can move their neck because of the fused cervical vertebrae ; this sacrifices speed for stability in the water . The hind legs are enclosed inside the body , and are thought to be vestigial organs . However , a 2014 study suggests that the pelvic bone serves as support for whale genitalia .
Rorquals , needing to build speed to feed , have several adaptions for reducing drag , including a streamlined body ; a small dorsal fin , relative to its size ; and lack of external ears or long hair . The fin whale , the fastest among baleen whales , can travel at 23 miles per hour ( 37 km / h ) . While feeding , the rorqual jaw expands to a volume that can be bigger than the whale itself ; to do this , the mouth inflates . The inflation of the mouth causes the cavum ventrale , the throat pleats on the underside stretching to the navel , to expand , increasing the amount of water that the mouth can store . The mandible is connected to the skull by dense fibers and cartilage ( fibrocartilage ) , allowing the jaw to swing open at almost a 90 ° angle . The mandibular symphysis is also fibrocartilaginous , allowing the jaw to bend which lets in more water . To prevent stretching the mouth too far , rorquals have a sensory organ located in the middle of the jaw to regulate these functions .
= = = External anatomy = = =
Baleen whales have two flippers on the front , near the head . Like all mammals , baleen whales breathe air and must surface periodically to do so . Their nostrils , or blowholes , are situated at the top of the cranium . Baleen whales have two blowholes , as opposed to toothed whales which have one . These paired blowholes are longitudinal slits that converge anteriorly and widen posteriorly , which causes a V @-@ shaped blow . They are surrounded by a fleshy ridge that keeps water away while the whale breathes . The septum that separates the blowholes has two plugs attached to it , making the blowholes water @-@ tight while the whale dives .
Like other mammals , the skin of baleen whales has an epidermis , a dermis , a hypodermis , and connective tissue . The epidermis , the pigmented layer , is 0 @.@ 2 inches ( 5 mm ) thick , along with connective tissue . The epidermis itself is only 0 @.@ 04 inches ( 1 mm ) thick . The dermis , the layer underneath the epidermis , is also thin . The hypodermis , containing blubber , is the thickest part of the skin and functions as a means to conserve heat . Right whales have the thickest hypodermis of any cetacean , averaging 20 inches ( 51 cm ) , though , as in all whales , it is thinner around openings ( such as the blowhole ) and limbs . Blubber may also be used to store energy during times of fasting . The connective tissue between the hypodermis and muscles allows only limited movement to occur between them . Unlike in toothed whales , baleen whales have small hairs on the top of their head , stretching from the tip of the rostrum to the blowhole , and , in right whales , on the chin . Like other marine mammals , they lack sebaceous and sweat glands .
The baleen of baleen whales are keratinous plates . They are made of a calcified hard α @-@ keratin material , a fiber @-@ reinforced structure made of intermediate filaments ( proteins ) . The degree of calcification varies between species , with the sei whale having 14 @.@ 5 % hydroxyapatite , a mineral that coats teeth and bones , whereas minke whales have 1 – 4 % hydroxyapatite . In most mammals , keratin structures , such as wool , air @-@ dry , but aquatic whales rely on calcium salts to form on the plates to stiffen them . Baleen plates are attached to the upper jaw and are absent in the mid @-@ jaw , forming two separate combs of baleen . The plates decrease in size as they go further back into the jaw ; the largest ones are called the " main baleen plates " and the smallest ones are called the " accessory plates " . Accessory plates taper off into small hairs .
Unlike other whales ( and most other mammals ) , the females are larger than the males . Sexual dimorphism is usually reversed , with the males being larger , but the females of all baleen whales are usually five percent larger than males . Sexual dimorphism is also displayed through whale song , notably in humpback whales where the males of the species sing elaborate songs . Male right whales have bigger callosities than female right whales . The males are generally more scarred than females which is thought to be because of aggression during mating season .
= = = Internal systems = = =
The unique lungs of baleen whales are built to collapse under the pressure instead of resisting the pressure which would damage the lungs , enabling some , like the fin whale , to dive to a depth of − 1 @,@ 540 feet ( − 470 m ) . The whale lungs are very efficient at extracting oxygen from the air , usually 80 % , whereas humans only extract 20 % of oxygen from inhaled air . Lung volume is relatively low compared to terrestrial mammals because of the inability of the respiratory tract to hold gas while diving . Doing so may cause serious complications such as embolism . Unlike other mammals , the lungs of baleen whales lack lobes and are more sacculated . Like in humans , the left lung is smaller than the right to make room for the heart . To conserve oxygen , blood is rerouted from pressure @-@ tolerant @-@ tissue to internal organs , and they have a high concentration of myoglobin which allows them to hold their breath longer .
The heart of baleen whales functions similarly to other mammals , with the major difference being the size . The heart can reach 1 @,@ 000 pounds ( 454 kg ) , but is still proportional to the whale 's size . The muscular wall of the ventricle , which is responsible for pumping blood out of the heart , can be 3 to 5 inches ( 7 @.@ 6 to 12 @.@ 7 cm ) thick . The aorta , an artery , can be .75 inches ( 1 @.@ 9 cm ) thick . Their resting heart rate is 60 to 140 beats per minute ( bpm ) , as opposed to the 60 to 100 bpm in humans . When diving , their heart rate will drop to 4 to 15 bpm to conserve oxygen . Like toothed whales , they have a dense network of blood vessels ( rete mirabile ) which prevents heat @-@ loss . Like in most mammals , heat is lost in their extremities , so , in baleen whales , warm blood in the arteries is surrounded by veins to prevent heat loss during transport . As well as this , heat inevitably given off by the arteries warms blood in the surrounding veins as it travels back into the core . This is otherwise known as countercurrent exchange . To counteract overheating while in warmer waters , baleen whales reroute blood to the skin to accelerate heat @-@ loss . They have the largest blood corpuscles ( red and white blood cells ) of any mammal , measuring 4 @.@ 1 × 10 − 4 inches ( 10 µm ) in diameter , as opposed to human 's 2 @.@ 8 × 10 − 4 @-@ inch ( 7 @.@ 1 µm ) blood corpuscles .
When sieved from the water , food is swallowed and travels through the esophagus where it enters a three @-@ chambered @-@ stomach . The first compartment is known as the fore @-@ stomach ; this is where food gets ground up into an acidic liquid , which is then squirted into the main stomach . Like in humans , the food is mixed with hydrochloric acid and protein @-@ digesting enzymes . Then , the partly digested food is moved into the third stomach , where it meets fat @-@ digesting enzymes , and is then mixed with an alkaline liquid to neutralize the acid from the fore @-@ stomach to prevent damage to the intestinal tract . Their intestinal tract is highly adapted to absorb the most nutrients from food ; the walls are folded and contain copious blood vessels , allowing for a greater surface area over which digested food and water can be absorbed . Baleen whales get the water they need from their food ; however , the salt content of most of their prey ( invertebrates ) are similar to that of seawater , whereas the salt content of a whale 's blood is considerably lower ( three times lower ) than that of seawater . The whale kidney is adapted to excreting excess salt ; however , while producing urine more concentrated than seawater , it wastes a lot of water which must be replaced .
Baleen whales have a relatively small brain compared to their body mass . Like other mammals , their brain has a large , folded cerebrum , the part of the brain responsible for memory and processing sensory information . Their cerebrum only makes up about 68 % of their brain 's weight , as opposed to human 's 83 % . The cerebellum , the part of the brain responsible for balance and coordination , makes up 18 % of their brain 's weight , compared to 10 % in humans , which is probably due to the great degree of control necessary for constantly swimming . Necropsies on the brains of gray whales revealed iron oxide particles , which may allow them to find magnetic north like a compass .
Unlike most animals , whales are conscious breathers . All mammals sleep , but whales cannot afford to become unconscious for long because they may drown . They are believed to exhibit unihemispheric slow @-@ wave sleep , in which they sleep with half of the brain while the other half remains active . This behavior was only documented in toothed whales until footage of a humpback whale sleeping ( vertically ) was shot in 2014 .
It is largely unknown how baleen whales produce sound because of the lack of a melon and vocal cords . In a 2007 study , it was discovered that the larynx had U @-@ shaped folds which are thought to be similar to vocal cords . They are positioned parallel to air flow , as opposed to the perpendicular vocal cords of terrestrial mammals . These may control air flow and cause vibrations . The walls of the larynx are able to contract which may generate sound with support from the arytenoid cartilages . The muscles surrounding the larynx may expel air rapidly or maintain a constant volume while diving .
= = = Senses = = =
The eyes of baleen whales are relatively small for their size and are positioned near the end of the mouth . This is probably because they feed on slow or immobile prey , combined with the fact that most sunlight does not pass 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) , and hence they do not need acute vision . A whale 's eye is adapted for seeing both in the euphotic and aphotic zones by increasing or decreasing the pupil 's size to prevent damage to the eye . As opposed to land mammals which have a flattened lens , whales have a spherical lens . The retina is surrounded by a reflective layer of cells ( tapetum lucidum ) , which bounces light back at the retina , enhancing eyesight in dark areas . However , light is bent more near the surface of the eye when in air as opposed to water ; consequently , they can see much better in the air than in the water . The eyeballs are protected by a thick outer layer to prevent abrasions , and an oily fluid ( instead of tears ) on the surface of the eye . Baleen whales appear to have limited color vision , as they lack S @-@ cones .
The mysticete ear is adapted for hearing underwater , where it can hear sound frequencies as low as 7 Hz and as high as 22 kHz , with the exception of the 52 @-@ hertz whale . It is largely unknown how sound is received by baleen whales . Unlike in toothed whales , sound does not pass through the lower jaw . The auditory meatus is blocked by connective tissue and an ear plug , which connects to the eardrum . The inner @-@ ear bones are contained in the tympanic bulla , a bony capsule . However , this is attached to the skull , suggesting that vibrations passing through the bone is important . Sinuses may reflect vibrations towards the cochlea . It is known that when the fluid inside the cochlea is disturbed by vibrations , it triggers sensory hairs which send electrical current to the brain , where vibrations are processed into sound .
Baleen whales have a small , yet functional , vomeronasal organ . This allows baleen whales to detect chemicals and pheromones released by their prey . It is thought that ' tasting ' the water is important for finding prey , and track down other whales . They are believed to have an impaired sense of smell due to the lack of the olfactory bulb , but they do have an olfactory tract . Baleen whales have few if any taste buds , suggesting they have lost their sense of taste . They do retain salt @-@ receptor taste @-@ buds suggesting that they can taste saltiness .
= = Behavior = =
= = = Migration = = =
It is thought that plankton blooms dictate where whales migrate . This usually occurs in the polar regions during the sunny spring and summer months , bringing along other plankton such as euphausiids which whales feed on . They also migrate to calving grounds in tropical waters during the winter months when plankton populations are low . As well as this , newborns , with underdeveloped blubber , would likely die of frostbite in the winter temperatures . It is also postulated by a 2008 study that these take place to avoid calves being predated on by killer whales . The migration cycle is repeated annually . The gray whale has the longest recorded migration of any mammal , with one traveling 14 @,@ 000 miles ( 23 @,@ 000 km ) from the Sea of Okhotsk to the Baja Peninsula .
= = = Foraging = = =
All baleen whales are carnivorous ; however a 2015 study revealed they house gut flora similar to that of terrestrial herbivores . Different kinds of prey are found in different abundances depending on location , and each type of whale is adapted to a specialized way of foraging . There are two types of feeding behaviors : gulp @-@ feeding and lunge @-@ feeding , but some species do both depending on the type and amount of food . For example , Antarctic residents mostly feed on Euphausiids ; however , this is mainly effective for lunge @-@ feeders , whereas gulp @-@ feeders , like the right whales , feed primarily on copepods . They feed alone or in small groups . Baleen whales get the water they need from their food , and their kidneys excrete excess salt .
The lunge @-@ feeders are the rorquals and the pygmy right whale . To feed , lunge @-@ feeders expand the volume of their jaw to a volume bigger than the original volume of the whale itself ; to do this , the mouth inflates to expand the mouth . The inflation of the mouth causes the throat pleats to expand , increasing the amount of water that the mouth can store . Just before they ram the baitball , the jaw swings open at almost a 90 ° angle and bends which lets in more water . To prevent stretching the mouth too far , rorquals have a sensory organ located in the middle of the jaw to regulate these functions . Then they must decelerate . This process takes a lot of mechanical work , and is only energy @-@ effective when used against a large baitball . The gulp @-@ feeders , or skim @-@ feeders , are right whales and gray whales . To feed , gulp @-@ feeders swim with an open mouth , filling it with water and prey . Prey must occur in sufficient numbers to trigger the whale 's interest , be within a certain size range so that the baleen plates can filter it , and be slow enough so that it cannot escape . The " skimming " may take place on the surface , underwater , or even at the ocean 's bottom , indicated by mud occasionally observed on right whales ' bodies . Gray whales feed primarily on the ocean 's bottom , feeding on benthic creatures .
= = = Predation and parasitism = = =
Adult baleen whales , because of their great size , do not have any natural predators . However , calves can be preyed on by the killer whale . It is thought that annual whale migration occurs to protect the calves from the killer whales . There have also been reports of a pod of killer whales attacking and killing an adult bowhead whale , by holding down its flippers , covering the blowhole , and ramming and biting until death . Generally , a mother and calf pair , when faced with the threat of a killer whale pod , will either fight or flee . Fleeing only occurs in species that can swim away quickly , the rorquals . Slower whales must fight the pod alone or with a small family group . There has been one report of a shark attacking and killing a whale calf . This occurred in 2014 during the sardine run when a shiver of dusky sharks attacked a humpback whale calf . Usually , the only shark that will attack a whale is the cookie cutter shark , which leaves a small , non @-@ fatal bite mark .
Many parasites latch onto whales , notably whale lice and whale barnacles . Almost all species of whale lice are specialized towards a certain species of whale , and there can be more than one species per whale . Whale lice eat dead skin , resulting in minor wounds in the skin . Whale louse infestations are especially evident in right whales , where colonies propagate on their callosities . Though not a parasite , whale barnacles latch onto the skin of a whale during their larval stage . However , in doing so it does not harm nor benefit the whale , so their relationship is often labeled as an example of commensalism . Some baleen whales will deliberately rub themselves on substrate to dislodge parasites . Some species of barnacle , such as Conchoderma auritum and whale barnacles , attach to the baleen plates , though this seldom occurs . A species of copepod , Balaenophilus unisetus , inhabits baleen plates of whales in tropical waters . A species of Antarctic diatom , Cocconeis ceticola , forms a film on the skin , which takes a month to develop ; this film causes minor damage to the skin . They are also plagued by internal parasites such as stomach worms , cestodes , nematodes , liver flukes , and acanthocephalans .
= = = Reproduction and development = = =
Before reaching adulthood , baleen whales grow at an extraordinary rate . In the blue whale , the largest species , the fetus grows by some 220 lb ( 100 kg ) per day just before delivery , and by 180 lb ( 80 kg ) per day during suckling . Before weaning , the calf increases its body weight by 17 t ( 17 long tons ; 19 short tons ) and grows from 23 to 26 ft ( 7 to 8 m ) at birth to 43 to 52 ft ( 13 to 16 m ) long . When it reaches sexual maturity after 5 – 10 years , it will be 66 to 79 ft ( 20 to 24 m ) long and possibly live as long as 80 – 90 years . Calves are born precocial , needing to be able to swim to the surface at the moment of their birth .
Most rorquals mate in warm waters in winter to give birth almost a year later . A 7 @-@ to @-@ 11 month lactation period is normally followed by a year of rest before mating starts again . Adults normally start reproducing when 5 – 10 years old and reach their full length after 20 – 30 years . In the smallest rorqual , the minke whale , 10 ft ( 3 m ) calves are born after a 10 @-@ month pregnancy and weaning lasts until it has reached about 16 to 18 ft ( 5 to 5 @.@ 5 m ) after 6 – 7 months . Unusual for a baleen whale , female minkes ( and humpbacks ) can become pregnant immediately after giving birth ; in most species , there is a two @-@ to @-@ three @-@ year calving period . In right whales , the calving interval is usually three years . They grow very rapidly during their first year , after which they hardly increase in size for several years . They reach sexual maturity when 43 to 46 ft ( 13 to 14 m ) long . Baleen whales are K @-@ strategists , meaning they raise one calf at a time , have a long life @-@ expectancy , and a low infant mortality rate . Some 19th century harpoons found in harvested bowheads indicate this species can live more than 100 years . Baleen whales are promiscuous , with none showing pair bonds . They are polygynous , in that a male may mate with more than one female . The scars on male whales suggest they fight for the right to mate with females during breeding season , somewhat similar to lek mating .
Baleen whales have fibroelastic ( connective tissue ) penises , similar to those of artiodactyls . The tip of the penis , which tapers toward the end , is called the pars intrapraeputialis or terminal cone . The blue whale has the largest penis of any organism on the planet , typically measuring 8 – 10 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 – 3 @.@ 0 m ) . Accurate measurements of the blue whale are difficult to take because the whale 's erect length can only be observed during mating . The penis on a right whale can be up to 2 @.@ 7 m ( 8 @.@ 9 ft ) – the testes , at up to 2 m ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) in length , 78 cm ( 2 @.@ 56 ft ) in diameter , and weighing up to 525 lb ( 238 kg ) , are also the largest of any animal on Earth .
= = = Whale song = = =
All baleen whales use sound for communication and are known to " sing " , especially during the breeding season . Blue whales produce the loudest sustained sounds of any animals : their low @-@ frequency ( about 20 Hz ) moans can last for half a minute , reach almost 190 decibels , and be heard hundreds of kilometers away . Adult male humpbacks produce the longest and most complex songs ; sequences of moans , groans , roars , sighs , and chirps sometimes lasting more than ten minutes are repeated for hours . Typically , all humpback males in a population sing the same song over a breeding season , but the songs change slightly between seasons , and males in one population have been observed adapting the song from males of a neighboring population over a few breeding seasons .
= = = Intelligence = = =
Unlike their toothed whale counterparts , baleen whales are hard to study because of their immense size . Intelligence tests such as the mirror test cannot be done because their bulk and lack of body language makes a reaction impossible to be definitive . However , studies on the brains of humpback whales revealed spindle cells , which , in humans , control theory of mind . Because of this , it is thought that baleen whales , or at least humpback whales , have consciousness .
= = Relationship with humans = =
= = = History of whaling = = =
Whaling by humans has existed since the Stone Age . Ancient whalers used harpoons to spear the bigger animals from boats out at sea . People from Norway started hunting whales around 4 @,@ 000 years ago , and people from Japan began hunting whales in the Pacific at least as early as that . Whales are typically hunted for their meat and blubber by aboriginal groups ; they used baleen for baskets or roofing , and made tools and masks out of bones . The Inuit hunted whales in the Arctic Ocean . The Basques started whaling as early as the 11th century , sailing as far as Newfoundland in the 16th century in search of right whales . 18th and 19th century whalers hunted down whales mainly for their oil , which was used as lamp fuel and a lubricant , and baleen ( or whalebone ) , which was used for items such as corsets and skirt hoops . The most successful whaling nations at this time were the Netherlands , Japan , and the United States .
Commercial whaling was historically important as an industry well throughout the 19th and 20th centuries . Whaling was at that time a sizable European industry with ships from Britain , France , Spain , Denmark , the Netherlands , and Germany , sometimes collaborating to hunt whales in the Arctic . By the early 1790s , whalers , namely the British ( Australian ) and Americans , started to focus efforts in the South Pacific ; in the mid 1900s , over 50 @,@ 000 humpback whale were taken from the South Pacific . At its height in the 1880s , U.S. profits turned to USD10,000,000 , equivalent to USD225,000,000 today . Commonly exploited species included arctic whales such as the gray whale , right whale , and bowhead whale because they were close to the main whaling ports , like New Bedford . After those stocks were depleted , rorquals in the South Pacific were targeted by nearly all whaling organizations ; however , they often out @-@ swam whaling vessels . Whaling rorquals was not effective until the harpoon cannon was invented in the late 1860s . Whaling basically stopped when stocks of all species were depleted to a point that they could not be harvested on a commercial scale . Whaling was controlled in 1982 when the International Whaling Commission ( IWC ) placed a moratorium setting catch limits to protect species from dying out from over @-@ exploitation , and eventually banned it :
Notwithstanding the other provisions of paragraph 10 , catch limits for the killing for commercial purposes of whales from all stocks for the 1986 coastal and the 1985 / 86 pelagic seasons and thereafter shall be zero . This provision will be kept under review , based upon the best scientific advice , and by 1990 at the latest the Commission will undertake a comprehensive assessment of the effects of this decision on whale stocks and consider modification of this provision and the establishment of other catch limits .
– IWC Commission Schedule , paragraph 10 ( e )
= = = Conservation and management issues = = =
As of 2013 , the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) recognizes 15 mysticete species . One species — the North Atlantic right whale — is Endangered with only around 400 ( ± 50 ) individuals left , and four more are also classified as Endangered ( North Pacific right whale , the blue whale , the fin whale , and the Sei whale ) , and another 5 ranked as Data deficient ( Bryde 's whale , Eden 's whale , Omura 's whale , Southern minke whale , and pygmy right whale ) . Species that live in polar habitats are vulnerable to the effects of ongoing climate change , particularly declines in sea ice , as well as ocean acidification .
The whale watching industry and anti @-@ whaling advocates argue that whaling catches " friendly " whales that are curious about boats , as these whales are the easiest to catch . This analysis claims that once the economic benefits of hotels , restaurants and other tourist amenities are considered , hunting whales is a net economic loss . This argument is particularly contentious in Iceland , as it has among the most @-@ developed whale @-@ watching operations in the world and the hunting of minke whales resumed in August 2003 . Brazil , Argentina and South Africa argue that whale watching is a growing billion @-@ dollar industry that provides more revenue than commercial whaling would provide . Peru , Uruguay , Australia , and New Zealand also support proposals to permanently forbid whaling south of the Equator , as Solor ( an island of Indonesia ) is the only place of the Southern Hemisphere that takes whales . Anti @-@ whaling groups claim that developing countries which support a pro @-@ whaling stance are damaging their economies by driving away anti @-@ whaling tourists .
Commercial whaling was historically important for the world economy . All species were exploited , and as one type 's stock depleted , another type was targeted . The scale of whale harvesting decreased substantially through the 1960s as all whale stocks had been depleted , and practically stopped in 1988 after the International Whaling Commission placed a moratorium which banned whaling for commercial use . Several species that were commercially exploited have rebounded in numbers ; for example , gray whales may be as numerous as they were prior to whaling , making it the first marine mammal to be taken off the Endangered species list . The Southern right whale was hunted to near extinction in the mid @-@ to @-@ late 20th century , with only a small ( unknown ) population around Antarctica . Because of international protection , the Southern right whale 's population has been growing 7 % annually since 1970 . Conversely , the eastern stock of North Atlantic right whale was extirpated from much of its former range , which stretched from the coast of North Africa to the North Sea and Iceland ; it is thought that the entire stock consists of only ten individuals , making the eastern stock functionally extinct .
Baleen whales continue to be harvested . However , only three nations take whales : Iceland , Norway , and Japan . All these nations are part of the IWC , with Norway and Iceland rejecting the moratorium and continuing commercial whaling . Japan , being part of the IWC , whales under the Scientific Permit stated in Article VIII in the Convention for the Regulation of Whaling , which allows the taking of whales for scientific research . Japan has had two main research programs : the Joint Aquatic Resources Permit Application ( JARPA ) and the Japanese Research Program in the North ( JARPN ) . JARPN is focused in the North Pacific and JARPA around the Antarctic . JARPA mainly caught Antarctic minke whales , catching nearly 7 @,@ 000 ; to a far lesser extent , they also caught fin whales . Animal @-@ rights activist groups , such as the Greenpeace , object to Japan 's scientific whaling , with some calling it a substitute for commercial whaling . In 2014 , the International Court of Justice ( the UN judicial branch ) banned the taking of whales for any purpose in the Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary ; however , Japan refuses to stop whaling and has only promised to cut their annual catches by a third ( around 300 whales per year ) .
Baleen whales can also be affected by humans in more indirect ways . For species like the North Atlantic right whale , which migrates through some of the world 's busiest shipping lanes , the biggest threat is from being struck by ships . The Lloyd 's mirror effect results in low frequency propeller sounds not being discernible near the surface , where most accidents occur . Combined with spreading and acoustic shadowing effects , the result is that the whale is unable to hear an approaching vessel before it has been run over or entrapped by the hydrodynamic forces of the vessel 's passage . A 2014 study noted that a lower vessel speed correlated with lower collision rates . The ever @-@ increasing amount of ocean noise , including sonar , drowns out the vocalizations produced by whales , notably in the blue whale which produces the loudest vocalization , which makes it harder for them to communicate . Blue whales stop producing foraging D calls once a mid @-@ frequency sonar is activated , even though the sonar frequency range ( 1 – 8 kHz ) far exceeds their sound production range ( 25 – 100 Hz ) . Poisoning from toxic substances such as Polychlorinated biphenyl ( PCB ) is generally low because of their low trophic level . Some baleen whales can become victims of bycatch , which is especially serious for North Atlantic right whales considering there are only 450 left . Right whales feed with a wide @-@ open mouth , risking entanglement in any rope or net fixed in the water column . Rope wraps around their upper jaw , flippers and tail . Some are able to escape , but others remain entangled . If observers notice , they can be successfully disentangled , but others die over a period of months . Other whales , such as humpback whales , can also be entangled .
= = = In captivity = = =
Baleen whales have rarely been kept in captivity . Their large size and appetite make them expensive creatures to maintain . Pools of proper size would also be very expensive to build . For example , a single gray whale calf would need to eat 475 pounds ( 215 kg ) of fish per day , and the pool would have to accommodate the 13 @-@ foot ( 4 m ) calf , along with ample room to swim . Only two species have survived being kept in captivity for over a year : gray whales and minke whales . The first gray whale , who was captured in Scammon 's Lagoon , Baja California Sur , in 1965 , was named Gigi and died two months later from an infection . The second gray whale , who was captured in 1972 from the same lagoon , was named Gigi II and was released a year later after becoming too big . The last gray whale , J.J. , beached herself in Marina del Rey , California , where she was rushed to SeaWorld San Diego and , after 14 months , was released because she got too big to take care of . Reaching 19 @,@ 200 pounds ( 8 @,@ 700 kg ) and 31 feet ( 9 @.@ 4 m ) , J.J. was the largest creature to be kept in captivity . The Mito Aquarium in Numazu , Shizuoka , Japan , housed three minke whales in the nearby bay enclosed by nets . One survived for three months , another ( a calf ) survived for two weeks , and another was kept for a year before breaking through the nets .
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= Louis F. Menage =
Louis Francois Menage ( August 3 , 1850 – March 18 , 1924 ) was a real estate speculator and prominent figure in early Minneapolis , Minnesota history . Originally born in Rhode Island , he settled in Minneapolis in 1874 . Characterized as a " tycoon " and " robber baron , " Menage earned a fortune developing land on the city 's borders into residential housing and financing the mortgages to enable people to buy his properties . During the 1870s and 1880s , he developed large areas of South Minneapolis including much of the area around Lake Calhoun and Lake Harriet . He also developed a luxury resort on Lake Calhoun and built a corporate headquarters which was at the time the city 's tallest skyscraper .
After a costly legal battle over a real estate deal with William S. King and the financial downturn of the Panic of 1893 , Menage 's real estate empire collapsed and he fled the country to avoid prosecution on charges of embezzlement . The charges against Menage were eventually dropped after several key witnesses had died or become hesitant to testify against him . He spent the later portion of his life working in real estate in the New York City area and never worked in Minnesota again .
= = Early life = =
Menage was born in Providence , Rhode Island in 1850 . His father , John Menage , was the descendant of French immigrants ; his mother Mary was a descendant of Mayflower passenger John Howland . The family moved to New Bedford , Massachusetts , when Menage was young . While in Menage was high school , his father died of tuberculosis , leaving Louis and his brother to take over the family 's confectionery business . In 1871 , a doctor diagnosed Menage with " weak lungs " and suggested he move west to avoid falling ill with tuberculosis himself . Menage moved to Minnesota shortly thereafter . After a brief time teaching classes in shorthand at a Minneapolis business school , he found work as a business clerk in Northern Minnesota at a logging camp near Pokegama Lake .
= = Real estate empire = =
In 1874 , Menage returned to Minneapolis and entered the real estate business with partner H. C. Brackett . Menage gradually built an empire by purchasing farmland at the fringes of the city , platting and developing the property into residential neighborhoods , then financing the mortgages for people to purchase the homes . He also worked with Thomas Lowry , head of the city 's streetcar system , to ensure that new lines were built to serve the outlying areas he was developing . Much of the present day Prospect Park neighborhood , and the areas surrounding Lake Harriet and Lake Calhoun , were developed by Menage and his companies .
A small inclusion in the title of every property Menage sold was a covenant stating that it would revert to Menage or his descendants if alcohol was ever sold there . Menage would release this covenant in exchange for a small cash payment .. This so @-@ called " Menage forfeiture clause " remained in force on thousands of properties for decades . The cash payments to release it generated a significant side income for Menage and his successors . In 1937 , the Minnesota Legislature passed a law nullifying the clause .
On September 13 , 1876 Menage married Amanda A. Bull , daughter of local businessman and Minneapolis pioneer Benjamin S. Bull . They had one daughter , Bessie ( 1877 – 1940 ) .
In June 1883 , he opened the luxurious Lyndale Hotel near Lake Calhoun . One of the city 's first luxury resorts , the hotel featured multi @-@ room suites and luxurious common areas including a dining room , music hall and two verandas . The hotel 's opening was celebrated with a gala attended by many of the city 's leaders and elites . A streetcar was specially arranged to take guests back to Minneapolis after the night 's festivities had ended .
= = Lyndale Farm = =
Menage ran into legal trouble with the purchase of a large plot of land south of Minneapolis known as " Lyndale Farm . " Owned by William S. King , the land had been placed in trust with New York financier Philo Remington in 1875 after King had fallen into financial trouble . Remington ( joined later by a partner , Robert Innes ) advanced King a sum of money in exchange for managing the land and seeing that it was developed or sold for a fair price . When King declared bankruptcy in 1877 , Remington and Innes purchased the Lyndale Farm land from King for a token sum but promised to honor their previous agreement .
Remington and Innes later met with Menage and , in 1882 , devised a plan to sell King 's land to Menage for development without telling King . Menage also negotiated a separate deal with Innes ( likely behind Remington 's back ) where he agreed to pay him one @-@ third of the profits made from the land as a finder 's fee and in exchange for Innes ' help keeping Remington and King at bay . Menage proceeded to develop the land into housing and profited handsomely .
By 1885 , King became aware of the scheme and retained lawyer John Van Voorhis to sue Menage . Menage claimed ignorance of the first agreement between King , Remington and Innes and asserted that he had purchased the property outright from the two . After a lengthy trial in Minnesota District Court , Menage lost and was ordered to return the land to King along with all proceeds from the development of the land . Menage appealed to the Minnesota Supreme Court in 1886 , however the lower court 's decision was upheld .
The total amount Menage paid to King was approximately $ 2 million ( $ 52 @.@ 67 million in 2015 ) . While at the time Menage maintained he was not burdened by the judgment , he later recalled the protracted legal battle and subsequent loss " threatened bankruptcy and ruin . "
= = Northwestern Guaranty Loan Company = =
In 1889 , Menage founded the Northwestern Guaranty Loan Company to handle the mortgage side of his real estate business . Among the members of the company 's board were : John S. Pillsbury , William D. Washburn , Thomas Lowry , William Henry Eustis , Loren Fletcher , and many other important political and business figures . His real estate business was handled by a separate company called the Menage Realty Company . In 1890 , Menage further cemented his place in the city by building the Northwestern Guaranty Loan Building ( more commonly known as the Metropolitan Building ) , the city 's tallest skyscraper , at a cost of more than $ 1 million ( $ 26 @.@ 34 million in 2015 ) . The building was home to all of Menage 's various companies as well as other offices , a rooftop restaurant , and a private law library .
While Minneapolis was the center of Menage 's empire , he also owned land and property elsewhere in the Midwest and western states including Bozeman , Montana , Galveston , Texas , Gary , Indiana , and Madison , Wisconsin .
= = Philanthropy = =
Menage contributed to various charitable and philanthropic causes in Minneapolis . He donated funds toward the construction of the first Minneapolis Public Library building , provided a temporary home for the Ripley Memorial Hospital , and also sponsored a new bell in the First Baptist Church which he attended .
In 1890 , Menage sponsored a scientific expedition to the Philippines in partnership with the Minnesota Academy of Natural Sciences . The expedition , led primarily by Dean Conant Worcester and Frank Swift Bourns , collected thousands of specimens of birds and animals ; some , such as the Philippine slow loris ( Nycticebus menagensis ) and the Sulu bleeding @-@ heart ( Gallicolumba menagei ) , were named in honor of Menage . While many of the specimens from the expedition appear to have been lost or discarded , some remain in the collections of the Bell Museum of Natural History and the Field Museum of Natural History .
= = Financial collapse and later life = =
In the early 1890s , Menage had begun to purchase land near Puget Sound in Washington , accumulating several thousand acres which he planned to develop into an iron mine , smelter and steel mill , along with housing for the workers . To finance the development he sold an early form of mortgage @-@ backed security to investors in New England and Europe . When the Panic of 1893 occurred , investors found that Menage 's properties were fraudulent . Many of the deeds were held by random names taken from the Minneapolis and Saint Paul telephone books , the properties themselves were unimproved , and the payments to investors were being made out of the bank 's funds .
His Northwestern Guaranty Loan Company ( and , by the law of the era , its shareholders ) were liable for the losses . Menage was indicted on charges of embezzlement but fled to Guatemala before a warrant for his arrest was issued . Menage 's assistant , Donald Streeter , was tried twice but both trials ended with a hung jury . In an 1895 letter , Menage protested his innocence , blaming the Lyndale Farm lawsuit for hurting his finances and also noting ( correctly ) that : " the practice of using another 's name on a note or mortgage is not unknown in the business world . " In 1899 , the charges against Menage were dropped after several key witnesses had died and others appeared reluctant to testify . By some accounts Menage was present in the courtroom at the time ; others suggest he never returned to Minneapolis .
Menage spent the rest of his life living in New Jersey and working in real estate in the New York City area . He died in 1924 . He is buried in Lakewood Cemetery in Minneapolis .
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= James Dutton ( Royal Marines officer ) =
Lieutenant General Sir James Benjamin " Jim " Dutton , KCB , CBE , ADC ( born 21 February 1954 ) is the former Governor of Gibraltar and a retired Royal Marines officer . He held various staff positions in his early career , before commanding 40 Commando . As a brigadier , he held two high @-@ level staff posts — the first at the Ministry of Defence in London , as Director of NATO policy , and the second as a British liaison to The Pentagon shortly after the September 11 attacks , where he was involved in the planning for the subsequent invasion of Afghanistan . A newspaper later pinpointed this as the moment when Dutton 's career " took off " .
After the planning for the invasion , Dutton took command of 3 Commando Brigade , which was already serving in Afghanistan . In 2003 , he led the brigade into the start of Iraq War , supported by units from the British Army as well as the United States Marine Corps , making Dutton the first British officer to command American troops since the Second World War . He commanded his men through heavy resistance from Iraqi forces in the early days of the war .
As a general officer , he served as Commandant General Royal Marines , the professional head of the Royal Marines and a dual @-@ hatted appointment with Commander UK Amphibious Forces , for two years . While in this post , Dutton returned to Iraq to command Multi @-@ national Division ( South @-@ East ) in 2005 , where he attracted media attention through outspoken remarks alleging Iranian support for the insurgents in Iraq . His last field post , as a lieutenant general , was as Deputy Commander of the International Security Assistance Force in Afghanistan . He held the position from 2008 to 2009 , during the peak of the Taliban insurgency , and assisted American General Stanley A. McChrystal , then commander of ISAF , in redesigning the military strategy to combat the insurgency . Dutton retired in 2010 but was later appointed Governor of Gibraltar , taking up office on 6 December 2013 , where he retired early , in September 2015 .
= = Early and personal life = =
Dutton , the son of Edgar and Aileen Dutton , was educated at The King 's School , Chester , before attending City University London , where he gained a Bachelor of Science degree in Systems and Management . He is married to Elizabeth ( née Waddell ) . The couple have one son , who is also an officer in the Royal Marines , and one daughter . Dutton lists his interests as sailing and running .
= = Early military career = =
Dutton originally applied to join the British Army but failed the selection process . He applied to join , and was commissioned into , the Royal Marines in 1972 . He was promoted to acting lieutenant in 1975 , before being granted the substantive rank in 1976 , with seniority from October 1975 . He served as a signals officer in the Falklands War and , after holding a variety of staff positions in the junior ranks , was promoted to major in 1990 . In 1996 he assumed command of 40 Commando , in which position he served on manoeuvres in Asia and South Africa .
As a brigadier , Dutton served at the Ministry of Defence as Director , NATO policy , a senior staff post , prior to attending the Royal College of Defence Studies . He was pulled off the course before completion and seconded to The Pentagon in Washington , DC to act as liaison between the British Chief of the Defence Staff and the American Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff in the immediate aftermath of the terrorist attacks on the United States .
While seconded to The Pentagon , Dutton was involved in the joint American and British planning for the subsequent " War on Terror " . The Times called this assignment the moment Dutton 's career " took off " . " Keen " to command the Royal Marines in action in Afghanistan , Dutton took command of 3 Commando Brigade in 2002 and deployed to Afghanistan in command of 1700 personnel , succeeding Roger Lane . The replacement was controversial and led to speculation that it was politically motivated by Lane 's criticism of the Ministry of Defence and public contradiction of Geoff Hoon , then Secretary of State for Defence , over the readiness of troops .
The brigade had a tour of duty in Iraq in early 2003 , at the very beginning of the Iraq War . Dutton led 3 Commando , as well as supporting units from the Royal Engineers , 7 Armoured Division , 16 Air Assault Brigade along with troops from multiple other nations , including US Marines , the first time American troops had been under the operational command of a British officer since the Second World War . Royal Marines from 40 Commando under Dutton 's overall command , along with United States Navy SEALs , secured oil fields on the Al @-@ Faw Peninsula to prevent them from being burned in the first days of the ground operation , after which 40 Commando and others from 3 Commando Brigade moved up the peninsula and took the port city of Umm Qasr , where they encountered resistance into the fifth day of the ground campaign .
Dutton also commanded the brigade through heavy fighting on the outskirts of Basra and commented that the fighting had been more intense there than predicted , saying " the planning assumption had always been that the advancing coalition forces would simply sweep past Basra and it would implode by itself " . Dutton 's calmness during the invasion prompted journalist Tim Butcher , who reported on the war while attached to 3 Commando Brigade , to describe him as " a lean , thinking man with none of the tub @-@ thumping machismo of some officers " and " coldly professional in his job " .
While still under Dutton 's command in late 2003 , 3 Commando Brigade conducted the Royal Marines ' first visit to Slovenia , prior to the country 's ascension to the European Union and NATO , for alpine warfare training led by Slovenian troops and culminating in the five @-@ day Exercise Royal Chamois . With the brigade , Dutton also undertook cold @-@ weather training in Norway in 2004 . He was appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire ( CBE ) in October 2003 .
In 2002 , Dutton was given the honorary appointment of Aide @-@ de @-@ camp to the Queen .
= = High command = =
Dutton attained general officer status with promotion to major general on 4 May 2004 , and was appointed to the double @-@ hatted post of Commandant General Royal Marines ( CGRM ) and Commander UK Amphibious Forces ( COMUKAMPHIBFOR ) . He relinquished CGRM / COMUKAMPHIBFOR in June 2006 , succeeded by Major General Garry Robison , taking a staff post as Chief of Staff ( Capability ) , before appointment to Chief of Staff ( Operations ) . He was appointed Honorary Colonel of 131 Independent Commando Squadron Royal Engineers in March 2006 , succeeding Lieutenant General Sir Robert Fry .
In 2005 , he deployed to Basra , Iraq , taking command of Multi @-@ national Division ( South @-@ East ) . While there , he was outspoken on the subject of improvised explosive devices , responsible for many coalition casualties , and accusing neighbouring Iran of aiding , or failing to prevent , the smuggling of munitions across the border into Iraq . Dutton added " I simply don 't know whether this is Iranian government policy or whether this is simply groups who are using Iran for their own purposes and not being controlled " .
Having been promoted to lieutenant general in November 2008 , Dutton succeeded Army Lieutenant General Jonathon Riley as Deputy Commander of the International Security Assistance Force ( ISAF ) in Afghanistan , a position he occupied until November 2009 . During his tenure , the insurgency in Afghanistan peaked . Dutton helped American General Stanley A. McChrystal , then overall commander of troops in the country , formulate a new strategy to combat the insurgency , which included an increase in the number of troops . Dutton was succeeded in his post at ISAF by Lieutenant General ( later General Sir ) Nick Parker at the end of 2009 .
Upon his return from Afghanistan , Dutton wrote an article for The Guardian newspaper , in which he opined that the NATO @-@ led forces in the country were making a difference and the situation was improving , but that the Afghan government still required assistance . He argued that more troops did not necessarily mean more violence , saying that " experience shows that after an initial spike as the insurgents are cleared out , violence reduces to much lower levels " and that " providing a sense of security depends on much more than physical troop presence , but it has to start with that . We need sufficient troops to protect the people and convince them that Afghan government control ( supported by [ ISAF ] for the moment ) is sufficient to prevent the return of the insurgents . He went on to say that " the backbone of the NATO alliance gives the coalition a steadfastness which " coalitions of the willing " cannot match . It also gives unparalleled authority and legitimacy based on the consensus of its members " . Dutton concluded that " given the strength of this unparalleled military coalition , and the political and financial commitment to building the long @-@ term stability of Afghanistan and the region , failure should not be contemplated " . He was awarded the American Legion of Merit ( Degree of Officer ) , and given permission to wear the decoration , " in recognition of meritorious , gallant and distinguished services during coalition operations in Afghanistan " .
Dutton retired from active service on 3 May 2010 . He was appointed Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath ( KCB ) in the 2010 Queen 's Birthday Honours .
= = Civilian career = =
After retiring from the Royal Marines in 2010 , Dutton joined Bechtel Corporation as an operations manager , dealing with issues in the Middle East , and went on to become the company 's programme director for Gabon in 2011 . After three years with Bechtel , he was appointed governor of the British Overseas Territory of Gibraltar , and took office on 6 December 2013 .
On 26 May 2015 it was announced that Dutton would relinquish the post early . Dutton resigned effectively on 28 September 2015 , concluding his civilian career working with the British Foreign Office . Dutton cited that his resignation was due to his frustration over the British Government 's lack of action towards the Spanish aggression in Gibraltar 's sovereign waters , his disenchantment with the largely ceremonial office of Governor ( later denied ) and his personal inability to act on these events .
With Dutton 's leaving of office , his Deputy Governor , Alison MacMillan , was sworn in as interim Governor of Gibraltar on the same day as his official departure . Mrs MacMillan had already served as interim Governor , doing so when Sir Adrian Johns resigned in 2013 . It was announced on 1 October 2015 by the Foreign Office that Lieutenant General Ed Davis will be succeeding Dutton as Governor of Gibraltar effective 2016 .
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= HMS Havock ( H43 ) =
HMS Havock was an H @-@ class destroyer built for the British Royal Navy in the mid @-@ 1930s . During the Spanish Civil War of 1936 – 1939 , the ship enforced the arms blockade imposed by Britain and France on both sides as part of the Mediterranean Fleet . During the first few months of the Second World War , Havock searched for German commerce raiders in the Atlantic Ocean and participated in the First Battle of Narvik during the Norwegian Campaign of April – June 1940 before she was transferred back to the Mediterranean Fleet in May where she escorted a number of convoys to Malta . The ship took part in the Battle of Cape Spada in July 1940 , the Battle of Cape Matapan in March 1941 and the evacuation of Greece in April 1941 . She was damaged during the Battle of Crete the following month , but participated in the Syria – Lebanon Campaign in June .
Havock began escorting supply convoys in June to Tobruk , Libya until the ship was damaged in October . She was repaired in time to escort a convoy to Malta during the First Battle of Sirte in December and was badly damaged by the Italian battleship Littorio whilst protecting another convoy during the Second Battle of Sirte in March 1942 . Repairs were attempted in Malta , but the ship was further damaged in an air raid in early April . The Admiralty decided that further attempts to repair her at Malta were pointless and ordered her to Gibraltar for permanent repairs . On 6 April , while on passage to Gibraltar , Havock ran aground near Cape Bon , Tunisia , and her crew was interned by the Vichy French at Laghouat in the Sahara .
= = Description and construction = =
Havock displaced 1 @,@ 350 long tons ( 1 @,@ 370 t ) at standard load and 1 @,@ 883 long tons ( 1 @,@ 913 t ) at deep load . The ship had an overall length of 323 feet ( 98 @.@ 5 m ) , a beam of 33 feet ( 10 @.@ 1 m ) and a draught of 12 feet 5 inches ( 3 @.@ 8 m ) . She was powered by Parsons geared steam turbines , driving two shafts , which developed a total of 34 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 25 @,@ 000 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 36 knots ( 67 km / h ; 41 mph ) . Steam for the turbines was provided by three Admiralty 3 @-@ drum boilers . Havock carried a maximum of 470 long tons ( 480 t ) of fuel oil that gave her a range of 5 @,@ 530 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 240 km ; 6 @,@ 360 mi ) at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . The ship 's complement was 137 officers and men in peacetime , but this increased to 146 in wartime .
The ship mounted four 45 @-@ calibre 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch Mk IX guns in single mounts , designated ' A ' , ' B ' , ' X ' , and ' Y ' from front to rear . For anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) defence , Havock had two quadruple Mark I mounts for the 0 @.@ 5 inch Vickers Mk III machine gun . She was fitted with two above @-@ water quadruple torpedo tube mounts for 21 @-@ inch torpedoes . One depth charge rail and two throwers were fitted ; 20 depth charges were originally carried , but this increased to 35 shortly after the war began . By mid @-@ 1940 , this had increased to 44 depth charges .
Ordered on 13 December 1934 from William Denny & Brothers , Havock was laid down at their shipyard at Dumbarton , Scotland on 15 May 1935 . She was launched on 7 July 1936 and completed on 16 January 1937 . Excluding government @-@ furnished equipment like the armament , the ship cost £ 248 @,@ 470 .
= = = Wartime modifications = = =
Most ships of Havock 's class had the rear torpedo tubes replaced by a 12 @-@ pounder AA gun after the evacuation of Dunkirk in 1940 , but it is not clear if she received this modification . Other changes may have included exchanging her two quadruple .50 @-@ calibre Vickers machine guns mounted between her funnels for two Oerlikon 20 mm AA guns , the addition of two Oerlikon guns to her searchlight platform and another pair on the wings of the ship 's bridge .
= = Service = =
Havock was assigned to the 2nd Destroyer Flotilla of the Mediterranean Fleet upon commissioning . She patrolled Spanish waters during the Spanish Civil War enforcing the policies of the Non @-@ Intervention Committee . On the night of 31 August / 1 September 1937 , she was unsuccessfully attacked by the Italian submarine Iride with torpedoes , between the Gulf of Valencia and the Balearic Islands . The ship was refitted in Gibraltar between 19 October and 13 November and required repairs between 16 April and 6 May 1938 after hitting the stone side of a quay . Havock was given a brief refit at Sheerness Dockyard between 15 and 26 August 1939 before returning to Gibraltar .
The ship sailed to Freetown , Sierra Leone on 30 August and arrived on 4 September to search for German commerce raiders . She was transferred back to the UK in November for a more thorough refit at Sheerness between 18 December and 23 March 1940 . In the meantime , the 2nd Destroyer Flotilla had been assigned to the Home Fleet and Havock rejoined them when her refit was finished . On 6 April Havock and the rest of the 2nd Destroyer Flotilla escorted the four destroyer minelayers of the 20th Destroyer Flotilla as they sailed to implement Operation Wilfred , an operation to lay mines in the Vestfjord to prevent the transport of Swedish iron ore from Narvik to Germany . The mines were laid on the early morning of 8 April , before the Germans began their invasion , and the destroyers joined the battlecruiser Renown and her escorts .
During the First Battle of Narvik on 10 April 1940 , Havock and four other H @-@ class ships of the 2nd Destroyer Flotilla attacked the German destroyers that had transported German troops to occupy Narvik in northern Norway the previous day . The flotilla leader Hardy led four of her half @-@ sisters down Ofotfjord in a surprise dawn attack on Narvik harbour during a blinding snowstorm . Hotspur and Hostile were initially left at the entrance , but Havock was third into the harbour and fired five of her torpedoes into the mass of shipping . One torpedo hit the German destroyer Z22 Anton Schmitt in the stern . In addition , the ship hit Z18 Hans Lüdemann twice with 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch ( 120 mm ) shells . As the British ships were withdrawing , they encountered five German destroyers at close range . Two of the German ships crossed the T of the British ships and quickly set Hardy on fire and forced her to run aground . Havock was next in line and fired torpedoes at the German destroyers , but they all missed . She was hit in return , but not significantly damaged . In the confusion and limited visibility , Havock pulled out of the line to find out what happened to Hardy and to protect the rear of the British formation from the other three German destroyers in pursuit , but then had to then to turn again to allow her rear guns to fire when her forward guns failed . Havock and Hostile turned back to protect their badly damaged sister , Hotspur , and all three continued to withdraw down the Ofotfjord . En route , they encountered the German supply ship Rauenfels , loaded with artillery and ammunition , whose crew ran her aground and abandoned ship after Hostile fired at the ship . A boarding party from Havock found the ship on fire and she blew up after the ship fired two shells into her . The ship remained in Norwegian waters until May , when she escorted the light cruiser Birmingham on an unsuccessful sweep of the North Sea looking for German ships , early in the month .
Havock was assigned to the Nore Command shortly afterwards and bombarded German troops occupying Waalhaven Airfield on 10 May together with her sister Hyperion . She rescued survivors from the sunken ferry Prinses Juliana off the Dutch coast and returned them to the Hook of Holland where she recovered a number of British demolition parties . On 16 May , the ship ordered to reinforce the Mediterranean Fleet at Malta and was assigned to the 2nd Destroyer Flotilla . During the Battle of Cape Spada on 19 July , the ship escorted the Australian light cruiser HMAS Sydney and rescued some of the 525 survivors from the Italian cruiser Bartolomeo Colleoni together with the other escorting destroyers . Her boiler room was flooded after an attack by Italian aircraft after this battle and she was repaired at Suez from 29 July to 15 September . Havock and her sister Hasty surprised the Italian submarine Berillo on the surface on 2 October off the coast of Egypt and forced her to scuttle herself . The destroyers rescued 47 survivors between them .
Havock was engaged on escort duties for the next six months , including escorting the carrier Illustrious during the Battle of Taranto on the night of 11 / 12 November , aside from a refit in Malta from 22 December to 20 February 1941 . During the Battle of Cape Matapan , she torpedoed and sank the Italian destroyer Alfieri on 28 March . The ship evacuated Commonwealth troops from Greece at the end of April and was one of three destroyers escorting the light cruiser Ajax when they bombarded Benghazi on the night of 7 / 8 May . Havock was damaged by dive bombers on 23 May , killing 15 and wounding 10 men , after a patrol off Heraklion , Crete . She was under repair at Alexandria until 16 June . The ship bombarded Vichy French positions in Lebanon in early July and then began escorting ships to Tobruk until October when her propeller shafts and propellers were damaged . Havock was under repair from 21 October to 4 December at Alexandria .
In mid @-@ December , the ship escorted the supply ship Breconshire to Malta during the brief engagement known as First Battle of Sirte and then joined Force K in an attempt to intercept an Italian convoy to Tripoli , Libya . On the night of 18 / 19 December , the reinforced Force K ran over an Italian minefield that sank one cruiser and damaged two others . Havock escorted the badly damaged light cruiser Aurora back to Malta . Havock was one of four destroyers that escorted Breconshire back to Alexandria in early January 1942 . Whilst escorting another convoy to Malta , the ship was diverted to escort the damaged freighter Thermoplylae from Benghazi back to Alexandria , but the latter was attacked and sunk by Axis aircraft en route on 19 January . Havock rescued some 350 survivors before Thermoplylae sank . The ship was transferred to the 22nd Destroyer Flotilla in February and continued to escort convoys to Malta . On 22 March 1942 , several splinters from a 15 @-@ inch ( 38 cm ) near miss from the Italian battleship Littorio perforated one of her boilers during the Second Battle of Sirte , and Havock was forced to make for Malta for repairs . Whilst in dock , the ship had become a major target for Axis aircraft and sustained some damage on 3 April , so she was ordered to Gibraltar before her repairs were complete . Havock ran aground off Kelibia , Tunisia , in the Strait of Sicily on 6 April and was wrecked . One crewman was killed in the incident . Her crew and passengers were interned by the Vichy French at Laghouat in the Sahara , but were released in November as a result of Operation Torch . Her wreck was later torpedoed by the Italian submarine Aradam .
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= U.S. Route 25 in Michigan =
US Highway 25 ( US 25 ) was a part of the United States Numbered Highway System in the state of Michigan that ran from the Ohio state line near Toledo and ended at the tip of The Thumb in Port Austin . The general routing of this state trunkline highway took it northeasterly from the state line through Monroe and Detroit to Port Huron . Along this southern half , it followed undivided highways and ran concurrently along two freeways , Interstate 75 ( I @-@ 75 ) and I @-@ 94 . Near the foot of the Blue Water Bridge in Port Huron , US 25 turned north and northwesterly along the Lake Huron shoreline to Port Austin .
Created with the initial US Highway System on November 11 , 1926 , US 25 replaced several previous state highway designations . Some of the preceding highways followed roadways created in the 19th and the early 20th centuries . It initially was only routed as far north as Port Huron ; the northern extension to Port Austin happened in 1933 . By the end of the 1950s , the entire route was paved . Starting in the early 1960s , segments of I @-@ 75 and I @-@ 94 were built , and US 25 was shifted to follow them south of Detroit to Port Huron . A business loop was created when the main highway bypassed downtown Port Huron , and then in 1973 , the entire designation was removed from the state . The final routing of the highway is still maintained by the state under eight different designations , some unsigned .
= = Route description = =
= = = State line to Downriver = = =
In its final configuration before it was decommissioned in the state , US 25 entered Michigan south of Erie and followed Dixie Highway north @-@ northeasterly away from the state line . The highway ran parallel to US 24 ( Telegraph Road ) about 2 ⁄ 3 mile ( 1 @.@ 1 km ) to the east of that roadway . At LaSalle , the roadway turned more to the northeast toward Monroe . US 25 then turned back to the north @-@ northeast and followed Monroe Street next to Lake Monroe and through downtown Monroe over the River Raisin . North of town , Dixie Highway turned due north and terminated at an intersection with US 24 ; US 25 merged onto Telegraph Road , and the two highways ran concurrently northeasterly through rural Monroe County . At the crossing of the Huron River , US 24 / US 25 entered Flat Rock and Wayne County .
The highway followed Telegraph Road through downtown Flat Rock and continued into the suburban area of Downriver . At the intersection with Dix – Toledo Road near Woodhaven , US 25 separated from US 24 and continued northeasterly for about two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) to an interchange with I @-@ 75 where it merged onto the freeway . I @-@ 75 / US 25 continued on the Fisher Freeway through the Downriver suburbs of Taylor , Southgate , Allen Park , Lincoln Park , and Melvindale before entering the city of Detroit . The freeway curved to run east @-@ northeasterly and passed through an industrial area of the city , crossing the River Rouge . At Clark Avenue , US 25 left the freeway to turn a block south and run along Fort Street parallel to I @-@ 75 . The highway continued along Fort Street running under the approaches to the Ambassador Bridge and into downtown .
= = = Downtown Detroit to Port Huron = = =
In Downtown Detroit , Fort Street ended at Campus Martius Park at M @-@ 1 ( Woodward Avenue ) . US 25 looped around the park and followed the street named Cadillac Square over to Randolph Street , turning north to connect to Gratiot Avenue , a major thoroughfare on the east side of Detroit . The highway followed Gratiot through the east side of Detroit running north @-@ northeasterly . US 25 intersected the eastern end of the there @-@ unnumbered Fisher Freeway . Gratiot Avenue carried the highway through residential neighborhoods and connected it to the Detroit City Airport . East of the airport , the highway intersected the southern end of M @-@ 97 as well . At M @-@ 102 ( 8 Mile Road ) , US 25 exited Detroit and entered East Detroit , a suburb in Macomb County . The highway continued , roughly parallel to I @-@ 94 through Roseville and Mount Clemens . At Hall Road near Selfridge Air National Guard Base , M @-@ 59 merged with US 25 to follow Gratiot Avenue . At 23 Mile Road west of New Baltimore , US 25 / M @-@ 59 turned eastward onto 23 Mile to an interchange with I @-@ 94 . At that interchange , US 25 turned northeasterly onto the I @-@ 94 freeway while M @-@ 59 terminated ; 23 Mile continued eastward as M @-@ 29 into New Baltimore .
I @-@ 94 / US 25 ran northeasterly through rural areas of Macomb County , intersecting the southern end of M @-@ 19 near New Haven . The freeway crossed into rural southern St. Clair County south of Richmond and continued northeastward to Marysville , where it turned northward , crossing Gratiot Avenue . A business loop , Business US 25 ( Bus . US 25 ) ran northeasterly from the freeway along Gratiot Avenue to run parallel to the St. Clair River . From Marysville , the freeway skirted the western side of the Port Huron area , intersecting the M @-@ 21 freeway immediately east of the city before turning eastward to curve around the north side of town . After the freeway crossed the Black River , US 25 turned northward to separate from I @-@ 94 .
= = = Along Lake Huron = = =
North of downtown Port Huron , US 25 followed Pine Grove Avenue to the eastern terminus of M @-@ 136 and then followed 24th Avenue out of town . South of Lakeport , the highway changed names to Lakeshore Road and ran along the Lake Huron shoreline in The Thumb region of the state . US 25 stayed close to the shoreline and passed Lakeport State Park in the town of the same name . North of the park , the highway crossed into southern Sanilac County and followed the shoreline to the community of Lexington where it intersected the eastern end of M @-@ 90 . Further north , the highway intersected the eastern end of M @-@ 46 in Port Sanilac .
North of the community of Richmondville , US 25 passed Sanilac State Park , and then north of Forestville , it crossed into Huron County . On the other side of the county line , the highway passed through the community of White Rock and continued along the lake to Harbor Beach . There , US 25 intersected the eastern end of M @-@ 142 and began to curve around to the northwest to follow the northern tip of The Thumb . About 8 miles ( 13 km ) north of Harbor Beach , the highway passed through Port Hope and turned even more to the northwest on Lakeshore Road . US 25 turned due west at Huron City and passed south of Grindstone City on Grindstone Road . The highway was further inland on this east – west segment as it ran south of Pointe Aux Barques to Port Austin . At an intersection with M @-@ 53 ( Van Dyke Road ) , US 25 merged with M @-@ 53 to run five blocks north along Lake Street to the waterfront in Port Austin . At the intersection with Spring Street just south of the marina , US 25 / M @-@ 53 jointly terminated while M @-@ 25 continued westward along Spring Street .
= = History = =
= = = Before the state highways = = =
The chief transportation routes in 1701 were the Indian trails that crossed the future state of Michigan ; the one connecting what are now Detroit and Port Huron was one of these 13 trails at the time . Detroit created 120 @-@ foot ( 37 m ) rights @-@ of @-@ way for the principal streets of the city , the modern Gratiot Avenue included , in 1805 . This street plan was devised by Augustus Woodward and others following a devastating fire in Detroit . Gratiot Avenue , then also called Detroit – Port Huron Road , was authorized by the US Congress on March 2 , 1827 , as a supply road from Detroit to Port Huron for Fort Gratiot . Construction started in Detroit in 1829 , and the roadway was completed in the same year to Mount Clemens . The rest was finished in 1833 . The road was named for the fort near Port Huron , which was in turn named for Colonel Charles Gratiot , the supervising engineer in charge of construction of the structure in the aftermath of the War of 1812 .
Telegraph lines were first installed from the Detroit area south to the Monroe area in the mid @-@ 19th century with additional lines north to Pontiac completed around 1868 . As these communication lines were installed , roadways were added as needed to provide access for maintenance . The parallel road from Dearborn south was named for these lines , becoming Telegraph Road . In 1915 , the Dixie Highway , an auto trail that ran south from Detroit to Miami , Florida , was extended to Detroit , and later in 1919 northward to the Straits of Mackinac .
= = = Initial state highways to US Highway = = =
When the state highway system was first signed in 1919 , five separate highways were designated along US 25 's general route from the state line north through Detroit and Port Huron to Port Austin . From the state line north to Monroe , the roadway was given the first M @-@ 56 designation . From there northward , there was no state highway that corresponded to the future US 25 , but the first M @-@ 10 followed the future US 24 into the Detroit area . Near Dearborn , M @-@ 10 ran further inland than the future US 25 and included a concurrency with M @-@ 17 into Detroit . From Detroit northward , Gratiot Avenue was assigned the M @-@ 19 number into the Port Huron area . Through downtown Port Huron , the future US 25 was numbered as the first M @-@ 27 and along the lakeshore north to Harbor Beach , the highway was M @-@ 31 . From Harbor Beach into Port Austin , M @-@ 27 took over the route .
When the US Highway System was created on November 11 , 1926 , US 25 was included in Michigan 's section of the system . The US Highway designation was assigned to run along Dixie Highway replacing that segment of M @-@ 56 . From Monroe northward , US 25 overlapped US 24 on Telegraph Road to the Dearborn area and then followed M @-@ 17 ( Ecorse Road ) to Fort Street and into Downtown Detroit . From there , the highway replaced M @-@ 19 to Marysville and overlapped M @-@ 29 into Port Huron to an intersection with M @-@ 21 ; the remainder of the highway to Port Austin was numbered M @-@ 29 only . The highway was rerouted off Telegraph Road along Dix – Toledo Highway into downtown Detroit in 1929 . By the end of 1932 , US 25 was rerouted from downtown Monroe along Dixie Highway north to US 24 instead of turning westward in the city . The next year , US 25 was extended northward from Port Huron to Port Austin , replacing that section of M @-@ 29 in the process . The remainder of M @-@ 29 westward to Bay City was renumbered M @-@ 25 .
In 1936 , US 25 was changed to traffic along a one @-@ way pairing of streets on the southwest side of Port Huron . Northbound traffic remained on Military Avenue while southbound traffic was diverted to Electric Avenue . Two US 25A routings were created in the late 1930s and early 1940s . The first , near Erie , was numbered in 1937 , and renumbered US 24A by 1945 . The second in Port Huron provided access to the Blue Water Bridge from the mainline of the highway starting in 1940 . That last segment of US 25 to be paved was completed near Port Hope at the end of the 1950s .
= = = Freeway era = = =
With the completion of a segment of I @-@ 94 between Roseville and Marysville in 1963 , US 25 was rerouted to follow I @-@ 94 from the Mount Clemens area north to Marysville . The next year , an additional freeway from the northern end of I @-@ 94 at Marysville to Port Huron was completed . I @-@ 94 / US 25 was extended north and east , replacing part of M @-@ 146 to the Blue Water Bridge . The former route of US 25 through downtown was redesignated Bus . US 25 while US 25A became a part of the mainline highway to connect to I @-@ 94 . In 1967 , another segment , this time south of Detroit , was rerouted to follow another freeway , I @-@ 75 .
Six years later , the US 25 designation was decommissioned in Michigan , although all sections of it are still state highways . The southern section from the state line northward through Monroe was renumbered M @-@ 125 and the US 25 designation was removed from US 24 ( Telegraph Road ) . In the Detroit area , the connection between US 24 and I @-@ 75 in Woodhaven was redesignated as an unsigned connector highway ( now Connector 24 ) . The US 25 designation was removed from I @-@ 75 northward into Detroit , while the routing along Clark Street became an unsigned connector highway ( now Connector 850 ) . The routing along Fort Street and Gratiot Avenue was numbered as M @-@ 3 . The US 25 designation was removed from I @-@ 94 , and the routing through Port Huron and northward to Port Austin became part of an extended M @-@ 25 . One segment of highway near Port Huron became an unsigned highway now designed Connector 25 .
= = Major intersections = =
All exits are unnumbered .
= = Related trunklines = =
There were three additional trunkline highways related to US 25 in Michigan , two alternate routes and a business loop .
= = = Erie alternate route = = =
US Highway 25A ( US 25 ) was an alternate route that started at the Michigan – Ohio state line south of Erie and ran northward along Summit Street to an intersection with US 25 near Erie . The highway was designated in 1937 , and it was replaced by US 24A in 1945 . The southern half of the highway was later designated as part of I @-@ 75 in 1959 , and the northern half is now an unsigned highway designated Connector 75 by MDOT .
= = = Port Huron alternate route = = =
US Highway 25A ( US 25A ) was an alternate route near Port Huron that provided a connection to the Blue Water Bridge to Canada . The highway split from its parent north of Port Huron and followed 24th Avenue south to connect to M @-@ 51 ( Pine Grove Avenue ) while US 25 followed Lakeshore Road and Gratiot Avenue into Port Huron . The parent highway crossed under the approaches to the Blue Water Bridge , and the alternate route , along with M @-@ 51 , provided a signed path between US 25 and the bridge . The designation was created in early 1940 and was deleted when US 25 was rerouted in 1963 through Port Huron and over the alternate route .
= = = Port Huron business loop = = =
Business US 25 ( Bus . US 25 ) was an 8 @.@ 4 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 13 @.@ 5 km ) business loop serving the cities of Marysville and Port Huron . It started southwest of Marysville near St. Clair County International Airport at I @-@ 94 / US 25 and ran northeasterly along Gratiot Avenue into Marysville . It then passed through the city 's downtown area and turned northward along Gratiot Boulevard near the St. Clair River . North of Ravenswood Road , Bus . US 25 split into the one @-@ way pairing of Military Street ( northbound ) and Electric Avenue ( southbound ) until the two directions merged on the south side of Port Huron . The business loop continued northward along through downtown Port Huron and across the Black River near its mouth . North of the river. the business loop followed Huron Avenue through the northern side of downtown Port Huron and turned northwesterly onto Pine Grove Avenue . The business loop passed under the approaches to the Blue Water Bridge before terminating at an intersection with US 25 .
In 1963 , the route of US 25 through the Port Huron area was realigned . In the process , that highway replaced its alternate route , and the former alignment through downtown was redesignated as a business loop . This arrangement lasted until 1973 when US 25 itself was decommissioned in Michigan . The former routing of Bus . US 25 through downtown Port Huron became part of an extended M @-@ 25 . In 1986 , the former business loop was redesignated Business Loop I @-@ 94 .
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= Les Chouans =
Les Chouans ( French pronunciation : [ le ʃwɑ ̃ ] , The Chouans ) is an 1829 novel by French novelist and playwright Honoré de Balzac ( 1799 – 1850 ) and included in the Scènes de la vie militaire section of his novel sequence La Comédie humaine . Set in the French region of Brittany , the novel combines military history with a love story between the aristocratic Marie de Verneuil and the Chouan royalist Alphonse de Montauran . It takes place during the 1799 post @-@ war uprising in Fougères .
Balzac conceived the idea for the novel during a trip to Brittany arranged by a family friend in 1828 . Intrigued by the people and atmosphere of the region , he began collecting notes and descriptions for later use . After publishing an Avertissement for the novel , he released three editions – each of them revised significantly . The first novel Balzac published without a pseudonym , he used many titles as he wrote and published , including Le Gars , Les Chouans ou la Bretagne il y a trente ans , and Le Dernier Chouan ou la Bretagne en 1800 .
Following closely in the footsteps of Sir Walter Scott , the novel uses its truthful historical backdrop to tell a fictional story of people who sculpted the past . The novel addresses themes of passionate love , vengeful trickery , and social status . While it is disdained by critics in favor of Balzac 's later work , the novel marks a turning point in his life and artistry .
= = Background = =
In the wake of the French Revolution , groups of royalists loyal to the House of Bourbon rose up against the new government . One group was the Chouans of Brittany , led by Jean Chouan . They allied themselves with counter @-@ revolutionary forces in Vendée and by 1793 the Revolt in the Vendée had begun . The insurrection was put down by the republic , and within two years the royalist forces had been routed .
Royalist sentiment did not evaporate , however , and in Brittany , violence between the two sides – " Blue " Revolutionaries against " White " Chouans – continued as the Chouannerie , even when Napoleon took power in 1799 . The Bonaparte forces responded as the republic had , and the Chouans were defeated – although political divisions and resentment lingered for more than a century .
At the start of the nineteenth century , the works of Sir Walter Scott were best @-@ sellers in France . His novels captured the ebb and flow of society , and he demonstrated the far @-@ reaching impact of major historical changes . A slew of authors in France attempted to replicate Scott 's success , but their works were isolated from one another and divorced from their surroundings .
Honoré de Balzac was profoundly influenced by Scott ( as well as Irish writer Maria Edgeworth ) , and decided to write novels using France 's turbulent history as a literary backdrop in the same way they had used the history of Scotland and Ireland . Balzac had previously only published potboiler novels under a variety of pseudonyms , books designed to excite readers and sell copies . He had also engaged in a series of ill @-@ fated speculative investments , which left him in considerable debt . Nevertheless , he believed in his skills as a writer , and awaited success around every corner .
= = Preparations and publications = =
In September 1828 Balzac visited the home of a family friend and retired general , the Baron de Pommereul , in Fougères . He spent several weeks learning about the insurrection ( which Pommereul had fought against ) . He pored over his host 's books and interviewed the townspeople about their experiences during the time of the uprising . Pommereul owned a castle which had been the headquarters of the Comte de Puisaye , a royalist leader involved with a failed invasion of royalist exiles at Quiberon . This incursion had been aided by the Chouans , and Balzac began collecting events and people as inspiration for his novel .
While staying with Pommereul , he was given a room with a desk facing the Pellerine Mountain , which Balzac used as the setting for the book 's first scene . He wandered around the city , taking in details to use in his descriptions of the landscape . In researching recent history , Balzac was examining events from his first years on the planet . Biographer Graham Robb notes that the original subtitle of the book was La Bretagne en 1799 – the year of Balzac 's birth . As Robb puts it , " the discovery of contemporary history took Balzac back to his childhood . "
As he neared completion of his novel – originally titled Le Gars – Balzac wrote an announcement heralding its imminent publication . Under the pseudonym " Victor Morillon " and writing in the third person , he describes his intent to " place his country 's history in the hands of the man in the street … to illuminate and make the ordinary mind realize the repercussions that entire populations feel of royal discord , feudal dissension and popular uprising … . " In the Avertissement , he praises Scott as " a man of genius " while noting his limitations , especially when writing of romance : " on his lyre the strings are missing that can sing of love … . " Balzac – or , rather , " Morillon " – also declares his intention to write a companion volume entitled Le Capitaine des Boutefeux ( The Captain of the Firebrands ) , about war in fifteenth @-@ century Paris . This later work was never completed .
By the time the novel was published in March 1829 , Balzac had changed its title ( in response to complaints from Mme. de Pommereul ) to Le dernier Chouan ou La Bretagne en 1800 , and signed the novel " M. Honoré Balzac " . It was the first book he published without a pseudonym .
In 1834 a second edition was published under the name Les Chouans ou La Bretagne en 1799 . It had been heavily revised , as per Balzac 's style of constantly reworking texts , even after their release . He had been corresponding with Ewelina Hańska , who wrote to him anonymously in 1832 . In an attempt to please her , he changed some of the language in Les Chouans for its second edition . " If only you knew , " he wrote to her , " how much there is of you in every altered phrase of Chouans ! " The second edition also demonstrates the author 's maturing political philosophy ( softening his representation of the royalists ) , and the evolved female characters testify to his relationship with Hańska .
When the third edition was published in 1845 , Balzac was in love with his own creation . He had written two years earlier to Hańska : " There 's no doubt about it – it is a magnificent poem . I had never really read it before . … The passion is sublime , and I now understand why you have a cherished and special devotion to this book . … All in all , I am very pleased with it . " In a preface to the third edition , he described his plans for a part of La Comédie Humaine called Scènes de la vie militaire ( Scenes from Military Life ) . In addition to Les Chouans with its focus on guerrilla combat , he planned another called Les Vendéans about the earlier full @-@ scale civil war . Although in 1844 he discussed traveling to western France to write the book , it was never written .
= = Plot summary = =
At the start of the novel , the Republican Commander Hulot is assaulted by Chouan forces , who convert dozens of conscripts . An aristocrat , Marie de Verneuil , is sent by Joseph Fouché to subdue and capture the royalist leader , the Marquis de Montauran , also known as " Le Gars " . She is aided by a detective named Corentin .
Eventually , Marie becomes smitten with her target . In defiance of Corentin and the Chouans whom she detests , she devises a plan to marry the Chouan leader . Fooled by Corentin into believing that Montauran loves her mortal enemy Madame du Gua , Marie orders Hulot to destroy the rebels . She discovers her folly too late and tries , unsuccessfully , to save her husband the day after their marriage .
= = Style = =
Scott 's influence is felt throughout the novel . Lengthy descriptions of the countryside are interrupted constantly by tangents explaining the history of Brittany and its people . The pastoral setting is integrated into the plot , particularly the guerrilla combat of the Chouans . In complementing individual with environs Balzac also shows the influence of James Fenimore Cooper , whose The Last of the Mohicans had impressed the French author . Like the Mahicans of Cooper 's novel , the Chouan insurgents are skilled at using their surroundings , coming out of the woods in more ways than one .
Some critics claim that Balzac surpassed Scott in some respects . In his introduction to the 1901 edition , poet and critic George Saintsbury writes that the character of Montauran enjoys " a freedom from the flatness which not infrequently characterizes Sir Walter 's own good young men . " By foregrounding the affair between Montauran and Marie , Balzac indicates passion as the central theme of history . As he writes in the 1842 foreword to La Comédie Humaine : " [ L ] a passion est toute l 'humanité . Sans elle religion , l 'histoire , le roman , l 'art seraient inutiles . " ( " [ P ] assion is all of humanity . Without it religion , history , literature , and art would be useless . " )
Because of its extended conversations , intricate descriptions and lengthy asides , the book is considered " heavy " by some critics . In later editions its chapter breaks were removed ( though some versions now restore them ) , and the work is in three sections – the final of which comprises nearly half the novel . The novel 's feel is compounded by the lack of clarity on some points ; some characters ' motives are unclear even at the end , and the chaotic sequence of events is difficult to track .
= = Themes = =
= = = Passionate history = = =
Although he venerated Scott 's writing skill and use of history as backdrop , Balzac worked to more accurately depict the turbulence of the human heart – and its effect on history . He considered Scott 's view of women unrefined , and believed this led to a stale representation of human behavior as a result . In Les Chouans , Balzac places the romance of Montauran and Marie de Verneuil at the center of the narrative , around which all other elements revolve .
For this reason ( and owing to the florid descriptions of romantic elements ) , the novel has been compared to William Shakespeare 's play Romeo and Juliet . Both stories explore love among feuding parties ; both involve vengeful , scheming individuals ; and both end in tragedy for the newly @-@ wed couple . As the translator Marion Ayton Crawford puts it : " Hero and heroine are star @-@ crossed lovers , whose fate is brought about by forces of the times acting on their own internal weaknesses … . "
Although Balzac himself did not marry until 1850 , he was fascinated by the subject . Soon after Les Chouans was published in 1829 , he released a treatise about the institution called Physiologie du Mariage . His attention to the details of relationships – failed and successful – are woven into Les Chouans , and Marie herself is based on a woman with whom he had had an affair .
= = = Devious ferocity = = =
Corentin and Madame du Gua , foils to the happy couple , plot and scheme endlessly to bring about the misery and downfall of those who will not love them . Du Gua is at first a sympathetic character , but by the end of the novel she is presented as sharing a face with a spirit from hell . She represents revenge and hatred chiseled from romantic injury , and has been noted as a rough sketch of the title character in Balzac 's La Cousine Bette . Corentin , meanwhile , stands in contrast to Montauran 's romantic nature as much as to Hulot 's military prowess . Rebuffed by Marie and unable to wield the might of the commandant , Corentin relies on trickery and deception to achieve his ruthless ends .
Marie herself begins the operation on a quest to seduce and betray her target . Her reversal ( followed by two subsequent changes of heart , back to the original mission and then in opposition to it ) counterbalance the wickedness of Madame du Gua and Corentin . Her ultimate fidelity to the object of her desire demonstrates the possibility of sincere passion , even as the other pair speak to the venom of the slighted heart .
= = = Social hierarchy = = =
The allure of class respectability is another constant in Les Chouans , as it is for Balzac 's entire oeuvre . Marie 's birth as an illegitimate child contributes to her position at the start of the novel . The ups and downs of her young adult life land her in Corentin 's hands , yearning for the 300 @,@ 000 @-@ franc reward promised to her on the capture of Montauran . Marie 's focus changes from money to marriage , a sign of hope amid the tragedy of circumstances . When she first considers Montauran , she recognizes that a return of the king would bring privileges ; still , her oscillating actions follow the path of her passions , not rational self @-@ interest .
Montauran , on the other hand , is devoted wholly to the royalist cause , and chafes against the ignorant nobles supporting it . He fights for the Chouan cause because he believes in it , not for the personal gain sought by the aristocrats in whose midst he works . He gives up the cause for Marie , but only as a result of an unclear series of events , the product of everyone 's intertwined double @-@ crossing .
= = Reception and impact = =
Les Chouans is considered Balzac 's first real success as a writer – a milestone for which he was prepared , evidenced by his willingness to sign his own name . Saintsbury proclaims that publishing Les Chouans was how he " first emerged from the purgatory of anonymous hack @-@ writing . " Still , revenues from the book were not sufficient to cover Balzac 's modest living expenses .
Although he never finished the other works intended to comprise Scenes from a Military Life , Balzac returned to the people and politics of Les Chouans in later works . Corentin reappears in his 1841 novel Une Ténébreuse Affaire ( A Murky Business ) , and Hulot is featured in 1843 's La Muse du département ( The Provincial Muse ) . Later novels mention additional royalist uprisings , connecting them thematically to Les Chouans .
As a literary work , the novel is not singled out by critics from the rest of La Comédie Humaine . Balzac 's emerging style ( some time before he refined his renowned realist idiom ) and unsteady pacing are representative of his early career . Still , critics hail it as a turning point and it has even been called " a strong favorite " among readers .
= = Adaptation = =
In 1947 the novel was adapted into a French film The Royalists directed by Henri Calef and starring Paul Amiot and Roland Armontel .
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= Palpatine =
Sheev Palpatine ( also known as Darth Sidious or simply The Emperor ) is a fictional character of the Star Wars universe , mainly portrayed by Ian McDiarmid . In the original trilogy , he is depicted as the aged , pale @-@ faced and cloaked Emperor of the Galactic Empire . In the prequel trilogy , he is portrayed as a charismatic Senator from Naboo who uses deception and political manipulation to rise to the position of Supreme Chancellor of the Galactic Republic .
Though outwardly appearing to be a well @-@ intentioned public servant and supporter of democracy prior to becoming Emperor , he is in fact Darth Sidious , the Dark Lord of the Sith – a cult of practitioners of the dark side of the Force previously thought to have been extinct in the Star Wars galaxy for a millennium . As Sidious , he instigates the Clone Wars , nearly destroys the Jedi , and transforms the Republic into the Empire . He also corrupts Anakin Skywalker to serve at his side as Darth Vader . Palpatine 's reign is brought to an end by Luke Skywalker and the redeemed Anakin Skywalker .
Since the initial theatrical run of Return of the Jedi , Palpatine has become a widely recognized popular culture symbol of evil , sinister deception , tyranny , and the subversion of democracy .
= = Appearances in the main saga = =
= = = Original trilogy = = =
The Emperor first appears in The Empire Strikes Back . In hologram form , he is revealed to be the Sith master of Darth Vader . He tells Vader that Luke Skywalker is becoming a serious threat to the Empire and must not become a Jedi . Vader convinces him that Luke would be a great asset if turned to the dark side .
In 1983 's Return of the Jedi , the Emperor appears in person to oversee the last stages of the second Death Star 's construction . He assures Darth Vader that they will together turn Luke , now revealed to be Vader 's son , to the dark side . Unknown to Vader , the Emperor plans to replace his apprentice with Luke . When Vader brings Luke before his master , the Emperor tempts Luke to join the dark side by appealing to the young Jedi 's fear for his friends , whom he has lured into a trap . This leads to a lightsaber duel in which Luke defeats and nearly kills Vader . The Emperor tells Luke to kill Vader and take his place , but Luke refuses and declares himself a Jedi . Enraged , the Emperor attacks Luke with Force lightning . Moved by his son 's cries for help , Vader throws the Emperor into the Death Star 's reactor shaft to his death .
= = = Prequel trilogy = = =
In the 1999 prequel The Phantom Menace , which is set 32 years before Star Wars , Palpatine is depicted as a middle @-@ aged Galactic Senator from the planet Naboo who is secretly the Sith Lord Darth Sidious . As Sidious , he influences the corrupt Trade Federation to blockade and invade Naboo . Queen Padmé Amidala of Naboo flees to the planet Coruscant to receive counsel from Palpatine , unaware that he actually engineered the invasion . After a plea for help from the senate results in bureaucratic delays , Palpatine persuades the queen to make a motion to have Supreme Chancellor Finis Valorum removed from office .
When Padmé attempts to liberate Naboo , Sidious sends his Sith apprentice Darth Maul there to capture her . The invasion is eventually thwarted and Maul is defeated in a lightsaber duel with Obi @-@ Wan Kenobi . Using the crisis to be elected the new Chancellor of the Republic , Palpatine returns to Naboo , where he befriends Anakin Skywalker , telling him that he " will watch [ his ] career with great interest " .
In the 2002 sequel Attack of the Clones , Palpatine exploits constitutional loopholes to remain in office even after the official expiration of his term . Meanwhile , as Darth Sidious , he continues to manipulate events from behind the scenes by having his new Sith apprentice Count Dooku lead a movement of planets in seceding from the Republic to form the Confederacy of Independent Systems .
Since the Separatists are secretly building a battle droid army , Palpatine uses the situation to have himself granted emergency powers . Palpatine feigns reluctance to accept this authority , promising to return it to the Senate once the crisis has ended . His first act is to allow the creation of Clone Troopers , which were discovered by Obi @-@ Wan , to counter the Separatist threat ; this results in the opening salvo of the Clone Wars . With the galaxy now at war as Sidious planned , Dooku brings him the secret plans for a new superweapon .
In the 2005 sequel Revenge of the Sith , Palpatine is captured by Separatist commander General Grievous , as part of a plan created by Sidious . Palpatine is rescued by Anakin and Obi @-@ Wan , but not before the Jedi confront Count Dooku again . A duel ensues in which Dooku gets defeated at the hands of Anakin . Although initially hesitant , the young Jedi follows up with Palpatine 's orders to kill the unarmed Dooku in cold blood . Palpatine then escapes with his Jedi rescuers and returns to Coruscant . By this point , Palpatine has become a virtual dictator , able to take any action in the Senate . The Jedi Council is troubled by Palpatine 's near @-@ absolute power and fears he will not relinquish it when the Clone Wars end . Palpatine tells Anakin the story of Darth Plagueis , a powerful Sith Lord who was able to manipulate life and death but was killed by his own apprentice . Eventually , Palpatine reveals his secret Sith identity to Anakin ; he knows that Anakin has been having prophetic visions of Padmé , his pregnant secret wife , dying in childbirth , and offers to teach him Plagueis ' secrets to save her life .
Anakin informs Jedi Master Mace Windu of Palpatine 's treachery . Windu and three other Jedi Masters attempt to arrest Palpatine and haul him before the Senate for trial . Palpatine pulls a lightsaber out of his sleeve and kills everyone but Windu , whom he engages in a fierce duel . Windu eventually subdues the Sith Lord and deflects a blast of Force lightning back into Palpatine 's face with his lightsaber , disfiguring Palpatine 's face into the pale , wizened visage seen in the original trilogy . Anakin appears and intercedes on Palpatine 's behalf by cutting off Windu 's arm , allowing Palpatine to kill the Jedi Master with a blast of Force lightning . Anakin then pledges himself to the dark side as Palpatine 's new Sith apprentice , Darth Vader .
Palpatine orders the clone troopers to turn on their Jedi Generals , while dispatching Vader to kill everyone inside the Jedi Temple and then assassinate the Separatist leaders on the planet Mustafar . Palpatine then reorganizes the Republic into the Galactic Empire , with himself as Emperor . Jedi Master Yoda confronts him in his Senate office and engages the Sith Lord in a lightsaber duel that ends in a stalemate . Sensing that his new apprentice is in danger , Palpatine travels to Mustafar and finds Vader near death following a duel with Obi @-@ Wan . After returning to Coruscant , he rebuilds Vader 's ruined body with the black armored suit from the original trilogy . Palpatine then tells Vader that Padmé was killed in the heat of Vader 's anger , breaking what remains of his apprentice 's spirit . Palpatine is last seen watching the original Death Star 's construction , with Vader and Wilhuff Tarkin at his side .
= = Appearances in other works = =
Palpatine has appeared in other works , outside of the main films , including the Star Wars Expanded Universe . The Expanded Universe ( also known as the EU ) encompasses all of the officially licensed , fictional material of the Star Wars saga , outside of the seven feature films , The Clone Wars film and series , Rebels series produced by Lucasfilm , and the 2015 Marvel Comics . The expanded universe includes books , comic books , video games , toys , and other assorted media . The EU is no longer official canon .
= = = Literature = = =
Star Wars expanded universe literature elaborates on Palpatine 's role in Star Wars fiction outside of the films . The first appearance of Palpatine in Star Wars literature was in Alan Dean Foster 's ( writing as George Lucas ) novelization of the script of A New Hope , published as Star Wars : From the Adventures of Luke Skywalker ( 1976 ) . Foster characterizes Palpatine as a cunning senator who " caused himself " to be elected president of the Republic , and then declared himself Emperor and isolated himself from his subjects , eventually becoming a pawn of his advisers .
Palpatine made his first major appearance in the Expanded Universe in 1991 and 1992 with the Dark Empire series of comic books written by Tom Veitch and illustrated by Cam Kennedy . In the series ( set six years after Return of the Jedi ) , Palpatine is resurrected as the Emperor Reborn or " Palpatine the Undying " . His spirit returns from the netherworld of the Force with the aid of Sith ghosts on Korriban and possesses the body of Jeng Droga , one of Palpatine 's elite spies and assassins known as the Emperor 's Hands . Droga flees to a secret Imperial base on the planet Byss , where the Emperor 's advisor Sate Pestage exorcises Palpatine 's spirit and channels it into one of many clones created by Palpatine before his death . Palpatine attempts to resume control of the galaxy , but Luke Skywalker , now a senior Jedi Knight , sabotages his plans . Luke destroys most of Palpatine 's cloning tanks , but is only able to defeat the Emperor with help from Leia Organa Solo , who has received rudimentary Jedi training from Luke . The two repel a Force storm Palpatine had created and turn it back onto him , once again destroying his physical form .
Palpatine 's ultimate fate is further chronicled in the Dark Empire II and Empire 's End series of comics . The Dark Empire II series , published from 1994 to 1995 , details how the Emperor is once again reborn on Byss into a clone body . Palpatine tries to rebuild the Empire as the Rebel Alliance grows weak . In Empire 's End ( 1995 ) , a traitorous Imperial guard bribes Palpatine 's cloning supervisor to tamper with the Emperor 's stored DNA samples . This causes the clones to deteriorate at a rapid rate . Palpatine attempts to possess the body of Anakin Solo , the infant son of Leia Organa and Han Solo , before the clone body dies , but is thwarted once again by Luke Skywalker . Palpatine is killed by a blaster shot fired by Han , and his spirit is captured by wounded Jedi Empatojayos Brand . When Brand dies , he takes Palpatine 's spirit with him , destroying the Sith Lord once and for all .
Novels and comics published before 1999 focus on Palpatine 's role as Galactic Emperor . Shadows of the Empire ( 1996 ) by Steve Perry and The Mandalorian Armor ( 1998 ) by K. W. Jeter — all set between The Empire Strikes Back and Return of the Jedi — show how Palpatine uses crime lords such as Prince Xizor and bounty hunters like Boba Fett to fight his enemies . Barbara Hambly 's novel Children of the Jedi ( 1995 ) , set eight years after Return of the Jedi , features a woman named Roganda Ismaren who claims that Palpatine fathered her son Irek . The Jedi Prince series of novels introduces an insane , three @-@ eyed mutant named Triclops who is revealed to be Palpatine 's illegitimate son . Created from DNA extracted from Palpatine and placed into a woman , he was born mutated , cast away and forgotten . Triclops had a son named Ken who became known as the " Jedi Prince " .
Beginning in 1999 with Terry Brooks ' novelization of The Phantom Menace , Star Wars writers chronicled the role of Palpatine prior to A New Hope as a politician and Sith Lord . The comic " Marked " by Rob Williams , printed in Star Wars Tales 24 ( 2005 ) , and Michael Reaves ' novel Darth Maul : Shadow Hunter ( 2001 ) explain Darth Sidious ' relationship with his apprentice Darth Maul . Cloak of Deception ( 2001 ) by James Luceno follows Reaves ' novel and details how Darth Sidious encourages the Trade Federation to build an army of battle droids in preparation for the invasion of Naboo . Cloak of Deception also focuses on Palpatine 's early political career , revealing how he becomes a confidante of Chancellor Finis Valorum and acquainted with Padmé Amidala , newly elected queen of Naboo . Palpatine 's role during the Clone Wars as Chancellor of the Republic and Darth Sidious is portrayed in novels such as Matthew Stover 's Shatterpoint ( 2003 ) , Steven Barnes ' The Cestus Deception ( 2004 ) , Sean Stewart 's Yoda : Dark Rendezvous ( 2004 ) , and Luceno 's Labyrinth of Evil ( 2005 ) and Darth Plagueis ( 2012 ) .
Following the theatrical release of Revenge of the Sith , Star Wars literature focused on Palpatine 's role after the creation of the Empire . John Ostrander 's comic Star Wars Republic 78 : Loyalties ( 2005 ) chronicles how , shortly after seizing power , Emperor Palpatine sends Darth Vader to assassinate Sagoro Autem , an Imperial captain who plans to defect from the Empire . In Luceno 's novel Dark Lord : The Rise of Darth Vader ( 2005 ) ( set shortly after Revenge of the Sith ) , the Emperor sends Darth Vader to the planet Murkhana to discover why clone troopers there refused to carry out Order 66 against their Jedi generals . Palpatine hopes these early missions will teach Vader what it means to be a Sith and crush any remnants of Anakin Skywalker .
With the 2012 acquisition of Lucasfilm by The Walt Disney Company , most of the licensed Star Wars novels and comics produced since the originating 1977 film Star Wars were rebranded as Star Wars Legends and declared non @-@ canon to the franchise in April 2014 . Star Wars : Lords of the Sith was subsequently announced as one of the first four canon novels to be released in 2014 and 2015 . In Lords of the Sith , Vader and Palpatine find themselves hunted by revolutionaries on the Twi 'lek planet Ryloth .
= = = Television = = =
Palpatine / Darth Sidious is a central character in Genndy Tartakovsky 's Star Wars : Clone Wars micro @-@ series , which is set between Attack of the Clones and Revenge of the Sith . The character 's likeness in the series is based on that in The Phantom Menace and Attack of the Clones . In the first chapter , Palpatine is informed by Obi @-@ Wan Kenobi that the Jedi have discovered that the InterGalactic Banking Clan has established battle droid factories on the planet Muunilinst . Palpatine agrees to send a strike force that includes Anakin Skywalker , and suggests that Anakin be given " special command " of Obi @-@ Wan 's fighters . Yoda and Obi @-@ Wan initially speak against the idea , but reluctantly concede . In the seventh chapter , a holographic image of Sidious appears shortly after Dooku trains Dark Jedi Asajj Ventress . Sidious orders Ventress to track down and kill Anakin . He remarks to Dooku that Ventress is certain to be defeated , but that the point of her mission is to test Anakin . In the final chapters , a hologram of Sidious again appears and orders General Grievous to begin an assault on the galactic capital . Later , the Separatist invasion of Coruscant begins and Palpatine watches from his apartment in the 500 Republica . Grievous breaks through the Chancellor 's window and attempts to kidnap him , leading to a long chase while Palpatine is protected by Jedi Shaak Ti , Roron Corobb and Foul Moudama . After Grievous apprehends the Jedi , Palpatine is taken on board the Invisible Hand , setting the stage for Revenge of the Sith .
In the 2008 animated film Star Wars : The Clone Wars ( also set between Attack of the Clones and Revenge of the Sith ) , Darth Sidious engineers a Separatist plot where Count Dooku turns Jabba the Hutt against the Republic by kidnapping his son Rotta and framing the Jedi for it . Meanwhile , Palpatine suggests that the Republic ally itself with the Hutts . Although Anakin Skywalker and Padawan Ahsoka Tano foil the plot , the outcome suits Palpatine 's ends : Jabba places Hutt hyperspace routes at the Republic 's disposal .
In the subsequent animated series , Palpatine continues to serve as Supreme Chancellor while his Sith identity remains behind the scenes via holograms . In the second season , Sidious hires bounty hunter Cad Bane to infiltrate the Jedi Temple and steal a holocron . He then takes a valuable Kyber memory crystal that contains the names of thousands of Force @-@ sensitive younglings - the future of the Jedi Order - from around the galaxy . The final stage of the plot : to bring four Force @-@ sensitive children to Sidious 's secret facility on Mustafar . Anakin and Ahsoka again foil the plot , but Bane escapes and all evidence of Sidious ' involvement is lost . In the fifth season , Sidious personally travels to the planet Mandalore to confront his former apprentice Darth Maul after becoming leader of Death Watch , killing Savage Opress before torturing Maul with the intent to make use of him . In the final season , Sidious goes to lengths to conceal the full nature of his plan from the Jedi by attempting to silence the Clone Trooper Fives when he learns of Order 66 and having Dooku wipe out anything tied to Jedi Master Sifo @-@ Dyas .
= = Characteristics = =
In Star Wars fiction , Palpatine is a cunning politician , a ruthless emperor , and an evil Sith Lord . The Star Wars Databank describes him as " the supreme ruler of the most powerful tyrannical regime the galaxy had ever witnessed " and Stephen J. Sansweet 's Star Wars Encyclopedia calls him " evil incarnate . "
As a senator , Palpatine is " unassuming , yet ambitious " . In Cloak of Deception , James Luceno writes that Palpatine carefully guards his privacy and " others found his reclusiveness intriguing , as if he led a secret life " . Despite this , he has many allies in the government . Luceno writes , " What Palpatine lacked in charisma , he made up for in candor , and it was that directness that had led to his widespread appeal in the senate . ... For in his heart he judged the universe on his own terms , with a clear sense of right and wrong . " In Terry Brooks ' novelization of The Phantom Menace , Palpatine claims to embrace democratic principles . He tells Queen Amidala , " I promise , Your Majesty , if I am elected [ chancellor of the Republic ] , I will restore democracy to the Republic . I will put an end to the corruption that has plagued the Senate . " A Visual Dictionary states that he is a self @-@ proclaimed savior .
As Emperor , however , Palpatine abandons any semblance of democracy , as noted in Star Wars , when he abolishes the Imperial Senate . Sansweet states , " His Empire ... is based on tyranny "
Revenge of the Sith suggests that Palpatine was the apprentice of Darth Plagueis , while later Expanded Universe materials say explicitly that he was . Palpatine is characterized as " the most powerful practitioner of the Sith ways in modern times . " Palpatine is so powerful that he is able to mask his true identity from the Jedi for decades . In the novel Shatterpoint , Mace Windu remarks to Yoda , " A shame [ Palpatine ] can 't touch the Force . He might have been a fine Jedi . "
The Star Wars Databank explains that the Force " granted him inhuman dexterity and speed , agility enough to quickly kill three Jedi Masters " ( as depicted in Revenge of the Sith ) . Stover describes the duel between Yoda and Palpatine in his novelization of Revenge of the Sith thus : " From the shadow of a black wing , a small weapon ... slid into a withered hand and spat a flame @-@ colored blade [ . ] When the blades met it was more than Yoda against Palpatine , more the millennia of Sith against the legions of Jedi ; this was the expression of the fundamental conflict of the universe itself . Light against dark . Winner take all . " During the duel , Yoda realizes that Sidious represents a small but powerful Sith Order that had changed and evolved over the years , while the Jedi had not : " He had lost before he started . "
According to the Databank and New Essential Guide to Characters , Palpatine possesses great patience and his maneuverings are as a dejarik grandmaster moves pieces on a board . He is depicted as a diabolical genius .
Palpatine was not given a first name in any canonical or " Star Wars Legends " sources until 2014 , when the character 's first name — Sheev — was revealed in the novel Tarkin , written by James Luceno . The Lucasfilm Story Group approached Del Rey Books and asked if they wanted to use the name , which was created by George Lucas , in the Tarkin novel , to which Del Rey agreed .
= = = Character creation = = =
Lucas ' conceptualization of Palpatine and the role the character plays in Star Wars changed over time . From Return of the Jedi onwards , Palpatine became the ultimate personification of evil in Star Wars , replacing Darth Vader as the central villain .
When the original Star Wars trilogy was filmed , the Emperor was unnamed and his throne @-@ world unidentified . The name would not be used in film until the prequel trilogy and the first mention of the name Palpatine came from the prologue of Alan Dean Foster 's 1976 novelization of A New Hope , which detailed the Emperor 's rise to power . Foster writes ,
Aided and abetted by restless , power @-@ hungry individuals within the government , and the massive organs of commerce , the ambitious Senator Palpatine caused himself to be elected President of the Republic . He promised to reunite the disaffected among the people and to restore the remembered glory of the Republic . Once secure in office he declared himself Emperor , shutting himself away from the populace . Soon he was controlled by the very assistants and boot @-@ lickers he had appointed to high office , and the cries of the people for justice did not reach his ears .
However , it is unclear whether Lucas intended Palpatine to be the reigning Emperor or just the first of a succession of Emperors . Michael Kaminski , author of The Secret History of Star Wars , claims that Lucas ' initial notes discuss a line of corrupt Emperors , not just one . If Palpatine was the first , Kaminski infers , he would therefore not be the current . Later Lucas would abandon this idea , opting instead to focus on a sole villainous ruler .
During story conferences for The Empire Strikes Back , Lucas and Leigh Brackett decided that " the Emperor and the Force had to be the two main concerns in the [ Empire Strikes Back ] ; the Emperor had barely been dealt with in the first movie , and the intention in the sequel was to deal with him on a more concrete level . " Lucas ultimately decided instead to feature the Emperor in Return of the Jedi .
In that film , the initial conception of Palpatine was superseded by his depiction as a dictatorial ruler adept in the dark side of the Force . The Emperor was inspired by the villain Ming the Merciless from the Flash Gordon comic books . The rise of Palpatine involving an ambitious and ruthless politician dismantling a democratic republic to achieve supreme power is in part inspired by the real @-@ world examples of Julius Caesar , Napoleon Bonaparte and Adolf Hitler . Other elements of the character come from historical figures such as Vladimir Lenin and Richard Nixon . Lucas said , " The whole point of the movies , the underlying element that makes the movies work , is that you , whether you go backwards or forwards , you start out in a democracy , and democracy turns into a dictatorship , and then the rebels make it back into a democracy . "
Lucas wanted to establish the Emperor as the true source of evil in Star Wars . Screenwriter Lawrence Kasdan noted , " My sense of the relationship [ between Darth Vader and the Emperor ] is that the Emperor is much more powerful ... and that Vader is very much intimidated by him . Vader has dignity , but the Emperor in Jedi really has all the power . " He explained that the climax of the film is a confrontation between Darth Vader and his master . In the first scene that shows the Emperor , he arrives at the Death Star and is greeted by a host of stormtroopers , technicians , and other personnel . Lucas states he wanted it to look like the military parades on " May Day in Russia . "
Lucas fleshed out the Emperor in the prequel films . According to Lucas , Palpatine 's role in The Phantom Menace is to explain " how Anakin Skywalker came to be [ Palpatine 's ] apprentice " and the events that lead to his rise to power . The true identity of Darth Sidious — the phantom menace — is left a mystery , and his relationship to Palpatine is not clear , though popular consensus agreed that Darth Sidious and Palpatine were one and the same . Film critic Jonathan L. Bowen remarks , " Debates raged on the Internet concerning the relationship between Darth Sidious and Senator Palpatine . Most fans believed the two characters are actually the same person with logic seeming to support their conclusion . " Bowen notes that the debate was fueled by the fact that " suspiciously Darth Sidious does not appear in the credits . "
In Star Wars and History published by Lucasfilm , it describes Palpatine 's consolidation of power as being similar to the Roman political figure Augustus , named Octavian before renaming himself . Both legitimized authoritarian rule by saying that corruption in the Senate was hampering the powers of the head of state ; both pressured the Senate to grant extraordinary powers to deal with a crisis , falsely claiming that they would rescind those powers once the crisis was over ; and both relied on their strong control over military force .
= = = Portrayal = = =
When the Emperor first appeared in The Empire Strikes Back , he was portrayed by Elaine Baker , the wife of make @-@ up designer Rick Baker . Chimpanzee eyes were superimposed into darkened eye sockets during post @-@ production " in order to create a truly unsettling image " . The character was voiced by Clive Revill .
" With Kershner , " Revill said , " you had to keep the reins tight — you couldn 't go overboard . It was the perfect example of the old adage ' less is more ' — the Emperor doesn 't say very much . But when he finally appears , it 's at a point in the saga when everyone 's waiting to see him . It 's the Emperor , the arch villain of all time , and when he says there 's a great disturbance in the Force , I mean , that 's enough oomph ! " Years later , during production of Revenge of the Sith , Lucas decided to shoot new footage for The Empire Strikes Back to create continuity between the prequels and original trilogy . Thus , in the 2004 DVD release of The Empire Strikes Back Special Edition , the original version of the Emperor was replaced by McDiarmid , and the dialogue between the Emperor and Darth Vader was revised .
Lucas and director Richard Marquand cast Scottish Shakespearean actor Ian McDiarmid to play Emperor Palpatine for Return of the Jedi . He was in his late 30s and had never played a leading role in a feature film , though he had made minor appearances in films like Dragonslayer ( 1981 ) . After Return of the Jedi , he resumed stage acting in London . In an interview with BackStage , McDiarmid revealed that he " never had his sights set on a film career and never even auditioned for the role of Palpatine . " He elaborated , " I got called in for the interview after a Return of the Jedi casting director saw me perform in the Sam Shepard play Seduced at a studio theatre at the Royal Court . I was playing a dying Howard Hughes . "
McDiarmid was surprised when Lucas approached him 16 years after Return of the Jedi to reprise the role of Palpatine . In an interview , he stated , " When we were doing Return of the Jedi there was a rumor that George Lucas had nine films in his head , and he 'd clearly just completed three of them . " McDiarmid added , " Someone said that , ' Oh , I think what he might do next is go back in time , and show how Vader came to be . ' It never occurred to me in a million years that I would be involved in that , because I thought , ' oh well , then he 'll get a much younger actor [ to play Palpatine ] . ' That would be obvious . " However , " I was the right age , ironically , for the first prequel when it was made . ... So I was in the very strange and rather wonderful paradox of playing myself when young at my own age , having played myself previously when 100 @-@ and @-@ I @-@ don 't @-@ know @-@ what . "
Palpatine 's role in the prequel films required McDiarmid to play two dimensions of the same character . Recalling the initial days of shooting The Phantom Menace , McDiarmid stated , " Stepping onto the set of Episode I for the first time was like going back in time , due to my experience in Jedi . Palpatine 's an interesting character ; he 's conventional on the outside , but demonic on the inside — he 's on the edge , trying to go beyond what 's possible . " McDiarmid added another layer to the character in Attack of the Clones . He noted , " [ Palpatine ] is a supreme actor . He has to be even more convincing than somebody who isn 't behaving in a schizophrenic fashion , so he 's extra charming , or extra professional — and for those who are looking for clues , that 's almost where you can see them . " McDiarmid illuminated on the scene where Padmé Amidala is almost assassinated :
There 's a moment in one scene of the new film where tears almost appear in his eye . These are crocodile tears , but for all those in the movie , and perhaps watching the movie itself , they 'll see he is apparently moved — and of course , he is . He can just do it . He can , as it were , turn it on . And I suppose for him , it 's also a bit of a turn @-@ on — the pure exercise of power is what he 's all about . That 's the only thing he 's interested in and the only thing that can satisfy him — which makes him completely fascinating to play , because it is an evil soul . He is more evil than the devil . At least Satan fell — he has a history , and it 's one of revenge .
In Revenge of the Sith , McDiarmid played a darker interpretation of the character . He explained that " [ ... ] when you 're playing a character of solid blackness , that in itself is very interesting , in the sense that you have no other motivation other than the accumulation of power . It 's not so much about not having a moral center , it 's just that the only thing that mattered is increasing power . " He admitted , " I 've been trying to find a redeeming feature to Palpatine , and the only one I 've got so far is that he 's clearly a patron of the arts because he goes to the opera . " McDiarmid compared the character to Iago from William Shakespeare 's Othello :
Everything he does is an act of pure hypocrisy , and that 's interesting to play . I suppose it 's rather like playing Iago . All the characters in the play — including Othello until the end — think that " Honest Iago " is a decent guy doing his job , and he 's quite liked . But at the same time there 's a tremendous evil subconscious in operation .
McDiarmid noticed that the script for Revenge of the Sith demanded more action from his character than in previous films . Lightsaber combat was a challenge to the 60 @-@ year @-@ old actor , who , like his costars , took fencing lessons . The close @-@ up shots and non @-@ acrobatic sequences of the duel between Palpatine and Mace Windu were performed by McDiarmid . Advanced fencing and acrobatic stunts were executed by McDiarmid 's doubles , Michael Byrne , Sebastian Dickins , and Bob Bowles .
McDiarmid 's performance as Palpatine was generally well received by critics . Todd McCarthy of Variety commented , " Entertaining from start to finish and even enthralling at times , ' Sith ' has some acting worth writing home about , specifically McDiarmid 's dominant turn as the mastermind of the evil empire . " A reviewer for The Village Voice wrote that " Ian McDiarmid 's unctuous Emperor turns appropriately vampiric as he attempts to draw Anakin into the Sith fold with promises of eternal life . " Still , his performance was not without detractors ; David Edelstein of Slate critiqued , " McDiarmid isn 't the subtlest of satanic tempters . With his lisp and his clammy little leer , he looks like an old queen keen on trading an aging butt @-@ boy ( Count Dooku ) for fresh meat — which leaves Anakin looking more and more like a 15 @-@ watt bulb . "
= = = Make @-@ up and costumes = = =
Ian McDiarmid required little make @-@ up in The Phantom Menace and Attack of the Clones . He recalled , " I 'm ... slightly aged [ in Attack of the Clones ] . In the last film , I had a fairly standard make @-@ up on , but now , they 're starting to crinkle my face . " Transforming McDiarmid into Emperor Palpatine in Return of the Jedi and Revenge of the Sith , however , required extensive make @-@ up . McDiarmid remarked in an interview with Star Wars Insider magazine , " Yes — that was a four @-@ hour job , initially , although we got it down to about two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half in the end . But this was just a little bit of latex here and there , a little bit of skin @-@ scrunching . " He told the Homing Beacon newsletter , " When my face changes in the film , my mind went back to the early silent movie of The Phantom of the Opera with Lon Chaney , Sr .. " Film critic Roger Ebert wrote that he " looks uncannily like Death in The Seventh Seal " ( 1957 ) and film historian Robin Wood compares him to the hag from Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs ( 1937 ) .
Palpatine 's wardrobe , tailored by costume designer Trisha Biggar , played an important part in the development of the character throughout the films . In Attack of the Clones , explained McDiarmid , " The costumes ... have got much more edge to them , I think , than the mere senator had [ in The Phantom Menace ] . So we see the trappings of power . " In the next episode , McDiarmid remarked , " To wear the costumes as the character I play is wonderfully empowering . " McDiarmid 's favorite costume in Revenge of the Sith was a high @-@ collared jacket that resembles snake or lizard skin . He stated that " it just feels reptilian , which is exactly right for [ Palpatine ] . " According to Trisha Biggar , Palpatine 's costumes proved the most daunting challenge . She said , " His six costumes get progressively darker and more ornately decorated throughout the movie . He wears greys and browns , almost going to black , taking him toward the dark side . "
= = Popular culture = =
With the premiere of Return of the Jedi and the prequel films and the accompanying merchandising campaign , Palpatine became an icon in American popular culture . Kenner / Hasbro produced and marketed a series of action figures of the character from 1983 to 2005 . According to John Shelton Lawrence and Robert Jewett , " These action figures allow children ( ' 4 & up ' ) to handle the symbols of the Force . "
Academics have debated the relationship of Palpatine to modern culture . Religion scholars Ross Shepard Kraemer , William Cassidy , and Susan Schwartz compare Palpatine and Star Wars heroes to the theological concept of dualism . They insist , " One can certainly picture the evil emperor in Star Wars as Satan , complete with his infernal powers , leading his faceless minions such as his red @-@ robed Imperial Guards . " Lawrence and Jewett argue that the killing of Palpatine in Return of the Jedi represented " the permanent subduing of evil " .
Since Return of the Jedi and the prequel films , Palpatine 's name has been invoked as a caricature in politics . The liberal website BuzzFlash remarked in 2004 , " When we saw ... [ Senator ] Zell Miller [ of Georgia ] giving his invective at the RNC , we knew it reminded us of someone . We just couldn 't place it until we realized it was the hate in Zell 's eyes , his skin and the way it looks like that hate is eating his soul . Then we remembered : he reminded us of the evil Emperor Palpatine from Star Wars . ( We didn 't know the Emperor had a name until this morning . ) " A Seattle Post @-@ Intelligencer editorial noted that anti @-@ pork bloggers were caricaturing West Virginia Senator Robert Byrd as " the Emperor Palpatine of pork " with Senator Ted Stevens of Alaska having " clear aspirations to be his Darth Vader . " The charge followed a report that linked a secret hold on the Federal Funding Accountability and Transparency Act of 2006 to the two senators . Politicians have made comparisons as well . In 2005 , Democratic Senator Frank Lautenberg of New Jersey compared Republican Majority Leader Bill Frist of Tennessee to Palpatine in a speech on the Senate floor , complete with a visual aid .
A Fox News editorial stated " no cultural icon can exist without someone trying to stuff it into a political ideology . The Star Wars saga , the greatest pop culture icon of the last three decades , is no exception ... Palpatine 's dissolution of the Senate in favor of imperial rule has been compared to Julius Caesar 's marginalization of the Roman Senate , Hitler 's power @-@ grab as chancellor , and FDR 's court @-@ packing scheme and creation of the imperial presidency . "
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= Greater Manchester =
Greater Manchester is a metropolitan county in North West England , with a population of 2 @.@ 8 million . It encompasses one of the largest metropolitan areas in the United Kingdom and comprises ten metropolitan boroughs : Bolton , Bury , Oldham , Rochdale , Stockport , Tameside , Trafford , Wigan , and the cities of Manchester and Salford . Greater Manchester was created on 1 April 1974 as a result of the Local Government Act 1972 ; and designated a City Region on 1 April 2011 .
Greater Manchester spans 493 square miles ( 1 @,@ 277 km2 ) , which roughly covers the territory of the Greater Manchester Built @-@ up Area , the second most populous urban area in the UK . It is landlocked and borders Cheshire ( to the south @-@ west and south ) , Derbyshire ( to the south @-@ east ) , West Yorkshire ( to the north @-@ east ) , Lancashire ( to the north ) and Merseyside ( to the west ) . There is a mix of high @-@ density urban areas , suburbs , semi @-@ rural and rural locations in Greater Manchester , but land use is mostly urban — the product of concentric urbanisation and industrialisation which occurred mostly during the 19th century when the region flourished as the global centre of the cotton industry . It has a focused central business district , formed by Manchester city centre and the adjoining parts of Salford and Trafford , but Greater Manchester is also a polycentric county with ten metropolitan districts , each of which has at least one major town centre and outlying suburbs .
For the 12 years following 1974 the county had a two @-@ tier system of local government ; district councils shared power with the Greater Manchester County Council . The county council was abolished in 1986 , and so its districts ( the metropolitan boroughs ) effectively became unitary authority areas . However , the metropolitan county has continued to exist in law and as a geographic frame of reference , and as a ceremonial county , has a Lord Lieutenant and a High Sheriff . Being within the Lancashire county palatine they are appointed by the monarch in their capacity as Duke of Lancaster . Several county @-@ wide services were co @-@ ordinated through the Association of Greater Manchester Authorities until April 2011 , when the Greater Manchester Combined Authority was established as the strategic county @-@ wide authority for Greater Manchester , taking on functions and responsibilities for economic development , regeneration and transport . A further devolution of powers to Greater Manchester is set to take place upon the election of the inaugural Mayor of Greater Manchester scheduled for 2017 .
Before the creation of the metropolitan county , the name SELNEC was used for the area , taken from the initials of " South East Lancashire North East Cheshire " . Greater Manchester is an amalgamation of 70 former local government districts from the former administrative counties of Lancashire , Cheshire , the West Riding of Yorkshire and eight independent county boroughs . Since deindustrialisation in the mid @-@ 20th century , Greater Manchester has emerged as an exporter of media and digital content , guitar and dance music , and association football .
= = History = =
= = = Origins = = =
Although the modern county of Greater Manchester was not created until 1974 , the history of its constituent settlements and parts goes back centuries . There is evidence of Iron Age habitation , particularly at Mellor , and Celtic activity in a settlement named Chochion , believed to have been an area of Wigan settled by the Brigantes . Stretford was also part of the land believed to have been occupied by the Celtic Brigantes tribe , and lay on their border with the Cornovii on the southern side of the River Mersey . The remains of 1st @-@ century forts at Castlefield in Manchester , and Castleshaw Roman fort in Saddleworth , are evidence of Roman occupation . The area was settled by Anglo @-@ Saxons , who named it " Mameham " . Much of the region was omitted from the Domesday Book of 1086 ; Redhead states that this was because only a partial survey was taken , rather than sparsity of population .
During the Middle Ages , much of what became Greater Manchester lay within the hundred of Salfordshire – an ancient division of the county of Lancashire . Salfordshire encompassed several parishes and townships , some of which , like Rochdale , were important market towns and centres of England 's woollen trade . The development of what became Greater Manchester is attributed to a shared tradition of domestic flannel and fustian cloth production , which encouraged a system of cross @-@ regional trade . In the late @-@ 18th century , the Industrial Revolution transformed the local domestic system ; mechanisation enabled the industrialisation of the region 's textile trade , triggering rapid growth in the cotton industry and expansion in ancillary trades . Infrastructure such as rows of terraced housing , factories and roads were constructed to house labour , transport goods , and produce cotton goods on an industrial scale for a global market . The townships in and around Manchester began expanding " at an astonishing rate " around the turn of the 19th century as part of a process of unplanned urbanisation brought on by a boom in industrial textile production and processing . This population increase resulted in the " vigourous concentric growth " of a conurbation between Manchester and an arc of surrounding mill towns , formed from a steady acretion of houses , factories and transport infrastructure . Places such as Bury , Oldham and Bolton played a central economic role nationally , and by the end of the 19th century had become some of the most important and productive cotton @-@ producing towns in the world . However , it was Manchester that was the most populous settlement , a major city , the world 's largest marketplace for cotton goods , and the natural centre of its region . By 1835 " Manchester was without challenge the first and greatest industrial city in the world " ; and by 1848 urban sprawl had fused the city to its surrounding towns and hinterland to form a single continuous conurbation . In the 1910s , local government reforms to administer this conurbation as a single entity were proposed .
In the 18th century , German traders had coined the name Manchesterthum to cover the region in and around Manchester . However , the English term " Greater Manchester " did not appear until the 20th century . One of its first known recorded uses was in a 1914 report put forward in response to what was considered to have been the successful creation of the County of London in 1889 . The report suggested that a county should be set up to recognise the " Manchester known in commerce " , and referred to the areas that formed " a substantial part of South Lancashire and part of Cheshire , comprising all municipal boroughs and minor authorities within a radius of eight or nine miles of Manchester " . In his 1915 book Cities In Evolution , urban planner Sir Patrick Geddes wrote " far more than Lancashire realises , is growing up another Greater London " .
Most of Greater Manchester lay within the ancient county boundaries of Lancashire ; those areas south of the Mersey and Tame were in Cheshire . The Saddleworth area and a small part of Mossley are historically part of Yorkshire and in the south @-@ east a small part in Derbyshire . The areas that were incorporated into Greater Manchester in 1974 previously formed parts of the administrative counties of Cheshire , Lancashire , the West Riding of Yorkshire and of eight independent county boroughs . By the early 1970s , this system of demarcation was described as " archaic " and " grossly inadequate to keep pace both with the impact of motor travel , and with the huge increases in local government responsibilities " .
The Manchester Evening Chronicle brought to the fore the issue of " regional unity " for the area in April 1935 under the headline " Greater Manchester – The Ratepayers ' Salvation " . It reported on the " increasing demands for the exploration of the possibilities of a greater merger of public services throughout Manchester and the surrounding municipalities " . The issue was frequently discussed by civic leaders in the area at that time , particularly those from Manchester and Salford . The Mayor of Salford pledged his support to the idea , stating that he looked forward to the day when " there would be a merging of the essential services of Manchester , Salford , and the surrounding districts constituting Greater Manchester . " Proposals were halted by the Second World War , though in the decade after it , the pace of proposals for local government reform for the area quickened . In 1947 , Lancashire County Council proposed a three " ridings " system to meet the changing needs of the county of Lancashire , including those for Manchester and surrounding districts . Other proposals included the creation of a Manchester County Council , a directly elected regional body . In 1951 , the census in the UK began reporting on South East Lancashire as a homogeneous conurbation .
= = = Redcliffe @-@ Maud Report = = =
The Local Government Act 1958 designated the south east Lancashire area ( which , despite its name , included part of north east Cheshire ) , a Special Review Area . The Local Government Commission for England presented draft recommendations , in December 1965 , proposing a new county based on the conurbation surrounding and including Manchester , with nine most @-@ purpose boroughs corresponding to the modern Greater Manchester boroughs ( excluding Wigan ) . The review was abolished in favour of the Royal Commission on Local Government before issuing a final report .
The Royal Commission 's 1969 report , known as the Redcliffe @-@ Maud Report , proposed the removal of much of the then existing system of local government . The commission described the system of administering urban and rural districts separately as outdated , noting that urban areas provided employment and services for rural dwellers , and open countryside was used by town dwellers for recreation . The commission considered interdependence of areas at many levels , including travel @-@ to @-@ work , provision of services , and which local newspapers were read , before proposing a new administrative metropolitan area . The area had roughly the same northern boundary as today 's Greater Manchester ( though included Rossendale ) , but covered much more territory from Cheshire ( including Macclesfield , Warrington , Alderley Edge , Northwich , Middlewich , Wilmslow and Lymm ) , and Derbyshire ( the towns of New Mills , Whaley Bridge , Glossop and Chapel @-@ en @-@ le @-@ Frith – a minority report suggested that Buxton be included ) . The metropolitan area was to be divided into nine metropolitan districts , based on Wigan , Bolton , Bury / Rochdale , Warrington , Manchester ( including Salford and Old Trafford ) , Oldham , Altrincham , Stockport and Tameside . The report noted " The choice even of a label of convenience for this metropolitan area is difficult " . Seven years earlier , a survey prepared for the British Association intended to define the " South @-@ East Lancashire conurbation " noted that " Greater Manchester it is not ... One of its main characteristics is the marked individuality of its towns , ... all of which have an industrial and commercial history of more than local significance " . The term Selnec ( or SELNEC ) was already in use as an abbreviation for south east Lancashire and north east Cheshire ; Redcliffe @-@ Maud took this as " the most convenient term available " , having modified it to south east Lancashire , north east and central Cheshire .
Following the Transport Act 1968 , in 1969 the SELNEC Passenger Transport Executive ( an authority to co @-@ ordinate and operate public transport in the region ) was set up , covering an area smaller than the proposed Selnec , and different again to the eventual Greater Manchester . Compared with the Redcliffe @-@ Maud area , it excluded Macclesfield , Warrington , and Knutsford but included Glossop and Saddleworth in the West Riding of Yorkshire . It excluded Wigan , which was in both the Redcliffe @-@ Maud area and in the eventual Greater Manchester ( but had not been part of the 1958 act 's review area ) .
Redcliffe @-@ Maud 's recommendations were accepted by the Labour @-@ controlled government in February 1970 . Although the Redcliffe @-@ Maud Report was rejected by the Conservative government after the 1970 general election , there was a commitment to local government reform , and the need for a metropolitan county centred on the conurbation surrounding Manchester was accepted . The new government 's original proposal was much smaller than the Redcliffe @-@ Maud Report 's Selnec , with areas such as Winsford , Northwich , Knutsford , Macclesfield and Glossop retained by their original counties to ensure their county councils had enough revenue to remain competitive ( Cheshire County Council would have ceased to exist ) . Other late changes included the separation of the proposed Bury / Rochdale authority ( retained from the Redcliffe @-@ Maud report ) into the Metropolitan Borough of Bury and the Metropolitan Borough of Rochdale . Bury and Rochdale were originally planned to form a single district ( dubbed " Botchdale " by local MP Michael Fidler ) but were divided into separate boroughs . To re @-@ balance the districts , the borough of Rochdale took Middleton from Oldham . During the passage of the bill , the towns of Whitworth , Wilmslow and Poynton successfully objected to their incorporation in the new county .
= = = 1974 – 1997 = = =
The Local Government Act 1972 reformed local government in England by creating a system of two @-@ tier metropolitan and non @-@ metropolitan counties and districts throughout the country . The act formally established Greater Manchester on 1April 1974 , although Greater Manchester County Council ( GMCC ) had been running since elections in 1973 . The leading article in The Times on the day the Local Government Act came into effect noted that the " new arrangement is a compromise which seeks to reconcile familiar geography which commands a certain amount of affection and loyalty , with the scale of operations on which modern planning methods can work effectively " . Frangopulo noted that the creation of Greater Manchester " was the official unifying of a region which , through history and tradition , had forged for itself over many centuries bonds ... between the communities of town and village , each of which was the embodiment of the character of this region " . The name Greater Manchester was adopted , having been favoured over Selnec by the local population .
By January 1974 , a joint working party representing Greater Manchester had drawn up its county Structure Plan , ready for implementation by the Greater Manchester County Council . The plan set out objectives for the forthcoming metropolitan county . The highest priority was to increase the quality of life for its inhabitants by improving the county 's physical environment and cultural facilities which had suffered following deindustrialisation — much of Greater Manchester 's basic infrastructure dated from its 19th @-@ century growth , and was unsuited to modern lifestyles . Other objectives were to reverse the trend of depopulation in central @-@ Greater Manchester , to invest in country parks to improve the region 's poor reputation on leisure facilities , and to improve the county 's transport infrastructure and patterns .
Because of political objection , particularly from Cheshire , Greater Manchester covered only the inner , urban 62 of the 90 former districts that the Royal Commission had outlined as an effective administrative metropolitan area . In this capacity , GMCC found itself " planning for an arbitrary metropolitan area ... abruptly truncated to the south " , and so had to negotiate several land @-@ use , transport and housing projects with its neighbouring county councils . However a " major programme of environmental action " by GMCC broadly succeeded in reversing social deprevation in its inner city slums . Leisure and recreational successes included the Greater Manchester Exhibition Centre ( better known as the G @-@ Mex centre and now branded Manchester Central ) , a converted former railway station in Manchester city centre used for cultural events , and GMCC 's creation of five new country parks within its boundaries . GMCC was , however , criticised for being too Manchester @-@ centric by representatives from the outer suburbs .
Unlike most other modern counties ( including Merseyside and Tyne and Wear ) , Greater Manchester was never adopted as a postal county by the Royal Mail . A review in 1973 noted that " Greater Manchester " would be unlikely to be adopted because of confusion with the Manchester post town . The component areas of Greater Manchester held on to their pre @-@ 1974 postal counties until 1996 , when they were abolished .
A decade after they were established , the mostly Labour @-@ controlled metropolitan county councils and the Greater London Council ( GLC ) had several high profile clashes with the Conservative government of Margaret Thatcher , with regards overspending and high rates charging . Government policy on the issue was considered throughout 1982 , and the Conservative Party put a " promise to scrap the metropolitan county councils " and the GLC , in their manifesto for the 1983 general election . Greater Manchester County Council was abolished on 31 March 1986 under the Local Government Act 1985 . That the metropolitan county councils were controlled by the Labour Party led to accusations that their abolition was motivated by party politics : the general secretary of the National Association of Local Government Officers described it as a " completely cynical manoeuvre " . Most of the functions of GMCC were devolved to the ten Greater Manchester metropolitan district councils , though functions such as emergency services and public transport were taken over by joint boards and continued to be run on a county @-@ wide basis . The Association of Greater Manchester Authorities ( AGMA ) was established to continue much of the county @-@ wide services of the county council . The metropolitan county continues to exist in law , and as a geographic frame of reference , for example as a NUTS 2 administrative division for statistical purposes within the European Union . Although having been a Lieutenancy area since 1974 , Greater Manchester was included as a ceremonial county by the Lieutenancies Act 1997 on 1 July 1997 .
= = = Combined Authority = = =
In 1998 , the people of Greater London voted in a referendum in favour of establishing a new Greater London Authority , with mayor and an elected chamber for the county . The New Local Government Network proposed the creation of a new Manchester City Region based on Greater Manchester and other metropolitan counties as part of on @-@ going reform efforts , while a report released by the Institute for Public Policy Research 's Centre for Cities proposed the creation of two administrative city regions based on Manchester and Birmingham . In July 2007 , The Treasury published its Review of sub @-@ national economic development and regeneration , which stated that the government would allow those city regions that wished to work together to form a statutory framework for city regional activity , including powers over transport , skills , planning and economic development . In January 2008 , AGMA suggested that a formal government structure be created to cover Greater Manchester . The issue resurfaced in June 2008 with regards to proposed congestion charging in Greater Manchester ; Sir Richard Leese ( leader of Manchester City Council ) said " I 've come to the conclusion that [ a referendum on congestion charging should be held ] because we don 't have an indirectly or directly elected body for Greater Manchester that has the power to make this decision " . On 14 July 2008 the ten local authorities in Greater Manchester agreed to a strategic and integrated cross @-@ county Multi @-@ Area Agreement ; a voluntary initiative aimed at making district councils " work together to challenge the artificial limits of boundaries " in return for greater autonomy from the central government of the UK . A referendum on the Greater Manchester Transport Innovation Fund was held in December 2008 , in which voters " overwhelmingly rejected " plans for public transport improvements linked to a peak @-@ time weekday @-@ only congestion charge .
Following a bid from AGMA highlighting the potential benefits in combatting the late @-@ 2000s financial crisis , it was announced in the 2009 United Kingdom Budget that Greater Manchester and the Leeds City Region would be awarded Statutory City Region Pilot status , allowing ( if they desired ) for their constituent district councils to pool resources and become statutory Combined Authorities with powers comparable to the Greater London Authority . The stated aim of the pilot was to evaluate the contributions to economic growth and sustainable development by Combined Authorities . The Local Democracy , Economic Development and Construction Act 2009 enabled the creation of a Combined Authority for Greater Manchester with devolved powers on public transport , skills , housing , regeneration , waste management , carbon neutrality and planning permission , pending approval from the ten councils . Such strategic matters would be decided on via an enhanced majority rule voting system involving ten members appointed from among the councillors of the metropolitan boroughs ( one representing each borough with each council nominating one substitute ) without the input of central government . The ten district councils of Greater Manchester approved the creation of the Greater Manchester Combined Authority ( GMCA ) on 29 March 2010 , and submitted final recommendations for a constitution to the Department for Communities and Local Government and the Department for Transport . On 31 March 2010 the Communities Secretary John Denham approved the constitution and launched a 15 @-@ week public consultation on the draft bill together with the approved constitution . Following requests by the Association of Greater Manchester Authorities , which was superseded by the GMCA , the new authority came into being on 1 April 2011 . On the same day , the Transport for Greater Manchester Committee was also formed from a pool of 33 councillors allocated by council population ( roughly one councillor per 75 @,@ 000 residents ) to scrutinise the running of Greater Manchester 's transport bodies and their finances , approve the decisions and policies of said bodies and form strategic policy recommendations or projects for the approval of the Combined Authority . On 3 November 2014 , George Osborne , the Chancellor of the Exchequer , announced that there would be an eleventh member of the GMCA — a directly elected Mayor of Greater Manchester , with " powers over transport , housing , planning and policing " from 2017 . This announcement was followed up on 25 February 2015 with news that Greater Manchester would be the first part of England to " get full control of its health spending " with a devolution deal from April 2016 .
= = Geography = =
Greater Manchester is a landlocked county spanning 493 square miles ( 1 @,@ 277 km2 ) . The South Pennines rise along the northeastern side of the county , through parts of Oldham , Rochdale and Tameside . The West Pennine Moors and several coalfields ( mainly sandstones and shales ) lie in the northwest and west respectively , and the Cheshire Plain fringes the south . The rivers Mersey , Irwell and Tame run through Greater Manchester , all of which rise in the Pennines . Other rivers traverse the region as tributaries to the major rivers , including the Douglas , the Irk , and the Roch . Black Chew Head is the highest point in Greater Manchester which forms part of the Peak District National Park , rising 1 @,@ 778 feet ( 542 m ) above sea @-@ level , within the parish of Saddleworth .
Greater Manchester is characterised by dense urban and industrial development , which includes centres of commerce , finance , retail and administration , as well as commuter suburbs and housing , interspersed with transport infrastructure such as light rail , roads and motorway , and canals . There is a mix of high density urban areas , suburbs , semi @-@ rural and rural locations in Greater Manchester , but land use is mostly urban . The built environment of Greater Manchester utilises red brick and sandstone prominently as a building material , alongside structures composed of modern materials , high @-@ rise towers , and landmark 19th- , 20th- and 21st @-@ century buildings in the city and town centres . Manchester city centre is the commercial and geographic heart of Greater Manchester , and with the adjoining parts of Salford and Trafford , is defined as Greater Manchester 's " Regional Centre " for purposes of urban planning and public transport . Political and economic ties between the city centre and neighbouring Salford and Trafford have strengthened with the shift from town and district centres to metropolitan @-@ level centres in England , and this area 's high @-@ rise landmark buildings provide a visual orientation point of reference as a central business district . However , Greater Manchester is also a polycentric county with ten metropolitan districts , each of which has a major town centre – and in some cases more than one – and many smaller settlements . The major towns encircle Manchester city centre , and between them are smaller towns ( such as Denton , Middleton and Failsworth ) which are suburban to both the Regional Centre and the major town centres . Combined , these factors make Greater Manchester the most complex " polycentric functional urban region " in the UK outside London .
The Greater Manchester Built @-@ up Area is the conurbation or continuous urban area based around Greater Manchester , as defined by the Office for National Statistics . In 2011 , it had an estimated population of 2 @,@ 553 @,@ 379 , making it the second most populous built @-@ up area in the UK , and occupied an area of 630 @.@ 3 square kilometres ( 243 @.@ 4 sq mi ) at the time of the 2011 census . The European Union designate the conurbation as a single homogonous urban city region . The Built @-@ up Area includes most of Greater Manchester , omitting areas of countryside and small villages , as well as noncontiguous urban towns such as Wigan and Marple . Outside the boundary of Greater Manchester it includes several adjacent areas of settlement and a few outliers connected to the urban sprawl by ribbon development , such as Wilmslow and Alderley Edge in Cheshire , Glossop and Hadfield in Derbyshire , and Whitworth in Lancashire . This conurbation forms part of a megalopolis of 9 @.@ 4 million across northern England .
= = = Climate = = =
Greater Manchester experiences a temperate maritime climate , like most of the British Isles , with relatively cool summers and mild winters . The county 's average annual rainfall is 806 @.@ 6 millimetres ( 31 @.@ 76 in ) compared to the UK average of 1 @,@ 125 @.@ 0 millimetres ( 44 @.@ 29 in ) , and its mean rain days are 140 @.@ 4 mm ( 5 @.@ 53 in ) per annum , compared to the UK average of 154 @.@ 4 mm ( 6 @.@ 08 in ) . The mean temperature is slightly above average for the United Kingdom . Greater Manchester also has a relatively high humidity level , which lent itself to the optimised and breakage @-@ free textile manufacturing which took place around the county . Snowfall is not a common sight in the built up areas , due to the urban warming effect . However , the Pennine and Rossendale Forest hills around the eastern and northern edges of the county receive more snow , and roads leading out of the county can be closed due to heavy snowfall , notably the A62 road via Standedge , the A57 ( Snake Pass ) towards Sheffield , and the M62 over Saddleworth Moor . In the most southern point of Greater Manchester , Woodford 's Met Office weather station recorded a temperature of − 17 @.@ 6 ° C ( 0 @.@ 3 ° F ) on 8 January 2010 , during the Winter of 2009 @-@ 2010 in the United Kingdom .
= = = Flora and fauna = = =
Contrary to its reputation for urban sprawl , Greater Manchester has a green belt , constraining urban drift , and a " wide and varied range " of wildlife and natural habitats . For instance , the wooded valleys of Bolton , Bury and Stockport , the moorlands north and east of Rochdale , Oldham and Stalybridge , and the reed beds between Wigan and Leigh , harbour flora and fauna of national importance . Mature woodland , scrubland , grassland , high moorland , mossland , agricultural land , lakes , wetlands , river valleys , embankments , urban parks and suburban gardens are habitats found in Greater Manchester which further contribute to biodiversity . The Greater Manchester Ecology Unit classifies Sites of Biological Importance .
The 21 Sites of Special Scientific Interest ( SSSI ) in Greater Manchester , and the 12 @.@ 1 square miles ( 31 km2 ) of common land in Greater Manchester are of particular interest to organisations such as the Greater Manchester Local Record Centre , the Greater Manchester Biodiversity Project and the Manchester Field Club , which are dedicated to wildlife conservation and the preservation of the region 's natural history . Among the SSSIs are Astley and Bedford Mosses which form a network of ancient peat bog on the fringe of Chat Moss , which in turn , at 10 @.@ 6 square miles ( 27 km2 ) comprises the largest area of prime farmland in Greater Manchester and contains the largest block of semi @-@ natural woodland in the county . The Wigan Flashes , such as those at Pennington Flash Country Park , are the by @-@ product of coal mining , where subsidence has led to waterbodies collecting in the resulting hollows which form an important reed bed resource in Greater Manchester . Opened in 1979 , Sale Water Park is a 152 @-@ acre ( 62 ha ) area of countryside and parkland in Sale which includes a 52 @-@ acre ( 21 ha ) artificial lake by the River Mersey .
Clover , sorrel , nettle and thistle are common , and grow wild in Greater Manchester . Common heather ( Calluna vulgaris ) dominates the uplands , such as Saddleworth Moor , which lies within the South Pennines and Dark Peak area of the Peak District National Park . The Rochdale Canal harbours floating water @-@ plantain ( Luronium ) , an endangered aquatic plant . In 2002 , Plantlife International launched its County Flowers campaign , asking members of the public to nominate and vote for a wild flower emblem for their county . Common cottongrass ( Eriophorum angustifolium ) , a plant with fluffy white plumes native to wet hollows on high moors , was announced as the county flower of Greater Manchester . The house sparrow , common starling , and common blackbird are among the most populous bird species in Greater Manchester ; Eurasian magpie and feral pigeon are common and breed in habitats across the county . The South Pennines support internationally important numbers of European golden plover , curlew , merlin and twite .
= = Governance = =
The Greater Manchester Combined Authority ( GMCA ) is the top @-@ tier administrative body for the local governance of Greater Manchester . It was established on 1 April 2011 as a pilot combined authority , unique to local government in the United Kingdom . It consists of ten indirectly elected members , each a directly elected councillor from one of the ten metropolitan boroughs that comprise Greater Manchester . The authority derives most of its powers from the Local Government Act 2000 and Local Democracy , Economic Development and Construction Act 2009 , and replaced a range of single @-@ purpose joint boards and quangos in 2011 , to provide a formal administrative authority for Greater Manchester with powers over public transport , skills , housing , regeneration , waste management , carbon neutrality and planning permission . Functional executive bodies , such as Transport for Greater Manchester , are responsible for delivery of services in these areas . On 3 November 2014 , the Devolution to the Greater Manchester Combined Authority agreement was signed to pass further powers and responsibilities , as well as the establishment of an elected Mayor of Greater Manchester with the first election to be held in 2017 . From April 2016 , Greater Manchester will be the first part of England to " get full control of its health spending " with a devolution deal which aims to unite the region 's health and social care systems under one budget under the control of local leaders , including Greater Manchester 's new directly elected mayor .
Beneath the GMCA are the ten councils of Greater Manchester 's ten districts , which are Bolton , Bury , the City of Manchester , Oldham , Rochdale , the City of Salford , Stockport , Tameside , Trafford and Wigan . These district councils have the greatest powers over public services , and control matters such as council tax , education provision , social housing , libraries and healthcare . Eight of the ten metropolitan boroughs were named after the eight former county boroughs that now compose the largest centres of population and greater historical and political prominence . As an example , the Metropolitan Borough of Stockport is centred on the town of Stockport , a former county borough , but includes other smaller settlements , such as Cheadle , Gatley , and Bramhall . The names of two of the metropolitan boroughs were given a neutral name because , at the time they were created , there was no agreement on the town to be put forward as the administrative centre and neither had a county borough . These boroughs are Tameside and Trafford , centred on Ashton @-@ under @-@ Lyne and Stretford , respectively , and are named with reference to geographical and historical origins . The lowest formal tier of local government in Greater Manchester are the parish councils , which cover the various civil parishes in Greater Manchester , and have limited powers over upkeep , maintenance and small grants .
For the first 12 years after the county was created in 1974 , Greater Manchester had a two @-@ tier system of local government , and the metropolitan borough councils shared power with the Greater Manchester County Council . The Greater Manchester County Council , a strategic authority based in what is now Westminster House off Piccadilly Gardens , comprised 106 members drawn from the ten metropolitan boroughs of Greater Manchester . It was a sub @-@ regional body running regional services such as transport , strategic planning , emergency services and waste disposal . In 1986 , along with the five other metropolitan county councils and the Greater London Council , the Greater Manchester County Council was abolished , and most of its powers were devolved to the boroughs . Between 1986 and 2011 , the boroughs were effectively unitary authority areas , but opted to co @-@ operate voluntarily under the Association of Greater Manchester Authorities ( AGMA ) , which served to create a co @-@ ordinated county @-@ wide approach to issues of common interest to Greater Manchester , such as public transport and the shared labour market , as well as making representations to central government and the European Union .
Although used as a " successful brand " , Greater Manchester 's politics have been characterised by " entrenched localism and related rivalries " , historically resistant to regionalism . The major towns in Greater Manchester retain a " fierce independence " , meaning Greater Manchester is administered using " inter @-@ municipal coordination " on a broadly voluntary basis . That eight of the ten borough councils have ( for the most part ) been Labour @-@ controlled since 1986 , has helped maintain this informal co @-@ operation between the districts at a county @-@ level . After the abolition of the county council , the ten authorities of Greater Manchester co @-@ operated voluntarily on policy issues like Local Transport Plans as well as funding the Greater Manchester County Record Office , and local services were administered by statutory joint boards . Now under the direction of the Greater Manchester Combined Authority , these joint boards are Transport for Greater Manchester ( TfGM ) which is responsible for planning and co @-@ ordinating public transport across the county ; the Greater Manchester Fire and Rescue Service , who are administered by a joint Fire and Rescue Authority ; and the Greater Manchester Waste Disposal Authority . These joint boards are made up of councillors appointed from each of the ten boroughs ( except the Waste Disposal Authority , which does not include the Metropolitan Borough of Wigan ) . Greater Manchester Police was formerly overseen by a joint police authority , but is now overseen by the Greater Manchester Police and Crime Commissioner owing to reforms introduced in 2012 . The ten borough councils are joint @-@ owners of the Manchester Airport Group which controls Manchester Airport and three other UK airports . Other services are directly funded and managed by the local councils .
Greater Manchester is a ceremonial county with its own Lord @-@ Lieutenant who is the personal representative of the monarch . The Local Government Act 1972 provided that the whole of the area to be covered by the new metropolitan county of Greater Manchester would also be included in the Duchy of Lancaster – extending the duchy to include areas which were formerly in the counties of Cheshire and the West Riding of Yorkshire . Until 31 March 2005 , Greater Manchester 's Keeper of the Rolls was appointed by the Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster ; they are now appointed by the Lord High Chancellor of Great Britain . The first Lord Lieutenant of Greater Manchester was Sir William Downward who held the title from 1974 to 1988 . The current Lord Lieutenant is Warren James Smith . As a geographic county , Greater Manchester is used by the government ( via the Office for National Statistics ) for the gathering of county @-@ wide statistics , and organising and collating general register and census material .
In terms of representation in the Parliament of the United Kingdom , Greater Manchester is divided into 28 parliamentary constituencies – 18 borough constituencies and 10 county constituencies . Most of Greater Manchester is controlled by the Labour party , and is generally considered a Labour stronghold , . At the 2015 UK General Election in Greater Manchester , Labour won 22 seats and the Conservatives won 5 .
= = Demography = =
Greater Manchester has a population of 2 @,@ 732 @,@ 854 ( 2014 est . , ) , making it the third most populous county in England after Greater London and the West Midlands and the highest ever for the county . It is the sixth most densely populated county of England . The demonym of Greater Manchester is " Greater Mancunian " . The Manchester accent and dialect , native to Manchester , is common in the city and adjacent areas , but gives way to " slower , deeper accents " towards Greater Manchester 's fringes and suburbs .
Greater Manchester is home to a diverse population and is a multicultural agglomeration with an ethnic minority population comprising 8 @.@ 5 % of the total population in 2001 . In 2008 , there were over 66 refugee nationalities in the county . At the 2001 UK census , 74 @.@ 2 % of Greater Manchester 's residents were Christian , 5 @.@ 0 % Muslim , 0 @.@ 9 % Jewish , 0 @.@ 7 % Hindu , 0 @.@ 2 % Buddhist , and 0 @.@ 1 % Sikh . 11 @.@ 4 % had no religion , 0 @.@ 2 % had an alternative religion and 7 @.@ 4 % did not state their religion . This is similar to the rest of the country , although the proportions of Muslims and Jews are nearly twice the national average . It contains the Heaton Park Hebrew Congregation , a large Ashkenazi Orthodox synagogue located in North Manchester . Greater Manchester is covered by the Roman Catholic Dioceses of Salford and Shrewsbury , and the Archdiocese of Liverpool . Most of Greater Manchester is part of the Anglican Diocese of Manchester , apart from Wigan which lies within the Diocese of Liverpool .
Following the deindustrialisation of Greater Manchester in the mid @-@ 20th century , there was a significant economic and population decline in the region , particularly in Manchester and Salford . Vast areas of low @-@ quality squalid terraced housing that were built throughout the Victorian era were found to be in a poor state of repair and unsuited to modern needs ; many inner @-@ city districts suffered from chronic social deprivation and high levels of unemployment . Slum clearance and the increased building of social housing overspill estates by Salford and Manchester City Councils lead to a decrease in population in central Greater Manchester . During the 1970s , 1980s and 1990s , the population of Greater Manchester declined by over 8 @,@ 000 inhabitants a year . While Manchester 's population shrank by about 40 % during this time ( from 766 @,@ 311 in 1931 to 452 @,@ 000 in 2006 ) , the total population of Greater Manchester decreased by only 8 % .
Greater Manchester 's housing stock comprises a variety of types . Manchester city centre is noted for its high @-@ rise apartments , while Salford has some of the tallest and most densely populated tower block estates in Europe . Saddleworth has stone @-@ built properties , including farmhouses and converted weavers ' cottages . Throughout Greater Manchester , rows of terraced houses are common , most of them built during the Victorian and Edwardian periods . House prices and labour markets differ in Greater Manchester between north and south , such that in the 2000s , the Housing Market Renewal Initiative identified Manchester , Salford , Rochdale and Oldham as areas with terraced housing unsuited to modern needs . In contrast , towns and villages in southern Greater Manchester , from Bramhall through Woodford to Altrincham constitute an arc of wealthy commuter towns . Altrincham in particular , with its neighbours Bowdon and Hale , forms a " stockbroker belt , with well @-@ appointed dwellings in an area of sylvan opulence " .
= = Education = =
Greater Manchester has five universities : the Manchester Metropolitan University , the University of Bolton , the University of Law , the University of Manchester and the University of Salford . Together with the Royal Northern College of Music they had a combined population of students of 101 @,@ 165 in 2007 – the third highest number in England behind Greater London ( 360 @,@ 890 ) and the West Midlands ( 140 @,@ 980 ) , and the thirteenth highest in England per head of population . The majority of students are concentrated on Oxford Road in Manchester , Europe 's largest urban higher education precinct .
As of 2010 , further education in Greater Manchester is co @-@ ordinated by the Greater Manchester Colleges Group , a joint venture composed of an association of 24 colleges in the region . Primary and secondary education within Greater Manchester are the responsibility of the constituent boroughs which form local education authorities and administer schools . The county has several independent schools such as Bolton School , Bury Grammar School , Manchester Grammar School , Oldham Hulme Grammar School , St Bede 's College and Stockport Grammar School .
= = Economy = =
Much of Greater Manchester 's wealth was generated during the Industrial Revolution , particularly textile manufacture . The world 's first cotton mill was built in the town of Royton , and the county encompasses several former mill towns . An Association for Industrial Archaeology publication describes Greater Manchester as " one of the classic areas of industrial and urban growth in Britain , the result of a combination of forces that came together in the 18th and 19th centuries : a phenomenal rise in population , the appearance of the specialist industrial town , a transport revolution , and weak local lordship " . Much of the county was at the forefront of textile manufacture during the Industrial Revolution and into the early @-@ 20th century ; Peter Smith , Baron Smith of Leigh , chair of the Greater Manchester Combined Authority said " clearly , all of the Greater Manchester area was once at the heart of a very vibrant [ textiles ] industry " , represented by former textile mills found throughout the county . The territory that makes up Greater Manchester experienced a rapid decline of these traditional sectors , partly during the Lancashire Cotton famine brought on by the American Civil War , but mainly as part of the post @-@ war economic depression and deindustrialization of Britain that occurred during the 20th century .
Considerable industrial restructuring has helped the region to recover from deindustrialisation and the demise of the mass production of textiles . Historically , the docks at Salford Quays were an industrial port , though are now ( following a period of disuse ) a commercial and residential area which includes the Imperial War Museum North and The Lowry theatre and exhibition centre . The BBC is now established in their new home at MediaCityUK , at Salford Quays . This is home to BBC North West , several BBC departments , including BBC Sport , Blue Peter and , since April 2012 , BBC Breakfast . Rochdale and Manchester are connected to the history of the cooperative movement ; the Rochdale Society of Equitable Pioneers ( an early consumer co @-@ operative ) was founded in Rochdale in 1844 , and The Co @-@ operative Group , the UK 's largest mutual business and North West England 's biggest company , is headquartered at One Angel Square in central Manchester . Despite this economic diversification , as of November 2012 , government plans are under development to revive textile production in Greater Manchester , and restore it as the national home of British textile manufacture .
Today , Greater Manchester is the economic centre of the North West region of England and is the largest sub @-@ regional economy in the UK outside London and South East England . Greater Manchester represents more than £ 42 billion of the UK regional GVA , more than Wales , Northern Ireland or North East England . Manchester city centre , the central business district of Greater Manchester , is a major centre of trade and commerce and provides Greater Manchester with a global identity , specialist activities and employment opportunities ; similarly , the economy of the city centre is dependent upon the rest of the county for its population as an employment pool , skilled workforce and for its collective purchasing power . Manchester today is a centre of the arts , the media , higher education and commerce . In a poll of British business leaders published in 2006 , Manchester was regarded as the best place in the UK to locate a business . A report commissioned by Manchester Partnership , published in 2007 , showed Manchester to be the " fastest @-@ growing city " economically . It is the third most visited city in the United Kingdom by foreign visitors and is now often considered to be the second city of the UK . The Trafford Centre is one of the largest shopping centres in the United Kingdom , and is located within the Metropolitan Borough of Trafford .
At the 2001 UK census , there were 1 @,@ 805 @,@ 315 residents of Greater Manchester aged 16 to 74 . The economic activity of these people was 40 @.@ 3 % in full @-@ time employment , 11 @.@ 3 % in part @-@ time employment , 6 @.@ 7 % self @-@ employed , 3 @.@ 5 % unemployed , 5 @.@ 1 % students without jobs , 2 @.@ 6 % students with jobs , 13 @.@ 0 % retired , 6 @.@ 1 % looking after home or family , 7 @.@ 8 % permanently sick or disabled and 3 @.@ 5 % economically inactive for other reasons . The figures follow the national trend , although the percentage of self @-@ employed people is below the national average of 8 @.@ 3 % . The proportion of unemployment in the county varies , with the Metropolitan Borough of Stockport having the lowest at 2 @.@ 0 % and Manchester the highest at 7 @.@ 9 % . In 2001 , of the 1 @,@ 093 @,@ 385 residents of Greater Manchester in employment , the industry of employment was : 18 @.@ 4 % retail and wholesale ; 16 @.@ 7 % manufacturing ; 11 @.@ 8 % property and business services ; 11 @.@ 6 % health and social work ; 8 @.@ 0 % education ; 7 @.@ 3 % transport and communications ; 6 @.@ 7 % construction ; 4 @.@ 9 % public administration and defence ; 4 @.@ 7 % hotels and restaurants ; 4 @.@ 1 % finance ; 0 @.@ 8 % electricity , gas , and water supply ; 0 @.@ 5 % agriculture ; and 4 @.@ 5 % other . This was roughly in line with national figures , except for the proportion of jobs in agriculture which is only about a third of the national average of 1 @.@ 5 % , due to the overwhelmingly urban , built @-@ up land use of Greater Manchester .
= = Transport = =
Public transport services in Greater Manchester are co @-@ ordinated by Transport for Greater Manchester ( TfGM ) , a public body with powers between those of a passenger transport executive and Transport for London , established as SELNEC PTE in 1969 in accordance with the Transport Act 1968 . The original SELNEC Passenger Transport Executive was renamed as the Greater Manchester Passenger Transport Executive ( GMPTE ) when taken over by the Greater Manchester County Council on 1 April 1974 to co @-@ ordinate public transport modes within the new county . The council had overall responsibility for strategic planning and all policy decisions covering public transport ( such as bus and rail services ) and highways . GMPTE 's purpose was to secure the provision of a completely integrated and efficient system of passenger transport for Greater Manchester on behalf of the county council . In 1977 , it was noted as the largest authority for public transport in the United Kingdom after London Transport . GMPTE was renamed as Transport for Greater Manchester in April 2011 when it became a functional body of the Greater Manchester Combined Authority and obtained powers additional to those of a regular passenger transport executive from central government .
Greater Manchester lies at the heart of the North West transport network . Much of the infrastructure converges at Manchester city centre with the Manchester Inner Ring Road , an amalgamation of several major roads , circulating the city centre . The county is the only place in the UK to have a fully orbital motorway , the M60 , which passes through all of the boroughs except Bolton and Wigan . Greater Manchester has a higher percentage of the motorway network than any other county in the country , and according to the Guinness Book of World Records , it has the most traffic lanes side by side ( 17 ) , spread across several parallel carriageways ( M61 at Linnyshaw in Walkden , close to the M60 interchange ) . Greater Manchester 's 85 miles ( 137 km ) of motorway network saw 5 @.@ 8 billion vehicle kilometres in 2002 – about 6 % of the UK 's total , or 89 @,@ 000 vehicles a day . The A580 " East Lancs " road is a primary A road that connects Manchester and Salford with Liverpool . It was the UK 's first purpose @-@ built intercity highway and was officially opened by George V on 18 July 1934 . Throughout 2008 , there were proposals for congestion charging in Greater Manchester . Unlike the London scheme , two cordons would have been used , one covering the main urban core of the Greater Manchester Urban Area and another covering Manchester city centre .
Metrolink is Greater Manchester 's light rail system , which began operating in 1992 . Principally used for suburban commuting , as of December 2014 the 57 @-@ mile ( 92 km ) long network consists of seven lines which radiate from Manchester city centre and terminate at Altrincham , Ashton @-@ under @-@ Lyne , Bury , Didsbury , Eccles , Manchester Airport and Rochdale . The system is owned by TfGM and operated and maintained under contract by RATP Group . Greater Manchester has a heavy rail network of 142 route miles ( 229 km ) with 98 stations , forming a central hub to the North West rail network . Train services are provided by private operators and run on the national rail network which is owned and managed by Network Rail . There is an extensive bus network which radiates from Manchester city centre . The largest providers are First Greater Manchester for the northern parts of the county and Stagecoach Manchester for the southern parts . An extensive canal network also remains from the Industrial Revolution .
Manchester Airport , which is the third busiest in the United Kingdom , serves the county and wider region with flights to more worldwide destinations than any other airport in the UK . Since June 2007 it has served 225 routes . The airport handled 21 @.@ 06 million passengers in 2008 .
The three modes of public surface transport in the area are heavily used . 19 @.@ 7 million rail journeys were made in the then GMPTE @-@ supported area in the 2005 / 2006 financial year – an increase of 9 @.@ 4 % over 2004 / 2005 ; there were 19 @.@ 9 million journeys on Metrolink ; and the bus system carried 219 @.@ 4 million passengers .
= = Sports = =
Manchester hosted the 2002 Commonwealth Games which was , at a cost of £ 200M for the sporting facilities and a further £ 470M for local infrastructure , by far the biggest and most expensive sporting event held in the UK and the first to be an integral part of urban regeneration . A mix of new and existing facilities were used . New amenities included the Manchester Aquatics Centre , Bolton Arena , the National Squash Centre , and the City of Manchester Stadium . The Manchester Velodrome was built as part of the Manchester bid for the 2000 Summer Olympics . After the Commonwealth Games the City of Manchester Stadium was converted for football use , and the adjacent warm @-@ up track upgraded to become the Manchester Regional Arena . Other facilities continue to be used by elite athletes . Cambridge Policy Consultants estimate 4 @,@ 500 full @-@ time jobs as a direct consequence , and Grattan points to other long @-@ term benefits accruing from publicity and the improvement of the area 's image .
Association football is " woven into the cultural fabric of Greater Manchester " , by way of its numerous football clubs – two of which play in the Premier League - which draw support , visitors and economic benefits to Greater Manchester valued at £ 330 million per year as of 2013 . The Manchester Football Association is the sport 's governing body in Greater Manchester , and is committed to its promotion and development . Manchester United F.C. are one of the world 's best @-@ known football teams , and in April 2008 Forbes estimated that they were the world 's richest club . They have won the League Championship a record twenty times ( most recently in 2012 @-@ 2013 ) , the FA Cup a record twelve times , the Football League Cup four times and have been European Champions three times . Their Old Trafford ground has hosted the FA Cup Final England international matches and the 2003 UEFA Champions League Final between Juventus and A.C. Milan . Manchester City F.C. moved from Maine Road to the City of Manchester Stadium after the 2002 Commonwealth Games . They have won the league championship four times ( most recently in 2013 @-@ 2014 ) and the FA Cup five times . In addition , Wigan Athletic F.C. are one of the county 's younger sides , and won their first major title in 2013 , defeating Manchester City F.C. in the FA Cup final . They currently play in the Championship . There is also Bolton Wanderers F.C. , who also play in the Championship . Oldham Athletic A.F.C. ( founding members of Premier League ) and Bury F.C. ( two FA Cup wins ) who play in League One , Rochdale A.F.C. who play in League One , Stockport County F.C. and F.C. United of Manchester who both play in the National League North .
In rugby league , the Wigan Warriors and the Salford Red Devils compete in the Super League , the top @-@ level professional rugby league football club competition in Europe . Wigan have won the Super League / Rugby Football League Championship eighteen times , the Challenge Cup seventeen times , and the World Club Challenge three times . Leigh Centurions and the Swinton Lions take part in the Championship , the sport 's second tier , with 5 times Rugby Football League Championship and 3 times Challenge Cup winners Oldham Roughyeds and local rivals Rochdale Hornets in the third @-@ tier Championship 1 . There is also a large network of junior / community rugby league clubs across the metropolitan area which act as feeder teams to the elite sides . In rugby union , Stockport 's Sale Sharks compete in the Guinness Premiership , and won the league in 2006 . Whitefield based Sedgley Park RUFC compete in National Division One , Manchester RUFC in National Division Two and Wigan side Orrell R.U.F.C. in National Division Three North .
Lancashire County Cricket Club began as Manchester Cricket Club and represents the ( ancient ) county of Lancashire . Lancashire contested the original 1890 County Championship . The team has won the County Championship nine times , most recently in 2011 . Their Old Trafford ground , near the football stadium of the same name , regularly hosts test matches . Possibly the most famous took place in 1956 , when Jim Laker took a record nineteen wickets in the fourth test against Australia . Cheshire County Cricket Club are a minor counties club who sometimes play in the south of the county .
The Kirkmanshulme Lane stadium in Belle Vue is the home to top @-@ flight speedway team the Belle Vue Aces and regular greyhound racing . Professional ice hockey returned to the area in early 2007 with the opening of a purpose @-@ designed rink in Altrincham , the Altrincham Ice Dome , to host the Manchester Phoenix . Their predecessor , Manchester Storm , went out of business in 2002 because of financial problems that led to them being unable to pay players ' wages or the rent for the Manchester Arena in which they played .
Horse racing has taken place at several sites in the county . The two biggest courses were both known as Manchester Racecourse – though neither was within the boundaries of Manchester – and ran from the 17th century until 1963 . Racing was at Kersal Moor until 1847 when the racecourse at Castle Irwell was opened . In 1867 racing was moved to New Barnes , Weaste , until the site was vacated ( for a hefty price ) in 1901 to allow an expansion to Manchester Docks . The land is now home to Dock 9 of the re @-@ branded Salford Quays . Racing then moved back to Castle Irwell which later staged a Classic – the 1941 St. Leger – and was home to the Lancashire Oaks ( nowadays run at Haydock Park ) and the November Handicap , which was traditionally the last major race of the flat season . Through the late 50s and early 60s the track saw Scobie Breasley and Lester Piggott annually battle out the closing acts of the jockey 's title until racing ceased on 7 November 1963 .
The Greater Manchester Athletics Association is the governing body of athletics in Greater Manchester , and organises events and competitions within Greater Manchester . The Greater Manchester Marathon is a long @-@ distance running event along a 26 @-@ mile and 385 @-@ yard course throughout the borough of Trafford . Professional athletics takes place at the Regional Athletics Arena in Sportcity , which has hosted numerous national trials , Robin Park in Wigan , Longford Park in Stretford ( home to Trafford Athletic Club ) , Woodbank Stadium in Stockport ( home to Stockport Harriers ) and the Cleavleys Track in Winton ( home to Salford Harriers ) . As of 2008 , new sports facilities including a 10 @,@ 000 capacity stadium and athletics venue are being constructed at Leigh Sports Village .
The Greater Manchester Community Basketball Club is an association which represents Greater Manchester in basketball . It supports a variety of teams , including Manchester Magic . The Greater Manchester County Crown Green Bowling Association appoints Junior , Senior and Veteran teams to represent Greater Manchester in the sport of bowls . Founded by Greater Manchester 's ten district councils in 1996 , GreaterSport is the County Sports Partnership for Greater Manchester which works closely with the sports and physical activity sectors and coordinates events such as the Greater Manchester Youth Games . The Greater Manchester Sports Fund aims to ensure that people in Greater Manchester aged 12 – 21 competing in any kind of sport , irrespective of background , are able to obtain grants of up to £ 750 so that they can better fulfil their potential .
= = Culture = =
Art , tourism , culture and sport provide 16 % of employment in Greater Manchester , with the proportion highest in Manchester . In 2014 , Will Straw remarked that " Greater Manchester is a creative powerhouse " , recognised for its cultural output in areas such as association football , media and digital content , and guitar and dance music .
= = = Cuisine = = =
There are several delicacies native to Greater Manchester . Savoury dishes include Black pudding , a blood sausage typically associated with Bury and Bury Market ; Pasty barm , a combined pasty @-@ barm cake created in Bolton ; and Rag pudding , a suet pastry pudding from Oldham filled with steak and onion and steamed in a cloth or wrapper to cook ; the Manchester egg was introduced in 2010 . Sweet dishes include Eccles cake — native to Eccles — a small round flaky pastry cake filled with currants , sugar and spice ; Manchester tart , a baked tart which consists of a shortcrust pastry shell spread with raspberry jam , covered with a custard filling and topped with flakes of coconut ; and Uncle Joe 's Mint Balls , traditional sweet mild mints manufactured in Wigan since their inception in 1898 . Vimto and Tizer are soft drinks invented in Manchester in 1908 and 1924 respectively . Boddingtons is a bitter developed in Manchester and promoted as the " Cream of Manchester " in a popular 1990s advertising campaign credited with raising the city 's profile .
The Greater Manchester Campaign for Real Ale is a branch of the national Campaign for Real Ale , an advocacy group that supports , promotes and preserves the beer and drinks industry , and recognising outstanding venues with awards ; The Nursery in Heaton Norris was its National Pub of the Year in 2001 , and The Baum in Rochdale was its National Pub Of The Year in 2012 . The Manchester Food and Drink Festival was launched in 1997 as an urban beverage and gastronomy fair , principally held in Manchester city centre with further events throughout Greater Manchester ; smaller separate local events include the Prestwich Food and Drink Festival , the annual World Pie Eating Championship in Wigan , and the annual Ramsbottom Chocolate Festival . As of 2012 , Greater Manchester has no Michelin @-@ starred restaurants , but three eateries in the Bib Gourmand category .
= = = Galleries , museums and exhibitions = = =
The Greater Manchester Museums Group ( GMMG ) is a partnership of eight of the ten Museum Services in Greater Manchester . Its exhibition centres include : Gallery Oldham , which has in the past featured work by Pablo Picasso ; Salford Museum and Art Gallery , a local museum with a recreated Victorian street ; and Bolton Museum , which houses material from private collectors , including geological specimens from the estate of Caroline Birley . Separate from the GMMG is The Lowry at Salford Quays , which has a changing display of L. S. Lowry 's work alongside travelling exhibitions . Manchester Art Gallery is a major provincial art gallery noted for its collection of Pre @-@ Raphaelite art and housed in a Grade I listed building by Charles Barry .
Greater Manchester 's museums showcase the county 's industrial and social heritage . The Hat Works in Stockport is the UK 's only museum dedicated to the hatting industry ; the museum moved in 2000 to a Grade II listed Victorian mill , previously a hat factory . The Museum of Science and Industry in Manchester , amongst other displays , charts the rise of science and industry and especially the part Manchester played in its development ; the Museums , Libraries and Archives Council described the displays as " pre @-@ eminent collections of national and international importance " . Urbis began its life as a museum of the modern city , which attempted to explain the effects and experiences of life in the city . It was then transformed into an exhibition centre , which had its most successful year in 2006 . Urbis entered its third phase since opening in 2012 as the National Football Museum . Stockport Air Raid Shelters uses a mile of underground tunnels , built to accommodate 6 @,@ 500 people , to illustrate life in the Second World War 's air raid shelters . The Imperial War Museum North in Trafford Park is one of the Imperial War Museum 's five branches . Alongside exhibitions of war machinery are displays describing how people 's lives are affected by war . The Museum of Transport in Manchester , which opened in 1979 , has one of the largest collections of vehicles in the country . The People 's History Museum is " the national centre for the collection , conservation , interpretation and study of material relating to the history of working people in Britain " ; the museum is closed for redevelopment and will reopen in 2009 . The Pankhurst Museum is based in the early feminist Emmeline Pankhurst 's former home and includes a parlour laid out in contemporary style . Manchester United , Manchester City , and Lancashire CCC all have dedicated museums illustrating their histories . Wigan Pier , best known from George Orwell 's book The Road to Wigan Pier , was the name of a wharf on the Leeds and Liverpool Canal in Wigan . The name has been reused to describe an industrial @-@ based visitor attraction , partly closed for redevelopment as of 2008 .
= = = Media , film and television = = =
The Greater Manchester Film Festival was launched in 2012 . It is an international film festival designed to capitalise on Greater Manchester 's " huge strengths in film and television , along with its growing media presence " . MediaCityUK , a host venue of the Greater Manchester Film Festival , is a 200 @-@ acre ( 81 ha ) mixed @-@ use property development site at Salford Quays ; its principal tenants are mass media organisations such as ITV Granada and the BBC . One of Greater Manchester 's most lucrative and acclaimed television exports is Coronation Street , which is a televised soap opera set in Weatherfield , a fictional borough of Greater Manchester , inspired by life in Salford . Created by Tony Warren , Coronation Street was first broadcast on 9 December 1960 , making it the world 's longest @-@ running TV soap opera in production . It has been filmed in Manchester at Granada Studios since its inception , but filming is now done at a new set at MediaCityUK . Launched in 2004 by the Guardian Media Group , Channel M is a television station that broadcast local news and content about Greater Manchester . It effectively closed in 2010 . In January 2011 Culture Secretary Jeremy Hunt stated that a new Greater Manchester channel will be available on Freeview by around 2013 .
The Manchester Evening News is a regional daily newspaper covering Greater Manchester , published every day except Sunday . It is owned by Trinity Mirror and produced by MEN Media . It sells around 81 @,@ 000 copies a day and gives away nearly 100 @,@ 000 , making it the market leader in Greater Manchester . The paper was first published in 1868 by Mitchell Henry as part of his Parliamentary election campaign for the Manchester constituency . MEN Media " dominates Greater Manchester " , reaching 7 out of 10 adults each week within the region through its portfolio of products which also includes the Oldham Advertiser , the Rochdale Observer , and the Salford Advertiser .
= = = Music , theatre and performing arts = = =
Greater Manchester has the highest number of theatre seats per head of population outside London . Most , if not all , of the larger theatres are subsidised by local authorities or the North West Regional Arts Board . The Royal Exchange Theatre formed in the 1970s out of a peripatetic group staging plays at venues such as at the University [ of Manchester ] Theatre and the Apollo Theatre . A season in a temporary stage in the former Royal Exchange , Manchester was followed by funding for a theatre in the round , which opened in 1976 . The Lowry — Greater Manchester 's most visited tourist attraction — houses two theatres , used by travelling groups in all the performing arts . The Opera House is a 1 @,@ 900 @-@ seat venue hosting travelling productions , often musicals just out of the West End . Its sister venue , The Palace , hosts generally similar shows . The Oldham Playhouse , one of the older theatres in the region , helped launch the careers of Stan Laurel and Charlie Chaplin . Its productions are described by the 2007 CityLife guide as ' staunchly populist ' – and popular . There are many other venues scattered throughout the county , of all types and sizes .
Greater Manchester has four professional orchestras , all based in Manchester . The Hallé Orchestra is the UK 's oldest symphony orchestra ( and the fourth oldest in the world ) , supports a choir and a youth orchestra , and releases its recordings on its own record label . The Hallé is based at the Bridgwater Hall but often tours , typically giving 70 performances " at home " and 40 on tour . The BBC Philharmonic Orchestra , one of five BBC orchestras , can trace its history back to the early days of radio broadcasting in 1926 . As of 2008 it is based at the BBC 's Oxford Road studios , but is expected to move to MediaCityUK in Salford . The Manchester Camerata and the Northern Chamber Orchestra are smaller , though still professional , organisations . The main classical venue is the 2 @,@ 341 @-@ seat Bridgewater Hall in Manchester , opened in 1996 at a cost of £ 42m . Manchester is also a centre for musical education , via the Royal Northern College of Music and Chetham 's School of Music .
The Manchester Arena seats over 21 @,@ 000 , and is the largest indoor arena in Europe . It has been voted International Venue of the Year , and for several years was the most popular venue in the world . The sports grounds in the county also host large pop concerts . A new flexible , large @-@ scale cultural , arts , and exhibition space named The Factory is to be built on the former site of Granada Studios in central Manchester . It is named with reference to Factory Records , a Manchester @-@ based independent record label , founded in 1978 by Tony Wilson and Alan Erasmus . Factory Records — which featured acts such as Joy Division , New Order , and the Happy Mondays — and The Haçienda , served as a catalyst in the late @-@ 1980s for a blending of alternative rock , psychedelic rock and electronic dance music known as Madchester . Greater Manchester continues to be associated with guitar and dance music .
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= Computer City ( song ) =
" Computer City " ( コンピューターシティ , Konpyūtā Shiti ) is a song recorded by Japanese girl group Perfume for their first greatest hits compilation , Perfume : Complete Best ( 2006 ) . It was written , composed , arranged , and produced by Japanese musician and Capsule member Yasutaka Nakata . The single also included the B @-@ side track " Perfume " , which appeared on the parent album . It premiered on January 11 , 2006 as the second single from the album in Japan . It was also released on June 19 , 2013 through European and Oceanic regions , and June 25 in North America . Musically , " Computer City " is a technopop song , influenced by electronic music .
Upon its release , the track garnered generally favourable reviews from music critics . Some critics highlighted the song as one of Perfume 's best singles , and commended the composition . It achieved minor success in Japan , peaking at number 45 on the Oricon Singles Chart and 35 on TBS ' Count Down TV chart . An accompanying music video was shot by Kazuaki Seki ; it features the girls performing the song in a black room . With additional promotion through Japanese commercials , the song has been performed on several concert tours by Perfume , including their 2007 Seventh Heaven tour and 2008 Game Tour .
= = Background and composition = =
" Computer City " was written , composed , arranged , and produced by Japanese musician and Capsule member Yasutaka Nakata . Alongside this , it was recorded , mixed , and mastered by Nakata . The song was recorded in 2005 at Contemode Studios , Shibuya , Tokyo by Nakata . Alongside the album ’ s remaining material , " Computer City " has partial rights by Nakata through Yahama Music Communications . The single also included the B @-@ side track " Perfume " , which also appeared on the parent album . It premiered on January 11 , 2006 as the second single from the groups first greatest hits compilation , Perfume : Complete Best ( 2006 ) . The single was also released on June 19 , 2013 through European and Oceanic regions , and June 25 in North America .
The CD single contains both " Computer City " and " Perfume " . The artwork features Perfume , posing for the song 's music video ; Perfume member A @-@ Chan is sitting down , Nocchi is leaning behind A @-@ Chan , and Kashiyuka is standing behind them both . The maxi CD features an extra lyric booklet , printed on plain white paper . Musically , " Computer City " is a technopop song , influenced by electronic music . A staff editor from Amazon Japan noted that the song contained elements of technopop and 8 @-@ bit music . Ian Martin from AllMusic stated that the song , alongside their back catalogue from Tokuma Japan Communications , " adopt [ ed ] a vocoder @-@ heavy production style strongly influenced by European electro and house " . Similarly , a staff editor at CD Journal labelled the songs composition as " addictive technopop " .
= = Critical response = =
" Computer City " received generally favourable reviews from most music critics . A writer from CD Journal complimented the " tight " composition , and praised the production and songwriting by Yasutaka Nakata . Another reviewer from the same publication reviewed the single release , and highlighted the songs " pop catchy " melody and its lyrical content . A staff editor from Amazon was positive in their review , praising the composition of the track , and highlighted it as one of the best songs on the album . Channel @-@ Ai staff editors awarded the song five stars out of five , stating " ' Computer City ' is a great improvement ; it starts off with vocals only before it dives into a heavy beat . Although some parts turn a little monotone , most of the song remains catchy and melodic . "
= = Commercial performance = =
In Japan , " Computer City " debuted at number 45 on the Oricon Singles Chart ; it sold 1 @,@ 853 units within its first week of sales . It became the group 's highest charting single and first top 50 charting performance at the time . It lasted five weeks in the top 200 chart , and sold over 4 @,@ 000 units by the end of 2006 . It was the group 's highest charting and selling single until their 2007 effort , " Polyrhythm " . The song debuted at number 35 on the TBS Count Down TV chart , and lasted two weeks there .
= = Music video and live performances = =
An accompanying music video was shot by Kazuaki Seki ; it features the girls performing the song in a black room . There are several intercut scenes of computer generated imagery ( CGI ) , which include the overlapping of digital circuits and other patterns . The music video also appeared on Perfume 's DVD compilation sets for Perfume : Complete Best , and Perfume Clips ( 2014 ) . " Computer City " was used for a Japanese commercial promoting the television show Tokyo Brigade .
The single has been performed on several tours conducted by Perfume . It first appeared on two of the group 's promotional concerts ; the Seventh Heaven tour in 2007 , and the Socks Fix Make tour in 2008 . The song was included on their Game Tour , group 's first nationwide concert tour , and eventually included on the live DVD , released on October 15 , 2008 . Since then , " Computer City " has been performed on their 2009 Budoukan Tour in Japan , 2009 Second Concert tour , and their 2010 Tokyo Dome tour . In 2010 , four years after its original release , the group was invited to perform " Computer City " on the Japanese music television show , Music Station . This marked the only single previous to the release and subsequent breakthrough of their single " Polyrhythm " that has been performed on Japanese television .
= = Track listings = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Details adapted from the liner notes of the Perfume : Complete Best album .
Ayano Ōmoto – vocals
Yuka Kashino – vocals
Ayaka Nishiwaki – vocals
Yasutaka Nakata – producer , composer , arranger , mixing , mastering .
Seki Kazuaki – video director
= = Charts and sales = =
= = Release history = =
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= Ellen Roberts =
Ellen Stuart Roberts ( born August 27 , 1959 ) is an attorney and Republican legislator in the U.S. State of Colorado . From 2006 @-@ 2010 , Roberts served as the State Representative for House District 59 . In 2010 , she was elected to Senate District 6 and is the current Senator for that district , which encompasses Archuleta , Dolores , La Plata , Montezuma , Montrose , Ouray , San Juan , and San Miguel counties . In 2015 , she was elected to serve as the President Pro @-@ Tem for the Colorado State Senate .
= = Biography = =
Born in Hudson , New York , Roberts was raised in Rhinebeck , where she was elected class president in high school . She earned a self @-@ designed undergraduate degree in environmental policy from Cornell University in 1981 . During college , she spent a semester as an intern in Washington DC , working for her Congressional representative and for the Republican National Committee .
She moved to Colorado upon graduation and worked as a ranger in Rocky Mountain National Park until 1984 . In 1982 , Roberts married ; she and her husband , Rick , have two children : Caitlin and Ben , both of whom have attended Fort Lewis College in Durango , Colorado .
After being hired by a law firm in Granby , Colorado , Roberts returned to school to earn a J.D. from the University of Colorado in 1986 . She worked as an attorney in private practice in Granby and Hot Sulphur Springs , specializing in estate , probate and business law .
A resident of Durango , Colorado since 1989 , she joined the Southwest Colorado Bar Association in 1986 and served as its president , and as president of the Southwest Colorado Women 's Bar Association . As an attorney , Roberts advocated for increased legal services for immigrants and Spanish @-@ speakers in southwestern Colorado
Roberts has focused on health care , constitutional reform , judicial , and financial issues in the state legislature , and , despite being in the minority party , has seen almost all legislation she sponsored signed into law . She has also carried legislation to strengthen private property rights surrounding oil and gas drilling , and to create a legislative youth advisory council .
= = Early career = =
Roberts began to re @-@ enter politics after the death of her father in 1992 , first focusing on hospice and health care issues . As a member ( since 1999 ) and later chairman of the board of Mercy Regional Medical Center , she pushed for the construction of a new hospital in Durango . She chaired Healthy 58 , a rural health care task force , and in 2001 , was appointed to the Task Force to Evaluate Health Care Needs for Colorado , a commission formed by the legislature to study health @-@ care needs in rural Colorado communities .
Roberts sat on the Sixth Judicial District Nominating Commission , and co @-@ chaired the Durango Citizens Steering Committee for a New Library , a successful effort to push for a new local public library that was eventually built on the site of Mercy Medical Center , the hospital Roberts had worked to help replace . She was a member of the Citizens Health Advisory Council , the High Noon Rotary Club , and sat on the boards of First National Bank and the Community Foundation Serving Southwest Colorado . In 2004 , she won the Durango Chamber of Commerce 's Athena Award for professional women in business .
= = Colorado House of Representatives = =
= = = 2006 Election = = =
In December 2004 , only a month after Larson was elected to his fourth and final term in the state house , Roberts filed for a 2006 candidacy to seek his seat . She announced her campaign formally in January 2005 . She was endorsed by Larson , and won the Republican nomination unopposed .
As Representative Mark Larson neared the end of his term @-@ limited tenure in the Colorado House of Representatives , Roberts began to work with him on learning the legislative process , in preparation for seeking elected office herself . She instigated a bill , introduced by Larson and eventually signed into law , to require that remains be handled in accordance with the wishes of the deceased . She also lobbied the legislature , unsuccessfully , for the creation of an interim committee to study palliative care .
During the general election campaign , Roberts emphasized her work on health care issues and her experience working with Representative Larson in the legislature , and criticized the passage of constitutional amendments creating conflicting fiscal obligations . Although both Roberts and her main opponent , Democrat Joe Colgan , signed a clean campaign pledge , controversy arose over advertisements run by outside sources . In particular , Roberts denounced as " misleading " and " unacceptable " a television advertisement criticizing Colgan 's record as mayor of Durango . The ad , which was run by a political group associated with the Colorado Association of Home Builders , was later pulled off the air . Direct mail flyers sent by right @-@ leaning outside groups during the last weeks of the campaign also misrepresented both candidates ' stances on immigration , exaggerating the contrast between their positions .
In addition to her Democratic opponent , Roberts faced unaffiliated write @-@ in candidate Christopher Navage . Navage withdrew from the race in October 2006 and endorsed Colgan . Roberts significantly outraised her opponents , donating over $ 8 @,@ 000 to her own campaign , and ultimately winning the November 2006 general election with 52 percent of the vote .
= = = 2007 Legislative Session = = =
In the 2007 session of the Colorado General Assembly , Roberts was a member of the House Health and Human Services Committee , the Joint Legal Services Committee , and the House Judiciary Committee .
Roberts was one of the most successful Republican legislators at passing legislation through the Democrat @-@ controlled legislature , and has been identified by media reports and commentators as a " standout " legislator and a potential candidate for higher office . She also organized bowling outings for legislators during her first year in the legislature .
Roberts carried legislation which revised Colorado 's surface rights laws , requiring oil and gas companies to minimize the impacts of drilling . The bill was weakened by lobbying from the Colorado Oil and Gas Association , but represented a breadth of reform that had failed to pass in previous legislative sessions .
During her first legislative session , Roberts also sponsored bills to revise the process by which special health care districts are created and to expand eligibility for Korean War special license plates ; she cosponsored legislation to fund study of a methane seep in southwestern Colorado .
Her only unsuccessful bill was a measure to tighten the rules under which cigar bars could claim exemptions from Colorado 's indoor smoking ban . After being killed in committee , the measure was revived in the Colorado Senate by Democrats , but was again unsuccessful .
Following the 2007 session , Roberts was named by House Republican leadership to the newly formed Criminal and Juvenile Justice Commission . In November 2007 , she was named a Legislator of Merit by the Colorado Behavioral Health Council . She joined with other Republicans to criticize an executive order issued by Governor Bill Ritter allowing collective bargaining with government employee unions as a betrayal of Ritter 's promise of bipartisan cooperation on major issues .
= = = 2008 Legislative Session = = =
In the 2008 session of the Colorado General Assembly , Roberts sat on the House Health and Human Services Committee and the House Judiciary Committee . She introduced eight bills during the session , all of which were passed by the legislature .
During the 2008 legislative session , Roberts introduced a bill , drafted and lobbied for by Colorado students , to create a legislative youth advisory council . The bill stalled in the legislature until its minimal cost was approved by the House Appropriations Committee , after which it cleared both the House and Senate , and Governor Bill Ritter signed it into law . She was later appointed by Minority Leader Mike May to be one of the legislative members of the council .
Roberts introduced a bill which would grant advanced practice nurses power to sign off on additional medical forms , in response to shortages of doctors in portions of rural Colorado , a measure which garnered support from both nurses ' and doctors ' associations . In March , she backed a proposal to require that insurance companies offer low @-@ cost health care benefit packages for Coloradoans , as part of a " public @-@ private " plan towards achieving universal coverage .
Roberts was the sponsor of a legislative resolution urging the Federal Communications Commission to support including southwestern Colorado , including portions of her district , within the Denver media market , a resolution she introduced again in 2010 .
Before the session began , Roberts had expressed interest in sponsoring legislation to revise the process by which the Colorado Constitution is amended through ballot measures , proposing that supermajority popular votes be required to enact amendments . She proposed extending the public hearing process as a means of providing additional input on ballot measures , and , in February 2008 , was appointed to a six @-@ member legislative panel tasked with developing recommendations for constitutional reform . She was ultimately a cosponsor of the panel 's proposal to create distinctions in the petition process between constitutional and statutory amendments , ; the proposal which was referred by the legislature to voters and appeared on the November 2008 Colorado ballot as Referendum O. Roberts campaigned in support of Referendum O during the fall campaign .
Roberts was one of a few Republicans to back a measure to reform spending requirements in Colorado 's state constitution . The proposal , which would have diverted excess revenues under TABOR to K @-@ 12 education , was regarded as a sweeping revision to competing constitutional mandates ; it was not passed by the General Assembly , but was advanced as a citizens ' initiative .
= = = 2008 Election = = =
Roberts was nominated by the Republican Party for a second term in the state house ; she faced no challengers either in the Republican primary or in the general election .
Roberts stood against some fellow Republicans by opposing Amendment 52 , a ballot measure on the November ballot that would reallocate some severance tax revenue from water projects to transportation . She also backed Republican presidential candidate John McCain and spoke before McCain at an October rally in Durango , Colorado .
Following her re @-@ election , Roberts was nominated for the post of House Minority Caucus Chair , but lost the caucus ' vote for the post to Rep. Amy Stephens . After losing the vote , Roberts publicly lamented the lack of rural representation in legislative leadership and alleged that Republican lawmakers were threatened with primaries if they voted for her leadership bid .
= = = 2009 Legislative Session = = =
For the 2009 legislative session , Roberts was appointed to the House Health and Human Services Committee and the House Judiciary Committee , where she was the ranking Republican member . Roberts was also named to a Republican task force charged with making recommendations on resolving the state 's projected budget shortfall . In 2009 , Roberts also sat on the Colorado Commission on Criminal and Juvenile Justice and co @-@ chaired the Colorado Youth Advisory Council .
During the 2009 session , Roberts sponsored several bills relating to juvenile criminal offenders , including legislation to allow more juveniles to have their criminal records expunged , and to allow young adults to serve sentences within the Youth Offender System instead of correctional facilities . Roberts also sponsored legislation to make minor adjustment to the statutes concerning the Colorado Youth Advisory Council , legislation to create a regional self @-@ insurance plan within the San Luis Valley , and legislation revising statutes surrounding end @-@ of @-@ life care .
= = = 2010 Legislative Session = = =
Following the 2009 legislative session , Roberts sat on an interim committee dealing with hospice and palliative care issues , and carried legislation originating from that committee during the 2010 session , including two bills that clarified policies surrounding end @-@ of @-@ life care and advance directives . Other legislation that Roberts carried in 2010 included a bill to allow voluntary income tax contributions to support 2 @-@ 1 @-@ 1 services , and she fought against cuts to the Native American tuition waiver program at Fort Lewis College . Roberts was one of only three Republican House members to vote in support of Colorado 's 2010 budget , after successfully sponsoring an amendment that removed restrictions on Fort Lewis College 's ability to set its own out @-@ of @-@ state tuition rates .
Roberts had planned to introduce legislation to place a one @-@ year moratorium on new Colorado health insurance mandates with independent Rep. Kathleen Curry , as part of a proposal to overhaul the states insurance mandate commission . However , they announced at the start of the session that their proposal would not include an immediate moratorium on insurance mandates , and the legislation was killed on its first hearing in a House committee . Roberts also withdrew one of her proposals to continue a pilot program for training of Certified Nursing Assistants , on account of its cost . Roberts also sponsored a contentious piece of legislation with general election opponent Sen. Bruce Whitehead , negotiated by Governor Ritter 's office , to require utilities to convert some Front Range coal @-@ fired power plants to natural gas .
= = Colorado Senate = =
= = = 2010 Election = = =
In June 2009 , Roberts announced her intention to seek the Colorado State Senate seat held by term @-@ limited Democratic Sen. Jim Isgar in the 2010 legislative elections , Senate District 6 . After Isgar resigned from the legislature in July 2009 to head the U.S. Department of Agriculture 's Rural Development office in Colorado , Democrats appointed civil engineer Bruce Whitehead to the seat ; Whitehead declared his intention to run for a full term in 2010 , setting up a race that Colorado Republicans viewed as one of their best opportunities to pick up a seat in the Democrat @-@ controlled legislature .
Roberts ' 2010 campaign for the Senate seat also faced a challenge in the Republican primary from former Norwood , Colorado town marshal Dean Boehler , who campaigns as a self @-@ described " true conservative ; " Boehler received 67 percent of delegate votes at the Republican district assembly to Roberts ' 33 , earning him the top spot on the August primary ballot . Roberts won the primary race with 54 % of the vote and went on to win the general election with 61 % of the vote .
= = = 2011 Legislative Session = = =
As state senator , Roberts served on several committees , including the Health and Human Services , Judiciary , and Legislative Legal Services Committees and also acted as ranking Republican on the Senate Local Government Committee . She served on two interim committees , the Water Resources Review Committee and the Legislative Health Benefit Exchange Implementation Review Committee until the end of the 2012 legislative session .
In addition to her responsibilities at the Colorado legislature , Roberts was appointed to the National Conference of State Legislatures ’ ( NCSL ) Federal Deficit Reduction Task Force and , in August 2011 , was elected to NCSL ’ s Executive Committee . She is the only Colorado legislator to serve on either of these committees .
= = = 2012 Legislative Session = = =
Senator Roberts proposed legislation at the start of session regarding the surety bond required for towing carriers in rural areas . SB12 @-@ 049 would have lowered the surety bond from $ 50 @,@ 000 to $ 10 @,@ 000 for local entities . The bill was assigned to the Senate Transportation Committee , but was postponed indefinitely after it was introduced . However , after the bill was killed , public upheaval caused Roberts to introduce a new bill , this time in the House , which resolved the same issue . HB12 @-@ 1347 passed the second time around with a resounding 98 @-@ 1 vote .
Senator Roberts was appointed to the National Conference of State Legislatures Budgets and Revenue Committee . In addition , she was re @-@ elected to the Executive Committee for NCSL . Senator Roberts was also awarded the Legislator of the Year Award for the 2012 legislative session by the Economic Development Council of Colorado .
During the 2012 legislative session , Roberts was award a handful of awards : 2012 Champion of Conservation Award from the Colorado Coalition of Land Trusts , the 2012 Pinnacle Award from the Colorado Farm Bureau , the 2012 Common Sense in the Courtroom Award from the Colorado Civil Justice League , and the 2012 Green Colorado Legislator of the Year Award . She was also honored to win the 2012 Legislator of the Year Award from the Colorado Economic Development Council .
Due to the wild fires in the state of Colorado in 2012 , Senator Roberts was elected as Chairwoman of the bipartisan Lower North Fork Fire Commission , which convened during the interim and which proposed four pieces of legislation to address the threat of wildfire risk and damage in Colorado .
= = = 2013 Legislative Session = = =
Roberts was appointed to serve on the Senate Health and Human Services Committee .
= = = 2015 Legislative Session = = =
As state senator , Senator Roberts serves on several committees . She serves as Vice Chair of the Agriculture , Natural Resources and Energy Committee as well as Chair of the Judiciary Committee . Senator Roberts also serves on the Committee Legal Services , Water Resources Review Committee , Joint Judiciary Committee and the Joint Agriculture and Natural Resources Committee .
= = Legislative Initiatives = =
= = = COYAC = = =
In 2008 , Senator Roberts sponsored HB08 @-@ 1157 , a bill that sought to create a state legislative youth advisory council in Colorado . Prior to the 2008 legislative session , Senator Roberts had met with a group of high school students from Cortez , Durango , and Pagosa Springs in order to gauge the scope of the soon to be legislation as well as the group that would form after the legislation had been passed . The bill was passed in May 2008 , creating the Colorado Youth Advisory Council also known as COYAC .
During the 2012 legislative session , Roberts brought forth legislation that stemmed from her youth council initiative as well : HJR12 @-@ 1004 , a resolution that recognized the struggle Colorado faces surrounding teen suicides . This joint resolution sought to identify teen suicides and focus on suicide prevention as well , particularly via COYAC and through COYAC initiatives .
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= Maurício Gugelmin =
Maurício Gugelmin ( born April 20 , 1963 in Joinville ) is a former racing driver from Brazil . He took part in both Formula One and the Champ Car World Series . He participated in 80 Formula One grands prix , debuting in 1988 for the March team . He achieved one top @-@ three finish and scored a total of ten championship points in the series . He competed in the Champ Car series between 1993 and 2001 , starting 147 races . He won one race , in 1997 in Vancouver , finishing fourth in the championship that year . His best result in the Indianapolis 500 was in 1995 where he started and finished in sixth position , leading 59 laps . For a period , he held the world speed record for a closed race track , set at California Speedway in 1997 at a speed of 240 @.@ 942 mph ( 387 @.@ 759 km / h ) . Gugelmin retired at the end of 2001 after a year that included the death of his son .
= = Personal and early life = =
Gugelmin was born in Joinville , Brazil on April 20 , 1963 into a wealthy family . His father is a timber merchant and a collector of antique cars . Gugelmin is married to Stella Maris and they have two sons , Bernardo and Gabriel . Their third son , Giuliano , who was Bernardo 's twin , died from cerebral palsy in April 2001 at the age of six .
= = Career = =
= = = Pre @-@ Formula One = = =
Gugelmin started racing go @-@ karts as a child in Brazil in 1971 , winning his local championship nine years in a row from 1971 to 1979 . He progressed to the Brazilian national championship in 1980 , which he also won . He progressed to single @-@ seater racing cars in 1981 , when he won the Brazilian Formula Fiat Championship .
In 1982 Gugelmin , like many Brazilian drivers of his generation , moved to the United Kingdom to further his racing career . He was a longtime friend of future Formula One world champion Ayrton Senna , who was already racing in the UK , and the two shared a house from 1982 to 1987 . Senna , having previously been a Formula Ford driver with the Van Diemen team , used his influence within the organisation to secure Gugelmin a race seat with them for 1982 . By the end of the year , Gugelmin was British Formula Ford 1600 cc champion . He followed this up by finishing as runner @-@ up in the British Formula Ford 2000 cc series the following year . He moved to the European Formula Ford series in 1984 , and won the title at his first attempt . A step up to Formula Three followed in 1985 with West Surrey Racing , winning the British championship and the prestigious Macau Grand Prix . Gugelmin then spent two years in Formula 3000 , the final step before Formula One . Gugelmin took one victory in Formula 3000 , at Silverstone in 1986 while driving for the Ralt factory team .
= = = Formula One = = =
Related Articles : March Engineering , Leyton House Racing , Jordan Grand Prix
Gugelmin entered Formula One , the highest category of circuit racing defined by the Fédération Internationale de l 'Automobile ( FIA ) , motorsport 's world governing body , with the March team in 1988 , as team @-@ mate to Ivan Capelli . He had previously been in contention for a drive with Lotus in 1986 but was overlooked in favour of Johnny Dumfries . The season started badly as Gugelmin suffered five retirements from the first six races due to mechanical failure , but soon afterwards he took his first points scoring finish with fourth place at the British Grand Prix . Gugelmin scored points in one other race with fifth place at the Hungarian Grand Prix . He finished the season as the highest @-@ scoring newcomer in the Formula One World Championship , ending the year in 13th position overall .
1989 was barren for the March team , and Gugelmin took their only points scoring finish of the year at the Brazilian Grand Prix . He finished in third position ; an excellent result given that March were financially troubled . At the French Grand Prix , Gugelmin was involved in a large accident at the start of the race which resulted in a spectacular barrel roll . A photograph of the accident was later selected for a London Exhibition as one of Formula One 's most striking photographs . The race was stopped as a result ; Gugelmin took the restart from the pit lane and set the race 's fastest lap , the only one of his F1 career .
In 1990 the March team was sold , and became known as Leyton House . Gugelmin was once again partnered by Capelli , but the team 's CG901 chassis proved troublesome and between them they failed to qualify six times , including at the Mexican Grand Prix . However , at the next race , the French Grand Prix , modifications had been made to the car which improved the performance . Running the whole race without changing their tyres , Capelli and Gugelmin ran first and second during the race . Gugelmin retired mid @-@ race with engine problems and Capelli was passed by Alain Prost for the lead late in the race . Gugelmin also scored a point for finishing sixth in Belgium .
1991 saw internal turmoil at the team with several key staff leaving . The car lacked pace and both Gugelmin and Capelli struggled ; the team scored just one point all season . Gugelmin 's best result amounted to three seventh @-@ place finishes , although he retired from eight of the season 's sixteen races . In September , the team 's principal , Akira Akagi , was arrested on suspicion of fraud . Money was tight and Gugelmin made the decision to leave the team at the end of the year . A switch to the Jordan team for 1992 did not improve Gugelmin 's fortunes . The team struggled with financial difficulties and scored only one point all year . The team 's Yamaha engine suffered from a lack of power , and the car was unreliable . Gugelmin failed to finish eleven out of the sixteen races , and scored no points .
= = = Champ Car = = =
Related Articles : Chip Ganassi Racing , PacWest Racing
Gugelmin signed with Dick Simon Racing to take part in the North American Champ Car racing series for the last three races of 1993 . Although races at Mid Ohio and Nazareth resulted in non @-@ finishes , Gugelmin finished 13th at Laguna Seca although this was not high enough to receive any points . Despite this , Gugelmin demonstrated promise . In 1994 , Gugelmin signed with Chip Ganassi Racing to partner Michael Andretti who returned to the series after a season in Formula One . Andretti was more successful than Gugelmin , and took two wins , including Reynard 's first win in Champ Car at Surfers Paradise . Gugelmin was hindered by a lack of cooperation between his and Andretti 's crews , and his first full @-@ time year in the Champ Car World Series resulted in seven points finishes and 16th in the points standings .
1995 started promisingly as Gugelmin finished as runner @-@ up to Jacques Villeneuve in the opening round at Miami . He had a strong race at the Indianapolis 500 , finishing in sixth place after leading the most laps of all the drivers . Eight additional points finishes , including a third place at the final round at Laguna Seca , meant he finished tenth in the final points standings , nine places ahead of experienced team mate and former series champion Danny Sullivan .
For 1996 , Gugelmin was partnered at PacWest by the British driver , Mark Blundell . He established a reputation for being quick at superspeedway tracks after taking a second and a third place at the two events at Michigan International Speedway . On top of this he took four other points finishes , finishing mid @-@ table in 14th place . For 1997 , the PacWest team switched to using Firestone tyres and Mercedes @-@ Benz engines . The package was competitive throughout the year and Gugelmin and Blundell finished fourth and sixth in the championship respectively . Gugelmin 's notable races of the year include the Detroit Indy Grand Prix , where Gugelmin was leading the race on the last lap when he ran out of fuel , and the Molson Indy Vancouver , where Gugelmin won his first Champ Car race . One of the most popular men in the championship , virtually the entire pit @-@ lane was full of happiness for him . In qualifying for the final race of the season at the California Speedway , Gugelmin set a world record for the fastest ever lap of a closed race track at 240 @.@ 942 mph ( 387 @.@ 759 km / h ) . This record stood until the year 2000 when Gil de Ferran surpassed it with a lap of 241 @.@ 428 mph ( 388 @.@ 541 km / h ) , also at California Speedway . Gugelmin went on to finish the race in fourth place .
1998 proved not to be as successful . Setbacks plagued the team and they struggled to get to grips with the new chassis . Gugelmin showed determination , and scored nine points @-@ scoring finishes . A highlight was Gugelmin leading 40 laps during the final event at California Speedway , en route to fifth place . Gugelmin was unable to reproduce his race @-@ winning form , and finished no higher than 15th position in the final standings over the next three years . In 2000 , Gugelmin was named as the chairman of the Championship Drivers Association , the organisation set up to represent the interests of the drivers in the Champ Car World Series .
2001 proved to be a difficult year for Gugelmin . During the practice session for the race at Texas Motor Speedway , he crashed after he lost control in the second turn and hit the wall with a force of 66 @.@ 2 g , before a second impact with the wall which exerted a force of 113 @.@ 1 g . The event was eventually called off after drivers complained of dizziness , nausea and blurred vision , which were caused by the high g @-@ forces experienced when driving at speed on the track . During the week before the race at Nazareth Speedway , Gugelmin 's son , Giuliano , died from respiratory complications . Giuliano was quadriplegic and a lifelong sufferer from cerebral palsy owing to complications at birth . The PacWest team announced that Gugelmin would not be taking part in the race . Gugelmin 's team mate at PacWest , Scott Dixon , won the race beating Kenny Bräck into second place . At the end of 2001 , Gugelmin decided to retire from the sport , stating " I definitely want to spend more time with my family . After those two big accidents , and Alex [ Zanardi ] ' s deal in Germany , I said , ' That 's it . Forget it . ' " Zanardi lost both legs in a crash during a Champ Car race at the Lausitzring in Germany in September 2001 .
= = Post @-@ Champ Car = =
In 2003 Gugelmin was announced as a competitor by the organizers of the new Renault Megane Super Cup in his native Brazil . However , the series didn 't launch and since then Gugelmin has made no competitive appearances in motorsport . Following his retirement , Gugelmin put his Florida mansion in Coral Gables up for sale for $ 17 million , and moved back to live in Brazil full @-@ time . He runs the family business along with his brother , Alceu , and has also done consultancy work for Mercedes @-@ Benz subsidiary AMG . Both his surviving sons compete in go @-@ kart events .
= = Motorsports career results = =
= = = Complete International Formula 3000 results = = =
( key ) ( Races in bold indicate pole position ; races in italics indicate fastest lap . )
= = = Complete Formula One results = = =
( key ) ( Races in bold indicate pole position )
= = = American Open @-@ Wheel = = =
( key ) ( Races in bold indicate pole position )
= = = = CART = = = =
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= In the Hands of the Prophets =
" In the Hands of the Prophets " is the twentieth and final episode of the first season of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : Deep Space Nine . Written by Robert Hewitt Wolfe and directed by David Livingston , the episode originally aired in broadcast syndication on June 20 , 1993 . Set in the 24th century , the series follows the adventures on Deep Space Nine , a space station located near a stable wormhole between the Alpha and Gamma quadrants of the Milky Way Galaxy . In this episode , friction escalates when Bajoran cleric Vedek Winn ( Louise Fletcher ) arrives on the station and finds Keiko O 'Brien ( Rosalind Chao ) teaching Bajoran children that their gods are wormhole aliens .
The story was originally proposed as a crossover episode with Star Trek : The Next Generation , but this idea was abandoned in favor of ending the season with the same religious theme initially raised in " Emissary " , the series premiere . " In the Hands of the Prophets " first introduces the audience to Bajoran politics and religion and highlights what happens when the values and beliefs of one culture are imposed on another . The episode features the first appearance of Louise Fletcher as Vedek Winn and Philip Anglim as Vedek Bareil . 8 @.@ 8 million people viewed the episode on its first broadcast , the lowest of any first @-@ run episode during season one . Critical reception to the episode was positive with Fletcher and Avery Brooks receiving praise for their performance .
= = Plot = =
Chief Miles O 'Brien ( Colm Meaney ) walks his wife Keiko ( Rosalind Chao ) along the promenade to the school where she teaches students on the station . They discuss Bajoran culture , a topic Miles learned about from Neela ( Robin Christopher ) , his Bajoran assistant . At the school , Keiko teaches her class about the science of the Bajoran wormhole and the aliens that live inside it . This scientific view is different from the religious approach taken by the Bajorans , who believe the wormhole is the legendary Celestial Temple inhabited by their " Prophets " , whom they worship as gods . Her class is interrupted by one of Bajor 's spiritual leaders , Vedek Winn ( Louise Fletcher ) . Winn questions why Keiko doesn 't teach Bajoran religion in her classroom . Afterwards , Keiko reports the incident to Commander Benjamin Sisko ( Avery Brooks ) . When Sisko asks Winn about the dispute , she says there may be consequences if Keiko refuses to teach religion . Meanwhile , Miles discovers an important engineering tool is missing , but is distracted when he and Neela discover the remains of a Starfleet ensign .
Outside the school , Winn and a group of Bajorans protest Keiko 's teaching methods . Winn offers Keiko a solution — all she has to do is simply stop teaching about the wormhole . When Keiko refuses to accept Winn 's proposal , Winn leads the Bajoran parents to take their children out of school . Sisko visits Vedek Bareil ( Philip Anglim ) for advice on the problem . Bareil opposes Winn 's views but he cannot support Sisko as he is attempting to become the next Kai , the leader of the Bajoran religion . Sisko returns to DS9 and asks for help from Major Kira Nerys ( Nana Visitor ) , but she also refuses to help . Meanwhile , Odo ( René Auberjonois ) and Doctor Julian Bashir ( Alexander Siddig ) finish investigating the remains of the Starfleet ensign Miles and Neela found earlier . They discover that the ensign had been murdered by a phaser when he became aware of someone tampering with the Runabout security controls .
Later , an explosion occurs inside the empty school , destroying it . Sisko confronts Winn , blaming her actions for increasing the risk of violence on the station . Neela meets with Winn , revealing that the two had been working together . She informs Winn that her escape plan with the Runabout will no longer work . Winn tells Neela to continue with the plan , even if it means Neela must sacrifice herself . Bareil arrives at the station to help , and at the same time , Miles and Lt. Jadzia Dax ( Terry Farrell ) discover a hidden sub @-@ program on the station 's computer created by Neela . The program controls a timed delay of forcefields running from the promenade to the Runabouts . They alert Sisko who is nearby , just as Bareil and Winn begin to address a crowd of Bajorans on the promenade . Sisko searches the crowd just in time to see Neela raising her phaser at Bareil . Sisko tackles Neela to the ground and saves Bareil 's life . Kira suggests that the assassination attempt was planned by Winn to secure her position as the new Kai , but Neela insists she was working alone . Kira later apologises to Sisko , and agrees with his earlier sentiment about Winn 's actions .
= = Production = =
Prior to the scripting of " In the Hands of the Prophets " , a crossover episode was considered with the crew of the Enterprise from Star Trek : The Next Generation . However , this idea was dropped in favor of an episode which would end the season on a religious note similar to " Emissary " , the series premiere . During the writing of the episode , executive producer Michael Piller was concerned that it was not going to be as good as the previous episode , " Duet " . Ira Steven Behr credited this as setting a challenge for the writing team which improved the episode . " It gave us even more grist for the mill than ' Duet ' did , and together they provided a great one @-@ two punch to the end of the first season " , Behr recalled .
The episode marked the debut of Philip Anglim as Vedek Bareil and Louise Fletcher as Vedek Winn . Bareil and Winn became recurring characters throughout the rest of the series . Fletcher , best known for playing the role of Nurse Ratched in One Flew Over the Cuckoo 's Nest ( 1975 ) , received the Academy Award for Best Actress , the Golden Globe Award for Best Actress in a Motion Picture , Drama and the BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role in recognition of her work . She did not have to read for the role of Vedek Winn , nor was she familiar with the Star Trek series or its heritage before accepting the role . Robin Christopher makes her appearance in this episode for the second and last time as Neela , first appearing in the previous episode , " Duet " .
" In the Hands of the Prophets " is the third episode directed by David Livingston . With a budget larger than most of the other first season episodes , Livingston used more extras which allowed him to create larger crowd scenes . Livingston 's first location shoot took place during Bareil 's sanctuary scene on Bajor . Filmed on location at Fern Dell at Griffith Park , Los Angeles , Livingston found it difficult to shoot the scene due to the density of the foliage and access to the dell . This same location previously appeared in the holodeck scenes used in " Encounter At Farpoint " , the pilot episode of The Next Generation .
Filmed in full scale , the school explosion used drywall around the interior of the set to protect it from the fire . Physical effects supervisor Gary Monak oversaw the explosion . The destruction surprised the cast as they were more used to optical effects in the series . Costume designer Robert Blackman created the Vedek costumes . Crew @-@ members suggested that Blackman based his Vedek hats on the form of the Sydney Opera House , but Blackman denied the design was deliberate .
= = Themes = =
" In the Hands of the Prophets " is the first episode in the series to examine the conflict between elements of the Bajoran religion and the secularism of Starfleet . Writer Robert Hewitt Wolfe says the episode maintains the consistency of Gene Roddenberry 's vision for Star Trek :
I have no argument with someone having a fundamentalist belief in Christianity or Islam or Judaism or Buddhism or anything else , but I do have a serious objection to people trying to impose their values on other people . And that 's what this episode is about . No one has the right to force anyone to believe the things that they believe . That 's one of the beautiful things about Gene Roddenberry 's vision of IDIC ( Infinite Diversity in Infinite Combinations ) , and that was one of the things that we really wanted to hammer home here . Sisko does everything he can not to impose his values on the Bajorans , but Vedek Winn is determined to impose her values on everyone .
The episode showed the unwillingness of Sisko to accept his position as a religious figure within the Bajoran culture . This theme was first explored in " Emissary " , the pilot of the series . The ongoing theme for Bajoran politics and religion began with " In the Hands of the Prophets " and ran through the rest of the series . Wolfe was raised as a Catholic , and he attributes the religious theme of the episode to this influence , as well as his interest in history . He compares the religious intrigue of the story to the history of Catholicism in the 15th and 16th century , a time when members of various families jostled for power to become Pope . When asked to describe the character of Winn , Louise Fletcher said , " Think the Pope in space , except she 's like an ancient Pope , from the old days when Popes were ruthless and powerful and exerted their powers and fought wars and did all kinds of naughty things . "
Matt Rorie in Screened.com said the writers examined the politics of the Bajoran religion by " planting pious but open @-@ minded Bajorans like Kira against the orthodox , intolerant , fundamentalist majority , as represented by Kai Winn , who was willing to bomb schools and attempt assassinations on her political rivals to stay in power . " Zack Handlen in his review for the A.V. Club compared the actions in the episode to the " ideological battles [ which ] are fought over what 's appropriate in the classroom " in the United States .
= = Reception and home media release = =
" In the Hands of the Prophets " first aired in broadcast syndication on June 20 , 1993 . It received Nielsen ratings of 8 @.@ 8 million , placing it in fifth place in the timeslot . It was the least viewed episode of the first season during its initial broadcast . This rating was a slight decrease from the previous week 's episode " Duet " , which received a rating of 8 @.@ 9 million .
Several reviewers re @-@ watched the episode after the end of the series . Zack Handlen reviewed the episode for the A.V. Club , noting that while the episode wasn 't subtle , it did " a good job expanding the show 's world , and playing off of undercurrents and themes which have been built in throughout DS9 's first season . " He described Winn as the " most unsettling of enemies , a true believer whose faith doesn 't prevent her from manipulation and deceit " . Handlen described the character of Vedek Winn as " terrific " . In her analysis of the episode , Michelle Erica Green of TrekNation said she thought the episode was " pretty fantastic " when she originally watched it . Upon re @-@ watching it years later , she thought it had improved even further . Green described the episode as " a no @-@ holds @-@ barred story about the hypocrisy of religious leaders which seems less influenced by the Scopes Trial than by contemporary creationist politicians . " She described Fletcher as one of her favourite actresses and thought that she portrayed Vedek Winn as the older sister of Nurse Ratched from One Flew Over the Cuckoo 's Nest .
Writing for Jammer 's Reviews , Jamahl Epsicokhan said there was a great deal of plot to cover in the episode and that the strands successfully came together . He singled out Avery Brooks for praise , but thought there were a number of stand @-@ out performances by the cast . Epsicokhan gave the episode a score of 3 @.@ 5 / 4 and thought that it demonstrated the direction that the series intended to go in . In his review of the episode for Tor.com , Keith DeCandido praised the performance of Fletcher and called her " deliciously evil " . He thought that Anglim gave one of his better performances as Vedek Bareil and that the speech by Brooks to Fletcher at the end of the episode was particularly well done .
" In the Hands of the Prophets " was first released as a two episode VHS cassette alongside " Duet " in the United Kingdom on January 10 , 1994 . A single episode release followed in the United States and Canada on July 8 , 1997 . It was released on DVD as part of the season one box set on June 3 , 2003 .
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= John W. Stevenson =
John White Stevenson ( May 4 , 1812 – August 10 , 1886 ) was the 25th governor of Kentucky and represented the state in both houses of the U.S. Congress . The son of future Speaker of the House and U.S. diplomat Andrew Stevenson , John Stevenson graduated from the University of Virginia in 1832 and studied law under his cousin , future Congressman Willoughby Newton . After briefly practicing law in Mississippi , he relocated to Covington , Kentucky , and was elected county attorney . After serving in the Kentucky legislature , he was chosen as a delegate to the state 's third constitutional convention in 1849 and was one of three commissioners charged with revising its code of laws , a task finished in 1854 . A Democrat , he was elected to two consecutive terms in the U.S. House of Representatives where he supported several proposed compromises to avert the Civil War and blamed the Radical Republicans for their failure .
After losing his reelection bid in 1861 , Stevenson , a known Confederate sympathizer , stayed out of public life during the war and was consequently able to avoid being imprisoned , as many other Confederate sympathizers were . In 1867 , just five days after John L. Helm and Stevenson were elected governor and lieutenant governor , respectively , Helm died and Stevenson became acting governor . Stevenson subsequently won a special election in 1868 to finish Helm 's term . As governor , he opposed federal intervention in what he considered state matters but insisted that blacks ' newly granted rights be observed and used the state militia to quell post @-@ war violence in the state . Although a fiscal conservative , he advocated a new tax to benefit education and created the state bureau of education .
In 1871 , Stevenson defeated incumbent Thomas C. McCreery for his seat in the U.S. Senate after criticizing McCreery for allegedly supporting the appointment of Stephen G. Burbridge , who was hated by most Kentuckians , to a federal position . In the Senate , he opposed internal improvements and defended a constructionist view of the constitution , resisting efforts to expand the powers expressly granted in that document . Beginning in late 1873 , Stephenson functioned as the first chairman ( later called floor leader ) of the Senate Democratic caucus . He did not seek reelection in 1877 , returning to his law practice and accepting future Kentucky Governor William Goebel as a law partner . He chaired the 1880 Democratic National Convention and was elected president of the American Bar Association in 1884 . He died in Covington on August 10 , 1886 , and was buried in Spring Grove Cemetery at Cincinnati , Ohio .
= = Early life and family = =
John White Stevenson was born May 4 , 1812 , in Richmond , Virginia . He was the only child of Andrew and Mary Page ( White ) Stevenson . His mother — the granddaughter of Carter Braxton , a signer of the Declaration of Independence — died during childbirth . Stevenson was sent to live with his maternal grandparents , John and Judith White , until he was eleven ; by then , his father had remarried . His father , a prominent Virginia lawyer , rose to political prominence during Stevenson 's childhood . He was elected to Congress , eventually serving as Speaker of the House and was later appointed Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary to the Court of St. James 's ( now called the United States Ambassador to the United Kingdom ) by President Martin Van Buren , where he engendered much controversy by his pro @-@ slavery practices . Because of his father 's position , young Stevenson had met both Thomas Jefferson and James Madison .
Stevenson was educated by private tutors in Virginia and Washington , D.C. , where he frequently lived while his father was in Congress . In 1828 , at the age of 14 , he matriculated from the Hampden – Sydney Academy ( now Hampden – Sydney College ) . Two years later , he transferred to University of Virginia , where he graduated in 1832 . After graduation , he read law with his cousin , Willoughby Newton , who would later serve in the U.S. Congress . In 1839 , Stevenson was admitted to the bar in Virginia .
Following Madison 's advice , Stevenson decided to settle in the west . He traveled on horseback through the western frontier until he reached the Mississippi River , settling at Vicksburg , Mississippi . Vicksburg was a small settlement at the time and did not provide enough work to satisfy him , and , in 1840 , he decided to travel to Covington , Kentucky , settling there permanently in 1841 . In Covington , he formed a law partnership with Jefferson Phelps , a respected lawyer in the area ; the partnership lasted until Phelps ' death in 1843 .
A devout Episcopalian , Stevenson frequently attended the conventions of that denomination . He was elected as a vestryman of the Trinity Episcopal Church in Covington on November 24 , 1842 . In 1843 , he married Sibella Wilson of Newport , Kentucky . They had five children : Sally C. ( Stevenson ) Colston , Mary W. ( Stevenson ) Colston , Judith W. ( Stevenson ) Winslow , Samuel W. Stevenson , and John W. Stevenson .
= = Political career = =
Soon after arriving in Covington , Stevenson was elected county attorney for Kenton County . He was chosen as a delegate to the 1844 Democratic National Convention and was elected to represent Kenton County in the Kentucky House of Representatives the following year . He was reelected in 1846 and 1848 . In 1849 , he was chosen as a delegate to the state constitutional convention that produced Kentucky 's third state constitution . In 1850 , he , Madison C. Johnson , and James Harlan were appointed as commissioners to revise Kentucky 's civic and criminal code . Their work , Code of Practise in Civil and Criminal Cases was published in 1854 . He was again one of Kentucky 's delegates to the Democratic National Conventions in 1848 , 1852 , and 1856 , serving as a presidential elector in 1852 and 1856 .
= = = U.S. Representative = = =
In 1857 , Stevenson was elected to the first of two consecutive terms in the U.S. House of Representatives . For the duration of his tenure in that body , he served on the Committee on Elections . He favored admitting Kansas to the Union under the Lecompton Constitution .
Like many Kentuckians , Stevenson was sympathetic to the southern states ' position in the lead @-@ up to the Civil War , but he opposed secession as a means of dealing with sectional tensions . In the 1860 presidential election , he supported his close friend , John C. Breckinridge . Desiring to avert the Civil War , he advocated acceptance of the several proposed compromises , including the Crittenden Compromise , authored by fellow Kentuckian John J. Crittenden . He blamed the Radical Republicans ' rigid adherence to their demands for the failure of all such proposed compromises , and on January 30 , 1861 , denounced them in a speech that the Dictionary of American Biography called the most notable of his career in the House .
Stevenson was defeated for reelection in 1861 . For the duration of the war , which lasted until April 1865 , he stayed out of public life in order to avoid being arrested as many other Confederate sympathizers were . After the war , he was a delegate to the National Union Party 's convention in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania , in 1865 . He was a supporter of the Reconstruction policies of President Andrew Johnson .
= = = Governor of Kentucky = = =
Ex @-@ Confederates dominated the Kentucky Democratic convention that met in Frankfort on February 22 , 1867 . John L. Helm , father of the late Confederate general Benjamin Hardin Helm , was nominated for governor and Stevenson was nominated for lieutenant governor . The entire Democratic slate of candidates was elected , including Stevenson , who received 88 @,@ 222 votes to R. Tarvin Baker 's 32 @,@ 505 and H. Taylor 's 11 @,@ 473 . The only non @-@ Confederate sympathizer to win election that year was George Madison Adams , congressman for the state 's 8th district who , although a Democrat , was a former federal soldier . Helm took the oath of office on his sick bed at his home in Elizabethtown , Kentucky , on September 3 , 1867 . He died five days later , and Stevenson was sworn in as governor on September 13 . Among his first acts as governor were the appointments of Frank Lane Wolford , a former Union soldier , as adjutant general and Fayette Hewitt , a former Confederate soldier , as state quartermaster general .
Because Helm died so soon after taking office , a special election for the remainder of his term was set for August 1868 . Democrats held a convention in Frankfort on February 22 , 1868 and nominated Stevenson to finish out Helm 's term . R. Tarvin Baker , formerly Stevenson 's opponent in the election for lieutenant governor , was the choice of the Republicans . The Republicans faced many disadvantages , including the national party 's persecution of President Johnson and a lack of local organization in many Kentucky counties . Despite Stevenson 's shortcomings as a public speaker , he was elected in a landslide — 115 @,@ 560 to 26 @,@ 605 . At the time , it was the largest majority obtained by any candidate in a Kentucky election .
= = = = Civil rights = = = =
Post @-@ war Kentucky Democrats had split into two factions — the more conservative Bourbon Democrats and the more progressive New Departure Democrats . Stevenson governed moderately , giving concessions to both sides . He urged the immediate restoration of all rights to ex @-@ Confederates and denounced Congress for failing to seat a portion of the Kentucky delegation because they had sided with the Confederacy . A champion of states ' rights , he resisted federal measures he saw as violating the sovereignty of the states and vehemently denounced the proposed Fifteenth Amendment . Following Stevenson 's lead , the General Assembly refused to pass either the Fourteenth or Fifteenth Amendment , but after their passage by a constitutional majority of the states Stevenson generally insisted that blacks ' newly granted rights not be infringed upon . He was silent , however , when state legislators and officials from various cities used lengthy residency restrictions and redrawn district and municipal boundaries to exclude black voters from specific elections . His 1867 plea for legislators to call a constitutional convention to revise the state 's pro @-@ slavery constitution to better conform to post @-@ war reality was completely ignored .
Stevenson opposed almost every effort to expand blacks ' rights beyond the minimums assured by federal amendments and legislation . The Civil Rights Act of 1866 guaranteed that blacks could testify against whites in federal courts , but he opposed New Departure Democrats when they insisted that Kentucky amend its laws to also allow black testimony against whites in state courts , and the measure failed in the 1867 legislative session . Later that year , the Kentucky Court of Appeals declared the Civil Rights Act unconstitutional , but a federal court soon overturned that decision . Stevenson backed Bourbon Democrats ' appeal of that decision to the Supreme Court of the United States . By 1871 , however , he had changed his mind and supported blacks ' right to testify . Despite Stevenson 's support , the measure failed in the General Assembly again in 1871 , but it passed the following year , after Stevenson had left office .
In the 1870 election , the first state in which blacks were allowed to vote , Stevenson warned that violence against them would not be tolerated . Although he relied on local authorities to suppress any incidents , he offered rewards for the apprehension of perpetrators of election @-@ related violence . Stevenson also recommended that the carrying of concealed weapons be outlawed . The General Assembly passed the requested legislation on March 22 , 1871 . The law imposed small fines for the first offense , but the amount rapidly increased for subsequent infractions in order to deter repeat offenders .
= = = = State matters = = = =
In Stevenson 's first message to the legislature , he called on legislators to finally decide whether the state capital would remain at Frankfort or be moved to Lexington or Louisville , as some had wanted . His address made it clear that he favored keeping the capital at Frankfort , but he noted that additional space was needed at the present capitol building because the existing building could not continue to house enough room both the state treasurer and auditor . He laid out a vision for an addition to the capitol that would make it more spacious and more grandiose . To pay for the expansion , the fiscally conservative Stevenson pressed the federal government to pay claims due Kentucky from Civil War expenses . By the end of his term , the state had collected over $ 1 @.@ 5 million in claims . The legislature , however , disregarded his plan for expanding the capitol , instead opting to construct a separate executive office building next to the capitol .
Stevenson also advocated careful study of the state 's finances to deal with increasing expenditures . He insisted that the state stop covering its short @-@ term indebtedness using bonds . However , Stevenson was willing to tax to benefit segregation in schools , and helped create the state bureau of education in 1870 . Because most blacks possessed little property of significant value , the new tax yielded little revenue to support their educational institutions . State legislators rejected his 1870 proposal to create a state bureau of immigration and statistics to spur interest in and migration to the state . He did persuade the legislators to make some improvements in the state 's penal and eleemosynary institutions , including establishing a House of Reform for juvenile offenders .
Mob violence , much of it perpetrated by vigilantes calling themselves " Regulators " who felt that local authorities had failed in their duties to protect the people , was an ongoing problem during Stevenson 's administration . In September 1867 , Stevenson urged all Kentuckians to defer to local authorities and ordered that all vigilante groups be disbanded . On October 1 , however , a group calling themselves " Rowzee 's band " began perpetrating anti @-@ Regulator violence in Marion County . He dispatched Adjutant General Wolford to Marion County , authorizing him to use the state militia to quell the violence if necessary . Wolford called out three companies of militia who suppressed " Rowzee 's band " and sent another to put down a similar movement in Boyle County . Later in October , Stevenson dispatched the state militia to Mercer County , and militiamen were dispatched to Boyle , Garrard , and Lincoln counties in 1869 . The governor declared that he would never hesitate to send troops " whenever it becomes necessary for the arrest and bringing to justice of all those who combine together , no matter under what pretense , to trample the law under their feet by acts of personal violence . "
= = = U.S. Senator = = =
Beginning in late 1869 , Stevenson attacked Kentucky Senator Thomas C. McCreery and Representative Thomas Laurens Jones for allegedly supporting President Ulysses S. Grant 's nomination of former Union General Stephen G. Burbridge to a federal position in the revenue service . Although born in northern Kentucky , Burbridge had commanded colored troops during the Civil War , and had also been specifically ordered to suppress Confederate guerillas in his home state . Kentucky 's General Assembly had sought to bring him to trial for war crimes in 1863 and 1864 . Historian E. Merton Coulter wrote of Burbridge : " [ The people of Kentucky ] relentlessly pursued him , the most bitterly hated of all Kentuckians , and so untiring were their efforts , that it finally came to the point where he had not a friend left in the state who would raise his voice to defend him . " Stevenson 's attacks on McCreery and Jones were likely designed to discredit them both in advance of the expiration of McCreery 's Senate term in 1870 . McCreery vigorously denied Stevenson 's charges and eventually challenged him to a duel . Stevenson declined the challenge , citing his Christian beliefs . The General Assembly met to choose McCreery 's successor in December 1869 and , on the fifth ballot , chose Stevenson over McCreery for the six @-@ year Senate term . Stevenson resigned the governorship on February 13 , 1871 , in advance of the March congressional session .
In the Senate , Stevenson was a conservative stalwart , steadfastly opposing spending on internal improvements and maintaining a strict constructionist view of the constitution . He urged his fellow senators to oppose the Civil Rights Act of 1871 , claiming that its provision that the president could suspend the right of habeas corpus in cases where he believed violence was imminent amounted to giving the chief executive the powers of a dictator . He also opposed the appropriation of federal money to fund the Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania , because he did not believe Congress was given the authority to make such an allocation under the Constitution .
At the 1872 Democratic National Convention , Stevenson received the votes of Delaware 's six delegates for the Democratic vice @-@ presidential nomination , although Benjamin Gratz Brown was ultimately nominated . In February 1873 , Vice @-@ President Schuyler Colfax named Stevenson as one of five members of the Morrill Commission to investigate New Hampshire Senator James W. Patterson 's involvement in the Crédit Mobilier of America scandal . Stevenson and fellow Senator John P. Stockton of New Jersey both asked to be removed from the commission , but the Senate refused to grant their request . On February 27 , 1873 , the commission recommended Patterson 's expulsion from the Senate , but the chamber adjourned on March 4 without acting on the recommendation . Patterson 's term ended with the end of the session , and he was not re @-@ elected , rendering moot further consideration of the matter .
From December 1873 until the expiration of his term in 1877 , Stevenson was generally recognized as the chairman ( later known as the floor leader ) of the minority Democratic caucus in the Senate ; he was the first person to have acted in the capacity . During the Forty @-@ fourth Congress , he chaired the Committee on Revolutionary Claims . He did not seek reelection at the end of his term . In the disputed 1876 presidential election , he was one of the visiting statesmen who went to New Orleans , Louisiana , and concluded that the election had been fairly conducted in that state .
= = Later life and death = =
After his service in the Senate , Stevenson returned to his law practice in Covington . In addition , he accepted a position teaching criminal law and contracts at the University of Cincinnati College of Law . He remained interested in politics and was chosen chairman of the 1879 Democratic state convention in Louisville and president of the 1880 Democratic National Convention in Cincinnati , Ohio .
In 1883 , the American Bar Association began exploring the concept of dual federalism . Because of his personal acquaintance with James Madison , whom he characterized as a proponent of dual federalism , Stevenson delivered an address on the subject at the Association 's annual meeting . Stevenson maintained that Madison believed strongly in the rights of the sovereign states and regarded a Supreme Court appeal as " a remedy for trespass on the reserved rights of the states by unconstitutional acts of Congress . " Stevenson was elected its president that year 's and his address published . Association member Richard Vaux characterized Stevenson 's presidential report reviewing state and federal legislation in 1885 as " most interesting and valuable to the profession " .
Among the men who studied law under Stevenson in his later years were future U.S. Treasury Secretary John G. Carlisle and future Kentucky Governor William Goebel . Goebel eventually became Stevenson 's law partner and the executor of his will .
In early August 1886 , Stevenson traveled to Sewanee , Tennessee , to attend the commencement ceremonies of Sewanee University . While there , he fell ill and was rushed back to his home in Covington , where he died on August 10 , 1886 . He was buried in Spring Grove Cemetery in Cincinnati .
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= I Do , Adieu =
" I Do , Adieu " is the fifth season finale of the American television sitcom Cheers , written by Glen and Les Charles and directed by James Burrows . It originally aired on May 7 , 1987 on NBC at 9 : 00pm ( Eastern ) / 8 : 00pm ( Central ) . During the fifth season , Sam Malone ( Ted Danson ) repeatedly proposes to Diane , and she refuses repeatedly until she accepts engagement in " Chambers vs. Malone " ( 1987 ) . In the previous episode , " A House Is Not a Home " , Sam and Diane bought a house together . Before this episode aired , Ted Danson decided to renew his contract with the show as Sam Malone , while Shelley Long decided to quit the series , which could conclude the on @-@ and @-@ off romance of " Sam and Diane " that went on for the first five years since 1982 . Ideas were attempted to write Diane off and to end the story arc , but some ideas were kept in and others thrown out .
In this episode , Diane is offered an opportunity to finish one of her novels . However , she must choose between her talents and her man , Sam . After she becomes persuaded into honing her talents , Diane leaves the job , the bar , the relationship , and the city behind for that . In the 1993 series finale , " One for the Road " , Shelley Long makes her special guest appearance as Diane Chambers and the " Sam and Diane " story line is there resurfaced . Meanwhile , with Long 's departure , producers of the series made plans to reconstruct the show by introducing a new female lead who does not resemble Shelley Long . Highlights of this episode from reception are Diane Chambers 's departure and the end of Sam and Diane 's constant on @-@ and @-@ off romance .
= = Plot = =
Sumner Sloane ( Michael McGuire ) , Diane 's ex @-@ fiancé who jilted her in the series pilot , returns to Cheers , surprising bar patrons . Alone in the billiard room , Sumner tells Diane that , against her will , he submitted one of her unfinished manuscripts to one of his colleagues , who praised it , and was sent to publishers . At first , she becomes excited . However , Sumner persuades her to leave everyone and everything behind , including Sam , in order to hone her talents . He warns her that finishing the novel is impossible and that her potentials will be wasted if she marries Sam . Diane tells Sumner to leave the bar and never return again . Unbeknownst to them , Sam overhears this conversation under the pool table whose underneath is covered by drapes .
At home , in the house they bought together in the previous episode , " A House Is Not a Home " , Sam and Diane discuss her talents and their relationship that are both at stake , which they admit . Then Diane suggests that they be married immediately , but Sam is yet reluctant , so she leaves him alone for a moment . Later , Sam daydreams about their own elderly selves living in what would have been if Diane chooses Sam over her career . In that fantasy , Sam and Diane are happily married elderly couple with children and grandchildren . Moreover , Diane has not finished her novel but assures Sam that she has no regrets and that abandoning her talents does not affect their marriage and her happiness with him . Back into reality , then they decide to set the wedding at the bar , where people know about their relationship .
The following day , at the wedding , commissioned by the Justice of the Peace ( William Addison ) , a phone call , picked up by Woody , announces that Diane 's unfinished novel was praised by publishers and , if finished , will likely be published . Unaffected Diane still wants to marry , but Sam convinces her to set her writing talents first before marriage . After failures , like ballet and filmmaking , and becoming convinced to hone and cherish her writing skills , Diane decides to give writing career a chance , putting a wedding to an end . At closing time , Sam and Diane alone embrace each other for the last time together . Diane promises him that she will return to him in six months . Sam tells her to " have a good life , " but Diane attests to her promise and leaves the bar . Now alone in the bar , Sam again tells her to " have a good life , " then he daydreams elderly versions of himself and Diane embracing and dancing to the music .
= = Production = =
The producers intended Cheers to be a comedy about the bar itself , but , as Burrows claimed , the " Sam and Diane " romance predominated the show for five years and , as he hypothesized , would have made the bar more of a minor role and more irrelevant if Shelley Long had not left the show as Diane Chambers in this episode . With Long leaving the series , the producers made plans to revamp the show with the bar as a central setting , as originally intended , and then they credited Long 's departure for saving the series from cancellation . After years of writing Sam as a " straight man " , especially to Diane , the writers would transform Sam into becoming more " carefree " and a " goof @-@ off " in season six . The creators , in February 1987 , decided to find a female lead replacement whose hair is not blonde and who does not resemble Shelley Long . Brunette @-@ haired Kirstie Alley debuts as Rebecca Howe in the next episode , " Home Is the Sailor " ( 1987 ) .
This episode was written by Glen and Les Charles and directed by James Burrows . On December 15 , 1986 , Shelley Long decided to leave Cheers as the regular character Diane Chambers , even though she and Ted " [ had ] done some really terrific work at Cheers " , for her movie career and family , while Ted Danson signed a contract for the next season ( 1987 – 1988 ) , which led producers , the Charles brothers and Burrows , to separate Sam and Diane . An idea to keep Sam in and write Diane out without risk of ruining the quality and losing viewers had been developed . Before Diane was written out by having her leave Boston for a writing career , some ideas were attempted and discarded , like Sam and Diane 's child in the next season , as Sam would have been a single father , and another ideal man for Diane . Three endings were filmed , in part to attempt to keep the actual one a secret , and because it was possible that Long might decide to stay : 1 ) Sam and Diane become married ; 2 ) Diane accepts an offer to finish a novel ; 3 ) not revealed by the producers . The alternate ending in which Sam and Diane get married aired on May 27 , 1998 as part of a 90 @-@ minute Fox special produced by the Paley Center called Behind the Laughs : The Untold Stories of Television 's Favorite Comedies : A Museum of Television and Radio Special .
Steve Giannelli is credited for his background appearance in the episode .
= = Reception = =
This episode originally aired on May 7 , 1987 , on NBC at 9 : 00pm ( Eastern ) / 8 : 00pm ( Central ) and scored a 28 @.@ 4 rating and 45 share , was watched by 24 @.@ 8 million homes , and ranked # 1 in Nielsen ratings . After the episode originally aired , Kathy Carlisle of Los Angeles Times called this episode " hilarious , but somewhat contrived and very disappointing " and felt that Sam and Diane should have been married at the end . Monica Collins from USA Today called Diane a " snitty , selfish snob " and was relieved that the character left the series . According to Collins , she has not made friends with people in Cheers onscreen . More often , she has not befriended women , and she has " [ teased ] men more than [ pleased ] them " .
Later reviews analyzed the departure of Diane Chambers and the end of her relationship with Sam Malone . Gillian Flynn from Entertainment Weekly called Sam and Diane 's breakup in this episode one of the " all @-@ time best breakup scenes " in history . David Hofstede in the guide 5000 Episodes and No Commercials and Jeffrey Robinson of DVD Talk found Diane 's departure poorly done . Jane Boursaw from Huffington Post and Amy K. Bredemeyer from The Talking Box blog called the wedding of Sam and Diane one of their favorite " weddings that [ did not ] happen " . IGN placed it as number one of the top ten Cheers episodes .
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= Something Old , Something New ( The Hills ) =
" Something Old , Something New " is the tenth episode of the fifth season of The Hills . It originally aired on MTV on May 31 , 2009 . In the episode , Heidi Montag and Spencer Pratt prepare for their upcoming wedding , while Lauren Conrad and Lo Bosworth move out of their house . After much deliberation , Conrad decides to attend the nuptials , where she reconciles with Montag after being estranged with one another since the third season . It is the final episode in which Conrad appears , and also marks the entrance of her replacement Kristin Cavallari .
" Something Old , Something New " was produced by Adam DiVello , Liz Gateley , Kristofer Lindquist , Sara Mast , and Sean Travis . After the season was retroactively divided into Part I and Part II , respectively separating installments featuring Conrad and Cavallari , the episode became the conclusion of Part I. Additionally , it is the second episode in the series ' history with a one @-@ hour running time , the first being " Paris Changes Everything " in the third season .
" Something Old , Something New " was met with generally mixed reviews from critics , who felt that Cavallari 's introduction overshadowed Conrad 's departure . According to Nielsen ratings , it was watched by 2 @.@ 7 million viewers in its original airing . The episode was released on DVD on October 6 , 2009 , packaged with the remainder of Part I of the fifth season .
= = Plot = =
Lauren and Lo decide to host a farewell party as they prepare to move out of their house . As wedding preparations continue , Stephanie becomes upset after learning that Heidi has chosen her sister Holly as her maid @-@ of @-@ honor . During the bridal shower , Stephanie assumes the responsibilities after she becomes increasingly displeased with Holly 's poor performance . After she makes amends with Spencer , Darlene gives him her blessing for the nuptials . While out for dinner , Brody tries to convince Lauren to attend the wedding , knowing that Heidi would appreciate her presence . In a later outing , Spencer tells Brody of his couples ' therapy sessions with Heidi , but is displeased that he is not taken seriously . At the fashion public relations firm People 's Revolution , Lauren tells Kelly that she will be leaving the company , which Kelly advocates as a smart decision that will help her to determine her next career endeavors .
As an intoxicated Holly displays erratic behavior at Heidi and Spencer 's rehearsal dinner , Stephanie is dismayed by her lack of irresponsibility . After Spencer explains that her behavior was inappropriate , Holly tearfully leaves the restaurant . The next morning , she apologizes to Heidi for her actions , and confirms that an invitation has been sent to a special guest . Charlie later tells Spencer that he invited Stacie , the bartender that Heidi clashed with for flirting with Spencer , to the wedding . Meanwhile , Brody and Stephanie make peace at Lauren and Lo 's farewell party , while Lauren tells Stephanie that she will not be attending the ceremony .
The following morning , the day of the wedding , Heidi and Spencer are getting ready , while guests begin entering the church . Lauren surprises Heidi in her dressing room and explains that Heidi 's happiness is important to her . Meanwhile , Kristin Cavallari unexpectedly walks into the church and sits next to Justin , to the surprise of the attendees . After leaving Heidi , Lauren appears displeased after Lo tells her that Kristin is seated across from them . After the wedding has finished , Kristin tells Lo that she needs help finding a boyfriend , and to Audrina 's disapproval , adds that Justin seems to be a " stand up guy " . Lauren makes her final appearance on the series quietly leaving the church , while Kristin catches Heidi 's bouquet .
= = Production = =
" Something Old , Something New " was produced by Adam Divello , Liz Gateley , Kristofer Lindquist , Sara Mast , and Sean Travis . The episode became the second in the series ' history with a one @-@ hour running time , preceded by " Paris Changes Everything " in the third season . Despite presenting Conrad and Bosworth 's house departure as taking place the evening prior to Montag and Pratt 's nuptials , the former event was filmed in January 2009 , while the latter took place on April 25 , 2009 .
Conrad first indicated that she wished to leave The Hills upon the conclusion of its fourth season in December 2008 , looking to pursue other career opportunities . She commented that " five years on TV is a really , really long time " , adding that she was " ready to walk away " . However , per the producers ' requests , Conrad filmed ten episodes for the fifth season , in which she closed her storylines . She added that the season was potentially its last , stating that series personnel felt her presence would " give the show some sort of closure " . In the July 2009 issue of Cosmopolitan , Conrad stated that producers had pressured her into a reconciliation with Montag throughout the season , adding that she was displeased when they would not allow otherwise .
" Something Old , Something New " was initially billed as the fifth season finale . However , in April 2009 , MTV announced an extension of the season , and confirmed Cavallari as Conrad 's replacement the following month . Consequentially , the first ten episodes of the season were retroactively labeled Part I , while Cavallari 's forthcoming episodes were titled Part II .
= = Reception and release = =
" Something Old , Something New " was met with generally mixed reviews from critics , many of whom were ambivalent towards Conrad 's departure and Cavallari 's introduction . Emma Rosenblum from New York was pleased with Conrad 's exit , commenting that she was emotional watching her " moving on and distancing herself from the follies of her overexposed youth " . However , she opined that Cavallari 's appearance at the wedding " does not bode well for the future of The Hills " . A writer for Entertainment Weekly described the reconciliation between Conrad and Montag an " ideal end " to the series , and noted Cavallari 's addition as a " questionable choice " . Furthermore , it was included on the magazine 's list of " 25 TV Shows That Missed Cue for a Graceful Exit " . In contrast , Jim Cantiello of MTV News noted that Conrad " came to the realization that she had been replaced " , and complimented the manner in which Cavallari was integrated into the series . Carrie Bell from People was pleased that " the bitch [ Cavallari ] is back and [ she could ] already tell it ’ s going to make for some great trashy TV " .
In its original broadcast in the United States on May 31 , 2009 , " Something Old , Something New " was watched by 2 @.@ 7 million viewers . It experienced a 10 @-@ percent ratings drop from the season premiere " Don 't Cry on Your Birthday " , which garnered 3 million viewers on April 6 , 2009 . In the country , Season 5 , Part I was released as a two @-@ disc DVD set on October 6 , 2009 .
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= SMS Danzig =
SMS Danzig was a light cruiser of the Imperial German Navy . Named for the city of Danzig ( Gdańsk ) , she was the seventh and last ship of the Bremen class . She was begun by the Imperial Dockyard in her namesake city in 1904 , launched on 23 September 1905 and commissioned on 1 December 1907 . Armed with a main battery of ten 10 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) guns and two 45 cm ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes , Danzig was capable of a top speed of 22 knots ( 41 km / h ; 25 mph ) .
Danzig spent the first ten years of her career in the reconnaissance forces of the High Seas Fleet . The ship saw extensive service during the First World War ; she was present at the Battle of Heligoland Bight in August 1914 , but did not engage British warships . She also saw action in the Baltic Sea against Russian forces , and was badly damaged by a Russian mine in November 1915 . Danzig was also involved in Operation Albion , the seizure of the islands at the entrance of the Gulf of Riga , in September 1917 . She was thereafter withdrawn from service , and surrendered to Britain after the end of the war as a war prize . Danzig was dismantled for scrap starting in 1921 .
= = Construction = =
Danzig was ordered under the contract name Ersatz Alexandrine and was laid down at the Imperial Dockyard in Danzig in 1904 and launched on 23 September 1905 , after which fitting @-@ out work commenced . She was commissioned into the High Seas Fleet on 1 December 1907 . The ship was 111 @.@ 1 meters ( 365 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 13 @.@ 3 m ( 44 ft ) and a draft of 5 @.@ 68 m ( 18 @.@ 6 ft ) forward . She displaced 3 @,@ 783 t ( 3 @,@ 723 long tons ; 4 @,@ 170 short tons ) at full combat load . Her propulsion system consisted of two triple @-@ expansion engines , designed to give 10 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 7 @,@ 500 kW ) for a top speed of 22 knots ( 41 km / h ; 25 mph ) . The engines were powered by ten coal @-@ fired Marine @-@ type water @-@ tube boilers . Danzig carried up to 860 tonnes ( 850 long tons ) of coal , which gave her a range of 4 @,@ 690 nautical miles ( 8 @,@ 690 km ; 5 @,@ 400 mi ) at 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) . She had a crew of 14 officers and 274 – 287 enlisted men .
The ship was armed with ten 10 @.@ 5 cm SK L / 40 guns in single mounts . Two were placed side by side forward on the forecastle , six were located amidships , three on either side , and two were placed side by side aft . The guns could engage targets out to 12 @,@ 200 m ( 40 @,@ 000 ft ) . They were supplied with 1 @,@ 500 rounds of ammunition , for 150 shells per gun . She was also equipped with two 45 cm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes with five torpedoes . They were submerged in the hull on the broadside . Danzig was also fitted to carry fifty naval mines . The ship was protected by an armored deck that was up to 80 mm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) thick . The conning tower had 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick sides , and the guns were protected by 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) thick shields .
= = Service history = =
After her commissioning , Danzig served in the reconnaissance forces of the High Seas Fleet . In 1910 , she was used as a training ship for the fleet 's gunners . She returned to fleet service in August 1914 after the outbreak of World War I. She was moored in Brunsbüttel with her sister @-@ ship München , en route to Kiel via the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal on the morning of 28 August 1914 , when the British attacked the German patrol line in the Heligoland Bight . During the ensuing Battle of Heligoland Bight , Danzig and München were recalled and ordered to steam to the mouth of the Elbe and wait for further orders . Danzig reached the stricken cruiser Ariadne shortly before 15 : 00 and lowered boats to rescue survivors . Konteradmiral Franz von Hipper , the commander of the I Scouting Group , issued an order for all cruisers to regroup on the approaching battlecruisers Von der Tann and Moltke , but Fregattenkapitän Reiß , Danzig 's commander , refused , replying that he was " Rescuing people from Ariadne . "
On 7 May 1915 , the IV Scouting Group , which by then consisted of Danzig , München , Stettin , and Stuttgart , and twenty @-@ one torpedo boats was sent into the Baltic Sea to support a major operation against Russian positions at Libau . The operation was commanded by Rear Admiral Hopman , the commander of the reconnaissance forces in the Baltic . The IV Scouting Group was tasked with screening to the north to prevent any Russian naval forces from moving out of the Gulf of Finland undetected , while several armored cruisers and other warships bombarded the port . The Russians did attempt to intervene with a force of four cruisers : Admiral Makarov , Bayan , Oleg , and Bogatyr . The Russian ships briefly engaged München , but both sides were unsure of the others ' strength , and so both disengaged . Shortly after the bombardment , Libau was captured by the advancing German army , and Stettin and the rest of the IV Scouting Group were recalled to the High Seas Fleet . On 8 May , Danzig joined the old pre @-@ dreadnought battleships of the IV Battle Squadron on a reconnaissance toward Gotland ; the operation lasted until 10 May , but encountered no Russian forces . Danzig ran into a Russian minefield on the evening of 25 November 1915 , and was badly damaged by one of the mines . She was towed back to port , however , and repaired .
In early September 1917 , following the German conquest of the Russian port of Riga , the German navy decided to eliminate the Russian naval forces that still held the Gulf of Riga . The Admiralstab ( the Navy High Command ) planned an operation to seize the Baltic island of Ösel , and specifically the Russian gun batteries on the Sworbe Peninsula . On 18 September , the order was issued for a joint operation with the army to capture Ösel and Moon Islands ; the primary naval component was to comprise the flagship , Moltke , along with the III and IV Battle Squadrons of the High Seas Fleet . The invasion force amounted to approximately 24 @,@ 600 officers and enlisted men . Danzig had by this time been transferred to the II Scouting Group , which was tasked with screening for the invasion force . During the operation , Prince Adalbert , Kaiser Wilhelm II 's son , was the ship 's commander . Danzig 's only significant action during the operation came on the 19th , when she and Königsberg and Nürnberg were sent to intercept two Russian torpedo boats reported to be in the area . The Germans could not locate the vessels , and broke off the operation .
Danzig was withdrawn from active service in late 1917 . She survived the end of the war , and was stricken from the naval register on 5 November 1919 . The ship was surrendered to the United Kingdom as the war prize R on 15 September 1920 , and broken up for scrap in Whitby in 1921 – 1922 .
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= Tamil language =
Tamil / ˈtæmɪl / ( தமிழ ் , tamiḻ , [ t ̪ ɐmɨɻ ] ? ) is a Dravidian language predominantly spoken by the Tamil people of India and Sri Lanka , and also by the Tamil diaspora , Sri Lankan Moors , Burghers and Chindians . Tamil is an official language of two countries , Singapore and Sri Lanka . It has official status in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu and the Indian Union Territory of Puducherry . It is also used as one of the languages of education in Malaysia , along with English , Malay and Mandarin . In India , outside of Tamil Nadu and Puducherry , Tamil is also spoken in the states of Kerala , Puducherry and Andaman and Nicobar Islands as a secondary language , and by minorities in Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh . It is one of the 22 scheduled languages of India . It was declared as a classical language by the Government of India in 2004 .
The language is also spoken by Tamil minorities among the diaspora in Malaysia , the United Arab Emirates , the United States , United Kingdom , Mauritius , Canada , South Africa , Fiji , Germany , the Philippines , the Netherlands , Indonesia and France , as well as smaller emigrant communities elsewhere .
Tamil is one of the longest @-@ surviving classical languages in the world . Tamil @-@ Brahmi inscriptions from 500 BC have been found on Adichanallur and 2 @,@ 200 @-@ year @-@ old Tamil @-@ Brahmi inscriptions have been found on Samanamalai . It has been described as " the only language of contemporary India which is recognizably continuous with a classical past . " The variety and quality of classical Tamil literature has led to it being described as " one of the great classical traditions and literatures of the world " .
A recorded Tamil literature has been documented for over 2000 years . The earliest period of Tamil literature , Sangam literature , is dated from ca . 300 BC – AD 300 . It has the oldest extant literature among other Dravidian languages . The earliest epigraphic records found on rock edicts and hero stones date from around the 3rd century BC . More than 55 % of the epigraphical inscriptions ( about 55 @,@ 000 ) found by the Archaeological Survey of India are in the Tamil language . Tamil language inscriptions written in Brahmi script have been discovered in Sri Lanka , and on trade goods in Thailand and Egypt . The two earliest manuscripts from India , acknowledged and registered by UNESCO Memory of the World register in 1997 and 2005 , were written in Tamil .
In 1578 , Portuguese Christian missionaries published a Tamil prayer book in old Tamil script named ' Thambiraan Vanakkam , ' thus making Tamil the first Indian language to be printed and published . In 2014 Tamil Lexicon , published by the University of Madras , was the first among the dictionaries published in any Indian language . Tamil is used as a sacred language of Ayyavazhi and in Tamil Hindu traditions of Shaivism and Vaishnavism . According to a 2001 survey , there were 1 @,@ 863 newspapers published in Tamil , of which 353 were dailies .
= = Classification = =
Tamil belongs to the southern branch of the Dravidian languages , a family of around 26 languages native to the Indian subcontinent . It is also classified as being part of a Tamil language family , which alongside Tamil proper , also includes the languages of about 35 ethno @-@ linguistic groups such as the Irula and Yerukula languages ( see SIL Ethnologue ) .
The closest major relative of Tamil is Malayalam ; the two began diverging around the 9th century CE . Although many of the differences between Tamil and Malayalam demonstrate a pre @-@ historic split of the western dialect , the process of separation into a distinct language , Malayalam , was not completed until sometime in the 13th or 14th century .
= = History = =
According to linguists like Bhadriraju Krishnamurti , Tamil , as a Dravidian language , descends from Proto @-@ Dravidian , a Proto @-@ language . Linguistic reconstruction suggests that Proto @-@ Dravidian was spoken around the third millennium BC , possibly in the region around the lower Godavari river basin in peninsular India . The material evidence suggests that the speakers of Proto @-@ Dravidian were of the culture associated with the Neolithic complexes of South India . The next phase in the reconstructed proto @-@ history of Tamil is Proto @-@ South Dravidian . The linguistic evidence suggests that Proto @-@ South Dravidian was spoken around the middle of the second millennium BC , and that proto @-@ Tamil emerged around the 3rd century BC . The earliest epigraphic attestations of Tamil are generally taken to have been written shortly thereafter . Among Indian languages , Tamil has the most ancient non @-@ Sanskritised Indian literature . Scholars categorise the attested history of the language into three periods , Old Tamil ( 300 BC – AD 700 ) , Middle Tamil ( 700 – 1600 ) and Modern Tamil ( 1600 – present ) . In November 2007 , an excavation at Quseir @-@ al @-@ Qadim revealed Egyptian pottery dating back to first century BC with ancient Tamil Brahmi inscriptions . John Guy states that Tamil was the lingua franca for early maritime traders from India .
= = = Legend = = =
According to Hindu legend , Tamil or in personification form Tamil Thāi ( Mother Tamil ) was created by Lord Shiva . Murugan , revered as the Tamil God , along with sage Agastya , brought it to the people .
= = = Etymology = = =
The earliest extant Tamil literary works and their commentaries celebrate the Pandiyan Kings for the organization of long @-@ termed Tamil Sangams , which researched , developed and made amendments in Tamil language . Even though the name of the language which was developed by these Tamil Sangams is mentioned as Tamil , the exact period when the name " Tamil " came to be applied to the language is unclear , as is the precise etymology of the name . The earliest attested use of the name is found in Tholkappiyam , which is dated as early as 1st century BC . Southworth suggests that the name comes from tam @-@ miḻ > tam @-@ iḻ ' self @-@ speak ' , or ' one 's own speech ' . ( see Southworth 's derivation of Sanskrit term for " others " or Mleccha ) Kamil Zvelebil suggests an etymology of tam @-@ iḻ , with tam meaning " self " or " one 's self " , and " -iḻ " having the connotation of " unfolding sound " . Alternatively , he suggests a derivation of tamiḻ < tam @-@ iḻ < * tav @-@ iḻ < * tak @-@ iḻ , meaning in origin " the proper process ( of speaking ) " .
The Tamil Lexicon of University of Madras defines the word ' Tamil ' as ' sweetness ' . S.V Subramanian suggests the meaning ' sweet sound ' from ' tam ' - sweet and ' il ' - ' sound ' .
= = = Old Tamil = = =
Old Tamil is the period of the Tamil language spanning the 5th century BCE to the 8th century CE . The earliest records in Old Tamil are short inscriptions from between the 5th and 2nd century BCE in caves and on pottery . These inscriptions are written in a variant of the Brahmi script called Tamil Brahmi . The earliest long text in Old Tamil is the Tolkāppiyam , an early work on Tamil grammar and poetics , whose oldest layers could be as old as the 1st century BC . A large number of literary works in Old Tamil have also survived . These include a corpus of 2 @,@ 381 poems collectively known as Sangam literature . These poems are usually dated to between the 1st and 5th centuries AD ,
= = = Middle Tamil = = =
The evolution of Old Tamil into Middle Tamil which is generally taken to have been completed by the 8th century , was characterized by a number of phonological and grammatical changes . In phonological terms , the most important shifts were the virtual disappearance of the aytam ( ஃ ) , an old phoneme , the coalescence of the alveolar and dental nasals , and the transformation of the alveolar plosive into a rhotic . In grammar , the most important change was the emergence of the present tense . The present tense evolved out of the verb kil ( கில ் ) , meaning " to be possible " or " to befall " . In Old Tamil , this verb was used as an aspect marker to indicate that an action was micro @-@ durative , non @-@ sustained or non @-@ lasting , usually in combination with a time marker such as ṉ ( ன ் ) . In Middle Tamil , this usage evolved into a present tense marker – kiṉṟa ( கின ் ற ) – which combined the old aspect and time markers .
= = = Modern Tamil = = =
The Nannul remains the standard normative grammar for modern literary Tamil , which therefore continues to be based on Middle Tamil of the 13th century rather than on Modern Tamil . Colloquial spoken Tamil , in contrast , shows a number of changes . The negative conjugation of verbs , for example , has fallen out of use in Modern Tamil – negation is , instead , expressed either morphologically or syntactically . Modern spoken Tamil also shows a number of sound changes , in particular , a tendency to lower high vowels in initial and medial positions , and the disappearance of vowels between plosives and between a plosive and rhotic .
Contact with European languages also affected both written and spoken Tamil . Changes in written Tamil include the use of European @-@ style punctuation and the use of consonant clusters that were not permitted in Middle Tamil . The syntax of written Tamil has also changed , with the introduction of new aspectual auxiliaries and more complex sentence structures , and with the emergence of a more rigid word order that resembles the syntactic argument structure of English . Simultaneously , a strong strain of linguistic purism emerged in the early 20th century , culminating in the Pure Tamil Movement which called for removal of all Sanskritic and other foreign elements from Tamil . It received some support from Dravidian parties . This led to the replacement of a significant number of Sanskrit loanwords by Tamil equivalents , though many others remain .
= = Geographic distribution = =
Tamil is the first language of the majority of the people residing in Tamil Nadu , Puducherry , in India and Northern Province , Eastern Province , in Sri Lanka . The language is also spoken among small minority groups in other states of India which include Karnataka , Andhra Pradesh , Kerala , Maharashtra and in certain regions of Sri Lanka such as Colombo and the hill country . Tamil or dialects of it were used widely in the state of Kerala as the major language of administration , literature and common usage until the 12th century AD . Tamil was also used widely in inscriptions found in southern Andhra Pradesh districts of Chittoor and Nellore until the 12th century AD . Tamil was also used for inscriptions from the 10th through 14th centuries in southern Karnataka districts such as Kolar , Mysore , Mandya and Bangalore .
There are currently sizeable Tamil @-@ speaking populations descended from colonial @-@ era migrants in Malaysia , Singapore , Philippines , Mauritius , South Africa , Indonesia , Thailand , Burma , and Vietnam . A large community of Pakistani Tamils speakers exists in Karachi , Pakistan , which includes Tamil @-@ speaking Hindus as well as Christians and Muslims – including some Tamil @-@ speaking Muslim refugees from Sri Lanka . Many in Réunion , Guyana , Fiji , Suriname , and Trinidad and Tobago have Tamil origins , but only a small number speak the language . In Reunion where the Tamil language was forbidden to be learnt and used in public space by France it is now being relearnt by students and adults . It is also used by groups of migrants from Sri Lanka and India , Canada ( especially Toronto ) , United States ( especially New Jersey and New York City ) , Australia , many Middle Eastern countries , and some Western European countries .
= = Legal status = =
Tamil is the official language of the Indian state of Tamil Nadu and one of the 22 languages under schedule 8 of the constitution of India . It is also one of the official languages of the union territory of Puducherry and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands . Tamil is also one of the official languages of Singapore . Tamil is one of the official and national languages of Sri Lanka , along with Sinhala . It was once given nominal official status in the state of Haryana , purportedly as a rebuff to Punjab , though there was no attested Tamil @-@ speaking population in the state , and was later replaced by Punjabi , in 2010 . In Malaysia , 543 primary education government schools are available fully in Tamil medium . The establishments of Tamil medium schools have been currently in process in Myanmar to provide education completely in Tamil language by the Tamils who settled there 200 years ago . Tamil language is taught in Canada and South Africa for the local Tamil minority populations . In Ontario , Canada , the month of January has been declared " Tamil Heritage Month " per legislation .
In addition , with the creation in October 2004 of a legal status for classical languages by the Government of India and following a political campaign supported by several Tamil associations , Tamil became the first legally recognised Classical language of India . The recognition was announced by the contemporaneous President of India , Abdul Kalam , in a joint sitting of both houses of the Indian Parliament on 6 June 2004 .
= = Dialects = =
= = = Region @-@ specific variations = = =
The socio @-@ linguistic situation of Tamil is characterised by diglossia : there are two separate registers varying by socioeconomic status , a high register and a low one . Tamil dialects are primarily differentiated from each other by the fact that they have undergone different phonological changes and sound shifts in evolving from Old Tamil . For example , the word for " here " — iṅku in Centamil ( the classic variety ) — has evolved into iṅkū in the Kongu dialect of Coimbatore , inga in the dialect of Thanjavur , and iṅkai in some dialects of Sri Lanka . Old Tamil 's iṅkaṇ ( where kaṇ means place ) is the source of iṅkane in the dialect of Tirunelveli , Old Tamil iṅkaṭṭu is the source of iṅkuṭṭu in the dialect of Madurai , and iṅkaṭe in various northern dialects . Even now , in the Coimbatore area , it is common to hear " akkaṭṭa " meaning " that place " . Although Tamil dialects do not differ significantly in their vocabulary , there are a few exceptions . The dialects spoken in Sri Lanka retain many words and grammatical forms that are not in everyday use in India , and use many other words slightly differently . The various Tamil dialects include Central Tamil dialect , Kongu Tamil , Madras Bashai , Madurai Tamil , Nellai Tamil , kumari Tamil in India and Batticaloa Tamil dialect , Jaffna Tamil dialect , Negombo Tamil dialect in Sri Lanka . Sankethi dialect in Karnataka has been heavily influenced by Kannada .
= = = = Loanword variations = = = =
The dialect of the district of Palakkad in Kerala has a large number of Malayalam loanwords , has been influenced by Malayalam 's syntax and also has a distinctive Malayalam accent . Similarly , Tamil spoken in Kanyakumari District has more unique words and phonetic style than Tamil spoken at other parts of Tamil Nadu . The words and phonetics are so different that a person from Kanyakumari district is easily identifiable by their spoken Tamil . Hebbar and Mandyam dialects , spoken by groups of Tamil Vaishnavites who migrated to Karnataka in the 11th century , retain many features of the Vaishnava paribasai , a special form of Tamil developed in the 9th and 10th centuries that reflect Vaishnavite religious and spiritual values . Several castes have their own sociolects which most members of that caste traditionally used regardless of where they come from . It is often possible to identify a person 's caste by their speech . Tamil in Sri Lanka incorporates loan words from Portuguese , Dutch , and English .
= = Spoken and literary variants = =
In addition to its various dialects , Tamil exhibits different forms : a classical literary style modelled on the ancient language ( sankattamiḻ ) , a modern literary and formal style ( centamiḻ ) , and a modern colloquial form ( koṭuntamiḻ ) . These styles shade into each other , forming a stylistic continuum . For example , it is possible to write centamiḻ with a vocabulary drawn from caṅkattamiḻ , or to use forms associated with one of the other variants while speaking koṭuntamiḻ .
In modern times , centamiḻ is generally used in formal writing and speech . For instance , it is the language of textbooks , of much of Tamil literature and of public speaking and debate . In recent times , however , koṭuntamiḻ has been making inroads into areas that have traditionally been considered the province of centamiḻ . Most contemporary cinema , theatre and popular entertainment on television and radio , for example , is in koṭuntamiḻ , and many politicians use it to bring themselves closer to their audience . The increasing use of koṭuntamiḻ in modern times has led to the emergence of unofficial ‘ standard ' spoken dialects . In India , the ‘ standard ' koṭuntamiḻ , rather than on any one dialect , but has been significantly influenced by the dialects of Thanjavur and Madurai . In Sri Lanka , the standard is based on the dialect of Jaffna .
= = Writing system = =
After Tamil Brahmi fell out of use , Tamil was written using a script called the vaṭṭeḻuttu amongst others such as Grantha and Pallava script . The current Tamil script consists of 12 vowels , 18 consonants and one special character , the āytam . The vowels and consonants combine to form 216 compound characters , giving a total of 247 characters ( 12 + 18 + 1 + ( 12 x 18 ) ) . All consonants have an inherent vowel a , as with other Indic scripts . This inherent vowel is removed by adding a tittle called a puḷḷi , to the consonantal sign . For example , ன is ṉa ( with the inherent a ) and ன ் is ṉ ( without a vowel ) . Many Indic scripts have a similar sign , generically called virama , but the Tamil script is somewhat different in that it nearly always uses a visible puḷḷi to indicate a dead consonant ( a consonant without a vowel ) . In other Indic scripts , it is generally preferred to use a ligature or a half form to write a syllable or a cluster containing a dead consonant , although writing it with a visible virama is also possible . The Tamil script does not differentiate voiced and unvoiced plosives . Instead , plosives are articulated with voice depending on their position in a word , in accordance with the rules of Tamil phonology .
In addition to the standard characters , six characters taken from the Grantha script , which was used in the Tamil region to write Sanskrit , are sometimes used to represent sounds not native to Tamil , that is , words adopted from Sanskrit , Prakrit and other languages . The traditional system prescribed by classical grammars for writing loan @-@ words , which involves respelling them in accordance with Tamil phonology , remains , but is not always consistently applied .
= = Phonology = =
Tamil phonology is characterised by the presence of retroflex consonants and multiple rhotics . Tamil does not distinguish phonologically between voiced and unvoiced consonants ; phonetically , voice is assigned depending on a consonant 's position in a word . Tamil phonology permits few consonant clusters , which can never be word initial . Native grammarians classify Tamil phonemes into vowels , consonants , and a " secondary character " , the āytam .
= = = Vowels = = =
Tamil has five vowel qualities , namely / a / , / e / , / i / , / o / and / u / . Each may be long or short . There are two diphthongs , / aɪ / and / aʊ / . Long vowels are about twice as long as short vowels . The diphthongs are usually pronounced about 1 @.@ 5 times as long as short vowels . Most grammatical texts place them with the long vowels .
= = = Consonants = = =
Tamil consonants are presented as hard , soft and medial in some grammars which roughly corresponds to plosives , approximants and nasals . Unlike most Indian languages , Tamil does not distinguish aspirated and unaspirated consonants . In addition , the voicing of plosives is governed by strict rules in centamiḻ . Plosives are unvoiced if they occur word @-@ initially or doubled . Elsewhere they are voiced , with a few becoming fricatives intervocalically . Nasals and approximants are always voiced .
Tamil is characterised by its use of more than one type of coronal consonants : like many of the other languages of India , it contains a series of retroflex consonants . Notably , the Tamil retroflex series includes the retroflex approximant / ɻ / ( ழ ) ( example Tamil ; often transcribed ' zh ' ) , which is absent in the Indo @-@ Aryan languages . Among the other Dravidian languages , the retroflex approximant also occurs in Malayalam ( for example in ' Kozhikode ' ) , disappeared from spoken Kannada around 1000 AD ( although the character is still written , and exists in Unicode ) , and was never present in Telugu . In many dialects of colloquial Tamil , this consonant is seen as disappearing and shifting to the alveolar lateral approximant / l / . Dental and alveolar consonants also historically contrasted with each other , a typically Dravidian trait not found in the neighbouring Indo @-@ Aryan languages . While this distinction can still be seen in the written language , it has been largely lost in colloquial spoken Tamil , and even in literary usage the letters ந ( dental ) and ன ( alveolar ) may be seen as allophonic . Likewise , the historical alveolar stop has transformed into a trill consonant in many modern dialects .
A chart of the Tamil consonant phonemes in the International Phonetic Alphabet follows :
The plosives have voiced allophones in predictable contexts . The sounds / f / and / ʂ / are peripheral to the phonology of Tamil , being found only in loanwords and frequently replaced by native sounds . There are well @-@ defined rules for elision in Tamil categorised into classes based on the phoneme which undergoes elision .
= = = Āytam = = =
Classical Tamil also had a phoneme called the Āytam , written as ‘ ஃ ' . Tamil grammarians of the time classified it as a dependent phoneme ( or restricted phoneme ) ( cārpeḻuttu ) , but it is very rare in modern Tamil . The rules of pronunciation given in the Tolkāppiyam , a text on the grammar of Classical Tamil , suggest that the āytam could have glottalised the sounds it was combined with . It has also been suggested that the āytam was used to represent the voiced implosive ( or closing part or the first half ) of geminated voiced plosives inside a word . The Āytam , in modern Tamil , is also used to convert p to f when writing English words using the Tamil script .
= = = Numerals and symbols = = =
Apart from the usual numerals , Tamil also has numerals for 10 , 100 and 1000 . Symbols for day , month , year , debit , credit , as above , rupee , and numeral are present as well . Tamil also uses several historical fractional signs .
= = Grammar = =
Tamil employs agglutinative grammar , where suffixes are used to mark noun class , number , and case , verb tense and other grammatical categories . Tamil 's standard metalinguistic terminology and scholarly vocabulary is itself Tamil , as opposed to the Sanskrit that is standard for most Aryan languages .
Much of Tamil grammar is extensively described in the oldest known grammar book for Tamil , the Tolkāppiyam . Modern Tamil writing is largely based on the 13th century grammar Naṉṉūl which restated and clarified the rules of the Tolkāppiyam , with some modifications . Traditional Tamil grammar consists of five parts , namely eḻuttu , sol , poruḷ , yāppu , aṇi . Of these , the last two are mostly applied in poetry .
Tamil words consist of a lexical root to which one or more affixes are attached . Most Tamil affixes are suffixes . Tamil suffixes can be derivational suffixes , which either change the part of speech of the word or its meaning , or inflectional suffixes , which mark categories such as person , number , mood , tense , etc . There is no absolute limit on the length and extent of agglutination , which can lead to long words with a large number of suffixes .
= = = Morphology = = =
Tamil nouns ( and pronouns ) are classified into two super @-@ classes ( tiṇai ) — the " rational " ( uyartiṇai ) , and the " irrational " ( akṟiṇai ) — which include a total of five classes ( pāl , which literally means ‘ gender ' ) . Humans and deities are classified as " rational " , and all other nouns ( animals , objects , abstract nouns ) are classified as irrational . The " rational " nouns and pronouns belong to one of three classes ( pāl ) — masculine singular , feminine singular , and rational plural . The " irrational " nouns and pronouns belong to one of two classes : irrational singular and irrational plural . The pāl is often indicated through suffixes . The plural form for rational nouns may be used as an honorific , gender @-@ neutral , singular form .
Suffixes are used to perform the functions of cases or postpositions . Traditional grammarians tried to group the various suffixes into eight cases corresponding to the cases used in Sanskrit . These were the nominative , accusative , dative , sociative , genitive , instrumental , locative , and ablative . Modern grammarians argue that this classification is artificial , and that Tamil usage is best understood if each suffix or combination of suffixes is seen as marking a separate case . Tamil nouns can take one of four prefixes , i , a , u , and e which are functionally equivalent to the demonstratives in English .
Tamil verbs are also inflected through the use of suffixes . A typical Tamil verb form will have a number of suffixes , which show person , number , mood , tense , and voice .
Person and number are indicated by suffixing the oblique case of the relevant pronoun . The suffixes to indicate tenses and voice are formed from grammatical particles , which are added to the stem .
Tamil has two voices . The first indicates that the subject of the sentence undergoes or is the object of the action named by the verb stem , and the second indicates that the subject of the sentence directs the action referred to by the verb stem .
Tamil has three simple tenses — past , present , and future — indicated by the suffixes , as well as a series of perfects indicated by compound suffixes . Mood is implicit in Tamil , and is normally reflected by the same morphemes which mark tense categories . Tamil verbs also mark evidentiality , through the addition of the hearsay clitic ām .
Traditional grammars of Tamil do not distinguish between adjectives and adverbs , including both of them under the category uriccol , although modern grammarians tend to distinguish between them on morphological and syntactical grounds . Tamil has a large number of ideophones that act as adverbs indicating the way the object in a given state " says " or " sounds " .
Tamil does not have articles . Definiteness and indefiniteness are either indicated by special grammatical devices , such as using the number " one " as an indefinite article , or by the context . In the first person plural , Tamil makes a distinction between inclusive pronouns நாம ் nām ( we ) , நமது namatu ( our ) that include the addressee and exclusive pronouns நாங ் கள ் nāṅkaḷ ( we ) , எமது ematu ( our ) that do not .
= = = Syntax = = =
Tamil is a consistently head @-@ final language . The verb comes at the end of the clause , with a typical word order of subject – object – verb ( SOV ) . However , word order in Tamil is also flexible , so that surface permutations of the SOV order are possible with different pragmatic effects . Tamil has postpositions rather than prepositions . Demonstratives and modifiers precede the noun within the noun phrase . Subordinate clauses precede the verb of the matrix clause .
Tamil is a null @-@ subject language . Not all Tamil sentences have subjects , verbs , and objects . It is possible to construct grammatically valid and meaningful sentences which lack one or more of the three . For example , a sentence may only have a verb — such as muṭintuviṭṭatu ( " completed " ) — or only a subject and object , without a verb such as atu eṉ vīṭu ( " That [ is ] my house " ) . Tamil does not have a copula ( a linking verb equivalent to the word is ) . The word is included in the translations only to convey the meaning more easily .
= = Vocabulary = =
The vocabulary of Tamil is mainly Dravidian . A strong sense of linguistic purism is found in Modern Tamil , which opposes the use of foreign loanwords . Nonetheless , a number of words used in classical and modern Tamil are loanwords from the languages of neighbouring groups , or with whom the Tamils had trading links , including Munda ( for example , tavaḷai " frog " from Munda tabeg ) , Malay ( e.g. cavvarici " sago " from Malay sāgu ) , Chinese ( for example , campān " skiff " from Chinese san @-@ pan ) and Greek ( for example , ora from Greek ὥρα ) . In more modern times , Tamil has imported words from Urdu and Marathi , reflecting groups that have influenced the Tamil area at various points of time , and from neighbouring languages such as Telugu , Kannada , and Sinhala . During the modern period , words have also been adapted from European languages , such as Portuguese , French , and English .
The strongest impact of purism in Tamil has been on words taken from Sanskrit . During its history , Tamil , along with other Dravidian languages like Telugu , Kannada , Malayalam etc . , was influenced by Sanskrit in terms of vocabulary , grammar and literary styles , reflecting the increased trend of Sanskritisation in the Tamil country . Tamil vocabulary never became quite as heavily Sanskritised as that of the other Dravidian languages , and unlike in those languages , it was and remains possible to express complex ideas ( including in science , art , religion and law ) without the use of Sanskrit loan words . In addition , Sanskritisation was actively resisted by a number of authors of the late medieval period , culminating in the 20th century in a movement called taṉit tamiḻ iyakkam ( meaning " pure Tamil movement " ) , led by Parithimaar Kalaignar and Maraimalai Adigal , which sought to remove the accumulated influence of Sanskrit on Tamil . As a result of this , Tamil in formal documents , literature and public speeches has seen a marked decline in the use Sanskrit loan words in the past few decades , under some estimates having fallen from 40 – 50 % to about 20 % . As a result , the Prakrit and Sanskrit loan words used in modern Tamil are , unlike in some other Dravidian languages , restricted mainly to some spiritual terminology and abstract nouns .
In the 20th century , institutions and learned bodies have , with government support , generated technical dictionaries for Tamil containing neologisms and words derived from Tamil roots to replace loan words from English and other languages .
= = Influence = =
Words of Tamil origin occur in other languages . A notable example of a word in worldwide use with Dravidian ( not specifically Tamil ) etymology is orange , via Sanskrit nāraṅga from a Dravidian predecessor of Tamil nartankāy " fragrant fruit " . Anaconda is word of Tamil origin anai @-@ kondra meaning elephant killer Examples in English include cheroot ( churuṭṭu meaning " rolled up " ) , mango ( from mangai ) , mulligatawny ( from miḷaku taṉṉir , " pepper water " ) , pariah ( from paraiyan ) , curry ( from kari ) , and catamaran ( from kaṭṭu maram , " bundled logs " ) . Congee ( from Kanji - rice porridge or gruel )
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= Ahimsa =
Ahimsa ( Sanskrit : अहिंसा ; IAST : ahimsā , Pāli : avihiṃsā ) is a term meaning ' not to injure ' and ' compassion ' . The word is derived from the Sanskrit root hiṃs – to strike ; hiṃsā is injury or harm , a @-@ hiṃsā is the opposite of this , i.e. cause no injury , do no harm . Ahimsa is also referred to as nonviolence , and it applies to all living beings — including all animals — according to many Indian religions .
Ahimsa is one of the cardinal virtues and an important tenet of 3 major religions ( Jainism , Hinduism , and Buddhism ) . Ahimsa is a multidimensional concept , inspired by the premise that all living beings have the spark of the divine spiritual energy ; therefore , to hurt another being is to hurt oneself . Ahimsa has also been related to the notion that any violence has karmic consequences . While ancient scholars of Hinduism pioneered and over time perfected the principles of Ahimsa , the concept reached an extraordinary status in the ethical philosophy of Jainism . Most popularly , Mahatma Gandhi strongly believed in the principle of ahimsa .
Ahimsa 's precept of ' cause no injury ' includes one 's deeds , words , and thoughts . Classical literature of Hinduism such as Mahabharata and Ramayana , as well as modern scholars debate principles of Ahimsa when one is faced with war and situations requiring self @-@ defence . The historic literature from India and modern discussions have contributed to theories of Just War , and theories of appropriate self @-@ defence .
= = Etymology = =
The word Ahimsa — sometimes spelled as Ahinsa — is derived from the Sanskrit root hiṃs – to strike ; hiṃsā is injury or harm , a @-@ hiṃsā is the opposite of this , i.e. non harming or nonviolence .
There is a debate on the origins of the word Ahimsa , and how its meaning evolved . Mayrhofer as well as Dumot suggest the root word may be han which means kill , which leads to the interpretation that ahimsa means do not kill . Schmidt as well as Bodewitz explain the proper root word is hiṃs and the Sanskrit verb hinasti , which leads to the interpretation ahimsa means do not injure , or do not hurt . Wackernagel @-@ Debrunner concur with the latter explanation .
Ancient texts use ahimsa to mean non @-@ injury , a broader concept than non @-@ violence . Non @-@ injury implies not killing others , as well as not hurting others mentally or verbally ; it includes avoiding all violent means — including physical violence — anything that injures others . In classical Sanskrit literature of Hinduism , another word Adrohi is sometimes used instead of Ahimsa , as one of the cardinal virtues necessary for moral life . One example is in Baudhayana Dharmasutra 2 @.@ 6 @.@ 23 : वाङ ् -मनः @-@ कर ् म @-@ दण ् डैर ् भूतानाम ् अद ् रोही ( One who does not injure others with words , thoughts or acts is named Adrohi ) .
= = Hinduism = =
= = = Ancient Vedic Texts = = =
Ahimsa as an ethical concept evolved in Vedic texts . The oldest scripts , along with discussing ritual animal sacrifices , indirectly mention Ahimsa , but do not emphasise it . Over time , the Hindu scripts revise ritual practices and the concept of Ahimsa is increasingly refined and emphasised , ultimately Ahimsa becomes the concept that describes the highest virtue by the late Vedic era ( about 500 BC ) . For example , hymn 10 @.@ 22 @.@ 13 in the Rig Veda uses the words Satya ( truthfulness ) and Ahimsa in a prayer to deity Indra ; later , the Yajur Veda dated to be between 1000 BC and 600 BC , states , " may all beings look at me with a friendly eye , may I do likewise , and may we look at each other with the eyes of a friend " .
The term Ahimsa appears in the text Taittiriya Shakha of the Yajurveda ( TS 5 @.@ 2 @.@ 8 @.@ 7 ) , where it refers to non @-@ injury to the sacrificer himself . It occurs several times in the Shatapatha Brahmana in the sense of " non @-@ injury " . The Ahimsa doctrine is a late Vedic era development in Brahmanical culture . The earliest reference to the idea of non @-@ violence to animals ( " pashu @-@ Ahimsa " ) , apparently in a moral sense , is in the Kapisthala Katha Samhita of the Yajurveda ( KapS 31 @.@ 11 ) , which may have been written in about the 8th century BCE .
Bowker states the word appears but is uncommon in the principal Upanishads . Kaneda gives examples of the word Ahimsa in these Upanishads . Other scholars suggest Ahimsa as an ethical concept that started evolving in the Vedas , becoming an increasingly central concept in Upanishads .
The Chāndogya Upaniṣad , dated to the 8th or 7th century BCE , one of the oldest Upanishads , has the earliest evidence for the use of the word Ahimsa in the sense familiar in Hinduism ( a code of conduct ) . It bars violence against " all creatures " ( sarvabhuta ) and the practitioner of Ahimsa is said to escape from the cycle of metempsychosis ( CU 8 @.@ 15 @.@ 1 ) . A few scholars are of the opinion that this might have been a concession to the growing influence of Jainism , in Vedic Hinduism .
Chāndogya Upaniṣad also names Ahimsa , along with Satyavacanam ( truthfulness ) , Arjavam ( sincerity ) , Danam ( charity ) , Tapo ( penance / meditation ) , as one of five essential virtues ( CU 3 @.@ 17 @.@ 4 ) .
The Sandilya Upanishad lists ten forbearances : Ahimsa , Satya , Asteya , Brahmacharya , Daya , Arjava , Kshama , Dhriti , Mitahara and Saucha . According to Kaneda , the term Ahimsa is an important spiritual doctrine shared by Hinduism , Buddhism and Jainism . It literally means ' non @-@ injury ' and ' non @-@ killing ' . It implies the total avoidance of harming of any kind of living creatures not only by deeds , but also by words and in thoughts .
= = = The Epics = = =
The Mahabharata , one of the epics of Hinduism , has multiple mentions of the phrase Ahimsa Paramo Dharma ( अहिंसा परमॊ धर ् मः ) , which literally means : non @-@ violence is the highest moral virtue . For example , Mahaprasthanika Parva has the verse :
The above passage from Mahabharata emphasises the cardinal importance of Ahimsa in Hinduism , and literally means : Ahimsa is the highest virtue , Ahimsa is the highest self @-@ control , Ahimsa is the greatest gift , Ahimsa is the best suffering , Ahimsa is the highest sacrifice , Ahimsa is the finest strength , Ahimsa is the greatest friend , Ahimsa is the greatest happiness , Ahimsa is the highest truth , and Ahimsa is the greatest teaching . Some other examples where the phrase Ahimsa Paramo Dharma are discussed include Adi Parva , Vana Parva and Anushasana Parva . The Bhagavad Gita , among other things , discusses the doubts and questions about appropriate response when one faces systematic violence or war . These verses develop the concepts of lawful violence in self @-@ defence and the theories of just war . However , there is no consensus on this interpretation . Gandhi , for example , considers this debate about non @-@ violence and lawful violence as a mere metaphor for the internal war within each human being , when he or she faces moral questions .
= = = Self @-@ defence , criminal law , and war = = =
The classical texts of Hinduism devote numerous chapters discussing what people who practice the virtue of Ahimsa , can and must do when they are faced with war , violent threat or need to sentence someone convicted of a crime . These discussions have led to theories of just war , theories of reasonable self @-@ defence and theories of proportionate punishment . Arthashastra discusses , among other things , why and what constitutes proportionate response and punishment .
War
The precepts of Ahimsa under Hinduism require that war must be avoided , with sincere and truthful dialogue . Force must be the last resort . If war becomes necessary , its cause must be just , its purpose virtuous , its objective to restrain the wicked , its aim peace , its method lawful . War can only be started and stopped by a legitimate authority . Weapons used must be proportionate to the opponent and the aim of war , not indiscriminate tools of destruction . All strategies and weapons used in the war must be to defeat the opponent , not designed to cause misery to the opponent ; for example , use of arrows is allowed , but use of arrows smeared with painful poison is not allowed . Warriors must use judgment in the battlefield . Cruelty to the opponent during war is forbidden . Wounded , unarmed opponent warriors must not be attacked or killed , they must be brought to your realm and given medical treatment . Children , women and civilians must not be injured . While the war is in progress , sincere dialogue for peace must continue .
Self @-@ defence
In matters of self @-@ defence , different interpretations of ancient Hindu texts have been offered . For example , Tähtinen suggests self @-@ defence is appropriate , criminals are not protected by the rule of Ahimsa , and Hindu scriptures support the use of violence against an armed attacker . Ahimsa is not meant to imply pacifism .
Alternate theories of self @-@ defence , inspired by Ahimsa , build principles similar to theories of just war . Aikido , pioneered in Japan , illustrates one such principles of self @-@ defence . Morihei Ueshiba , the founder of Aikido , described his inspiration as Ahimsa . According to this interpretation of Ahimsa in self @-@ defence , one must not assume that the world is free of aggression . One must presume that some people will , out of ignorance , error or fear , attack other persons or intrude into their space , physically or verbally . The aim of self @-@ defence , suggested Ueshiba , must be to neutralise the aggression of the attacker , and avoid the conflict . The best defence is one where the victim is protected , as well as the attacker is respected and not injured if possible . Under Ahimsa and Aikido , there are no enemies , and appropriate self @-@ defence focuses on neutralising the immaturity , assumptions and aggressive strivings of the attacker .
Criminal law
Tähtinen concludes that Hindus have no misgivings about death penalty ; their position is that evil @-@ doers who deserve death should be killed , and that a king in particular is obliged to punish criminals and should not hesitate to kill them , even if they happen to be his own brothers and sons .
Other scholars conclude that the scriptures of Hinduism suggest sentences for any crime must be fair , proportional and not cruel .
Pacifism
There is no universal consensus on pacifism among Hindu scholars of modern times . The conflict between pacifistic interpretations of Ahimsa and the theories of just war prescribed by the Gita has been resolved by some scholars such as Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi , as being an allegory , wherein the battlefield is the soul and Arjuna , the war is within each human being , where man 's higher impulses struggle against his own evil impulses .
= = = Non @-@ human life = = =
The Hindu precept of ' cause no injury ' applies to animals and all life forms . This precept isn ’ t found in the oldest verses of Vedas , but increasingly becomes one of the central ideas between 500 BC and 400 AD . In the oldest texts , numerous ritual sacrifices of animals , including cows and horses , are highlighted and hardly any mention is made of Ahimsa to non @-@ human life .
Hindu scriptures , dated to between 5th century and 1st century BC , while discussing human diet , initially suggest ‘ ‘ kosher ’ ’ meat may be eaten , evolving it with the suggestion that only meat obtained through ritual sacrifice can be eaten , then that one should eat no meat because it hurts animals , with verses describing the noble life as one that lives on flowers , roots and fruits alone .
Later texts of Hinduism declare Ahimsa one of the primary virtues , declare any killing or harming any life as against ‘ ‘ dharma ’ ’ ( moral life ) . Finally , the discussion in Upanishads and Hindu Epics shifts to whether a human being can ever live his or her life without harming animal and plant life in some way ; which and when plants or animal meat may be eaten , whether violence against animals causes human beings to become less compassionate , and if and how one may exert least harm to non @-@ human life consistent with ahimsa precept , given the constraints of life and human needs . The Mahabharata permits hunting by warriors , but opposes it in the case of hermits who must be strictly non @-@ violent . Sushruta Samhita , a Hindu text written in the 3rd or 4th century , in Chapter XLVI suggests proper diet as a means of treating certain illnesses , and recommends various fishes and meats for different ailments and for pregnant women , and the Charaka Samhita describes meat as superior to all other kinds of food for convalescents .
Across the texts of Hinduism , there is a profusion of ideas about the virtue of Ahimsa when applied to non @-@ human life , but without a universal consensus . Alsdorf claims the debate and disagreements between supporters of vegetarian lifestyle and meat eaters was significant . Even suggested exceptions – ritual slaughter and hunting – were challenged by advocates of Ahimsa . In the Mahabharata both sides present various arguments to substantiate their viewpoints . Moreover , a hunter defends his profession in a long discourse .
Many of the arguments proposed in favor of non @-@ violence to animals refer to the bliss one feels , the rewards it entails before or after death , the danger and harm it prevents , as well as to the karmic consequences of violence .
The ancient Hindu texts discuss Ahimsa and non @-@ animal life . They discourage wanton destruction of nature including of wild and cultivated plants . Hermits ( sannyasins ) were urged to live on a fruitarian diet so as to avoid the destruction of plants . Scholars claim the principles of ecological non @-@ violence is innate in the Hindu tradition , and its conceptual fountain has been Ahimsa as their cardinal virtue .
The classical literature of Hinduism exists in many Indian languages . For example , Tirukkuṛaḷ written between 200 BC and 400 AD , and sometimes called the Tamil Veda , is one of the most cherished classics on Hinduism written in a South Indian language . Tirukkuṛaḷ dedicates Chapter 32 and 33 of Book 1 to the virtue of Ahimsa . Tirukkuṛaḷ suggests that Ahimsa applies to all life forms .
= = = Modern times = = =
In the 19th and 20th centuries , prominent figures of Indian spirituality such as Swami Vivekananda , Ramana Maharshi , Swami Sivananda , A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami and in the present time Vijaypal Baghel emphasised the importance of Ahimsa .
Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi promoted the principle of Ahimsa , very successful by applying it to all spheres of life , particularly to politics ( Swaraj ) . His non @-@ violent resistance movement satyagraha had an immense impact on India , impressed public opinion in Western countries , and influenced the leaders of various civil and political rights movements such as the American civil rights movement 's Martin Luther King , Jr. and James Bevel . In Gandhi ’ s thought , Ahimsa precludes not only the act of inflicting a physical injury , but also mental states like evil thoughts and hatred , unkind behavior such as harsh words , dishonesty and lying , all of which he saw as manifestations of violence incompatible with Ahimsa . Gandhi believed Ahimsa to be a creative energy force , encompassing all interactions leading one 's self to find satya , " Divine Truth " . Sri Aurobindo criticised the Gandhian concept of Ahimsa as unrealistic and not universally applicable ; he adopted a pragmatic non @-@ pacifist position , saying that the justification of violence depends on the specific circumstances of the given situation . Sri Aurobindo also indicated that Gandhi 's Ahimsa led to partition of India as it blocked the forceful action that the Indian people were engaged in during the 1920s and 30s , which caused delay in independence , allowing other forces to take root , including those who wanted India divided .
Gandhi stated that he viewed " Ahimsa is in Hinduism , it is in Christianity as well as in Islam . " He added , " Nonviolence is common to all religions , but it has found the highest expression and application in Hinduism ( I do not regard Jainism or Buddhism as separate from Hinduism ) . " When questioned whether violence and non @-@ violence is both taught in Quran , he stated , " I have heard it from many Muslim friends that the Koran teaches the use of non @-@ violence . ( ... The ) argument about non @-@ violence in the Holy Koran is an interpolation , not necessary for my thesis . "
A historical and philosophical study of Ahimsa was instrumental in the shaping of Albert Schweitzer 's principle of " reverence for life " . Schweitzer praised Indian philosophical and religious traditions for ethics of Ahimsa as , " the laying down of the commandment not to kill and not to damage is one of the greatest events in the spiritual history of mankind " , but suggested that " not @-@ killing and not @-@ harming " is not always practically possible as in self @-@ defence , nor ethical as in chronic starving during a famine case .
= = = Yoga = = =
Ahimsa is imperative for practitioners of Patañjali ’ s eight limb Raja yoga system . It is included in the first limb and is the first of five Yamas ( self restraints ) which , together with the second limb , make up the code of ethical conduct in Yoga philosophy . Ahimsa is also one of the ten Yamas in Hatha Yoga according to verse 1 @.@ 1 @.@ 17 of its classic manual Hatha Yoga Pradipika . The significance of Ahimsa as the very first restraint in the very first limb of Yoga ( Yamas ) , is that it defines the necessary foundation for progress through Yoga . It is a precursor to Asana , implying that success in Yogasana can be had only if the self is purified in thought , word and deed through the self @-@ restraint of Ahimsa .
= = Jainism = =
In Jainism , the understanding and implementation of Ahimsā is more radical , scrupulous , and comprehensive than in any other religion . Killing any living being out of passions is considered hiṃsā ( to injure ) and abstaining from such an act is ahimsā ( noninjury ) . The vow of ahimsā is considered the foremost among the ' five vows of Jainism ' . Other vows like truth ( satya ) are meant for safeguarding the vow of ahimsā . In the practice of Ahimsa , the requirements are less strict for the lay persons ( sravakas ) who have undertaken anuvrata ( Smaller Vows ) than for the Jain monastics who are bound by the Mahavrata " Great Vows " . The statement ahimsā paramo dharmaḥ is often found inscribed on the walls of the Jain temples . Like in Hinduism , the aim is to prevent the accumulation of harmful karma . When Mahavira revived and reorganised the Jain faith in the 6th or 5th century BCE , Ahimsa was already an established , strictly observed rule . Rishabhanatha ( Ādinātha ) , the first Jain Tirthankara , whom modern Western historians consider to be a historical figure , followed by Parshvanatha ( Pārśvanātha ) the twenty @-@ third Tirthankara lived in about the 8th century BCE . He founded the community to which Mahavira ’ s parents belonged . Ahimsa was already part of the " Fourfold Restraint " ( Caujjama ) , the vows taken by Parshva ’ s followers . In the times of Mahavira and in the following centuries , Jains were at odds with both Buddhists and followers of the Vedic religion or Hindus , whom they accused of negligence and inconsistency in the implementation of Ahimsa . According to the Jain tradition either lacto vegetarianism or veganism is mandatory .
The Jain concept of Ahimsa is characterised by several aspects . It does not make any exception for ritual sacrificers and professional warrior @-@ hunters . Killing of animals for food is absolutely ruled out . Jains also make considerable efforts not to injure plants in everyday life as far as possible . Though they admit that plants must be destroyed for the sake of food , they accept such violence only inasmuch as it is indispensable for human survival , and there are special instructions for preventing unnecessary violence against plants . Jains go out of their way so as not to hurt even small insects and other minuscule animals . For example , Jains often do not go out at night , when they are more likely to step upon an insect . In their view , injury caused by carelessness is like injury caused by deliberate action . Eating honey is strictly outlawed , as it would amount to violence against the bees . Some Jains abstain from farming because it inevitably entails unintentional killing or injuring of many small animals , such as worms and insects , but agriculture is not forbidden in general and there are Jain farmers .
Theoretically , all life forms are said to deserve full protection from all kinds of injury , Jains recognise a hierarchy of life . Mobile beings are given higher protection than immobile ones . For the mobile beings , they distinguish between one @-@ sensed , two @-@ sensed , three @-@ sensed , four @-@ sensed and five @-@ sensed ones ; a one @-@ sensed animal has touch as its only sensory modality . The more senses a being has , the more they care about non @-@ injuring it . Among the five @-@ sensed beings , the precept of non @-@ injury and non @-@ violence to the rational ones ( humans ) is strongest in Jain Ahimsa .
Jains agree with Hindus that violence in self @-@ defence can be justified , and they agree that a soldier who kills enemies in combat is performing a legitimate duty . Jain communities accepted the use of military power for their defence , there were Jain monarchs , military commanders , and soldiers .
= = Buddhism = =
In Buddhist texts Ahimsa ( or its Pāli cognate avihiṃsā ) is part of the Five Precepts ( Pañcasīla ) , the first of which has been to abstain from killing . This precept of Ahimsa is applicable to both the Buddhist layperson and the monk community .
The Ahimsa precept is not a commandment and transgressions did not invite religious sanctions for layperson , but their power has been in the Buddhist belief in karmic consequences and their impact in afterlife during rebirth . Killing , in Buddhist belief , leads to rebirth in the hellish realm , and for a longer time in more severe conditions if the murder victim was a monk . Saving animals from slaughter for meat , is believed to be a way to acquire merit for better rebirth . These moral precepts have been voluntarily self @-@ enforced in lay Buddhist culture through the associated belief in karma and rebirth . The Buddhist texts not only recommended Ahimsa , but suggest avoiding trading goods that contribute to or are a result of violence :
These five trades , O monks , should not be taken up by a lay follower : trading with weapons , trading in living beings , trading in meat , trading in intoxicants , trading in poison .
Unlike lay Buddhists , transgressions by monks do invite sanctions . Full expulsion of a monk from sangha follows instances of killing , just like any other serious offense against the monastic nikaya code of conduct .
= = = War = = =
Violent ways of punishing criminals and prisoners of war was not explicitly condemned in Buddhism , but peaceful ways of conflict resolution and punishment with the least amount of injury were encouraged . The early texts condemn the mental states that lead to violent behavior .
Nonviolence is an overriding theme within the Pali Canon . While the early texts condemn killing in the strongest terms , and portray the ideal king as a pacifist , such a king is nonetheless flanked by an army . It seems that the Buddha 's teaching on nonviolence was not interpreted or put into practice in an uncompromisingly pacifist or anti @-@ military @-@ service way by early Buddhists . The early texts assume war to be a fact of life , and well @-@ skilled warriors are viewed as necessary for defensive warfare . In Pali texts , injunctions to abstain from violence and involvement with military affairs are directed at members of the sangha ; later Mahayana texts , which often generalise monastic norms to laity , require this of lay people as well .
The early texts do not contain just @-@ war ideology as such . Some argue that a sutta in the Gamani Samyuttam rules out all military service . In this passage , a soldier asks the Buddha if it is true that , as he has been told , soldiers slain in battle are reborn in a heavenly realm . The Buddha reluctantly replies that if he is killed in battle while his mind is seized with the intention to kill , he will undergo an unpleasant rebirth . In the early texts , a person 's mental state at the time of death is generally viewed as having a great impact on the next birth .
Some Buddhists point to other early texts as justifying defensive war . One example is the Kosala Samyutta , in which King Pasenadi , a righteous king favored by the Buddha , learns of an impending attack on his kingdom . He arms himself in defence , and leads his army into battle to protect his kingdom from attack . He lost this battle but won the war . King Pasenadi eventually defeated King Ajatasattu and captured him alive . He thought that , although this King of Magadha has transgressed against his kingdom , he had not transgressed against him personally , and Ajatasattu was still his nephew . He released Ajatasattu and did not harm him . Upon his return , the Buddha said ( among other things ) that Pasenadi " is a friend of virtue , acquainted with virtue , intimate with virtue " , while the opposite is said of the aggressor , King Ajatasattu .
According to Theravada commentaries , there are five requisite factors that must all be fulfilled for an act to be both an act of killing and to be karmically negative . These are : ( 1 ) the presence of a living being , human or animal ; ( 2 ) the knowledge that the being is a living being ; ( 3 ) the intent to kill ; ( 4 ) the act of killing by some means ; and ( 5 ) the resulting death . Some Buddhists have argued on this basis that the act of killing is complicated , and its ethicization is predicated upon intent . Some have argued that in defensive postures , for example , the primary intention of a soldier is not to kill , but to defend against aggression , and the act of killing in that situation would have minimal negative karmic repercussions .
According to Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar , there is circumstantial evidence encouraging Ahimsa , from the Buddha 's doctrine , " Love all , so that you may not wish to kill any . " Gautama Buddha distinguished between a principle and a rule . He did not make Ahimsa a matter of rule , but suggested it as a matter of principle . This gives Buddhists freedom to act .
= = = Laws = = =
The emperors of Sui dynasty , Tang dynasty and early Song dynasty banned killing in Lunar calendar 1st , 5th , and 9th month . Empress Wu Tse @-@ Tien banned killing for more than half a year in 692 . Some also banned fishing for some time each year .
There were bans after death of emperors , Buddhist and Taoist prayers , and natural disasters such as after a drought in 1926 summer Shanghai and an 8 days ban from August 12 , 1959 after the August 7 flood ( 八七水災 ) , the last big flood before the 88 Taiwan Flood .
People avoid killing during some festivals , like the Taoist Ghost Festival , the Nine Emperor Gods Festival , the Vegetarian Festival and many others .
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= Canterbury Castle ( Portland , Oregon ) =
Canterbury Castle , also known as Arlington Castle , was a private house located in southwest Portland , Oregon and listed on the National Register of Historic Places . Constructed during 1929 – 1931 , the house was designed by Jeter O. Frye to resemble England 's Canterbury Castle on the exterior and to evoke the Art Deco styling of Hollywood of the 1920s on the interior . The house included castle features such as a moat , drawbridge and turret and attracted paying tourists immediately following its completion .
Canterbury Castle , Portland 's only castle structure built in the 1930s , was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1987 . The property was also designated as a Portland Historic Landmark . The house underwent major renovation efforts in the 2000s , but those efforts were not completed , and the house was demolished in 2009 after failing to meet municipal safety codes . The razing of Canterbury made Piggott 's Castle the city 's only remaining castle . Canterbury Castle was removed from the National Register of Historic Places in October 2010 .
= = Description = =
Canterbury Castle was a private 6 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 560 m2 ) , three @-@ story house located in Arlington Heights near Washington Park , offering views of downtown Portland . Constructed from basalt stone quarried from Rocky Butte , the house featured characteristics of a castle such as a moat , a drawbridge and a copper @-@ topped turret . The wooden drawbridge covered a moat seven feet wide by more than three feet deep . A single @-@ car garage , built into the hillside , was constructed during the same time as the house . The concrete foundation supported a rectangular ground plan . Canterbury featured " buttressing wing walls , cylindrical corner bays and a crenellated parapet of uncut stone " . Round , arched and straight @-@ topped frameless windows were often fitted with steel sashes . Doorways were also frameless , narrow and round or parabolic in shape . Doors had wrought iron hinges , handles and lock plates . The leaded glass slit window at the stair tower 's top level featured a spiderweb pattern , a signature element of castle designer Jeter O. Frye 's work . Windmill palms surrounding the property added to its exotic appearance .
The Art Deco @-@ style interior , meant to evoke a 1920s Hollywood style , featured mahogany woodwork , tile floors and chandeliers . The inside also contained Spanish @-@ style white stucco , spiral staircases and wrought iron features including stair rails , built @-@ in cabinetry door and window hardware and lighting fixtures . The house included a basement pool ( which eventually closed due to water leaks ) , a stone fireplace 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) in width , and small square windows . Also in the basement were the furnace , a storage room , and spaces for laundry and billiards . The main floor housed the garage , a kitchen and breakfast bay , the living and dining rooms and a music room . The master bedroom was adjacent to a deck above the dining and music rooms at the southwest corner of the property . Fireplaces and hallway floors featured brown ceramic tile ; black glazed ceramic tile was used in the master bathroom , while black , red and yellow tiles were used in the breakfast bay . One of the castle 's bathrooms was said to be modeled on Charlie Chaplin 's . The interior was arranged around a central stair tower capped with a conical roof clad in copper . Chimneys vented the centrally located furnace and rose from fireplaces in the house 's west hall .
= = History = =
Canterbury Castle was designed by Jeter O. Frye and constructed between 1929 and 1931 . Immediately following construction , Frye was unable to sell the house and left Portland in bankruptcy to resume his career in California . Visitors immediately showed interest in touring the house . The castle attracted paying tourists and school groups , became a stop on the Washington Park bus tour and hosted Halloween parties for a local radio station . The house became known as Canterbury Castle over time due to the plat and name of the street on which it was situated . The terraced garden was eliminated in the 1950s when a portion of the land was sold . The property was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1987 under the ownership of Dale and Karen Bernards , who had submitted an application for listing one year prior .
Sidney Lynne and John Hefferin purchased the house for $ 469 @,@ 900 in 2004 after it had been unoccupied for more than a year . By then , the structure had developed leaks and displayed cracks along the foundation , walls and ceiling . In 2006 , a falling tree caused stones to break away , damaging the house 's main gas line . The couple spent $ 200 @,@ 000 over four years to reinforce the walls . Lynne and Hefferin also constructed exterior stairs and an underground retaining wall . However , the renovation process was not completed , as they were unable to pay for all repairs required by the city , which had issued $ 20 @,@ 000 in fines on the property . The couple also struggled to pay for costly landslide prevention efforts , rising property taxes and high heating bills . Canterbury Castle was listed for sale in the summer of 2008 for $ 2 million . Lynne invited local interior design students and contractors to upgrade the house 's interior , without success . The couple left the house in January 2009 , and ownership was turned over to JPMorgan Chase . Lynne began a " one @-@ woman crusade " to save the castle , seeking assistance from Portland City Commissioner Randy Leonard and from home improvement expert and This Old House host Bob Vila . In February 2009 , the city 's bureau of development services found that unstable soil and the risk of stones separating from sheeting underneath posed a landslide risk . The property had missing stones and thick cracks several feet long , which presented hazards to residents and the street below . Rumors of demolition began to surface in March 2009 .
In April 2009 , the house was purchased by Robert Stansel , who had lived next door to the house for several years , at a foreclosure auction for $ 280 @,@ 000 . Demolition began in May 2009 ; the house was considered " structurally unsound " by the local government , a determination that permitted demolition despite the house 's listing on the National Register of Historic Places . Lynne said of the house and its demolition : " It 's totally like a death and completely unnecessary . It 's a magical property that invokes hope and imagination in people . We had a really great time with it . " Residents shared mixed feelings about the demolition . Stansel was able to salvage 21 tiles with neo @-@ Aztec designs . In 2009 , The Oregonian reported that Stansel would wait until the economy and housing market improved before deciding whether to sell the land or build a new structure .
Canterbury Castle was removed from the National Register of Historic Places on October 13 , 2010 . The demolition of Canterbury Castle made Piggott 's Castle in southwest Portland the last remaining castle in the city . The property had also been listed as a Portland Historic Landmark and was the city 's only castle structure constructed in the 1930s . Two stones from Canterbury Castle serve as steps in the zen garden of Stansel 's home in East Hampton , New York .
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= Vikos – Aoös National Park =
The Vikos – Aoös National Park ( Greek : Εθνικός Δρυμός Βίκου – Αώου Ethnikós Drymós Víkou – Aóou ) is a national park in the region of Epirus in northwestern Greece . The park , founded in 1973 , is one of ten national parks in mainland Greece and is located 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) north of the city of Ioannina in the northern part of the Pindus mountain range . It is named after the two major gorges of the area and encompasses 12 @,@ 600 hectares ( 31 @,@ 135 acres ) of mountainous terrain , with numerous rivers , lakes , caves , deep canyons , dense coniferous and deciduous forest . The park is part of the Natura 2000 ecological network and one of UNESCO Geoparks and spans an elevation range from 550 to 2 @,@ 497 meters ( 1 @,@ 804 to 8 @,@ 192 ft ) . Over 100 @,@ 000 people visit the park each year and take part in activities including rafting , canoe @-@ kayaking , hiking and mountain biking .
The core of the park , an area of 3 @,@ 400 hectares ( 8 @,@ 402 acres ) , comprises the spectacular Vikos Gorge , carved by the Voidomatis river . The gorge 's main part is 12 km ( 7 mi ) long and attains a depth of 1 @,@ 000 meters ( 3 @,@ 300 ft ) . The Aoös gorge , mount Tymfi ( 2 @,@ 497 meters ( 8 @,@ 192 ft ) at Gamila peak ) , and a number of traditionally preserved settlements form the park 's peripheral zone . The park 's remoteness and relatively small human population , combined with the great variation of biotopes and microclimatic conditions favors the existence of a rich variety of flora ( 1 @,@ 800 species ) in the area . Vikos – Aoös National Park supports a wide diversity of fauna , with a plethora of large mammals such as the brown bear , for which the park is one of the last European strongholds , and a variety of natural habitats and ecosystems that rank it among the most valuable parks for nature conservation in Greece .
The first evidence of human presence in the area is dated between 17 @,@ 000 and 10 @,@ 000 years ago . The area of the park has been sparsely populated throughout historical times , however from the 17th to the 19th century the local communities of Zagori acquired an autonomous status , flourished economically due to increased trade , and became a major center of folk medicine . In recent decades , ecotourism is seen as a remedy to the economic decline of heavily depopulated local settlements , while preserving the natural environment and local architecture .
= = Geography and geology = =
= = = Vikos Gorge = = =
Vikos Gorge is located on the southern slopes of mount Tymfi . Its main part is located between the villages of Vikos and Monodendri and attains a depth of about 1 @,@ 000 m ( 3 @,@ 281 ft ) , with a southeast @-@ northwest direction . The landscape of the 20 km ( 12 mi ) long gorge , 12 km ( 7 mi ) which belongs to the park 's core zone , presents a diverse relief and is characterized by abrupt changes in altitude . At one point the gorge measures 900 m ( 2 @,@ 953 ft ) deep and 1 @,@ 100 m ( 3 @,@ 609 ft ) wide from rim to rim , and as a result is listed by the Guinness Book of Records as the deepest canyon in the world in proportion to its width , though some gorge lobbyists contest that claim . Steep slopes and precipitous rocky cliffs dominate in the middle and higher zones respectively . Numerous gullies dissect both sides of the gorge and the weathering action of water down its walls creates extended screes .
The Vikos Gorge has been carved over millions of years by the Voidomatis river , a tributary of the Aoös . The Voidomatis is mostly seasonal , with year @-@ round flow occurring only in the lower part of the gorge . Due to its nature , the area of the gorge is precipitous and impassable most of the year .
As the Vikos Gorge is a deep cross section of the mountain , its slopes expose a series of rock formations of various ages . The upper layers , at a depth of 0 – 200 m ( 660 ft ) , consist of relatively young Eocene limestone , at a depth of 200 m ( 660 ft ) – 700 m ( 2 @,@ 300 ft ) they consist of a stratum from the Campanian era , while below 700 m ( 2 @,@ 300 ft ) they consist of Jurassic and Cretaceous limestone . In the deepest layers , grey Jurassic dolomite is dominant . Sedimentary and lithological investigation in the Voidomatis basin revealed that the innermost alluvial deposits consist of limestone @-@ derived material , carried by the Voidomatis river from higher elevations by glacial action about 30 @,@ 000 years ago . The subsequent ( middle ) deposits are the product of de @-@ glaciation and the extended run @-@ off from the uplands about 20 @,@ 000 years ago , while the outer unit is attributed to human activities associated with pastoralism , which caused extended deforestation and soil erosion . The Voidomatis basin contains evidence for three major phases of glaciation , with the two largest and earliest taking place during the Middle Pleistocene . The final phase of glacial activity probably occurred during the Last Glacial Maximum , between 22 @,@ 000 and 20 @,@ 000 ago .
A special feature of the limestone , resulting from its weathering by water , is its karstic nature . During the large Middle Pleistocene glaciations , surface runoff from glacial meltwaters would have fed directly into the river channel network because much of the upland limestone terrain was covered by ice , and many conduits in the karst would have been choked with sediment or permanently frozen . As a result , the glacier snouts came close to the modern valley bottoms . In contrast , during interglacial and interstadial periods , more effective coupling occurred between the surface drainage network and the internal karst drainage system . Since limestone dissolves as the water percolates through its pores , an extended underground drainage system has developed , with caves and channels that enlarge with time when their roofs collapse , producing rocky exposures and perpendicular slopes , which is also the reason why the water is scarce . Only when an impenetrable stratum is met , does water appear on the surface .
= = = Aoös Gorge = = =
In the northern part of the Park , and very close to the town of Konitsa , the Aoös river passes through channels formed by the bulges of the nearby mountains of Trapezitsa 2 @,@ 022 m ( 6 @,@ 634 ft ) , Tymfi and Raidovouni 1 @,@ 957 m ( 6 @,@ 421 ft ) , creating another gorge that is 10 km ( 6 mi ) long . The canyon has an east @-@ west direction and features numerous stone single @-@ arched bridges from the 17th to 19th centuries as well as monasteries built in the local architectural style . It is characterized by the great number of secondary gullies and currents , while the southern part of the gorge is steeper than the northern part . Deep and steep ravines within the perpendicular walls bring down to the Aoös large quantities of limestone @-@ weathering material . The compact dolomite rocks that lie on the bottom of the gorge date to the Early Jurassic period and are the oldest rock formations in the Park . Their age has been determined by means of sea fossils found inside them .
= = = Tymfi = = =
Between the two gorges lies the Tymfi mountain range . Its highest peaks are Gamila 2 @,@ 497 m ( 8 @,@ 192 ft ) , Astraka 2 @,@ 436 m ( 7 @,@ 992 ft ) , Ploskos 2 @,@ 400 m ( 7 @,@ 874 ft ) , and Lapatos 2 @,@ 251 m ( 7 @,@ 385 ft ) . A unique feature of this area are the natural pools formed by the erosion of local stream beds . In the high @-@ altitude zone of Tymfi , a number of alpine lakes home to several rare amphibian species are found surrounded by alpine pasture . The biggest lake of the National Park , Drakolimni ( " Dragonlake " ) , a formation that was created after the retreat of the glaciers , is located at a height of 2 @,@ 000 m ( 6 @,@ 562 ft ) on mount Tymfi . Its maximum depth is 4 @.@ 95 m ( 16 ft ) , while its surface covers 1 ha ( 2 acres ) .
A number of vertical caves and precipices are found in the area around the village of Papingo , which lies near Gamila and Astraka peaks . Some of them bear names inspired from mythology , such as the Hole of Odysseus and Chasm of Epos . These are being studied and explored by caving enthusiasts . The cave of " Provatina " ( " Ewe 's Cave " ) , with a depth of 408 m ( 1 @,@ 339 ft ) , one of the deepest worldwide , was first discovered in 1965 by British speleologists of the Cambridge University Caving Club , and has since then been surveyed by a large number of expeditions . The nearby Chasm of Epos , with a depth of 451 m ( 1 @,@ 480 ft ) , drains the water coming from the surrounding plateaus .
Mount Tymfi represents a series of uplifted fault blocks and faulted escarpments and is largely composed of Palaeocene @-@ Eocene limestone , with some exposures of Campanian @-@ Jurassic dolomite and limestone on the northern scarp . The lower slopes are dominated by younger flysch rocks , which consist of thin beds of graded sandstones intercalated with softer , fissile siltstones . Extended glacial conditions prevailed on the uplands of Mount Tymfi during the Late Quaternary period , ca . 28 @,@ 000 years ago . The glacial landscape is well @-@ developed , especially on the southern slopes of Mount Tymfi , across the Astraka @-@ Gamila plateau , and in the upland terrain above the villages of Skamneli and Tsepelovo , where lateral and terminal moraines form major landscape features . Additional forms of glacial deposits , which extend down to 850 m ( 2 @,@ 789 ft ) above sea level , include rock glaciers and limestone pavements .
= = = Settlements = = =
There are four villages inside the Vikos – Aoös National Park , and an additional nine near the borders of the peripheral zone . All of these settlements , in the western part of the Zagori region , are sparsely populated with a total population of 1 @,@ 515 people . The villages have a nucleus @-@ like form , with the houses situated around the central square and interconnected by rocky pathways . Historically , all the villages of the Zagori region were connected by a system of paths or small roads and they functioned more like a single entity rather than as separate communities .
The economic affluence of Zagori 's past is still reflected in the architecture of the villages , while today the preservation of the local architectural legacy is enshrined in a law which dictates that all buildings in the area must be constructed with local traditional materials and in compliance with local architecture . One of the characteristic features of the National Park are its stone bridges , which were the only connection to the outside world until roads were built in the 1950s . Sixteen of these stone bridges and seven churches in the region have been listed as protected historical monuments .
= = Climate = =
The climate of the Vikos – Aoös National Park is Mediterranean , transitioning to continental . The Mediterranean character is characterized by the annual distribution of precipitation , high in the winter months and experiencing a drought period of two to three months in summer . The continental climatic element is attributed to the high amplitude of annual temperature variation , to such a degree that the difference between mean maximum and mean minimum annual temperature , exceeds 40 ° C ( 104 ° F ) . The climate of the area is quite unique due to the complex relief , variation in altitude , and the position of the area with regard to the Ionian Sea coastline . The mean annual temperature and annual precipitation are 11 @.@ 9 ° C ( 53 ° F ) and 1 @,@ 100 @.@ 9 mm ( 43 @.@ 34 in ) respectively . Extremely low temperatures occur in the area during the winter months . Compared to Mediterranean bioclimatic divisions , the area belongs to the humid zone with cold winters .
= = Wildlife = =
The park 's varied geology and topography have resulted in a unique variety of flora and fauna . There are three main habitat zones : Sub @-@ mediterranean woodland which mainly consists of deciduous broadleaf forests and woodlands and extends up to an elevation of about 1 @,@ 500 m ( 4 @,@ 921 ft ) . Combined areas of agricultural land with tree hedges and various woodlots , in addition to semi @-@ open shrublands and rocky sites of the lower and middle slopes near human settlements . Uplands with subalpine grasslands and rocky cliffs . This habitat is found above 1 @,@ 500 m ( 4 @,@ 921 ft ) altitude and hosts important bird species such as the Mediterranean golden eagle .
= = = Flora = = =
The forests are composed of diverse species of deciduous and coniferous trees and a great variety of wildflowers . An important element of the region 's flora , apart from the rich variety of plant species , is the high degree of endemism in Balkan ( 23 % ) and Greek species ( 5 @.@ 8 % ) . Recent studies on the flora of the National Park counted 873 vascular plants , including more than 250 medicinal , aromatic , and poisonous taxa . The park 's forests are abundant in species associated with the cool local climate , such as Wych Elm , Nettle @-@ leaved Bellflower , Horse @-@ chestnut and Large @-@ leaved Linden . In the valley of the Vikos Gorge , Platanus orientalis form an azonal gallery forest along the banks of the Voidomatis . The woodland in the mountain area around the village of Papingo is characterized by the predominance of different juniper species , such as Juniperus communis , foetidissima , oxycedrus and excelsa . In the upper hills Juniperus foetidissima dominates , with exceptionally high ( more than 10 m ( 33 ft ) ) trees . At higher altitudes , pure conifer forests of either pine or fir are found .
Studies on the non @-@ vascular flora recorded the presence of about 150 moss species in the area of the national park , including one newly described taxon . Many herbs of the Vikos Gorge and other areas within the park were regarded to have medicinal properties and were once harvested by local healers , colloquially referred to as " Vikos doctors " ( Greek : Βικογιατροί , " Vikoiatri " ) . These herbal healers used special recipes that were often copies of ancient Greek recipes of Hippocrates or Dioscorides and became famous beyond the borders of Greece . The plants used in these recipes include the lemon balm Melissa officinalis , Tilia tomentosa , the spearmint Mentha spicata , the gas @-@ plant Dictamnus albus , St John ’ s Wort Hypericum perforatum , absinth Artemisia absinthium , the very popular Sideritis raeseri , known colloquially in Greece as “ mountain tea ” , and the elder bush Sambucus nigra . A chemical screening of these native plant species has shown that a high number of them are characterized by biologically active ingredients . A collection of 2 @,@ 500 dried species of local plants and herbs is exhibited in the local natural history museum in the village of Koukouli .
= = = Fauna = = =
Vikos – Aoös National Park preserves one of the richest mountain and forest ecosystems in terms of wildlife diversity in Greece . Numerous species of large mammals such as wolves , foxes , wild horses , and roe deer are found in the area year @-@ round . Otters and wild cats live around the area of Tymfi , with the latter being quite rare . The Pindus range , of which Vikos – Aoös is part , is home to the endangered brown bear and lynx , and is also the southernmost point of their European habitat . One of the park 's special attractions is the existence of the chamois ( Rupicapra rupicapra ) , a rare species that lives at higher altitudes far from human activity , especially at the rocky cliffs of the gorges , for example in Megas Lakos , a secondary ravine of the Vikos Gorge .
A total of 121 bird species have been observed in the park , with twenty @-@ six of them being considered of conservation priority . The area hosts fifteen raptor species and populations of bird species with limited distribution in Greece , such as the hazel grouse , Tengmalm 's owl , wallcreeper and willow tit . The two bird communities that inhabit the subalpine and forest ecosystems are considered among the most complete in Greece : The first community includes species that nest and feed in the subalpine area , like the alpine chough , shore lark , western rock nuthatch and alpine swift , while the second comprises birds of prey like the griffon vulture , Egyptian vulture , peregrine falcon and common kestrel , that search for food in a wider zone .
Vikos @-@ Aoös also contains a variety of suitable habitats that support dense populations of amphibians and reptiles . Vipera ursinii lives in the subalpine meadows and is considered a threatened taxon . The amphibian alpine newts ( Triturus alpestris ) , living in the alpine lakes of the Tymfi region , mostly in Drakolimni , are associated with local folktales of dragons and dragon battles . Yellow @-@ bellied toads ( Bombina variegata ) are also common in that same area . Numerous fish , such as brown trout , roach , and barbel are to be found in the park 's rivers . Regarding invertebrate species , due to the structural complexity of the forests and the co @-@ existence of various small biotopes , i.e. streams , ponds , forest openings , rocky sites , dead trees , old pollards , and coppices , a very diverse fauna exists . This occurs especially at the various ecotones , including often very specialized species .
= = Human history = =
The first evidence of human presence in the area is dated to between 17 @,@ 000 and 10 @,@ 000 years ago . During this period , favorable climatic conditions prevailed that permitted the hunting of the ibex and the chamois on a seasonal basis . Important epipaleolithic artifacts have been unearthed from a rock shelter on the banks of the Voidomatis . During the 9th – 4th centuries B.C. , a small Molossian settlement existed between Monodendri and Vitsa , including stone houses and two cemeteries that have yielded important findings . However , for most of the historical period the local population was sparse . The land was mainly used for pastoralism and supplying firewood .
In the era of Ottoman rule , and especially from the 17th to the 19th century , the local Greek Orthodox communities were granted special privileges by the Ottoman authorities . At that time the area of Zagori acquired an autonomous status inside the Ottoman Empire , whereby the locals were exempt from the fiscal extortion that crippled the more prosperous lowland communities . During this period large groups of villagers emigrated to metropolitan centers . Many among them became members of successful professional classes before finally returning to their home villages , endowing the region with wealth and building luxurious mansions . In such an environment , the art of herbal healing by the so @-@ called Vikos doctors developed and flourished . This was accompanied by an impressive cultural and intellectual life that produced many renowned scholars and benefactors of Greece .
The area is nowadays sparsely populated as the result of urbanization after World War II . Many of the dwellings now remain shut , while abandonment of the traditional rural economy has affected the cultural landscape . Epirus , of which Vikos – Aoös is part , is considered one of the most underdeveloped regions in Greece . Tourism constitutes the principal source of revenue for the local economy , although it has a highly seasonal character . Intense development in terms of accommodation and tourism infrastructure occurred in the 1980s , mainly through state initiatives .
= = Park management = =
Vikos – Aoös was designated as a National Park in 1973 , in an effort by the Greek Government to conserve the richness of the local fauna and flora and the geological formations of the area .
The administration and management of the Vikos – Aoös National Park belongs to two district forest offices , supervised by a forest directorate at the prefecture level . Moreover , the office of World Wide Fund for Nature ( WWF ) in the village of Papingo plays an essential role in management issues . Apart from government efforts , incentives have been given to local management organizations and the local population to participate in the protection of the park . In the park 's core , according to the law , forestry activities , grazing , hunting , and fishing are prohibited . In the peripheral zone there are no such restrictions , but the Forest Service can take any necessary measure for the realization of the aims of the park . Apart from the above @-@ mentioned activities , dangers to the park include land erosion , landslides , and wildfires which threaten the local flora and fauna . Another issue is the impact of tourism in recent decades . On the other hand , extreme geophysical conditions make the construction and maintenance of the necessary infrastructure network , mainly access routes and telecommunications , difficult .
The vast area of the National Park and the present lack of road infrastructure make remote sensing the only means for monitoring the human activities in the area and their impact on the ecosystem . An analysis has begun by taking a detailed picture of the territory covering at least the following items : orography and slopes , road networks , land cover and use , human settlements , and tourist sites . The use of remote sensing and geographic information system techniques is of essential value for the park 's management and constitutes the basis for further evaluations and impact analysis .
The objective of the present state and regional policy is to carefully combine tourism development in the area with the preservation of its natural and cultural heritage . Ecotourism poses an ideal solution , since it has the potential of bringing about the desired balance between socio @-@ economic development and environmental protection . Specific objectives of ecotourism development include reviving traditional activities such as small @-@ scale farming and stock @-@ raising , as well as establishing a network of communities of chamois biotopes .
= = Recreation = =
Vikos – Aoös National Park is a natural tourist attraction , with high ecotourism and agrotourism potential . The local tourism industry has been favored by national and European funds and provides modest accommodation and tourism services , with respect to the local tradition and culture . Characteristically , the Federation of Nature and National Parks of Europe ( FNNPE ) stated that " the need for a sustainable form of tourism has never been greater in the area " .
The rivers in the Vikos – Aoös area are a destination for rafting and canoe @-@ kayaking . Additional forms of adventure sports include climbing , hiking and mountain biking along local paths in order to observe the area 's natural features and architecture . Popular trails in the region include the crossing of the Vikos Gorge , which lasts approximately six to seven hours and is considered of medium difficulty , as well as hiking around the peaks of Tymfi . Several viewpoint are accessible only on foot , such as the Oxya and Beloe outlooks , and the 15th century Monastery of Saint Paraskevi that offer panoramic views to the Vikos Gorge .
= = Gallery = =
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= Farthest South =
Farthest South was the most southerly latitudes reached by explorers before the conquest of the South Pole in 1911 . Significant steps on the road to the pole were the discovery of lands south of Cape Horn in 1619 , Captain James Cook 's crossing of the Antarctic Circle in 1773 , and the earliest confirmed sightings of the Antarctic mainland in 1820 . From the late 19th century onward , the quest for Farthest South latitudes became in effect a race to reach the pole , which culminated in Roald Amundsen 's success in December 1911 .
In the years before reaching the pole was a realistic objective , other motives drew adventurers southward . Initially , the driving force was the discovery of new trade routes between Europe and the Far East . After such routes had been established and the main geographical features of the earth had been broadly mapped , the lure for mercantile adventurers was the great fertile continent of " Terra Australis " which , according to myth , lay hidden in the south . Belief in the existence of this supposed land of plenty persisted well into the 18th century ; explorers were reluctant to accept the truth that slowly emerged , of a cold , harsh environment in the lands of the Southern Ocean .
James Cook 's voyages of 1771 – 74 demonstrated conclusively the likely hostile nature of any hidden lands . This caused a shift of emphasis in the first half of the 19th century , away from trade and towards exploration and discovery . After the first overwintering on continental Antarctica in 1899 , the prospect of reaching the South Pole appeared realistic , and the race for the pole began . The British were pre @-@ eminent in this endeavour , which was characterised by the rivalry between Robert Falcon Scott and Ernest Shackleton during the Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration . Shackleton 's efforts fell short ; Scott reached the pole in January 1912 only to find that he had been beaten by the Norwegian Amundsen .
= = Early voyagers = =
In 1494 , the principal maritime powers , Portugal and Spain , signed a treaty which drew a line down the middle of the Atlantic Ocean and allocated all trade routes to the east of the line to Portugal . That gave Portugal dominance of the only known route to the east — via the Cape of Good Hope and Indian Ocean , which left Spain , and later other countries , to seek a western route to the Pacific . The exploration of the south began as part of the search for such a route .
Unlike the Arctic , there is no evidence of human visitation or habitation in Antarctica or the islands around it prior to European exploration . However , the most southerly parts of South America were already inhabited by tribes such as the Selk 'nam / Ona , the Yagán / Yámana , the Alacaluf and the Haush . The Haush in particular made regular trips to Isla de los Estados , which was 29 kilometres ( 18 mi ) from the main island of Tierra del Fuego , suggesting that some of them may have been capable of reaching the islands near Cape Horn . Fuegian Indian artefacts and canoe remnants have also been discovered on the Falkland Islands , suggesting the capacity for even longer sea journeys .
While the natives of Tierra del Fuego were not capable of true oceanic travel , there is some evidence of Polynesian visits to some of the subantarctic islands to the south of New Zealand , although these are further from Antarctica than South America . There are also remains of a Polynesian settlement dating back to the 13th century on Enderby Island in the Auckland Islands . According to ancient legends , around the year 650 the Polynesian traveller Ui @-@ te @-@ Rangiora led a fleet of Waka Tīwai south until they reached " a place of bitter cold where rock @-@ like structures rose from a solid sea " . It is unclear from the legends how far south Ui @-@ te @-@ Rangiora penetrated , but it appears that he observed ice in large quantities . A shard of undated , unidentified pottery , reported as found in 1886 in the Antipodes Islands , has been associated with this expedition .
= = = Ferdinand Magellan = = =
Although Portuguese by birth , Ferdinand Magellan transferred his allegiance to King Charles I of Spain , on whose behalf he left Seville on 10 August 1519 , with a squadron of five ships , in search of a western route to the Spice Islands in the East Indies . Success depended on finding a strait or passage through the South American land masses , or finding the southern tip of the continent and sailing around it . The South American coast was sighted on 6 December 1519 , and Magellan moved cautiously southward , following the coast to reach latitude 49 ° S on 31 March 1520 . Little if anything was known of the coast south of this point , so Magellan decided to wait out the southern winter here , and established the settlement of Puerto San Julian .
In September 1520 , the voyage continued down the uncharted coast , and on 21 October reached 52 ° S. Here Magellan found a deep inlet which proved to be the strait he was seeking , later to be known by his name . Early in November 1520 , as the squadron navigated through the strait , they reached its most southerly point at approximate latitude 54 ° S. This was a record Farthest South for a European navigator , though not the farthest southern penetration by man ; the position was north of the Tierra del Fuego archipelago , where there is evidence of human settlement dating back thousands of years .
= = = Francisco de Hoces = = =
The first sighting of an ocean passage to the Pacific south of Tierra del Fuego is sometimes attributed to Francisco de Hoces of the Loaisa Expedition . In January 1526 his ship San Lesmes was blown south from the Atlantic entrance of the Magellan Strait to a point where the crew thought they saw a headland , and water beyond it , which indicated the southern extremity of the continent . It is speculation as to which headland they saw ; conceivably it was Cape Horn . In parts of the Spanish @-@ speaking world it is believed that de Hoces may have discovered the strait later known as the Drake Passage more than 50 years before Sir Francis Drake , the British privateer .
= = = Sir Francis Drake = = =
Sir Francis Drake sailed from Plymouth on 15 November 1577 , in command of a fleet of five ships under his flagship Pelican , later renamed the Golden Hinde . His principal objective was plunder , not exploration ; his initial targets were the unfortified Spanish towns on the Pacific coasts of Chile and Peru . Following Magellan 's route , Drake reached Puerto San Julian on 20 June . After nearly two months in harbour , Drake left the port with a reduced fleet of three ships and a small pinnace . His ships entered the Magellan Strait on 23 August and emerged in the Pacific Ocean on 6 September .
Drake set a course to the north @-@ west , but on the following day a gale scattered the ships . The Marigold was sunk by a giant wave ; the Elizabeth managed to return into the Magellan Strait , later sailing eastwards back to England ; the pinnace was lost later . The gales persisted for more than seven weeks . The Golden Hinde was driven far to the west and south , before clawing its way back towards land . On 22 October , the ship anchored off an island which Drake named " Elizabeth Island " , where wood for the galley fires was collected and seals and penguins captured for food .
According to Drake 's Portuguese pilot , Nuno da Silva , their position at the anchorage was 57 ° S. However , there is no island at that latitude . The as yet undiscovered Diego Ramírez Islands , at 56 ° 30'S , are treeless and cannot have been the islands where Drake 's crew collected wood . This indicates that the navigational calculation was faulty , and that Drake landed at or near the then unnamed Cape Horn , possibly on Horn Island itself . His final southern latitude can only be speculated as that of Cape Horn , at 55 ° 59'S . In his report , Drake wrote : " The Uttermost Cape or headland of all these islands stands near 56 degrees , without which there is no main island to be seen to the southwards but that the Atlantic Ocean and the South Sea meet . " This open sea south of Cape Horn became known as the Drake Passage even though Drake himself did not traverse it .
= = = Willem Schouten = = =
On 14 June 1615 , Willem Schouten , with two ships Eendracht and Hoorn , set sail from Texel in the Netherlands in search of a western route to the Pacific . Hoorn was lost in a fire , but Eendracht continued southward . On 29 January 1616 , Schouten reached what he discerned to be the southernmost cape of the South American continent ; he named this point Kaap Hoorn ( Cape Horn ) after his hometown and his lost ship . Schouten 's navigational readings are inaccurate — he placed Cape Horn at 57 ° 48 ' south , when its actual position is 55 ° 58 ' . His claim to have reached 58 ° south is unverified , although he sailed on westward to become the first European navigator to reach the Pacific via the Drake Passage .
= = = Garcia de Nodal expedition = = =
The next recorded navigation of the Drake Passage was achieved in February 1619 , by the brothers Bartolome and Gonzalo Garcia de Nodal . The Garcia de Nodal expedition discovered a small group of islands about 60 nautical miles ( 100 km ; 70 mi ) south @-@ west of Cape Horn , at latitude 56 ° 30'S . They named these the Diego Ramirez Islands after the expedition 's pilot . The islands remained the most southerly known land on earth until Captain James Cook 's discovery of the South Sandwich Islands in 1775 .
= = = Other discoveries = = =
Other voyages brought further discoveries in the southern oceans ; in August 1592 , the English seaman John Davis had taken shelter " among certain Isles never before discovered " — presumed to be the Falkland Islands . In 1675 , the English merchant voyager Anthony de la Roché sighted South Georgia ; in 1739 the Frenchman Jean @-@ Baptiste Bouvet de Lozier discovered the remote Bouvet Island , and in 1772 his compatriot , Yves @-@ Joseph de Kerguelen de Trémarec , found the Kerguelen Islands .
= = Early Antarctic explorers = =
= = = Captain James Cook = = =
The second of James Cook 's historic voyages , 1772 – 1775 , was primarily a search for the elusive Terra Australis Incognita that was still believed to lie somewhere in the unexplored latitudes below 40 ° S. Cook left England in September 1772 with two ships , HMS Resolution and HMS Adventure . After pausing at Cape Town , on 22 November the two ships sailed due south , but were driven to the east by heavy gales . They managed to edge further south , encountering their first pack ice on 10 December . This soon became a solid barrier , which tested Cook 's seamanship as he manoeuvered for a passage through . Eventually , he found open water , and was able to continue south ; on 17 January 1773 , the expedition reached the Antarctic Circle at 66 ° 20'S , the first ships to do so . Further progress was barred by ice , and the ships turned north @-@ eastwards and headed for New Zealand , which they reached on 26 March .
During the ensuing months , the expedition explored the southern Pacific Ocean before Cook took Resolution south again — Adventure had retired back to South Africa after a fracas with the New Zealand native population . This time Cook was able to penetrate deep beyond the Antarctic Circle , and on 30 January 1774 reached 71 ° 10'S , his Farthest South , but the state of the ice made further southward travel impossible . This southern record would hold for 49 years .
In the course of his voyages in Antarctic waters , Cook had encircled the world at latitudes generally above 60 ° S , and saw nothing but bleak inhospitable islands , without a hint of the fertile continent which some still hoped lay in the south . Cook wrote that if any such continent existed it would be " a country doomed by nature " , and that " no man will venture further than I have done , and the land to the South will never be explored " . He concluded : " Should the impossible be achieved and the land attained , it would be wholly useless and of no benefit to the discoverer or his nation " .
= = = Searching for land = = =
Despite Cook 's prediction , the early 19th century saw numerous attempts to penetrate southward , and to discover new lands . In 1819 , William Smith , in command of the brigantine Williams , discovered the South Shetland Islands , and in the following year Edward Bransfield , in the same ship , sighted the Trinity Peninsula at the northern extremity of Graham Land . A few days before Bransfield 's discovery , on 27 January 1820 , the Russian captain Fabian von Bellingshausen , in another Antarctic sector , had come within sight of the coast of what is now known as Queen Maud Land . He is thus credited as the first person to see the continent 's mainland , although he did not make this claim himself . Bellingshausen made two circumnavigations mainly in latitudes between 60 and 67 ° S , and in January 1821 reached his most southerly point at 70 ° S , in a longitude close to that in which Cook had made his record 47 years earlier . In 1821 the American sealing captain John Davis led a party which landed on an uncharted stretch of land beyond the South Shetlands . " I think this Southern Land to be a Continent " , he wrote in his ship 's log . If his landing was not on an island , his party were the first to set foot on the Antarctic continent .
= = = James Weddell = = =
James Weddell was an Anglo @-@ Scottish seaman who saw service in both the Royal Navy and the merchant marine before undertaking his first voyages to Antarctic waters . In 1819 , in command of the 160 @-@ ton brigantine Jane which had been adapted for whaling , he set sail for the newly discovered whaling grounds of the South Sandwich Islands . His chief interest on this voyage was in finding the " Aurora Islands " , which had been reported at 53 ° S , 48 ° W by the Spanish ship Aurora in 1762 . He failed to discover this non @-@ existent land , but his sealing activities showed a handsome profit .
In 1822 Weddell , again in command of Jane and this time accompanied by the smaller ship Beaufoy , set sail for the south with instructions from his employers that , should the sealing prove barren , he was to " investigate beyond the track of former navigators " . This suited Weddell 's exploring instincts , and he equipped his vessel with chronometers , thermometers , compasses , barometers and charts . In January 1823 he probed the waters between the South Sandwich Islands and the South Orkney Islands , looking for new land . Finding none , he turned southward down the 40 ° W meridian , deep into the sea that now bears his name . The season was unusually calm , and Weddell reported that " not a particle of ice of any description was to be seen " . On 20 February 1823 , he reached a new Farthest South of 74 ° 15'S , three degrees beyond Cook 's former record . Unaware that he was close to land , Weddell decided to return northward from this point , convinced that the sea continued as far as the South Pole . Another two days ' sailing would likely have brought him within sight of Coats Land , which was not discovered until 1904 , by William Speirs Bruce during the Scottish National Antarctic Expedition , 1902 – 04 . On his return to England , Weddell 's claim to have exceeded Cook 's record by such a margin " caused some raised eyebrows " , but was soon accepted .
= = = Benjamin Morrell = = =
In November 1823 , the American sealing captain Benjamin Morrell reached the South Sandwich Islands in the schooner Wasp . According to his own later account he then sailed south , unconsciously following the track taken by James Weddell a month previously . Morrell claimed to have reached 70 ° 14'S , at which point he turned north because the ship 's stoves were running short of fuel — otherwise , he says , he could have " reached 85 ° without the least doubt . " After turning , he claimed to have encountered land which he described in some detail , and which he named New South Greenland . This land proved not to exist . Morrell 's reputation as a liar and a fraud means that most of his geographical claims have been dismissed by scholars , although attempts have been made to rationalise his assertions .
= = = James Clark Ross = = =
James Clark Ross 's 1839 – 43 Antarctic expedition in HMS Erebus and HMS Terror was a full @-@ scale Royal Naval enterprise , the principal function of which was to test current theories on magnetism , and to try to locate the South Magnetic Pole . The expedition had first been proposed by leading astronomer Sir John Herschel , and was supported by the Royal Society and the British Association for the Advancement of Science . Ross had considerable past experience in magnetic observation and Arctic exploration ; in May 1831 he had been a member of a party that had reached the location of the North Magnetic Pole , and he was an obvious choice as commander .
The expedition left England on 30 September 1839 , and after a voyage that was slowed by the many stops required to carry out work on magnetism , it reached Tasmania in August 1840 . Following a three @-@ month break imposed by the southern winter , they sailed south @-@ east on 12 November 1840 , and crossed the Antarctic Circle on 1 January 1841 . On 11 January a long mountainous coastline that stretched to the south was sighted . Ross named the land Victoria Land , and the mountains the Admiralty Range . He followed the coast southwards and passed Weddell 's Farthest South point of 74 ° 15'S on 23 January . A few days later , as they moved further eastward to avoid shore ice , they were met by the sight of twin volcanoes ( one of them active ) , which were named Mount Erebus and Mount Terror , in honour of the expedition 's ships .
The Great Ice Barrier ( later to be called the " Ross Ice Shelf " ) stretched away east of these mountains , forming an impassable obstacle to further southward progress . In his search for a strait or inlet , Ross explored 300 nautical miles ( 560 km ; 350 mi ) along the edge of the barrier , and reached an approximate latitude of 78 ° S on or about 8 February 1841 . He failed to find a suitable anchorage that would have allowed the ships to over @-@ winter , so he returned to Tasmania , arriving there in April 1841 .
The following season Ross returned and located an inlet in the Barrier face that enabled him , on 23 January 1842 , to extend his Farthest South to 78 ° 09 ' 30 " S , a record which would remain unchallenged for 58 years . Although Ross had not been able to land on the Antarctic continent , nor approach the location of the South Magnetic Pole , on his return to England in 1843 he was knighted for his achievements in geographical and scientific exploration .
= = Explorers of the Heroic Age = =
The oceanographic research voyage known as the Challenger Expedition , 1872 – 76 , explored Antarctic waters for several weeks , but did not approach the land itself ; its research , however , proved the existence of an Antarctic continent beyond reasonable doubt .
The impetus for what would become known as the Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration came in 1893 , when in a lecture to the Royal Geographical Society Professor Sir John Murray called for a resumption of Antarctic exploration : " a steady , continuous , laborious and systematic exploration of the whole southern region " . He followed this call with an appeal to British patriotism : " Is the last great piece of maritime exploration on the surface of our Earth to be undertaken by Britons , or is it to be left to those who may be destined to succeed or supplant us on the Ocean ? " During the following quarter @-@ century , fifteen expeditions from eight different nations rose to this challenge . In the patriotic spirit engendered by Murray 's call , and under the influence of RGS president Sir Clements Markham , British endeavours in the following years gave particular weight to the achievement of new Farthest South records , and began to develop the character of a race for the South Pole .
= = = Carsten Borchgrevink = = =
The Norwegian @-@ born Carsten Egeberg Borchgrevink had emigrated to Australia in 1888 , where he worked on survey teams in Queensland and New South Wales before accepting a schoolteaching post . In 1894 he joined a sealing and whaling expedition to the Antarctic , led by Henryk Bull . In January 1895 Borchgrevink was one of a group from that expedition that claimed the first confirmed landing on the Antarctic continent , at Cape Adare . Borchgrevink determined to return with his own expedition , which would overwinter and explore inland , with the location of the South Magnetic Pole as an objective .
Borchgrevink went to England , where he was able to persuade the publishing magnate Sir George Newnes to finance him to the extent of £ 40 @,@ 000 , equivalent to £ 3 million as of 2008 , with the sole stipulation that , despite the shortage of British participants , the venture be styled the " British Antarctic Expedition " . This was by no means the grand British expedition envisaged by Markham and the geographical establishment , who were hostile and dismissive of Borchgrevink . On 23 August 1898 the expedition ship Southern Cross left London for the Ross Sea , reaching Cape Adare on 17 February 1899 . Here a shore party was landed and was the first to over @-@ winter on the Antarctic mainland , in a prefabricated hut .
In January 1900 , Southern Cross returned , picked up the shore party and , following the route which Ross had taken 60 years previously , sailed southward to the Great Ice Barrier , which they discovered had retreated some 30 miles ( 48 km ) south since the days of Ross . A party consisting of Borchgrevink , William Colbeck and a Sami named Per Savio landed with sledges and dogs . This party ascended the Barrier and made the first sledge journey on the barrier surface ; on 16 February 1900 they extended the Farthest South record to 78 ° 50'S . On its return to England later in 1900 , Borchgrevink 's expedition was received without enthusiasm , despite its new southern record . Historian David Crane commented that if Borchgrevink had been a British naval officer , his contribution to Antarctic knowledge might have been better received , but " a Norwegian seaman / schoolmaster was never going to be taken seriously " .
= = = Robert Falcon Scott = = =
The Discovery Expedition of 1901 – 04 was Captain Scott 's first Antarctic command . Although according to Edward Wilson the intention was to " reach the Pole if possible , or find some new land " , there is nothing in Scott 's writings , nor in the official objectives of the expedition , to indicate that the pole was a definite goal . However , a southern journey towards the pole was within Scott 's formal remit to " explore the ice barrier of Sir James Ross ... and to endeavour to solve the very important physical and geographical questions connected with this remarkable ice formation " .
The southern journey was undertaken by Scott , Wilson and Ernest Shackleton . The party set out on 1 November 1902 with various teams in support , and one of these , led by Michael Barne , passed Borchgrevink 's Farthest South mark on 11 November , an event recorded with great high spirits in Wilson 's diary . The march continued , initially in favourable weather conditions , but encountered increasing difficulties caused by the party 's lack of ice travelling experience and the loss of all its dogs through a combination of poor diet and overwork . The 80 ° S mark was passed on 2 December , and four weeks later , on 30 December 1902 , Wilson and Scott took a short ski trip from their southern camp to set a new Farthest South at ( according to their measurements ) 82 ° 17'S . Modern maps , correlated with Shackleton 's photograph and Wilson 's drawing , put their final camp at 82 ° 6'S , and the point reached by Scott and Wilson at 82 ° 11'S , 200 nautical miles ( 370 km ; 230 mi ) beyond Borchgrevink 's mark .
= = = Ernest Shackleton = = =
After his share in the Farthest South achievement of the Discovery Expedition , Ernest Shackleton suffered a physical collapse on the return journey , and was sent home with the expedition 's relief vessel on orders from Scott ; he bitterly resented it , and the two became rivals . Four years later , Shackleton organised his own polar venture , the Nimrod Expedition , 1907 – 09 . This was the first expedition to set the definite objective of reaching the South Pole , and to have a specific strategy for doing so .
To assist his endeavour , Shackleton adopted a mixed transport strategy , involving the use of Manchurian ponies as pack animals , as well as the more traditional dog @-@ sledges . A specially adapted motor car was also taken . Although the dogs and the car were used during the expedition for a number of purposes , the task of assisting the group that would undertake the march to the pole fell to the ponies . The size of Shackleton 's four @-@ man polar party was dictated by the number of surviving ponies ; of the ten that were embarked in New Zealand , only four had survived the 1908 winter .
Ernest Shackleton and three companions ( Frank Wild , Eric Marshall and Jameson Adams ) began their march on 29 October 1908 . On 26 November they surpassed the farthest point reached by Scott 's 1902 party . " A day to remember " , wrote Shackleton in his journal , noting that they had reached this point in far less time than on the previous march with Captain Scott . Shackleton 's group continued southward , discovering and ascending the Beardmore Glacier to the polar plateau , and then marching on to reach their Farthest South point at 88 ° 23'S , a mere 97 nautical miles ( 180 km ; 112 mi ) from the pole , on 9 January 1909 . Here they planted the Union Jack presented to them by Queen Alexandra , and took possession of the plateau in the name of King Edward VII , before shortages of food and supplies forced them to turn back north . This was , at the time , the closest convergence on either pole . The increase of more than six degrees south from Scott 's previous record was the greatest extension of Farthest South since Captain Cook 's 1773 mark . Shackleton was treated as a hero on his return to England . His record was to stand for less than three years , being passed by Amundsen on 7 December 1911 .
= = Polar conquest = =
In the wake of Shackleton 's near miss , Captain Scott organised the Terra Nova Expedition , 1910 – 13 , in which securing the South Pole for the British Empire was an explicitly stated prime objective . As he planned his expedition , Scott saw no reason to believe that his effort would be contested . However , the Norwegian explorer Roald Amundsen , who had been developing plans for a North Pole expedition , changed his mind when , in September 1909 , the North Pole was claimed in quick succession by the Americans Frederick Cook and Robert Peary . Amundsen resolved to go south instead .
Amundsen concealed his revised intentions until his ship , Fram , was in the Atlantic and beyond communication . Scott was notified by telegram that a rival was in the field , but had little choice other than to continue with his own plans . Meanwhile , Fram arrived at the Ross Ice Shelf on 11 January 1911 , and by 14 January had found the inlet , or " Bay of Whales " , where Borchgrevink had made his landing eleven years earlier . This became the location of Amundsen 's base camp , Framheim .
After nine months ' preparation , Amundsen 's polar journey began on 20 October 1911 . Avoiding the known route to the polar plateau via the Beardmore Glacier , Amundsen led his party of five due south , reaching the Transantarctic Mountains on 16 November . They discovered the Axel Heiberg Glacier , which provided them with a direct route to the polar plateau and on to the pole . Shackleton 's Farthest South mark was passed on 7 December , and the South Pole was reached on 14 December 1911 . The Norwegian party 's greater skills with the techniques of ice travel , using ski and dogs , had proved decisive in their success . Captain Scott 's five @-@ man team reached the same point 33 days later , and perished during their return journey . Since Cook 's journeys , every expedition that had held the Farthest South record before Amundsen 's conquest had been British ; however , the final triumph indisputably belonged to the Norwegians .
= = Later history = =
After Scott 's retreat from the pole in January 1912 , the location remained unvisited for nearly 18 years . On 28 November 1929 , US Navy Commander ( later Rear @-@ Admiral ) Richard E. Byrd and three others completed the first aircraft flight over the South Pole . Twenty @-@ seven years later , Rear @-@ Admiral George J. Dufek became the first person to set foot on the pole since Scott , when on 31 October 1956 he and the crew of R4D @-@ 5 Skytrain " Que Sera Sera " landed at the pole . Between November 1956 and February 1957 , the first permanent South Pole research station was erected and christened the Amundsen – Scott South Pole Station in honour of the pioneer explorers . Since then the station had been substantially extended , and in 2008 was housing up to 150 scientific staff and support personnel . Dufek gave considerable assistance to the Commonwealth Trans @-@ Antarctic Expedition , 1955 – 58 , led by Vivian Fuchs , which on 19 January 1958 became the first party to reach the pole overland since Scott .
= = Farthest South records = =
Table of Farthest South records , 1521 to 1911 ( letters in " Map key " column relate to adjoining map )
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= Occupy ( book ) =
Occupy is a short study of the Occupy movement written by the American academic and political activist Noam Chomsky . Initially published in the United States by the Zuccotti Park Press as the first title in their Occupied Media Pamphlet Series in 2012 , it was subsequently republished in the United Kingdom by Penguin Books later that year .
An academic linguist at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology , Chomsky first achieved fame for his work as a political activist during the 1960s and 1970s . A libertarian socialist , Chomsky was a prominent critic of capitalism , the role of western media and the foreign policy of the U.S. government , dealing with such issues in bestsellers like Manufacturing Consent ( 1988 ) , Hegemony or Survival ( 2003 ) and Failed States ( 2006 ) . With the birth of the Occupy Movement – devoted to socio @-@ political change – in 2011 , Chomsky became a vocal supporter for the protesters , writing articles and giving speeches on their behalf , several of which were collected together and published as Occupy .
The book opens with an introductory editor 's note by Greg Ruggiero , praising the Occupy movement and its potential for the greater democratization of society . This is followed by the text to Chomsky 's Howard Zinn Memorial Lecture , which he gave at Occupy Boston in Massachusetts . The third part of the book comprises Chomsky 's interview with the New York University student Edward Radzivilovskiy , while the fourth contains the text of the InterOccupy conference call with Chomsky by Mikal Kamil and Ian Escuela . Part five offers an interview with Chomsky undertaken at the University of Maryland , while the book is rounded off by Chomsky 's tribute to the late activist Howard Zinn and the National Lawyers Guild 's legal advice to Occupy protesters .
Throughout the book , Chomsky discusses what the Occupy movement is and what it is demanding , as well as advocating ways in which it could gain greater support and achieve governmental reforms , using historical examples as evidence . Press reviews were largely positive , with some noting that Chomsky had taken a more moderate , reformist position than they expected of him .
= = Background = =
Noam Chomsky ( 1928 – ) was born in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania , to Jewish immigrants from Eastern Europe . Becoming academically involved in the field of linguistics , Chomsky eventually secured a job as Professor of Department of Linguistics & Philosophy at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology . In the field of linguistics , he is credited as the creator or co @-@ creator of the Chomsky hierarchy , the universal grammar theory , and the Chomsky – Schützenberger theorem . Politically , Chomsky had held radical leftist views since childhood , identifying himself with anarcho @-@ syndicalism and libertarian socialism . He was particularly known for his critiques of U.S. foreign policy and contemporary capitalism , and he has been described as a prominent cultural figure .
First emerging in New York City in 2011 , the Occupy movement was an international protest movement against social and economic inequality , its primary goal being to make the economic structure and power relations in society more favorable to the underclasses . Different local groups have different foci , but among the prime concerns is the claim that large corporations and the global financial system control the world in a way that disproportionately benefits a minority , undermines democracy and is unstable . It was widely seen as a reaction to the 2008 – 2012 global recession , an economic crisis that had led to high unemployment across the western world , and was also inspired by the Arab Spring , in which popular protest movements overthrew the governments of several countries in the Arab world . Chomsky became a supporter for the Occupy movement , joining protesters at some of their camps and advocating their cause in the mainstream press .
The book 's original publisher , Zucccotti Park Press , was founded by Adelente Alliance , a Brooklyn @-@ based non profit cultural and advocacy organization devoted to the Spanish @-@ speaking community . Occupy was the first of a series of publications known as the Occupied Media Pamphlet Series . According to the Press , its purpose was to " produce accessible , affordable , pamphlet @-@ size works by well @-@ known and emerging voices who are inspired by a vision for a new society . " Chomsky dedicated his book to " the 6 @,@ 705 people who have been arrested supporting Occupy " between September 24 , 2011 to March 6 , 2012 .
= = Synopsis = =
The book includes an editor 's note , a brief section providing legal advice for American Occupy activists , and five sections written by Chomsky himself.Occupy opens with an editor 's note written by Greg Ruggiero , in which he explains the basics to Chomsky 's views on the Occupy Movement , drawing quotes from his various public speeches in order to do so . Ruggiero also discusses Occupy 's success in the United States , stating that it has helped to change media discussions by introducing terms like " the 99 % " into popular discourse and also by bringing national attention to the plight of the impoverished . He remarks that the protest movement has not only helped to highlight the " heartlessness and inhumanity " of the socio @-@ political system , but that it has also helped to provide solidarity with those " being crushed " under that system . Suggesting reasons for the movement 's success , he optimistically describes the manner in which " People are waking up and coming out . "
The introduction is followed by a transcript of Chomsky 's Howard Zinn Memorial Lecture , originally given to Occupy Boston in Dewey Square on October 22 , 2011 . Contrasting the hope of the working classes in the Great Depression of the 1930s with the pessimism of their contemporaries in the current recession , Chomsky discusses the changes to the U.S. economy that have occurred since the 1970s ; de @-@ industrialization , de @-@ development and the rise of the financial sector at the expense of other parts of the economy . He notes how both Adam Smith and David Ricardo partly foresaw this situation . Highlighting the work of Tom Ferguson , he discusses how the political parties have come under the increasing control of the corporate sector . Proceeding to look at corruption among the 1 % , he makes reference to both Citigroup and Alan Greenspan , before discussing the role that worker sit @-@ ins and industry takeovers could play in democratizing the U.S. economy , as well as the threat posed by both nuclear war and environmental catastrophe , both problems exacerbated by the current capitalist system . Finally , he responds to questions posed by the audience , discussing the concept of corporate personhood , rejecting the idea that the U.S. elite could resort to fascism , and discussing the possibility of a general strike , arguing that that would be " a possible idea at a time when the population is ready for it . "
The third section of the book , entitled " After thirty years of class war " , comprises the text of an interview with Chomsky conducted at MIT on January 6 , 2012 by a New York University student , Edward Radzivilovskiy . Responding to Radzivilovskiy 's questions , Chomsky lays out what the Occupy movement represents , and what its demands are , arguing that it is primarily a popular protest against income stagnation for the majority and the increasing concentration of wealth among an elite minority . He contrasts it with the Tea Party movement , which he argues only represents the interests of a small Euro @-@ American minority , being backed by the corporate support that Occupy rejects . He then draws comparisons between Occupy and the Arab Spring , arguing that the latter had been far more successful in bringing down governments because it had the backing of organized labor movements , all of which had been decimated by corporate power in the U.S. , and calls for a renewed revival of the American labor movement . Rejecting the idea that Occupy is an anarchist movement , he notes that its primary demands require reform rather than revolution , advocating governmental support for economic growth over austerity measures .
Section four , " InterOccupy " , contains the transcript of a conference call with Chomsky chaired by Mikal Kamil and Ian Escuela on January 31 , 2012 , in which he answered pre @-@ selected questions from the Occupy community . Beginning with a discussion of the media coverage of Occupy , he moves on to discuss the police repression that the movement has faced , arguing that the best way to avoid such repression was to gain " active public support " for their cause . He considers one of the primary achievements of Occupy to have been to bring together communities to discuss and debate in a democratic forum , thereby rejecting the ideologies of selfishness proposed by the likes of Ayn Rand . Chomsky then discusses how to get the corporate sector out of politics and how to introduce greater democracy to the U.S. He rounds off this chapter with a discussion of the nature of the Republican and Democratic parties , the work of Italian Marxist Antonio Gramsci and the role of the U.S. housing bubble in the global depression .
Section five is titled " Occupying Foreign Policy " , an question @-@ and @-@ answer session that Chomsky gave at the University of Maryland on January 27 , 2012 . Chomsky discusses how the Occupy movement could hope to influence and control the foreign policy of the United States , directing it away from its support for autocratic regimes and military interventionism . Proceeding to discuss the successes that popular protest have had in influencing government decisions , he argues that the protests of the 1930s led to the formation of the New Deal , and that the protests against the Iraq War – although unable to stop the conflict – helped to moderate the use of weaponry used by U.S. troops . Praising America Beyond Capitalism ( 2004 ) , a book by the political economist Gar Alperovitz , he then discusses ways in which the Occupy movement can influence the public discourse into accepting and understanding their views and arguments . This is followed by " Remembering Howard Zinn " , Chomsky 's reminiscences of his late friend Howard Zinn ( 1922 – 2010 ) , a historian and social activist who authored the influential book , A People 's History of the United States ( 1980 ) . Chomsky 's text is then followed by " Occupy Protest Support " , a set of legal advice for protesters facing arrest and prosecution authored by the National Lawyers Guild .
= = Main arguments = =
= = = What is the Occupy Movement ? = = =
In Occupy , Chomsky explores both the context to the Occupy movement , and highlights its primary aims . He describes it as a reaction by members of the working and middle classes to the " class war " that has been waged against them by the upper class who control the commercial sector since the 1970s . During those 30 years , Chomsky argues , the nation 's wealth has become increasingly concentrated among a tiny percentage of the population , primarily those in control of the financial sector . Chomsky argues that this process has been furthered by government policies implemented by both the Republican and Democrat administrations , with both parties being financed by that same financial and commercial sector . According to Chomsky , while the wealth has been increasingly focused in the socio @-@ economic elite who control the financial sector , the rest of the population have suffered higher workloads , unsustainable debt , a weakening benefits system and stagnating incomes and real wages , causing them to be " angry , frustrated , [ and ] bitter " . It is this inequality – Chomsky argues – that has led to the Occupy movement .
Chomsky states that the Occupy movement 's demands are those of the majority of the U.S. population : to solve the problem of social inequality in the country . More specifically , he argues that their precise demands include greater regulation of financial transaction taxes , and reversing the rules of corporate governance that have led to the current situation . Nonetheless , he also argues that many Occupy members would be hesitant to directly state what their objectives are , because " they are essentially crafting a point of view from many disparate sources . "
= = = How to spread Occupy and democratize society = = =
Chomsky argues that the multi @-@ party , representative , liberal democracy that governs the United States is insufficiently democratic , instead advocating a form of participatory , direct democracy through which the ordinary citizens have a direct say in public policy . As such , he advocates that communities take a different approach to the upcoming primary elections ; instead of simply listening to speeches given by the politicians hoping to be elected , they should get together in democratic councils and discuss what issues they want addressing . That done , Chomsky argues , they should approach the politicians , informing them that they have no interest in their speeches , but that if they want to get elected , they must come and listen to the demands of the people ; alternately , he argues , these communities should select their own representatives whom they could then vote for .
Chomsky also argues for economic democratization , with the workers themselves controlling the means of production through worker cooperatives . As an example of how this might be achieved , he highlights the situation in 1977 when U.S. Steel decided to close down its facility in Youngstown , Ohio , leaving the steel workers unemployed ; the local community attempted to purchase the factory from the company , and then run it as a " worker @-@ run , worker @-@ managed facility . " They failed in their attempt , but Chomsky argues that had there been a sufficient amount of public support behind their cause – for instance like the Occupy protesters – then they might have succeeded . He noted a similar situation that occurred in a suburb of Boston in the early 21st century , when a multinational decided to close down a manufacturing facility because it was not producing sufficient profit . When the worker 's trade union attempted to purchase the factory , the multinational refused , for reasons that Chomsky speculated were due to class consciousness .
Chomsky also provides other suggestions for reforming the U.S. political system . He advocates health care reform and " reining in our crazed military system . " He also argues that in the time of economic recession , the government should focus on job creation and growth – just as they did in the 1930s with the New Deal – rather than on imposing unpopular austerity measures on the population . He also describes it as important to rebuild an organized labor movement in the United States , in order to more effectively combat the domination of the ruling classes .
= = Reception = =
= = = Press reviews = = =
The Foreign Policy in Focus 's co @-@ director John Feffer reviewed Occupy for the group 's website , asserting that " What makes Chomsky 's perspective so interesting , aside from the wealth of his political experience , is the range of his interests " , evident through the way that he brings in examples from across the world . Ultimately , Feffer described the volume as a " valuable set of remarks and interviews " .
Writing in the New Statesman , George Eaton stated that he was surprised by the moderate stance that Chomsky took in Occupy , remarking that the " self @-@ described anarchist sounds very much like a social democrat " , offering the " cautious , provisional response one might expect from a Labour shadow cabinet minister " rather than the words of a radical revolutionary . Arguing that he was exhibiting " passionate sanity " at a time when much of the Left was gripped by conspiracy theories , he also criticized Chomsky for being " maddeningly banal " at points during the book , but ultimately thought that there was " much to commend Chomsky 's radical pessimism . " In a brief review in The Independent , Arifa Akbar highlighted that although Chomsky 's claims regarding class war carried with them " the ring of an old Marxist manifesto " , the notion that we ourselves need to change in order to allow the state to change was " very contemporary " .
British Trotskyite publication , the Socialist Review , praised Chomsky 's discussion of the impact of neoliberalism in the US , however they asserted that " when it comes to crucial questions - how do we fight and what are we fighting for - Chomsky 's response is lacking . " They assert that his claims that communities can challenge the Republican and Democrat domination of the electoral system are " somewhat bizarre " given that he has already established how " corrupt and biased " that system is . Criticising him for not looking at the concept of a potential revolution , they also express disagreement with his view that the " solution for the 99 % " can be found within " the framework of capitalism " .
In The Coffin Factory literary magazine , Occupy was reviewed by Laura Isaacman , with Ruggiero 's editor 's note being described as a " powerful " introduction . Isaacram asserts that in this booklet , Chomsky " sets the record straight " in his own " tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek tone " , following decades of being marginalized by the establishment . Robert Thickett reviewed the book in August 2013 for the Mortgage Strategy website . He opined that Occupy felt " nostalgic " , largely because the Occupy movement itself " has largely run out of steam . " Nevertheless , he thought much of what Chomsky had to say was " practical " and that it was " difficult to refute much of what he says about the way Western society is set up . "
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= The Tale of Scrotie McBoogerballs =
" The Tale of Scrotie McBoogerballs " is the second episode of the fourteenth season of the American animated television series South Park , and the 197th overall episode of the series . It originally aired on Comedy Central in the United States on March 24 , 2010 . In the episode , the South Park boys write a vulgar book with the sole intention of getting it banned . When Stan 's parents discover the manuscript , the boys accuse Butters of writing it , then are enraged when it is hailed as a literary masterpiece .
The episode was written and directed by series co @-@ creator Trey Parker , and was rated TV @-@ MA L in the United States . It serves as a satire of pop culture criticism , and mocks people who find hidden messages in works where there are none . The episode includes other themes , including the lack of interest in reading among American youths , and mocks the idea that a book alone causes people to commit violent crimes .
The novel The Catcher in the Rye by J. D. Salinger plays a major part in the episode , as the South Park boys are inspired to write their own book when they feel Salinger 's book does not live up to its controversial reputation . The episode also mocks actress Sarah Jessica Parker and the Kardashian family from the reality series Keeping Up with the Kardashians .
" The Tale of Scrotie McBoogerballs " received generally positive reviews , with many commentators praising the episode 's themes of the over @-@ analysis into works of culture , although some said the vomiting jokes were too old and grew redundant . According to Nielsen Media Research , the episode was seen by 3 @.@ 24 million viewers . After the episode aired , Kim , Kourtney and Khloé Kardashian praised their portrayal and on @-@ screen deaths .
= = Plot = =
The students at South Park Elementary are assigned to read The Catcher in the Rye , and grow excited when Mr. Garrison tells them that the book has caused so much controversy , it has been banned from public schools in the past . However , after reading the book , Stan , Kyle , Cartman , and Kenny are angry to find the content completely inoffensive , and feel the school has " tricked " them into reading . They decide to write their own offensive novel , The Tale of Scrotie McBoogerballs ( which they originally called The Tale of Scrotie McDickinass ) , with the intention of disgusting as many people as possible . Later , Stan 's parents find the first draft and read it . They find it so disgusting that they repeatedly vomit while reading . However , they both consider it the best book they have ever read . Fearful they will get into trouble for the book 's content , Stan and the boys tell Butters he actually wrote the book . Butters believes them because ever since reading The Catcher in the Rye , he has been entering into altered states of consciousness that make him want to kill John Lennon , before he finds out Lennon is already dead . Later on , after learning that The Catcher in the Rye inspired someone to shoot Ronald Reagan , Butters tries to kill him too but is disappointed by the fact he is dead as well .
Butters confesses to writing the novel himself . However , Stan and the boys are furious to learn that not only do the South Park adults love the book , a publisher has agreed to sign Butters for a book deal . The Tale of Scrotie McBoogerballs becomes a huge success , and everybody who reads it vomits profusely , but declares it a masterpiece nonetheless . As Butters becomes a literary icon , the four boys unsuccessfully campaign to have the book banned . They are angered to find readers interpreting passages from the novel as allegories for contentious political issues , even though the boys never intended to convey such messages . Since the book made many references to the unattractiveness of actress Sarah Jessica Parker , Cartman and Kenny plan to get her killed , believing the negative publicity will cause the book to be banned . They dress Parker as a moose ( they just put antlers on her as she already resembles a moose ) , then lead her into the woods during hunting season .
Butters soon does , in fact write a novel of his very own , The Poop That Took a Pee , which consists solely of simple descriptions of scatological acts . The four boys are convinced the book will be a disaster and expose Butters as a fraud over the first book . However , much to their surprise , readers actually find it an even deeper , more profound book , and continue reading their own allegorical messages into the text . After finishing the book , one crazed reader storms on to the set of reality television series Keeping Up with the Kardashians and murders the entire Kardashian family with a pump @-@ action shotgun . Both The Tale of Scrotie McBoogerballs and The Poop That Took a Pee are banned as a result , and Butters is horrified because he considered Kim Kardashian " the most beautiful woman in the world " ( along with her sisters ) . Stan and Kyle suggest that instead of reading books and possibly discovering the wrong message in them , people should simply watch television instead . Cartman also claims Sarah Jessica Parker has also been killed because Butters accidentally dressed her in a moose costume while sleepwalking . Butters is at first horrified , but then decides he does not care because she was ugly .
= = Production and theme = =
" The Tale of Scrotie McBoogerballs " was written and directed by series co @-@ founder Trey Parker , and was rated TV @-@ MA in the United States . It originally aired on Comedy Central in the United States on March 24 , 2010 . The episode serves primarily as a satire of pop culture criticism . Although the South Park boys wrote The Tale of Scrotie McBoogerballs simply to shock and offend people , readers delve too deeply into the meaning behind the book , finding hidden allegories and symbolism that the actual authors insist are not present . People with conflicting philosophies , including liberals and conservatives , and pro @-@ choice and pro @-@ life advocates , attempt to claim that the same work conveys and validates their own ideology . The script serves as a criticism of people who take such works of pop culture too seriously . Although this is demonstrated specifically through literary criticism in the episode , the theme can be extended to film criticism and television criticism as well . The episode suggests people are so desperate for inspiration , they are willing to impose their hopes and dreams into works of art , even if they completely lack those qualities . Some commentators thought South Park creators Parker and Matt Stone were implicitly mocking the amount of analysis into deeper meaning South Park itself often receives in its reviews . Others have suggested this over @-@ analysis is a reference to the number of adult themes identified in the Harry Potter and Twilight young adult novel series .
" The Tale of Scrotie McBoogerBalls " portrays young children as almost entirely uninterested in reading . The South Park boys only exhibit excitement for their reading assignment based on the promise of offensive and controversial material in the book . Rather than finding any merit in the book , the boys are angry when they find the material inoffensive , prompting Cartman to declare he has been " tricked " into reading an entire book . Through the rise and fall of Butters ' career as an author , the episode also demonstrates the perils of literary success and hoaxes . The episode also mocks the idea that a book can be identified as the sole causation for a reader to commit violent crimes , particularly through Butters ' reaction to The Tale of Scrotie McBoogerballs . Butters experiences blackouts after reading The Catcher in the Rye and plans to kill both John Lennon and Ronald Reagan , until he disappointedly learns they are already dead .
= = Cultural references = =
The Catcher in the Rye , the 1951 novel about teenage confusion and alienation by J.D. Salinger , plays a large part in " The Tale of Scrotie McBoogerballs " . The episode references the controversial reception the book has received over the years for its risqué elements and vulgar language . Mr. Garrison tells the students the book has only recently been lifted from the South Park Elementary 's banned books list , a reference to past censorship the book has received in public schools . The episode also refers to the alleged role The Catcher in the Rye played in inspiring Mark David Chapman to shoot and kill musician John Lennon , and John Hinckley , Jr. to attempt to assassinate former U.S. President Ronald Reagan . Lennon , a former member of The Beatles and long @-@ time peace activist , is referred to by Cartman as " the king of hippies " . Butters and the eventual murderer rail against ' phonies ' in the same manner as Holden Caulfield in Salinger 's book . " The Tale of Scrotie McBoogerballs " aired two months after the death of author J.D. Salinger , and just weeks after letters by J.D. Salinger went on display at The Morgan Library & Museum in New York City .
The episode also prominently features the Kardashian family , who are the focus of the E ! reality series Keeping Up with the Kardashians . Sarah Jessica Parker , an actress who has been mocked on South Park before , is also lampooned in the story .
During one scene , Butters appears on Today , a morning talk show on NBC ( referred to as HBC in the episode , but with NBC 's peacock logo ) , to promote his book . Television hosts Matt Lauer and Meredith Vieira are featured in the scene , during which both vomit for a particularly long time in response to some of the more vulgar passages in The Tale of Scrotie McBoogerballs . Morgan Freeman , an actor known for his narration work , conducts a reading in the episode of Butters ' second book , The Poop That Took a Pee . Trey Parker provided the voice of Freeman in " The Tale of Scrotie McBoogerballs " . During one scene , Butters ' father can be seen reading a newspaper with a front page story about a historic health care bill passing , a reference to the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act , which was passed and signed the same week the South Park episode first aired .
= = Release and reception = =
In its original American broadcast on March 24 , 2010 , " The Tale of Scrotie McBoogerballs " was watched by 3 @.@ 24 million viewers , according to the Nielsen Media Research , making it the most watched cable television show of the night . The episode received an overall 1 @.@ 9 rating / 3 share . Among viewers between ages 18 and 49 , it received a 1 @.@ 8 rating / 5 share , and among male viewers between 18 and 34 , it received a 3 @.@ 5 rating / 12 share . As a result of the episode , the phrase " Scrotie McBoogerballs " was the top trending topic for March 25 on the social networking and microblogging website Twitter . " The Tale of Scrotie McBoogerballs " , along with the thirteen other episodes from South Park 's fourteenth season , was released on a three @-@ disc DVD set and two @-@ disc Blu @-@ ray set in the United States on April 26 , 2011 .
" The Tale of Scrotie McBoogerballs " received generally positive reviews . Carlos Delgado of iF Magazine called the episode a potential classic and a " phenomenal follow up showing " to the season premiere " Sexual Healing " , which he did not enjoy . Delgado said the script was intelligent and praised the theme of over @-@ analyzing art . He also praised the vomiting jokes , and said he could not remember the last time he laughed so hard during a South Park episode . Entertainment Weekly television columnist Ken Tucker said it was better than the season premiere , which he also praised . Tucker particularly enjoyed the satire of pop culture criticism , and wrote , " I 'd compare the Scrotie episode to the work of Rabelais , Henry Miller , and Dennis Cooper , but then I 'd be part of the boys ' satire , wouldn 't I ? "
TV Fanatic said the episode was not as strong as previous seasons , but an improvement over " Sexual Healing " . The site praised the emphasis on Butters and the pop culture references to The Catcher in the Rye , John Lennon , Sarah Jessica Parker and " the useless Kardashian Klan " . The A.V. Club writer Sean O 'Neal said he " chuckled a few times " , but found the vomit jokes acted like a substitute for " actual dialogue " . However , O 'Neal praised the satire of people looking too deeply into the meaning of meaningless art , and how easily that theme can be applied to South Park itself . Not all reviews were entirely positive . Ramsey Isler of IGN said Butters was " awesome , as usual " , and thought the jokes about the Kardashians were funny , but that the positive elements of the episode were " not enough to balance out the failures " . He particularly criticized the Sarah Jessica Parker jokes as " flat and random " , and the constant vomiting as " just one long @-@ running ' joke ' that was just plain awful " .
The day after " The Tale of Scrotie McBoogerballs " aired , members of the Kardashian family responded positively to their portrayal and on @-@ screen deaths . On her blog , Kim Kardashian wrote that the family found the episode very funny and were honored to be featured in the episode . She wrote , " We were all dying when we saw this clip from South Park that aired last night ... literally , LOL . They killed us all ! ! ! " She also wrote , " I managed to survive the longest ... of course ! " Kourtney Kardashian joked on her Twitter page , " How rude ! Southpark ! ! " , Khloé Kardashian wrote she did not know about her appearance on the show until she suddenly received numerous messages on her Twitter page . Khloé also said she found the scene funny , and laughed at how unattractively she and her sisters were portrayed , although she said the Bruce Jenner cartoon looked very realistic . She wrote , " Even though we all weren 't portrayed as the most attractive South Park characters , I was still so flattered since I love that show haha . "
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= The Concert for Bangladesh ( album ) =
The Concert for Bangladesh – originally titled The Concert for Bangla Desh – is a live triple album by George Harrison and celebrity friends , released on Apple Records in December 1971 in America and January 1972 in Britain . The album followed the two concerts of the same name , held on 1 August 1971 at New York 's Madison Square Garden , featuring Harrison , Bob Dylan , Ravi Shankar , Ali Akbar Khan , Ringo Starr , Billy Preston , Leon Russell and Eric Clapton . The shows were a pioneering charity event , in aid of the homeless Bengali refugees of the Bangladesh Liberation War , and set the model for future multi @-@ artist rock benefits such as Live Aid ( 1985 ) and the Concert for New York City ( 2001 ) .
Co @-@ produced by Phil Spector and featuring the latter 's signature Wall of Sound in a live setting , the fundraiser album was delayed for three months due to protracted negotiations between Harrison and two record companies keen to protect their business interests , Capitol and Columbia / CBS . Besides the main performers , the musicians and singers on the recording include Badfinger , Jim Horn , Klaus Voormann , Alla Rakha , Jim Keltner , Jesse Ed Davis and Claudia Linnear . The box set 's original packaging included a 64 @-@ page book containing photos from the concerts ; the album cover , designed by Tom Wilkes , consisted of an image of a malnourished child sitting beside an empty food bowl .
On release , The Concert for Bangladesh was a major critical and commercial success , topping albums charts around the world , and went on to win the Grammy Award for Album of the Year in March 1973 . Together with the 1972 Apple concert film directed by Saul Swimmer , the album gained Indian classical music its largest Western audience up until that time . The album was reissued in 2005 , in remastered form , featuring a new cover .
Among the many words of acclaim that have been written about The Concert for Bangladesh since its release , author Tom Moon describes it as an album to play " whenever your faith in the power of music begins to wane " . Sales of The Concert for Bangladesh continue to benefit the George Harrison Fund for UNICEF , which raised $ 1 @.@ 2 million for children in the Horn of Africa , in a 2011 campaign marking the album 's 40th anniversary .
= = The concerts = =
While in Los Angeles in June 1971 , and after being made aware of the gravity of the situation in what was then known as East Pakistan by friend and musician Ravi Shankar , George Harrison set about organising two fundraising concerts at Madison Square Garden , New York , to aid the war @-@ ravaged and disaster @-@ stricken country . In the middle of these hurried preparations , he composed the song " Bangla Desh " in order to call further attention to the Bengalis ' cause , and rush @-@ released it as a charity single four days before the shows . Riding high with the recent success of his All Things Must Pass triple album , Harrison then headlined the all @-@ star UNICEF benefit concerts , backed by a 24 @-@ piece band of musicians and singers , on Sunday , 1 August 1971 . Equally notable were appearances by fellow ex @-@ Beatle Ringo Starr and Bob Dylan , both of whom , like Harrison , had been mostly unavailable to concert audiences for several years . In Dylan 's case , it was his first appearance on a major US concert stage in five years , and his participation in the event had been uncertain until he walked on for his segment midway through the afternoon show .
The concerts were highly successful in raising international awareness of the plight of the refugees – thought to number up to 10 million – and a cheque for over US $ 243 @,@ 000 was soon sent to UNICEF for relief . The media lavished praise on Harrison as an ambassador for rock altruism and hailed the event as proof that " the Utopian spirit of the Sixties was still flickering " , as Rolling Stone magazine put it . With concert recording having been carried out at Madison Square Garden by Gary Kellgren , using the Record Plant 's 16 @-@ track mobile unit , Harrison intended to raise significantly more money via a live album of the event , to be issued on the Beatles ' Apple Records label , followed by Apple Films ' concert documentary , also to be titled The Concert for Bangladesh .
= = Album preparation = =
During his and Shankar 's press conference in New York on 27 July , Harrison had stated that a live album might be ready for release within ten days of the shows . Although this estimate would turn out to be highly optimistic , the following year , in an effort to foil concert bootleggers , Elvis Presley succeeded in delivering a live album just eight days after his own , much @-@ publicised Madison Square Garden shows .
Harrison and co @-@ producer Phil Spector began working on the Bangladesh recordings on 2 August , and work continued there at the Record Plant for around a week . Spector later talked of them spending " six months " mixing what amounted to a total of four hours of music ; in fact , the process took just over a month , as Harrison told talk @-@ show host Dick Cavett that November . In their book Eight Arms to Hold You , Chip Madinger and Mark Easter question the extent of Spector 's involvement , citing Harrison 's subsequent lauding of Kellgren 's role in " capturing the performances " on 1 August , as well as the fact that Spector was " in and out of hospital " during this time , similar to his erratic attendance at the All Things Must Pass sessions in 1970 .
= = = Concert recordings = = =
Speaking in 2011 , Spector identified two issues that prolonged the live album 's preparation , both of them reflective of the haste with which the concerts came together : " It was chaos [ setting up at Madison Square Garden ] – we had three hours to mic the band , then the audience came in , and we didn 't know how to mic the audience . " And rather than a standard " band " , this was a full Wall of Sound orchestra : two drummers ( Ringo Starr and Jim Keltner ) , two keyboard players ( Billy Preston and Leon Russell ) , six horn players ( led by Jim Horn ) , three electric guitarists ( Harrison , Eric Clapton and Jesse Ed Davis ) , a trio of acoustic guitars to be " felt but not heard " ( Badfinger 's Pete Ham , Tom Evans and Joey Molland ) , the seven members of Don Nix 's " Soul Choir " , together with bassist Klaus Voormann and a dedicated percussion player , Mike Gibbins of Badfinger . In his review of the Concert for Bangladesh film for NME , John Pidgeon described the scene as " a roadie 's nightmare of instruments , mikes , amps and speakers " .
Before the Western portion of the concerts , there were the traditionally hard @-@ to @-@ record Indian string instruments of Ravi Shankar and Ali Akbar Khan to amplify , together with Alla Rakha 's tabla and the drone @-@ enhancing tambura , played by Kamala Chakravarty – each offering natural musical tones so easily lost in the " cavernous Garden " . An additional challenge for Kellgren had been the need to capture the dynamics of a well @-@ paced show designed around professionally presented hit songs , rather than a loose superstar jam .
= = = Post @-@ production = = =
With ongoing friendships a priority , Harrison had promised the main participants that , should things turn out badly on 1 August , they could be excluded from any album or film release . According to Madinger and Easter , he took early mixes of the concert tapes to Dylan for the latter 's approval . Of all the featured performers , only Leon Russell chose to intervene , necessitating a reworking of his " Jumpin ' Jack Flash / Youngblood " medley , which he apparently remixed himself . Post @-@ production on the Madison Square Garden recordings was minimal , the known examples being Harrison 's double @-@ tracked lead vocal on the bridges of " While My Guitar Gently Weeps " , and a composite edit of his opening song , " Wah @-@ Wah " , which was assembled from both the shows . In addition , it is possible that Shankar and Khan 's " Bangla Dhun " was severely edited down : Harrison later described their set as having lasted 45 minutes , yet the running time on the album is under seventeen minutes and in the film just fifteen .
The final mix down of the recordings , for album and film use , was carried out in Los Angeles in September , by A & M Studios engineers Norman Kinney and Steve Mitchell . In their joint interview for the 2005 Concert for Bangladesh Revisited documentary , Kinney and Mitchell confirm that music from both the afternoon ( matinee ) and evening performances was used for the concert film and live album ; they also state that Spector repeatedly instructed them to increase the volume of the audience in the mixes , in a search for more " feel of the room " in the end result . The second show was preferred when it came to selecting the best concert audio . The exceptions are as follows : " Wah @-@ Wah " , which starts off with the evening version but cuts to the matinee at 2 : 53 ; Harrison 's band introduction and " While My Guitar Gently Weeps " , both sourced from the first show ; and Russell 's medley , which is also from the matinee on the album , but in the concert film , the audio cuts to the evening show during " Youngblood " .
Harrison 's geniality as a host was well represented on the recordings . As with Shankar 's pre- " Bangla Dhun " address , Harrison 's band introductions , complete with Russell and Voormann breaking into " Yellow Submarine " when Starr 's name is mentioned , and his other on @-@ stage dialogue – particularly the concert @-@ sealing " Like to bring on a friend of us all ... Mr Bob Dylan " – would become as integral to the legacy of the event as the music itself .
= = Record company obstruction = =
On 23 August , press reports appeared citing " legal problems " as the reason behind the delaying of the much @-@ anticipated live album – problems that would turn out to be a disagreement between EMI @-@ owned Capitol Records ( Apple 's US distributor ) and Columbia Records ( Dylan 's label ) over who had a rightful claim to release the album . Columbia / CBS were eventually mollified with the granting of tape distribution rights in North America , and record and tape distribution in the rest of the world . Another stumbling block was Capitol 's insistence that they receive monetary compensation , thought to be around $ 400 @,@ 000 , for what the company perceived to be vast production and distribution costs for the boxed three @-@ record set . It was a position from which EMI chairman Bhaskar Menon refused to budge , while Harrison was equally adamant that , since all the artists were providing their services for free and Apple was supplying the album packaging at no charge , the record company " must give up something " also .
With the sound mix being completed in LA , Harrison spent most of September 1971 in New York working on the problematic film footage of the concert , before heading to London . There he attended the re @-@ opening of Apple Studio on 30 September and produced new signing Lon & Derrek Van Eaton 's debut single , as well as enduring a fruitless meeting with the British Treasury 's financial secretary – the latter activity in an attempt to have the government waive its standard purchase tax , and so keep the album affordable to record @-@ buyers . Harrison returned to New York on 5 October and announced that the Bangladesh live album would be issued during the following month . At this time , with concert bootlegs now on the market , posters were placed in record shops bearing the slogan : " Save a starving child . Don 't buy a bootleg ! "
In the fourth week of November – well into the lucrative Christmas sales period and close to four months after the concerts – Harrison voiced his frustration at the stalemate with Capitol on ABC 's late @-@ night chat show , The Dick Cavett Show . Harrison was on the program to promote the Raga documentary with Shankar , but after making a surprise guest performance with Gary Wright 's new band Wonderwheel , he launched into a complaint about his US record company 's interference and threatened to take the whole album package to Columbia . With the outburst attracting unfavourable attention in the press , where Capitol were viewed as " profiteering on the backs of famine victims " , the company eventually backed down and agreed to release the album on Harrison 's terms . Of all the labels involved , only Columbia would make any money from The Concert for Bangladesh – 25 cents on every copy sold . Although none of these royalties went to the artist , Dylan and his record company were already benefiting from the exposure provided by the Bangladesh concerts , through the timely release of Bob Dylan 's Greatest Hits Vol . II . Of the other featured artists at the Concert for Bangladesh , the careers of both Preston ( A & M Records ) and Russell ( Shelter ) likewise prospered as a result of their participation , but their record companies imposed no such conditions on Apple and Capitol . In January 1972 , Melody Maker 's Richard Williams remarked in his Concert for Bangladesh album review : " Between them , Capitol and CBS have proved that , when it comes to awareness and enlightenment , the business is still several years behind the musicians . "
Once the album had been granted a release date , Apple 's financial terms ensured that as much money as possible would be raised from each copy sold , but that it would be difficult for retailers to profit financially . Some retailers responded with " shameless price gouging " on the three @-@ record set , apparently at Capitol 's recommendation . Following the protracted negotiations surrounding the live album 's distribution , Harrison 's disaffection with EMI / Capitol was a key factor behind his signing with A & M Records in January 1976 .
= = Album artwork = =
The album 's packaging was designed by Camouflage Productions partners Tom Wilkes and Barry Feinstein , the same team responsible for All Things Must Pass , rock music 's first boxed triple album . Along with Alan Pariser , both Wilkes and Feinstein had taken stills photographs at Madison Square Garden , at the soundcheck on 31 July and during the concerts the next day , the results filling the 64 @-@ page full @-@ colour booklet accompanying the original album . Also used as the Concert for Bangladesh movie poster , the album @-@ cover photograph – the " haunting " image of a malnourished young child sitting naked behind a wide , empty food bowl , author Bruce Spizer writes – was a still taken from news agency film footage and airbrushed extensively by Wilkes . Having created the provocative , headline @-@ filled picture sleeve for Harrison 's " Bangla Desh " single earlier in the year , Wilkes was keen to capture " real human compassion " in this cover and poster image .
The booklet 's back @-@ cover picture showed an open guitar case filled with food and medical supplies , below a copy of the cheque for the Madison Square Garden box @-@ office takings . Wilkes intended this image to convey a sense of hope , signifying the completion of the task that the participants had set out to achieve for the refugees from East Pakistan .
The three vinyl LPs and booklet were housed inside a deep orange @-@ coloured box . The 1991 CD release placed the cover photo on a white background , however , replicating the front of the original album booklet . As commentators noted in 1991 , the necessary downsizing to CD dimensions meant that much of the effectiveness of the booklet photography was lost , not least because the contents had also been trimmed down to just 36 pages .
Further changes to Camouflage 's design concept occurred for the 2005 CD remaster and DVD release . In 1971 , Capitol executives had been concerned that the cover image was too " depressing " and uncommercial , according to Jon Taplin , who served as production manager at the Madison Square concerts ; Harrison had been resolute , however , and so Wilkes 's design was used . In October 2005 , four years after Harrison 's death , the remastered Concert for Bangladesh releases appeared with a photo of him on the cover , although the special @-@ edition DVD retained the original image .
= = Release = =
The Concert for Bangladesh was released in the United States on 20 December 1971 , and in Britain on 10 January 1972 , with the same Apple Records catalogue number ( STCX 3385 ) in both territories . The retail price for the lavishly packaged triple album was set at $ 12 @.@ 98 in America and an extraordinarily high £ 5 @.@ 50 in the UK , due to the purchase tax surcharge there . The prices drew some criticism , from Harrison for one , even if it was accepted that the proceeds were going to those in desperate need – or , as Beatles Forever author Nicholas Schaffner wrote in 1977 , to " a nation still viewed as the worst pocket of misery on earth " . Similarly , the relief project 's funds controversy and tax problems , which came to light shortly after the release of the live album , were a source of frustration and embarrassment to Harrison , but commentators have noted that these problems took nothing away from the " resounding success " of Harrison and Shankar 's Bangladesh relief project .
Despite the cost , the album was an immediate commercial success . In America , it spent six weeks at number 2 on the Billboard Top LPs chart , kept from the top by Don McLean 's American Pie , which was one of the top @-@ selling albums there for 1972 . On the other US charts , compiled by Cash Box and Record World , the live album peaked at number 2 and number 1 , respectively . In the UK , The Concert for Bangladesh became Harrison 's second number 1 album , after All Things Must Pass in early 1971 . The album was certified gold by the RIAA on 4 January 1972 for sales of over 500 @,@ 000 units .
In March 1973 , The Concert for Bangladesh 's significance was further underlined when it won the Grammy Award for Album of the Year . In Harrison 's absence , Ringo Starr attended the awards ceremony in Nashville and carried off a tray of Grammys , one for each of the featured performers . Author Peter Lavezzoli writes that , with the success of the live album and Saul Swimmer 's concert documentary , which opened in US cinemas in March 1972 , Indian classical music reached its largest Western audience to date through the Concert for Bangladesh .
= = = Reissue = = =
The Concert for Bangladesh was first issued on CD on 30 July 1991 in America and 19 August in Britain . It was presented as a two @-@ disc set , with significant editing of the breaks between songs . Having stated his disappointment in a 1988 interview that the album had been allowed to go out of print , Harrison recorded a promotional interview on the 20th anniversary of the concerts , to accompany the CD release .
Harrison was working on a reissue of the album and film before his death in November 2001 . Although the project was due for release the following year , the new editions were not made available until 24 October 2005 . The album was remastered for this release , with the heavily revised packaging credited to Wherefore Art ? , and the addition of Dylan 's afternoon @-@ show performance of " Love Minus Zero / No Limit " as a bonus track . The reissue coincided with the concert film 's first international release on DVD , accompanied by the Concert for Bangladesh Revisited with George Harrison and Friends making @-@ of documentary , which was directed by Claire Ferguson and co @-@ produced by Olivia Harrison .
Sales of the album and DVD continue to benefit the George Harrison Fund for UNICEF . In 2011 , as one of the fund 's projects to mark the 40th anniversary of the concerts and the live album 's release , and in conjunction with UNICEF 's " Month of Giving " campaign , the George Harrison Fund for UNICEF raised over $ 1 @.@ 2 million in emergency relief for children in famine- and drought @-@ stricken areas of the Horn of Africa .
= = Critical reception = =
= = = On release and through the 1970s = = =
" If you buy only one LP in 1972 , make it this one , " Richard Williams wrote in Melody Maker , echoing the goodwill felt throughout the music press towards the Bangladesh relief project . Williams lavished praise on every one of the triple album 's seventeen selections : Ravi Shankar and Ali Akbar Khan 's interplay towards the end of " Bangla Dhun " made for a " marvellous opening " ( like " Charlie Parker trading licks with Johnny Hodges " , he noted ) ; Harrison 's trio of All Things Must Pass tracks were " [ u ] nbelievably ... in some ways even better " than the originals , with Ringo Starr and Jim Keltner 's drumming " just breathtaking " on " Awaiting on You All " ; Billy Preston 's " That 's the Way God Planned It " was " feverishly exciting " , the audience " absolutely wild " by the end of the song . " Can all this be happening ? " Williams asked , even before moving on to the second of the three discs .
Rolling Stone magazine continued its near @-@ deification of the event as a defining moment in the evolution of rock ' n ' roll , with Jon Landau declaring : " The Concert for Bangla Desh is rock reaching for its manhood " , and as for Harrison : " the spirit he creates through his own demeanor is inspirational . From the personal point of view , Concert for Bangla Desh was George 's moment . He put it together ; and he pulled it off , and for that he deserves the admiration of all of us . " To the Rolling Stone writer , the highpoint of the album was the closing " Bangla Desh " , whose lyrics were no longer " an expression of intent but of an accomplished mission " . Landau had praise for the pacing and professionalism of the entire show , the only " incongruous " moment being Leon Russell 's " Jumpin ' Jack Flash " / " Youngblood " segment , since it was straight from the singer 's usual repertoire .
The NME 's Roy Carr and Tony Tyler were equally generous in their appraisal of " probably the greatest indoor rock ' n ' roll event ever held " ; to them , Bob Dylan 's five @-@ song set " easily justified " the album 's price tag . As at the time of the concerts , much was made by album reviewers of the change in Dylan 's singing voice , as well as his choice of songs , which harked back to the so @-@ called " protest period " of 1962 – 64 and the subsequent creative zenith that culminated in his Blonde on Blonde album ( 1966 ) .
Having attended the concerts six months before , Ed Kelleher of Circus magazine was relieved to discover that the live album didn 't just do justice to the " magic ... the sheer joy " of the event , but rather its music " practically jumps right out into your life " . After singling out as defining moments Dylan 's " Just Like a Woman " ( " it 's enough to make you cry and smile at once " ) , Russell 's medley and Harrison 's " Here Comes the Sun " , along with the talents of Shankar – " the most masterful and accomplished of them all " – Kelleher admitted to the futility of trying to identify " individual highlights " on an album that was " one consistent high " . In fact , almost every selection on the three @-@ record set was named as a highlight by one reviewer or another : Preston 's " That 's the Way God Planned It " coming as a " sheer delight " to Landau , Harrison 's " Something " especially " delicate and moving " to Playboy 's album reviewer , Dylan 's " A Hard Rain 's A @-@ Gonna Fall " resonating most with Nicholas Schaffner , while to Richard Williams , " Just Like a Woman " was " the masterpiece " .
" While My Guitar Gently Weeps " was a track that received significant attention , thanks to the guitar " duelling " between Harrison and his ailing friend , Eric Clapton . Writing in Rolling Stone Press ' Harrison tribute , Greg Kot views the performance as " a snapshot of early @-@ Seventies rock royalty " ; yet their joint soloing was about friendship , writes musical biographer Simon Leng , rather than the " six @-@ string ego battles " or " macho showdowns " so typical of that decade . Author Tom Moon describes their interplay as two guitarists " finish [ ing ] each other 's thoughts " . In The Village Voice 's inaugural Pazz & Jop poll , critics voted The Concert for Bangladesh the eighth best album out of all releases for that year .
= = = Legacy = = =
While the technical imperfections of the concert recordings were overlooked in 1972 – or even applauded for their adding to the " honesty " of the moment , in the case of Starr forgetting the lyrics to " It Don 't Come Easy " – reviewers of the first CD @-@ format album remarked on the relatively poor sound quality . In his review for AllMusic in 2001 , Bruce Eder noted the " less @-@ than @-@ perfect sound " while still viewing the album as a " unique live document showcasing Harrison near his best " . Another point of contention , though mainly among Harrison 's biographers , concerns Leon Russell . Alan Clayson bristles at the omnipresence of the Oklahoman singer and musician – " the epitome of the self @-@ satisfied sexism of the Delaney and Bonnie super @-@ sidemen " , Clayson writes – and the fact that his turn in the spotlight so blatantly became " The Leon Russell Show " . Leng likewise bemoans Russell 's " consciously extreme hollerin ' " , and finds his delivery pales beside the " unaffected naïveté " of Billy Preston and particularly the " knife @-@ edge emotions " of Harrison and Shankar , which only Dylan can match . In The Rolling Stone Album Guide ( 1992 ) , Paul Evans gave the record three stars and preferred the Dylan set over Harrison 's songs .
The Concert for Bangladesh is continually viewed in a highly favourable light by critics in retrospective reviews . Among reviews of the 2005 reissue , Mojo described the remastered sound as " sumptuous " while AllMusic 's Richard Ginell wrote : " Hands down , this epochal concert ... was the crowning event of George Harrison 's public life , a gesture of great goodwill that captured the moment in history and , not incidentally , produced some rousing music as a permanent legacy . " Writing in Rolling Stone that year , Anthony DeCurtis said : " The Concert for Bangladesh is rightly enshrined in rock history as the model for Band Aid , Live Aid , Live 8 and every other superstar benefit concert of the last three decades ... In emphasizing the concert 's idealism , however , it 's easy to overlook what a musical gem this two @-@ disc set is . " Dan Ouellette of Billboard considered that " The star @-@ studded package holds up well as a live greatest @-@ hits collection " , before concluding : " But the revelation is the exhilarating concert lift @-@ off , the improv @-@ laced eastern Indian classical tune ' Bangla Dhun , ' featuring sitar master Ravi Shankar . "
In his entry for the album in 1 @,@ 000 Recordings to Hear Before You Die , Tom Moon advises his readers : " Pull this out whenever your faith in the power of music begins to wane . " The Concert for Bangladesh also features in Sean Egan 's 2006 book 100 Albums That Changed Music and in The Mojo Collection : The Greatest Albums of All Time .
= = Track listing = =
= = = Original release = = =
= = = 2005 remaster = = =
Disc one
The first disc contains the ten tracks from side one to side three of the original release .
Disc two
The second disc contains the nine tracks from side four to side six of the original release , together with :
= = = 2011 40th anniversary reissue = = =
A download @-@ only version of the album per the 2005 remaster , with a second bonus track exclusive to iTunes :
= = Personnel = =
Credited as " The Artists " :
George Harrison – vocals , electric and acoustic guitars , backing vocals
Ravi Shankar – sitar
Bob Dylan – vocals , acoustic guitar , harmonica
Leon Russell – piano , vocals , bass , backing vocals
Ringo Starr – drums , vocals , tambourine
Billy Preston – Hammond organ , vocals
Eric Clapton – electric guitar
Ali Akbar Khan – sarod
Alla Rakha – tabla
Kamala Chakravarty – tambura
The Band :
Jesse Ed Davis – electric guitar
Klaus Voormann – bass
Jim Keltner – drums
Pete Ham – acoustic guitar
Tom Evans – twelve @-@ string acoustic guitar
Joey Molland – acoustic guitar
Mike Gibbins – tambourine , maracas
Don Preston – electric guitar , vocals ( on " Jumpin ' Jack Flash " / " Young Blood " and " Bangla Desh " only )
Carl Radle – bass ( on " Jumpin ' Jack Flash " / " Young Blood " only )
The Hollywood Horns :
Jim Horn – saxophones , horn arrangements
Chuck Findley – trumpet
Jackie Kelso – saxophones
Allan Beutler – saxophones
Lou McCreary – trombone
Ollie Mitchell – trumpet
The Backing Vocalists / Soul Choir :
Claudia Linnear , Jo Green , Jeanie Greene , Marlin Greene , Dolores Hall , Don Nix , Don Preston – backing vocals , percussion
= = Accolades = =
= = = Grammy Awards = = =
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = = Weekly charts = = =
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= Lockdown ( 2005 ) =
Lockdown ( 2005 ) was a professional wrestling pay @-@ per @-@ view ( PPV ) event produced by the Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( TNA ) promotion , which took place on April 24 , 2005 , at the TNA Impact ! Zone in Orlando , Florida . It was the first event under the Lockdown chronology and the fourth event in the 2005 TNA PPV schedule . Eight professional wrestling matches and one pre @-@ show match were featured on the event 's card . Every match took place inside a six sided steel structure known as the Six Sides of Steel . As a result , Lockdown was the first @-@ ever all steel cage event held in professional wrestling .
The main event was for a NWA World Heavyweight Championship match at TNA 's Hard Justice PPV event between A.J. Styles and Abyss . Styles won the match , thus earning his title shot against then @-@ champion Jeff Jarrett at Hard Justice . TNA held the first @-@ ever Lethal Lockdown match during the event . It pitted Team Nash ( Diamond Dallas Page , Sean Waltman , and B.G. James ) against Team Jarrett ( Jeff Jarrett , Monty Brown , and The Outlaw ) , which Team Nash won . Kevin Nash was originally supposed to take part in the match but was removed due to sickness and was replaced with James . The TNA X Division Championship defense by Christopher Daniels against Elix Skipper was another highly promoted match for the event . Daniels won the bout and successfully retained the title . Jeff Hardy versus Raven in a Six Sides of Steel Tables match was featured on the card , which Hardy won .
This event marked the introduction of the Lethal Lockdown and Xscape matches , which became annually held matches at future Lockdown events . During the event , Chris Candido received an injury during his tag team match with Lance Hoyt against Apolo and Sonny Siaki , which later led to Candido 's death from a blood clot as a result of surgery for the injury . Jason Clevett of the professional wrestling section of the Canadian Online Explorer rated the event a 6 out of 10 , two marks lower than the 2006 event 's ranking by Chris Sokol .
= = Production = =
= = = Background = = =
TNA announced in a January 24 , 2005 , press release that they planned to host a PPV titled Lockdown on April 24 , 2005 at the TNA Impact ! Zone in Orlando , Florida . In late @-@ February 2005 , In Demand ran a preview and stated that there would be two steel cage matches held at Lockdown . A Six Man Tag Team match that featured Sean Waltman was thrown around prior to the event . TNA created a section for the event on their official website before it started . On the April 8 , 2005 episode of TNA 's television program TNA Impact ! , Director of Authority ( DOA ) Dusty Rhodes announced that all matches at Lockdown would be held inside a six sided steel structure known as the Six Sides of Steel . TNA followed up with a press release through their website that confirmed this . TNA issued a parental advisory a few days after the announcement due to violence associated with steel cage matches . A thirty @-@ minute pre @-@ show was planned before the spectacle that featured a Three Way Tag Team match between 3Live Kru ( Ron Killings and Konnan ) , David Young and Lex Lovett , and The Naturals ( Andy Douglas and Chase Stevens ) .
= = = Storylines = = =
Lockdown featured eight professional wrestling matches and one pre @-@ show match that involved different wrestlers from pre @-@ existing scripted feuds and storylines . Wrestlers portrayed villains , heroes , or less distinguishable characters in the scripted events that built tension and that culminated into a wrestling match or series of matches . Every match was contested inside the Six Sides of Steel .
Before the announcement that all matches be held inside the Six Sides of Steel , TNA advertised that only two would be under such rules . These two matches later became the headlining bouts for the card . The first was announced on the March 25 episode of Impact ! as Team Nash ( Kevin Nash , Sean Waltman , and Diamond Dallas Page ) versus Team Jarrett ( Jeff Jarrett , Monty Brown , and The Outlaw ) . Abyss versus A.J. Styles for a future NWA World Heavyweight Championship match was the second announced on the April 1 episode of Impact ! , which became the main event of the gathering . The storyline behind Styles versus Abyss began at TNA 's Against All Odds PPV event on February 13 , where Abyss defeated Jeff Hardy in a Full Metal Mayhem match to earn a future NWA World Heavyweight Championship title shot . During a backstage segment on the February 18 episode of Impact ! , Abyss gave the title match contract to Traci , wanting it given to DOA Dusty Rhodes as she was trying to become Rhodes ' personal assistant at the time . On the March 25 episode of Impact ! , Abyss tried to retrieve his contract from now co @-@ assistant to Rhodes , Traci . This led to a brawl with Styles as he tried to defend Traci and co @-@ assistant Trinity as they fled in fear from Abyss . The match was then announced on the April 1 episode of Impact ! . Rhodes announced on the April 8 episode of Impact ! that the winner of the bout would get their title shot at TNA 's Hard Justice PPV event on May 15 .
Team Nash versus Team Jarrett began on the March 18 episode of Impact ! when Nash requested a six man tag team cage match at Lockdown from Rhodes . The following week , Rhodes granted the request and officially announced it for the Lockdown card . On the April 8 episode of Impact ! , Rhodes proclaimed that the encounter was now a Lethal Lockdown match , in which weapons were legal and one wrestler from each team started the match . Afterwards , members from each team entered at time intervals until all wrestlers were involved in the bout so a pinfall or submission could occur . The storyline behind this encounter revolved around Jarrett and his reign as NWA World Heavyweight Champion . At Against All Odds , Jarrett successfully defended the title against Nash , which Waltman and The Outlaw interfered with by aiding Nash and Jarrett , respectively . At TNA 's previous PPV event Destination X on March 13 , Jarrett defended the title against Page , in which Brown turned on Page by helping Jarrett retain the title .
Elix Skipper challenged Christopher Daniels for the TNA X Division Championship at Lockdown . The build to this encounter began on the March 18 episode of Impact ! , when Skipper interrupted Daniels after a match and hinted at a future encounter . On the March 25 episode of Impact ! , TNA commentator Mike Tenay announced that a four way elimination match involving Chris Sabin , Michael Shane , Skipper , and Petey Williams would be held on the April 1 episode of Impact ! to determine Daniels ' opponent for the title at Lockdown . Skipper went on to win the match the following week , earning the opportunity to challenge for the title . The main surrounding storyline was that Daniels and Skipper used to be tag team partners as part of the group Triple X , which disbanded after losing a Six Sides of Steel Cage match against America 's Most Wanted ( Chris Harris and James Storm ) at TNA 's Turning Point PPV event on December 5 , 2004 . Jeff Hardy fought Raven in a Six Sides of Steel Tables match at Lockdown . On the March 25 episode of Impact ! , Raven offered Hardy an alliance , which Hardy turned down . On the April 1 episode of Impact ! , Raven attacked Hardy during an incident between Hardy and Abyss . Rhodes announced that the two would face at Lockdown in a Six Sides of Steel Tables match on the April 8 episode of Impact ! .
= = Event = =
= = = Pre @-@ Show = = =
Prior to the event 's commencement , TNA held a thirty @-@ minute pre @-@ show . It featured a Three Way Tag Team match between the 3Live Kru ( Ron Killings and Konnan ) , the team of David Young and Lex Lovett , and The Naturals ( Andy Douglas and Chase Stevens ) , who were accompanied by Chris Candido , which lasted 6 minutes and 34 seconds . 3Live Kru were the victors in the contest after Killings gained the pinfall by forcing Young 's face into the mat .
= = = On @-@ air employees = = =
The event featured employees other than the wrestlers involved in the matches . Mike Tenay and Don West were the commentators for the telecast . Jeremy Borash and David Penzer were ring announcers for the event . Andrew Thomas , Rudy Charles , and Mark " Slick " Johnson participated as referees for the encounters . Besides employees who appeared in a wrestling role , Kevin Nash , Coach D 'Amore , A @-@ 1 , Traci , Trinity , and DOA Dusty Rhodes all appeared on camera , either in backstage or in ringside segments . TNA announced via their official website a few days prior to the event that Kevin Nash would be unable to appear in the Lethal Lockdown match due to a staph infection . This was explained at the start of the telecast , and DOA Rhodes would announce Nash 's replacement later during the event .
= = = Preliminary matches = = =
The show opened with a Six Sides of Steel Tag Team Cage match that pitted the team of Apolo and Sonny Siaki against Chris Candido and Lance Hoyt , which lasted 6 minutes and 58 seconds . This was originally promoted as a bout between Hoyt and Apolo but was changed at the event . During the opening minutes , Candido suffered a bad fall and was helped to the backstage area . Siaki and Apolo won the contest after Siaki performed a splash from the top of a padded turnbuckle on Hoyt .
Dustin Rhodes fought Bobby Roode , who was accompanied by Coach D 'Amore and A @-@ 1 , in what was billed as a Prince of Darkness match next . The duration of the bout was 15 minutes and 20 seconds . In this contest , there would be three falls , but the third fall would be contested under blindfold match rules , in which both wrestlers wore hoods over their heads . Roode earned the first fall with a roll @-@ up pin , and Dustin earned the second one when he forced Roode face @-@ first into the mat from the top rope . During the third fall , both wrestlers wore black hoods that impaired their vision , causing Dustin to accidentally knock the referee unconscious in storyline terms . Due to this , D 'Amore opened the cage door and passed Roode a steel folding chair . Roode then attempted to bash Dustin with it but instead mistakenly struck D 'Amore . Dustin then grabbed the chair and struck Roode with it , which gave him the pinfall as the referee came to .
TNA held the first @-@ ever Xscape match between Shocker , Michael Shane ( who was accompanied Trinity ) , Sonjay Dutt , and Chris Sabin in the following bout . It lasted 15 minutes and 42 seconds . In this match , the four competitors fought until two were eliminated by pinfall or submission ; the two remaining wrestlers then fought to escape from the cage , with the first to do so the winner . Dutt was the first wrestler eliminated after Shocker slammed him into the steel cage . After this elimination , Trinity climbed up to the top of the cage and performed a backflip off the top onto the three wrestlers below . Traci then entered the arena and forced Trinity to the backstage area . The second eliminated was Shane , after Sabin forced him back @-@ first into the mat with his signature maneuver the Cradle Shock . Sabin and Shocker remained as they both fought to escape the cage , which Shocker did first to win the contest .
The fourth encounter was a Six Sides of Steel Tables match between Jeff Hardy and Raven , which lasted 11 minutes and 51 seconds . In a tables match , two opponents fight until one is forced through a table by the other . At one point during the contest , Hardy laid Raven on a table then ascended to the top of the cage . Hardy followed by jumping off and performing a front @-@ flip towards Raven , who moved out of the way and caused Hardy to crash through the table . Due to not being forced through by Raven , the match continued until Hardy laid Raven on a stack of four tables . Hardy then jumped off the top of the cage onto Raven in a seated position , forcing him through all the tables and winning the encounter .
America 's Most Wanted ( Chris Harris and James Storm ) defended the NWA World Tag Team Championship against Team Canada ( Eric Young and Petey Williams ) , who were accompanied by A @-@ 1 , in a Six Sides of Steel Strap match next . It lasted 14 minutes even . In a strap match , wrestlers are attached by a strap for the duration of the match , but they mainly used it as a weapon . AMW retained the titles after forcing Williams into the mat by performing their signature maneuver , the Death Sentence .
= = = Main event matches = = =
The TNA X Division Championship was defended in a bout that lasted 15 minutes and 28 seconds between then @-@ champion Christopher Daniels and Elix Skipper . During the encounter , Daniels performed his signature backflip , the Best Moonsault Ever , on Skipper , which earned him a near @-@ fall . Skipper later jumped off the top of the cage and bashed Daniels in the back of the head with his forearm . This also gained Skipper a near @-@ fall . Daniels went on to perform his signature maneuver , the Angel Wings , on Skipper , which forced him face @-@ first into the mat and allowed him to gain the pinfall and to retain the title .
Team Nash ( Diamond Dallas Page , Sean Waltman , and an unknown member ) fought Team Jarrett ( Jeff Jarrett , Monty Brown , and The Outlaw ) in the first @-@ ever three @-@ on @-@ three Lethal Lockdown match , which ran 15 minutes and 35 seconds . Waltman and Jarrett started the match by fighting through the crowd before entering the cage . After five minutes , The Outlaw joined the match and helped Jarrett attack Waltman . Diamond Dallas Page entered the match two minutes later and attacked Jarrett and The Outlaw with a cane . Following another two minutes , Brown joined the fray , finished out Team Jarrett , and threw Waltman into the cage wall . The final member of Team Nash was revealed after the final two minutes , as B.G. James was thrown into the mix that allowed a pinfall or submission to occur . Brown gained a near @-@ fall for Team Jarrett on James after forcing him into a trash can with his signature maneuver , the Pounce . Eventually , Waltman performed a move called a hurricanrana on Brown , leading to the pinfall and victory .
The main event was between A.J. Styles and Abyss , in which the winner received an NWA World Heavyweight Championship match at Hard Justice . Its duration was 18 minutes even . The match began on the outside as Styles performed a front @-@ flip onto Abyss , who was standing in the doorway of the cage . Later , as Styles was about to enter the cage , Abyss slammed the door twice into Styles , while the second door slam the second hit him in the face and caused him to crash to the floor and to bleed from the forehead . During the contest , Abyss used a steel chain as a weapon to help open up Styles ' wound more . At one point , Abyss opened a bag and poured a large number of thumbtacks onto the mat , then proceeding to try to slam Styles into them . Styles countered and slammed Abyss face @-@ first into the tacks instead with his signature maneuver , the Styles Clash . Near the end of the contest , Styles climbed the steel cage and stood on the top , but Abyss grabbed and threw the referee into the cage wall , causing Styles to fall and barely hang on . Abyss then followed by climbing the cage and by hanging Styles by the neck for a brief time with the steel chain . Then , Styles performed a sunset flip powerbomb and slammed Abyss into the tacks back @-@ first . He followed by covering for the three count , winning of the encounter and earning his future title match .
= = Reception = =
A total of 775 people attended the event . Canadian Online Explorer writer Jason Clevett rated the entire event a 6 out of 10 , which was lower than the 8 out of 10 given to the 2006 Lockdown event by Chris Sokol . A rating was not given to TNA 's previous event Destination X , but Clevett gave a rating of 7 out of 10 in his review of TNA 's Against All Odds . Compared to rival World Wrestling Entertainment 's WrestleMania 21 PPV event held on April 4 , Lockdown was rated lower , Dale Plummer and Nick Tylwalk gave WrestleMania a 7 out of 10 . Regarding the overall event , Clevett felt the all cage match format was " too much of a good thing " . He went on to state that by the end of the event he " was tired of seeing the cage " , but that Styles and Abyss " quickly brought my interest back with a brutal and fun bout that ended off the show on a positive note " . When speaking of the TNA X Division Championship match , Clevett wrote that he felt it " was technically a very good match " , but he " expected more considering the talent involved " . However , he felt that the psychological aspect was " excellent " regarding the two former Triple X partners ' counters of each other 's moves . Clevett gave the highest match rating of 8 @.@ 5 out of 10 to the main event , while he gave the lowest rating of 2 out of 10 to the Prince of Darkness match . He gave the Lethal Lockdown match a 5 out of 10 , while he gave the X Division Title match an 8 out of 10 .
Wade Keller of the Pro Wrestling Torch rated the main event and the X Division Championship match 3 and a half stars out of 5 , while he rated the Lethal Lockdown match a 2 and three @-@ fourths out of 5 . He gave the lowest ranking to the Prince of Darkness match , at a fourth of a star . Keller commented on the main event as not being " bad at all , but not quite at a four @-@ star level " . He felt that if there had not been " any other cage matches or stunt bumps , it might have been four @-@ stars @-@ plus " . Regarding the Lethal Lockdown match , Keller believed the bout " felt rushed " . As for the X Division Championship defense , Keller stated that it was a " good match " . When speaking on Candido 's injury , Keller stated it was " absolutely brutal looking " and felt it was an " obvious full snapping of his ankle bone " . 411Mania 's Ronnie LaFianza rated Lockdown an overall 8 out of 10 . The main event was given 4 and three @-@ fourths stars out of 5 , the Lethal Lockdown match 2 and a half stars , and the X Division Championship defense 3 and a half stars . LaFianza felt the event " just seemed to get better and better as it went on " , but felt it was a " pretty average PPV leading up into the main event " . On August 19 , 2005 , the event was released on DVD by TNA Home Video . A DVD boxset called " TNA Anthology : The Epic Set " , including Lockdown , TNA 's November 2004 Victory Road PPV event , and the 2004 Turning Point event was also released on September 20 , 2005 . TNA released a DVD counting down the top 50 moments in their history in 2007 , and Lockdown was the first all steel cage PPV listed at number 23 .
= = Aftermath = =
After Lockdown on the April 29 episode of Impact ! , DOA Dusty Rhodes announced that A.J. Styles would face Jeff Jarrett for the NWA World Heavyweight Championship at Hard Justice with Tito Ortiz as the Special Guest Referee . Styles went on to Hard Justice to defeat Jarrett and win the championship . Styles held the title until TNA 's Slammiversary PPV event on June 19 , where he lost the title in a five @-@ man King of the Mountain match to Raven , which also involved Abyss , Sean Waltman , and Monty Brown . Raven continued his feud with Jeff Hardy following Lockdown . On the May 13 episode of Impact ! , it was announced that Raven would face Hardy in a Clockwork Orange House of Fun match at Hard Justice . Hardy ended up not appearing at the event ; Raven instead faced and defeated Waltman in the encounter . Raven then replaced Jarrett in the King of the Mountain match at Slammiversary , where he won the NWA World Heavyweight Championship .
TNA held a Twenty @-@ Man Gauntlet for the Gold at Hard Justice to determine the number one contender to the NWA World Heavyweight Championship . The match was announced on the April 29 episode of Impact ! . Abyss , Bobby Roode , Zach Gowen , Eric Young , Cassidy Riley , Elix Skipper , Shark Boy , A @-@ 1 , Chris Sabin , Petey Williams , Sonny Siaki , Lance Hoyt , Michael Shane , Jerrelle Clarke , Mikey Batts , The Outlaw , Trytan , Ron Killings , Apolo , and B.G. James all participated in the bout . Abyss pinned Killings to win the contest .
Following Lockdown , Shocker was named number one contender to the TNA X Division Championship . On the April 29 episode of Impact ! , Christopher Daniels ' defense of the TNA X Division Championship against Shocker was promoted for Hard Justice . Shocker failed to win the championship at the event . America 's Most Wanted lost the NWA World Tag Team Championship on the April 29 episode of Impact ! to The Naturals , who were aided by Chris Candido . On the May 6 episode of Impact ! it was announced The Naturals would defend the tag team championship against AMW at Hard Justice . The Naturals retained the titles over AMW at the PPV event .
= = = Death of Chris Candido = = =
Besides Chris Candido suffering a leg injury during his tag team match , Abyss also suffered a dislocated shoulder during the main event against A.J. Styles . Abyss ' injury was taken care of backstage after the event , but Candido was diagnosed with a dislocated ankle , broken tibia , and a broken fibula that required surgery . Candido had an operation on April 25 to have a plate , screws , and pins placed in his ankle to fix the problem . Candido was reported to be sidelined for 2 to 3 months . According to reports , Candido suffered the injury from taking a dropkick by Sonny Siaki and landing on his leg improperly . After the surgery , he hoped to be recovered in 6 to 8 weeks . On April 28 , Candido was rushed to the hospital after he collapsed where he died a short time later . Cause of death was released by his brother Johnny afterwards as a blood clot due to the surgery a few days prior . TNA released a public statement on April 29 regarding the subject . TNA paid tribute to Candido on the April 29 episode of Impact ! as well as at TNA 's Hard Justice PPV event . The April 29 episode of Impact ! opened and ended with a memorial to Candido . At Hard Justice , a ten @-@ bell salute was held while a photo of Candido , a pair of boots , and one @-@ half of the NWA World Tag Team Championship positioned on a steel chair sat in the center of the ring . In TNA 's 50 Greatest Moments DVD , Candido 's aiding The Naturals to win the NWA World Tag Team Championship was listed as number 10 . A portion of the Lockdown DVD sale profits were donated by TNA to the Chris Candido Memorial Fund . TNA originally planned to remove Candido 's match from the DVD , but were given the blessing of his family to include it on the publication . A tribute to Candido was included on the DVD by TNA .
= = Results = =
Xscape match
1 . ^
Lethal Lockdown entrances
2 . ^
|
= Silver Reef , Utah =
Silver Reef is a ghost town in Washington County , Utah , United States , about 15 miles ( 24 km ) northeast of St. George and 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) west of Leeds . Silver Reef was established after John Kemple , a prospector from Nevada , discovered a vein of silver in a sandstone formation in 1866 . At first , geologists were uncertain about Kemple 's find because silver is not usually found in sandstone . In 1875 , two bankers from Salt Lake City sent William Barbee to the site to stake mining claims . He staked 21 claims , and an influx of miners came to work Barbee 's claims and to stake their own . To accommodate the miners , Barbee established a town called Bonanza City . Property values there were high , so several miners settled on a ridge to the north of it and named their settlement " Rockpile " . The town was renamed Silver Reef after silver mines in nearby Pioche closed and businessmen arrived .
By 1879 , about 2 @,@ 000 people were living in Silver Reef . The town had a mile @-@ long Main Street with many businesses , among them a Wells Fargo office , the Rice Building , and the Cosmopolitan Restaurant . Although adjacent to many settlements with a majority of Mormon residents , the town never had a meeting house for Latter @-@ day Saints , only a Catholic church . In 1879 , a fire destroyed several businesses , but the residents rebuilt them . Mines were gradually closed , most of them by 1884 , as the worldwide price of silver dropped . By 1901 , most of the buildings in town had either been demolished or moved to Leeds .
In 1916 , mining operations in Silver Reef resumed under the direction of Alex Colbath , who organized the area 's mines into the Silver Reef Consolidated Mining Company . These mines were purchased by American Smelting and Refining Company in 1928 , but the company did minimal work as a result of the Great Depression . The Western Gold & Uranium Corporation purchased Silver Reef 's mines in 1948 , and in 1951 , they began mining uranium in the area . These operations did not last long either , and the Western Gold & Uranium Corporation sold their mines to the 5M Corporation in 1979 . Today , the Wells Fargo office , the Cosmopolitan Restaurant , the Rice Building , and numerous foundations and walls remain in the town site , and a few dozen homes have been constructed in the area .
= = Geology and geography = =
The sandstone formations from which Silver Reef gets its name were formed when tectonic stresses forced long , longitudinally aligned sections of Navajo Sandstone to buckle and stand on their sides , giving them the appearance of ocean reefs . Over long periods of time silver ore , sediments , and vegetation were carried in water runoff from the Chinle Formation to the White , Buckeye , and East reefs . The ore settled as deposits and the vegetation became petrified . The Silver Reef Mining District 's geologic resources consist mainly of silver deposits , with smaller deposits of copper , gold , lead , and uranium oxide . Iron oxide deposits in the soil rocks cause a red coloration , and dinosaur tracks from the early Jurassic period have been found in the area .
Silver Reef is close to the western border of the Colorado Plateau and about 15 miles ( 24 km ) northeast of St. George and 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) west of Leeds . Dixie National Forest , Leeds Creek , the White Reef , and the Pine Valley Mountain Wilderness lie directly west of Silver Reef . The Pine Valley Mountain Wilderness has sage steppe , mountain brush , pinyon pine , coniferous trees , and ponderosa pine . Interstate 15 and Toquerville are 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) and 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) east of Silver Reef , respectively . Pintura is 9 @.@ 5 miles ( 15 @.@ 3 km ) north of Silver Reef , and Quail Creek State Park , the ghost town of Harrisburg , the Buckeye Reef , and Red Cliffs Recreation Area are south of Silver Reef . The elevation of Red Cliffs Recreation Area is between 2 @,@ 000 feet ( 610 m ) and 3 @,@ 000 feet ( 910 m ) .
= = Climate = =
Silver Reef is located in one of the driest and hottest parts of the state of Utah ; summer temperatures often rise above 100 ° F ( 38 ° C ) . Temperatures of 50 ° F ( 10 ° C ) or above can occur during the winter , but nighttime winter temperatures occasionally drop below 0 ° F ( − 18 ° C ) . Silver Reef receives about 12 inches ( 30 cm ) of precipitation annually . It is not unusual to see an inch or more of snow in the winter . July has the warmest average temperature , 99 ° F ( 37 ° C ) , and December is coldest , with an average temperature of 53 ° F ( 12 ° C ) . The highest recorded temperature was 114 ° F ( 46 ° C ) , in July 2001 , and the lowest recorded temperature was − 2 ° F ( − 19 ° C ) , in January 1963 .
= = Demographics = =
Silver Reef was first settled in 1875 ; by the 1880 Census , 1 @,@ 046 people were living there , and a local census taken in 1884 gave a population of 1 @,@ 500 . By 1890 , after most of the mines had closed , the population had dropped to 177 , and by 1900 , only lessees of the mines were living there . In 1916 , Alex Colbath organized the Silver Reef Consolidated Mining Company . Several miners moved in to work for Colbath , who lived in the town with his wife , Mayme , until the 1950s . After the Colbaths ' departure , Silver Reef was completely abandoned . Subdivision of the land , planned in the 1960s , was finalized by 1980 . During the Census of 1990 , 50 people lived in Silver Reef , and today Silver Reef is considered a part of Leeds .
= = History = =
The Silver Reef area was first inhabited by Anasazi Native Americans between about 200 AD and 1300 AD . The Anasazi were nomads who followed the migration of the animals they hunted , typically deer , mountain sheep , elk , and jackrabbits . They were also farmers and gardeners , growing corn , wheat , rye , and barley . Many were potters , and pottery can be found in abandoned villages . The Anasazi usually constructed temporary dwellings out of sticks and leaves , often using bark for the roofs . Occasionally they built more permanent dwellings out of rocks , usually along the side of a mountain , often large enough to accommodate several families . Storage pits were often placed behind the rock dwellings . Settlements were typically small , as food was scarce . A group of Virgin Anasazi lived in what is now the Red Cliffs Anasazi Site in Red Cliffs Recreation Area .
Silver was discovered in the area in the 1860s . One commonly accepted story is that a prospector named John Kemple came to the area in 1866 from Montana . While staying at the home of Orson B. Adams in the settlement of Harrisburg , Kemple decided to do some prospecting , and soon located a vein of silver a few hundred yards southwest of the home . He did not find enough ore to interest him , so he left for Nevada . Five years later , Kemple returned to the Silver Reef area , staked a few mining claims , and organized them under the Union Mining District . The Union Mining District was abandoned , but in 1874 , Kemple returned with a group of miners , reorganized the claims under the Harrisburg Mining District , and began developing a mine . Kemple later became discouraged with his claims and sold them .
According to a less accepted story , a man known as " Metalliferous " Murphy , an assayer from Pioche , Nevada , was brought a piece of a grindstone made of sandstone from the Silver Reef area by miners in Pioche . After performing tests on the sample , Murphy stated that it contained over $ 200 of silver per ton . After some investigation , Murphy discovered that the samples had come from the area that was to become Silver Reef . There is no record of Murphy ever staking a claim , but he did allegedly attract the attention of miners .
Geologists and other miners refused at first to believe the news that silver had been found in sandstone . When brought an actual sample from the area , the Smithsonian Institution called it an " interesting fake " . In 1875 , news of the silver discovery reached the Walker brothers , well @-@ known bankers from Salt Lake City . They hired William T. Barbee , who had previously staked mining claims in Ophir , to stake claims on their behalf . He staked 21 claims and published an article on the claims in The Salt Lake Tribune . In the article , Barbee mentioned that the area had " an abundance of rich silver mines " . This set off a silver rush , and by late 1875 , Barbee had established a town called Bonanza City . Several businessmen then came into the area , inflating property values . Many miners and businessmen looking for inexpensive land set up a tent city north of Bonanza City and called it " Rockpile " . When the mines in nearby Pioche were closed in November 1875 , many of the miners and business owners who had worked there came into the area of " Rockpile " in what is known as the " Pioche Silver Stampede " , and the name of the settlement was changed to Silver Reef . As construction of the St. George LDS Temple ended in mid @-@ 1877 , labor opportunities for the workers became available in Silver Reef . Pine Valley Mills and Mount Trumbull in the Arizona Strip supplied most of the lumber used to construct the buildings . During its first year , Silver Reef did not have a smelter ; as a result , the silver ore mined in Silver Reef was taken to Pioche and Salt Lake City for smelting .
Immediately following the initial silver rush , a town site was platted and the town was built . The first permanent business building established in Silver Reef was a store at the intersection of the roads from the Buckeye , White , and East reefs . By 1878 , the town 's business district consisted of a hotel , boarding houses , nine stores , six saloons , five restaurants , a bank , two dance halls , a newspaper called The Silver Echo ( which later became the Silver Reef Miner ) , and eight dry goods stores . Two cemeteries , one Catholic and one Protestant , were located south of Silver Reef 's business district . Most of the businesses in Silver Reef were situated along a mile @-@ long Main Street . The mining district consisted of 37 mines and five stamp mills : the Christy , Stormont , Leeds , Buckeye and Barbee & Walker mills . Although it was surrounded by settlements with large Mormon populations , the town never had a Mormon meeting house . A Catholic church was the only church located within the town . After the First Transcontinental Railroad was completed in 1869 , many of the Chinese workers who had been hired to build it were out of work . Some returned to China , but others remained in Utah . A group of 250 of these workers set up a Chinatown in a level area just south of Silver Reef . Silver Reef 's Chinatown had a Chinese mayor and several businesses . By 1879 , Silver Reef 's population had reached 2 @,@ 000 , and the town also had a horse race track , a brewery , and a brass band . Shooting matches among members of the Silver Reef Rifle Club and sometimes residents of nearby towns took place on the horse race track .
Although most of the residents of Silver Reef were not Mormon , they had good relations with residents of the nearby Mormon settlements . A lot of the cotton and other agricultural items produced in the area were transported by wagon to Silver Reef . Many of the town 's buildings were constructed by Mormon labor workers . Reverend Lawrence Scanlan was invited to say Mass in the St. George Tabernacle of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter @-@ day Saints before the Catholic church in Silver Reef was constructed . To assist Scanlan , the Mormon choir learned Latin chants . When politics were involved , however , these good relations were forgotten . Most Mormons were members of the People 's Party , and most people in Silver Reef were members of the Liberal Party . As Silver Reef grew , the townspeople wanted to change the county seat of Washington County from St. George to Silver Reef . This alarmed the members of the People 's Party , the main figures in the territorial legislature . The legislature moved the county line eastward in 1882 ; this maintained the People 's Party majority in Washington County by transferring such Mormon farming communities as Grafton , Rockville , and Springdale from Kane County to Washington County .
Although it had good relations with other towns , Silver Reef had the usual labor disputes between mining camp wage laborers and mine owners . After a major dispute with the Stormont Mining Company , the Silver Reef Miners Union was formed to support wages . Gambling , prostitution , and shootouts were also commonplace . One shootout involved Town Marshal Johnny Diamond and mine guard Jack Truby . Tensions between Diamond and Truby temporarily shut down the Kinner mine . Truby was hired by Colonel Enos Wall , foreman and owner of the Kinner , to guard the mine until told otherwise . Diamond went to the Kinner mine to serve the closure warrant , but Truby refused to allow Diamond into the mine , and forced Diamond to leave the property immediately .
The gunfight started during court proceedings in the back room of a saloon . Diamond and Truby argued about Truby wearing his hat inside , and continued the argument outside . When Diamond asked for Truby 's gun , Truby shot at Diamond , Diamond returned fire , and both men died . An inquest on both men , held in the saloon , found that the bodies each contained bullet wounds from the .41 caliber revolvers that were used , and powder burns caused by the proximity of the shootout . Truby also had .45 caliber bullet wounds in his back , indicating that somebody else had shot him during the shootout .
Another shootout occurred between Henry Clark and Sykes Griffen on December 1 , 1878 , at Cassidy 's Silver Reef Saloon . Although it is not known exactly what happened , it is believed that Griffen , a faro dealer at the saloon , and Clark , a regular patron , had previously argued over gambling matters . The shooting began when Griffen argued with Clark about a bet they had made . After arguing for several minutes , Griffen pulled a pistol on Clark and shot him . Several witnesses said that Clark pulled a pistol on Griffen and shot him , while other witnesses said that after Clark was shot , other patrons in the saloon , including Clark 's father , beat and shot Griffen .
Another instance of murder occurred on October 3 , 1880 , when Thomas Forrest stabbed Michael Carbis . Carbis , the foreman of the California mine , had fired Forrest the day before on account of his violent nature . The murder occurred near the Buckeye boarding house . Forrest initially had a pistol , but he put it away and drew a knife instead when he got within a few feet of Carbis . Carbis died soon after the stab wound was inflicted . Silver Reef 's residents were angered by the murder and soon lynch threats were delivered . Forrest , who had been arrested soon after the murder had been committed , was transferred to the jail in St. George for his own safety . Prior to the moving of Forrest , a lynch mob gathered and followed the sheriff 's escort to the St. George jail . Once there , they overpowered the sheriff , took Forrest out of his cell , and tried to hang him on a telegraph pole . When the pole broke , they took him to a cottonwood tree and hung him there . The residents of St. George were shocked at the sight of Forrest 's hanging , and one man was reputed to have said , " I have observed that tree growing there for the last 25 years . This is the first time I have ever seen it bearing fruit . "
= = = Decline = = =
On May 30 , 1879 , fire was discovered under a restaurant . Hundreds of Silver Reef 's residents threw buckets of water from nearby Leeds Creek on the fire and put wet blankets on the adjacent business buildings , but the fire spread to the Harrison House Hotel , one of the town 's most prominent buildings . The fire destroyed several other businesses along Main Street before it was finally extinguished . The Salt Lake Tribune reported that Silver Reef had been " Chicagoed " , and that a state of panic was felt even after the fire had been extinguished .
Silver Reef 's residents rebuilt the businesses that had been destroyed , but the town soon began to decline . In 1881 , the Stormont Mining Company and the Barbee & Walker Mining Company had to decrease wages from $ 4 per day to $ 3 @.@ 50 per day in all of their mines except the Savage mine ( a Stormont property ) . In response to the decrease in wages , the Silver Reef Miners Union was formed . In February 1881 , union members began talking about striking the mines , and as word of this potential strike spread , the Stormont Mining Company discharged those of its miners who were part of the Miners Union . In response , the discharged union members escorted the company 's superintendent , Washington Allen , out of Silver Reef . Allen immediately went to the Second District Court in Beaver and filed a lawsuit against the union members . Before they went to court , the union members held a meeting and decided to shut down the Savage mine . Led by Matthew O 'Loughlin , the president of the Silver Reef Miners Union , they walked through Silver Reef in rows of two , and , upon arriving at the Savage mine , O 'Loughlin and nine other men went into the hoisting works and ordered the engineer on duty to shut down the pumps that kept water from the water table out of the mine . After the pumps were shut down , the group of ten went into the Savage mine and ordered everyone out .
A few days later , the sheriff of St. George , accompanied by a posse of 30 men , arrested 25 members of the Miners Union , including Matthew O 'Loughlin . As Silver Reef 's jail was too small to hold all 25 prisoners , most of them were jailed in the Rice Building . The Rice Building could not hold all of the prisoners , so a line was drawn around the building , and anyone who crossed the line was threatened with shooting . The Miners Union members were transferred to Beaver , where they were tried for riot , conspiracy , and false imprisonment . Thirteen of the members were sentenced to imprisonment ; three were bailed out , while ten were sent to the Utah Territorial Penitentiary . Matthew O 'Loughlin was sentenced to twenty days in prison and was charged a $ 75 fine .
A few years after the strike , the world 's silver market dropped , causing the foreclosure of many of the mines . To compensate for the drop in prices , the mines ' stockholders reduced the wages of the miners . Instead of striking again , the miners accepted this . In addition , the miners inadvertently dug below the water table , and the mine shafts began filling with water faster than it could be pumped out . By 1884 , most of the mines were idle or closed ; the last was officially closed in 1891 , although lessees of the mines continued to operate them past that year . Many merchants went bankrupt and left town . The Silver Reef mines produced about $ 8 million worth of silver ore . Between 1891 and 1901 , another $ 250 @,@ 000 worth was mined . Several people attempted to restart mining operations in 1898 , 1909 , 1916 , and 1950 , but none of these attempts were successful . After Silver Reef 's mines were closed , many of the buildings were purchased for their lumber and building stone . One buyer dismantled the building he bought and discovered $ 10 @,@ 000 in gold coins . News of the find spread quickly , and most of the buildings in Silver Reef were demolished in hopes of discovering more gold , but none was found .
The Silver Reef Consolidated Mining Company was organized in 1916 by Alex Colbath , who owned most of the area 's mines . In 1928 , American Smelting and Refining Company purchased its mines , and in 1929 they sank a three @-@ compartment shaft on the White Reef . This new mine was connected with the flooded Savage mine , and the water was pumped out . Minimal work was done after that , however , as there was not enough ore to keep the operation profitable during the Great Depression . Ownership of the mines was then passed back to Alex Colbath , but in 1948 the Western Gold and Uranium Corporation purchased the claims from Colbath , and in 1951 they mined the sandstone for uranium oxide deposits . The first shipment of uranium oxide came from the Ann 's Pride mine , and in total , 2 @,@ 500 pounds ( 1 @,@ 100 kg ) of uranium oxide was shipped out of the region . The claims were bought in 1979 by the 5M Corporation , but the company did not operate in Silver Reef for long .
= = Tourism and popular culture = =
Following the closure of the district 's mines , the Wells Fargo office was used as a residence by Alex and Mayme Colbath until the 1950s . It was placed on the National Register of Historic Places on March 11 , 1971 , and currently serves as an art gallery and a museum . The Rice Building burned down , and was rebuilt in 1991 . The Cosmopolitan Restaurant was reconstructed to appear as it did in the 19th century , and it served European cuisine until it was closed in 2010 . There are many remnants of houses and other buildings , and there are also markers indicating where some buildings once stood , such as the Elk Horn Saloon . Some of the area has been preserved for its history .
Behind the Wells Fargo office is a powder house which , as of 2011 , contains models of the town , the town 's major mills , and its Catholic church . The Catholic and Protestant cemeteries were restored by the Leeds Lion 's Club in 1998 and can be visited . Several other original buildings remain , including the Clancy Market , McCormick Store , the two @-@ story Harrison House Hotel , and some of the mining buildings . Main Street , once a mile long , is now only a few hundred yards long and is surrounded by private homes .
Besides exploring the ghost town , visitors can explore the red rock country surrounding Silver Reef . Backpacking , camping , fishing , mountain biking , birdwatching , and hunting are among the activities available . Visitors to Red Cliffs Recreation Area , located south of Silver Reef , can picnic in a designated area with cottonwood trees . A half @-@ mile hiking trail leads to the Red Cliffs Anasazi Site , the remains of an Anasazi habitation . The 6 @-@ mile ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) Red Reef Trail leads to the Cottonwood Wilderness Study Area . Dinosaur footprints that date back to the early Jurassic period can be found in the area , and the Orson Adams House in nearby Harrisburg allows visitors to study the pioneer history of Washington County .
Silver Reef has appeared in American films since the late 1960s . The area was scouted by corporate executives from Twentieth @-@ Century Fox for use in the 1969 film Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid and served as a backdrop in the 1979 film The Electric Horseman . Silver Reef was featured in the 1998 documentary Treasure House : The Utah Mining Story .
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= 2010 United Kingdom government formation =
The events surrounding the formation of the United Kingdom 's government in 2010 took place between 7 May and 12 May 2010 , following the 2010 general election , which failed to produce an overall majority for any of the country 's three main political parties . The election , held on 6 May , resulted in the first hung parliament in the UK in 36 years , sparking a series of negotiations which would form the first coalition government since the Second World War .
The governing Labour administration led by Gordon Brown was defeated in the election and lost its overall majority after 13 years in office . The opposition Conservatives led by David Cameron won the largest number of seats in the new Parliament , but fell short of the number required to secure an overall majority . Consequently , senior figures from both parties embarked on a series of make @-@ or @-@ break meetings with representatives from the Liberal Democrats led by Nick Clegg , aimed at forming a coalition government .
As leader of the third largest party , Clegg had announced that the Liberal Democrats would enter talks with whichever party held the greater number of seats . A series of meetings with the Conservatives began shortly after the hung parliament was announced , and continued over the weekend after the election . Negotiations were also held with the Labour Party . The Scottish National Party ( SNP ) signalled its willingness to join Labour and the Liberal Democrats in government as part of a rainbow coalition , but it quickly became clear that Gordon Brown 's continued presence as Prime Minister was seen as a major obstacle to formulating a Labour – Liberal Democrat deal .
Although Brown relinquished his role as Labour leader on 10 May , the party failed to reach an agreement with the Liberal Democrats ; the latter instead struck a deal with the Conservatives the following day . Brown resigned as Prime Minister on the evening of 11 May , and the Conservative – Liberal Democrat Coalition government led by David Cameron took office shortly thereafter . The Liberal Democrats emerged from a meeting of their Parliamentary party and Federal Executive to announce that the coalition deal had been " approved overwhelmingly " shortly after midnight on 12 May , and later the same day the two parties published the Conservative – Liberal Democrat coalition agreement setting out the terms of their deal . While Cameron became Prime Minister , Liberal Democrat leader Nick Clegg was appointed as Deputy Prime Minister .
= = Background = =
The Labour Party came into government under the leadership of Tony Blair in May 1997 after the electoral wipeout of the Conservative government , led by John Major ; this ended 18 years of Conservative rule . Having secured a landslide victory with 418 seats in the House of Commons , the Party had a working majority of 179 seats , and went on to win the 2001 and 2005 elections . During its first term in office Blair 's government introduced many popular policies , including legislation to establish a national minimum wage , reducing the length of hospital waiting lists , and devolving lawmaking powers to Scotland and Wales . Blair also played a key role in the Northern Ireland peace process . But his decision to commit British troops to the 2003 invasion of Iraq turned public opinion against him and lost him the support of some of his own MPs . When Blair stepped down as Prime Minister in June 2007 he was succeeded by his Chancellor , Gordon Brown . Blair 's decade @-@ long premiership had been a time of economic boom for the United Kingdom , but Brown 's tenure as Prime Minister was dominated by the global recession of the latter part of the 2000s . Although commentators perceived Brown to have made some good decisions during the economic crisis , such as providing financial aid to several UK banks which found themselves in difficulty , his fiscal policy of borrowing and spending led to a dramatic increase in the country 's national debt . He was also viewed by the media as someone who lacked interpersonal skills . Another major event that occurred during Brown 's time in government was the 2009 scandal involving MPs expenses , which damaged the public 's trust in politicians .
By April 2010 almost five years had passed since the previous general election ( held on 5 May 2005 ) , requiring a fresh election to take place . On 6 April 2010 Brown went to Buckingham Palace to ask the Queen to dissolve Parliament on 12 April in preparation for a general election . In a live press conference at Downing Street , Brown announced the election would be held on 6 May . The time between the announcement of the election and the dissolution of Parliament , known as wash @-@ up , was to allow for the handling of any unfinished legislative business before the Parliamentary session 's conclusion .
Labour campaigned to secure a fourth consecutive term in office and to restore support lost since 1997 , while the Conservative Party sought to gain a dominant position in British politics after losses in the 1990s , and to replace Labour as the governing party . The Liberal Democrats hoped to make gains from both sides , and possibly hold the balance of power in a hung parliament . After the televised debates between the three leaders – the first of their type during an election campaign in the United Kingdom – their poll ratings had risen to the point where many considered the possibility of a Liberal Democrat role in Government . While Cameron and Clegg were generally well received by the viewers of the three debates , Brown 's performance was considered to have been less successful . Brown 's image was further harmed when he privately described Gillian Duffy , a 65 @-@ year @-@ old pensioner , as a " bigoted woman " after she raised the issue of benefits and immigration with him during a campaign trip to Rochdale , Greater Manchester . His remarks were recorded by a Sky News microphone he was still wearing as he was driven away from the visit , and were widely broadcast .
Polls just before election day showed a slight swing from the Liberal Democrats back to Labour and the Conservatives , with most of final polls falling within one point of Conservatives 36 % , Labour 28 % , Liberal Democrats 27 % . However , record numbers of undecided voters raised uncertainty about the outcome . The SNP , encouraged by its victory in the 2007 Scottish parliament elections , set itself a target of returning 20 MPs and hoped to find itself holding a balance of power . Equally , Plaid Cymru sought gains in Wales . In Northern Ireland the Democratic Unionist Party ( DUP ) aimed to maintain or increase its number of seats , having been the fourth largest party in the House of Commons . Smaller parties which had had successes at local elections and the 2009 European elections ( UK Independence Party , Green Party , British National Party ) aimed to extend their representation to seats in the House of Commons .
= = The election = =
The general election was held on Thursday 6 May 2010 and saw an increase in voter turnout from 61 % in 2005 to 65 % in 2010 . Throughout the day GfK NOP and Ipsos MORI conducted an exit poll on behalf of the BBC , Sky and ITV news services – the results of which were announced as the polls closed at 10 : 00pm . Data gathered from individuals at 130 polling stations around the country suggested a hung parliament , with an initial estimate that the Conservative Party would achieve 307 seats – 19 seats short of a controlling majority . This deficit was later adjusted to 21 seats . The distribution of seats was initially predicted to be 307 to the Conservatives , 255 to Labour , 59 to the Liberal Democrats and 29 to the other parties , but these figures were later updated with a minor adjustment in Labour 's favour . The apparently poor prospects for the Liberal Democrats were a surprise to commentators , as many previous opinion polls had indicated they would receive more seats . A later BBC exit poll published at 5 : 36am on Friday 7 May predicted the Conservatives on 306 , 20 short of an overall majority , with Labour on 262 , and the Liberal Democrats on 55 .
At 9 : 41am on 7 May , the BBC confirmed a " hung parliament " , as it was by then impossible for the Conservative party to gain the number of seats needed to form a majority government . 326 seats were required for a technical majority , but only 323 were necessary for a practical majority , as the five Sinn Féin MPs were expected to boycott the House of Commons . At that time the Conservatives stood at 290 seats , Labour at 247 and Liberal Democrats at 51 . The final results put the Conservatives on 306 seats , Labour on 258 , and the Liberal Democrats on 57 .
Of the 532 seats contested in England , the Conservatives won an absolute majority of 61 seats and secured an average swing of 5 @.@ 6 % from Labour . The last seat to be elected , Thirsk and Malton , was contested on 27 May because one of the candidates died . All of Scotland 's 59 seats were won by the parties that won them at the 2005 election , with Labour regaining the two seats they lost in by @-@ elections since 2005 . Labour increased its share of the vote by 2 @.@ 5 % and the Conservatives by 0 @.@ 9 % , giving a swing from the Conservatives to Labour of 0 @.@ 8 % . The Conservatives won only one Scottish constituency , while the SNP – which had hoped to increase its share of seats from seven to 20 – failed to make any headway .
40 seats were contested in Wales , where the Conservative share rose from three seats to eight , taking one from the Liberal Democrats and four from Labour . Welsh nationalist party Plaid Cymru gained one extra seat , Arfon , from Labour . Overall , Labour lost four seats but remained the biggest party in Wales with 26 seats . 18 seats were contested in Northern Ireland , where both Irish nationalist parties , Sinn Féin and the SDLP , held their seats , the unionist UUP ( in an electoral pact with the Conservatives ) lost their only seat and the DUP lost a seat . This left the nationalist parties with eight seats , the unionist parties with eight seats ( all DUP ) , the Alliance Party with one seat and an independent unionist with one seat . It was the first time since the Partition of Ireland that unionist parties had failed to secure a majority of Northern Ireland 's Westminster seats in a general election .
= = Initial statements and negotiations = =
With no single party having achieved an overall majority , the 2010 general election resulted in the first hung parliament since 1974 . When it became clear that no party would achieve the outright majority needed to form the next government , the three main party leaders made public statements offering to discuss the options for putting together an administration with the other parties . Liberal Democrat leader Nick Clegg called on Prime Minister Gordon Brown and Conservative leader David Cameron to act " in the national interest and not out of narrow party political advantage " . However , having stated before the election that the party with the most seats should have the initial say on forming a government , Clegg announced his intention to begin talks with the Conservative Party . Speaking outside the Liberal Democrat headquarters he said : " It is now for the Conservative Party to prove that it is capable of seeking to govern in the national interest . " Brown said he intended to play his part in securing " a stable , strong and principled government " , and indicated his willingness to speak with both Clegg and Cameron on how to achieve this , saying : " What we have seen are no ordinary election results . " But shortly after , Cameron held a press conference at which he invited the Liberal Democrats to talks , saying : " I want to make a big , open and comprehensive offer to the Liberal Democrats . I want us to work together in tackling our country 's big and urgent problems - the debt crisis , our deep social problems and our broken political system . "
Under the constitutional rules governing protocol in the event of a hung parliament , Brown , as the sitting Prime Minister , would remain in office until a new government could be formed , a process which could continue without resolution until the State Opening of Parliament , which was scheduled for 25 May . On Brown 's instructions , Cabinet Secretary Sir Gus O 'Donnell had updated the protocol for dealing with a hung parliament earlier in the year . Following confirmation that no party had achieved an overall majority , Brown authorised O 'Donnell to begin the process . Four @-@ member teams of civil servants were sent to liaise with the main political parties to facilitate negotiations .
Cameron 's willingness to hold talks with the Liberal Democrats was interpreted by BBC News political editor Nick Robinson as hinting at the possibility that Liberal Democrat MPs could serve as part of a Cabinet . On the afternoon of 7 May , Cameron and Clegg spoke by telephone and had what the BBC reported as a " very constructive " conversation . By that evening exploratory talks between teams of senior representatives from the Liberal Democrats and Conservatives had begun . The Liberal Democrats team consisted of Chris Huhne , Danny Alexander , Andrew Stunell and David Laws , while George Osborne , William Hague , Oliver Letwin and Ed Llewellyn made up the Conservative team .
= = Further talks = =
By the morning of Saturday 8 May , talks between the Conservatives and Liberal Democrats were fully underway . A 70 @-@ minute meeting at Admiralty House in Westminster was described by both parties as being " constructive and amicable " , and another meeting was scheduled for the following day . At a private meeting that evening , Cameron and Clegg held the first of a series of talks to discuss the negotiations . Members of the Liberal Democrat Parliamentary Party had earlier met at Local Government House to discuss the coalition talks .
One of the chief issues that the Liberal Democrats wished to address in any coalition agreement was that of electoral reform , and as Party members debated the negotiations , a 1 @,@ 000 strong crowd of protesters from the pressure group 38 Degrees gathered outside . Amid chants of " Fair votes now " and " We want to speak to Nick " , Clegg briefly left the meeting to accept a petition and told the protesters , " Reforming politics is one of the reasons I went into politics . " After the meeting , a Liberal Democrats negotiator , David Laws , said members had " endorsed in full " the strategy outlined by Clegg that the Conservatives should have first choice in negotiations on forming a government . Clegg also met with the Party 's federal executive , which also endorsed Clegg 's decision .
8 May 2010 was the 65th anniversary of V.E. Day – which marked the victory of the Allied Forces over Nazi Germany and the end of the Second World War in Europe – and celebrations were held to mark the occasion . The leaders of all three parties attended a ceremony at the Cenotaph in Whitehall , a duty which normally falls to the Prime Minister . After the ceremony , Brown flew to his family home in Scotland , but remained ready to negotiate with the Liberal Democrats if no deal with the Conservatives was reached . Labour denied reports of a heated telephone conversation between Brown and Clegg , and support among Brown 's Cabinet colleagues remained strong , but one backbencher , John Mann , urged Brown to step aside as Labour leader before the party conference in September , arguing that Brown 's continued leadership " rules out the credibility of a Lib / Lab pact " .
= = Negotiations continue = =
On Sunday 9 May , senior negotiators from the Liberal Democrats and Conservatives embarked on six hours of talks at the Cabinet Office , which were described as " very positive and productive " . William Hague emerged from the discussions to say , " The issues that we have covered have included political reform , economic issues and reduction of the deficit , banking reform , civil liberties , environmental issues . So , we 've had good discussions about all of those areas . We are agreed that a central part of any agreement that we make will be economic stability and the reduction of the budget deficit , but each negotiating team is now going to report to our party leaders . "
As the negotiations were taking place , Gordon Brown returned to Downing Street and held a meeting with Nick Clegg at the Foreign Office for talks . A Downing Street spokesman later confirmed the talks , together with the previous evening 's telephone conversation between Brown and Clegg , which was described as " an amicable discussion . " However , Paddy Ashdown – a previous Liberal Democrat leader – offered a different view of the Brown @-@ Clegg conference call , telling the BBC it " was a diatribe , a rant , and that Gordon Brown was threatening in his approach to Nick Clegg . " Following the success of the talks between their two parties , Clegg and Cameron held a second round of face @-@ to @-@ face discussions at Westminster that evening , lasting 45 minutes .
While negotiations continued to form the next administration , the business of government continued with the previous incumbents . In this respect Chancellor Alistair Darling flew to Brussels to attend a meeting of European finance ministers . In London , Brown held meetings with Business Secretary Peter Mandelson , his deputy leader Harriet Harman , Secretary of State for Energy Ed Miliband and Tony Blair 's former special adviser Alastair Campbell . Brown also sent an email to party activists in which he thanked them for their work during the election campaign . It concluded " The past few days have seen us enter a political landscape not considered possible a few short weeks ago - with the outcome of the election leading to no single party able to form a majority government . My duty as prime minister has been to seek to resolve this situation . " Several senior Labour backbenchers , including MP George Howarth called on Brown to step down .
= = Labour enters the picture = =
Monday 10 May saw another day of talks between the Conservatives and Liberal Democrats , but at a meeting with his MPs , Nick Clegg was urged to give assurances over offers which were being made by David Cameron 's team . They also wished him to continue negotiations with Labour . During the day it emerged that senior Labour and Liberal Democrat representatives had held discussions about forming a coalition , but that one of the barriers to this was the continued presence of Gordon Brown as Prime Minister . At 5.00pm that afternoon Brown announced that he would step down as Labour leader by September . In a statement he said that he intended to " [ A ] sk the Labour Party to set in train the processes needed for its own leadership election . " The statement went on to say , " I would hope that it would be completed in time for the new leader to be in post by the time of the Labour Party conference . I will play no part in that contest , I will back no individual candidate . " He also urged any prospective candidates for the position to wait until coalition negotiations were complete before announcing their candidacy . Following this announcement , formal talks began between Labour and the Liberal Democrats , but many in the Party felt that a Labour @-@ Liberal Democrat coalition was an unrealistic prospect since it would still fall short of the 326 seats needed to form a majority government , with 315 seats to the Conservatives ' 306 . Labour MP Graham Stringer said , " I don 't think it makes sense in the arithmetic – the numbers don 't add up . " However , in his account of Labour 's negotiations with the Liberal Democrats , Andrew Adonis – who participated in the talks – writes that the general consensus among members of Gordon Brown 's cabinet was that talks between the Conservatives and Liberal Democrats would reach an impasse . " [ The ] process would turn to our favour once the Tories and Lib Dems had rehearsed the extent of their differences " .
With Labour now attempting to form its own coalition government , the Conservatives promised the Liberal Democrats a referendum on changing the voting mechanism to the Alternative Vote ( AV ) system . In response Labour said that it would introduce AV then hold a public referendum to approve it . In a statement outlining his decision to negotiate with Labour , Clegg said that although his party had made progress with the Conservatives , they had not " reached a comprehensive partnership agreement for a full Parliament " and negotiating with Labour was the " responsible thing to do " .
The possibility of some SNP involvement in a Labour @-@ led government materialised when Angus Robertson , the SNP 's leader in the House of Commons suggested its MPs would be willing to join Labour , the Liberal Democrats , Plaid Cymru and MPs from other smaller parties to form a rainbow coalition . It was reported on 10 May that a meeting to discuss this scenario was held between Robertson , the SNP Chief Whip Stewart Hosie and Cabinet Office officials the previous evening . However , Labour 's Douglas Alexander said he could not foresee a situation in which Labour could enter into government with the SNP because the two parties had " fundamental differences " , and he made it clear that no senior Labour officials had been approached by anyone from the SNP .
= = Coalition deal reached = =
By 11 May , the possibility of a deal between the Liberal Democrats and Labour was looking unlikely . Talks between the Conservatives and Liberal Democrats continued , and after concluding that he would not be able to form a government , Brown announced his resignation that evening . He also resigned as leader of the Labour Party with immediate effect . He then left Downing Street with his wife and their children , and drove to Buckingham Palace where he tendered his resignation to the Queen and advised her to call for David Cameron . Cameron became Prime Minister one hour after the Queen accepted Brown 's resignation , and arrived at Downing Street with his wife , Samantha shortly afterwards . In his first address outside 10 Downing Street , he announced his intention to form a coalition government , the first since the Second World War , with the Liberal Democrats . Cameron appointed Nick Clegg as Deputy Prime Minister . Cameron met with his MPs in the Committee Room of the House of Commons at 10.00pm , where he was greeted with cheering that could be heard from the central hall of the Commons .
Cameron later told a BBC documentary that he had not expected to become Prime Minister , and the coalition agreement had not yet been completed when Brown resigned . Speaking on the programme , Five Days That Changed Britain , broadcast on 29 July , he said that when he went to meet the Queen at Buckingham Palace , the coalition deal had not been finalised . Formally , the monarch can only invite a prospective Prime Minister to form a Government ; the shape of the Government is for the new Prime Minister to decide . William Hague said that as Cameron travelled to the Palace , the coalition agreement was still being completed and signed .
Shortly after midnight on 12 May 2010 , the Liberal Democrats emerged from a meeting of their Parliamentary party and Federal Executive to announce that the coalition deal had been " approved overwhelmingly " , meaning that David Cameron would lead a coalition government of Conservatives and Liberal Democrats . Later that day , the two parties jointly published the Conservative – Liberal Democrat coalition agreement specifying the terms of the deal . Cameron appointed his first Cabinet , which included several senior Conservative and Liberal Democrat figures . From the Conservatives , George Osborne became Chancellor of the Exchequer , William Hague was named as Foreign Secretary and Oliver Letwin was appointed as Minister of State for the Cabinet Office . Liberal Democrat appointments included Danny Alexander as Secretary of State for Scotland , Chris Huhne as Secretary of State for Energy and Climate Change , and David Laws became Chief Secretary to the Treasury .
Cameron and Clegg gave their first joint press conference in the Downing Street Rose Garden on the afternoon of 12 May , telling journalists the purpose of their government would be " [ T ] o give our country the strong , stable and decisive leadership we need " . The new Parliamentary session began with the State Opening of Parliament on 25 May . Cameron attended his first Prime Minister 's Questions as Prime Minister on Wednesday 2 June .
Labour became the Party of Opposition , and with Brown 's departure , Harriet Harman became its acting leader . On 18 May 2010 Labour 's National Executive Committee announced the details of the leadership election . Ed Miliband was elected as the party 's new leader at its annual national conference on 25 September 2010 .
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= German battleship Bismarck =
Bismarck was the first of two Bismarck @-@ class battleships built for Nazi Germany 's Kriegsmarine . Named after Chancellor Otto von Bismarck , the primary force behind the unification of Germany in 1871 , the ship was laid down at the Blohm & Voss shipyard in Hamburg in July 1936 and launched in February 1939 . Work was completed in August 1940 , when she was commissioned into the German fleet . Bismarck and her sister ship Tirpitz were the largest battleships ever built by Germany , and two of the largest built by any European power .
In the course of the warship 's eight @-@ month career under its sole commanding officer , Capt. Ernst Lindemann , Bismarck conducted only one offensive operation , in May 1941 , codenamed Rheinübung . The ship , along with the heavy cruiser Prinz Eugen , was to break into the Atlantic Ocean and raid Allied shipping from North America to Great Britain . The two ships were detected several times off Scandinavia , and British naval units were deployed to block their route . At the Battle of the Denmark Strait , Bismarck engaged and destroyed the battlecruiser HMS Hood , the pride of the Royal Navy , and forced the battleship HMS Prince of Wales to retreat ; Bismarck was hit three times and suffered an oil leak from a ruptured tank .
The destruction of Hood spurred a relentless pursuit by the Royal Navy involving dozens of warships . Two days later , heading for the relative safety of occupied France , Bismarck was attacked by obsolescent Fairey Swordfish biplane torpedo bombers from the aircraft carrier HMS Ark Royal ; one scored a hit that rendered the battleship 's steering gear inoperable . In her final battle the following morning , Bismarck was neutralised by a sustained bombardment from a British fleet , was scuttled by her crew , and sank with heavy loss of life . Most experts agree that the battle damage would have caused her to sink eventually . The wreck was located in June 1989 by Robert Ballard , and has since been further surveyed by several other expeditions .
= = Construction and characteristics = =
Bismarck was ordered under the name Ersatz Hannover ( " Hannover replacement " ) , a replacement for the old pre @-@ dreadnought SMS Hannover , under contract " F " . The contract was awarded to the Blohm & Voss shipyard in Hamburg , where the keel was laid on 1 July 1936 at Helgen IX . The ship was launched on 14 February 1939 and during the elaborate ceremonies was christened by Dorothee von Löwenfeld , granddaughter of Chancellor Otto von Bismarck , the ship 's namesake . Adolf Hitler made the christening speech . Fitting @-@ out work followed the launch , during which time the original straight stem was replaced with a raked " Atlantic bow " similar to those of the Scharnhorst @-@ class battleships . Bismarck was commissioned into the fleet on 24 August 1940 for sea trials , which were conducted in the Baltic . Kapitän zur See Ernst Lindemann took command of the ship at the time of commissioning .
Bismarck displaced 41 @,@ 700 t ( 41 @,@ 000 long tons ) as built and 50 @,@ 300 t ( 49 @,@ 500 long tons ) fully loaded , with an overall length of 251 m ( 823 ft 6 in ) , a beam of 36 m ( 118 ft 1 in ) and a maximum draft of 9 @.@ 9 m ( 32 ft 6 in ) . The battleship was Germany 's largest warship , and displaced more than any other European battleship , with the exception of HMS Vanguard , commissioned after the end of the war . Bismarck was powered by three Blohm & Voss geared steam turbines and twelve oil @-@ fired Wagner superheated boilers , which developed a total of 148 @,@ 116 shp ( 110 @,@ 450 kW ) and yielded a maximum speed of 30 @.@ 01 knots ( 55 @.@ 58 km / h ; 34 @.@ 53 mph ) on speed trials . The ship had a cruising range of 8 @,@ 870 nautical miles ( 16 @,@ 430 km ; 10 @,@ 210 mi ) at 19 knots ( 35 km / h ; 22 mph ) . Bismarck was equipped with three FuMO 23 search radar sets , mounted on the forward and stern rangefinders and foretop .
The standard crew numbered 103 officers and 1 @,@ 962 enlisted men . The crew was divided into twelve divisions of between 180 and 220 men . The first six divisions were assigned to the ship 's armament , divisions one to four for the main and secondary batteries and five and six manning anti @-@ aircraft guns . The seventh division consisted of specialists , including cooks and carpenters , and the eighth division consisted of ammunition handlers . The radio operators , signalmen , and quartermasters were assigned to the ninth division . The last three divisions were the engine room personnel . When Bismarck left port , fleet staff , prize crews , and war correspondents increased the crew complement to over 2 @,@ 200 men . Roughly 200 of the engine room personnel came from the light cruiser Karlsruhe , which had been lost during Operation Weserübung , the German invasion of Norway . Bismarck 's crew published a ship 's newspaper titled Die Schiffsglocke ( The Ship 's Bell ) ; this paper was only published once , on 23 April 1941 , by the commander of the engineering department , Gerhard Junack .
Bismarck was armed with eight 38 cm ( 15 in ) SK C / 34 guns arranged in four twin gun turrets : two super @-@ firing turrets forward — " Anton " and " Bruno " — and two aft — " Caesar " and " Dora " . Secondary armament consisted of twelve 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) L / 55 guns , sixteen 10 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) L / 65 and sixteen 3 @.@ 7 cm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) L / 83 , and twelve 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) anti @-@ aircraft guns . Bismarck also carried four Arado Ar 196 reconnaissance floatplanes , with a single large hangar and a double @-@ ended catapult . The ship 's main belt was 320 mm ( 12 @.@ 6 in ) thick and was covered by a pair of upper and main armoured decks that were 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) and 100 to 120 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 to 4 @.@ 7 in ) thick , respectively . The 38 cm ( 15 in ) turrets were protected by 360 mm ( 14 @.@ 2 in ) thick faces and 220 mm ( 8 @.@ 7 in ) thick sides .
= = Service history = =
On 15 September 1940 , three weeks after commissioning , Bismarck left Hamburg to begin sea trials in Kiel Bay . Sperrbrecher 13 escorted the ship to Arcona on 28 September , and then on to Gotenhafen for trials in the Gulf of Danzig . The ship 's power @-@ plant was given a thorough workout ; Bismarck made measured @-@ mile and high speed runs . As the ship 's stability and manoeuvrability were being tested , a flaw in her design was discovered . When attempting to steer the ship solely through altering propeller revolutions , the crew learned that Bismarck could be kept on course only with great difficulty . Even with the outboard screws running at full power in opposite directions , they generated only a slight turning ability . Bismarck 's main battery guns were first test @-@ fired in late November . The tests proved she was a very stable gun platform . Trials lasted until December ; Bismarck returned to Hamburg , arriving on 9 December , for minor alterations and the completion of the fitting @-@ out process .
The ship was scheduled to return to Kiel on 24 January 1941 , but a merchant vessel had been sunk in the Kiel Canal and prevented use of the waterway . Severe weather hampered efforts to remove the wreck , and Bismarck was not able to reach Kiel until March . The delay greatly frustrated Lindemann , who remarked that " [ Bismarck ] had been tied down at Hamburg for five weeks ... the precious time at sea lost as a result cannot be made up , and a significant delay in the final war deployment of the ship thus is unavoidable . " While waiting to reach Kiel , Bismarck hosted Captain Anders Forshell , the Swedish naval attaché to Berlin . He returned to Sweden with a detailed description of the ship , which was subsequently leaked to Britain by pro @-@ British elements in the Swedish Navy . The information provided the Royal Navy with its first full description of the vessel , although it lacked important facts , including top speed , radius of action , and displacement .
On 6 March , Bismarck received the order to steam to Kiel . On the way , the ship was escorted by several Messerschmitt Bf 109 fighters and a pair of armed merchant vessels , along with an icebreaker . At 08 : 45 on 8 March , Bismarck briefly ran aground on the southern shore of the Kiel Canal ; she was freed within an hour . The ship reached Kiel the following day , where her crew stocked ammunition , fuel , and other supplies and applied a coat of dazzle paint to camouflage her . British bombers attacked the harbour without success on 12 March . On 17 March , the old battleship Schlesien , now used as an icebreaker , escorted Bismarck through the ice to Gotenhafen , where the latter continued combat readiness training .
The Naval High Command ( Oberkommando der Marine or OKM ) , commanded by Admiral Erich Raeder , intended to continue the practice of using heavy ships as surface raiders against Allied merchant traffic in the Atlantic Ocean . The two Scharnhorst @-@ class battleships were based in Brest , France , at the time , having just completed Operation Berlin , a major raid into the Atlantic . Bismarck 's sister ship Tirpitz rapidly approached completion . Bismarck and Tirpitz were to sortie from the Baltic and rendezvous with the two Scharnhorst @-@ class ships in the Atlantic ; the operation was initially scheduled for around 25 April 1941 , when a new moon period would make conditions more favourable .
Work on Tirpitz was completed later than anticipated , and she was not commissioned until 25 February ; the ship was not ready for combat until late in the year . To further complicate the situation , Gneisenau was torpedoed in Brest and damaged further by bombs when in drydock . Scharnhorst required a boiler overhaul following Operation Berlin ; the workers discovered during the overhaul that the boilers were in worse condition than expected . She would also be unavailable for the planned sortie . Attacks by British bombers on supply depots in Kiel delayed repairs to the heavy cruisers Admiral Scheer and Admiral Hipper . The two ships would not be ready for action until July or August . Admiral Günther Lütjens , Flottenchef ( Fleet Chief ) of the Kriegsmarine , chosen to lead the operation , wished to delay the operation at least until either Scharnhorst or Tirpitz became available , but the OKM decided to proceed with the operation , codenamed Operation Rheinübung , with a force consisting of only Bismarck and the heavy cruiser Prinz Eugen . At a final meeting with Raeder in Paris on 26 April , Lütjens was encouraged by his commander @-@ in @-@ chief to proceed and he eventually decided that an operation should begin as soon as possible to prevent the enemy gaining any respite .
= = = Operation Rheinübung = = =
On 5 May , Adolf Hitler and Wilhelm Keitel , with a large entourage , arrived to view Bismarck and Tirpitz in Gotenhafen . The men were given an extensive tour of the ships , after which Hitler met with Lütjens to discuss the upcoming mission . On 16 May , Lütjens reported that Bismarck and Prinz Eugen were fully prepared for Operation Rheinübung ; he was therefore ordered to proceed with the mission on the evening of 19 May . As part of the operational plans , a group of eighteen supply ships would be positioned to support Bismarck and Prinz Eugen . Four U @-@ boats would be placed along the convoy routes between Halifax and Britain to scout for the raiders .
By the start of the operation , Bismarck 's crew had increased to 2 @,@ 221 officers and enlisted men . This included an admiral 's staff of nearly 65 and a prize crew of 80 sailors , who could be used to crew transports captured during the mission . At 02 : 00 on 19 May , Bismarck departed Gotenhafen and made for the Danish straits . She was joined at 11 : 25 by Prinz Eugen , which had departed the previous night at 21 : 18 , off Cape Arkona . The two ships were escorted by three destroyers — Z10 Hans Lody , Z16 Friedrich Eckoldt , and Z23 — and a flotilla of minesweepers . The Luftwaffe provided air cover during the voyage out of German waters . At around noon on 20 May , Lindemann informed the ship 's crew via loudspeaker of the ship 's mission . At approximately the same time , a group of ten or twelve Swedish aircraft flying reconnaissance encountered the German force and reported its composition and heading , though the Germans did not see the Swedes .
An hour later , the German flotilla encountered the Swedish cruiser HSwMS Gotland ; the cruiser shadowed the Germans for two hours in the Kattegat . Gotland transmitted a report to naval headquarters , stating : " Two large ships , three destroyers , five escort vessels , and 10 – 12 aircraft passed Marstrand , course 205 ° / 20 ' . " The OKM was not concerned about the security risk posed by Gotland , though both Lütjens and Lindemann believed operational secrecy had been lost . The report eventually made its way to Captain Henry Denham , the British naval attaché to Sweden , who transmitted the information to the Admiralty . The code @-@ breakers at Bletchley Park confirmed that an Atlantic raid was imminent , as they had decrypted reports that Bismarck and Prinz Eugen had taken on prize crews and requested additional navigational charts from headquarters . A pair of Supermarine Spitfires was ordered to search the Norwegian coast for the flotilla .
German aerial reconnaissance confirmed that one aircraft carrier , three battleships , and four cruisers remained at anchor in the main British naval base at Scapa Flow , which confirmed to Lütjens that the British were unaware of his operation . On the evening of 20 May , Bismarck and the rest of the flotilla reached the Norwegian coast ; the minesweepers were detached and the two raiders and their destroyer escorts continued north . The following morning , radio @-@ intercept officers on board Prinz Eugen picked up a signal ordering British reconnaissance aircraft to search for two battleships and three destroyers northbound off the Norwegian coast . At 7 : 00 on the 21st , the Germans spotted four unidentified aircraft , which quickly departed . Shortly after 12 : 00 , the flotilla reached Bergen and anchored at Grimstadfjord , where the ships ' crews painted over the Baltic camouflage with the standard " outboard grey " worn by German warships operating in the Atlantic .
When Bismarck was in Norway , a pair of Bf 109 fighters circled overhead to protect her from British air attacks , but Flying Officer Michael Suckling managed to fly his Spitfire directly over the German flotilla at a height of 8 @,@ 000 m ( 26 @,@ 000 ft ) and take photos of Bismarck and her escorts . Upon receipt of the information , Admiral John Tovey ordered the battlecruiser HMS Hood , the newly commissioned battleship HMS Prince of Wales , and six destroyers to reinforce the pair of cruisers patrolling the Denmark Strait . The rest of the Home Fleet was placed on high alert in Scapa Flow . Eighteen bombers were dispatched to attack the Germans , but weather over the fjord had worsened and they were unable to find the German warships .
Bismarck did not replenish her fuel stores in Norway , as her operational orders did not require her to do so . She had left port 200 t ( 200 long tons ) short of a full load , and had since expended another 1 @,@ 000 t ( 980 long tons ) on the voyage from Gotenhafen . Prinz Eugen took on 764 t ( 752 long tons ) of fuel . At 19 : 30 on 21 May , Bismarck , Prinz Eugen , and the three escorting destroyers left Bergen . At midnight , when the force was in the open sea , heading towards the Arctic Ocean , Raeder disclosed the operation to Hitler , who reluctantly consented to the raid . The three escorting destroyers were detached at 04 : 14 on 22 May , while the force steamed off Trondheim . At around 12 : 00 , Lütjens ordered his two ships to turn toward the Denmark Strait to attempt the break @-@ out into the open Atlantic .
By 04 : 00 on 23 May , Lütjens ordered Bismarck and Prinz Eugen to increase speed to 27 knots ( 50 km / h ; 31 mph ) to make the dash through the Denmark Strait . Upon entering the Strait , both ships activated their FuMO radar detection equipment sets . Bismarck led Prinz Eugen by about 700 m ( 770 yd ) ; mist reduced visibility to 3 @,@ 000 to 4 @,@ 000 m ( 3 @,@ 300 to 4 @,@ 400 yd ) . The Germans encountered some ice at around 10 : 00 , which necessitated a reduction in speed to 24 knots ( 44 km / h ; 28 mph ) . Two hours later , the pair had reached a point north of Iceland . The ships were forced to zigzag to avoid ice floes . At 19 : 22 , hydrophone and radar operators aboard the German warships detected the cruiser HMS Suffolk at a range of approximately 12 @,@ 500 m ( 13 @,@ 700 yd ) . Prinz Eugen 's radio @-@ intercept team decrypted the radio signals being sent by Suffolk and learned that their location had been reported .
Lütjens gave permission for Prinz Eugen to engage Suffolk , but the captain of the German cruiser could not clearly make out his target and so held fire . Suffolk quickly retreated to a safe distance and shadowed the German ships . At 20 : 30 , the heavy cruiser HMS Norfolk joined Suffolk , but approached the German raiders too closely . Lütjens ordered his ships to engage the British cruiser ; Bismarck fired five salvoes , three of which straddled Norfolk and rained shell splinters on her decks . The cruiser laid a smoke screen and fled into a fog bank , ending the brief engagement . The concussion from the 38 cm guns ' firing disabled Bismarck 's FuMO 23 radar set ; this prompted Lütjens to order Prinz Eugen to take station ahead so she could use her functioning radar to scout for the formation .
At around 22 : 00 , Lütjens ordered Bismarck to make a 180 @-@ degree turn in an effort to surprise the two heavy cruisers shadowing him . Although Bismarck was visually obscured in a rain squall , Suffolk 's radar quickly detected the manoeuvre , allowing the cruiser to evade . The cruisers remained on station through the night , continually relaying the location and bearing of the German ships . The harsh weather broke on the morning of 24 May , revealing a clear sky . At 05 : 07 , hydrophone operators aboard Prinz Eugen detected a pair of unidentified vessels approaching the German formation at a range of 20 nmi ( 37 km ; 23 mi ) , reporting " Noise of two fast @-@ moving turbine ships at 280 ° relative bearing ! "
= = = = Battle of the Denmark Strait = = = =
At 05 : 45 , German lookouts spotted smoke on the horizon ; this turned out to be from Hood and Prince of Wales , under the command of Vice Admiral Lancelot Holland . Lütjens ordered his ships ' crews to battle stations . By 05 : 52 , the range had fallen to 26 @,@ 000 m ( 28 @,@ 000 yd ) and Hood opened fire , followed by Prince of Wales a minute later . Hood engaged Prinz Eugen , which the British thought to be Bismarck , while Prince of Wales fired on Bismarck . Adalbert Schneider , the first gunnery officer aboard Bismarck , twice requested permission to return fire , but Lütjens hesitated . Lindemann intervened , muttering " I will not let my ship be shot out from under my ass . " He demanded permission to fire from Lütjens , who relented and at 05 : 55 ordered his ships to engage the British .
The British ships approached the German ships head on , which permitted them to use only their forward guns ; Bismarck and Prinz Eugen could fire full broadsides . Several minutes after opening fire , Holland ordered a 20 ° turn to port , which would allow his ships to engage with their rear gun turrets . Both German ships concentrated their fire on Hood . About a minute after opening fire , Prinz Eugen scored a hit with a high @-@ explosive 20 @.@ 3 cm ( 8 @.@ 0 in ) shell ; the explosion detonated unrotated projectile ammunition and started a large fire , which was quickly extinguished . After firing three four @-@ gun salvoes , Schneider had found the range to Hood ; he immediately ordered rapid @-@ fire salvoes from Bismarck 's eight 38 cm guns . He also ordered the ship 's 15 cm secondary guns to engage Prince of Wales . Holland then ordered a second 20 ° turn to port , to bring his ships on a parallel course with Bismarck and Prinz Eugen . Lütjens ordered Prinz Eugen to shift fire and target Prince of Wales , to keep both of his opponents under fire . Within a few minutes , Prinz Eugen scored a pair of hits on the battleship that started a small fire .
Lütjens then ordered Prinz Eugen to drop behind Bismarck , so she could continue to monitor the location of Norfolk and Suffolk , which were still some 10 to 12 nmi ( 19 to 22 km ; 12 to 14 mi ) to the east . At 06 : 00 , Hood was completing the second turn to port when Bismarck 's fifth salvo hit . Two of the shells landed short , striking the water close to the ship , but at least one of the 38 cm armour @-@ piercing shells struck Hood and penetrated her thin deck armour . The shell reached Hood 's rear ammunition magazine and detonated 112 t ( 110 long tons ) of cordite propellant . The massive explosion broke the back of the ship between the main mast and the rear funnel ; the forward section continued to move forward briefly before the in @-@ rushing water caused the bow to rise into the air at a steep angle . The stern also rose as water rushed into the ripped @-@ open compartments . Schneider exclaimed " He is sinking ! " over the ship 's loudspeakers . In only eight minutes of firing , Hood had disappeared , taking all but three of her crew of 1 @,@ 419 men with her .
Bismarck then shifted fire to Prince of Wales . The British battleship scored a hit on Bismarck with her sixth salvo , but the German ship found her mark with her first salvo . One of the shells struck the bridge on Prince of Wales , though it did not explode and instead exited the other side , killing everyone in the ship 's command centre , save Captain John Leach , the ship 's commanding officer , and one other . The two German ships continued to fire upon Prince of Wales , causing serious damage . Guns malfunctioned on the recently commissioned British ship , which still had civilian technicians aboard . Despite the technical faults in the main battery , Prince of Wales scored three hits on Bismarck in the engagement . The first struck her in the forecastle above the waterline but low enough to allow the crashing waves to enter the hull . The second shell struck below the armoured belt and exploded on contact with the torpedo bulkhead , inflicting minimal damage . The third shell passed through one of the boats carried aboard the ship and then went through the floatplane catapult without exploding .
At 06 : 13 , Leach gave the order to retreat ; only two of his ship 's ten 14 in ( 360 mm ) guns were still firing and his ship had sustained significant damage . Prince of Wales made a 160 ° turn and laid a smoke screen to cover her withdrawal . The Germans ceased fire as the range widened . Though Lindemann strongly advocated chasing Prince of Wales and destroying her , Lütjens obeyed operational orders to shun any avoidable engagement with enemy forces that were not protecting a convoy , firmly rejecting the request , and instead ordered Bismarck and Prinz Eugen to head for the North Atlantic . In the engagement , Bismarck had fired 93 armour @-@ piercing shells and had been hit by three shells in return . The forecastle hit allowed 1 @,@ 000 to 2 @,@ 000 t ( 980 to 1 @,@ 970 long tons ) of water to flood into the ship , which contaminated fuel oil stored in the bow . Lütjens refused to reduce speed to allow damage control teams to repair the shell hole which widened and allowed more water into the ship . The second hit caused some additional flooding . Shell @-@ splinters from the second hit also damaged a steam line in the turbo @-@ generator room , but this was not serious , as Bismarck had sufficient other generator reserves . The combined flooding from these two hits caused a 9 @-@ degree list to port and a 3 @-@ degree trim by the bow .
= = = = Chase = = = =
After the engagement , Lütjens reported , " Battlecruiser , probably Hood , sunk . Another battleship , King George V or Renown , turned away damaged . Two heavy cruisers maintain contact . " At 08 : 01 , he transmitted a damage report and his intentions to OKM , which were to detach Prinz Eugen for commerce raiding and to make for Saint @-@ Nazaire for repairs . Shortly after 10 : 00 , Lütjens ordered Prinz Eugen to fall behind Bismarck to discern the severity of the oil leakage from the bow hit . After confirming " broad streams of oil on both sides of [ Bismarck 's ] wake " , Prinz Eugen returned to the forward position . About an hour later , a British Short Sunderland flying boat reported the oil slick to Suffolk and Norfolk , which had been joined by the damaged Prince of Wales . Rear Admiral Frederic Wake @-@ Walker , the commander of the two cruisers , ordered Prince of Wales to remain behind his ships .
The Royal Navy ordered all warships in the area to join the pursuit of Bismarck and Prinz Eugen . Tovey 's Home Fleet was steaming to intercept the German raiders , but on the morning of 24 May was still over 350 nmi ( 650 km ; 400 mi ) away . The Admiralty ordered the light cruisers Manchester , Birmingham , and Arethusa to patrol the Denmark Strait in the event that Lütjens attempted to retrace his route . The battleship Rodney , which had been escorting RMS Britannic and was due for a refit in the Boston Navy Yard , joined Tovey . Two old Revenge @-@ class battleships were ordered into the hunt : Revenge , from Halifax , and Ramillies , which was escorting Convoy HX 127 . In all , six battleships and battlecruisers , two aircraft carriers , thirteen cruisers , and twenty @-@ one destroyers were committed to the chase . By around 17 : 00 , the crew aboard Prince of Wales restored nine of her ten main guns to working order , which permitted Wake @-@ Walker to place her in the front of his formation to attack Bismarck if the opportunity arose .
With the weather worsening , Lütjens attempted to detach Prinz Eugen at 16 : 40 . The squall was not heavy enough to cover her withdrawal from Wake @-@ Walker 's cruisers , which continued to maintain radar contact . Prinz Eugen was therefore recalled temporarily . The cruiser was successfully detached at 18 : 14 . Bismarck turned around to face Wake @-@ Walker 's formation , forcing Suffolk to turn away at high speed . Prince of Wales fired twelve salvos at Bismarck , which responded with nine salvos , none of which hit . The action diverted British attention and permitted Prinz Eugen to slip away . After Bismarck resumed her previous heading , Wake @-@ Walker 's three ships took up station on Bismarck 's port side .
Although Bismarck had been damaged in the engagement and forced to reduce speed , she was still capable of reaching 27 to 28 knots ( 50 to 52 km / h ; 31 to 32 mph ) , the maximum speed of Tovey 's King George V. Unless Bismarck could be slowed , the British would be unable to prevent her from reaching Saint @-@ Nazaire . Shortly before 16 : 00 on 25 May , Tovey detached the aircraft carrier Victorious and four light cruisers to shape a course that would position her to launch her torpedo bombers . At 22 : 00 , Victorious launched the strike , which comprised six Fairey Fulmar fighters and nine Fairey Swordfish torpedo bombers of 825 Naval Air Squadron , led by Lt Cdr Eugene Esmonde . The inexperienced aviators nearly attacked Norfolk on their approach ; the confusion alerted Bismarck 's anti @-@ aircraft gunners .
Bismarck also used her main and secondary batteries to fire at maximum depression to create giant splashes in the paths of the incoming torpedo bombers . None of the attacking aircraft were shot down . Bismarck evaded eight of the torpedoes launched at her , but the ninth struck amidships on the main armoured belt , throwing one man into a bulkhead and killing him and injuring five others . The explosion also caused minor damage to electrical equipment . The ship suffered more serious damage from manoeuvres to evade the torpedoes : rapid shifts in speed and course loosened collision mats , which increased the flooding from the forward shell hole and eventually forced abandonment of the port number 2 boiler room . This loss of a second boiler , combined with fuel losses and increasing bow trim , forced the ship to slow to 16 knots ( 30 km / h ; 18 mph ) . Divers repaired the collision mats in the bow , after which speed increased to 20 knots ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) , the speed that the command staff determined was the most economical for the voyage to occupied France .
Shortly after the Swordfish departed the scene , Bismarck and Prince of Wales engaged in a brief artillery duel . Neither scored a hit . Bismarck 's damage control teams resumed work after the short engagement . The sea water that had flooded the number 2 port side boiler threatened to enter the number 4 turbo @-@ generator feedwater system , which would have permitted saltwater to reach the turbines . The saltwater would have destroyed the turbine blades and thus greatly reduced the ship 's speed . By morning on 25 May , the danger had passed . The ship slowed to 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) to allow divers to pump fuel from the forward compartments to the rear tanks ; two hoses were successfully connected and a few hundred tons of fuel were transferred .
As the chase entered open waters , Wake @-@ Walker 's ships were compelled to zig @-@ zag to avoid German U @-@ boats that might be in the area . This required the ships to steam for ten minutes to port , then ten minutes to starboard , to keep the ships on the same base course . For the last few minutes of the turn to port , Bismarck was out of range of Suffolk 's radar . At 03 : 00 on 25 May , Lütjens ordered an increase to maximum speed , which at this point was 28 knots ( 52 km / h ; 32 mph ) . He then ordered the ship to circle away to the west and then north . This manoeuvre coincided with the period during which his ship was out of radar range ; Bismarck successfully broke radar contact and circled back behind her pursuers . Suffolk 's captain assumed that Bismarck had broken off to the west and attempted to find her by also steaming west . After half an hour , he informed Wake @-@ Walker , who ordered the three ships to disperse at daylight to search visually .
The Royal Navy search became frantic , as many of the British ships were low on fuel . Victorious and her escorting cruisers were sent west , Wake @-@ Walker 's ships continued to the south and west , and Tovey continued to steam toward the mid @-@ Atlantic . Force H , with the aircraft carrier Ark Royal and steaming up from Gibraltar , was still at least a day away . Unaware that he had shaken off Wake @-@ Walker , Lütjens sent long radio messages to Naval Group West headquarters in Paris . The signals were intercepted by the British , from which bearings were determined . They were wrongly plotted on board King George V , leading Tovey to believe that Bismarck was heading back to Germany through the Iceland @-@ Faeroe gap , which kept his fleet on the wrong course for seven hours . By the time the mistake had been discovered , Bismarck had put a sizeable gap between herself and the British ships .
British code @-@ breakers were able to decrypt some of the German signals , including an order to the Luftwaffe to provide support for Bismarck making for Brest , decrypted by Jane Fawcett on 25 May 1941 . The French Resistance provided the British with confirmation that Luftwaffe units were relocating there . Tovey could now turn his forces toward France to converge in areas through which Bismarck would have to pass . A squadron of Coastal Command PBY Catalinas based in Northern Ireland joined the search , covering areas where Bismarck might be headed in her attempt to reach occupied France . At 10 : 30 on 26 May , a Catalina piloted by Ensign Leonard B. Smith of the US Navy located her , some 690 nmi ( 1 @,@ 280 km ; 790 mi ) northwest of Brest . At her current speed , she would have been close enough to reach the protection of U @-@ boats and the Luftwaffe in less than a day . Most British forces were not close enough to stop her .
The only possibility for the Royal Navy was Ark Royal with Force H , under the command of Admiral James Somerville . Victorious , Prince of Wales , Suffolk and Repulse were forced to break off the search due to fuel shortage ; the only heavy ships remaining apart from Force H were King George V and Rodney , but they were too distant . Ark Royal 's Swordfish were already searching nearby when the Catalina found her . Several torpedo bombers also located the battleship , about 60 nmi ( 110 km ; 69 mi ) away from Ark Royal . Somerville ordered an attack as soon as the Swordfish returned and were rearmed with torpedoes . He detached the cruiser Sheffield to shadow Bismarck , though Ark Royal 's aviators were not informed of this . As a result , the Swordfish , which were armed with torpedoes equipped with new magnetic detonators , accidentally attacked Sheffield . The magnetic detonators failed to work properly and Sheffield emerged unscathed .
Upon returning to Ark Royal , the Swordfish loaded torpedoes equipped with contact detonators . The second attack comprised fifteen aircraft and was launched at 19 : 10 . At 20 : 47 , the torpedo bombers began their attack descent through the clouds . As the Swordfish approached , Bismarck fired her main battery at Sheffield , straddling the cruiser with her second salvo . Shell fragments rained down on Sheffield , killing three men and wounding several others . Sheffield quickly retreated under cover of a smoke screen . The Swordfish then attacked ; Bismarck began to turn violently as her anti @-@ aircraft batteries engaged the bombers . One torpedo hit amidships on the port side , just below the bottom edge of the main armour belt . The force of the explosion was largely contained by the underwater protection system and the belt armour but some structural damage caused minor flooding .
The second torpedo — fired by pilot John Moffat — struck Bismarck in her stern on the port side , near the port rudder shaft . The coupling on the port rudder assembly was badly damaged and the rudder could not be disengaged , locked in a 12 ° turn to port . The explosion also caused much shock damage . The crew eventually managed to repair the starboard rudder but the port rudder remained jammed . A suggestion to sever the port rudder with explosives was dismissed by Lütjens , as damage to the screws would have left the battleship helpless . At 21 : 15 , Lütjens reported that the ship was unmanoeuvrable .
= = = = Sinking = = = =
With the port rudder jammed , Bismarck was now steaming in a large circle , unable to escape from Tovey 's forces . Though fuel shortages had reduced the number of ships available to the British , the battleships King George V and Rodney were still available , along with the heavy cruisers Dorsetshire and Norfolk . Lütjens signalled headquarters at 21 : 40 on the 26th : " Ship unmanoeuvrable . We will fight to the last shell . Long live the Führer . " The mood of the crew became increasingly depressed , especially as messages from the naval command reached the ship . Intended to boost morale , the messages only highlighted the desperate situation in which the crew found itself . As dark fell , Bismarck briefly fired on Sheffield , though the cruiser quickly fled . Sheffield lost contact in the low visibility and Captain Philip Vian 's group of five destroyers was ordered to keep contact with Bismarck through the night .
The ships encountered Bismarck at 22 : 38 ; the battleship quickly engaged them with her main battery . After firing three salvos , she straddled the Polish destroyer ORP Piorun . The destroyer continued to close the range until a near miss at around 12 @,@ 000 m ( 39 @,@ 000 ft ) forced her to turn away . Throughout the night and into the morning , Vian 's destroyers harried Bismarck , illuminating her with star shells and firing dozens of torpedoes , none of which hit . Between 05 : 00 and 06 : 00 , Bismarck 's crew attempted to launch one of the Arado 196 float planes to carry away the ship 's war diary , footage of the engagement with Hood , and other important documents . The third shell hit from Prince of Wales had damaged the steam line on the aircraft catapult , rendering it inoperative . As it was not possible to launch the aircraft it had become a fire hazard , and was pushed overboard .
After daybreak on 27 May , King George V led the attack . Rodney followed off her port quarter ; Tovey intended to steam directly at Bismarck until he was about 8 nmi ( 15 km ; 9 @.@ 2 mi ) away . At that point , he would turn south to put his ships parallel to his target . At 08 : 43 , lookouts on King George V spotted her , some 23 @,@ 000 m ( 25 @,@ 000 yd ) away . Four minutes later , Rodney 's two forward turrets , comprising six 16 in ( 406 mm ) guns , opened fire , then King George V 's 14 in ( 356 mm ) guns began firing . Bismarck returned fire at 08 : 50 with her forward guns ; with her second salvo , she straddled Rodney . Thereafter , Bismarck 's gunnery became increasingly difficult as the ship moved erratically in the heavy seas , unable to steer , depriving Schneider of a predictable course for range calculations .
As the range fell , the ships ' secondary batteries joined the battle . Norfolk and Dorsetshire closed and began firing with their 8 in ( 203 mm ) guns . At 09 : 02 , a 16 @-@ inch shell from Rodney struck Bismarck 's forward superstructure , killing hundreds of men and severely damaging the two forward turrets . According to survivors , this salvo probably killed both Lindemann and Lütjens and the rest of the bridge staff . The main fire control director was also destroyed by this hit , which probably also killed Schneider . A second shell from this salvo struck the forward main battery was disabled , though it would manage to fire one last salvo at 09 : 27 . Lieutenant von Müllenheim @-@ Rechberg , in the rear control station , took over firing control for the rear turrets . He managed to fire three salvos before a shell destroyed the gun director , disabling his equipment . He gave the order for the guns to fire independently , but by 09 : 31 , all four main battery turrets had been put out of action . One of Bismarck 's shells exploded 20 feet off Rodney 's bow and damaged her starboard torpedo tube — the closest Bismarck came to a direct hit on her opponents .
By 10 : 00 , Tovey 's two battleships had fired over 700 main battery shells , many at very close range ; Bismarck had been reduced to a shambles , aflame from stem to stern . She suffered from a 20 ° list to port and was low in the water by the stern . Rodney closed to 2 @,@ 700 m ( 3 @,@ 000 yd ) , point @-@ blank range for guns of that size , and continued to fire . Tovey could not cease fire until the Germans struck their ensigns or it became clear they were abandoning ship . Rodney fired two torpedoes from her port @-@ side tube and claimed one hit . According to Ludovic Kennedy , " if true , [ this is ] the only instance in history of one battleship torpedoing another " .
First Officer Hans Oels ordered the men below decks to abandon ship ; he instructed the engine room crews to open the ship 's watertight doors and prepare scuttling charges . Gerhard Junack , the chief engineering officer , ordered his men to set the demolition charges with a 9 @-@ minute fuse but the intercom system broke down and he sent a messenger to confirm the order to scuttle the ship . The messenger never returned and Junack primed the charges and ordered the crew to abandon the ship . Junack and his comrades heard the demolition charges detonate as they made their way up through the various levels . Oels rushed throughout the ship , ordering men to abandon their posts . After he reached the deck a huge explosion killed him and about a hundred others .
The four British ships fired more than 2 @,@ 800 shells at Bismarck , and scored more than 400 hits , but were unable to sink Bismarck by gunfire . At around 10 : 20 , running low on fuel , Tovey ordered the cruiser Dorsetshire to sink Bismarck with torpedoes and sent his battleships back to port . Dorsetshire fired a pair of torpedoes into Bismarck 's starboard side , one of which hit . Dorsetshire then moved around to her port side and fired another torpedo , which also hit . By the time these torpedo attacks took place , the ship was already listing so badly that the deck was partly awash . It appears that the final torpedo may have detonated against Bismarck 's port side superstructure , which was by then already underwater . Around 10 : 35 , Bismarck capsized to port and slowly sank by the stern , disappearing from the surface at 10 : 40 . Some survivors reported they saw Captain Lindemann standing at attention at the stem of the ship as she sank .
Junack , who had abandoned ship by the time it capsized , observed no underwater damage to the ship 's starboard side . Von Müllenheim @-@ Rechberg reported the same but assumed that the port side , which was then under water , had been more significantly damaged . Around 400 men were now in the water ; Dorsetshire and the destroyer Maori moved in and lowered ropes to pull the survivors aboard . At 11 : 40 , Dorsetshire 's captain ordered the rescue effort abandoned after lookouts spotted what they thought was a U @-@ boat . Dorsetshire had rescued 85 men and Maori had picked up 25 by the time they left the scene . A U @-@ boat later reached the survivors and found three men , and a German trawler rescued another two . One of the men picked up by the British died of his wounds the following day . Out of a crew of over 2 @,@ 200 men , only 114 survived .
Bismarck was mentioned in the Wehrmachtbericht ( armed forces report ) three times during Operation Rheinübung . The first was an account of the Battle of the Denmark Strait ; the second was a brief account of the ship 's destruction , and the third was an exaggerated claim that Bismarck had sunk a British destroyer and shot down five aircraft . In 1959 , C. S. Forester published his novel Last Nine Days of the Bismarck . The book was adapted for the movie Sink the Bismarck ! , released the following year . For dramatic effect the film showed Bismarck sinking a British destroyer and shooting down two aircraft , neither of which happened . That same year , Johnny Horton released the song " Sink the Bismarck " .
= = Wreckage = =
= = = Discovery by Robert Ballard = = =
The wreck of Bismarck was discovered on 8 June 1989 by Dr. Robert Ballard , the oceanographer responsible for finding RMS Titanic . Bismarck was found to be resting upright at a depth of approximately 4 @,@ 791 m ( 15 @,@ 719 ft ) , about 650 km ( 400 mi ) west of Brest . The ship struck an extinct underwater volcano , which rose some 1 @,@ 000 m ( 3 @,@ 300 ft ) above the surrounding abyssal plain , triggering a 2 km ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) landslide . Bismarck slid down the mountain , coming to a stop two @-@ thirds down .
Ballard 's survey found no underwater penetrations of the ship 's fully armoured citadel . Eight holes were found in the hull , one on the starboard side and seven on the port side , all above the waterline . One of the holes is in the deck , on the bow 's starboard side . The angle and shape indicates the shell that created the hole was fired from Bismarck 's port side and struck the starboard anchor chain . The anchor chain has disappeared down this hole . Six holes are amidships , three shell fragments pierced the upper splinter belt , and one made a hole in the main armour belt . Further aft a huge hole is visible , parallel to the aircraft catapult , on the deck . The submersibles recorded no sign of a shell penetration through the main or side armour here , and it is likely that the shell penetrated the deck armour only . Huge dents showed that many of the 14 inch shells fired by King George V bounced off the German belt armour .
Ballard noted that he found no evidence of the internal implosions that occur when a hull that is not fully flooded sinks . The surrounding water , which has much greater pressure than the air in the hull , would crush the ship . Instead , Ballard points out that the hull is in relatively good condition ; he states simply that " Bismarck did not implode . " This suggests that Bismarck 's compartments were flooded when the ship sank , supporting the scuttling theory . Ballard added " we found a hull that appears whole and relatively undamaged by the descent and impact " . They concluded that the direct cause of sinking was scuttling : sabotage of engine @-@ room valves by her crew , as claimed by German survivors . Ballard kept the wreck 's exact location a secret to prevent other divers from taking artefacts from the ship , a practice he considered a form of grave robbing .
The whole stern had broken away ; as it was not near the main wreckage and has not yet been found , it can be assumed this did not occur on impact with the sea floor . The missing section came away roughly where the torpedo had hit , raising questions of possible structural failure . The stern area had also received several hits , increasing the torpedo damage . This , coupled with the fact the ship sank " stern first " and had no structural support to hold it in place , suggests the stern detached at the surface . In 1942 Prinz Eugen was also torpedoed in the stern , which collapsed . This prompted a strengthening of the stern structures on all German capital ships .
= = = Subsequent expeditions = = =
In June 2001 , Deep Ocean Expeditions , partnered with Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution , conducted another investigation of the wreck . The researchers used Russian @-@ built mini @-@ subs . William N. Lange , a Woods Hole expert , stated , " You see a large number of shell holes in the superstructure and deck , but not that many along the side , and none below the waterline . " The expedition found no penetrations in the main armoured belt , above or below the waterline . The examiners noted several long gashes in the hull , but attributed these to impact on the sea floor .
An Anglo @-@ American expedition in July 2001 was funded by a British TV channel . The team used the volcano — the only one in that area — to locate the wreck . Using ROVs to film the hull , the team concluded that the ship had sunk due to combat damage . Expedition leader David Mearns claimed significant gashes had been found in the hull : " My feeling is that those holes were probably lengthened by the slide , but initiated by torpedoes " .
The 2002 documentary Expedition : Bismarck , directed by James Cameron and filmed in May – June 2002 using smaller and more agile Mir submersibles , reconstructed the events leading to the sinking . These provided the first interior shots . His findings were that there was not enough damage below the waterline to confirm that she had been sunk rather than scuttled . Close inspection of the wreckage confirmed that none of the torpedoes or shells had penetrated the second layer of the inner hull . Using small ROVs to examine the interior , Cameron discovered that the torpedo blasts had failed to shatter the torpedo bulkheads .
Despite their sometimes differing viewpoints , these experts generally agree that Bismarck would have eventually foundered if the Germans had not scuttled her first . Ballard estimated that Bismarck could still have floated for at least a day when the British vessels ceased fire and could have been captured by the Royal Navy , a position supported by the historian Ludovic Kennedy ( who was serving on the destroyer HMS Tartar at the time ) . Kennedy stated , " That she would have foundered eventually there can be little doubt ; but the scuttling ensured that it was sooner rather than later . " When asked whether Bismarck would have sunk if the Germans had not scuttled the ship , Cameron replied " Sure . But it might have taken half a day . " In Mearns ' subsequent book Hood and Bismarck , he conceded that scuttling " may have hastened the inevitable , but only by a matter of minutes . " Ballard later concluded that " As far as I was concerned , the British had sunk the ship regardless of who delivered the final blow . "
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= Belle Vue Zoological Gardens =
Belle Vue Zoological Gardens was a large zoo , amusement park , exhibition hall complex and speedway stadium in Belle Vue , Manchester , England , opened in 1836 . The brainchild of John Jennison , the gardens were initially intended to be an entertainment for the genteel middle classes , with formal gardens and dancing on open @-@ air platforms during the summer , but they soon became one of the most popular attractions in Northern England . Before moving to Belle Vue , Jennison , a part @-@ time gardener , had run a small aviary at his home , the beginnings of the zoo that over the years grew to become the third @-@ largest in the United Kingdom .
Jennison set out a small amusements area in Belle Vue during the 1870s , which was expanded in the early 20th century to become what was advertised as the " showground of the world " . Popular rides included the 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) Bobs roller coaster and the Scenic Railway . Other entertainments included grand firework displays from 1852 and an annual Christmas circus from 1922 . Music and dancing were popular attractions in Belle Vue 's various ballrooms . The Kings Hall , opened in 1910 , housed the Hallé Orchestra for several years and hosted concerts by artists such as Jimi Hendrix , The Who , The Rolling Stones , Leonard Cohen , Johnny Cash and Led Zeppelin .
Catering for visitors at Belle Vue was on an industrial scale , ranging from the late 19th century hot water rooms , which accommodated up to 3 @,@ 000 diners each , providing crockery and hot water for those who brought their own picnics , to more upmarket themed restaurants . Belle Vue became a part of the caterer and hotelier Charles Forte 's business empire towards the end of its life in the 1960s . Although he made some improvements to the zoo , Forte 's interests lay in developing the gardens ' dining and exhibition facilities . The Kings Hall was then the largest exhibition space outside London , but competition from the G @-@ Mex exhibition and conference centre in central Manchester led directly to its closure in 1987 .
At its peak Belle Vue occupied 165 acres ( 0 @.@ 67 km2 ) and attracted more than two million visitors a year , up to 250 @,@ 000 of whom visited over the Easter weekend . The zoo closed in September 1977 after its owners decided they could no longer afford its losses of £ 100 @,@ 000 a year . The amusement park remained open on summer weekends until 1980 . The land was sold in 1982 , and the site finally cleared in 1987 . All that remains of Belle Vue today is a greyhound racing stadium and a snooker hall built in the stadium 's car park .
= = Commercial history = =
Belle Vue Zoological Gardens was the brainchild of entrepreneur and part @-@ time gardener John Jennison . He opened the grounds around his home in Adswood , Stockport to the public in 1826 , from where he and his wife Maria sold fruit and vegetables . He called his establishment Strawberry Gardens , later Jennison 's Gardens . Manchester 's increasing urban population encouraged the development of a thriving leisure industry , and public parks were popular . In 1828 or ' 29 Jennison purchased an adjacent 0 @.@ 5 acres ( 0 @.@ 20 ha ) of land on which he and his wife built an aviary , to which they charged admission ; its first occupant was a captured thrush . Jennison turned his home into a public house , the Adam and Eve , which he and his wife ran together .
In 1835 Jennison was approached by businessman George Gill , who suggested that he lease Belle Vue – a public house in 35 @.@ 75 acres ( 14 @.@ 47 ha ) of open land between Kirkmanshulme Lane and Hyde Road – as a more suitable site for his aviary . Jennison took out a mortgage of £ 300 to pay off the £ 80 mortgage on the Strawberry Gardens and spent the remainder on a trial six @-@ month lease of the Belle Vue property , in June 1836 . In December Jennison signed a 99 @-@ year lease at a rent of £ 135 per annum . For an extra £ 100 a year he leased additional land to extend the western boundary to Redgate Lane , close to Stockport Road , where he made a second entrance . To finance further expansion Jennison re @-@ mortgaged the site for £ 800 .
Except for their belongings , which fitted on a handcart , all the Jennisons took with them to Belle Vue was two or three birdcages containing parrots and other assorted birds . At its opening in 1836 , Belle Vue contained an Italian Garden , lakes , mazes and hothouses , as well as the aviary . The family decided that their zoological collection had to be expanded as a matter of priority , and by 1839 elephants , lions , and other exotic African animals had been added . Many other attractions were subsequently added , including a racecourse in 1847 . The gardens were an immediate success , but the neighbouring St James 's Church was offended that they were open on Sundays , and asked Jennison to close while services were being conducted ; he " politely but firmly refused " .
Admission to the gardens , which were open until 9 pm during the summer , was by subscription ticket priced at 10 shillings for a family and 5 shillings for an individual , beyond the means of most workers . Concerts of " genteel music " were staged , and there was dancing to various bands on a large open @-@ air wooden platform . Initially , the only public transport to Belle Vue was by horse @-@ drawn omnibus from what is now Piccadilly , in central Manchester , but the last departure time of 6 : 00 pm coincided with the end of most workers ' shifts . The first railway station was opened near Belle Vue in 1842 , allowing workers easier access to the gardens and their attractions , and by 1848 complaints began to appear in the press that " roughs " in coarse attire were embarrassing middle @-@ class ladies on the dancing platform by attempting to dance with them . There were also complaints about working @-@ class men dancing together , and increasing resentment from working @-@ class patrons about Belle Vue 's " forbidding dress requirements , its restricted opening hours , [ and ] its unwelcoming admission price " . In the words of historian David Mayer , Jennison was facing a crisis : " either keep Belle Vue Gardens an exclusive , class @-@ specific , genteel preserve for the gentry and the middle class – who would arrive and depart in their own carriages through the Hyde Road gate – or open the gardens to a popular crowd who would arrive by train at the Stockport Road ( Longsight ) gate " . For a time , Jennison sent carriages to the railway station to collect the first @-@ class passengers , but he also abandoned the idea of subscription tickets , settling instead on a general admission price of 4d , rising to 6d in 1851 .
= = = Financial difficulties = = =
Although the gardens thrived in their early years , by 1842 Jennison was in financial difficulties , and on 13 December bankruptcy proceedings were initiated . Jennison 's problems were caused by his failure to sell the Strawberry Gardens property , competition from the recently opened Manchester Zoological Gardens , and the Manchester and Birmingham Railway track cutting through the land Jennison had leased in December 1836 , restricting access to the gardens . Jennison twice tried unsuccessfully to sell Belle Vue , after which his creditors allowed him time to make a success of the gardens ; by the end of the 1843 season Jennison was able to repay his debts . The railway that had been a thorn in his side eventually proved to be an asset when Longsight railway station was re @-@ sited closer to Belle Vue in 1842 , making it easier for visitors to reach the gardens .
= = = Expansion = = =
An additional 13 acres ( 5 @.@ 3 ha ) of farmland at the western end of the site was incorporated into the gardens in 1843 . One of the ponds was enlarged to form a boating lake , which later became the Firework Lake . An island was created in the middle of the lake , which housed a natural history museum . In 1858 another 8 acres ( 3 @.@ 2 ha ) were leased , in the triangle between Kirkmanshulme Lane and Hyde Road , from which clay was extracted to make bricks for the gardens ' buildings . The result of the excavations was a large hole that Jennison filled with water , creating the Great Lake in 1858 . Two paddle steamers , the Little Eastern and the Little Britain , each capable of accommodating 100 passengers , offered trips around the lake for 1d ( equivalent to £ 0 @.@ 38 in 2015 ) . By 1905 Belle Vue consisted of 68 acres ( 28 ha ) of walled gardens , with an additional 97 acres ( 39 ha ) outside its walls .
= = = War years = = =
During the First World War the gardens were used by the Manchester Regiment for drilling , and a munitions factory complete with railway sidings was built .
At the start of the Second World War the gardens were closed at noon following Neville Chamberlain 's radio broadcast announcing that Britain was at war with Germany on Sunday , 3 September 1939 , forcing the cancellation of an " open rehearsal " by the Gorton Philharmonic Orchestra . The nation 's armed forces immediately sequestered the Exhibition Hall , the restaurants and most of the top floor of the administrative offices . They also took over the sports ground to use as a barrage balloon base , and dug several air @-@ raid shelters . The gardens were allowed to re @-@ open on 15 September 1939 , and remained open throughout the rest of war , although parts of the site were requisitioned by Manchester Corporation and converted into allotments .
Although the Second World War forced the cancellation of many events , and made it difficult to feed all the zoo 's animals , it was nevertheless very lucrative for the gardens . Profits steadily increased , and the company made several compensation claims for the requisitioning of its facilities . It was granted £ 4 @,@ 000 in 1941 ( equivalent to £ 179 @,@ 000 in 2015 ) and £ 7 @,@ 242 in 1942 ( equivalent to £ 304 @,@ 000 in 2015 ) ; in gratitude for the latter , the company presented the Civil Defence Service with a new mobile canteen .
= = = Changes in ownership = = =
The Jennisons had been considering setting up a limited company to administer the gardens since 1895 . Most were in agreement except for Richard , John Jennison Snr 's youngest son . After his death in 1919 , the remaining family members created John Jennison & Co Ltd with a capital of £ 253 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to £ 10 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 in 2015 ) , comprising investments and loans totalling £ 63 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to £ 2 @,@ 600 @,@ 000 in 2015 ) . George Jennison became chairman , secretary , treasurer and joint managing director with John Jennison Jnr , John Jennison Snr 's great @-@ grandson . John , William , Angelo and Richard Jennison Jnr were appointed to the board of directors which was reported to be a " very happy board with few meetings and an entire absence of quarrels " .
On 27 November 1924 the Jennisons agreed to sell Belle Vue for £ 250 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to £ 12 @,@ 900 @,@ 000 in 2015 ) to Harry George Skipp , but he was acting as an intermediary , and on 6 March 1925 a further contract was signed by the Jennisons , Skipp and a new company called Belle Vue ( Manchester ) Ltd . The agreement was for the new company to take over from 1 January 1925 , but the transfer did not take place until 28 March . Under the new managing director , John Henry Iles , the gardens expanded to include what became a world @-@ famous amusement park .
= = = Later years = = =
Belle Vue enjoyed a brief post @-@ war boom between the end of the Second World War and the early 1950s . During the early 1960s , it could still attract 150 @,@ 000 visitors on Easter Monday , but by the end of the decade that figure had dropped to about 30 @,@ 000 , as the competition from rival amusement parks increased . Sir Leslie Joseph and Charles Forte bought Belle Vue in 1956 , but by 1963 Forte was in sole control . Although he made some improvements to the zoo , Forte 's interests lay in developing the gardens ' dining and exhibition facilities . Fire became an " ever present hazard " during Belle Vue 's later years . The most devastating occurred in 1958 and destroyed many buildings , including the Coronation Ballroom . Although the zoo was spared , the fire almost reached the lion house , distressing one of the older lionesses so much that she had to be shot . Vandalism and theft also became serious and recurring problems ; intruders killed 38 of the zoo 's birds , including 9 penguins , in 1960 .
= = Zoo = =
Belle Vue was the first privately financed zoo in England , and grew to become the third @-@ largest in the UK . Jennison 's original idea was that the gardens should be primarily a botanical excursion , but it became clear that the public was interested in the animals as an attraction in their own right . The initial collection had consisted of domestic birds and a few exotic parrots , but Jennison probably also acquired those animals that could not be sold after the Manchester Zoological Gardens closed in 1842 . By 1856 , the Jennisons had added kangaroos , rhinos , lions , bears and gazelles .
In 1871 the zoo acquired four giraffes ; the following year an elephant , Maharajah , was bought for £ 680 from Wombwell 's Menagerie No.1 in Edinburgh . The plan to transport Maharajah from Edinburgh to Manchester by train was abandoned after the elephant destroyed the railway compartment in which he was to travel . It was therefore decided that Maharajah and his trainer , Lorenzo Lawrence , should walk to Manchester , a journey they completed in 10 days with little incident . Lorenzo became the zoo 's head elephant keeper , and stayed at Belle Vue for more than 40 years . Maharajah provided elephant rides to the public for ten years , until his death from pneumonia in 1882 . His skeleton was preserved and added to the gardens ' natural history museum . When the museum was decommissioned in 1941 , the skeleton , along with other exhibits , was transferred to the Manchester Museum .
In 1893 a chimpanzee was purchased from another of Wombwell 's Travelling Menageries in London . The four @-@ year @-@ old chimpanzee , Consul , was dressed in a smoking jacket and cap and puffed on a cob pipe ; he frequently accompanied James Jennison to business meetings . Consul proved to be exceptionally popular , and after his death on 24 November 1894 , the Jennisons immediately obtained a replacement , Consul II , who played a violin while riding a tricycle around the gardens , later graduating to a bicycle .
Food for the animals became difficult to obtain during the First World War , but for the most part the gardens carried on as usual . Following the declaration of peace , several monkeys originally destined for government experiments with poison gas were acquired , as was a hippo , a dromedary and a zebra . In 1921 and 1922 the zoo obtained two animals who became great favourites . Lil , an Indian elephant , arrived in 1921 accompanied by her British Malayan handler , Phil Fernandez . Phil and Lil provided entertainment , advertising , and elephant rides for 35 years . Frank , a brown bear , arrived in 1922 . By the time of his death , 40 years later , he was known as the " Father of the Zoo " .
Open @-@ air cages installed in the Monkey House resulted in a dramatic improvement in the life expectancy of its residents , but the potential for expansion and improvement after the First World War was limited by the post @-@ war economy . Rising labour costs and minimal profits resulted in the gardens ' increasing dilapidation . The zoo began to be neglected after the sale of Belle Vue in 1925 , but it was rejuvenated by the appointment of Gerald Iles as zoo superintendent in 1933 . A new Gibbon Cage and Monkey Mountain were created and the Reptile House was extended .
On the outbreak of the Second World War in 1939 , the animal keepers were issued with rifles to deal with any dangerous animals who might escape if the gardens were bombed . A night shift was introduced to watch over the animals 24 hours a day . A list of dangerous animals that was drawn up included 13 lions , 6 tigers , 2 leopards , 1 cheetah , 2 tigons , 3 other small cats and several bears . Although the zoo 's administrators succeeded in convincing the local authorities that any danger from the animals was minimal , primarily because the perimeter walls were so high , the keepers were replaced in their sharp @-@ shooting role by soldiers who patrolled the grounds armed with tommy guns .
Stocks were increased by animals transferred from other zoos that had been forced to close . Initially the zoo was given favourable food rationing quotas , but certain foods became unavailable and the price of others increased dramatically . Bananas were impossible to obtain and the supply of fish was problematic . As a result , the keepers were forced to experiment . The sealions became casualties of the food shortage when their keepers attempted to feed them strips of beef soaked in cod liver oil . Although they seemed to thrive on this diet , their digestive systems were unable to cope with the unusual food , and they eventually died of stomach ulcers . The lions ' new diet was green @-@ coloured horsemeat , and the monkeys were fed on boiled potatoes . The birds @-@ of @-@ paradise ( lack of millet ) , and the penguins ( lack of fish ) , were unable to adapt to their make @-@ do diet and also succumbed . Vegetables were not in short supply however , as the garden staff grew lettuce , cabbage and carrots in the kitchen gardens .
Wartime interruptions in the supply of gas for heating resulted in the deaths of all the zoo 's tropical fish and several other animals , including a lioness called Pearl and her litter of cubs . Although Manchester was heavily bombed during the Blitz , the gardens sustained only minor damage . The Scenic Railway was hit by an incendiary bomb and the Reptile House was damaged by shell splinters from ack @-@ ack guns , which also caused the death of a bull bison .
Iles remained as superintendent until 1957 , and proved to be a good publicist for the zoo , taking part in radio and television programmes such as Children 's Hour . A new attraction was introduced in 1963 , a Chimps ' Tea Party , which proved to be very popular . The zoo 's last superintendent , Peter Grayson , took over in 1971 , but by then the owners of Belle Vue had lost interest in the zoo , and closure seemed imminent .
News that Belle Vue Zoological Gardens would close on 11 September 1977 was announced on BBC Radio at 10 : 00 am on 4 August 1977 . The 24 keepers were informed an hour before the news report went on air . The reason given was that the company could no longer afford to cover losses of about £ 100 @,@ 000 per year . Shortly before the closure , a number of non @-@ poisonous reptiles were stolen from the Reptile House , only one of which , a 10 @-@ foot ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) python , was recovered .
A 15 @-@ year @-@ old elephant , Ellie May , had acquired an undeserved reputation for being dangerous , which made her extremely difficult to sell . Her food costs became difficult to justify , but Grayson refused to have her put down . Although he left the zoo in January 1978 , Grayson returned frequently to care for Ellie May , the last animal left at the zoo . Eventually Rotterdam Zoo agreed to take her , and plans were made to transport the elephant to the Netherlands . Ellie May refused to budge however , and overnight developed pneumonia and heart failure . Grayson and veterinary surgeon , David Taylor , felt that she would not recover , and decided to call in a marksman to euthanise her .
Public reaction to the zoo 's closure was one of " relative indifference " , with only a few minor protests . The doors remained open to visitors at a discounted admission price until early November , a little beyond the official closing date , by which time most of the animals had been sold for an estimated £ 100 @,@ 000 .
= = Gardens and amusement park = =
Under the Jennisons , the main priorities for Belle Vue were the zoological and botanical gardens ; amusements were provided merely as a distraction . The Jennisons laid out formal gardens in various styles between 1836 and 1898 , including mazes , grottoes , an Italian garden , " billiard @-@ table lawns " and constructed Tropical Plant Houses . There were also exotic constructions like the Indian temple and grotto , designed by George Danson , Belle Vue 's scenic artist . Built to resemble a ruined temple , it housed snakes and crocodiles as well as flowers . At the end of the 19th century , " the resort relied almost entirely for its attraction on its delightful gardens " , but by 1931 the formalism had entirely disappeared . The gardens were also used to stage large political rallies for a wide spectrum of opinion , such as the Great Liberal Demonstration of 1924 , at which Lloyd George addressed a crowd of 50 @,@ 000 , the first political meeting at which loudspeakers were used . The British Union of Fascists , popularly known as the Blackshirts , also held a meeting there , in September 1934 . One contemporary commentator observed that " perhaps the Ku Klux Klan will be found in session there one day , for Belle Vue is nothing if not catholic " .
The Jennisons set out a small amusements area near the main entrance to the gardens in Hyde Road during the 1870s. comprising steam @-@ driven attractions such as the Ocean Wave , installed in 1894 , which simulated a storm at sea .
John Henry Iles , who took over control of Belle Vue in 1925 , believed that expansion of the rides and the fun aspect of the park was the way forward , and added attractions such as dodgems , the Caterpillar , the Ghost Train , Jack & Jill , and the Flying Sea Planes . The Scenic Railway , purchased in 1925 but not fully operational until two years later , proved to be one of Belle Vue 's most popular rides , and remained in use until 1975 .
The Bobs rollercoaster was arguably the most popular ride of all , so named because it cost a bob ( shilling ) for admission . It had an 80 @-@ foot ( 24 m ) drop at a 45 degree angle , down which the cars travelled at 60 miles per hour ( 97 km / h ) . It was built by Harry Traver and designed by Fredrick Church , who had to develop a series of engineering innovations to make the ride possible . The Bobs ' distinctive white @-@ painted wooden superstructure became an imposing element of the Belle Vue skyline .
During the 1960s and 70s " Professor " Len Tomlinson operated one of the UK 's last flea circuses in a small booth on the amusement park . The attraction consisted of harnessed human fleas racing chariots at the rate of an inch every few seconds , pulling a garden roller , riding a tricycle and " fencing fleas " scrabbling at pins stuck in pieces of cork in a semblance of a sword fight . The flea circus closed down in the late 1970s as improvements in domestic living conditions made human fleas more difficult to obtain .
When the zoo closed in 1977 , it was announced that the gardens and amusement park would be expanded with " new active leisure pursuits " . By 1978 the site had been renamed Belle Vue Leisure Park , and the Tropical River House had been converted to a skateboard arena in an attempt to cash in on the new craze from America . The arena turned out to be poor investment however , as there was virtually no demand after the first few months . The 1977 closure of the London Festival Gardens in Battersea , London , allowed Belle Vue the opportunity to buy their Jetstream ride , which opened the following year .
Other attractions that closed at about the same time as the zoo included the boating on Firework Lake , and the miniature railway . In 1979 the amusement park was leased to the main concessionaire , Alf Wadbrooke , although by then it was only open at weekends during the summer season . The long @-@ promised restoration of the Scenic Railway had not happened and the Water Chute had closed . In August 1980 , Wadbrooke was given notice to close down the park by 26 October 1980 and to have all his equipment removed by February 1981 .
= = Music and dancing = =
In 1853 Belle Vue staged the first British open brass band championships . Attended by a crowd of more than 16 @,@ 000 , it was the first of what became an annual event until 1981 . A revival occurred in the popularity of brass band contests during the 1970s ; competitions between local bands could attract crowds of up to 5 @,@ 000 .
Belle Vue contained several ballrooms , the first of which was constructed in 1851 , above a hotel at the Longsight entrance to the gardens . A larger structure , the Music Hall , was built in 1856 , underneath the firework viewing stand , capable of accommodating 10 @,@ 000 people on its 27 @,@ 000 square feet ( 2 @,@ 500 m2 ) of dance floor . A wooden open @-@ air dancing platform was opened in 1852 , and by 1855 had been extended to cover an area of 0 @.@ 5 acres ( 0 @.@ 20 ha ) . Throughout the summer , music was provided by bands such as the Belle Vue Military , the Belle Vue Quadrille and the Cheetham Hill Brass Band . Open @-@ air dancing continued until the 1940s , but by then the attraction had lost its appeal , and the platform was converted to a roller skating rink . It was destroyed by fire in 1958 . The same fire destroyed the Coronation Ballroom , which was replaced by a " huge ballroom complex " known as the New Elizabethan Ballroom in 1959 . With room for 4 @,@ 000 dancers on its two floors , and the largest Wurlitzer organ in Europe ( installed in 1967 ) , it was described as being " unsurpassed in Great Britain for size , comfort and elegance " . Many well @-@ known bands of the time regularly played for the dancers , including Geraldo and his Orchestra and the Joe Loss Orchestra . During the 1960s and ' 70s the ballroom also hosted discothèques , such as Jimmy Savile 's Top Ten Club .
= = Kings Hall = =
Opened in 1910 the Kings Hall was a converted tea room , enlarged in 1928 and reconstructed as a " saucer like arena " capable of seating 7 @,@ 000 people . The name " Kings " was chosen in reference to the two kings who reigned during the six @-@ week period of its construction : George V and Edward VII . The hall was designed to stage " Demonstrations , Exhibitions , Social Gatherings , etc " , and was a popular concert venue until the 1970s , with appearances by artists such Jimi Hendrix , The Who , The Rolling Stones and Led Zeppelin . The Kings Hall became home to the Hallé Orchestra in 1942 , when its previous base , the Free Trade Hall , was damaged by bombing during the Manchester Blitz ; the orchestra continued to perform concerts at Belle Vue for more than 30 years .
From 1961 until 1966 , bingo sessions were held in the hall . Able to accommodate up to 3 @,@ 500 players , it was advertised as the " largest bingo club in the world " . Many exhibitions were also held in the hall , which with its 100 @,@ 000 square feet ( 9 @,@ 300 m2 ) of floor space was one of the largest venues outside London . It was split into three separate halls in 1956 , to allow three exhibitions to be run simultaneously .
The last piece of live music played in the hall , on 14 February 1982 , was a performance by the Glossop School Band , who were taking part in the North West Amateur Brass Band Championship in front of a crowd of 1 @,@ 700 . The hall had been sold 18 months earlier to a development company , Espley Tyas Development Group , and was by then scheduled for demolition to allow the site to be redeveloped . News of the sale had triggered the formation of local action groups , who organised a petition signed by 50 @,@ 000 people in an unsuccessful effort to save the hall . The exhibition halls were sold to Mullet Ltd. in 1983 , but competition from the newly opened G @-@ Mex exhibition and conference centre in central Manchester led directly to their closure . The site was sold to the British Car Auction Group in 1987 , and the buildings demolished to make way for a large car auction centre .
= = Catering = =
The gates were opened to visitors between 10 : 00 am and 10 : 30 pm . Kiosks around the gardens sold snacks and ice cream , made in Belle Vue 's own ice cream factory . Families were catered for at lunchtimes by the hot @-@ water rooms , each of which could accommodate up to 3 @,@ 000 diners , providing hot water for drinks and crockery for visitors who brought their own picnics . The price was 2d per person , according to the 1892 guide book , and cakes and jams made in the gardens ' bakery and on @-@ site kitchens were also available , at extra cost . " One shilling tea rooms " , close to the hot water rooms , offered lunchtime deals such as a pot of tea , bread and butter , green salad and fruit cake for a shilling . The more expensive restaurants tended to open during the evening . Alcohol was available in the many licensed premises in the gardens , including , until its closure in 1928 , beer produced in Belle Vue 's on @-@ site brewery . Many public houses were also opened in the area immediately surrounding the gardens .
Licensed hotels were built at each of the three entrances to the gardens . The Longsight Hotel , built in 1851 and demolished in 1985 , was a part of the entrance . The Lake Hotel , built in 1876 , had facilities for the free stabling of horses belonging to Belle Vue 's visitors . It was extended in 1929 and then again in 1960 , when a concert room was added , offering late @-@ night entertainment . After its closure in the 1980s , the hotel was demolished . The Hyde Road Hotel and Restaurant at the main entrance , originally known as Belle Vue House , was renamed the Palm Court Restaurant in 1942 , and then Caesar 's Palace in 1969 . It housed a cabaret bar and a restaurant , which was converted to an amusement arcade in 1976 when it was once again renamed , to Jennison 's Ale House . The building was closed after a partial collapse in 1980 .
= = Firework displays = =
After a trip to London to visit The Great Exhibition of 1851 , Jennison 's ideas for Belle Vue became more ambitious . He decided to implement large , scheduled " fantastic " firework displays employing a scenic artist , George Danson , to design and create a 30 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 2 @,@ 800 m2 ) canvas backdrop . The displays took place on an island in the middle of the Firework Lake , which also housed a small natural history museum . In keeping with Jennison 's desire for self @-@ sufficiency , the fireworks were made on @-@ site at Belle Vue .
The first display took place on 2 May 1852 , designed by " Signor Pietro " . The theme for the early displays was " battle enactment " , which proved to be popular with the paying public and resulted in Belle Vue becoming an all @-@ day entertainment venue . The firework displays incorporated real people and real weapons , some of which , 1866 @-@ vintage Snyder rifles , were issued to members of the local Home Guard during the Second World War . The first display , a re @-@ enactment of the Bombardment of Algiers involving 25 men , 300 rockets , 25 " large shells " , and 50 Roman candles , was watched by 18 @,@ 000 spectators .
The displays continued throughout the First World War , except that the use of rockets was prohibited under the Defence of the Realm Act . Reflecting contemporary events , the theme for the 1915 display was " The Battle of the Marne " ; in 1916 it was " The War in Flanders " , during which one spectator got so caught up in the action that he waded across the lake to join in with the " fighting " . Anticipating the outbreak of the Second World War , the theme for the 1933 display was " Air Raid on London " .
The last grand firework display took place in 1956 , on the theme of Robin Hood and His Merrie Men .
= = Circus = =
The first Belle Vue Circus took place in 1922 , but it was not considered a success . The next was staged in 1929 , after the company negotiated a deal with the Blackpool Tower Company to provide acts and equipment for what subsequently became a regular Christmas event held in the Kings Hall . One of the first arrivals from Blackpool was ringmaster George Lockhart , known as " the prince of ringmasters " . Lockhart became synonymous with the Belle Vue Circus , and his face was used on many advertising posters . Zoo superintendent Gerald Iles included some of the zoo 's animals in the circus , in a feature called Noah 's Ark .
For the 1967 – 68 season , to celebrate his 39th consecutive year , the circus was temporarily renamed the " George Lockhart Celebration Circus " . Lockhart was the ringmaster for 43 years , until his retirement in 1970 at the age of 90 . His replacement , Danish @-@ born Nelly Jane , held the job for two years before being replaced by Norman Barrett , the last ringmaster . Another of the circus stalwarts was resident band leader and Belle Vue 's musical director Fred Bonelli , who started his career as a trumpet player for Barnum and Bailey 's circus band , and led various Belle Vue circus bands for 40 years .
Many of the acts featured animals , such as Eugene Weidmann 's mixed group of tigers and bears , Thorson Kohrmann and his Farmyard Friends , Willi Mullen 's Caucasian Cavalry & Ponies , Miss Wendy 's Performing Pigeons and Harry Belli 's Horse Riding Tiger – to say nothing of the Dog ! As well as the animal acts there was the usual collection of acrobats , strongmen and clowns , two of whom , Jacko the Clown and his partner " Little Billy " Merchant , performed at Belle Vue for thirty years .
The last circus to take place in the Kings Hall before its sale was in 1981 . For a few years afterwards the circus continued in the car park , then in a marquee on wasteland directly opposite the gardens ' main gates on Hyde Road .
= = Sports facilities = =
Sporting events became a permanent feature at Belle Vue after an athletics stadium was built in 1887 .
= = = Greyhound racing = = =
Greyhound racing was introduced to Belle Vue in 1926 , in the UK 's first purpose @-@ built greyhound stadium , constructed at a cost of £ 22 @,@ 000 . It was built on land leased by Belle Vue to the Greyhound Racing Association ( GRA ) , a company chaired by Sir William Gentle , who was also the chairman of Belle Vue ( Manchester ) Ltd . The site was sold to the GRA in 1937 , with the proviso that it had to be used for greyhound racing .
= = = Speedway = = =
One of the activities that became synonymous with Belle Vue was speedway ( known at the time as dirt track racing ) , which was introduced on 28 July 1928 in the recently built greyhound racing arena . The sport proved to be very popular , and the decision was taken to convert the 1887 athletics ground into a speedway stadium , which opened on 23 March 1929 . It was at the time the largest purpose @-@ built speedway stadium in the country , possibly in the world . Eventually it became the first home of the Belle Vue Aces , but it was also used for many other events , such as football , cricket , rugby league ( Belle Vue Rangers ) , baseball , stock car racing and tennis . The stadium had covered accommodation for 40 @,@ 000 spectators . As the speedway bikes ran on wood alcohol ( known as dope ) , they were unaffected by fuel rationing during the Second World War and racing was able to continue , although many other attractions in the gardens were forced to close .
Belle Vue sold the stadium in 1982 , but speedway continued there until 1987 ; the final event was a stock car race , held on 14 November 1987 , shortly before the stadium was demolished after having been sold to the British Car Auction Group . The Belle Vue Aces returned to their first home , the greyhound stadium , where they had begun in 1929 .
= = = Boxing and wrestling = = =
From the late 1920s until the outbreak of the Second World War , Belle Vue was " the boxing Mecca of Europe " . Bouts were held in the Kings Hall , and although popularity declined in the years following the war , Belle Vue staged a televised world championship fight in 1964 between Terry Downes and Willie Pastrano .
The first wrestling contest took place in the Kings Hall on 15 December 1930 , and proved to be a popular attraction . Except for a break during the Second World War , events continued to be held until 1981 , watched by up to 5 @,@ 000 spectators . Popular performers included Jack Pye , Big Daddy , and Giant Haystacks .
= = = Rugby league = = =
The speedway stadium became the home of rugby league club , Broughton Rangers , who recruited international players including Frank Whitcombe ( who also worked in the zoo as a zookeeper ) , Billy Stott , and James Cumberbatch . When the club was taken over by Belle Vue in 1933 Broughton were given a 21 @-@ year lease for use of the stadium , at a rent to be based on attendances . The first Anglo @-@ Australian Test match of the 1933 – 34 Kangaroo tour of Great Britain was played at Belle Vue , with the home side 's victory attracting approximately 34 @,@ 000 spectators .
Games were suspended during the Second World War , and on their resumption in 1945 the club was renamed Belle Vue Rangers . Belle Vue declined to renew the lease when it expired in 1955 as the arrangement was proving to be a " financial burden " , and the team was disbanded .
= = = Football = = =
After a fire at Manchester City 's Hyde Road ground in 1920 , the club considered a move to the Belle Vue athletics stadium , but it was deemed too small . At the behest of Belle Vue director John Henry Iles and John Ayrton , Manchester Central , was formed , and played its home matches at the speedway stadium . One of Manchester Central 's first matches at Belle Vue was a visit by FA Cup holders Blackburn Rovers in September 1928 . The club attempted unsuccessfully to join The Football League in 1930 and in 1931 ; with momentum lost , the club faded , and folded in 1934 .
= = Present day = =
In 1963 the Top Lake , formerly known as the Great Lake , was filled in and a 32 @-@ lane ten @-@ pin bowling alley built on its site , just behind the Lake Hotel . Known as the Belle Vue Granada Bowl , it opened in 1965 , advertised as " the north 's leading luxury centre " . In 1983 , after the rest of Belle Vue had closed , it was sold to First Leisure Group , and bowling continued for a time . A snooker club was built in a corner of the car park in 1985 . All that remained of Belle Vue as of 2010 is the greyhound stadium and the snooker club ; the original gardens and amusement park are now an industrial and residential area . A road in the housing estate , Lockhart Close , was named after circus ringmaster George Lockhart .
In the aftermath of Manchester 's failed supercasino bid in 2008 , local groups began to lobby for the construction of a " linear park " in the area , building on " the legacy of Belle Vue " . It would have comprised a new zoo , deer park and amusement park .
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= Walkabout ( Lost ) =
" Walkabout " is the fourth episode of the first season of Lost . The episode was directed by Jack Bender and written by David Fury . It first aired on October 13 , 2004 , on ABC .
The episode centers on the character of John Locke ( Terry O 'Quinn ) , who in flashbacks is revealed , in one of the first plot twists of the show , to be paralyzed from the waist down as he attempts to join a walkabout tour . On the present day events , Locke leads a hunting mission after the wild boar in the jungle as the food supplies of the Oceanic 815 survivors starts to shorten , while other survivors decide to burn the plane 's fuselage .
John Locke 's backstory was conceived during the writing of the previous episode , " Tabula Rasa " , and director Jack Bender decided to shoot the flashbacks in a way it enhanced the contrast between Locke 's life before and after the crash . Problems involving the usage of real boar caused the producers to use computer @-@ generated replacements and shots that suggested the animals ' presence . " Walkabout " was watched by 18 @.@ 16 million people and was reviewed positively , later being considered one of the show 's best episodes .
= = Plot = =
= = = Flashbacks = = =
John Locke ( Terry O 'Quinn ) is shown working in an office building for a box company . He has a cruel manager named Randy Nations ( Billy Ray Gallion ) who is constantly taunting and demeaning Locke . At one point Locke tells Randy off and feels great about it . He tells a woman named Helen on the phone about it , but it is revealed that she charges by the hour to talk with Locke , and that they have been conversing for eight months . Locke reveals to Helen that he is going on a walkabout and would like for Helen to go with him ; she tells him that she can 't meet customers in person and that his paid hour on the phone with her is up .
In a later flashback , Locke is in Australia talking to one of the leaders of a walkabout . He refuses to let Locke come on the walkabout because of his condition , saying it is too big of a risk for the insurance company . As the man gets up to leave for the trip , Locke is shown to be using a wheelchair .
Towards the end of the episode , a unique type of flashback is shown : one on the island . In the aftermath of Oceanic Flight 815 crash 's , Locke wakes up on the beach , and notices that his toes wiggle , making him realize that he is no longer paralyzed . He stands up and is called over by Jack Shephard ( Matthew Fox ) to help with an injured person .
= = = On the Island = = =
It has been 4 days since the crash , September 25 , 2004 . Locke awakens from Oceanic Flight 815 's crash and wiggles his toes , realizing that he is no longer paralyzed . Boars raid the body @-@ filled fuselage , causing Jack to decide it should be burned . The next day , the survivors discover that their food is exhausted , and wonder what to do . Locke reveals to hold many hunting knives , and suggests to go after the boar in the jungle . On his hunting mission , Locke is accompanied by Kate Austen ( Evangeline Lilly ) – who was given by Sayid Jarrah ( Naveen Andrews ) an antenna , which after being set will help triangulate the signal of the French transmission heard two days before – and Michael Dawson ( Harold Perrineau ) .
While hunting the boar , Michael is wounded by one of the animals . Kate starts leading Michael back to the beach , while Locke goes on his own into the jungle . As Kate and Michael head back , she climbs up a tree to attach the antenna . However , before she can finish , she hears the sounds of the monster , causing her to drop and break the equipment . The Monster heads straight for Locke , who stares straight at it .
Throughout the episode , Jack has been talking to Rose Nadler ( L. Scott Caldwell ) . Rose 's husband , Bernard Nadler ( Sam Anderson ) , was in the tail section of the plane in the bathroom . He , along with the rest of the tail section 's passengers , is believed by the survivors to be dead , but Rose is convinced that he is alive and that the tail section of the plane thinks that the middle section is dead .
Michael and Kate return to camp , and when she goes to tell Jack about Locke , Jack sees a man in a suit walk into the jungle . Jack chases after him and Kate follows , but instead of the mysterious figure , they find Locke , who brings with him a dead boar . That night , the fuselage is burned while Claire Littleton ( Emilie de Ravin ) holds a memorial service for the dead passengers using information she found in their passports , wallets , and luggage . Michael thanks Locke for hunting the boar and then asks Locke about the Monster , but Locke says that he did not see anything . Looking towards the fire , Locke sees his wheelchair against the flame and smiles .
= = Production = =
While writing " Tabula Rasa " , Damon Lindelof suggested that John Locke was in a wheelchair before going to the island , and while the rest of the writing team initially reacted with shock , they embraced the idea . Lindelof wanted to embrace how " what you think these people are is actually entirely different " , particularly since " Tabula Rasa " did not have many developments on Kate 's backstory or why she was a fugitive , " the Locke thing was a huge , big , reveal " . To enhance the plot twist , all the flashbacks were shot in a way that disguised the presence of a wheelchair . In the scene where Locke is sitting in his bed , the paralysis is alluded by the electromedical nerve stimulation machine on his nightstand . Lindelof also created a title for the episode , " Lord of the Files " , a pun on Lord of the Flies and Locke 's off @-@ island occupation , but the writers had already settled on " Walkabout " .
To enhance the contrast between Locke 's pre and post @-@ crash life , director Jack Bender decided to put very little green and blue imagery in the flashbacks since the two colors are the most present in the island – being the jungle and the sea , respectively . The flashbacks were also shot with fixed cameras and wider lenses , " Godfather @-@ style " , to display the bleakness and sterility of Locke 's world , and objects such as vending machines were put to remind of the " things taken for granted " that the castaways lack on the island . The flashback scenes featuring the day of the crash ( see above ' Flashbacks ' section above ) were shot in a way that looked similar to the ones from the pilot episode , with the only shot from the pilot being the one where Jack requests Locke 's assistance .
The scenes featuring boar were originally planned to use actual , domesticated animals . Since bringing domesticated boar from continental United States was expensive , and the animals available in Hawaii did not look like wild boar and rarely moved ( the script required them to run in most scenes ) , the producers decided to use computer @-@ generated boar instead , along with reaction shots from the actors and first @-@ person sequences from the animals ' point of view . Instead of having a stunt double for Kate climbing the tree to place the antenna , Evangeline Lilly climbed the tree herself . The Australian office that hosts the travel agency was filmed in an empty retail space in downtown Honolulu .
The episode is the first to feature Christian Shephard , but he is not portrayed by John Terry , who had not been cast yet . Late into writing , the producers decided to start setting up Sayid 's backstory by introducing the pictures of Nadia . The scenes where Sayid looks at the photos were reshot when production of " Solitary " began and Andrea Gabriel was selected for the role , as the original pictures depicted a different actress .
= = Themes and analysis = =
Robert Dougherty writes that the episode possesses similar themes to " Tabula Rasa " – " Walkabout " is about " being able to overcome the past and start over . " It presents the dichotomy seen in much of the series ; while Jack is a man of science , Locke is a man of faith . Lindelof discussed that since Locke 's healing was interpreted by the character as a religious experience , " this character had been presented as this very sort of mystical figure moving forward " .
= = Reception = =
" Walkabout " received a 6 @.@ 5 in the ages 18 – 49 demographic in the Nielsen ratings . The episode was watched by 18 @.@ 16 million viewers , an improvement of 1 @.@ 6 million over the previous episode , " Tabula Rasa " .
Reviews for the episode were positive . Chris Carabott of IGN gave " Walkabout " a 9 @.@ 5 / 10 , stating that " Terry O 'Quinn puts in an exceptional performance " , and commenting that showing Locke , who " seemed like a confident and resourceful man with a mysterious and intriguing past " , to be a " shell of a human being that is trying desperately to find his place in the world " was " a perfect juxtaposition of the differences between Locke off and on the island " . He also praised the supporting stories , claiming that " Matthew Fox does a great job of playing the uneasy leader " as Jack Shephard and that the Shannon @-@ Charlie storyline " does supply a little comic relief " . Ryan Mcgee of Zap2it described the revelation that Locke was a paraplegic as being " one of the show 's signature moments " , and commented that the episode " cemented the show as ' Must @-@ See TV ' " and was " a five @-@ star effort . "
Robin Pierson of The TV Critic gave the episode a rating of 86 / 100 , saying that " Walkabout " is an episode " which seems to confirm all the promise of Lost ’ s pilot episodes " , and that the episode " both enhances and completely changes how we perceive both Locke and Lost . " Dan Kawa of Television Without Pity rated the episode as a ' B ' . Todd VanDerWerff of the Los Angeles Times said that ' Walkabout ' is one of the most confident episodes a series has ever unveiled that early in its run " and that the episode " cemented more ' Lost ' fans than just me , maybe more than any other episode . "
David Fury was nominated for an Emmy Award for " Outstanding Writing in a Drama Series " for writing this episode . O 'Quinn submitted his work in " Walkabout " and " The Moth " for the Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series .
= = Significance and legacy = =
" Walkabout " comprises a significant chapter in Lost 's history , persuading viewers of the series ' ability to exist in the long term . Viewers learned that the series would be full of surprises and mysteries , and Lindelof even considered it " a litmus test " for viewers , particularly regarding how after a twist like Locke 's past , " the show isn 't going to openly state what the implications of that are . " Entertainment Weekly considered " Walkabout " to be the best episode of Season 1 . IGN ranked " Walkabout " as the fifth best Lost episode ever , behind " The Life and Death of Jeremy Bentham " , the Pilot , " Through the Looking Glass " and " The Constant " . The episode was also featured in similar lists by the Los Angeles Times , TV Guide , National Post , and ABC2 . Jason Snell of The Incomparable thought similarly , saying " Skippable ? Are you kidding ? If you could watch only one first @-@ season episode of “ Lost , ” this might be it . "
The episode also shaped how O 'Quinn viewed his character , as he was unaware that Locke would be paralyzed until reading the script . To the actor , " Walkabout and the fifth season episode " The Life and Death of Jeremy Bentham " are the two installments which " sort of ( summarize ) [ Locke 's ] whole trip . "
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= Credit Suisse =
Credit Suisse Group is a Swiss multinational financial services holding company , headquartered in Zürich , that operates the Credit Suisse Bank and other financial services investments . The company is organized as a stock corporation with four divisions : Investment Banking , Private Banking , Asset Management , and a Shared Services Group that provides marketing and support to the other three divisions .
Credit Suisse 's stock unsurprisingly hit a new 52 @-@ week low of $ 10 @.@ 01 during trading on July 6 , 2016 while somewhat recent reports have suggested it is yet again being investigated by the U. S. Department of Justice in relation to tax evasion . Credit Suisse is also contending with a valid federal lawsuit filed against it at a New York City court and related litigation filed with the Administrative Review Board of the U.S. Department of Labor pertaining to the Sarbanes @-@ Oxley Act 's whistleblower protections . On July 15 , 2016 , the latest legal brief was filed in that Sarbanes case with the Administrative Review Board at the expense of Credit Suisse , NTT Data , Inc . , and the U.S. Department of Labor .
Credit Suisse was founded by Alfred Escher in 1856 under the name Schweizerische Kreditanstalt ( SKA , English : Swiss Credit Institution ) in order to fund the development of Switzerland 's rail system . It issued loans that helped create Switzerland 's electrical grid and the European rail system . It also helped develop the country 's currency system and funded entrepreneurship . In the 1900s Credit Suisse began shifting to retail banking in response to the elevation of the middle @-@ class and the growing popularity of savings accounts . Credit Suisse partnered with First Boston in 1978 . After a large failed loan put First Boston under financial stress , Credit Suisse bought a controlling share of the bank in 1988 . In the 1990s , Credit Suisse acquired the Winterthur Group , Swiss Volksbank , Swiss American Securities Inc . ( SASI ) and Bank Leu among others . In the year 2000 , it added the U.S. investment firm Donaldson , Lufkin & Jenrette .
The company restructured itself in 2002 , 2004 and 2006 . It was one of the least affected banks during the global financial crisis , but afterwards began shrinking its investment business , executing layoffs and cutting costs . During the period between 2008 and 2012 , Germany , Brazil , and the United States began a series of investigations into the use of Credit Suisse accounts for tax evasion . In May 2014 , the company pleaded guilty to decades of conspiring to help US citizens avoid taxes , and agreed to pay $ 2 @.@ 6 billion in fines .
In 2014 , Credit Suisse had 888 @.@ 2 USD Bn of assets under management ( AuD ) according to the Scorpio Partnership ( an increase of 9 @.@ 5 % on 2013 ) .
= = Corporate structure = =
Credit Suisse Group AG is organized as a joint @-@ stock company registered in Zürich that operates as a holding company . It owns the Credit Suisse bank and other interests in the financial services business . Credit Suisse is governed by a board of directors , its shareholders and independent auditors . The Board of Directors organize the Annual General Meeting of Shareholders while investors with large stakes in the company determine the agenda . Shareholders elect auditors for one @-@ year terms , approve the annual report and other financial statements , and have other powers granted by law . Shareholders elect members of the board of directors to serve a three @-@ year term based on candidates nominated by the Chairman 's and Governance committee and the Board of Directors meet six times a year to vote on company resolutions . The Board sets Credit Suisse 's business strategies and approves its compensation principles based on guidance from the compensation committee . It also has the authority to create committees that delegate specific management functions .
Credit Suisse has two divisions , Private Banking & Wealth Management and Investment Banking . A Shared Services department provides support functions like risk management , legal , IT and marketing to all areas . Operations are divided into four regions : Switzerland , Europe , the Middle East and Africa , the Americas and the Asian Pacific . Credit Suisse Private Banking has wealth management , corporate and institutional businesses . Credit Suisse Investment Banking handles securities , investment research , trading , prime brokerage and capital procurement . Credit Suisse Asset Management sells investment classes , alternative investments , real @-@ estate , equities , fixed income products and other financial products .
= = History = =
= = = Early history = = =
Credit Suisse 's founder , Alfred Escher , was called , " the spiritual father of the railway law of 1852 , " for his work defeating the idea of a state @-@ run railway system in Switzerland in favor of privatization . Escher founded Credit Suisse ( originally called the Swiss Credit Institution , i.e. , Schweizerische Kreditanstalt ) in 1856 primarily to provide domestic funding to railway projects , avoiding French banks that wanted to exert influence over the railway system . Escher aimed to start the company with three million shares and instead sold 218 million shares in three days . The bank was modeled after Crédit Mobilier , a bank funding railway projects in France that was founded two years prior , except Credit Suisse had a more conservative lending policy focused on short @-@ to @-@ medium term loans . In its first year of operation , 25 percent of the bank 's revenues was from the Swiss Northeastern Railway , which was being built by Escher 's company , Nordostbahn .
Credit Suisse played a substantial role in the economic development of Switzerland , helping the country develop its currency system , funding entrepreneurs and investing in the Gotthard railway , which connected Switzerland to the European rail system in 1882 . Credit Suisse helped fund the creation of Switzerland 's electrical grid through its participation with Elektrobank ( now called Elektrowatt ) , a coalition of organizations that co @-@ financed Switzerland 's electrical grid . According to The Handbook on the History of European Banks , " Switzerland 's young electricity industry came to assume the same importance as support for railway construction 40 years earlier . " The bank also helped fund the effort to disarm and imprison French troops that crossed into Swiss borders in the 1870 Franco @-@ Prussian War . By the end of the war , Credit Suisse had become the largest bank in Switzerland .
Throughout the late 1800s , Credit Suisse set up banking and insurance companies in Germany , Brussels , Geneva and others ( as SKA International ) with the bank as a shareholder of each company . It created insurance companies like Swiss RE , Swiss Life , Rentenanstalt and Schweiz . Credit Suisse had its first unprofitable year in 1886 , due to losses in agriculture , venture investments , commodities and international trade . The bank created its own sugar beet factory , bought 25 @,@ 000 shares in animal breeding ventures and supported an export business , Schweizerische Exportgesellschaft , that experienced heavy losses for over @-@ speculative investing .
In the early 1900s Credit Suisse began catering to consumers and the middle @-@ class with deposit counters , currency exchanges and savings accounts . The first branch outside of Zürich was opened in 1905 in Basel . The bank helped companies affected by World War I restructuring , and extended loans for reconstruction efforts . During the 1920s depression , net profits and dividends were halved and employees took salary cuts . After World War II , a substantial portion of Credit Suisse 's business was in foreign reconstruction efforts . Holocaust survivors had problems trying to retrieve assets from relatives that died in concentration camps without death certificates . This led to a class action lawsuit in 1996 that settled in 2000 for $ 1 @.@ 25 billion . The Agreement on the Swiss Banks ' Code of Conduct with Regard to the Exercise of Due Diligence was created in the 1970s , after a Credit Suisse branch in Chiasso was exposed for illegally funneling $ 900 million in Italian deposits to speculative investments .
= = = Acquisitions , growth and First Boston = = =
In 1978 , White , Weld & Company dropped its partnership with Credit Suisse after it was bought by Merrill Lynch . To replace the partnership with White , Credit Suisse partnered with First Boston to create Credit Suisse First Boston in Europe and bought a 44 percent stake in First Boston 's US operations .
In 1987 , the Group acquired the blue chip London stockbrokers Buckmaster & Moore . Originally established by Irish aristocrat Charles Armytage @-@ Moore and sportsman Walter Buckmaster , who had met at Repton School . As stockbrokers they were very well connected , had developed a good private client business , which at one time included John Maynard Keynes .
Other Credit Suisse First Boston brands were later created in Switzerland , Asia , London , New York and Tokyo . According to an article in The New York Times , First Boston became " the superstar of the Euromarkets " by buying stakes in American companies that wanted to issue bonds . In 1988 First Boston loaned $ 487 million to Gibbons and Green for the purchase of the Ohio Mattress Company , which was purchased at twenty times its annual revenue . Gibbons had also borrowed $ 475 million in junk bonds . When the junk bonds market crashed the following year , Gibbons couldn 't repay First Boston . Credit Suisse injected $ 725 million to keep First Boston in business , which ultimately led to the company being taken over by Credit Suisse . This became known as the " burning bed " deal , because the Federal Reserve overlooked the Glass – Steagall Act that requires separation between commercial and investment banks in order to preserve the stability of the financial markets .
In the late 1990s Credit Suisse executed an aggressive acquisition strategy . The bank acquired Bank Leu , known as Switzerland 's oldest bank , in 1990 . In 1993 Credit Suisse outbid UBS for a controlling stake in Switzerland 's fifth largest bank , Swiss Volksbank in a $ 1 @.@ 1 billion deal . It also merged with Winterthur Group in 1997 for about $ 9 billion and acquired the asset management division of Warburg , Pincus & Co. in 1999 for $ 650 million . Donaldson , Lufkin & Jenrette was purchased for $ 11 @.@ 5 billion in 2000 .
In 1996 Credit Suisse restructured as the Credit Suisse Group with four divisions : Credit Suisse Volksbank ( later called Credit Suisse Bank ) for domestic banking , Credit Suisse Private Banking , Credit Suisse Asset Management and Credit Suisse First Boston for corporate and investment banking . The restructure was expected to cost the company $ 800 million and result in 7 @,@ 000 lost jobs , but save $ 560 million a year . While Credit Suisse First Boston had been struggling , Credit Suisse 's overall profits had grown 20 percent over the prior year , reaching $ 664 million . In 1999 Japan 's Financial Supervisory Agency temporarily suspended the financial @-@ products division 's license to operate in Japan for " window dressing , " the practice of selling derivatives that are often used by bank clients to hide losses .
In the 2000s Credit Suisse executed a series of restructures . In 2002 the bank was consolidated into two entities : Credit Suisse First Boston for investments and Credit Suisse Financial Services . A third unit was added in 2004 for insurance . Credit Suisse restructured again in 2004 under what it calls the " one bank " model . Under the restructuring , every board had a mix of executives from all three divisions . It also changed the compensation and commission models to encourage cross @-@ division referrals and created a " solution partners " group that functions between the investment and private banking divisions . Following the restructure Credit Suisse 's private banking division grew 19 percent per year despite the economic crisis . The firm bumped long @-@ time rival UBS off the number one position in Euromoney 's private banking poll . In 2006 , Credit Suisse acknowledged misconduct for helping Iran and other countries hide transactions from US authorities and paid a $ 536 million settlement . The same year it merged Bank Leu AG , Clariden Holding AG , Bank Hofmann AG and BGP Banca di Gestione Patrimoniale into a new company called Clariden Leu .
The increasing importance of sustainability and the related commitments and liabilities of international standards such as the UNGC , of which the bank is a member , lead to an increasingly sophisticated and ambitious risk management over the years . Credit Suisse operates a process which since 2007 uses RepRisk , a Swiss provider of ESG Risk analytics and metrics , to screen and evaluate environmental and social risks of risky transactions and due diligence .
In 2009 Yellowstone Club founder Tim Blixseth sued Credit Suisse when the bank attempted to collect on $ 286 million in loan debt during Yellowstone 's bankruptcy proceedings . The debtor had borrowed more than $ 300 million for the business , but used a large portion of it for personal use before eventually filing for bankruptcy . Four lawsuits were filed from other resorts seeking $ 24 billion in damages alleging Credit Suisse created loans with the intention of taking over their properties upon default .
= = = Post financial crisis = = =
According to The Wall Street Journal , " Credit Suisse survived the credit crisis better than many competitors . " Credit Suisse had $ 902 million in writedowns for subprime holdings and the same amount for leveraged loans , but it did not have to borrow from the government . Along with other banks , Credit Suisse was investigated and sued by US authorities for bundling mortgage loans with securities , misrepresenting the risks of underlying mortgages during the housing boom . Following the crisis , Credit Suisse cut more than one @-@ trillion in assets and made plans to cut its investment banking arm 37 percent by 2014 . It reduced emphasis on investment banking and focused on private banking and wealth management . In July 2011 , Credit Suisse cut 2 @,@ 000 jobs in response to a weaker than expected economic recovery and later merged its asset management with the private bank group to cut additional costs .
A series of international investigations took place in the early 2000s regarding the use of Credit Suisse accounts for tax evasion . The Brazilian government investigated 13 former and current Credit Suisse employees in 2008 . The investigation led to arrests that year and in 2009 as part of a larger crackdown in Brazil . Four Credit Suissse bankers were accused of fraud by the US Justice Department in 2011 for helping wealthy Americans avoid taxes . German authorities found that citizens were using insurance policies of a Bermuda @-@ based Credit Suisse subsidiary to earn tax @-@ free interest . In November 2012 , Credit Suisse 's asset management division was merged with the private banking arm .
In September 2012 , the Swiss government gave banks like Credit Suisse permission to provide information to the US Justice Department for tax evasion probes . In February 2014 it agreed to pay a fine of $ 197 million after one of its businesses served 8 @,@ 500 US clients without registering its activities , leading to suspicion as to whether it was helping Americans evade taxes . It was one of 14 Swiss banks under investigation . Separately , in 2013 , German authorities began to probe Credit Suisse , its private bank subsidiary Clariden Leu , and its regional subsidiary Neue Aargauer Bank for helping German citizens evade taxes . The bank eventually entered into a € 150 million settlement with the government .
In March 2014 , Credit Suisse denied claims it had been drawn into a Swiss competition probe investigating potential collusion to manipulate foreign exchange rates by various Swiss and foreign banks . In May 2014 , Credit Suisse pleaded guilty to conspiring to aid tax evasion . It was the most prominent bank to plead guilty in the United States since Drexel Burnham Lambert in 1989 and the largest to do so since the Bankers Trust in 1999 . " Credit Suisse conspired to help U.S. citizens hide assets in offshore accounts in order to evade paying taxes . When a bank engages in misconduct this brazen , it should expect that the Justice Department will pursue criminal prosecution to the fullest extent possible , as has happened here , " Attorney General Eric H. Holder said at the time . Holder also said " This case shows that no financial institution , no matter its size or global reach , is above the law . " Credit Suisse shares rose 1 % on the day the $ 2 @.@ 6 billion penalty was announced .
On 10 March 2015 , it was announced that Tidjane Thiam , the CEO of Prudential would leave to become the next CEO of Credit Suisse .
= = Financial products = =
Credit Suisse endorses a strategy called bancassurance of trying to be a single company that offers every common financial services product . The investment bank is intended for companies and wealthy individuals with more than 50 @,@ 000 euro .
Credit Suisse developed the CreditRisk + model of risk assessment in loans , which is focused exclusively on the chance of default based on the exogenous Poisson method . As of 2002 about 20 percent of Credit Suisse 's revenue was from its insurance business it gained through the 1997 acquisition of Winterthur . The investment bank 's insurance products are primarily popular in the domestic market and include auto , fire , property , life , disability , pension and retirement products among others . Historically 20 – 40 percent of the bank 's revenue has been from private banking services , one of its higher profit @-@ margin divisions .
Credit Suisse produces one of the six hedge funds following European stock indices that are used to evaluate the performance of the markets . The investment bank also has a 30 percent ownership in hedge fund investment firm York Capital Management . York sells hedge funds independently to its own clients , while Credit Suisse also offers them to private banking clients . Credit Suisse manages the financial instruments of the Dow Jones Credit Suisse long / short equity index ( originally called Credit Suisse / Tremont Hedge Fund Indexes ) .
According to a 2011 article in SeekingAlpha , Credit Suisse 's investment managers favor financial , technology and energy sector stocks . The bank 's head of equity investments in Europe said the team focuses on " value with an emphasis on free cashflow . " She also has an interest in companies undergoing management changes that may influence the stock price . According to a story in the Wall Street Journal , the head of Credit Suisse 's International Focus Fund keeps a portfolio of only 40 – 50 stocks , instead of the industry @-@ norm of more than 100 . Credit Suisse publishes its investment advice in four publications : Compass , Viewpoints , Research and the Credit Suisse Investment Committee Report .
= = Reputation and rankings = =
People should judge for themselves how Credit Suisse should be regarded by taking into account the following statement that appears on the United States Department of Justice 's web site about Credit Suisse :
" As part of the plea agreement , Credit Suisse acknowledged that , for decades prior to and through 2009 , it operated an illegal cross @-@ border banking business that knowingly and willfully aided and assisted thousands of U.S. clients in opening and maintaining undeclared accounts and concealing their offshore assets and income from the IRS . "
Credit Suisse is a member of Wall Street 's bulge bracket , a list of less than a dozen of the largest and most profitable banks . The company has been identified as one of the world 's most important banks , upon which international financial stability depends . The bank is also one of Fortune Magazine 's most admired companies .
Credit Suisse has been recognized as the world 's best private bank by Euromoney 's Global Private Banking Survey and as the best European Equity Manager by Global Investors . In polls by Euromoney , it has been ranked as the top private bank and the best bank in Switzerland . As of 2004 , Credit Suisse was first in volume of high @-@ yield transactions , second for corporate high @-@ yield bond insurance and third for IPO underwriting . The Securities Data Company ranked Credit Suisse as the fourth best place for financial advice for mergers and acquisitions in the US in 1995 and sixth for domestic equity issues . Credit Suisse has been recognized by the Asset Triple A Awards . In 2005 Credit Suisse was ranked as the second best prime broker by Institutional Investor .
= = Work environment = =
Credit Suisse is more internationally minded than most European banks . According to WetFeet 's Insider Guide , Credit Suisse offers more travel opportunities , greater levels of responsibility and more client interaction than new employees get at competing firms , but is known for long hours . Analysts report 60- to 110 @-@ hour work @-@ weeks .
Roles and responsibilities are less stringent and the environment is pleasant despite hours being " the most grueling on Wall Street . " Vault 's Insider 's Guide reached similar conclusions , noting above @-@ average training , executive access and openness matched with reports of 80- to 100 @-@ hour work @-@ weeks .
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= John Hines ( Australian soldier ) =
John " Barney " Hines ( 1873 – 1958 ) was a British @-@ born Australian soldier of World War I , known for his prowess at collecting " souvenirs " from German soldiers . Hines was the subject of a famous photo taken by Frank Hurley that depicted him surrounded by German military equipment and money he had looted during the Battle of Polygon Wood in September 1917 . This image is among the best @-@ known Australian photographs of the war .
Born in Liverpool , England , in 1873 , Hines served in the Royal Navy and King 's Liverpool Regiment , and worked in several occupations . He arrived in Australia shortly before World War I began and volunteered for the Australian Imperial Force in August 1915 . Although discharged due to poor health in early 1916 , he rejoined in August that year and served on the Western Front from March 1917 to mid @-@ 1918 , when he was discharged again for health reasons . During his period in France he proved to be an aggressive soldier , and gained fame for the collection of items that he amassed , but was undisciplined when not in combat and frequently punished . Following World War I , Hines lived in poverty on the outskirts of Sydney until his death in 1958 .
= = Early life = =
Hines was born in Liverpool in 1873 . When he was aged 14 he attempted to join the British Army , but was returned to his mother after she protested . At the age of 16 he successfully enlisted in the Royal Navy but was discharged the next year after contracting malaria .
During the following decades Hines drifted between jobs and countries , including spending three years in the King 's Liverpool Regiment and serving as a guide in the Second Boer War , before arriving in Australia in mid @-@ 1914 . He was a large man and much of his body was covered in tattoos . Hines may also have been illiterate , though he was capable of signing his name .
= = World War I = =
Hines first joined the Australian Imperial Force ( AIF ) on 24 August 1915 , falsely claiming to be 28 years of age . In the year before he joined the Army he had worked as a seaman , engineer and shearer . He was discharged from the AIF as medically unfit on 20 January 1916 . On 8 May Hines successfully rejoined the AIF , this time giving an age of 36 years and seven months . By this stage of the war medical requirements were less strict due to the need for reinforcements to make good the AIF 's casualties . Hines was assigned to the 45th Battalion and departed Sydney for Europe onboard HMAT A18 Wiltshire on 22 August 1916 .
After completing training in England , Hines joined the 45th Battalion on the Western Front in March 1917 . In June that year he captured a force of 60 Germans during the Battle of Messines by throwing hand grenades into their pillbox , and was later wounded . He returned to his battalion in time for the Battle of Polygon Wood in September , where Frank Hurley photographed him on 27 September surrounded by the loot he had captured . Hines was an aggressive soldier and it has been claimed that he killed more Germans than any other member of the AIF . Though brave in battle and admired by his fellow soldiers , his behaviour was erratic at times . The wartime commander of the 45th Battalion , Arthur Samuel Allen , described Hines to a journalist in 1938 as " a tower of strength to the battalion ... while he was in the line " .
Hines ' enthusiasm for collecting German military equipment and German soldiers ' personal possessions became well known within and possibly outside of his battalion , and earned him the nickname of " Souvenir King " . Although he collected some items from battlefields at Ypres and the Somme region , most were stolen from German prisoners of war . He kept the items he collected for himself , and there are no records of any being handed over to the Australian War Records Section , the AIF unit responsible for collecting items for later display in Australia . Hines sold some of the items he collected to other soldiers , including for alcohol . The photograph of Hines at the Battle of Polygon Wood was published in late 1917 under the title Wild Eye , the souvenir king and became one of the best @-@ known Australian photographs of the war . Many soldiers identified with Hines and were amused by his collection of souvenirs . The photograph was used as propaganda , and a false story developed that the German Kaiser Wilhelm II had become enraged after seeing it .
Away from the front line , Hines developed a record of indiscipline . He was court martialled on nine occasions for drunkenness , impeding military police , forging entries in his pay book and being absent without leave . He also claimed to have been caught robbing the strongroom of a bank in Amiens , though this is not recorded in his Army service record . As a result of these convictions , Hines lost several promotions he had earned for his acts of bravery . He was also fined on several occasions , and the resulting need for money may have been one of the factors that motivated his looting . A member of the 3rd Battalion described Hines as " not normally a weak man but rather one ... uncontrolled " . An officer from the 45th Battalion stated after the war that Hines had been " two pains in the neck " .
In mid @-@ 1918 Hines was discharged from the AIF as being medically unfit due to hemorrhoid problems . He arrived back in Australia on 19 October 1918 . While his Army service file records that he was lightly wounded on two occasions , Hines later claimed to have been wounded five times .
= = Later years = =
Hines was traumatised by his experiences during World War I. For 40 years afterwards he lived in a humpy made of cloth bags near Mount Druitt on the outskirts of Sydney , and never married . The humpy was surrounded by a fence on which he hung helmets taken from German soldiers ; he became well known to locals , though school children were afraid of him . Hines was unable to find consistent work , and lived on his Army pension as well as income from odd jobs and selling his souvenirs . He gained renewed fame when the photo of him at Polygon Wood was displayed at the temporary Australian War Museum in Sydney ( the predecessor of the Australian War Memorial ) from 1933 , and several newspapers and magazines aimed at former servicemen published profiles of him . An article in the Returned Sailors and Soldiers Imperial League of Australia 's magazine Reveille in 1934 highlighted Hines ' desperate living conditions and stated that he had been unemployed for four years . Several former soldiers sent money to him in response to this article . Hines ' pension was also doubled , though this income made him ineligible for relief work during the Great Depression . Despite his poverty , Hines travelled to Concord Repatriation Hospital each week to donate a suitcase of vegetables from his garden to the former soldiers being treated there .
Hines told a journalist in June 1939 that he was seeking to join the Militia and hoped to fight in another war . He attempted to enlist in the military during World War II , despite being in his 60s , but was rejected . An article published in The Nepean Times during 1943 claimed that Hines had attempted to stow away on a troop ship in 1940 , but was found and sent ashore before the vessel sailed .
On 28 January 1958 , Hines died at Concord Repatriation Hospital aged 84 or 85 . He was buried in Rookwood Cemetery in a grave which was unmarked until 1971 , when the Mount Druitt sub @-@ branch of the Returned Services League of Australia paid for a headstone . The Blacktown City Council also renamed the street on which he lived in the suburb of Minchinbury to John Hines Avenue , and a monument commemorating him was built at the nearby Mount Druitt Waterholes Remembrance Garden in 2002 .
A large version of the famous photograph of Hines was accorded a prominent position in the Australian War Memorial 's permanent building in Canberra after it opened in 1941 . The photo was also included in the 2014 redevelopment of the Memorial 's permanent World War I exhibition . In a short biography of Hines published in 2002 , historian Peter Stanley commented that " ' Wild Eye 's ' bravado conceals a deeper pathos " and he " was a man whose skills in fighting were needed and whose knack for souveniring was admired , but he had few gifts that a peaceful society valued " .
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= Steven the Sword Fighter =
" Steven the Sword Fighter " is the sixteenth episode of the first season of the American animated television series Steven Universe . It is written by Joe Johnston and Jeff Liu . In the United States , the episode originally aired on Cartoon Network on April 9 , 2014 , the first new episode to air on the series ' new Wednesday time slot . Pianist Aivi Tran and sound designer Steven Velema of the musical group Aivi & Surasshu composed one of the episode 's soundtracks to resemble the " broken facsimile " nature of Holo @-@ Pearl . The episode was viewed by 1 @.@ 098 million viewers , becoming the thirty @-@ sixth most watched episode aired by the network for the week of April 7 to April 13 , 2014 . It is currently the lowest rated episode of the series .
The episode shows Pearl attempting to teach Steven the art of sword @-@ fighting using Holo Pearl , a holographic version of herself . However , during the lessons , Pearl gets injured and retreats into her gem to heal and make a new body to project .
= = Plot = =
While Steven ( Zach Callison ) , Garnet ( Estelle ) , Amethyst ( Michaela Dietz ) and Pearl ( Deedee Magno ) are watching a fictional Japanese movie titled Lonely Blade , Pearl critiques the film 's sword fighting techniques and offers to take Steven to the Ancient Sky Arena to show him how it is really done . To give him a proper demonstration , Pearl summons " Holo @-@ Pearl " , a holographic version of herself to spar with . After Pearl wins a sparring match with Holo @-@ Pearl , she begins to show Steven the basics of sword @-@ fighting . However , Pearl 's lessons bore Steven , making him clamor for Pearl to teach him the signature move from the Lonely Blade movie , much to Pearl 's chagrin . While Pearl is distracted talking to Steven , Holo @-@ Pearl impales her sword through Pearl 's chest , which causes Pearl to lose her physical form , leaving nothing but her gemstone . Although Steven is distraught at first , Garnet and Amethyst assure him that Pearl has simply retreated into her gem and will return once she has healed .
Two weeks pass and Pearl is still inside her gem , healing . Steven decides to use Holo @-@ Pearl as a replacement for the real Pearl . However , Holo @-@ Pearl only knows how to sword fight , seeing everything as a potential opponent . Garnet and Amethyst urge Steven to stop using it and wait for the real Pearl to come back . After Holo @-@ Pearl cuts down the real Pearl 's favourite tree , Steven becomes infuriated and tries to drive Holo @-@ Pearl away .
Later that night , Holo @-@ Pearl continues to ask Steven to be challenged in combat , though he repeatedly refuses . Eventually , Steven hits his breaking point and fights back against Holo @-@ Pearl , accidentally activating her " advanced " mode . After an intense fight , Steven is able to destroy Holo @-@ Pearl permanently . Garnet and Amethyst hear the commotion and come to check on Steven , and while he is explaining what he has learned , Pearl finally regains her physical form , having a new outfit variation , and faces the mess left from the recent moment .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by Joe Johnston and Jeff Liu . Ki @-@ Yong Bae , Seon @-@ Jae Lee and Seo Whan Kim provided animation direction , Elle Michalka served as art director , and Ian Jones @-@ Quartey provided supervising direction . A sneak peek of the episode was shared on io9 on April 7 , 2014 , with Johnston first announcing the episode on the series ' production blog the following day , shortly after the series ' new Wednesday time slot was promoted on April 2 . In addition , several promotional pieces were published by him , Rebecca Sugar and color stylist Tiffany Ford , encouraging followers to watch . A panel from the storyboard was also promoted , before various background art and animation props were released before and after its premiere ; the animation props indicate the episode was produced thirteenth in production order .
The episode features the songs " Dance of Swords " and " Holo Pearl " by pianist Aivi Tran and sound designer Steven Velema of the musical group Aivi & Surasshu . The latter track , an instrumental piece , was composed to resemble the " broken facsimile " nature of the Pearl clone who bears the song 's title . The group utilized a " glitchy " piano and " an erratic collection of sounds " for it . The tracks were released onto SoundCloud on April 12 and 13 , respectively .
= = Cultural references = =
Gergo Vas from Kotaku observed various video game references during Pearl 's lecture on sword fighting , including Pokémon , Final Fantasy , Gitaroo Man and Sonic the Hedgehog . In addition , he identified an homage to Revolutionary Girl Utena upon looking at GIFs of Pearl 's sword @-@ fighting scene with her hologram clone . Writing for Cartoon Brew , Kendra Beltran noted that Lonely Blade imitated the style of anime , stating that " while the Universe team didn 't overdo the animation on the anime , you could tell what they were going for without hearing the accents . "
= = Reception = =
" Steven the Sword Fighter " was the first episode to premiere outside of Monday , onto its new time slot of Wednesdays , on Cartoon Network . Upon its premiere on April 9 , 2014 , the episode was seen by 1 @.@ 098 million viewers . It received a Nielsen household rating of 0 @.@ 7 , and was ranked as the thirty @-@ sixth most watched episode aired by the network for the week of April 7 to April 13 , 2014 . It is currently the lowest rated episode of the series .
Beltran highlighted elements of horror in the episode , noting it to come " in small spurts toward the end " , while writing about the " eerie tone of the rainy night matched with the sword @-@ wielding psychopath hologram . " She found it " weird to see Steven trying to not replace her , " regarding her as the established mother figure in the series . She concluded her review stating that while " not much for characterization , " Amethyst and Garnet 's acts of " sitcom comedy " were " the source of laughter this time around " for the series .
Eric Thurm of The A.V. Club graded the episode an A − , calling it , " in many ways , a perfect distillation of what makes Steven Universe special . " He noted Steven 's attempts to learn sword @-@ fighting as a callback to the first episode , " Gem Glow " , which aired alongside " Steven the Sword Fighter " upon its premiere . Finally , he contrasted Steven 's childishness and refusal to completely learn lessons to Adventure Time and Regular Show , where the protagonists of each have taken steps toward maturity .
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= La Bella Mafia =
La Bella Mafia is the third studio album by rapper Lil ' Kim , released March 4 , 2003 on Atlantic Records . It debuted at number five on the U.S. Billboard 200 chart , selling 166 @,@ 000 in its first week and reached number four on the Top R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums chart . A commercial success , La Bella Mafia was certified platinum by the RIAA , selling over one million copies in the US and over 3 @.@ 5 million worldwide , becoming the highest selling female rap album of 2003 .
The album marked Kim 's return after a musical hiatus . La Bella Mafia received positive reviews from music critics upon its release , marking Kim 's lyrical ability as impressive and her presence as formidable . It produced two singles that attained Billboard chart success . The lead single " The Jump Off , " peaked at number 17 on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 and at 16 on the UK Singles Chart chart . The second single " Magic Stick " , featured 50 Cent , peaked at number two on the Billboard Hot 100 . The singles " Magic Stick " and " Came Back for You " earned Kim a Grammy nomination for Best Rap Performance by a Duo or Group and Best Female Rap Solo Performance , respectively .
= = Background = =
In late 2001 , Lil ' Kim left Junior M.A.F.I.A. and severed ties with all members . She also ended her friendship and business relationship with longtime collaborator Sean " Diddy " Combs .
Recording sessions for La Bella Mafia began in the spring of 2002 . In April 2002 , Lil ' Kim stated in an interview that she had begun working with Dr. Dre in the recording studio . She told MTV , " I 've been talking to Dre a lot . And Dre and I are talking about possibly doing some collaborations . He 's a cool cat . I love Dre . Our chemistry in the studio was just like , cool . We 've been working , you know , trying to cook up some things " . Kim also stated that she wanted to work with Eminem , Timbaland , and The Neptunes .
The original title for the album was Hollyhood ( which was also set to be the name of her clothing line and to her skit ) , but it was changed to La Bella Mafia ( which in Italian means ' Beautiful Mafia ' ) after Lil ' Kim watched a film of the same name about a family of mob widows who seek revenge for the murders of their mobster husbands . She stated , " Any girl who 's strong and very dedicated to what they do and don 't take no mess , they can be a part of La Bella Mafia " .
Limited edition collectable cards were included in the first 500 @,@ 000 US CDs that allowed fans to unlock exclusive content , such as photos and video , from the Internet .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
La Bella Mafia received generally positive reviews , as Metacritic reviews scored it at 65 out of 100 . AllMusic critic Jason Birchmeier stated her previous album The Notorious K.I.M. was considered a " disappointment " as a follow @-@ up to her debut album Hard Core and La Bella Mafia reestablished her as an " industry icon " . Nick Catucci , a critic for Spin Magazine , who gave the album 3 stars claimed , " The King is dead - long live the Queen " .
Stylus magazine critic Brett Berliner gave the album a B + calling the album " one of the top hip @-@ hop albums of 2003 " and said , " Kim is now in a class of female MCs that includes only Rah Digga and MC Lyte - and she 's more confident , funny , and sexy than any of them " . Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine gave the album 3 stars stating the album was her " most consistent effort to date , " and added the album " plays like one giant bravado about everything : fame , money , power , sex , clothes , rhymes " .
Critics were also impressed with her lyrical ability . Jon Caramanica of Rolling Stone gave the album 3 stars stating , " When she really gets her hands dirty , Kim sounds more forceful and engaged than she 's been in years " . However , some critics felt the album was too long and contained too many fillers . Birchmeier of Allmusic stated the album could use a little " trimming " . Brett Berliner of Stylus Magazine said , " I enjoy about eight songs on this album , but they 're tracks I only feel like listening to from time to time " .
= = = Commercial performance = = =
La Bella Mafia debuted at number four on the U.S. ' s Top R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums chart , and at number @-@ five on the Billboard 200 , with a successful first week sales of 160 @,@ 000 copies , and ultimately spent a little over 29 weeks on that chart . The album sold over 3 @.@ 5 million copies worldwide , and received a platinum certification by the RIAA , for sales of over 1 @.@ 1 million copies . Outside the States , it debuted at number 81 on the Swiss Albums Chart , at number 105 on the French Albums Chart and at number 82 on the German Albums Chart .
= = Singles = =
Altogether La Bella Mafia spawned two international singles and a third US only single . The lead album 's first single , " The Jump Off " peaked in the top @-@ twenty on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 chart with a peak position of number 17 , becoming Kim 's biggest single since her 1997 's " Not Tonight ( Ladies Night Remix ) " . It also reached number 8 on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart , number 7 on the Hot Rap Tracks chart , and number 16 on the UK Singles Chart . The second single , " Magic Stick " , featured 50 Cent , peaked in the top @-@ ten on the Hot 100 chart reaching number 2 , without a music video , and it wasn 't even released as a single . It ended up spending 14 weeks on the chart , becoming Kim 's biggest and highest single on that chart . It also reached number 2 on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart , number 7 on the Pop chart and number 1 on the Hot Rap Songs chart . The song " Thug Luv " , featuring Twista , was serviced to U.S. radios only . It reached number 60 on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart and number 14 on the Hot Rap Songs . A CD single was also released in the US .
= = Track listing = =
= = = Sample credits = = =
" Juicytro " contains a sample of The Notorious B.I.G. ' s " Juicy " .
" Hold It Now " contains samples of Beastie Boys ' " Paul Revere " and Kurtis Blow 's " Christmas Rappin ' " .
" Can 't Fuck with Queen Bee " contains an sample and interpolation from the hit Deniece Williams song " Free "
" Shake Ya Bum Bum " contains a sample of Saregama India Ltd 's " Hum " .
" The Jump Off " contains an interpolation from The Lost Boyz 's " Jeeps , Lex , Coups , Bimaz , and Benz " .
" This Is a Warning " contains a sample and interpolation of R. Kelly 's " A Woman 's Threat " .
" Magic Stick " contains a sample of B.B. King 's " The Thrill Is Gone " .
" Get In Touch with Us " contains a sample of Saregama India Ltd 's " Zindagi Ban Gaye To Tum " .
" Heavenly Father " contains a sample of The O 'Jays 's " A Prayer " .
" Came Back for You " contains a sample of Irene Reid 's " Didn 't We " .
= = = Leftover tracks = = =
" Knock ' Em Out the Box " ( featuring Method Man )
" Back Together Again " ( featuring The Notorious B.I.G. )
" Flow So Sick " ( featuring Ice Drake )
" What 's The Word ? " ( featured bonus track on the Japanese album release )
= = Personnel = =
Executive Producers : Kimberly " Lil ' Kim " Jones & The Notorious B.I.G.
Associate Producers : Hillary Weston & Jean Nelson
Queen Bee A & R : Jean Nelson & Dre Weston
Atlantic A & R : Huston " Hutty " Miller
Atlantic A & R Administrator : Lanre Gaba
Atlantic A & R Coordinator : Chris Wade
Queen Bee Project Manager : Jamel " Mann " Jackson
Atlantic Project Manager : Joi Brown
Album Assistant Engineer : Greg " Gee " Stewart
Management : Hillary Weston
Legal Affairs : L. Londell McMillan , P.C.
Business Affairs : David Berdon LLP & Co .
Album Sequencing : DJ 45 & Dan " The " Man
Cover Photo & Photos 1 , 2 : Vincent Soyez
Hair : Tre Major
Makeup : JJ
Styling : Derek Lee and Kimberly " Lil ' Kim " Jones
Prop Stylist : Linda Keil
Jewelry : MiMi So
Additional Jewelry : Prestige Diamonds
Photos 3 , 4 : David LaChapelle
Hair : Cessy Lima
Makeup : Scott Barnes
Styling : Andrea Leiberman
Jewelry : Diamond Quasar
Art Direction : Lynn Kowalewski
Design : Kevin Wolahan
= = Charts and certifications = =
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= Hurricane Edith ( 1971 ) =
Hurricane Edith was the strongest hurricane to form during the 1971 Atlantic hurricane season . It developed from a tropical wave on September 5 and quickly strengthened into a hurricane in the Caribbean Sea . Edith rapidly intensified on September 9 and made landfall on Cape Gracias a Dios as a Category 5 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale . It quickly lost intensity over Central America and after briefly entering the Gulf of Honduras it crossed the Yucatán Peninsula in Mexico . After moving across the Gulf of Mexico a trough turned the storm to the northeast and Edith , after having restrengthened while accelerating towards the coast , made landfall on Louisiana with winds of 105 mph ( 170 km / h ) on September 16 . Edith steadily weakened over land and dissipated over Georgia on September 18 .
The hurricane killed two people when it passed near Aruba . Striking northeastern Central America as a Category 5 hurricane , Edith destroyed hundreds of homes and killed at least 35 people . In Texas high tides caused coastal flooding but little damage . Edith caused moderate to heavy damage in portions of Louisiana due to flooding and a tornado outbreak from the storm . One tornado , rated F3 on the Fujita Scale , damaged several homes and injured multiple people in Baton Rouge . The tornado outbreak extended eastward into Florida , of which a few destroyed entire buildings . Damage in the United States totaled US $ 25 million ( 1971 dollars , $ 146 million in 2016 dollars ) . Hurricane Edith , along with hurricanes Cleo ( 1958 ) , Ethel ( 1960 ) , and Emily ( 2005 ) are the only Category 5 storms not to have their names retired .
= = Meteorological history = =
A tropical wave moved off the coast of Africa near Dakar on August 31 . It moved westward into the Intertropical Convergence Zone , and organized into a tropical disturbance on September 2 with a small , circular area of convection . The system moved to the west , and on September 3 , the convection diminished after moving west of 40 ° W. By the next day , the tropical disturbance was barely discernible from the clouds of the Intertropical Convergence Zone . The wave gradually became detached from the ITCZ , and based on a reconnaissance flight that confirmed the existence of a low @-@ level circulation , it is estimated the system developed into a tropical depression on September 5 while located 255 miles ( 415 km ) east of Grenada .
The depression moved westward quickly , and moved through the southern Lesser Antilles early on September 6 . The southern portion of the circulation passed over northeastern Venezuela , though after entering the Caribbean Sea , another reconnaissance flight was unable to confirm the existence of a low @-@ level circulation . Shortly thereafter , while moving into an area of light wind shear , it was able to organize and strengthen further , and on September 7 the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Edith near the island of Curaçao . While initially , a cold @-@ core upper @-@ level low persisted about 750 miles ( 1200 km ) northwest of the storm , Edith moved west @-@ northwestward due to the influence of a narrow and persistent ridge of high pressure , which extended from the southwestern Atlantic Ocean to the Gulf of Mexico . As the storm continued into open waters of the Caribbean , the upper @-@ level low gradually weakened and was replaced with an anticyclone . This allowed the storm to strengthen further , and on September 8 , Edith became a hurricane in the south @-@ central Caribbean Sea .
On September 9 , the storm rapidly intensified , and within 24 hours , Edith strengthened from a minimal hurricane to a powerful 160 mph ( 260 km / h ) Category 5 hurricane just off the coast of Nicaragua . The cause for the explosive deepening is unknown , though it is speculated that the transformation in the upper troposphere from an upper @-@ level low to an anticyclone led to a release of baroclinic energy . Reconnaissance aircraft crews in the peak of the storm reported extreme turbulence , causing concern for the safety of the crews . At its peak intensity , the very well @-@ defined " pinhole " eye was only 5 miles ( 8 km ) in diameter . Late on September 9 , Hurricane Edith made landfall on northeastern Nicaragua at Cabo Gracias a Dios .
Hurricane Edith rapidly weakened over the mountainous terrain of northeastern Central America , and 18 hours after it made landfall , it emerged into the Gulf of Honduras as an 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) Category 1 hurricane . It continued to weaken as it moved northwestward , and made landfall near Belize City with tropical storm winds of 70 mph ( 115 km / h ) . Edith weakened further while crossing the Yucatán Peninsula , and emerged into the Gulf of Mexico near Campeche , Mexico late on September 11 as a minimal tropical storm . Edith initially failed to re @-@ intensify as it moved northwestward , despite low amounts of wind shear and warm waters . This was because an anticyclone over the Gulf was closely connected with Hurricane Fern , which developed and moved over the northwestern portion of the Gulf of Mexico . The anticyclone resulted in an easterly upper @-@ level flow across Edith , creating conditions not conducive for intensification . As Fern moved inland over Texas , the flow became more favorable around Edith , and 36 hours after entering the Gulf of Mexico , the storm began to reintensify slightly .
Edith continued moving to the west @-@ northwest , heading towards the coast of Mexico , but early on September 14 , the storm stalled while located just off the coast of Tamaulipas . A mid @-@ latitude trough of low pressure approached the storm , and caused Edith to turn to slowly drift towards the northeast . Located only miles from the Mexican coast , Edith again failed to strengthen until September 15 , when it accelerated northeastward and regained hurricane status . The hurricane turned to the east @-@ northeast as it approached the coast of Louisiana , and made landfall on September 16 in a sparsely populated area 30 miles ( 48 km ) east of Cameron with winds of 105 mph ( 170 km / h ) , equivalent to a Category 2 hurricane in the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale . Edith rapidly weakened over land , degenerating into a tropical storm over Louisiana , and into a tropical depression over Mississippi . It continued to the east @-@ northeast , and dissipated over northwestern Georgia on September 18 .
= = Preparations = =
Fourteen hours prior to Edith making landfall in Central America , the National Hurricane Center warned citizens about the extreme danger of the approaching hurricane , and asked them to prepare for hurricane conditions . While the storm was located in the Gulf of Mexico , the National Hurricane Center issued a Hurricane Warning from Cameron to Morgan City , Louisiana eighteen hours before the hurricane made landfall . Edith later struck land in the middle portion of the warning area .
In Belize , officials ordered the mandatory evacuation of low @-@ lying areas , resulting in hundreds of residents leaving to the United States through the international airport . Officials sent police troops to maintain order and prevent looting .
In the Gulf of Mexico , several oil facilities were closed or placed on automatic controls . Drilling rigs as far east as the coastal waters off of Mississippi were prepared to evacuate in the event Edith moved further east than anticipated . Additionally , thousands evacuated coastal areas of Louisiana prior to the arrival of the hurricane . Several shelters opened in coastal cities , and many people prepared for the hurricane by purchasing emergency supplies . Officials closed schools throughout much of southern Louisiana .
= = Impact = =
= = = Caribbean = = =
While passing through the southern Lesser Antilles , the tropical depression produced heavy rainfall and winds of around 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) . Edith produced tropical storm force winds in Aruba , and gusts reached 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) . Two fishermen were reported lost at sea and presumed dead as a result of Edith .
Edith produced strong winds across northeastern Nicaragua and eastern Honduras , with Puerto Lempira reporting an unofficial sustained wind of 140 mph ( 225 km / h ) . Press reports indicated every house in the Cape Gracias area was destroyed or heavily damaged , leaving 7 @,@ 000 homeless . The meteorological service in British Honduras stated there were 100 fatalities near Cape Gracias , though a later report indicated 35 people died in Nicaragua . There , damage was estimated at over US $ 380 @,@ 000 ( 1971 dollars , $ 2 @.@ 22 million in 2016 dollars ) . Three United States Air Force aircraft delivered food , medical supplies , and fuel to the hurricane victims of Nicaragua . In Honduras , the hurricane produced 15 foot ( 4 @.@ 5 m ) tides and strong winds , while strong waves destroyed 40 fishing boats as well . While the hurricane reportedly destroyed entire villages , no deaths occurred in Honduras .
Offshore islands in Belize reported winds of up to 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) . Edith produced flooding in a few towns in the southern portion of the country , with some buildings damaged . Heavy damage was reported near Monkey River Town . Impact in Mexico , if any , is unknown .
= = = United States = = =
Two stations in Texas recorded sustained tropical force winds , and Galveston reported a peak wind gust of 53 mph ( 85 km / h ) . While moving past the state , Edith produced above normal tides of over 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) in locations , which flooded a portion of Highway 87 . The storm dropped light to moderate amounts of rainfall peaking at 3 @.@ 5 inches ( 89 mm ) in Sabine Pass . The passage of Hurricane Edith resulted in downed trees and power lines , and damage totaling US $ 180 @,@ 000 ( 1971 dollars , $ 900 @,@ 000 in 2006 dollars ) .
Off the coast of Louisiana , the hurricane wrecked three boats , but all the occupants were safely rescued . While making landfall in Louisiana , Edith resulted in above normal tides of up to 9 @.@ 7 feet ( 2 @.@ 9 m ) above normal at Cypremont Point near Morgan City . The highest winds reported by a land station were 69 mph ( 111 km / h ) at Cameron , where a wind gust of 96 mph ( 155 km / h ) was also reported . However , due to the lack of recording instruments near the hurricane 's landing point , whether higher winds occurred there is not known , although likely . Rainfall was moderate across Louisiana , including amounts of over 8 inches ( 200 mm ) in the southwestern portion of the state . A strong rainband well ahead of the hurricane , combined with the intrusion of dry air into the hurricane 's circulation , produced 16 tornadoes from Louisiana to Alabama . An F3 tornado touched down in the eastern residential suburbs of Baton Rouge , causing heavy property damage totaling $ 2 @.@ 5 million ( 1971 dollars , $ 14 @.@ 6 million in 2016 dollars ) along its intermittent 7 mile ( 11 km ) path . The tornado also injured three people . An F2 tornado in Tangipahoa Parish caused $ 250 @,@ 000 in damage ( 1971 dollars , $ 1 @.@ 46 million in 2016 dollars ) along its 4 mile ( 6 km ) path , while an F1 tornado in St. Martin Parish injured 6 people on its 3 mile ( 5 km ) path . The hurricane caused extensive damage to the sugar cane crop in southwestern Louisiana . About a month after Edith struck the United States , President Richard Nixon declared portions of Louisiana as a disaster area , which allocated relief funds to aid the affected citizens .
In Mississippi , wind gusts peaked at 70 mph ( 112 km / h ) in Hattiesburg , with multiple locations reporting tropical @-@ storm @-@ force winds . Additionally , Edith produced moderate rainfall peaking at 6 @.@ 15 inches ( 156 mm ) in Liberty . In Alabama , the storm caused light rains , moderate wind gusts , and a storm tide of 2 @.@ 7 feet ( 0 @.@ 8 m ) in Mobile . Edith spawned four tornadoes in Alabama , three of which were F2 tornadoes . Two touched down in Baldwin County ; one destroyed two homes and damaged several others , and the other destroyed two mobile homes , a few barns , and damaged ten houses . Two tornadoes also touched down in Washington County , one of which destroyed several small buildings and downed a few trees . In Florida , Edith produced slightly above @-@ normal tides and light rain . It spawned a tornado in Pensacola , Florida , injuring one person and inflicting $ 25 @,@ 000 in damage ( 1971 dollars , $ 125 @,@ 000 in 2006 dollars ) . Damage throughout the United States totaled $ 25 million ( 1971 dollars , $ 146 million in 2016 dollars ) , primarily from crop damage in southwest Louisiana . No deaths were reported in the United States .
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= 1998 – 99 South @-@ West Indian Ocean cyclone season =
The 1998 – 99 South @-@ West Indian Ocean cyclone season was a quiet season that had the fourth @-@ lowest number of days with tropical storm or tropical cyclone activity . Most of the storms formed either in the Mozambique Channel or in the far eastern portion of the basin , with five storms crossing from the adjacent Australian basin east of 90 ° E. As a result , few storms impacted Madagascar , and none made landfall on the African continent . Throughout most of the season , there was below @-@ normal sea surface temperatures in the Indian Ocean east of Madagascar . In February , typically the peak in activity , Réunion island recorded its highest average monthly pressure since 1953 . Due to generally unfavorable conditions , there were only six tropical storms tracked by the Météo @-@ France office ( MFR ) on Réunion . There were only two tropical cyclones – a storm with winds of at least 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) .
Activity began late , with the first tropical storm – Alda – forming on January 16 , the third latest ever recorded at the time . Alda formed in the Mozambique Channel , which was one of few favorable areas for tropical cyclogenesis in the season . It brought rainfall to southwestern Madagascar that alleviated previously dry conditions . The next five tropical storms either originated or crossed into the adjacent Australian basin , where storms were monitored by the Bureau of Meteorology ( BoM ) . Both Tropical Storm Chikita and Tropical Cyclone Davina brought beneficial rainfall to the Mascarene Islands . The latter storm caused two drowning deaths on Réunion and caused some crop damage . The strongest storm – Evrina – peaked as a strong cyclone in the Australian but weakened upon crossing 90 ° E , with 10 @-@ minute maximum sustained winds of 175 km / h ( 110 mph ) in the basin . The final storm was unnamed , crossing from the Australian basin on April 21 as a minimal tropical storm before quickly dissipating . There were also several tropical disturbances or depressions , many short @-@ lived . The first of these formed on September 3 in the northeastern portion of the basin , and there was a tropical depression in February in the Mozambique Channel that approached tropical storm status .
= = Season summary = =
The Météo @-@ France office ( MFR ) on Réunion island issued warnings in tropical cyclones within the basin during the season . The agency estimated intensity through the Dvorak technique , and warned on tropical cyclones in the region from the coast of Africa to 90 ° E , south of the equator . The Joint Typhoon Warning Center – a joint United States Navy – United States Air Force task force – also issued tropical cyclone warnings for the region . Wind estimates from Météo @-@ France and most other basins throughout the world are sustained over 10 minutes , while estimates from the United States @-@ based Joint Typhoon Warning Center are sustained over 1 minute . 10 minute winds are about 1 @.@ 14 times the amount of 1 minute winds . Most storms formed and dissipated within the tropics , with the exception of Severe Tropical Storm Alda .
During the season , atmospheric conditions shifted from El Niño to La Niña , but despite the shift , the season was similarly inactive as its predecessor . In general , sea surface temperatures were below normal , and atmospheric pressures were above normal , both unfavorable for tropical cyclogenesis . In the month of February , on average the peak time for activity , there was a general lack of convection , or thunderstorms , east of Madagascar . The average monthly pressure on Réunion was the highest since reliable records began in 1953 . The low number of storms occurred despite an otherwise active cyclone year in the southern hemisphere . In its summary of the season , the MFR described the lack of activity as " rare and remarkable " , possibly related to a Walker circulation . The agency monitored 14 tropical disturbances , of which only eight were tropical depressions for at least 24 hours . Six of these intensified into tropical storms , three less than the average of nine , of which only two attained tropical cyclone status , or half the average . There were 28 days in which there was storm or tropical cyclone activity , less than the average of 42 and at the time the fourth lowest since reliable record @-@ keeping began in 1967 with the advent of satellite imagery . The only seasons with a lower number of storm days were 1982 – 83 , 1986 – 87 , and 1997 – 98 .
= = Storms = =
= = = Severe Tropical Storm Alda = = =
After a subtropical depression exited the Mozambique Channel , another area of convection formed in the region on January 8 , which fluctuated in intensity for several days . A passing cold front increased convection further on January 12 , which split off a cutoff low @-@ pressure area . Two days later , a subtropical disturbance formed offshore Beira , Mozambique , classified due to the extratropical origins and lack of centralized convection . The system remained nearly stationary , with the convection extending well to the east . On January 16 , the MFR reclassified the system as a tropical depression after the thunderstorms increased near the center , the increasing organization due to moderate but decreasing wind shear . By that time , the depression had begun an eastward movement , but soon turned to the south in the weakness between two high @-@ pressure areas . Late on January 16 , the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Alda after the convection organized into a central dense overcast . Also that day , the JTWC began tracking the system as Tropical Cyclone 12S . This marked an unusually late start for the first named storm , at the time the third @-@ latest on record .
Neither the MFR nor the JTWC anticipated much strengthening after Alda attained tropical storm status . Around the time of its upgrade , Alda passed about 20 km ( 12 mi ) west of Europa Island in the Mozambique Channel , where sustained winds reached 72 km / h ( 45 mph ) and gusts were as strong as 90 km / h ( 56 mph ) . A building ridge southeast of Madagascar turned the storm to the southwest . After an increase in wind shear diminished the convection , the JTWC discontinued advisories on January 17 , although the thunderstorms redeveloped following an unexpected decrease in wind shear . Alda turned to the southeast ahead of an approaching trough , and developed a ragged eye feature on January 18 . That day , the MFR estimated peak 10 @-@ minute winds of 95 km / h ( 60 mph ) , and the JTWC estimated one @-@ minute winds of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) , equivalent to a minimal hurricane . The latter agency also reissued one advisory when the storm was at its peak . Alda accelerated to the southeast and gradually lost tropical characteristics , becoming extratropical on January 19 before being absorbed by the approaching cold front .
Following rainfall from an earlier subtropical depression , Alda dropped 198 mm ( 7 @.@ 8 in ) of rainfall in Morombe in southwestern Madagascar . The rainfall caused flooding that affected thousands of people . The rainfall was beneficial in alleviating previously dry conditions that had prevented crops to be planted . The passage of the storm also caused temperatures to decrease in Mozambique and Madagascar .
= = = Moderate Tropical Storm Damien @-@ Birenda = = =
On January 21 , a tropical disturbance formed in the Australian region about 500 kilometres ( 310 mi ) south of the Indonesian island of Java . Moving west @-@ southwestward , the system intensified into Tropical Storm Damien on January 23 , and attained tropical cyclone status two days later while passing 400 km ( 250 mi ) south of the Cocos Islands . Subsequently , an increase in wind shear induced steady weakening , causing the circulation to be briefly exposed from the convection on January 26 . Damien maintained an area of convection nearby the circulation , and exited into the south @-@ west Indian Ocean on January 28 as a minimal tropical storm ; at that time , the Mauritius Meteorological Services renamed the storm as Birenda . The storm turned more to the west and west @-@ northwest due to a building ridge to the south . Increasing wind shear weakened Birenda to tropical depression status on January 29 and into a tropical disturbance the next day . Although convection was intermittent , the circulation dissipated on February 3 .
= = = Moderate Tropical Storm Chikita = = =
Soon after Damien @-@ Birenda exited the Australian region , another tropical disturbance formed north of the Cocos on January 29 , which was initially weak but gradually organized . The disturbance tracked quickly west @-@ westward due to a powerful ridge to the south , remaining in tandem with Tropical Storm Birenda about 1 @,@ 300 km ( 810 mi ) to the east . On January 31 , the system crossed into the south @-@ west Indian Ocean . The fast forward motion caused the effects of wind shear to diminish as well as increase the circulation 's strength , and the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Chikita on January 31 . At that time , the storm attained its peak intensity of 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) . Almost immediately thereafter , the convection began weakening due to lukewarm water temperatures , and Chikita weakened to tropical depression status on February 1 . Continuing rapidly to the west , the circulation became exposed from the convection on February 3 due to increased wind shear . Around that time , Chikita passed about 75 km ( 47 mi ) north of Rodrigues island , and shortly thereafter weakened into a tropical disturbance . On the next day , the circulation passed north of both Mauritius and Réunion , presenting an asymmetric structure with the strongest winds to the south . Chikita dissipated on February 5 off the southeast coast of Madagascar .
On Rodrigues , Chikita produced wind gusts of 92 km / h ( 57 mph ) and a rainfall total of 113 mm ( 4 @.@ 4 in ) , the rainfall proving beneficial due to previously dry conditions . Despite only being a tropical disturbance , Chikita produced wind gusts of 89 kilometres per hour ( 55 mph ) on Mauritius and 104 km / h ( 65 mph ) in the mountainous peaks of Réunion . The rainfall rates in both islands varied greatly ; the peak total on Mauritius was 160 mm ( 6 @.@ 3 in ) compared to the peak of 560 mm ( 22 in ) in Bébourg in the heights of Réunion . Also on the latter island , there was a six @-@ hour rainfall total of 132 mm ( 5 @.@ 2 in ) at Piton de la Fournaise . Wet weather persisted after Chikita dissipated , resulting in four @-@ day totals of 953 mm ( 37 @.@ 5 in ) in Bébourg on Réunion , and easing drought conditions on Mauritius .
= = = Intense Tropical Cyclone Davina = = =
After an extended period with no activity across much of the Indian Ocean , the intertropical convergence zone ( ITCZ ) rebuilt toward the end of February , and spawned an area of convection on March 1 in the extreme eastern portion of the basin . The next day , a circulation was noted on satellite imagery to the northeast of the convection , which indicated that a tropical disturbance had developed . The influence of the monsoon trough steered the disturbance to the southeast into the Australian basin , where moderate wind shear prevented quick development . A building ridge to the south turned the system to the southwest , bringing it back into the south @-@ west Indian on March 3 as a tropical depression . With decreasing wind shear , the depression slowly intensified as convection increased , becoming Tropical Storm Davina on March 4 . An eye developed the next day , signaling Davina had intensified into a tropical cyclone , or reaching 10 @-@ minute winds of at least 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) . On March 7 , Davina became an intense tropical cyclone , with sustained 10 @-@ minute winds of 165 km / h ( 105 mph ) . At around the same time , the JTWC estimated peak 1 @-@ minute winds of 205 km / h ( 125 mph ) .
Continuing quickly to the west @-@ southwest , Davina moved over an area of cooler waters and began weakening . On March 8 , the system passed about 140 km ( 87 mi ) northwest of Rodrigues as a minimal tropical cyclone . The next day , Davina re @-@ intensified slightly to winds of 130 km / h ( 85 mph ) , and while near that intensity its eyewall crossed over Mauritius . After passing the island , the eye increased to a diameter of 50 km ( 31 mi ) before deteriorating . On March 10 , Davina passed about 35 km ( 22 mi ) southeast of Réunion as a severe tropical storm . The next day , the storm slowed its forward motion and rapidly weakened due to increasing wind shear , becoming a tropical depression on March 12 . The circulation turned to the northeast and later to the west in the trade winds . Davina looped off the east coast of Madagascar , eventually dissipating on March 19 .
Cyclone Davina affected Rodrigues as a weakening storm , which limited wind gusts to 137 km / h ( 85 mph ) and rainfall to only 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) . After moving toward Mauritius for several days , the cyclone produced a peak wave height of 7 @.@ 73 m ( 25 @.@ 4 ft ) . On the island , the airport at Plaisance recorded a peak gust of 169 km / h ( 105 mph ) , strong enough to cause crop damage and injure 60 people . Rainfall peaked at 227 mm ( 8 @.@ 9 in ) , which failed to break the island 's worst drought since 1904 . On Réunion , wind gusts also peaked at 169 km / h ( 105 mph ) at Piton Sainte @-@ Rose . Davina produced wave heights of 8 @.@ 84 m ( 29 @.@ 0 ft ) at Saint @-@ Pierre . Rainfall on Réunion was highest in the southern portion of the island , mainly through the process of orographic lift ; over a three @-@ hour period , 180 mm ( 7 @.@ 1 in ) of precipitation was recorded at Piton de la Fournaise , and the highest total was 1 @,@ 200 mm ( 47 in ) in the island 's center . Due to the storm 's slow movement , Davina produced scattered rainfall over Réunion for several days . Two people drowned in the Rivière des Galets , but otherwise the rainfall proved beneficial in alleviating dry conditions . The gusty winds damaged the sugar cane and banana crops , but overall damage was minor .
= = = Intense Tropical Cyclone Frederic – Evrina = = =
On March 25 , an area of convection formed along the monsoon trough in the Australian basin , gradually organizing into a tropical storm while moving west @-@ southwestward and given the name Frederic . On March 29 , the storm attained tropical cyclone status , and continued to strengthen due to warm waters . At its peak on March 31 , Frederic developed a well @-@ defined 40 km ( 25 mi ) eye within a circular central dense overcast . The MFR estimated peak 10 @-@ minute winds of 195 km / h ( 120 mph ) , and the JTWC estimated maximum 1 @-@ minute winds of 260 km / h ( 160 mph ) , equivalent to a Category 5 on the Saffir @-@ Simpson hurricane wind scale . Subsequently , Frederic encountered the combination of wind shear and cooler , dry air , which caused weakening . On April 1 , the cyclone crossed into the south @-@ west Indian Ocean with 10 @-@ minute winds of 175 km / h ( 110 mph ) , at which time it was renamed Evrina .
Continuing to the west @-@ southwest upon entering the basin , Evrina gradually weakened as the eye gradually dissipated . It soon encountered the same cooler waters of the southern Indian that affected previous storms Chikita and Davina . By April 2 , Evrina had weakened below tropical cyclone status , just 30 hours after it was at peak intensity . Around that time , the circulation became exposed from the deepest convection , and the track shifted more to the west . On April 5 , Evrina weakened to tropical depression status . Two days later , the system turned toward the south , moving in a circular track around the island of Rodrigues while remaining far enough away not to cause any effects . On April 8 , the circulation turned to the east , dissipating two days later to the south of Rodrigues .
= = = Moderate Tropical Storm F1 ( Hamish ) = = =
On April 17 , an area of convection persisted near the border of the south @-@ west Indian and the Australian regions . The system moved eastward into the Australian basin , becoming a tropical disturbance on April 19 . Turning to the southeast , the system gradually organized as the convection persisted . On April 20 , the disturbance intensified into a tropical storm and was named Hamish . Shortly thereafter , the ridge to the south turned the storm to the southwest . After the BoM estimated peak winds of 100 km / h ( 65 mph ) , Hamish began quickly weakening due to increasing wind shear . On April 21 , the storm crossed into the south @-@ west Indian basin , still maintaining 10 @-@ minute winds of 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) . Although the Mauritius Meteorological Services should have classified the system as Tropical Storm Francine , the storm remained unnamed , referred as Tropical Storm F1 . However , the system weakened to tropical depression status within six hours of entering the basin , and dissipating on April 24 .
= = = Other storms in 1998 = = =
At the time , the MFR 's cyclone season began on August 1 , although the JTWC 's cyclone season for the southern hemisphere began on July 1 . The latter agency tracked a short @-@ lived tropical storm toward the end of July , classifying it as Tropical Cyclone 01S . The MFR named it Tropical Depression H4 , estimating peak 10 @-@ minute winds of 55 km / h ( 35 km / h ) .
The first system of the season proper originated out of an area of convection in early September in the northeast portion of the basin . On September 3 , the MFR initiated advisories on Tropical Disturbance A1 about 1435 km ( 890 mi ) east of Diego Garcia . The system tracked westward , and the JTWC issued a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert ( TCFA ) on September 4 . Failing to intensify beyond winds of 45 km / h ( 30 mph ) , the disturbance dissipated on September 6 . Later in the month , Tropical Disturbance A2 formed in a similar region within the monsoon trough , with the MFR initiating advisories on September 29 . Also on that day , the JTWC began issuing advisories on Tropical Cyclone 02S . That day , the JTWC upgraded the system to tropical storm status , although strong wind shear prevented intensification . The MFR quickly discontinued advisories , but the JTWC continued tracking it , again upgrading the system to tropical storm status on October 1 . After the shear again increased , the storm weakened , dissipating on October 2 .
In November , rapidly weakening Tropical Cyclone Alison moved from the Australian basin and dissipated immediately upon entering the south @-@ west Indian Ocean on November 13 . On December 4 , short @-@ lived Tropical Disturbance A3 was classified by MFR , subsequently drifting into the Australian region . Possibly related to the previous system , Tropical Cyclone Cathy moved from the Australian basin into the basin on December 28 , quickly dissipating .
= = = Other storms in 1999 = = =
On January 1 , an area of convection persisted in the Mozambique Channel , with an associated circulation located on land in Mozambique . The system drifted to the east and southeast over warmer waters , gradually organizing . On January 3 , the MFR classified the system as Tropical Disturbance A4 near the Mozambique coastline . The disturbance accelerated to the southeast , passing southwest of Madagascar with an asymmetric structure ; most of the convection was on the eastern periphery due to strong wind shear . Heavy rainfall occurred along the southwest Madagascar coast , peaking at 322 mm ( 12 @.@ 7 in ) over a 48 ‑ hour period in Morombe . Wind gusts there reached 180 km / h ( 110 mph ) , although the disturbance 's maximum sustained 10 @-@ minute winds were 55 km / h ( 35 mph ) . The disturbance transitioned into a subtropical depression on January 5 , but soon after became extratropical while accelerating southeastward .
During an extended period of quiet conditions across much of the basin , an area of low pressure persisted along the eastern coast of Mozambique . Convection fluctuated daily but became more persistent on February 11 . That day , the thunderstorms organized into a circulation that had formed less than 200 km ( 120 mi ) southeast of Beira , Mozambique , becoming Tropical Disturbance D1 . After forming , the system moved southward , developing a central dense overcast with northeasterly outflow . Based on the organization , the disturbance intensified into a tropical depression on February 13 . Although there were gale force winds in the southwest periphery , the circulation was located on the northern edge of the convection . The depression neared tropical storm intensity , but an increase in wind shear from a nearby trough prevented further intensification . The JTWC estimated peak 1 @-@ minute winds of 85 km / h ( 50 mph ) , making the system a tropical storm by their assessment . A building ridge to the south turned the depression to the northeast , bringing the system near Europa Island . A station on the island recorded sustained winds of 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) with gusts to 104 km / h ( 65 mph ) about three hours before and after the closest approach ; the observations suggested that the depression could have become a tropical storm . Soon thereafter , the associated convection dissipated and the circulation turned westward . After crossing over its former path , the depression dissipated on February 17 very close to where it developed .
Similar to the previous depression and Tropical Storm Alda , Tropical Disturbance D2 developed in the Mozambique Channel , initially subtropical in nature . On February 20 , a cold front exited the African coast off Mozambique , spawning an area of convection . A weak low pressure area developed on February 23 , which proceeded to move southeastward . Due to unfavorable wind shear , the system failed to organize much , although initially it produced strong wind gusts . On February 28 , much of the convection was removed from the circulation , which looped over southwestern Madagascar to turn back to the west . On March 4 , when Tropical Storm Davina was named , the disturbance was renamed E1 . The next day , the circulation executed a small loop , dissipating on March 6 over eastern Mozambique .
A long @-@ lived system developed on February 28 in the Australian region south of February 28 , and moved westward . On March 7 , the JTWC initiated advisories on the system as Tropical Cyclone 26S , briefly estimating peak 1 @-@ minute winds of 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) the next day . Soon after , the system weakened into a tropical depression , crossing into the south @-@ west Indian Ocean late on March 8 . At that time , it was designated Tropical Disturbance E2 . Continuing westward along the northern edge of a strong ridge , the disturbance failed to intensify due to easterly wind shear . Although the MFR ceased issuing advisories , they noted that a distinct circulation persisted , reaching a location to the north of Mauritius by March 16 . That day , it turned back to the east with a sporadic area of convection , influenced by the larger Tropical Depression E3 . Two days later , the system organized enough for the MFR to reclassify it as a tropical disturbance . The system failed to reorganize much , and dissipated on March 20 . Another tropical disturbance , named E3 , formed on March 11 in the eastern portion of the basin . It initially failed to develop more , but after an increase in convection , the system intensified into a tropical depression on March 14 while moving generally west @-@ northwestward . On the next day , the system began drifting to the southwest due to weak steering currents . On March 16 , the JTWC initiated advisories on the system as Tropical Cyclone 28S , briefly upgrading it to tropical storm status on the next day . On March 18 , the depression began weakening , dissipating three days later .
= = Storm names = =
A tropical disturbance is named when it reaches moderate tropical storm strength . If a tropical disturbance reaches moderate tropical storm status west of 55 ° E , then the Sub @-@ regional Tropical Cyclone Advisory Centre in Madagascar assigns the appropriate name to the storm . If a tropical disturbance reaches moderate tropical storm status between 55 ° E and 90 ° E , then the Sub @-@ regional Tropical Cyclone Advisory Centre in Mauritius assigns the appropriate name to the storm . A new annual list is used every year , and this list was provided by the country of Seychelles .
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= Japanese ironclad Fusō =
Fusō ( 扶桑 ) was a central @-@ battery ironclad built for the Imperial Japanese Navy ( IJN ) in the 1870s . She was built in the United Kingdom because such ships could not yet be constructed in Japan . The ship participated in the First Sino @-@ Japanese War of 1894 – 95 where she was damaged during the Battle of the Yalu River in 1894 and participated in the Battle of Weihaiwei in early 1895 . She collided with two Japanese ships during a storm and sank in 1897 . She was refloated the following year and repaired . Fusō played a minor role in the Russo @-@ Japanese War of 1904 – 05 and was reclassified as a coast defense ship after the war . She was struck from the Navy List in 1908 and sold for scrap the following year .
= = Background = =
Tensions between Japan and China heightened after the former launched its punitive expedition against Taiwan in May 1874 in retaliation of the murder of a number of shipwrecked sailors by the Paiwan aborigines . China inquired into the possibility of buying ironclad warships from Great Britain and Japan was already negotiating with the Brazilian government about the purchase of the ironclad Independencia then under construction in Britain . The Japanese terminated the negotiations with the Brazilians in October after the ship was badly damaged upon launching and the expeditionary force was about to withdraw from Taiwan . The crisis illustrated the need to reinforce the IJN and a budget request was submitted that same month by Acting Navy Minister Kawamura Sumiyoshi for ¥ 3 @.@ 9 – 4 @.@ 2 million to purchase three warships from abroad . No Japanese shipyard was able to build ships of this size so they were ordered from Great Britain . This was rejected as too expensive and a revised request of ¥ 2 @.@ 3 million was approved later that month . Nothing was done until March 1875 when Kawamura proposed to buy one ironclad for half of the money authorized and use the rest for shipbuilding and gun production at the Yokosuka Shipyard . No response was made by the Prime Minister 's office before the proposal was revised to use all of the allocated money to buy three ships , one iron @-@ hulled armored warship and two armored corvettes of composite construction to be designed by the prominent British naval architect Sir Edward Reed , formerly the Chief Constructor of the Royal Navy . Reed would also supervise the construction of the ships for an honorarium of five percent of the construction cost . The Prime Minister 's office approved the revised proposal on 2 May and notified the Japanese consul , Ueno Kagenori , that navy officers would be visiting to negotiate the contract with Reed .
Commander Matsumura Junzō arrived in London on 21 July and gave Reed the specifications for the ships . Reed responded on 3 September with an offer , excluding armament , that exceeded the amount allocated in the budget . Ueno signed the contracts for all three ships on 24 September despite this problem because Reed was scheduled to depart for a trip to Russia and the matter had to be concluded before his departure . Ueno had informed the Navy Ministry about the costs before signing , but Kawamura 's response to postpone the order for the armored frigate did not arrive until 8 October . The totals for all three contracts came to £ 433 @,@ 850 or ¥ 2 @,@ 231 @,@ 563 and did not include the armament . These were ordered from Krupp with a 50 percent down payment of £ 24 @,@ 978 . The government struggled to provide the necessary money even though the additional expenses had been approved by the Prime Minister 's office on 5 June 1876 , especially as more money was necessary to fully equip the ships for sea and to provision them for the delivery voyage to Japan .
= = Description = =
The design of Fusō was based on a scaled @-@ down version of HMS Iron Duke , an Audacious @-@ class central @-@ battery ironclad , familiar to the Japanese as the flagship of the Royal Navy China Station from 1871 – 75 . The ship was 220 feet ( 67 @.@ 1 m ) long between perpendiculars and had a beam of 48 feet ( 14 @.@ 6 m ) . She had a forward draft of 17 feet 9 inches ( 5 @.@ 4 m ) and drew 18 feet 5 inches ( 5 @.@ 6 m ) aft . She displaced 2 @,@ 248 long tons ( 2 @,@ 284 t ) and had a crew of 26 officers and 269 enlisted men .
= = = Propulsion = = =
Fusō had a pair of two @-@ cylinder , double @-@ expansion trunk steam engines made by John Penn and Sons , each driving a two @-@ bladed 15 @-@ foot @-@ 6 @-@ inch ( 4 @.@ 7 m ) propeller . Eight cylindrical boilers provided steam to the engine at a working pressure of 4 @.@ 09 bar ( 409 kPa ; 59 psi ) . The engines were designed to produce 3 @,@ 500 indicated horsepower ( 2 @,@ 600 kW ) to give the ships a speed of 13 knots ( 24 km / h ; 15 mph ) . During her sea trials on 3 January 1878 , she reached a maximum speed of 13 @.@ 16 knots ( 24 @.@ 37 km / h ; 15 @.@ 14 mph ) from 3 @,@ 824 ihp ( 2 @,@ 852 kW ) . The ship carried a maximum of 350 long tons ( 360 t ) of coal , enough to steam 4 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 8 @,@ 300 km ; 5 @,@ 200 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . The three @-@ masted ironclad was barque @-@ rigged and had a sail area of 17 @,@ 000 square feet ( 1 @,@ 579 m2 ) . To reduce wind resistance while under sail alone , the funnel was semi @-@ retractable .
The ship was modernized at Yokosuka Naval Arsenal beginning in 1891 . Her masts were removed and the fore- and mizzenmasts were replaced by two military masts also fitted with fighting tops . Her funnel was fixed in height and she received four new cylindrical boilers . To offset the reduced number of boilers , the new ones were fitted with forced draught which increased their working pressure to 6 @.@ 13 bar ( 613 kPa ; 89 psi ) . The space made available by removal of the boilers was used to increase her coal storage by 36 long tons ( 37 t ) .
= = = Armament and armor = = =
Fusō was fitted with four 20 @-@ caliber 24 @-@ centimeter ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) Krupp rifled breech @-@ loading ( RBL ) guns and two 22 @-@ caliber RBL 17 @-@ centimeter ( 6 @.@ 7 in ) Krupp guns . The 24 cm guns were mounted at the corners of the armored citadel on the main deck at an angle of 65 degrees to the centerline of the ship . Each gun could traverse 35 degrees to the left and right . Only the 60 @-@ degree arc at the bow and stern could not be fired upon . The two pivot @-@ mounted 17 @-@ centimeter guns were positioned on the sides of the upper deck , each with three gun ports that allowed them to act as chase guns , firing fore and aft , as well as on the broadside . The ship also carried four long and two short 75 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) guns , the latter intended for use ashore or mounted on the ship 's boats .
The armor @-@ piercing shell of the 24 @-@ centimeter gun weighed 352 @.@ 7 pounds ( 160 kg ) . It had a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 560 ft / s ( 475 m / s ) and was credited with the ability to penetrate 15 @.@ 5 inches ( 393 mm ) of wrought iron armor at the muzzle . The 132 @.@ 3 @-@ pound ( 60 kg ) 17 @-@ centimeter shell had a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 510 – 1 @,@ 600 ft / s ( 460 – 487 m / s ) and could penetrate 10 @.@ 3 – 11 @.@ 4 inches ( 262 – 290 mm ) of armor . The only data available for the 75 @-@ millimeter guns is their muzzle velocities of 1 @,@ 550 ft / s ( 473 m / s ) and 960 ft / s ( 292 m / s ) for the long and short @-@ barreled guns respectively .
During the 1880s the armament of Fusō was augmented several times . In June 1883 seven quadruple @-@ barreled 25 @.@ 4 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 0 in ) Nordenfelt machine guns were added for defense against torpedo boats . Five were positioned on the upper deck and one each in the fighting tops . Three years later two quintuple @-@ barreled 11 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 4 in ) Nordenfeldt machine guns were mounted in the fighting tops . Slightly earlier , Fusō became the first ship in the IJN to mount 356 @-@ millimeter ( 14 @.@ 0 in ) torpedo tubes for Schwartzkopff torpedoes when two above @-@ water , traverseable tubes , one on each broadside , were added in late 1885 . She first fired these weapons on 14 January 1886 although further testing revealed that the torpedoes were often damaged by the impact with the water . Upon the recommendation of the prominent French naval architect Louis @-@ Émile Bertin , a " spoon " was added to the ends of the tubes to make the torpedoes strike the water horizontally which better distributed the shock of impact . The modifications were made and successful tests were conducted before the end of the year .
When the ship was being refitted from 1891 – 94 , her anti @-@ torpedo boat armament was reinforced by the replacement of three 25 @.@ 4 @-@ millimeter Nordenfelt guns by a pair of 2 @.@ 5 @-@ pounder Hotchkiss guns and a single 3 @-@ pounder Hotchkiss gun . Two additional 11 @-@ millimeter Nordenfelt guns in the fighting tops were also added at that time . After the Sino @-@ Japanese War , a small poop deck was added in 1896 and a quick @-@ firing ( QF ) 12 @-@ centimetre ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) gun was mounted there as the stern chase gun . Another such gun was mounted on the forecastle as the forward chase gun and the two 17 @-@ centimeter guns were replaced by another pair of 12 @-@ centimeter quick @-@ firers . In addition twelve 3 @-@ pounder Hotchkiss guns were added and the 11 @-@ millimeter guns were replaced by 25 @.@ 4 @-@ millimeter Nordenfelts . In March 1900 the 12 @-@ centimeter chase guns were superseded by two QF 15 @-@ centimetre ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) guns and the former chase guns were shifted to make room for them . The final change to Fusō 's armament was made in July 1906 when her obsolete 24 @-@ centimeter guns were replaced by two QF 15 @-@ centimeter guns and two more 3 @-@ pounders were added .
Fusō had a wrought @-@ iron waterline armor belt 9 inches ( 229 mm ) thick amidships that tapered to 6 @.@ 4 inches ( 162 mm ) at the ends of the ship . The sides of the central battery were 9 inches thick and the transverse bulkheads were 8 inches ( 203 mm ) thick .
= = Construction and career = =
Given a classical name for Japan , Fusō was built at the Samuda Brothers shipyard in Cubitt Town , London . Japanese sources universally give the date for Kongō 's keel @-@ laying as 24 September 1875 — the same as that for the awarding of the contract — but historian Hans Langerer describes this as improbable , arguing that no shipyard would order enough material to begin construction without cash in hand . Fusō was launched on 14 April 1877 when Ueno Ikuko , wife of the Japanese consul , cut the retaining rope with a hammer and chisel . Completed in January 1878 , the ship sailed for Japan before 22 March under the command of a British captain and with a British crew because the IJN was not yet ready for such a long voyage . While transiting the Suez Canal , she was lightly damaged when she ran aground on 27 April . She received temporary repairs at a local dockyard and arrived in Yokohama on 11 June . She was classified as a second @-@ class warship while still in transit . She was transferred to Yokosuka Naval Arsenal on 17 June for permanent repairs . On 10 July a formal ceremony was held in Yokohama for the receipt of the ship that was attended by the Meiji Emperor and many senior government officials . The ship was then opened for tours by the nobility , their families and invited guests for three days after the ceremony . Beginning on 14 July , the general public was allowed to tour the ship for a week .
Fusō was assigned to the Tokai Naval District and the Standing Fleet in 1880 . That same year she transported the Naval Lord , Enomoto Takeaki , on a tour of Hokkaido . On 10 August 1881 she departed with Emperor Meiji on a tour of Aomori Prefecture and Otaru , Hokkaido that lasted until 30 September . The ship was transferred to the Medium Fleet in 1882 and made port visits in Kyushu and Pusan , Korea the following year . Fusō visited Hong Kong and Shanghai , China in 1884 . She hosted Empress Shōken for the launching ceremony of the corvette Musashi on 30 March 1886 and was transferred to the Small Standing Fleet in 1887 . The ship made a lengthy cruise in the Western Pacific in 1888 and visited ports in Korea , Russia and China the following year . Fusō participated in the fleet maneuvers on 25 March 1880 and then hosted Emperor Meiji for his visits to Kure , Sasebo , and Etajima . From November 1891 to July 1894 , Fusō was extensively refitted and partially modernized at Yokosuka Naval Arsenal .
During the Battle of the Yalu River on 17 September 1894 , Fusō was assigned to the rear of the Japanese main body and was heavily engaged by the Chinese ships . Although hit many times by 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) shells , not one penetrated her armor ; of her crew only five were killed and nine wounded . During the battle her crew fired twenty @-@ nine 24 cm , thirty @-@ two 17 cm , one hundred thirty @-@ six 75 mm , one hundred sixty @-@ four 2.5- and 3 @-@ pounder shells and over fifteen hundred shells from her machine guns . The ship was present during the Battle of Weihaiwei in January – February 1895 , although she did not see any significant combat . On 29 October 1897 , Fusō 's anchor chain broke during a strong gale off Nagahama , Ehime and she collided with the ram of the protected cruiser Matsushima at 16 : 30 . She then struck Matsushima 's sister ship , Itsukushima , and sank at 16 : 57 . Re @-@ classed as a second @-@ class battleship on 21 March 1898 and refloated on 7 July , Fusō was repaired at Kure Naval Arsenal and ran her trials on 8 April 1900 .
Fusō served as the flagship of Rear Admiral Sukeuji Hosoya , Seventh Division , Third Squadron , during the Russo @-@ Japanese War and was held in reserve south of Tsushima Island during the Battle of Tsushima in case the battle drifted her way . On 7 September 1904 , her 15 @-@ centimeter guns were dismounted for use in the Siege of Port Arthur . They were replaced by guns transferred from the damaged Akashi at Maizuru Naval Arsenal on 28 December . She was reclassified as a coast defense ship in December 1905 , and stricken on 1 April 1908 . Relegated to the status of a " miscellaneous service craft " , she was assigned to the Yokosuka Harbor Master until she was ordered to be sold on 15 February 1909 . Yokosuka reported her sale on 30 November , but provided no information on the date of sale or the name of the winning bidder .
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= SMS München =
SMS München ( " His Majesty 's Ship München " ) was the fifth of seven Bremen @-@ class cruisers of the Imperial German Navy , named after the city of Munich . She was built by AG Weser in Bremen , starting in 1903 , launched in April 1904 , and commissioned in January 1905 . Armed with a main battery of ten 10 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) guns and two 45 cm ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes , München was capable of a top speed of 22 @.@ 5 knots ( 41 @.@ 7 km / h ; 25 @.@ 9 mph ) .
München served with the fleet for the majority of her career , and saw extensive service during World War I , including at the Battle of Jutland on 31 May – 1 June 1916 . There , she engaged British light cruisers on two instances , and was damaged in both ; she contributed to the damaging of the cruiser HMS Southampton during the latter engagement . München was torpedoed by the British submarine HMS E38 on 19 October 1916 , and was subsequently withdrawn from service . She spent the final year of the war as a barracks ship , and was surrendered as a war prize to the British in 1920 . München was later broken up for scrap .
= = Construction = =
München was ordered under the contract name " M " and was laid down at the AG Weser shipyard in Bremen in 1903 and launched on 30 April 1904 , after which fitting @-@ out work commenced . She was commissioned into the High Seas Fleet on 10 January 1905 . The ship was 111 @.@ 1 meters ( 365 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 13 @.@ 3 m ( 44 ft ) and a draft of 5 @.@ 47 m ( 17 @.@ 9 ft ) forward . She displaced 3 @,@ 780 t ( 3 @,@ 720 long tons ; 4 @,@ 170 short tons ) at full combat load . Her propulsion system consisted of two triple @-@ expansion engines , designed to give 10 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 7 @,@ 500 kW ) for a top speed of 22 knots ( 41 km / h ; 25 mph ) . The engines were powered by ten coal @-@ fired Marine @-@ type water @-@ tube boilers . München carried up to 860 tonnes ( 850 long tons ) of coal , which gave her a range of 4 @,@ 690 nautical miles ( 8 @,@ 690 km ; 5 @,@ 400 mi ) at 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) . She had a crew of 14 officers and 274 – 287 enlisted men .
The ship was armed with ten 10 @.@ 5 cm SK L / 40 guns in single mounts . Two were placed side by side forward on the forecastle , six were located amidships , three on either side , and two were placed side by side aft . The guns could engage targets out to 12 @,@ 200 m ( 40 @,@ 000 ft ) . They were supplied with 1 @,@ 500 rounds of ammunition , for 150 shells per gun . She was also equipped with two 45 cm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes with five torpedoes . They were submerged in the hull on the broadside . München was also fitted to carry fifty naval mines . The ship was protected by an armored deck that was up to 80 mm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) thick . The conning tower had 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick sides , and the guns were protected by 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) thick shields .
= = Service history = =
After her commissioning , München was employed as a torpedo test ship and to conduct experiments with wireless telegraphy . After the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , the ship was assigned to the High Seas Fleet . She was moored in Brunsbüttel with her sister @-@ ship Danzig , en route to Kiel via the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal on the morning of 28 August 1914 . That morning , the British attacked the German patrol line in the Heligoland Bight . During the ensuing Battle of Heligoland Bight , München and Danzig were recalled and ordered to steam to the mouth of the Elbe and wait for further orders . At 12 : 25 , the two cruisers were ordered to move into the Bight and support the cruiser Strassburg , but at 14 : 06 , München was instead ordered to conduct reconnaissance out to the north @-@ east of Heligoland .
= = = Battle of Jutland = = =
München was assigned to the IV Scouting Group during the Battle of Jutland on 31 May – 1 June 1916 . The IV Scouting Group , under the command of Commodore Ludwig von Reuter , departed Wilhelmshaven at 03 : 30 on 31 May , along with the rest of the fleet . Tasked with screening for the fleet , München and the torpedo boat S54 were positioned on the starboard side of the fleet , abreast of the III Battle Squadron .
Later in the battle , shortly after 21 : 00 , München and the rest of the IV Scouting Group encountered the British 3rd Light Cruiser Squadron ( 3rd LCS ) . Reuter 's ships were leading the High Seas Fleet south , away from the deployed Grand Fleet . Due to the long range and poor visibility , only München and SMS Stettin were able to engage the British cruisers ; München fired 63 shells before she had to cease fire , without scoring any hits . She was hit twice in return , however ; the first hit caused minimal damage , but the second struck her third funnel . The resulting explosion damaged four of her boilers , making it difficult for her to keep steam up in all of her boilers . Reuter turned his ships hard to starboard , in order to draw the British closer to the capital ships of the German fleet , but the 3rd LCS refused to take the bait and disengaged .
During the ferocious night fighting that occurred as the High Seas Fleet forced its way through the British rear , the IV Scouting Group encountered the 2nd Light Cruiser Squadron at close range in the darkness . As the two squadrons closed on each other , the Germans illuminated HMS Southampton and HMS Dublin and concentrated their fire on the two ships . The two ships were badly damaged and set on fire and forced to retreat , while the Germans also fell back in an attempt to bring the British closer to the battlecruisers Moltke and Seydlitz . In the melee , the cruiser Frauenlob was hit and sunk by a torpedo launched by Southampton , and München nearly collided with the sinking Frauenlob . She managed to evade the wreck , and she then fired a torpedo at Southampton , but it missed . München was hit another three times during this engagement ; two of the hits exploded in the water , causing minor splinter damage . The third shell went through the second funnel and exploded on a funnel support on the other side ; one of the shell splinters knocked out the starboard rangefinder . The erratic maneuvering bent a wheel shaft in the helm , forcing her crew to steer the ship from the steering gear compartment for about two and a half hours .
At 01 : 20 , München and Stettin briefly fired on the German torpedo boats G11 , V1 , and V3 before they discovered their identity . Early on the morning of 1 June , around 05 : 06 , the pre @-@ dreadnought battleships of the II Battle Squadron opened fire on what they thought were British submarines ; the firing was so hysterical that it threatened to damage München and Stettin , as they were steaming up the side of the German line . The fleet commander , Vice Admiral Reinhard Scheer , was forced to give a general " cease @-@ fire " order . München in turn spotted an imaginary submarine off Heligoland at 11 : 40 and opened fire on the empty sea.In the course of the battle , München was hit by a total of five medium @-@ caliber shells , which killed eight men and wounded another twenty . She had fired 161 rounds from her guns .
= = = Later operations = = =
On 18 – 19 October , Scheer attempted a repeat of the original Jutland plan , which had called for a bombardment of Sunderland . While en route , München was hit by a torpedo launched by the submarine HMS E38 off the Dogger Bank . Scheer became convinced the British knew his location , and so he cancelled the operation and returned to port . München took on some 500 metric tons ( 490 long tons ; 550 short tons ) of water , and saltwater got into her boilers , contaminating the freshwater used to produce steam . She had to be taken under tow , first by the torpedo boat V73 , and then by her sister Berlin . By the following day , her engines were back in operation , and she steamed into the Jadebusen under her own power , where she entered the Imperial Dockyard in Wilhelmshaven . After returning to port , München was decommissioned in November due to the battle damage incurred the previous month . She was later employed as a barracks ship for patrol ships in 1918 . She was stricken from the naval register on 5 November 1919 and ceded to the British as the war prize Q on 6 July 1920 under the terms of the Treaty of Versailles . They subsequently broke her up for scrap .
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= 1903 – 04 Bradford City A.F.C. season =
The 1903 – 04 season was the first season in Bradford City A.F.C. ' s history , having been founded on 29 May 1903 and then elected into the Football League to replace Doncaster Rovers in the Second Division . They finished in 10th position in the league and reached the fourth qualifying round of the FA Cup .
Bradford City were formed following a series of meetings during the first half of 1903 and replaced the former rugby league club of Manningham , whose Valley Parade ground they used . The club had already signed six players before they were accepted into the league before the rest of the side were later signed by a five @-@ man committee . The board directors appointed Robert Campbell as the club 's first manager . Bradford City 's first game ended in a 2 – 0 defeat at Grimsby Town and the first home game resulted in another loss to Gainsborough Trinity . Club captain Johnny McMillan finished the top goalscorer with 14 league and two FA Cup goals .
= = Background = =
Organised league football had been played in the West Riding of Yorkshire since 1894 in the West Yorkshire League , but no side from the county had played in the Football League . So on 30 January 1903 , Scotsman James Whyte , a sub @-@ editor of the Bradford Observer , met with Football Association representative John Brunt at Valley Parade , the home of the city 's rugby league side Manningham Football Club , to discuss establishing a Football League club within Bradford . In May , Manningham 's committee decided to swap codes from rugby to association football and so the Football League decided to invite Bradford City to join their league in a bid to introduce association football to the West Riding , the main sport in which was rugby league . The League voted in favour of replacing Doncaster Rovers , who had finished the 1902 – 03 season in 16th position in the Second Division , with Bradford City even though Bradford had yet to play a single game .
= = Review = =
= = = Pre @-@ season = = =
Even before Bradford City were guaranteed a place in the Football League , the club made its first acquisitions by signing Jack Forrest and Ben Prosser from Stoke on 1 May . These were followed by four more players joining the club ; Sam Bright , George Robinson , Peter O 'Rourke and Jimmy Millar . Despite not having enough players to field a full side , four club representatives travelled to London by the end of May for a league management committee meeting , when the club was elected into the Second Division . Money was raised to fund the club , including at least £ 2 @,@ 000 from sponsors , a balance of £ 500 from Manningham FC and proceeds from a summer archery tournament . Bradford City also took over Manningham 's Valley Parade ground for their home fixtures .
The four @-@ strong party which visited London , as well as newly elected Alfred Ayrton made up five members of a 13 @-@ man sub @-@ committee which controlled club affairs . The first five , who also included J. Brunt , J.E. Fattorini , A.J. Foxcroft and J.T. Whyte , were responsible for first team matters . On 20 June , the club directors appointed former Sunderland secretary @-@ manager Robert Campbell as Bradford City 's first manager from a shortlist of 30 applicants . Campbell 's role was to coach the players , helped by trainer George Cutts . Ayrton , who had been president of Manningham FC , became the club 's first chairman .
Bradford played no recorded pre @-@ season friendlies . Instead , Campbell and Cutts , decided on the first selection for the opening game of the season with Grimsby Town by playing a series of Whites v Stripes games between professionals already signed by the club and amateur players . The first squad was signed at a cost of £ 917 10s 0d , with the players choosing Johnny McMillan as their own captain . Millar , a defender signed from Middlesbrough , was chosen as vice @-@ captain .
= = = September = = =
Bradford City 's first league game was at Blundell Park against Grimsby Town on 1 September 1903 , on a sunny Tuesday evening in front of 10 @,@ 000 fans . The pioneering team consisted of Arthur Seymour in goal , defenders Willie Wilson , Fred Halliday , George Robinson , Jimmy Millar and Thomas Farnall with Richard Guy , John Beckram , Jack Forrest , Johnny McMillan and John Graham in attack . Graham , Beckram and Guy all came close to giving City an opening day lead , but Grimsby scored through Archie Dunn . After City were reduced to ten men because of an injury to Guy , Fred Rouse doubled Grimsby 's lead in the second half ; Grimsby finished the victors 2 – 0 . Four days later , City hosted their first home at Valley Parade against Gainsborough Trinity . The game attracted 11 @,@ 000 spectators even though there was no covered accommodation for fans . Among the spectators was Bradford 's Lord Mayor and Lady Mayoress . City lost 3 – 1 with Guy scoring the club 's first ever league goal , but they also had a goal disallowed and missed a penalty . The Bradford Daily Argus reported that the goal was " greeted with a shout which awoke babies on the distant hillsides of Bolton and Eccleshill . The match highlights were shown in Bradford 's St George 's Hall later in the same evening .
Bradford won their first game in the league in their third game of the season , with a 2 – 0 victory against Burton United at Peel Croft . A week later , they won their first game at their Valley Parade home by defeating Bristol City 1 – 0 . McMillan scored in each game , with Forrest also scoring against Burton . They finished the month with a 3 – 1 loss at Manchester United .
= = = October = = =
Bradford played only two league games during October . The first ended in a 5 – 2 defeat to Burslem Port Vale ; the second – on 24 October – finished in a 3 – 1 victory to Bradford against fellow Yorkshire side Barnsley . Instead , City played their first games in the FA Cup in the club 's history . The first qualifying round match and the club 's debut in the competition was a 6 – 1 victory against Rockingham Colliery with six different City players on the scoresheet . City progressed through the following two qualifying rounds against Mirfield United and Worksop Town , with all three games being held at Valley Parade .
During October , City also hosted an inter @-@ league game between the English and Irish Leagues at Valley Parade . Although the ground was not up to high standards , the Football League was keen to encourage football in Bradford . An estimated 20 @,@ 000 supporters attended the match which finished with a 2 – 1 victory for the Football League . The club also made their first signing since the start of the season , bringing in forward Thomas Drain from Scottish side Maybole .
= = = November and December = = =
City went another two weeks before playing again when their FA Cup run came to an end with a 2 – 1 defeat at their fellow Second Division side Chesterfield in the fourth qualifying round . They returned to league action on 21 November against Bolton Wanderers , nearly a month since their win against Barnsley . Drain , who had scored on his debut against Barnsley , scored Bradford 's first ever hat @-@ trick , but the game finished in a 3 – 3 draw . A week later , Drain scored for the third successive league match but City lost 3 – 2 to Burnley .
Bradford played six games during December , with the first two ending in draws against Preston North End and Stockport County . On 19 December , City defeated Leicester Fosse 4 – 0 at Valley Parade . It was City 's highest league victory of the season with McMillan scoring his side 's second hat @-@ trick of the campaign . City finished the month with three games in the space of four days . They first lost 4 – 1 to Woolwich Arsenal on Christmas Day , before a 1 – 0 victory at Blackpool . The year finished with a draw against Port Vale .
= = = January , February and March = = =
At the turn of the new year , City were defeated by Gainsborough Trinity , before they completed their first double by defeating Burton United 3 – 0 . Two draws followed – against Bristol City and Manchester United . City extended their unbeaten run by winning all three matches during February , with victories against Glossop , Barnsley and Lincoln City . Each victory finished 2 – 1 with Beckram , Drain and Robinson all scoring twice during the month . The club 's six @-@ game unbeaten run came to an end in the return fixture at Glossop , with further defeats following against Stockport County and Chesterfield . The three @-@ game losing streak was overturned with a 3 – 0 win over Burnley ; Graham scored twice to become the third player to score more than one goal during a league game .
= = = April = = =
City packed in eight games during April to complete the league season . On 1 April , they lost to Lincoln City and then the following day they lost to Preston North End . A third game in four days finished in a 1 – 1 draw with Chesterfield . The first victory of the month came in the reverse fixture against the club 's first ever league opponents Grimsby Town . City lost 1 – 0 to Bolton Wanderers before a 2 – 1 victory followed against Leicester Fosse , with McMillan scoring one of the goals . The final two matches both ended in defeats without City scoring ; first to Arsenal , then to Blackpool . City finished 10th at the end of the first season recording 31 points from 34 games .
Team captain McMillan finished as the club 's top scorer with 14 goals . He played 32 games , with goalkeeper Seymour , half @-@ back Robinson and forward Graham all being ever @-@ presents . With the advent of league football in Bradford , thousands of people came to home games , resulting in the club 's end @-@ of @-@ season receipts totalling £ 3 @,@ 896 . It resulted in a small operating loss from the first season , but donations helped the club record a profit of £ 39 in their first season in the Football League . Following the end of the season , the club released six players and also sold Guy to Leeds City .
= = Match results = =
= = = Legend = = =
= = = Football League Second Division = = =
Source : Frost
= = = FA Cup = = =
Source : Frost
= = League table = =
Source : Butler
P |
= Matches played ; W =
Matches won ; D |
= Matches drawn ; L =
Matches lost ; F |
= Goals for ; A =
Goals against ; GA |
= Goal average ; Pts =
Points
= = Player details = =
Source : Frost
= = Transfers = =
Source : Frost
= = = In = = =
= = = Out = = =
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= The Boat Race 1966 =
The 112th Boat Race took place on 26 March 1966 . Held annually , the event is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . The race was won by Oxford by three @-@ and @-@ three @-@ quarter @-@ lengths . Isis won the reserve race while Cambridge won the Women 's Boat Race .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . The race was first held in 1829 , and since 1845 has taken place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities , followed throughout the United Kingdom and broadcast worldwide . Oxford went into the race as reigning champions , having won the previous year 's race by three @-@ and @-@ three @-@ quarter lengths . Cambridge , however , held the overall lead with 61 victories to Oxford 's 49 ( excluding the " dead heat " of 1877 ) .
The first Women 's Boat Race took place in 1927 , but did not become an annual fixture until the 1960s . Up until 2014 , the contest was conducted as part of the Henley Boat Races , but as of the 2015 race , it is held on the River Thames , on the same day as the men 's main and reserve races . The reserve race , contested between Oxford 's Isis boat and Cambridge 's Goldie boat has been held since 1965 . It usually takes place on the Tideway , prior to the main Boat Race .
Two days before the main race and in inclement weather , the Cambridge boat began to sink and was pushed into barges and tugs moored below Beverley Brook . The crew were rescued and according to their boat club president Mike Sweeney , the incident would have no impact on the Light Blues : " we shall just get into our other boat and race in that " . It was the first Boat Race vessel to sink since the 1951 race . The Light Blues would row in the same boat in which they won the 1962 and 1964 races , while Oxford 's craft was manufactured by Swiss firm Stämpfli Racing Boats . Both boats were German @-@ rigged , where the number four and five row on the bow side . The inclement weather continued until the day of the race , with further disruption predicted and the threat of postponement a real one . The race was umpired by the former Cambridge University Boat Club president and rower Alan Burrough who took part in Cambridge 's victory in the 1939 race .
The Cambridge crew were coached by D. C. Christie ( who rowed for Cambridge in the 1958 and 1959 races ) , J. G. P. Crowden ( who won Blues in the 1951 and the 1952 races ) , D. M. Jennens ( who rowed three times between 1949 and 1951 ) and I. W. Welsh ( who participated in the 1956 race ) . Oxford 's coach was Ronnie Howard who had rowed for the Dark Blues in the 1957 and 1959 races .
= = Crews = =
The Cambridge crew weighed an average of 13 st 7 lb ( 85 @.@ 5 kg ) , 1 @.@ 6 pounds ( 0 @.@ 7 kg ) per rower more than their opponents . Oxonians Chris and Richard Freeman became the first brothers to row in the Boat Race since 1935 race . The Oxford crew contained a single former Blue , the boat club president and number two Duncan Clegg , while Cambridge saw Rodney Ward and stroke Mike Sweeeny return . Oxford 's P. G. Tuke was following in the footsteps of his great grandfather F. E. Tuke who had rowed in the 1845 race . There were three non @-@ British participants in the race , the Oxford cox Jim Rogers , and Cambridge rowers J. H. Ashby and P. H. Conze were all American .
= = Race = =
Oxford won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station . Despite the prediction of poor weather and the threat of postponement , the race commenced at the planned time of 4.15pm. Oxford made the better start and were half @-@ a @-@ length up on Cambridge , but with the advantage of the Middlesex bend , the Light Blues were one second behind at the Mile Post . Oxford reacted to a Cambridge push at Harrods Furniture Depository to maintain the lead which they extended to two seconds by Hammersmith Bridge . The Dark Blues continued to contain Cambridge 's attempts to reduce the deficit and by Chiswick Steps had clear water with a three @-@ second advantage . Pushing away once again , and with a two @-@ length lead , Oxford 's cox Jim Rogers steered them across the Cambridge boat to the Middlesex side , and were ten seconds ahead at Barnes Bridge . Oxford won by three @-@ and @-@ three @-@ quarter lengths in a time of 19 minutes 12 seconds .
In the reserve race , and after a false start , Oxford 's Isis beat Cambridge 's Goldie by seventh lengths , their second consecutive victory , in a time of 19 minutes 22 seconds . In the 21st running of the Women 's Boat Race , Cambridge triumphed , their fourth consecutive victory .
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= SM U @-@ 12 ( Austria @-@ Hungary ) =
SM U @-@ 12 or U @-@ XII was a U @-@ 5 @-@ class submarine or U @-@ boat built for and operated by the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy ( German : Kaiserliche und Königliche Kriegsmarine or K.u.K. Kriegsmarine ) before and during the First World War .
= = Introduction = =
Built on speculation by Whitehead & Co. of Fiume , the submarine was launched as SS @-@ 3 and featured improvements in the electrical and mechanical systems from the design by the American John Philip Holland , to which her older sister boats , SM U @-@ 5 and U @-@ 6 , had been built .
SS @-@ 3 was laid down in 1909 and launched in March 1911 . The double @-@ hulled submarine was just over 105 feet ( 32 m ) long and displaced between 240 and 273 tonnes ( 265 and 301 short tons ) , depending on whether surfaced or submerged . Whitehead 's tried selling SS @-@ 3 to several different navies , but she was finally bought by the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy after the outbreak of World War I , despite having been rejected by them twice before . She was commissioned as U @-@ 12 in August 1914 .
The submarine sank only one ship , a Greek cargo ship in May 1915 , but she had earlier captured six Montenegrin sailing vessels as prizes in March . U @-@ 12 also damaged , but did not sink , the French battleship Jean Bart in December 1914 . While searching for targets in the vicinity of Venice in August 1915 , U @-@ 12 struck a mine that blew her stern off , and sank with all hands , becoming the first Austro @-@ Hungarian submarine sunk in the war . Her wreck was salvaged the next year by the Italians , who interred U @-@ 12 's crewmen in a Venetian cemetery .
= = Design and construction = =
SS @-@ 3 was built on speculation by Whitehead & Co. of Fiume . Her design was based on the John Philip Holland design licensed by Whitehead for U @-@ 5 and U @-@ 6 , two submarines ordered by the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy and built 1907 – 1910 , and featured improvements in the mechanical and electrical systems . SS @-@ 3 was laid down in 1909 and launched at Fiume on 14 March 1911 .
SS @-@ 3 's featured a single @-@ hull with a tear @-@ drop shaped body that bore a strong resemblance to modern nuclear submarines . She was 105 feet 4 inches ( 32 @.@ 11 m ) long by 13 feet 9 inches ( 4 @.@ 19 m ) abeam and had a draft of 12 feet 10 inches ( 3 @.@ 91 m ) . She displaced 240 tonnes ( 260 short tons ) surfaced , and 273 tonnes ( 301 short tons ) submerged . Her two 45 @-@ centimeter ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) bow torpedo tubes featured unique , cloverleaf @-@ shaped design hatches that rotated on a central axis , and the boat was designed to carry up to four torpedoes .
According to one source , SS @-@ 3 was initially propelled by a pair of electric motors for surface running , but had them replaced with twin 6 @-@ cylinder gasoline engines of 300 brake horsepower ( 220 kW ) each when they proved disappointing during trials . It is not specifically reported for U @-@ 12 , but the other U @-@ 5 @-@ class boats both suffered from inadequate ventilation , which resulted in frequent intoxication of the crew from the engine exhaust . SS @-@ 3 's underwater propulsion was by two electric motors that totaled 230 shaft horsepower ( 170 kW ) .
= = Career = =
After SS @-@ 3 's March 1911 launch , Whitehead 's tried to sell SS @-@ 3 to the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy , but because the evaluation of the first two U @-@ 5 @-@ class boats was still underway , they declined to purchase . Over the next three years Whitehead 's attempted to sell the boat to the navies of Peru , Portugal , the Netherlands , Brazil , and Bulgaria , before the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy rejected an offer for the second time . With the outbreak of war , however , the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy purchased the unsold submarine to quickly bolster its fleet . Although provisionally assigned the designation U @-@ 7 , the submarine was commissioned as SM U @-@ 12 on 21 August 1914 , with Linienschiffsleutnant Egon Lerch in command . U @-@ 12 's activities over the early part of the war are not reported , but the boat 's armament was augmented by a 3 @.@ 7 cm / 23 ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) quick @-@ firing ( QF ) deck gun in November 1914 . Sister boat U @-@ 5 had her first radio receiver installed at the same time her deck gun was added , but it is not reported whether U @-@ 12 did as well .
On 21 December 1914 , Lerch and U @-@ 12 chanced upon the French dreadnought Jean Bart in the Straits of Otranto steaming at a leisurely 9 knots ( 17 km / h ) and unprotected by escort ships . U @-@ 12 hit French Admiral Lapeyrère 's flagship with a single torpedo in the bow , destroying the battleship 's wine storeroom but sparing her forward magazine . Jean Bart 's watertight compartments saved the ship , which made her way to Malta to undergo repairs at the British dockyards there .
U @-@ 12 survived an attack from an unknown French Brumaire @-@ class submarine on 27 February 1915 . U @-@ 12 's next success was the capture of two Montenegrin schooners on 22 March 1916 , Fiore Di Dulcigno and Hilussie . Nine days later the U @-@ boat captured another four Montenegrin boats , Buona Forte , Fiore I , Hailie , and Indaverdi . On 29 May , she sank the Greek steamer Virginia , which was the only ship reported sunk by U @-@ 12 . In June , U @-@ 12 underwent a refit that added an additional two torpedo tubes on her forward casing .
In early August , Lerch and U @-@ 12 set out from Pola for Venice to look for enemy ships to sink . On 6 August , the Italian destroyer Rosolino Pilo rammed U @-@ 12 , probably by chance , at about 05 : 00 in the Lido inlet of the Venetian Lagoon . Two days later , when Italian workers were dredging to try to determine the object Rosolino Pilo had hit , they heard a heavy explosion . When divers went down in the area , they discovered the wreck of U @-@ 12 with her stern blown off . U @-@ 12 's entire complement of 17 men was lost when she went down . U @-@ 12 was the first Austro @-@ Hungarian submarine sunk during the war .
In late 1916 , the Italians salvaged the hulk of U @-@ 12 and transported it to Venice . The bodies of U @-@ 12 's crew were interred at the San Michele cemetery in Venice , and U @-@ 12 's hulk , of no salvage value , was scrapped at the Venice naval arsenal . In her military service , U @-@ 12 sank one ship of 1 @,@ 065 GRT , damaged one warship ( 22 @,@ 189 GRT ) , and captured six ships as prizes .
= = Gallery = =
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= Hudson Valley Rail Trail =
The Hudson Valley Rail Trail is a paved 4 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) east – west rail trail in the town of Lloyd in Ulster County , New York , stretching from the Hudson River through the hamlet of Highland . The trail was originally part of the Poughkeepsie Bridge Route , a rail corridor that crossed the Hudson via the Poughkeepsie Bridge . Controlled by a variety of railroads throughout the 19th and 20th centuries , the bridge was damaged and became unusable after a 1974 fire . By the 1980s the corridor 's then @-@ owner , Conrail , had routed all rail traffic in the region north through Selkirk , and was eager to relieve itself of the bridge and adjoining rights @-@ of @-@ way . In 1984 , it sold the entire property for one dollar to a felon who did not maintain it or pay taxes on it . The section of the corridor west of the Hudson was seized by Ulster County in 1991 and transferred to the town of Lloyd .
During the 1990s , a broadband utility seeking to lay fiber optic cable paid the town to pass through the former corridor . The town used part of its payment to pave the route and open it as a public rail trail in 1997 . The creation of the trail was supported by a local Rotary club , which built a pavilion along the trail . The pavilion includes a donated antique caboose . While the trail originally ended at Route 44 – 55 , it was extended eastward between 2009 and 2010 , intersecting Route 9W and continuing to the Poughkeepsie Bridge . The extension was paid for by stimulus funding .
The bridge , now a pedestrian walkway called Walkway Over the Hudson , connects the trail with the Dutchess Rail Trail to the east , creating a 30 @-@ mile ( 48 km ) rail trail system that spans the Hudson . The trail is expected to be extended west , where it will border Route 299 . As it passes through Highland , the trail is carried by several bridges , connects to four parking areas , and traverses a wetlands complex .
= = History = =
= = = Declining rail usage = = =
The Hudson Valley Rail Trail is part of the former rail corridor that comprised the Poughkeepsie Bridge Route . It ran east through the hamlet of Highland in the town of Lloyd over the Hudson River via the Poughkeepsie Bridge . Highland has historically been Lloyd 's largest population center . The corridor was , throughout its history , operated by the Central New England , Philadelphia and Reading , New Haven , Erie , Ontario and Western , Lehigh and New England and Penn Central railroads . Under the ownership of Penn Central , traffic along the bridge route was discouraged in favor of a northern route through Selkirk ; the use of newer technology at Selkirk Yard to improve efficiency was cited as the primary reason . At one point the Poughkeepsie corridor had been the primary thoroughfare for freight being shipped to New England , and the New Haven yard at nearby Maybrook was once " the largest railroad yard east of the Mississippi River " . Rail traffic over the Poughkeepsie Bridge stopped entirely after the bridge was damaged in a 1974 fire .
After Penn Central went bankrupt , Conrail assumed control of the corridor , but opposed renovating it due to budgetary concerns . Rail traffic up to the bridge continued until March 1982 , when Conrail received permission from the Interstate Commerce Commission to completely cease using the corridor ; the tracks were removed the following year . Donald L. Pevsner , a transportation lawyer from Florida , secured a first @-@ refusal option for purchasing the corridor to create restaurants and tourist attractions , but allowed it to expire on November 1 , 1984 , because he could not secure financial backing ; he claims that Conrail expressed a desire to sell the corridor , at that point a potential liability , to the " first warm body " that would buy it . Conrail immediately sold the Poughkeepsie Bridge and adjoining rights @-@ of @-@ way on November 2 , 1984 , for one dollar to Gordon Schreiber Miller , a convicted bank fraudster who " seemed uncertain what he wished to do " with the corridor . Miller did not pay taxes , fines or insurance on the corridor , or maintain it . He went bankrupt in 1990 and sold the corridor for one dollar to his friend Vito Moreno , who also did not pay taxes on it . In 1991 , Ulster County seized the right @-@ of @-@ way west of the Poughkeepsie Bridge and gave over 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) of the abandoned corridor to the town of Lloyd .
= = = Conversion to trail = = =
Parcels of the right @-@ of @-@ way between Lloyd and the neighboring town of New Paltz were sold off by the county shortly before ownership of the remaining corridor was transferred to Lloyd and converted to a rail trail . Roughly $ 400 @,@ 000 in funding to convert the corridor to a trail was acquired through an easement from the town of Lloyd to a broadband utility for the laying of fiber optic cable , though only $ 70 @,@ 000 was needed to pave the trail . The trail remains a right @-@ of @-@ way for the fiber optic line . The development of the trail was supported by Highland 's Rotary club , which has since built several utilities for trail users , including a pavilion , garden and parking lot . The corridor was officially opened as a trail in 1997 . Initially 2 @.@ 5 to 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 0 to 4 @.@ 8 km ) long , it stretched from Riverside Road in the west to Vineyard Avenue in the east ; the removal of an overpass on Vineyard Avenue , as well as a blockage under a bridge on U.S. Route 9W , prevented the trail from continuing east to the Poughkeepsie Bridge .
Lloyd received a $ 224 @,@ 000 state and federal grant in the summer of 2000 to create such a connection . Additional funding for the eastern extension was provided in November 2006 , when the state granted $ 1 @.@ 5 million to construct a bridge and a tunnel , and to complete the path . Lloyd received a $ 7 @,@ 500 grant in 2002 to extend the trail west to the Black Creek Wetlands Complex ; the town received an additional grant for $ 20 @,@ 000 in May 2005 to complete the Black Creek extension .
In 2006 , a local businessman donated an antique caboose to the trail Association ; this was placed beside the pavilion . Built in 1915 , it was " one of ... the first cabooses made of steel instead of wood " . An October 2007 study of paint chips from the caboose found the paint contained lead . The study was released less than a week before a town supervisor election in Lloyd ; one of the candidates , Ray Costantino , was president of the Hudson Valley Rail Trail Association , and one of the early proponents of the trail . He claimed the timing of the study was politically motivated . Costantino subsequently became town supervisor , and the caboose had its paint replaced and was repaired at a total cost of $ 4 @,@ 500 . A second caboose , dating from 1926 , is located at the trail 's parking lot on Haviland Road .
Lloyd 's police department became the first in the county to purchase a Segway , in 2007 , for the express purpose of patrolling the rail trail . The trail has been occasionally vandalized . Lloyd 's Police Chief felt that use of such a vehicle would enable officers to patrol the trail for longer periods of time , and that it could also be used to patrol other areas of the town . Seven officers were expected to use the Segway , which contains an automated external defibrillator , and can go as fast as 12 1 ⁄ 2 miles per hour ( 20 @.@ 1 km / h ) .
In March 2009 , Ulster County received almost $ 21 million in stimulus funds . The funding included a $ 3 @.@ 16 million project to complete the trail between Lloyd and the Poughkeepsie Bridge . Some funding for the architectural and engineering aspects of the project came from the reserve fund created after the town 's fiber optic deal . The Rail Trail Association also received a $ 1 @,@ 500 grant from a public @-@ benefit corporation , the Hudson River Valley Greenway , to print brochures . Construction for the 1 @.@ 28 @-@ mile ( 2 @.@ 06 km ) section was underway by that September . In March 2010 , a portion of New Paltz Road was closed pending the replacement of a bridge over the trail .
The official groundbreaking ceremony took place on May 4 , 2010 , and the trail was expected to be completed by October . The bridge over Vineyard Avenue was opened to pedestrian traffic on July 16 , 2010 . The only remaining obstruction was the placement of a bridge carrying Mile Hill Road over the trail , which was expected to be completed in August . The crossing at US 9W had been remedied ; the new section let " users to cross either over or under " the highway . To celebrate the opening of the Vineyard Avenue bridge , Route 44 – 55 throughout Highland ( which includes Vineyard Avenue ) was shut down for the day . The eastern expansion does not deviate from the original route of the corridor , and officially opened on October 2 , 2010 .
Between June 23 and 24 , 2011 , parts of the trail were spray @-@ painted with " dozens of [ ... ] words and images " . Volunteers who removed some of the graffiti believed that different types of paint were used . Lloyd 's highway superintendent noted similar vandalism elsewhere in the town , and Town Supervisor Ray Costantino stated that the incident would cause Lloyd residents to feel a personal connection to the trail and become outraged .
Future expansion to the trail includes a 1 @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) extension to the west , to State Route 299 . Lloyd has received a $ 1 @.@ 93 million state grant to complete the western expansion , which will reach New Paltz by 2012 . Both Lloyd and New Paltz have received grants to establish a connection between the Hudson Valley Rail Trail and the Wallkill Valley Rail Trail . There has never been a direct link between the Poughkeepsie Bridge and the Wallkill Valley corridor . Other plans include the development of commercial zones along the trail , and a project to connect the trail to Illinois Mountain .
= = Route = =
The east – west trail begins at the Poughkeepsie Bridge , by Haviland Road . The 1 @.@ 28 @-@ mile ( 2 @.@ 06 km ) Poughkeepsie Bridge was opened as a pedestrian walkway in 2009 . The bridge is a National Recreation Trail , and connects to the Dutchess Rail Trail to the east , creating a contiguous 18 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 29 @.@ 3 km ) rail trail system that spans both Ulster and Dutchess counties .
The Hudson Valley trail continues 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) west from the Poughkeepsie Bridge to a bridge over Mile Hill Road , then another 0 @.@ 1 miles ( 0 @.@ 16 km ) to a crossing at US 9W . At the 1 @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) mark , the trail reaches a bridge over Vineyard Avenue . About 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) from the bridge , the trail crosses under New Paltz Road . Almost 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) from this road , the trail reaches the Black Creek Wetlands Complex . Black Creek is one of the two " principal streams " to run through Lloyd ; it bisects the town as it flows north and pools in a pond . The wetlands complex itself is important for water drainage . Part of New York State Department of Environmental Conservation region 3 , the complex contains Plutarch Swamp and one of the region 's largest dwarf shrub bogs , hosting a variety of rare species . The complex also includes the Swarte Kill , Lloyd 's second major waterway . The trail continues an additional 0 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) past the beginning of the complex to Tony Williams Park .
There are four parking areas along the trail , by Haviland Road , Commercial Avenue , the Rotary pavilion , and at Tony Williams Park . The trail is 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) wide and 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) long ; it is paved with asphalt and suitable for hiking , bicycling , horseback riding , roller blading , and cross country skiing .
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= Modesta Avila =
Modesta Ávila ( 1867 or 1869 – September 1891 ) was a protestor in Orange County , California who became the county 's first convicted felon and first state prisoner . Avila had only received a minor warning in 1889 for placing an obstruction on the tracks to protest against the Santa Fe Railroad being built through her property without adequate compensation , but she continued to taunt the authorities , and was eventually arrested four months later .
Although the jury in her first trial was unable to reach agreement , Avila was convicted after a second trial at Orange County Supreme Court and was sentenced to three years in San Quentin State Prison . She died there of pneumonia in September 1891 after serving two years and seven months of her sentence . Today Avila is considered to be a folk heroine of Latino people of the county , and is suggested as the " White Lady " , a ghost said to haunt the area , reported to have been seen walking along the railroad tracks since the 1930s .
= = Background = =
Avila was born in 1867 , or 1869 according to some sources , in San Juan Capistrano , in Orange County , California , located approximately 23 miles ( 37 km ) southeast of Downtown Santa Ana . Little is known about her childhood and earlier life , but by the age of 20 she had inherited land from her mother just to the north of the Capistrano train station and was occupied in chicken rearing . Physically Avila was described as a " dark @-@ eyed beauty " in appearance and an " extremely proud woman " . The authorities would have considered her a Mexican even though she had been born in San Juan Capistrano and was technically a Mexican @-@ American or Chicana ; Mexicans were unpopular in the county at the time and subject to racism . She had spent 30 days in Los Angeles County Jail in 1888 for " vagrancy " ( often a euphemism for prostitution ) and this , coupled with the fact that she was reportedly unmarried and pregnant at the time of her second trial , led to a belief that she supplemented her income by working as a prostitute . The obituary in the Santa Ana Standard following her death in September 1891 seemed to add weight to this by referring to her as " a well @-@ known favorite of the Santa Ana boys " .
= = Protest = =
Avila was upset by the construction of the Santa Fe Railroad through her family 's land and only 15 feet away from her home , believing that she had not been properly compensated for the railway which was having a negative impact on her chicken rearing and her quality of life because of the noise . In 1889 , she decided to protest against the railroad 's incursion into her life and property . Local sources say she tied a clothesline hung with her laundry across the track , but other reports say she placed a railroad tie across the tracks and erected a fence post between the rails to which she attached a note of protest that read : " This land belongs to me . And if the railroad wants to run here , they will have to pay me ten thousand dollars " . Max Mendelson , the Southern Pacific 's agent in San Juan Capistrano , reported that he had removed the post , informed Avila that the Southern Pacific were perfectly within their rights in the building of the railroad , and ordered her not to interfere again .
There is some doubt over what occurred between Avila and Mendelson . Avila seemed to believe that she would be compensated , and is even documented to have traveled to a bank in Santa Ana to ask how she might receive a $ 10 @,@ 000 payment and organized a party in celebration of her expected payment . She was arrested at the party for disturbing the peace , and annoyed the authorities by boasting at her trial of her victory over the railroad company and government . According to historian Lisbeth Haas in the book Conquests and Historical Identities in California , 1769 – 1936 , it was her actions after her initial protest rather than the act itself which led to her arrest four months later for " attempted obstruction of a train " , and that she was made an example of to demonstrate that protests would be punished under the new state legal system .
= = Prosecution and imprisonment = =
The first trial of Avila for interfering with the tracks was held at the then newly opened Orange County Superior Court under Edward Eugenes , a " hot shot " legal figure who was also in the state assembly . The first trial ended with a 6 @-@ 6 hung jury . In the week leading up to the retrial , rumors spread that Avila was pregnant out of wedlock , an act considered to be gravely sinful at the time . Her lawyer , George Hayford , " inexperienced and probably crooked " , was forced to confirm that she was pregnant and believed that the real decision to incarcerate her for three years in San Quentin State Prison was largely due to this , writing that " her real crime is that she is a poor girl not having sense enough to have been married " . Hayford appealed to the court on grounds that she had been " convicted on her reputation , not her deed " . He received a hearing at the Supreme Court , but lost the case on a technicality . Avila 's case was perhaps also used as the " vehicle for polishing Orange County ’ s law @-@ and @-@ order image " , as she was the first person to be convicted of a felony in the county . Avila 's boyfriend at the time was fired from his job for refusing to distance himself from her .
If she was pregnant , what became of her baby is unknown : no mention of it appears in the penitentiary 's records . Avila died there of pneumonia in September 1891 at the age of 22 or 24 after serving two years and five months of her sentence . Her obituary in the Santa Ana Standard concluded : " Let those who are without sin throw the first stone " .
= = Legacy = =
Today , Avila is considered to be an important figure in local legend and has been cited as a " folklore heroine " for Latinos in the county . The San Juan Capistrano Historical Society unveiled a plaque in the town commemorating her and her place in history . Mary P. Nolan , executive director of the Central Orange County YWCA , included Avila among 30 prominent " women of courage " in Orange County 's history .
As part of the celebrations for the centenary of the building of the Santa Fe railroad in August 1988 , a re @-@ enactment of her protest was performed near the railway station by a local woman , Irma Camarena , and actors playing Mendelson and a sheriff . City manager Steve Julian narrated : " Modesta hated the train . It was noisy , dirty and a bit frightening . It kept her chickens from laying eggs , and its whistle kept her awake at night . Plus , the powerful California Central , parent company to the Santa Fe , had paid a pittance to people for right of way through their property . Something had to be done . In an act of pure frustration , Modesta chose a symbolic act to voice her displeasure . "
Numerous writers on Latino oppression and history in the United States cite Avila as one of many Mexican @-@ Americans victimized during this period . Suzanne Oboler , Professor of Latin American Studies at the City University of New York , for instance , considers the imprisonment of Avila and others such as Jimmy Santiago Baca , Ricardo Sánchez , Raúl Salinas , Fred Gómez Carrasco , Judy Lucero and Alvaro Luna Hernandez to be " inextricably linked to colonial domination and the subsequent struggle for material resources in the southwestern United States " . An opera entitled Modesta Avila : An American Folk Opera written by an Orange County biomedical engineer was performed in Westminster in 1986 but was dismissed as " neo @-@ imperialist nostalgia " by B. V. Olguín in La Pinta : Chicana / o Prisoner Literature , Culture , and Politics . The Modesta Avila Coalition , an activist group in the Los Angeles area involved with fighting against firms who transport goods to and from rail yards , named themselves after her in 2005 .
Avila is suggested as a possible identity for the ghost , known as the " White Lady " , which has reputedly been seen in San Juan Capistrano 's Los Rios Street Historic District . The ghost was first reported walking on the railway tracks in the 1930s , along the stretch that Avila had walked .
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= Interstate 235 ( Iowa ) =
Interstate 235 ( I @-@ 235 ) in Iowa is an auxiliary Interstate Highway that runs just north of downtown Des Moines through the heart of the Des Moines metropolitan area . I @-@ 235 runs from the junction of Interstate 35 and Interstate 80 in West Des Moines to the separation of the same two interstates in Ankeny . The highway is approximately 14 miles ( 23 km ) long .
I @-@ 235 , which had seen little improvement since its construction in the 1960s , was completely rebuilt and widened in a project that spanned most of the 2000s . Prior to the reconstruction , I @-@ 235 had two lanes in each direction with a third lane near downtown ; the entire route now has at least three lanes of traffic in each direction , with an additional one or two lanes closer to the heart of the city . The modernized freeway now handles on average between 75 @,@ 000 – 125 @,@ 000 vehicles per day , making it the busiest highway in the state of Iowa .
= = Route description = =
Interstate 235 begins at the western intersection of Interstate 35 and Interstate 80 , known locally as the West Mixmaster . Here , eastbound I @-@ 80 exits the highway , which becomes I @-@ 235 and joins northbound I @-@ 35 . From the West Mixmaster , I @-@ 235 heads east . Almost immediately is a half @-@ diamond interchange with 50th Street in West Des Moines . One mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) later is a partial @-@ cloverleaf interchange with Valley West Drive , which was renamed from 35th Street in 1988 due to its proximity to Valley West Mall and Valley High School .
At Windsor Heights at a tight partial @-@ cloverleaf interchange I @-@ 235 meets 73rd Street / 8th Street . The interchange is particularly tight because of an Iowa Interstate Railroad line just to the east . 73rd Street / 8th Street is actually a single road : north of I @-@ 235 , 73rd Street follows the Des Moines street numbering plan , while south of I @-@ 235 , 8th Street follows the older street numbering plan of West Des Moines .
At the 63rd Street interchange , I @-@ 235 picks up a fourth lane of eastbound travel and drops a lane westbound . Now within the city limits of Des Moines , it passes the through the heavily wooded Waterbury neighborhood . Near the 42nd Street interchange , I @-@ 235 curves to the south around Theodore Roosevelt High School . One half @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) later is an interchange with 31st Street , which provides access to Drake University to the north , and to Terrace Hill , the governor 's mansion , to the south .
East of 31st Street , I @-@ 235 briefly picks up a fifth lane and drops a lane westbound , creating a 10 @-@ lane freeway just west of downtown . This stretch of freeway receives , on average , over 125 @,@ 000 vehicles per day , making it the busiest stretch of road in the state .
There are three eastbound interchanges connecting I @-@ 235 to downtown Des Moines . Martin Luther King Jr . Parkway and 19th Street , a pair of one @-@ way streets , lead traffic to the west of downtown . Keosauqua Way , known locally as Keo Way , enters downtown from the northwest . These interchanges are combined westbound . Closer to the Des Moines River , a combined interchange in each direction filters off the rest of downtown traffic to two destinations : Seventh Street and Sixth Avenue , and Third Street and Second Avenue , each of which are pairs of one @-@ way streets . The fourth lane of traffic drops off at this combined interchange .
At the Des Moines River , I @-@ 235 passes Wells Fargo Arena , the main Iowa Events Center destination , on the western shore and the Des Moines Botanical Center on the eastern shore . On the eastern side of Des Moines , it passes the East Village , the Iowa State Capitol , and East High School before the interchange with U.S. Route 69 . One mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) east is an interchange with East University Avenue , which , up to now had been relatively parallel to I @-@ 235 . East University provides access to the Iowa State Fairgrounds for northbound I @-@ 35 and eastbound I @-@ 80 traffic .
At University Avenue , I @-@ 235 begins curving to the north , dividing an industrial district to the west and residential areas to the east . 1 1 ⁄ 2 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) to the north , it intersects East Euclid Avenue at a partial @-@ cloverleaf interchange . It continues north for another 1 1 ⁄ 2 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) until it meets Interstate 35 and Interstate 80 again at the East Mixmaster .
= = History = =
The first section of Interstate 235 to open , from Cottage Grove Avenue to Keo Way , opened on December 14 , 1961 . Over the next seven years , sections of I @-@ 235 opened , spreading east and west toward the mixmasters until it was completed on October 30 , 1968 .
In October 1963 , the Des Moines city council designated I @-@ 235 the John MacVicar Freeway in honor of two former mayors of Des Moines : John MacVicar , Sr. , ( 1896 – 1900 , 1916 – 1918 , 1928 ) and John MacVicar , Jr . , ( 1942 – 1948 ) . However , this name is seldom used ; most people simply refer to it as I @-@ 235 .
In March 2002 , a six @-@ year @-@ long project to completely rebuild I @-@ 235 and the bridges which cross it began . The first two years consisted of rebuilding most of the bridges which cross it , starting with 42nd Street in West Des Moines . The final four years of the project entailed finishing the remaining bridges , widening , regrading , and repaving the entire length of the highway .
= = = Pedestrian bridges = = =
An additional part of the highway improvement plan were three pedestrian bridges , located at 6th , 40th and 44th Streets . The three bridges were replacements for bridges which were too narrow to accommodate the newly widened highway . These highly visible bridges act as icons , locating the neighborhoods for travelers along the freeway . The design of the I @-@ 235 pedestrian bridges was completed by Boston @-@ based bridge designer Miguel Rosales in collaboration with HNTB Engineering . The three bridges , the Edna M. Griffin Memorial Bridge ( 6th Street ) , the 40th Street Pedestrian Bridge , and the Rider Way Pedestrian Bridge ( 44th Street ) were each completed by 2005 .
The new design utilizes basket @-@ handle steel arches with clear spans of approximately 230 feet ( 70 m ) . Inclined cables connect the steel blue arches to the pre @-@ stressed concrete deck . By selecting a tied arch form , the Iowa Department of Transportation was able to keep disruption of traffic to a minimum during construction . An innovative curved screen system is used to enhance security and the appearance of the structure creating a visually appealing experience for pedestrians and bicyclists using the bridge . The resulting series of bridges has created a distinctive form that is unique to the city and the state . The city of Des Moines recently relit the bridges with LED lighting .
= = Exit list = =
The entire route is in Polk County .
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= Church of St Nicholas , Sapareva Banya =
The Church of St Nicholas ( Bulgarian : църква „ Свети Никола “ , tsarkva „ Sveti Nikola “ ) is a small medieval Eastern Orthodox church in the southwestern Bulgarian town of Sapareva Banya , which is part of Kyustendil Province . Originally either the property of a local notable or attached to a larger church , it was constructed anytime from the 11th to the 14th century .
The church was built using red bricks and white mortar . Architecturally , it is of a simple Byzantine cross @-@ in @-@ square design , with a single nave and apse . The frescoes in the interior are only scarcely preserved . It was reconstructed in 1937 after falling into ruin , and it was listed as a monument of culture of national importance in 1968 .
= = History = =
Scholars disagree on the possible period of the church 's construction ; assessments range from the 11th – 12th , through the 12th – 13th , to the 13th – 14th century . In an article in the Bulgarian Church Review magazine from 1898 , the local priest Mihal Popov was cited as saying that a stone from the church altar was unearthed during excavations . The priest believed that the stone , which reportedly had the date 1160 inscribed on it , was sent to the National Archaeological Museum in the capital Sofia .
Due to its diminutive size , the Church of St Nicholas was probably not constructed as an independent church . A legend links the church to the name of an unidentified local feudal lord named Nikola ( Nicholas ) as his final resting place , though archaeologist Nikola Mavrodinov considers it more likely that it was possibly a chapel or a cemetery church attached to a larger place of worship . The larger church was perhaps pulled down during the early Ottoman rule of Bulgaria ( post @-@ 14th century ) . While the Church of St Nicholas was not destroyed , its renovation was prohibited by the Ottomans , thus it gradually fell into ruin .
In his 1931 study , Mavrodinov also writes that at the time , the church lacked a roof . He references a story about a group of Circassians that were settled in Sapareva Banya on the order of the Ottoman authorities after the Crimean War ( 1853 – 1856 ) . According to that story , the Circassians sought to pull down the church 's roof . However , one of them fell to his death inside the church , so they fled in horror . The church was thoroughly reconstructed in 1937 by a team under architect Rashenov .
= = Architecture = =
The Church of St Nicholas lies in the centre of Sapareva Banya . Its architecture is rather simple , with a single nave , a single apse and no narthex present . The church follows the Byzantine cross @-@ in @-@ square design , with unusually short arms of equal size . The dome has twelve sides and is of no particular height , though it is rather large for the church 's size . The apse is situated on the church 's eastern side ; its shape is semicircular and it features a window . The entrance is located on the west wall .
The church was constructed out of rows of red bricks stuck together with white mortar . According to scholar Bistra Nikolova , its size is 7 @.@ 20 by 5 @.@ 50 metres ( 23 @.@ 6 ft × 18 @.@ 0 ft ) , while another source measures it as 6 @.@ 60 m × 5 @.@ 40 m ( 21 @.@ 7 ft × 17 @.@ 7 ft ) . Either way , it is square in appearance . In height , it probably reached 6 @.@ 60 m ( 21 @.@ 7 ft ) at the dome and 4 @.@ 20 m ( 13 @.@ 8 ft ) at the cornice .
In terms of design and decoration , Mavrodinov likens the church to the Church of St Pantaleon in Gorno Nerezi near Skopje , today in the Republic of Macedonia . It is also compared to the Church of St Theodore in nearby Boboshevo . The Church of St Nicholas features a multitude of two @-@ stepped vaults on its outside walls . The interior was originally entirely covered with frescoes , though only fragments survive . It was enlisted as a monument of culture of national importance in 1968 , with a publication in Bulgaria 's newspaper of record , the State Gazette , issue 77 .
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= SMS Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm =
SMS Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm ( " His Majesty 's Ship Elector Friedrich Wilhelm " ) was one of the first ocean @-@ going battleships of the Imperial German Navy . The ship was named for Prince @-@ elector ( Kurfürst ) Friedrich Wilhelm , 17th @-@ century Duke of Prussia and Margrave of Brandenburg . She was the fourth pre @-@ dreadnought of the Brandenburg class , along with her sister ships Brandenburg , Weissenburg , and Wörth . She was laid down in 1890 in the Imperial Dockyard in Wilhelmshaven , launched in 1891 , and completed in 1893 at a cost of 11 @.@ 23 million marks . The Brandenburg @-@ class battleships carried six large @-@ caliber guns in three twin turrets , as opposed to four guns in two turrets , as was the standard in other navies .
Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm served as the flagship of the Imperial fleet from her commissioning in 1894 until 1900 . She saw limited active duty during her service career with the German fleet due to the relatively peaceful nature of the late 19th and early 20th centuries . As a result , her career focused on training exercises and goodwill visits to foreign ports . These training maneuvers were nevertheless very important to developing German naval tactical doctrine in the two decades before World War I , especially under the direction of Alfred von Tirpitz . She , along with her three sisters , saw only one major overseas deployment , to China in 1900 – 01 , during the Boxer Rebellion . The ship underwent a major modernization in 1904 – 05 .
In 1910 , Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm was sold to the Ottoman Empire and renamed Barbaros Hayreddin . She saw heavy service during the Balkan Wars , primarily providing artillery support to Ottoman ground forces in Thrace . She also took part in two naval engagements with the Greek Navy — the Battle of Elli in December 1912 , and the Battle of Lemnos the following month . Both battles were defeats for the Ottoman Navy . In a state of severe disrepair , the old battleship was partially disarmed after the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers early in World War I. On 8 August 1915 the ship was torpedoed and sunk off the Dardanelles by the British submarine HMS E11 with heavy loss of life .
= = Description = =
Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm was 115 @.@ 7 meters ( 379 ft 7 in ) long overall , had a beam of 19 @.@ 5 m ( 64 ft 0 in ) which was increased to 19 @.@ 74 m ( 64 ft 9 in ) with the addition of torpedo nets , and had a draft of 7 @.@ 6 m ( 24 ft 11 in ) forward and 7 @.@ 9 m ( 25 ft 11 in ) aft . The ship displaced 10 @,@ 013 metric tons ( 9 @,@ 855 long tons ) at its designed weight , and up to 10 @,@ 670 t ( 10 @,@ 500 long tons ) at full combat load . She was equipped with two sets of 3 @-@ cylinder triple @-@ expansion engines that provided 9 @,@ 553 ihp ( 7 @,@ 124 kW ) and had a top speed of 16 @.@ 9 knots ( 31 @.@ 3 km / h ; 19 @.@ 4 mph ) . Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm had a cruising range of 4 @,@ 300 nautical miles ( 8 @,@ 000 km ; 4 @,@ 900 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . Her crew numbered 38 officers and 530 enlisted men .
The ship was unusual for her time in that she possessed a broadside of six heavy guns in three twin gun turrets , rather than the four guns typical of contemporary battleships . The forward and aft turrets carried 28 @-@ centimeter ( 11 in ) K L / 40 guns , and the center turret was armed with shorter L / 35 guns . Her secondary armament consisted of eight 10 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) SK L / 35 and eight 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) SK L / 30 quick @-@ firing guns mounted in casemates . Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm 's armament suite was rounded out with six 45 cm ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes , all in above @-@ water swivel mounts . Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm was protected with nickel @-@ steel Krupp armor , a new type of stronger steel . Her main belt armor was 400 millimeters ( 15 @.@ 7 in ) thick in the central section that protected the ammunition magazines and machinery spaces . The deck was 60 mm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) thick . The main battery barbettes were protected with 300 mm ( 11 @.@ 8 in ) thick armor .
= = Service history = =
= = = In German service = = =
= = = = Construction to 1895 = = = =
Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm was the fourth and final ship of her class . She was ordered as battleship D , and was laid down at the Kaiserliche Werft ( Imperial Shipyard ) in Wilhelmshaven in 1890 . She was the first ship of the class to be launched , on 30 June 1891 . The ceremony was attended by Kaiser Wilhelm II and his wife , Augusta Victoria . She was commissioned into the German fleet on 29 April 1894 , the same day as her sister Brandenburg . While on sea trials , the ship suffered from several problems with her propulsion system . She was therefore decommissioned for repairs to the machinery , before being re @-@ commissioned on 1 November 1894 . Construction of Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm cost the German navy 11 @.@ 23 million marks . Upon her commissioning , Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm was assigned to the I Division of the I Battle Squadron alongside her three sisters . She replaced the ironclad Bayern as the Squadron flagship on 16 November , under the command of Vizeadmiral ( Vice Admiral ) Hans von Koester . Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm would remain the flagship for the next six years . The I Division was accompanied by the four older Sachsen @-@ class ironclads in the II Division , though by 1901 – 2 , the Sachsens were replaced by the new Kaiser Friedrich III @-@ class battleships . The ship was a training ground for later commanders in chief of the High Seas Fleet , including Admirals Reinhard Scheer and Franz von Hipper , who both served aboard the ship as navigation officers during 1897 and October 1898 to September 1899 , respectively .
After entering active service , Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm and the rest of the squadron attended ceremonies for the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal at Kiel on 3 December 1894 . The squadron thereafter began a winter training cruise in the Baltic Sea ; this was the first such cruise by the German fleet . In previous years , the bulk of the fleet was deactivated for the winter months . During this voyage , the I Division anchored in Stockholm from 7 to 11 December , during the 300th anniversary of the birth of Swedish king Gustavus Adolphus . King Oscar II held a reception for the visiting German delegation , which included Prince Heinrich , the younger brother of Wilhelm II and the commander of the battleship Wörth . Thereafter , further exercises were conducted in the Baltic before the ships had to put into their home ports for repairs . During this dockyard period , Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm had her funnels extended in height .
1895 began with what became the normal trips to Heligoland and then to Bremerhaven , with Wilhelm II on board . This was followed by individual ship and divisional training , which was interrupted by a voyage to the northern North Sea . On this trip , Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm was accompanied by her sister ship Brandenburg ; the two battleships stopped in Lerwick in Shetland from 16 to 23 March . This was the first time units of the main German fleet had left home waters . The purpose of the exercise was to test the ships in heavy weather ; both vessels performed admirably . In May , more fleet maneuvers were carried out in the western Baltic , and they were concluded by a visit of the fleet to Kirkwall in Orkney . The squadron returned to Kiel in early June , where preparations were under way for the opening of the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal . Tactical exercises were carried out in Kiel Bay in the presence of foreign delegations to the opening ceremony .
On 28 June , an explosion occurred on one of the ship 's pinnaces killing seven crewmen and badly injuring the future Vizeadmiral Wilhelm Starke . Further training exercises lasted until 1 July , when the I Division began a voyage into the Atlantic Ocean . This operation had political motives ; Germany had only been able to send a small contingent of vessels — the protected cruiser Kaiserin Augusta , the coastal defense ship Hagen , and the sailing frigate Stosch — to an international naval demonstration off the Moroccan coast at the same time . The main fleet could therefore provide moral support to the demonstration by steaming to Spanish waters . Rough weather again allowed Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm and her sister ships to demonstrate their excellent seakeeping . The fleet departed Vigo and stopped in Queenstown , Ireland . Wilhelm II , aboard his yacht Hohenzollern , attended the Cowes Regatta while the rest of the fleet stayed off the Isle of Wight .
On 10 August , the fleet returned to Wilhelmshaven and began preparations for the autumn maneuvers later that month . The first exercises began in the Heligoland Bight on 25 August . The fleet then steamed through the Skagerrak to the Baltic ; heavy storms caused significant damage to many of the ships and the torpedo boat S 41 capsized and sank in the storms — only three men were saved . The fleet stayed briefly in Kiel before resuming exercises , including live @-@ fire exercises , in the Kattegat and the Great Belt . The main maneuvers began on 7 September with a mock attack from Kiel toward the eastern Baltic . Subsequent maneuvers took place off the coast of Pomerania and in Danzig Bay . A fleet review for Wilhelm II off Jershöft concluded the maneuvers on 14 September . Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm went into drydock for periodic maintenance on 1 October . The ironclad Baden temporarily replaced her as flagship until the work was completed on 20 October . The rest of the year was spent on individual ship training , with the exception of a short trip to Gothenburg from 5 to 9 November . Only three other ships accompanied Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm on this visit : the ironclads Sachsen and Württemberg and the aviso Pfeil . On 9 December , the squadron commander shifted his flag to Württemberg while Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm went into drydock for an overhaul .
= = = = 1896 – 1900 = = = =
The year 1896 followed much the same pattern as the previous year . On 10 March 1896 , Koester once again raised his flag aboard Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm . Individual ship training was conducted though April , followed by squadron training in the North Sea in late April and early May . This included a visit to the Dutch ports of Vlissingen and Nieuwediep . Further maneuvers , which lasted from the end of May to the end of July , took the squadron further north in the North Sea , frequently into Norwegian waters . The ships visited Bergen from 11 to 18 May . During the maneuvers , Wilhelm II and the Chinese viceroy Li Hongzhang observed a fleet review off Kiel . On 9 August , the training fleet assembled in Wilhelmshaven for the annual autumn fleet training . Following the conclusion of the maneuvers , Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm again went into dock for maintenance , and while she was out of service , Koester transferred his flag to Sachsen from 16 September to 3 October . Koester again flew his flag aboard Sachsen from 15 December to 1 March 1897 .
Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm and the rest of the fleet operated under the normal routine of individual and unit training in the first half of 1897 . Early in the year , the naval command considered deploying the I Division , including Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm , to another naval demonstration off Morocco to protest the murder of two German nationals there , but a smaller squadron of sailing frigates was sent instead . The typical routine was interrupted in early August when Wilhelm II and Augusta went to visit the Russian imperial court at Kronstadt ; both divisions of the I Squadron were sent to accompany the Kaiser . They had returned to Neufahrwasser in Danzig on 15 August , where the rest of the fleet joined them for the annual autumn maneuvers . These exercises reflected the tactical thinking of the new State Secretary of the Reichsmarineamt ( RMA — Imperial Navy Office ) , Konteradmiral Alfred von Tirpitz , and the new commander of the I Squadron , Vizeadmiral August von Thomsen . These new tactics stressed accurate gunnery , especially at longer ranges , though the necessities of the line @-@ ahead formation led to a great deal of rigidity in the tactics . Thomsen 's emphasis on shooting created the basis for the excellent German gunnery during World War I. The maneuvers were completed by 22 September in Wilhelmshaven .
In early December , the I Division conducted maneuvers in the Kattegat and the Skagerrak , though they were cut short due to shortages in officers and men . The fleet followed the typical routine of individual and fleet training in 1898 without incident , though a voyage to the British Isles was also included . The fleet stopped in Queenstown , Greenock , and Kirkwall . The fleet assembled in Kiel on 14 August for the annual autumn exercises . The maneuvers included a mock blockade of the coast of Mecklenburg and a pitched battle with an " Eastern Fleet " in the Danzig Bay . While steaming back to Kiel , a severe storm hit the fleet , causing significant damage to many ships and sinking the torpedo boat S 58 . The fleet then transited the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal and continued the maneuvers in the North Sea . Training finished on 17 September in Wilhelmshaven . In December , the I Division conducted artillery and torpedo training in Eckernförde Bay , followed by divisional training in the Kattegat and Skagerrak . During these maneuvers , the division visited Kungsbacka , Sweden , from 9 to 13 December . After returning to Kiel , the ships of the I Division went into dock for their winter repairs .
On 5 April 1899 , the ship participated in the celebrations commemorating the 50th anniversary of the Battle of Eckernförde during the First Schleswig War . In May , the I and II Divisions , along with the Reserve Division from the Baltic , went on a major cruise into the Atlantic . On the voyage out , the I Division stopped in Dover and the II Division went into Falmouth to restock their coal supplies . The I Division then joined the II Division at Falmouth on 8 May , and the two units then departed for the Bay of Biscay , arriving at Lisbon on 12 May . There , they met the British Channel Fleet of eight battleships and four armored cruisers . The Portuguese king , Carlos I came aboard Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm to inspect the German flagship . The German fleet then departed for Germany , stopping again in Dover on 24 May . There , they participated in the naval review celebrating Queen Victoria 's 80th birthday . The fleet returned to Kiel on 31 May .
In July , the fleet conducted squadron maneuvers in the North Sea , which included coast defense exercises with soldiers from the X Corps . On 16 August , the fleet assembled in Danzig once again for the annual autumn maneuvers . The exercises started in the Baltic and on 30 August the fleet passed through the Kattegat and Skagerrak and steamed into the North Sea for further maneuvers in the German Bight , which lasted until 7 September . The third phase of the maneuvers took place in the Kattegat and the Great Belt from 8 to 26 September , when the maneuvers concluded and the fleet went into port for annual maintenance . The year 1900 began with the usual routine of individual and divisional exercises . In the second half of March , the squadrons met in Kiel , followed by torpedo and gunnery practice in April and a voyage to the eastern Baltic . From 7 to 26 May , the fleet went on a major training cruise to the northern North Sea , which included stops in the Shetlands from 12 to 15 May and in Bergen from 18 to 22 May . On 8 July , the ships of the I Division were reassigned to the II Division , and the role of fleet flagship was transferred to the recently commissioned battleship Kaiser Wilhelm II .
= = = = Boxer Rebellion = = = =
Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm saw her first major operation in 1900 , when the I Division was deployed to China during the Boxer Rebellion . Chinese nationalists laid siege to the foreign embassies in Peking and murdered the German minister . At the time , the German East Asia Squadron consisted of the protected cruisers Kaiserin Augusta , Hansa , Hertha , the small cruisers Irene , Gefion , and the gunboats Jaguar and Iltis , but the Kaiser decided that an expeditionary force was necessary to reinforce the Eight Nation Alliance that had formed to defeat the Boxers . The expeditionary force consisted of Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm and her three sisters , six cruisers , 10 freighters , three torpedo boats , and six regiments of marines , under the command of Marshal Alfred von Waldersee . Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm served as the flagship of Konteradmiral Richard von Geißler , who took command on 6 July .
On 7 July , Geißler reported that his ships were ready for the operation , and they left two days later . The four battleships and the aviso Hela transited the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal and stopped in Wilhelmshaven to rendezvous with the rest of the expeditionary force . On 11 July , the force steamed out of the Jade Bight , bound for China . They stopped to coal at Gibraltar on 17 – 18 July and they passed through the Suez Canal on 26 – 27 July . More coal was taken on at Perim in the Red Sea , and on 2 August , the fleet entered the Indian Ocean . On 10 August , the ships reached Colombo , Ceylon , and on 14 August they passed through the Strait of Malacca . They arrived in Singapore on 18 August and departed five days later , reaching Hong Kong on 28 August . Two days later , the expeditionary force stopped in the outer roadstead at Wusong , downriver from Shanghai . From there , Wörth was detached to cover the disembarkation of the German expeditionary corps outside the Taku Forts , while Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm and her other two sister ships joined the blockade of the Yangtze River , which also included a British contingent of two battleships , three cruisers , four gunboats , and one destroyer . A small Chinese fleet stationed upriver did not even clear their ships for action , owing to the strength of the Anglo @-@ German fleet .
By the time the German fleet had arrived , the siege of Peking had already been lifted by forces from other members of the Eight @-@ Nation Alliance that had formed to deal with the Boxers . In early September , Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm and the rest of the German fleet was moved to the Yellow Sea , where Waldersee , who had been given command of all ground forces of the Eight @-@ Nation Alliance , planned stronger actions against the harbors of northern China . On 3 – 4 September , the flagship of the East Asia Squadron , Fürst Bismarck reconnoitered the harbors of Shanhaiguan and Qinhuangdao . Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm then went to Shanhaiguan and sent a landing party of 100 men ashore while her torpedo crew cleared the Chinese minefields . She then returned to the Wusong roads while the ships of the East Asia Squadron remained off both ports . Since the situation had calmed , Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm and her sisters were sent to Hong Kong or Nagasaki , Japan in early 1901 for overhauls ; Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm went to Nagasaki from 4 to 23 January . In March , the expeditionary fleet reassembled in Tsingtau for gunnery and tactical exercises .
On 26 May , the German high command recalled the expeditionary force to Germany . The fleet took on supplies in Shanghai and departed Chinese waters on 1 June . The fleet stopped in Singapore from 10 to 15 June and took on coal before proceeding to Colombo , where they stayed from 22 to 26 June . Steaming against the monsoons forced the fleet to stop in Mahé , Seychelles to take on more coal . The fleet then stopped for a day each to take on coal in Aden and Port Said . On 1 August they reached Cádiz , and then met with the I Division and steamed back to Germany together . They separated after reaching Heligoland , and on 11 August after reaching the Jade roadstead , the ships of the expeditionary force were visited by Admiral von Koester , who was now the Inspector General of the Navy . The following day , Geißler lowered his flag aboard Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm and the expeditionary fleet was dissolved . In the end , the operation cost the German government more than 100 million marks .
= = = = 1901 – 1910 = = = =
Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm went to Kiel after returning from the expedition to China , where on 14 August Konteradmiral Fischel raised his flag aboard the ship . She was assigned to the I Squadron as the second command flagship for the annual autumn maneuvers . These exercises were interrupted by the visit from Nicholas II of Russia , who came aboard Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm . After the maneuvers , Fischel was replaced by Konteradmiral Curt von Prittwitz und Gaffron on 24 October . In late 1901 , the fleet went on a cruise to Norway , during which Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm stopped in Oslo . During the months of December , January , and February , the ship was in drydock for major repair work .
The pattern of training for 1902 remained unchanged from previous years ; I Squadron went on a major training cruise that started on 25 April . The squadron initially steamed to Norwegian waters , then rounded the northern tip of Scotland , and stopped in Irish waters . The ships returned to Kiel on 28 May . Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm then participated in the annual autumn maneuvers , after which she was decommissioned , with the new battleship Wittelsbach taking her place as second command flagship . The four Brandenburg class battleships were taken out of service for a major reconstruction . The work to Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm was done at the Kaiserliche Werft shipyard in Wilhelmshaven . The work included increasing the ship 's coal storage capacity and adding a pair of 10 @.@ 5 cm guns . The plans had initially called for the center 28 cm turret to be replaced with an armored battery of medium @-@ caliber guns , but this proved to be prohibitively expensive . Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm was the last ship of her class to complete her reconstruction , which was finished on 14 December 1905 .
On 1 January 1906 she was assigned to the II Squadron and served as the flagship of first Konteradmiral Henning von Holtzendorff , and then during the autumn maneuvers of Konteradmiral Adolf Paschen . The fleet conducted its normal routine of individual and unit training , interrupted only by a cruise to Norway from mid @-@ July to early August . The annual autumn maneuvers occurred as usual . Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm served as the second command flagship in the I Squadron of the newly created High Seas Fleet , but at the end of the 1906 training year , she was removed from active duty and her place was taken by the new battleship Pommern .
Beginning on 1 October 1907 , Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm was assigned to the Reserve Squadron in the North Sea , which had been created in early 1907 to train new crews . Her three sister ships joined her in this unit ; their duties typically consisted of training cruises in the North Sea . From 5 to 25 April , she operated with the Training Squadron with its flagship Vineta . In September , the Reserve Squadron contributed vessels to the autumn maneuvers ; Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm served as the Reserve Squadron flagship , with the coastal defense ships Ägir and Frithjof , the minelaying cruisers Nautilus and Albatross , and the old avisos Blitz , Pfeil , and Zieten . The Squadron was organized in Cuxhaven and joined the High Seas Fleet in the German Bight on 8 September . They participated in the main series of exercises off Heligoland , and the squadron was dissolved when the maneuvers ended on 12 September .
After completing her annual winter overhaul , Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm returned to the Reserve Squadron in January 1909 . Starting on 27 March , she operated with the Training Squadron again , the flagship of which was now the armored cruiser Friedrich Carl . Between 30 March and 24 April , she cruised in the central Baltic and in the waters around Rügen . She and the rest of the Reserve Squadron joined the autumn maneuvers in August and the battleship Schwaben replaced Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm as the flagship of the Reserve Squadron . Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm was then transferred to the VII Division in the Reserve Squadron . She continued in this routine in early 1910 ; she operated with the Training Squadron from 4 to 29 April and cruised in the Skagerrak and the western Baltic . The battleship was scheduled to take part in the autumn maneuvers , but shortly before the fleet assembled for the exercises , both she and Weissenburg were sold to the Ottoman Empire .
= = = In Ottoman service = = =
In late 1909 , the German military attache to the Ottoman Empire began a conversation with the Ottoman Navy about the possibility of selling German warships to the Ottomans to counter Greek naval expansion . After lengthy negotiations , including Ottoman attempts to buy one or more of the new battlecruisers Von der Tann , Moltke , and Goeben , the Germans offered to sell the four ships of the Brandenburg class at a cost of 10 million marks . The Ottomans chose to buy Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm and Weissenburg , since they were the more advanced ships of the class . The two battleships were renamed after the famous 16th @-@ century Ottoman admirals , Hayreddin Barbarossa and Turgut Reis . They were transferred on 1 September 1910 , and German crews took the ships to Constantinople , along with four new destroyers also purchased from Germany . The Ottoman navy , however , had great difficulty equipping the Barbaros Hayreddin and Turgut Reis ; the navy had to pull trained enlisted men from the rest of the fleet just to put together crews for them . Both vessels suffered from condenser troubles after they entered Ottoman service , which reduced their speed to 8 to 10 knots ( 15 to 19 km / h ; 9 to 12 mph ) .
A year later , in September 1911 , Italy declared war on the Ottoman Empire . The two battleships and the ancient central battery ironclad Mesûdiye — which had been built in the mid @-@ 1870s — had been on a summer training cruise since July , and so were prepared for the conflict . On 1 October , shortly after the outbreak of war , Barbaros Hayreddin and the rest of the Ottoman fleet was moored at Beirut . The following day , the fleet departed for Constantinople for repairs in preparation to engage the Italian fleet . Nevertheless , the bulk of the Ottoman fleet , including Barbaros Hayreddin , remained in port for the duration of the war . By the end of the war , Barbaros Hayreddin and her sister were in very poor condition . Their rangefinders and the ammunition hoists for their main battery guns had been removed , their telephones did not work , and the pipes for their pumps were badly rusted . Most of the watertight doors could not close , and the condensers remained problematic .
= = = = Balkan Wars = = = =
The First Balkan War broke out in October 1912 , when the Balkan League attacked the Ottoman Empire . The condition of Barbaros Hayreddin , as with most ships of the Ottoman fleet , had deteriorated significantly . During the war , Barbaros Hayreddin conducted gunnery training along with the other capital ships of the Ottoman navy , escorted troop convoys , and bombarded coastal installations . On 17 October , Barbaros Hayreddin and Turgut Reis steamed to İğneada . Two days later , the two battleships bombarded Bulgarian artillery positions near Varna . On 30 October , Barbaros Hayreddin was back outside Varna to blockade the port along with the destroyer Nümune @-@ i Hamiyet . On 17 November , Barbaros Hayreddin and Mesûdiye bombarded Bulgarian positions in support of the I Corps , with the aid of artillery observers ashore . The battleships ' gunnery was poor , though it provided a morale boost for the defending Ottoman army dug in at Çatalca . From 15 to 20 November , the ship was stationed at Büyükçekmece along with her sister ship and several other warships , but they saw no action against the small Bulgarian navy .
In December 1912 , the Ottoman fleet was reorganized into an armored division , which included Barbaros Hayreddin as flagship , two destroyer divisions , and a fourth division composed of warships intended for independent operations . Over the next two months , the armored division attempted to break the Greek naval blockade of the Dardanelles , which resulted in two major naval engagements .
= = = = = Battle of Elli = = = = =
At the Battle of Elli on 16 December 1912 , the Ottomans attempted to launch an attack on Imbros . The Ottoman fleet sortied from the Dardanelles at 9 : 30 ; the smaller craft remained at the mouth of the straits while the battleships sailed north , hugging the coast . The Greek flotilla , which included the armored cruiser Georgios Averof and three Hydra @-@ class ironclads , sailing from the island of Lemnos , altered course to the northeast to block the advance of the Ottoman battleships . The Ottoman ships opened fire on the Greeks at 9 : 40 , from a range of about 15 @,@ 000 yd ( 14 @,@ 000 m ) . Five minutes later , Georgios Averof crossed over to the other side of the Ottoman fleet , placing the Ottomans in the unfavorable position of being under fire from both sides . At 9 : 50 and under heavy pressure from the Greek fleet , the Ottoman ships completed a 16 @-@ point turn , which reversed their course , and headed for the safety of the straits . The turn was poorly conducted , and the ships fell out of formation , blocking each other 's fields of fire .
By 10 : 17 , both sides had ceased firing and the Ottoman fleet withdrew into the Dardanelles . The ships reached port by 13 : 00 and transferred their casualties to the hospital ship Resit Paşa . The battle was considered a Greek victory , because the Ottoman fleet remained blockaded . During the battle , Barbaros Hayreddin was hit twice . The first shell struck the afterdeck and killed five men assigned to a damage control party . The second shell jammed the rear turret , placing it out of action . Shell fragments from this hit damaged several boilers and caused a fire in one of the coal bunkers .
On 4 January 1913 , the Ottoman Navy and Army attempted a landing at Bozca Ada ( Tenedos ) to retake the island from the Greeks . Barbaros Hayreddin and the rest of the fleet supported the operation , but the appearance of the Greek fleet forced the Ottomans to break off the operation . The Greeks also withdrew , and several Ottoman cruisers opened fire as both sides departed , but no damage was done . By 15 : 30 , Barbaros Hayreddin was back at Çanakkale inside the safety of the Dardanelles . On 10 January , the fleet conducted a patrol outside the Dardanelles . They encountered several Greek destroyers and forced them to withdraw , but inflicted no damage on the Greek ships .
= = = = = Battle of Lemnos = = = = =
The Battle of Lemnos resulted from an Ottoman plan to lure the faster Georgios Averof away from the Dardanelles . The protected cruiser Hamidiye evaded the Greek blockade and broke out into the Aegean Sea in an attempt to draw the Greek cruiser into pursuit . Despite the threat posed by the cruiser , the Greek commander refused to detach Georgios Averof . By mid @-@ January , however , the Ottomans had learned that Georgios Averof remained with the Greek fleet , and so Kalyon Kaptanı ( Captain ) Ramiz Numan Bey , the Ottoman fleet commander , decided to attack the Greeks regardless .
Barbaros Hayreddin , Turgut Reis , and other units of the Ottoman fleet departed the Dardanelles at 8 : 20 on the morning of 18 January , and sailed toward the island of Lemnos at a speed of 11 knots ( 20 km / h ; 13 mph ) . Barbaros Hayreddin led the line of battleships , with a flotilla of torpedo boats on either side of the formation . Georgios Averof , with the three Hydra @-@ class ironclads and five destroyers trailing behind , intercepted the Ottoman fleet approximately 12 nautical miles ( 22 km ; 14 mi ) from Lemnos . At 10 : 55 , the Ottoman cruiser Mecidiye spotted the Greeks , and the fleet turned south to engage them .
A long range artillery duel that lasted for two hours began at around 11 : 55 , when the Ottoman fleet opened fire at a range of 8 @,@ 000 m ( 26 @,@ 000 ft ) . They concentrated their fire on the Greek Georgios Averof , which returned fire at 12 : 00 . At 12 : 50 , the Greeks attempted to cross the T of the Ottoman fleet , but Barbaros Hayreddin turned north to block the Greek maneuver . The Ottoman commander detached the old battleship Mesudiye after a serious hit at 12 : 55 . At around the same time , a shell hit Barbaros Hayreddin on her amidships turret , killing the entire gun crew . She was thereafter hit several times in the superstructure ; these hits did relatively little damage , but they created significant smoke that was sucked into the boiler rooms and caused the ship 's speed to fall to 5 knots ( 9 @.@ 3 km / h ; 5 @.@ 8 mph ) . As a result , Turgut Reis took the lead of the formation and Bey decided to break off the engagement .
Toward the end of the engagement , Georgios Averof closed to within 5 @,@ 000 yd ( 4 @,@ 600 m ) and scored several hits on the fleeing Ottoman ships . At 14 : 00 , the Ottoman warships had come close enough to the shore to be protected by coastal batteries , forcing the Greeks to withdraw and ending the battle . During the battle , both Barbaros Hayreddin and her sister had a barbette disabled by gunfire , and both caught fire as a result . Between Barbaros Hayreddin and Turgut Reis , the ships fired some 800 rounds , mostly of their main battery 28 cm ( 11 in ) ammunition but without success .
= = = = = Subsequent operations = = = = =
On 8 February 1913 , the Ottoman navy supported an amphibious assault at Şarköy . Barbaros Hayreddin and Turgut Reis , along with several cruisers weighed anchor at 5 : 50 and arrived off the island at around 9 : 00 . The Ottoman fleet provided artillery support , from about a kilometer off shore . The ships supported the left flank of the Ottoman army once it was ashore . The Bulgarian army provided stiff resistance that ultimately forced the Ottoman army to withdraw , though the withdrawal was successful in large part due to the gunfire support from Barbaros Hayreddin and the rest of the fleet . During the battle , Barbaros Hayreddin fired 250 rounds from her 10 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) guns and 180 shells from her 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) guns .
In March 1913 , the ship returned to the Black Sea to resume support of the Çatalca garrison , which was under renewed attacks by the Bulgarian army . On 26 March , the 28 cm ( 11 in ) and 10 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) shells fired by Barbaros Hayreddin and Turgut Reis helped to turn back the advance of the 2nd Brigade of the Bulgarian 1st Infantry Division . On 30 March , the left wing of the Ottoman line turned to pursue the retreating Bulgarians . Their advance was supported by both field artillery and the heavy guns of Barbaros Hayreddin ; the assault gained the Ottomans about 1 @,@ 500 m ( 1 @,@ 600 yd ) by nightfall . In response , the Bulgarians brought the 1st Brigade to the front , which beat the Ottoman advance back to its starting position .
= = = = World War I = = = =
In the summer of 1914 , World War I broke out in Europe , though the Ottomans initially remained neutral . On 3 August 1914 , Barbaros Hayreddin began a refit at Constantinople — German engineers inspected her and other Ottoman warships in the dockyard and found them to be in a state of severe disrepair . Owing to the state of tension , repairs could not be effected , and only ammunition , coal , and other supplies were loaded . By early November , the actions of the German battlecruiser Goeben , which had been transferred to the Ottoman Navy , resulted in declarations of war by Russia , France , and Great Britain . Between 1914 – 15 , some of the ship 's guns were removed and employed as coastal guns to shore up the defenses protecting the Dardanelles . In the meantime , she was used as a floating artillery battery at the Nara naval base , along with her sister Turgut Reis . Early during this stint , the ships were immobilized , but as the threat from British submarines grew , steam was kept up in their boilers to allow them to move quickly .
Barbaros Hayreddin returned to Constantinople on 11 March 1915 ; the Ottoman high command had decided that both ships were not needed at all times . Over the next several months , the two ships alternated trips to Constantinople . On 25 April , the two battleships bombarded the British landings on the first day of the Gallipoli Campaign . After firing fourteen shells , the fifteenth detonated in the right gun barrel in the center turret , destroying the gun . After a shell exploded inside one of Turgut Reis 's guns in early June , both battleships were withdrawn . On 7 August , the British landed more troops at Suvla Bay , prompting the high command to send Barbaros Hayreddin to support the Ottoman defenses there . In addition , she was loaded with a large quantity of ammunition to resupply the Fifth Army fighting in the Gallipoli Campaign . The next day , while she was en route to the area with only a single torpedo boat as escort , she was intercepted by the British submarine HMS E11 off Bolayır in the Sea of Marmara . The submarine hit Barbaros Hayreddin with a single torpedo ; she capsized seven minutes later , but remained afloat for a few minutes before she slipped below the waves . The ship sank with the loss of 21 officers and 237 men . The rest of the crew were picked up by her escort and a second torpedo boat patrolling the area .
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= Lisa Goes Gaga =
" Lisa Goes Gaga " is the twenty @-@ second and final episode of the twenty @-@ third season of the American animated sitcom The Simpsons . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on May 20 , 2012 . In the episode , American singer @-@ songwriter Lady Gaga makes a visit to Springfield , where all of its residents are in a state of depression . Main character Lisa Simpson is arguably the most depressed person in the city , prompting Gaga to go out of her way to teach Lisa the meaning of happiness .
The episode was written by Tim Long and directed by Matthew Schofield . Gaga guest @-@ starred in the episode , portraying an animated version of herself . A fan of the show , she was brought on by showrunner Al Jean , who wrote a script after James L. Brooks saw an interview of her on 60 Minutes . The design team conceived eighteen outfits to complement Gaga 's eccentric persona , which satirized several of her outfits including her meat dress . Recording sessions for " Lisa Goes Gaga " took place in Los Angeles , California over four days in August 2011 .
Critical responses to the episode were mixed ; critics praised Lady Gaga 's performance , while they looked down upon the episode 's concept and general execution . The highly negative evaluation of the episode by some Internet users attracted media attention . According to the Nielsen ratings , the installment attained 4 @.@ 79 million American viewers upon its original airing .
= = Plot = =
Lady Gaga passes through Springfield via train while on her way to a concert . Seeing how low the city 's self @-@ esteem is , she takes it upon herself to cheer up the whole city . However , no one in town is more depressed than Lisa , who was voted as the most unpopular student by her peers . Lisa tries to reverse her status as one of the least popular girls in school by ghostwriting positive things about herself on the school blog under the heading " Truth Teller " .
When Bart finds out her secret and reveals it to the school , her social ranking plummets to a new low until a psychic force tells Lady Gaga that Lisa needs her help immediately . After much soul searching and yelling at Lady Gaga for trying to help , Lisa realizes that her outburst helped her because she is finally expressing her anger instead of bottling it up inside her , in effect making Lady Gaga 's mission successful . Lisa catches Lady Gaga just before she leaves town to apologize , and after being forgiven she and Lady Gaga perform a duet together . With Lady Gaga 's assistance , Lisa and the entire town of Springfield realize that being oneself is better than being like anyone else . Just as Lady Gaga 's train begins to leave again , Moe runs up to her and asks if she can help him as well , but Lady Gaga declines , stating that she 's not that good . As Moe turns and walks across the train track , a second train hits him .
During the credits , Homer is heard singing his rendition of " Poker Face . "
= = Production = =
In August 2011 , it first was revealed that Lady Gaga would make a guest appearance on the show as herself . Producer James L. Brooks viewed Gaga 's interview with Anderson Cooper on 60 Minutes , which prompted Al Jean to write a script and send her a letter of approval to appear on the show . " She was really excited about the whole thing , " Jean recalled . " After she signed on to do it , she came in to record dialogue twice , and we showed her a rough cut the second time . " Recording sessions for the episode took place in Los Angeles during a period of four days from August 22 – 26 . Gaga was initially apprehensive while recording on set , which led her to review the satirical nature of the show to get a better understanding on how to perform . " Their characters are so awesomely convincing and sincere and wild and funny , I had to remind myself constantly of the sincerity of the humor , " she explained . " That 's what I was trying to focus on — not putting on a character too much , and really being as sincere as I could with the lines . " Despite such emotions , Gaga professed that working with the staff of the show was " one of the coolest things that [ she ] has ever done " .
Several employees of The Simpsons were impressed with Gaga 's performance , who cited that her vocal range and ad @-@ libbing skills were exceptional . Series creator Matt Groening stated : " Since the very beginning , I ’ ve always wanted to have on the most iconic personalities of our time , and she 's it . " In an interview with E ! Online , Groening further commented on Gaga 's appearance ; " The great thing about having Lady Gaga is that she came in a number of times and always with a different getup . Like she 'd leave the room and come back in after a break in a completely new getup . It was unbelievable . The only time that she ever took off her hat was when it was banging into the microphone . " Cast member Yeardley Smith said that she was shocked that Gaga had the time to make an appearance on the series .
The design team for the series conceived eighteen outfits to compliment Gaga 's outré and eccentric reputation , although they did not collaborate with any of Gaga 's stylists or creative director Nicola Formichetti . Due to the outfits ' unconventional appearances , Jean was given more freedom to animate the large array of costumes , as these rapid changes " wouldn 't be possible in real life " . " There 's a moment in the episode , " Jean resumed , " when she starts out with her hair down . Then , there 's a curtain pulled in front of her , and in seconds , she has a completely different outfit on with a cone bra and her hair is all hairsprayed up and big and frizzy . In real life , that would probably take 8 hours . " Many of the costumes were inspired from previous outfits Gaga had worn , including her meat dress and her Kermit the Frog dress . " We did a lot of research , looking back at her old outfits , and she 's really been in a million different things , had a million different looks . "
= = Cultural references = =
Many aspects of Gaga 's career are referenced in the episode . " You 're All My Little Monsters " , a musical number specifically created for the episode , is a parody of Gaga 's relationship with her devout " Little Monsters " — a phrase Gaga uses to refer to her fans . To Spin columnist Devon Maloney , the song was ultimately an overtly cartoonized version of her single " Born This Way " ( 2011 ) that embraces the " freakiness " of Springfield . Several of Gaga 's outfits and looks emulate several iconic costumes the singer had previously worn , such as the " Living Dress " and pyrotechnic leotard she wore during her endeavors on The Monster Ball Tour , as well as her wardrobe at the 53rd Grammy Awards . One in particular , a dress consisting of pork chops , is a parody of the singer 's meat dress , which she wore at the 2010 MTV Video Music Awards . During the credits of " Lisa Goes Gaga " , main character Homer Simpson performs a rendition of " Poker Face " ( 2009 ) . At the end of the episode , a title card promotes the Maggie @-@ starring short film The Longest Daycare , which showed before the animated film Ice Age : Continental Drift ( 2012 ) .
= = Reception = =
" Lisa Goes Gaga " was originally broadcast on May 20 , 2012 in the United States , as part of the " Animation Domination " television line @-@ up on Fox . Upon airing , it acquired 4 @.@ 79 million viewers and a 2 @.@ 1 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , indicating that 2 @.@ 1 percent of individuals between ages 18 and 49 who watched television viewed the episode . The ratings make it the fourth least watched Simpsons episode to date in Nielsen Rating Homes . " Lisa Goes Gaga " faced fierce competition , airing simultaneously with 60 Minutes on CBS , America 's Got Talent on NBC , and the 2012 Billboard Music Awards on ABC . Total viewership and ratings for the program evoked significant increases from the previous episode , " Ned ' n Edna 's Blend " , which attained 4 @.@ 07 million viewers and a 1 @.@ 9 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , and also is the lowest rated episode to date in Nielsen Rating Homes .
The episode produced varying responses from television commentators . " Lisa Goes Gaga " provoked The A.V. Club journalist Rowan Kaiser to conclude that the installment " wasn 't that painful to watch " — albeit found the concept and general execution to be irritating . In his B – review , Kaiser asserted that " Lisa Goes Gaga " used a straightforward interpretation of the singer , and felt that Lady Gaga 's appearance was superior to previous guest appearances . " So many Simpsons celebrity voices , " he stated , " show up for a few minutes at most , with Extras @-@ style ' Wow , Chris Martin of Coldplay , what are you doing here ? ' Or they voice one @-@ off characters without enough flair to be memorable . Instead , Gaga was the focus of the entire episode , to the point where if you wanted to call it a half @-@ hour commercial for Lady Gaga , you probably wouldn ’ t be wrong . Fortunately for ' Lisa Goes Gaga ' , the celebrity at its heart is entertaining enough that it being her commercial isn ’ t a complete waste of time . " A writer for HLN avouched that The Simpsons managed to culminate its season " with a lot of style " ; David Greenwald of Billboard echoed similar sentiments . Gaga 's performance was frequently mentioned in the critiques . Idolator 's Becky Bain , Tracy Gilchrist of SheWired , and Caroline Westbrook of Metro issued favorable assessments of her acting : the latter affirmed that Gaga had many memorable moments throughout the episode .
" The series did make good use of their guest star instead of reducing her role to a small cameo , " opined TV Fanatic 's Teresa L. , who concluded : " The episode ended up turning into one long @-@ running gag about Gaga 's eccentricities and a rehashing of all her most ' shocking ' moments . " Jocelyn W. of TV Equals said , " Lady Gaga helped The Simpsons end its 23rd season on a memorable note . "
Some fans appeared to respond particularly unfavorably to the episode . A graph plotting every episode of the series according to each 's Internet Movie Database rating which revealed " Lisa Goes Gaga " to be the poorest received episode received media attention . The episode also received a highly negative response from the podcast Worst Episode Ever . As of July 2016 , " Lisa Goes Gaga " was the fifth lowest rated episode of the 82 reviewed for the show . The AV Club 's user @-@ determined Community Grade for the episode is C- .
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= SMS Brandenburg =
SMS Brandenburg was the lead ship of the Brandenburg @-@ class pre @-@ dreadnought battleships , which included Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm , Weissenburg , and Wörth built for the German Kaiserliche Marine ( Imperial Navy ) in the early 1890s . She was the first pre @-@ dreadnought built for the German Navy ; earlier , the Navy had only built coastal defense ships and armored frigates . The ship was laid down at the AG Vulcan dockyard in 1890 , launched on 21 September 1891 , and commissioned into the German Navy on 19 November 1893 . Brandenburg and her three sisters were unique for their time in that they carried six heavy guns instead of the four that were standard in other navies . She was named after the Province of Brandenburg .
Brandenburg saw her first major deployment in 1900 , when she and her three sister ships were deployed to China to suppress the Boxer Rebellion . Upon returning to Germany , Brandenburg and her sisters , with the exception of Wörth , took part in extensive fleet maneuvers in 1902 . In the early 1900s , all four ships were heavily rebuilt . However , she was obsolete by the start of World War I , and only served in a limited capacity , initially as a coastal defense ship , but primarily as a barracks ship . Following the end of the war , Brandenburg was scrapped in Danzig in 1920 .
= = Design = =
Brandenburg was 115 @.@ 7 m ( 379 ft 7 in ) long , with a beam of 19 @.@ 5 m ( 64 ft 0 in ) and a draft of 7 @.@ 6 m ( 24 ft 11 in ) . Brandenburg displaced 10 @,@ 013 t ( 9 @,@ 855 long tons ) as designed , and up to 10 @,@ 670 t ( 10 @,@ 501 long tons ) at full combat load . She was equipped with two sets of 3 @-@ cylinder vertical triple expansion steam engines that produced 10 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 7 @,@ 457 kW ) and a top speed of 16 @.@ 9 knots ( 31 @.@ 3 km / h ; 19 @.@ 4 mph ) on trials . Steam was provided by twelve transverse cylindrical water @-@ tube boilers . She had a maximum range of 4 @,@ 300 nautical miles ( 8 @,@ 000 km ; 4 @,@ 900 mi ) at a cruising speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . Her crew numbered 38 officers and 530 enlisted men .
Brandenburg was armed with a main battery of six 28 cm ( 11 in ) guns of two types . The forward and rear turret guns were 40 calibers long , while the amidships guns were only 35 calibers ; this was necessary to allow them to train to either side of the ship . Her secondary armament initially consisted of seven 10 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) guns , though an additional gun was added during the modernization in 1901 . She also carried eight 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 45 in ) guns and six 45 cm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes . The ship was protected with compound armor . Her main belt armor was 400 millimeters ( 15 @.@ 7 in ) thick in the central section that protected the ammunition magazines and machinery spaces . The deck was 60 mm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) thick . The main battery barbettes were protected with 300 mm ( 11 @.@ 8 in ) thick armor .
= = Service history = =
Brandenburg was ordered as battleship A , the first ship of her class . She was laid down at Germaniawerft in Kiel in 1890 . Her hull was completed by September 1891 and launched on 21 September . Fitting out work followed and was finished by later 1893 ; the ship was commissioned into the fleet on 19 November 1893 , less than four weeks after her sister Wörth , the first vessel in the class to join the fleet .
On 16 February 1894 , several steam pipes exploded in the ship . The door between the two engine rooms was open , which allowed the steam to enter both of them . Thirty @-@ nine men were killed in the blast and nine were severely injured . Of these , six later died from their injuries . In June 1895 , the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal was completed ; to celebrate , dozens of warships from 14 different countries gathered in Kiel for a celebration hosted by Kaiser Wilhelm II , including Brandenburg and her three sisters .
= = = Boxer Rebellion = = =
During the Boxer Rebellion in 1900 , Chinese nationalists laid siege to the foreign embassies in Peking and murdered Baron Clemens von Ketteler , the German minister . The widespread violence against Westerners in China led to a creation of an alliance between Germany and seven other Great Powers : the United Kingdom , Italy , Russia , Austria @-@ Hungary , the United States , France , and Japan . Those soldiers who were in China at the time were too few in number to defeat the Boxers ; in Peking there was a force of slightly more than 400 officers and infantry from the armies of the eight European powers . At the time , the primary German military force in China was the East Asia Squadron , which consisted of the protected cruisers Kaiserin Augusta , Hansa , and Hertha , the small cruisers Irene and Gefion , and the gunboats Jaguar and Iltis . Like many other foreign ships , the German squadron was anchored off the Chinese Taku Forts , which guarded access to Peking .
To relieve the foreign legations , British Admiral Edward Seymour mounted a multinational force of 2 @,@ 100 men that disembarked and marched toward the Chinese capital . That force included a German 500 @-@ man detachment dispatched from the fleet anchored off the Taku Forts . Due to heavy resistance , however , the Seymour Expedition could not reach Peking and was forced to retreat toward Tientsin . As a result , the Kaiser determined an expeditionary force would be sent to China to reinforce the East Asia Squadron . Hela was part of the naval expedition , which included the four Brandenburg @-@ class pre @-@ dreadnought battleships , sent to China to reinforce the German flotilla there . Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz opposed the plan , which he saw as unnecessary and costly . The force was sent in spite of von Tirpitz 's objections ; it arrived in China in September 1900 . By that time , the siege of Peking had already been lifted . As a result , the task force suppressed local uprisings around the German concession of Kiaochow . In the end , the operation cost the German government more than 100 million marks . The force returned to Germany the following year , in 1901 .
= = = Fleet training , 1902 = = =
On 31 August 1902 , the annual fleet maneuvers began . The first portion of the exercise positioned Germany in a naval war against a powerful enemy that had superior forces in the North and Baltic Seas . A German squadron , consisting of the coastal defense ships Hagen , Heimdall , and Hildebrand and a division of torpedo boats were trapped in the Kattegat by a superior enemy unit in the North Sea . The " German " squadron was tasked with returning to Kiel in the Baltic , where it would return to Wilhelmshaven via the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal to rejoin the rest of the fleet . Brandenburg , along with Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm and Weissenburg and the cruisers Nymphe , Amazone , and Hela , was positioned in one of the three main channels from the Kattegat to Kiel to act as an opposing force . Two other battle squadrons were positioned to block the advance of the isolated " German " squadron .
On the morning of 2 September , the operation commenced . At 06 : 00 that morning , the commander of the " German " squadron decided to take his ships through the channel to which Brandenburg was assigned . The " hostile " torpedo @-@ boat screen sighted the German flotilla , but a dense fog precluded effective pursuit by the battleships . The fog was so thick that Brandenburg and her two sisters had to drop anchor to avoid any unnecessary risks . Later that evening , the three " opponent " forces rendezvoused to pursue the " German " ships . However , the cruiser and the torpedo boat screen was detached to engage the " German " torpedo @-@ boat screen . The lighter ships quickly " destroyed " several of the " German " torpedo boats . This prompted the " German " squadron to retreat northward with the cruisers in pursuit . The German squadron was chased back through the Kattegat before the exercise was called off . On the night of 3 September , the entire fleet anchored off Læsø island to give the crews a rest .
The following day , 4 September , the exercise resumed . The German squadron was reinforced by several battleships and the armored cruiser Prinz Heinrich . The German flotilla was ordered to sail into the North Sea and attempt to reach the safety of the island fortress of Helgoland . A short engagement between the hostile screen and Prinz Heinrich ensued , during which Prinz Heinrich damaged the protected cruisers Freya and Victoria Louise . A torpedo boat attack on the German squadron followed in the early hours of 5 September . The hostile force was unable to prevent the escape of the German squadron , however , which reached Helgoland by 12 : 00 .
The fleet anchored off Helgoland on 8 – 11 September . During the day the ships conducted training with steam tactics . On 11 September the ships returned to Wilhelmshaven where on the following two days the ships replenished their coal supplies . On 14 September the final operation of the annual maneuvers began . The situation specified that the naval war had gone badly for Germany ; only four battleships , including Brandenburg , Baden , Beowulf , and Württemberg , were still in service . This motley force was augmented by a pair of cruisers and a division of torpedo boats . The ships were to be stationed in the mouth of the Elbe river to protect the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal and access to Hamburg . On 15 September , the " hostile " force blockaded the Elbe , along with other rivers and harbors on the North Sea . The hostile battleship squadron steamed to the mouth of the Elbe , where Hela , Freya , and the remaining torpedo boats were stationed as lookouts . Nothing happened during the day of 16 September , but that night several German torpedo boats managed to destroy one of the blockading cruisers and badly damage another . The weather began to storm so the operation was postponed until the following day . That morning , the hostile fleet forced its way into the Elbe , past the fortifications at the mouth of the river . The German flotilla made a desperate attack which resulted in the sinking of two of the hostile battleships . The hostile force , however , ultimately overwhelmed the outnumbered German ships and the exercise ended with their victory .
= = = Reconstruction and later service = = =
In the early 1900s , the four Brandenburgs were taken into the drydocks at the Kaiserliche Werft Wilhelmshaven for major reconstruction . Wörth was the first vessel of the class to enter drydock in 1901 ; Brandenburg didn 't follow until 1903 . During the modernization , a second conning tower was added in the aft superstructure , along with a gangway . Brandenburg and the other ships had their boilers replaced with newer models , and also had the hamper amidships reduced .
After emerging from the dry dock after modernization , Brandenburg and the other battleships of her class were assigned to the II Battle Squadron of the fleet and replaced the old Siegfried @-@ class coastal defense ships and the armored frigates Baden and Württemberg . The Deutschland @-@ class battleships , which began to enter service in 1906 , replaced Brandenburg and her three sister @-@ ships in the battle fleet . Brandenburg and Wörth were put into reserve , joining the Siegfried @-@ class ships . Brandenburg 's other sisters , Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm and Weissenburg , were sold to the Ottoman Empire in 1910 .
= = = World War I = = =
At the outbreak of World War I , Brandenburg was brought out from the " moth ball cemetery " and recommissioned into the fleet . She served with her sister Wörth , but due to the age of the ships , this lasted only until 1915 . They were then withdrawn from active service . That year , both ships were put into service as barracks ships ; Wörth was stationed in Danzig while Brandenburg was placed in Libau . Both Wörth and Brandenburg were struck from the naval register on 13 May 1919 and sold for scrapping . The two ships were purchased by Norddeutsche Tiefbauges , a shipbreaking firm headquartered in Berlin . Wörth was then broken up for scrap in Danzig .
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= Prionomyrmex =
Prionomyrmex is an extinct genus of bulldog ants in the subfamily Myrmeciinae of the family Formicidae . It was first described by Gustav Mayr in 1868 , after he collected a holotype worker of P. longiceps in Baltic amber . Three species are currently described , characterised by their long mandibles , slender bodies and large size . These ants are known from the Eocene and Late Oligocene , with fossil specimens only found around Europe . It is suggested that these ants preferred to live in jungles , with one species assumed to be an arboreal nesting species . These ants had a powerful stinger that was used to subdue prey . In 2000 , it was suggested by Cesare Baroni Urbani that the living species Nothomyrmecia macrops and a species he described both belonged to Prionomyrmex , but this proposal has not been widely accepted by the entomological community . Instead , scientists still classify the two genera distinctive from each other , making Nothomyrmecia a valid genus .
= = Discovery and classification = =
The holotype worker for P. longiceps was collected by Austrian entomologist Gustav Mayr in 1868 . The fossil , which was preserved in Baltic amber from the Eocene , was formally described in Mayr 's journal article Die Ameisen des baltischen Bernsteins , designating it as the type species by monotypy ( the condition of a taxonomic group having only a single taxon described ) for the newly established genus Prionomyrmex . Originally , the genus was placed in the subfamily Ponerinae by Mayr , but in 1877 , Italian entomologist Carlo Emery classified the genus into the subfamily Myrmeciidae ( now known as Myrmeciinae ) , the same year Emery established the subfamily . In 1915 , the tribe Prionomyrmecini was erected by American entomologist William Morton Wheeler , who had placed Prionomyrmex in it . In that year , Wheeler placed the genus back into Ponerinae without any means of justifying his decision . British myrmecologist Horace Donisthorpe would also retain the genus in Ponerinae without explanation , but William Brown Jr. would return it to Myrmeciinae in 1954 .
In 2000 , Baroni Urbani described a new Baltic fossil species , of which he named it Prionomyrmex janzeni . After examining specimens of the new species and Nothomyrmecia macrops , Baroni Urbani stated that the newly described species and Nothomyrmecia macrops belong to the same genus ( Prionomyrmex ) , in which he synonymised Nothomyrmecia as a genus and treated the tribe Prionomyrmecini as a subfamily , known as Prionomyrmecinae . Prior to this , John S. Clark , the original author who described Nothomyrmecia , noted that the genus was similar in appearance to Prionomyrmex ; both the heads and mandibles were identical , but the nodes were different . As the mandibles of Prionomyrmex are similar to that of Nothomyrmecia , this suggests that they are intermediate to each other . This classification was short @-@ lived , as Nothomyrmecia was separated and treated as a valid genus from Prionomyrmex by Dlussky & Perfilieva in 2003 , on the base of the fusion of an abdominal segment . Other studies published in the same year came to the same conclusions of Dlussky & Perfilieva , and the subfamily Prionomyrmecinae would later be treated as a tribe in Myrmeciinae . However , Baroni Urbani would treat the tribe as a subfamily again in both his 2005 and 2008 publications , suggesting additional evidence in favor of his former interpretation as opposed to that of Ward and Brady 's arguments . In 2012 , P. wappleri was described by Gennady M. Dlussky , based on a fossilised worker from the Late Oligocene , Aquitanian stage . This subsequent report that described new fossil myrmecines accepted the classification of Archibald et al. and Ward & Brady without comment on the views of Baroni Urbani .
The generic name is a combination of two words ; priono derives from Greek word priōn , meaning " a saw " , and myrmex , another Greek word , means " ant " .
The following cladogram generated by Archibald and colleagues shows the possible phylogenetic position of Prionomyrmex among some ants of the subfamily Myrmeciinae ; note that P. wappleri is absent , as the generated cladogram below was created in 2006 while the species itself was described in 2012 .
= = Description = =
The genus is characterised by large , slender workers with elongated mandibles , which are narrow and triangular in shape . The mesosoma and appendages are also long . These ants are similar in appearance to Nothomyrmecia , but can be distinguished from the shape of their node . They also had a powerful sting located in the abdomen . Two of the three species are from the Eocene while the third species is from the Late Oligocene .
= = = P. janzeni = = =
P. janzeni was described by Cesare Baroni Urbani of the University of Basel , Switzerland in 2000 , based on two specimens preserved in Baltic amber from Kaliningrad , Russia . The species is from the Eocene , Lutetian to Priabonian stage . Both specimens are preserved very well , with specimen number two being larger and more visible . Specimen number one is presumed to be a worker ; type material includes a holotype worker and a paratype ergatogyne , donated to the Geological @-@ Palaecontological Institute and Museum , the University of Hamburg by palaeoentomologist Jens @-@ Wilhelm Janzen . The ant was named after Janzen by Baroni Urbani . The estimated body length is 13 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 51 in ) long with an elongated head , and large oval @-@ shaped eyes are present . The antennae are long and consist of 12 segments with a bent scape . The mandibles are very long and curved , being three @-@ quarters the length of the total size of the head . Both the legs and mesosoma are long and slender ; unlike modern ants , P. janzeni has two spurs on the tibae instead of one . The petiole is high and domed shape while postpetiole is bell @-@ shaped . The gaster is long with round sides , divided into five segments . The whole body and some portions of the legs were covered by weakly curved hairs , erect and suberect . The holotype specimen is brown in colour while the paratype is black . While P. janzeni looks similar to P. longiceps , the pubesence on the scapes of P. janzeni is absent .
= = = P. longiceps = = =
P. longiceps was described by Gustav Mayr in 1868 , based on a holotype worker collected in Baltic amber from the Eocene . The original specimen collected by Mayr , however , has been lost . The estimated body length of P. longiceps is 12 to 14 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 47 to 0 @.@ 55 in ) long , with a thick petiole and large propodeal teeth . Unlike P. janzeni , P. longiceps has erect and suberect hairs on the scape . These hairs are also longer and thicker on the legs and on other body parts . The mandibles are very long and curved , and the head is longer than its total width ( 2 @.@ 2 to 2 @.@ 64 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 087 to 0 @.@ 104 in ) long and 1 @.@ 68 to 2 @.@ 08 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 066 to 0 @.@ 082 in ) wide ) . The legs are very long with strong claws , and a stinger is present in the abdomen . Wheeler ( 1915 ) described a male P. longiceps , commenting that the head is short but broad with very large eyes while the mandibles are small and far apart . The body is dark brown or blackish in colour , and the wings are somewhat yellowish .
= = = P. wappleri = = =
P. wappleri was described in 2012 by Russian palaeoentomologist Gennady M. Dlussky of the Moscow State University , from a fossilised holotype worker found in Germany from the Aquitanian stage 29 to 30 million years ago . The specimen is currently housed in the Institut für Paläontologie at the University of Bonn , North Rhine @-@ Westphalia . Dlussky coined the specific epithet wappleri from the surname " Wappler " , as he named the ant after German palaeoentomologist Torsten Wappler . The estimated body length of P. wappleri is 14 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 55 in ) long , and the head is 1 @.@ 35 times longer than the total width of it . The eyes are small and oval shaped , located in the upper part of the head , which is four times as long as the eyes . The mandibles are nearly three @-@ quarters the length of the head ; P. wappleri differs from P. longiceps and P. janzeni due to the apex of the clypeal lobe being pointed instead of round , and the first segment of the flagellum is only half the length of the second segment . Before the discovery of P. wappleri , extinct Myrmeciinae ants were only found from Eocene deposits . This suggests that the subfamily was still present in Europe during the Late Oligocene .
= = Ecology = =
Archibald and colleagues suggested the life habits of extinct Myrmeciinae ants including Prionomyrmex may have been similar to extant ants within the subfamily . These ants foraged on the ground and possibly onto trees and low vegetation while preying on arthropods . These ants may have collected plant nectar , as Myrmecia species use this as a food source . Workers may have not recruited nest mates to food sources or lay down pheromone trails , as these ants were solitary hunters . Workers would have relied on their vision to hunt for prey and help themselves navigate .
William Morton Wheeler comments that P. longiceps were possibly an arboreal nesting species . This means the ant did not live in the soil and nested in trees instead . He assumed this due to its long legs , strong claws and long mandibles ; Prionomyrmex was also assumed to be predacious , equipped with a well developed and powerful sting that was most likely used to kill prey . Prionomyrmex may have preferred a jungle habitat at low elevations , and is even more primitive in its body structure than Myrmecia . Female stylopids were known to parasite Prionomyrmex ants .
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= Sexuality after spinal cord injury =
Although spinal cord injury ( SCI ) often causes sexual dysfunction , many people with SCI are able to have satisfying sex lives . Physical limitations acquired from SCI affect sexual function and sexuality in broader areas , which in turn has important effects on quality of life . Damage to the spinal cord impairs its ability to transmit messages between the brain and parts of the body below the level of the lesion . This results in lost or reduced sensation and muscle motion , and affects orgasm , erection , ejaculation , and vaginal lubrication . More indirect causes of sexual dysfunction include pain , weakness , and side effects of medications . Psycho @-@ social causes include depression and altered self @-@ image . However , many people with SCI have satisfying sex lives , and many experience sexual arousal and orgasm . People with SCI employ a variety of adaptations to help carry on their sex lives healthily , by focusing on different areas of the body and types of sexual acts . Neural plasticity may account for increases in sensitivity in parts of the body that have not lost sensation , so people often find newly sensitive erotic areas of the skin in erogenous zones or near borders between areas of preserved and lost sensation .
Drugs , devices , surgery , and other interventions exist to help men achieve erection and ejaculation . Although male fertility is reduced , many men with SCI can still father children , particularly with medical interventions . Women 's fertility is not usually affected , although precautions must be taken for safe pregnancy and delivery . People with SCI need to take measures during sexual activity to deal with SCI effects such as weakness and movement limitations , and to avoid injuries such as skin damage in areas of reduced sensation . Education and counseling about sexuality is an important part of SCI rehabilitation but is often missing or insufficient . Rehabilitation for children and adolescents aims to promote healthy development of sexuality and includes education for them and their families . Culturally inherited biases and stereotypes negatively affect people with SCI , particularly when held by professional caregivers . Body image and other insecurities affect sexual function , and have profound repercussions on self @-@ esteem and self @-@ concept . SCI causes difficulties in romantic partnerships , due to problems with sexual function and to other stresses introduced by the injury and disability , but many of those with SCI have fulfilling relationships and marriages . Relationships , self @-@ esteem , and reproductive ability are all aspects of sexuality , which encompasses not just sexual practices but a complex array of factors : cultural , social , psychological , and emotional influences .
= = Sexuality and identity = =
Sexuality is an important part of each person 's identity , and has not just biological but psychological , emotional , spiritual , social , and cultural aspects . It involves not only sexual behaviors but relationships , self @-@ image , sex drive , reproduction , sexual orientation , and gender expression . Each person 's sexuality is influenced by lifelong socialization , in which factors such as religious and cultural background play a part , and is expressed in self @-@ esteem and the beliefs one holds about oneself ( identifying as a woman , or an attractive person ) .
SCI is extremely disruptive to sexuality , and it most frequently happens to young people , who are at a peak in their sexual and reproductive lives . Yet the importance of sexuality as a part of life is not diminished by a disabling injury . Although for years people with SCI were believed to be asexual , research has shown sexuality to be a high priority for people with SCI and an important aspect of quality of life . In fact , of all abilities they would like to have return , most paraplegics rated sexual function as their top priority , and most tetraplegics rated it second , after hand and arm function . Sexual function has a profound impact on self @-@ esteem and adjustment to life post @-@ injury . People who are able to adapt to their changed bodies and to have satisfying sex lives have better overall quality of life .
= = Sexual function = =
SCI usually causes sexual dysfunction , due to problems with sensation and the body 's arousal responses . The ability to experience sexual pleasure and orgasm are among the top priorities for sexual rehabilitation among injured people .
Much research has been done into erection . By two years post @-@ injury , 80 % of men recover at least partial erectile function , though many experience problems with the reliability and duration of their erections if they do not use interventions to enhance them . Studies have found that half or up to 65 % of men with SCI have orgasms , although the experience may feel different than it did before the injury . Most men say it feels weaker , and takes longer and more stimulation to achieve .
Common problems women experience post @-@ SCI are pain with intercourse and difficulty achieving orgasm . Around half of women with SCI are able to reach orgasm , usually when their genitals are stimulated . Some women report the sensation of orgasm to be the same as before the injury , and others say the sensation is reduced .
= = = Complete and incomplete injury = = =
The severity of the injury is an important aspect in determining how much sexual function returns as a person recovers . According to the American Spinal Injury Association grading scale , an incomplete SCI is one in which some amount of sensation or motor function is preserved in the rectum . This indicates that the brain can still send and receive some messages to the lowest parts of the spinal cord , beyond the damaged area . In people with incomplete injury , some or all of the spinal tracts involved in sexual responses remain intact , allowing , for example , orgasms like those of uninjured people . In men , having an incomplete injury improves chances of being able to achieve erections and orgasms over those with complete injuries .
Even people with complete SCI , in whom the spinal cord cannot transmit any messages past the level of the lesion , can achieve orgasm . In 1960 , in one of the earliest studies to look at orgasm and SCI , the term phantom orgasm was coined to describe women 's perception of orgasmic sensations despite SCI — but subsequent studies have suggested the experience is not merely psychological . Men with complete SCI report sexual sensations at the time of ejaculation , accompanied by physical signs normally found at orgasm , such as increased blood pressure . Women can experience orgasm with vibration to the cervix regardless of level or completeness of injury ; the sensation is the same as uninjured women experience . The peripheral nerves of the parasympathetic nervous system that carry messages to the brain ( afferent nerve fibers ) may explain why people with complete SCI feel sexual and climactic sensations . One proposed explanation for orgasm in women despite complete SCI is that the vagus nerve bypasses the spinal cord and carries sensory information from the genitals directly to the brain . Women with complete injuries can achieve sexual arousal and orgasm through stimulation of the clitoris , cervix , or vagina , which are each innervated by different nerve pathways , which suggests that even if SCI interferes with one area , function might be preserved in others . In both injured and uninjured people , the brain is responsible for the way sensations of climax are perceived : the qualitative experiences associated with climax are modulated by the brain , rather than a specific area of the body .
= = = Level of injury = = =
In addition to completeness of injury , the location of damage on the spinal cord influences how much sexual function is retained or regained after injury . Injuries can occur in the cervical ( neck ) , thoracic ( back ) , lumbar ( lower back ) , or sacral ( pelvic ) levels . Between each pair of vertebrae , spinal nerves branch off of the spinal cord and carry information to and from specific parts of the body . The location of injury to the spinal cord maps to the body , and the area of skin innervated by a specific spinal nerve is called a dermatome . All dermatomes below the level of injury to the spinal cord may lose sensation .
An injury at a lower point on the spine does not necessarily mean better sexual function ; for example , people with injuries in the sacral region are less likely to be able to orgasm than those with injuries higher on the spine . Women with injuries above the sacral level have a greater likelihood of orgasm in response to stimulation of the clitoris than those with sacral injuries ( 59 % vs 17 % ) . In men , injuries above the sacral level are associated with better function in terms of erections and ejaculation , and fewer and less severe reports of dysfunction . This may be due to reflexes that do not require input from the brain , which sacral injuries might interrupt .
= = = Psychogenic and reflexogenic responses = = =
The body 's physical arousal response ( vaginal lubrication and engorgement of the clitoris in women and erection in men ) occurs due to two separate pathways which normally work together : psychogenic and reflex . Arousal due to fantasies , visual input , or other mental stimulation is a psychogenic sexual experience , and that resulting from physical contact to the genital area is reflexogenic . In psychogenic arousal , messages travel from the brain via the spinal cord to the nerves in the genital area . The psychogenic pathway is served by the spinal cord at levels T11 – L2 . Thus people injured above the level of the T11 vertebra do not usually experience psychogenic erection or vaginal lubrication , but those with an injury below T12 can . Even without these physical responses , people with SCI often feel aroused , just as uninjured people do . The ability to feel the sensation of a pinprick and light touch in the dermatomes for T11 – L2 predicts how well the ability to have psychogenic arousal is preserved in both sexes . Input from the psychogenic pathway is sympathetic , and most of the time it sends inhibitory signals that prevent the physical arousal response ; however , in response to sexual stimulation , excitatory signals are increased while the inhibition is reduced . Removing the inhibition that is normally present allows the spinal reflexes that trigger the arousal response to take effect .
The reflexogenic pathway activates the parasympathetic nervous system in response to the sensation of touch . It is mediated by a reflex arc that goes to the spinal cord ( not to the brain ) and is served by the sacral segments of the spinal cord at S2 – S4 . A woman with a spinal cord lesion above T11 may not be able to experience psychogenic vaginal lubrication , but may still have reflex lubrication if her sacral segments are uninjured . Likewise , although a man 's ability to get a psychogenic erection when mentally aroused may be impaired after a higher @-@ level SCI , he may still be able to get a reflex or " spontaneous " erection . These erections may result in the absence of psychological arousal when the penis is touched or brushed , e.g. by clothing , but they do not last long and are generally lost when the stimulus is removed . Reflex erections may increase in frequency after SCI , due to the loss of inhibitory input from the brain that would suppress the response in an uninjured man . Conversely , an injury below the S1 level impairs reflex erections but not psychogenic erections . People who have some preservation of sensation in the dermatomes at the S4 and S5 levels and display a bulbocavernosus reflex ( contraction of the pelvic floor in response to pressure on the clitoris or glans penis ) are usually able to experience reflex erections or lubrication . Like other reflexes , reflexive sexual responses may be lost immediately after injury but return over time as the individual recovers from spinal shock .
= = = Factors in reduced function = = =
Most people with SCI have problems with the body 's physical sexual arousal response . Problems that result directly from impaired neural transmission are called primary sexual dysfunction . The function of the genitals is almost always affected by SCI , by alteration , reduction , or complete loss of sensation . Neuropathic pain , in which damaged nerve pathways signal pain in the absence of any noxious stimulus , is common after SCI and interferes with sex .
Secondary dysfunction results from factors that follow from the injury , such as loss of bladder and bowel control or impaired movement . The main barrier to sexual activity that people with SCI cite is physical limitation ; e.g. balance problems and muscle weakness cause difficulty with positioning . Spasticity , tightening of muscles due to increased muscle tone , is another complication that interferes with sex . Some medications have side effects that impede sexual pleasure or interfere with sexual function : antidepressants , muscle relaxants , sleeping pills and drugs that treat spasticity . Hormonal changes that alter sexual function may take place after SCI ; levels of prolactin heighten , women temporarily stop menstruating ( amenorrhea ) , and men experience reduced levels of testosterone . Testosterone deficiency causes reduced libido , increased weakness , fatigue , and failure to respond to erection @-@ enhancing drugs .
Tertiary sexual dysfunction results from psychological and social factors . Reduced libido , desire , or experience of arousal could be due to psychological or situational factors such as depression , anxiety , and changes in relationships . Both sexes experience reduced sexual desire after SCI , and almost half of men and almost three quarters of women have trouble becoming psychologically aroused . Depression is the most common cause of problems with arousal in people with SCI . People frequently experience grief and despair initially after the injury . Anxiety and drug and alcohol abuse may increase after discharge from a hospital as new challenges occur , which can exacerbate sexual difficulties . Drug and alcohol abuse increase unhealthy behaviors , straining relationships and social functioning . SCI can lead to significant insecurities , which have repercussions for sexuality and self @-@ image . SCI often affects body image , either due to the host of changes in the body that affect appearance ( e.g. unused muscles in the legs become atrophied ) , or due to changes in self @-@ perception not directly from physical changes . People frequently find themselves less attractive and expect others not to be attracted to them after SCI . These insecurities cause fear of rejection and deter people from initiating contact or sexual activity or engaging in sex . Feelings of undesirability or worthlessness even lead some to suggest to their partners that they find someone able bodied .
= = Fertility = =
= = = Male = = =
Men with SCI rank the ability to father children among their highest concerns relating to sexuality . Male fertility is reduced after SCI , due to a combination of problems with erections , ejaculation , and quality of the semen . As with other types of sexual response , ejaculation can be psychogenic or reflexogenic , and the level of injury affects a man 's ability to experience each type . As many as 95 % of men with SCI have problems with ejaculation ( anejaculation ) , possibly due to impaired coordination of input from different parts of the nervous system . Erection , orgasm , and ejaculation can each occur independently , although the ability to ejaculate seems linked to the quality of the erection , and the ability to orgasm is linked to the ejaculation facility . Even men with complete injuries may be able to ejaculate , because other nerves involved in ejaculation can effect the response without input from the spinal cord . In general , the higher the level of injury , the more physical stimulation the man needs to ejaculate . Conversely , premature or spontaneous ejaculation can be a problem for men with injuries at levels T12 – L1 . It can be severe enough that ejaculation is provoked by thinking a sexual thought , or for no reason at all , and is not accompanied by orgasm .
Most men have a normal sperm count , but a high proportion of sperm are abnormal ; they are less motile and do not survive as well . The reason for these abnormalities is not known , but research points to dysfunction of the seminal vesicles and prostate , which concentrate substances that are toxic to sperm . Cytokines , immune proteins which promote an inflammatory response , are present at higher concentrations in semen of men with SCI , as is platelet @-@ activating factor acetylhydrolase ; both are harmful to sperm . Another immune @-@ related response to SCI is the presence of a higher number of white blood cells in the semen .
= = = Female = = =
The numbers of women with SCI giving birth and having healthy babies are increasing . Around a half to two @-@ thirds of women with SCI report they might want to have children , and 14 – 20 % do get pregnant at least once . Although female fertility is not usually permanently reduced by SCI , there is a stress response that can happen immediately post @-@ injury that alters levels of fertility @-@ related hormones in the body . In about half of women , menstruation stops after the injury but then returns within an average of five months — it returns within a year for a large majority . After menstruation returns , women with SCI become pregnant at a rate close to that of the rest of the population .
Pregnancy is associated with greater @-@ than @-@ normal risks in women with SCI , among them increased risk of deep vein thrombosis , respiratory infection , and urinary tract infection . Considerations exist such as maintaining proper positioning in a wheelchair , prevention of pressure sores , and increased difficulty moving due to weight gain and changes in center of balance . Assistive devices may need to be altered and medications changed . For women with injuries above T6 , a risk during labor and delivery that threatens both mother and fetus is autonomic dysreflexia , in which the blood pressure increases to dangerous levels high enough to cause potentially deadly stroke . Drugs such as nifedipine and captopril can be used to manage an episode if it occurs , and epidural anesthesia helps although it is not very reliable in women with SCI . Anesthesia is used for labor and delivery even for women without sensation , who may only experience contractions as abdominal discomfort , increased spasticity , and episodes of autonomic dysreflexia . Reduced sensation in the pelvic area means women with SCI usually have less painful delivery ; in fact , they may fail to realize when they go into labor . If there are deformities in the pelvis or spine caesarian section may be necessary . Babies of women with SCI are more likely to be born prematurely , and , premature or not , they are more likely to be small for their gestational time .
= = Management = =
= = = Erectile problems = = =
Although erections are not necessary for satisfying sexual encounters , many men see them as important , and treating erectile dysfunction improves their relationships and quality of life . Whatever treatment is used , it works best in combination with talk @-@ oriented therapy to help integrate it into the sex life . Oral medications and mechanical devices are the first choice in treatment because they are less invasive , are often effective , and are well tolerated . Oral medications include sildenafil ( Viagra ) , tadalafil ( Cialis ) , and vardenafil ( Levitra ) . Penis pumps induce erections without the need for drugs or invasive treatments . To use a pump , the man inserts his penis into a cylinder then pumps it to create a vacuum , which draws blood into the penis making it erect . He then slides a ring from the outside of the cylinder onto the base of the penis to hold the blood in and maintain the erection . A man who is able to get an erection but has trouble maintaining it for long enough can use a ring by itself . The ring cannot be left on for more than 30 minutes and cannot be used at the same time as anticoagulant medications .
If oral and mechanical treatments fail , the second choice is local injections : medications such as papaverine and prostaglandin that alter the blood flow and trigger erection are injected into the penis . This method is preferred for its effectiveness , but can cause pain and scarring . Another option is to insert a small pellet of medication into the urethra , but this requires higher doses than injections and may not be as effective . Topical medications to dilate the blood vessels have been used , but are not very effective or well tolerated . Electrical stimulation of efferent nerves at the S2 level can be used to trigger an erection that lasts as long as the stimulation does . Surgical implants , either of flexible rods or inflatable tubes , are reserved for when other methods fail because of the potential for serious complications , which occur in as many as 10 % of cases . They carry the risk of eroding penile tissue ( breaking through the skin ) . Although satisfaction among men who use them is high , if they do need to be removed implants make other methods such as injections and vacuum devices unusable due to tissue damage . It is also possible for erectile dysfunction to exist not as a direct result of SCI but due to factors such as major depression , diabetes , or drugs such as those taken for spasticity . Finding and treating the root cause may alleviate the problem . For example , men who experience erectile problems as the result of a testosterone deficiency can receive androgen replacement therapy .
= = = Ejaculation and male fertility = = =
Without medical intervention , the male fertility rate after SCI is 5 – 14 % , but the rate increases with treatments . However , even with all available medical interventions , fewer than half of men with SCI can father children . Assisted insemination is usually required . As with erection , therapies used to treat infertility in uninjured men are used for those with SCI . For anejaculation in SCI , the first @-@ line method for sperm retrieval is penile vibratory stimulation ( PVS ) . A high @-@ speed vibrator is applied to the glans penis to trigger a reflex that causes ejaculation , usually within a few minutes . Reports of efficacy with PVS range from 15 – 88 % , possibly due to differences in vibrator settings and experience of clinicians , as well as level and completeness of injury . Complete lesions strictly above Onuf 's nucleus ( S2 – S4 ) are responsive to PVS in 98 % , but complete lesions of the S2 – S4 segments are not . In case of failure with PVS , spermatozoa are sometimes collected by electroejaculation : an electrical probe is inserted into the rectum , where it triggers ejaculation . The success rate is 80 – 100 % , but the technique requires anaesthesia and does not have the potential to be done at home that PVS has . Both PVS and electroejaculation carry a risk of autonomic dysreflexia , so drugs to prevent the condition can be given in advance and blood pressure is monitored throughout the procedures for those who are susceptible . Massage of the prostate gland and seminal vesicles is another method to retrieve stored sperm . If these methods fail to cause ejaculation or do not yield sufficient usable sperm , sperm can be surgically removed by testicular sperm extraction or percutaneous epididymal sperm aspiration . These procedures yield sperm in 86 – 100 % of cases , but nonsurgical treatments are preferred . Premature or spontaneous ejaculation is treated with antidepressants including selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors , which are known to delay ejaculation as a side effect .
= = = Women = = =
Compared with the options available for treating sexual dysfunction in men ( for whom results are concretely observable ) , those available for women are limited . For example , PDE5 inhibitors , oral medications for treating erectile dysfunction in men , have been tested for their ability to increase sexual responses such as arousal and orgasm in women — but no controlled trials have been done in women with SCI , and trials in other women yielded only inconclusive results . In theory , women 's sexual response could be improved using a vacuum device made to draw blood into the clitoris , but few studies on treatments for sexual function in women with SCI have been carried out . There is a particular paucity of information outside the area of reproduction .
= = = Education and counseling = = =
Counseling about sex and sexuality by medical professionals , psychologists , social workers , and nurses is a part of most SCI rehabilitation programs . Education is part of the followup treatment for people with SCI , as are psychotherapy , peer mentorship , and social activities ; these are helpful for improving skills needed for socializing and relationships . Rather than addressing sexual dysfunction strictly as a physical problem , appropriate sexual rehabilitation care takes into account the individual as a whole , for example addressing issues with relationships and self @-@ esteem . Sexual counseling includes teaching techniques to manage depression and stress , and to increase attention to preserved sensations during sexual activity . Education includes information about birth control or assistive devices such as those for positioning in sex , or advice and ideas for addressing problems such as incontinence and autonomic dysreflexia .
Many SCI patients have received misinformation about the effects of their injury on their sexual function and benefit from education about it . Although sexual education shortly after injury is known to be helpful and desired , it is frequently missing in rehabilitation settings ; a common complaint from those who go through rehabilitation programs is that they offer insufficient information about sexuality . Longer @-@ term education and counseling on sex after discharge from a hospital setting are especially important , yet sexuality is one of the most often neglected areas in long @-@ term SCI rehabilitation , particularly for women . Care providers may refrain from addressing the topic because they feel intimidated or unequipped to handle it . Clinicians must be circumspect in bringing up sexual matters since people may be uncomfortable with or unready for the subject . Many patients wait for providers to broach the topic even if they do want the information .
A person 's experience in managing sexuality after the injury relies not only on physical factors like severity and level of the injury , but on aspects of life circumstances and personality such as sexual experience and attitudes about sex . As well as evaluating physical concerns , clinicians must take into account factors that affect each patient 's situation : gender , age , cultural , and social factors . Aspects of patients ' cultural and religious backgrounds , even if unnoticed before the injury caused sexual dysfunction , affect care and treatments — particularly when cultural attitudes and assumptions of patients and care providers conflict . Health professionals must be sensitive to issues of sexual orientation and gender identity , showing respect and acceptance while communicating , listening , and emotionally supporting . Providers who treat SCI have been found to assume their patients are heterosexual or to exclude LGBTQ patients from their awareness , potentially resulting in substandard care . Academic research on sexuality and disability under @-@ represents LGBTQ perspectives as well .
As well as the patient , the partner of an injured person frequently needs support and counseling . It can help with adjustment to a new relationship dynamic and self @-@ image ( such as being placed in the role of caretaker ) or with stresses that arise in the sexual relationship . Frequently , partners of injured people must contend with feelings like guilt , anger , anxiety , and exhaustion while dealing with the added financial burden of lost wages and medical expenses . Counseling aims to strengthen the relationship by improving communication and trust .
= = = = Children and adolescents = = = =
Not only does SCI present children and adolescents with many of the same difficulties adults face , it impacts the development of their sexuality . Although substantial research exists on SCI and sexuality in adults , very little exists on the ways in which it affects development of sexuality in young people . Injured children and adolescents need ongoing , age @-@ appropriate sex education that addresses questions of SCI as it relates to sexuality and sexual function . Very young children become aware of their disabilities before their sexuality , but as they age they become curious just as able @-@ bodied children do , and it is appropriate to provide them with increasing amounts of information . Caregivers help the child and family prepare for transition into adulthood , including in sexuality and social interaction , beginning early and intensifying during adolescence . Parents need education about the effects of SCI on sexual function so that they can answer their children 's questions . Once patients reach their teens , they need more specific information about pregnancy , birth control , self @-@ esteem , and dating . Teenagers with lost or reduced genital sensation benefit from education about alternative ways to experience pleasure and satisfaction from sexual acts . The teen years are often particularly difficult for those with SCI , in terms of body image and relationships . Given the importance they place on sexuality and privacy , adolescents may experience humiliation when parents or caregivers bathe them or take care of bowel and bladder needs . They can benefit from sexuality counseling , support groups , and mentoring by adults with SCI who can share experiences and lead discussions with peers . With the right care and education from family and professionals , injured children and adolescents can develop into sexually healthy adults .
= = = Changes in sexual practices = = =
People make a variety of sexual adaptations to help adjust to SCI . They often change their sexual practices , moving away from genital stimulation and intercourse and toward greater emphasis on touching above the level of injury and other aspects of intimacy such as kissing and caressing . It is necessary to discover new sexual positions if ones used previously have become too difficult . Other factors that enhance sexual pleasure are positive memories , fantasies , relaxation , meditation , breathing techniques , and most importantly , trust with a partner . People with SCI can make use of visual , auditory , olfactory , and tactile stimuli . It is possible to train oneself to be more mindful of the cerebral aspects of sex and of feeling in areas of the body that have sensation ; this increases chances of orgasm . The importance of desire and comfort is the reasoning behind the quip " the most important sexual organ is the brain . "
Adjusting to post @-@ injury changes in the body 's sensation is difficult enough to cause some to give up on the idea of satisfying sex at first . But changes in sensitivity above and at the level of injury occur over time ; people may find erogenous zones like the nipples or ears have become more sensitive , enough to be sexually satisfying . They may discover new erogenous zones that were not erotic before the injury ; care providers can help direct this discovery . These erogenous areas can even lead to orgasm when stimulated . Such changes may result from " remapping " of sensory areas in the brain due to neuroplasticity , particularly when sensation in the genitals is completely lost . Commonly there is an area on the body between the areas where sensation is lost and those where is preserved called a " transition zone " that has increased sensitivity and is often sexually pleasurable when stimulated . Also known as a " border zone " , this area may feel the way the penis or clitoris did before injury , and can even give orgasmic sensation . Due to such changes in sensation , people are encouraged to explore their bodies to discover what areas are pleasurable . Masturbation is a useful way to learn about the body 's new responses .
Tests exist to measure how much sensation a person has retained in the genitals after an injury , which are used to tailor treatment or rehabilitation . Sensory testing helps people learn to recognize the sensations associated with arousal and orgasm . Injured people who are able to achieve orgasms from stimulation to the genitals may need stimulation for a longer time or at a greater intensity . Sex toys such as vibrators are available , e.g. to enhance sensation in areas of reduced sensitivity , and these can be modified to accommodate disabilities . For example , a hand strap can be added to a vibrator or dildo to assist someone with poor hand function .
= = = Considerations for sexual activity = = =
SCI presents extra needs to consider for sexual activity ; for example muscle weakness and movement limitations restrict options for positioning . Pillows or devices such as wedges can be placed to help achieve and maintain a desired position for people affected by weakness or movement limitations . Assistive devices exist to aid in motion , such as sliding chairs to provide pelvic thrust . Spasticity and pain also create barriers to sexual activity ; these changes may require couples to use new positions , such as seated in a wheelchair . A warm bath can be taken prior to sex , and massage and stretching can be incorporated into foreplay to ease spasticity .
Another consideration is loss of sensation , which puts people at risk for wounds such as pressure sores and injuries that could become worse before being noticed . Friction from sexual activity may damage the skin , so it is necessary after sex to inspect areas that could have been hurt , particularly the buttocks and genital area . People who already have pressure sores must take care not to make the wounds worse . Irritation to the genitals increases risk for vaginal infections , which get worse if they go unnoticed . Women who do not get sufficient vaginal lubrication on their own can use a commercially available personal lubricant to decrease friction .
Another risk is autonomic dysreflexia ( AD ) , a medical emergency involving dangerously high blood pressure . People at risk for AD can take medications to help prevent it before sex , but if it does occur they must stop and seek treatment . However mild signs of AD such as slightly high blood pressure frequently do accompany sexual arousal and are not cause for alarm . In fact , some interpret the symptoms of AD that occur during sexual activity as pleasant or arousing , or even climactic .
A concern for sexual activity that is not dangerous but that can be upsetting for both partners is bladder or bowel leakage due to urinary or fecal incontinence . Couples can prepare for sex by draining the bladder using intermittent catheterization or placing towels down in advance . People with indwelling urinary catheters must take special care with them , removing them or taping them out of the way .
Birth control is another consideration : women with SCI are usually not prescribed oral contraceptives since the hormones in them increase the risk of blood clots , for which people with SCI are already at elevated risk . Intrauterine devices could have dangerous complications that could go undetected if sensation is reduced . Diaphrams that require something to be inserted into the vagina are not usable by people with poor hand function . An option of choice for women is for partners to use condoms .
= = Long @-@ term adjustment = =
In the first months after an injury , people commonly prioritize other aspects of rehabilitation over sexual matters , but in the long term , adjustment to life with SCI necessitates addressing sexuality . Although physical , psychological and emotional factors militate to reduce the frequency of sex after injury , it increases after time . As years go by , the odds that a person will become involved in a sexual relationship increase . Difficulties adjusting to a changed appearance and physical limitations contribute to reduced frequency of sexual acts , and improved body image is associated with an increase . Like frequency , sexual desire and sexual satisfaction often decrease after SCI . The reduction in women 's sexual desire and frequency may be in part because they believe they can no longer enjoy sex , or because their independence or social opportunities are reduced . As time goes by people usually adjust sexually , adapting to their changed bodies . Some 80 % of women return to being sexually active , and the numbers who report being sexually satisfied range from 40 – 88 % . Although women 's satisfaction is usually lower than before the injury , it improves as time passes . Women report higher rates of sexual satisfaction than men post @-@ SCI for as many as 10 – 45 years . More than a quarter of men have substantial problems with adjustment to their post @-@ injury sexual functioning . Sexual satisfaction depends on a host of factors , some more important than the physical function of the genitals : intimacy , quality of relationships , satisfaction of partners , willingness to be sexually experimental , and good communication . Genital function is not as important to men 's sexual satisfaction as are their partners ' satisfaction and intimacy in their relationships . For women , quality of relationships , closeness with partners , sexual desire , and positive body image , as well as the physical function of the genitals , contribute sexual satisfaction . For both sexes , long @-@ term relationships are associated with higher sexual satisfaction .
= = Relationships = =
A catastrophic injury such as SCI puts strain on marriages and other romantic relationships , which in turn has important implications for quality of life . Partners of injured people often feel out of control , overwhelmed , angry , and guilty while having added work related to the injury , less help with responsibilities like parenting , and loss of wages . Relationship stress and excessive dependence in relationships increases risk of depression for the person with SCI , while supportive relationships are protective . Relationships change as partners take on new roles , such as that of caregiver , which may conflict with the role of partner and require substantial sacrifice of time and self @-@ care . These changes in responsibilities may mean a reverse in societally determined gender roles within relationships ; inability to fulfil these roles impacts sexuality in general . Sexual dysfunction is a stressor in relationships . People are often as concerned about failing to keep a partner satisfied as they are about meeting their own sexual needs . In fact , two of the top reasons people with SCI cite for wanting to have sex are for intimacy and to keep a partner . The frequency of sex correlates with the desire of the uninjured partner .
Although problems with sexual function that result from SCI play a part in some divorces , they are not as important as emotional maturity in determining the success of a marriage . People with SCI get divorced more often than the rest of the population , and marriages that took place before the injury fail more often than those that took place after ( 33 % vs. 21 % ) . People married before the injury report less happy marriages and worse sexual adjustment than those married after , possibly indicating that spouses had difficulty adjusting to the new circumstances . For those who chose to become involved with someone after an injury , the disability was an accepted part of the relationship from the outset . Understanding and acceptance of the limitations that result from the injury on the part of the uninjured partner is an important factor in a successful marriage . Many divorces have been found to be initiated by the injured partner , sometimes due to the depression and denial that often occurs early after the injury . Thus counseling is important , not just for managing changes in self @-@ perception but in perceptions about relationships .
Despite the stresses that SCI places on people and relationships , studies have shown that people with SCI are able to have happy and fulfilling romantic relationships and marriages , and to raise well @-@ adjusted children . People with SCI who wish to be parents may question their ability to raise children and opt not to have them , but studies have shown no difference in parenting outcomes between injured and uninjured groups . Children of women with SCI do not have worse self @-@ esteem , adjustment , or attitudes toward their parents . Women who have children post @-@ SCI have a higher quality of life , even though parenting adds demands and challenges to their lives .
For those who are single when injured or who become single , SCI causes difficulties and insecurities with respect to one 's ability to meet new partners and start relationships . In some settings , beauty standards cause people to view disabled bodies as less attractive , limiting the options for sexual and romantic partners of people with disabilities like SCI . Furthermore , physical disabilities are stigmatized , causing people to avoid contact with disabled people , particularly those with highly visible conditions like SCI . The stigma may cause people with SCI to experience self @-@ consciousness and embarrassment in public . However , they can increase their social success by using impression management techniques to change how they are perceived and create a more positive image of themselves in others ' eyes . Physical limitations create difficulties ; with lowered independence comes reduced social interaction and fewer opportunities to find partners . Difficulties with mobility and the lack of disabled accessibility of social spaces ( e.g. lack of wheelchair ramps ) create a further barrier to social activity and limit the ability to meet partners . Isolation and its associated risk of depression can be limited by participating in physical activities , social gatherings , clubs , and online chat and dating .
= = Society and culture = =
Negative societal attitudes and stereotypes about people with disabilities like SCI affect interpersonal interactions and self @-@ image , with important implications for quality of life . In fact , for women , psychological factors have a more important impact on sexual adjustment and activity than physical ones . Negative attitudes about disability ( along with relationships and social support ) are more predictive of outcome than even the level or completeness of injury . Stereotypes exist that people with SCI ( particularly women ) are uninterested in , unsuitable for , or incapable of sexual relationships or encounters . “ People think we can only date people in wheelchairs , that we ’ re lucky to get any guy , that we can ’ t be picky , ” remarked Mia Schaikewitz , who is profiled in Push Girls , a 2012 reality series about four spinal cord injured women . Not only do they affect injured people 's self @-@ image , these stereotypes are particularly harmful when held by counselors and professionals involved in rehabilitation . Caregivers affected by these culturally transmitted beliefs may treat their patients as asexual , particularly if the injury occurred at a young age and the patient never had sexual experiences . Failure to recognize injured people 's sexual and reproductive capacity restricts their access to birth control , information about sexuality , and sexual health @-@ related medical care such as annual gynecological exams . Another common belief that impacts sexual rehabilitation is that sex is strictly about genital function ; this could cause caregivers to discount the importance of the rest of the body and of the individual .
Cultural attitudes toward gender roles have profound effects on people with SCI . The injury can cause insecurities surrounding sexual identity , particularly if the disability precludes fulfilment of societally taught gender norms . Female beauty standards propagated by mass media and culture portray the ideal woman as able bodied : as one fashion model with a SCI commented , " when you have a devastating injury or disability , you ’ re not often thought of as sensual or pretty because you don 't look like the women in the magazines . " Inability to meet these standards can lower self @-@ esteem , even if these ideals are also unattainable for most able @-@ bodied women . Poorer self @-@ esteem is associated with worse sexual adjustment and quality of life , and higher rates of loneliness , stress , and depression . Males are also affected by societal expectations , such as notions about masculinity and sexual prowess . Men from some traditional backgrounds may feel performance pressure that emphasizes the ability to have erections and sexual intercourse . Men who have strong sexual desire but who are not able to perform sexually may be at increased risk for depression , particularly when they believe strongly in traditional masculine gender norms with sexual function as core to the male identity . Men who strongly believe in these traditional roles may feel sexually inadequate , unmanly , insecure , and less satisfied with life . Since sexual dysfunction has this negative impact on self @-@ esteem , treatment of erectile dysfunction can have a psychological benefit even though it does not help with physical sensation . SCI may necessitate reappraisal and rejection of assumptions about gender norms and sexual function in order to adjust healthily to the disability : those who are able to change the way they think about gender roles may have better life satisfaction and outcomes with rehabilitation . Counseling is helpful in this reassessment process .
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= Architecture of Denmark =
The architecture of Denmark has its origins in the Viking period , richly revealed by archaeological finds . It became firmly established in the Middle Ages when first Romanesque , then Gothic churches and cathedrals sprang up throughout the country . It was during this period that , in a country with little access to stone , brick became the construction material of choice , not just for churches but also for fortifications and castles .
Under the influence of Frederick II and Christian IV , both of whom had been inspired by the castles of France , Dutch and Flemish designers were brought to Denmark , initially to improve the country 's fortifications , but increasingly to build magnificent royal castles and palaces in the Renaissance style . In parallel , the half @-@ timbered style became popular for ordinary dwellings in towns and villages across the country .
Late in his reign , Christian IV also became an early proponent of Baroque which was to continue for a considerable time with many impressive buildings both in the capital and the provinces . Neoclassicism came initially from France but was slowly adopted by native Danish architects who increasingly participated in defining architectural style . A productive period of Historicism ultimately merged into the 19th century National Romantic style .
It was not , however , until the 1960s that Danish architects entered the world scene with their highly successful Functionalism . This , in turn , has evolved into more recent world @-@ class masterpieces such as the Sydney Opera House and the Great Belt Bridge paving the way for a number of Danish designers to be rewarded for excellence both at home and abroad .
= = Middle Ages = =
= = = The Vikings = = =
Archaeological excavations in various parts of Denmark have revealed much about the way the Vikings lived . One of the most notable sites is Hedeby . Located some 45 km ( 28 mi ) south of the Danish border near the German town of Schleswig , it probably dates back to the end of the 8th century . The houses are deemed to be among the most sophisticated dwellings of their time . Oak frames were used for the walls , and the roofs were probably thatched .
Viking ring houses , such as those at Trelleborg , near Slagelse on the Danish island of Zealand , have a rather different , ship @-@ like shape , the long walls bulging outwards . Each house consisted of a large central hall , 18 m × 8 m ( 59 ft × 26 ft ) and two smaller rooms , one at each end . Those at Fyrkat ( c . 980 ) in the north of Jutland were 28 @.@ 5 metres long , 5 metres wide ( 93 @.@ 5 ft × 16 @.@ 4 ft wide ) at the ends and 7 @.@ 5 m in the middle , the long walls curving slightly outwards . The walls consisted of double rows of posts with planks wedged horizontally between them . A series of outer posts slanted towards the wall were possibly used to support the building like buttresses .
= = = Romanesque style = = =
Denmark 's first churches from the 9th century were built of timber and have not survived . Hundreds of stone churches in the Romanesque style were built in the 12th and 13th centuries . They had a flat @-@ ceilinged nave and chancel with small rounded windows and round arches . Granite boulders and limestone were initially the preferred building materials , but after brick production reached Denmark in the middle of the 12th century , brick quickly became the material of choice . Among the finest examples of brick Romanesque buildings are St. Bendt 's Church in Ringsted ( c . 1170 ) and the unique Church of Our Lady in Kalundborg ( c . 1200 ) with its five tall towers .
The church at Østerlars on the island of Bornholm was built around 1150 . Like three other churches on the island , it is a round church . The three @-@ storeyed building is supported by a circular outer wall and an exceptionally wide , hollow central column .
Construction of Lund Cathedral in Scania started in about 1103 when the region was part of the Kingdom of Denmark . It was the first of great Danish Romanesque cathedrals in the shape of a three @-@ aisled basilica with transepts . It seems to have been related to earlier German buildings , though there are also traces of Anglo @-@ Norman and Lombard influences . Ribe , which followed with its great cathedral ( 1150 – 1250 ) , had close trade contacts with the Rhine region of Germany . Both the materials , sandstone and tufa , and the models were taken from there .
= = = Gothic style = = =
Towards the end of the 13th century and until about 1500 , the Gothic style became the norm with the result that most of the older Romanesque churches were rebuilt or adapted to the Gothic style . The flat ceilings were replaced by high cross vaults , windows were enlarged with pointed arches , chapels and towers were added and the interiors were decorated with murals . Red brick was the material of choice as can be seen in St. Canute 's Cathedral , Odense ( 1300 – 1499 ) , and St. Peter 's Church , Næstved . St. Canute 's presents all the features of Gothic architecture : pointed arch , buttresses , ribbed vaulting , increased light and the spatial combination of nave and chancel .
Although most Gothic architecture in Denmark is to be found in churches and monasteries , there are examples in the secular field too . Glimmingehus ( 1499 – 1506 ) , a rectangular castle in Scania , clearly presents Gothic features . It was commissioned by the Danish nobleman Jens Holgersen Ulfstand who called on the services of Adam van Düren , a North German master who also worked on Lund Cathedral . The building contains many defensive features of the times , including parapets , false doors , dead @-@ end corridors , murder @-@ holes for pouring boiling pitch over the attackers , moats , drawbridges and various other death traps to protect the nobles against peasant uprisings .
= = = Half @-@ timbered buildings = = =
During the late Middle Ages , a slow transition began from the traditional wooden houses in towns and villages towards half @-@ timbered properties . One of the oldest in Denmark is Anne Hvides Gård , a two @-@ storeyed townhouse in Svendborg on the island of Funen , which was constructed in 1560 . The building now forms part of the Svendborg Museum .
Ystad in the southern Swedish region of Scania which was formerly part of Denmark still has some 300 half @-@ timbered houses , several of them of historic importance . The oldest surviving half @-@ timbered house in Denmark , built in 1527 , is located in Køge on the east coast of Sealand .
The Old Town in Aarhus , Jutland , is an open @-@ air village museum consisting of 75 historical buildings collected from all parts of the country . They include a variety of half @-@ timbered houses , some dating back to the middle of the 16th century .
= = Renaissance = =
Renaissance architecture thrived during the reigns of Frederick II and especially Christian IV . Inspired by the French castles of the times , Flemish architects designed masterpieces such as Kronborg Castle in Helsingør and Frederiksborg Palace in Hillerød . In Copenhagen , Rosenborg Castle ( 1606 – 24 ) and Børsen or the former stock exchange ( 1640 ) are perhaps the city 's most remarkable Renaissance buildings .
During the reign of Frederick II , Kronborg Castle was designed by two Flemish architects , Hans Hendrik van Paesschen who started the work in 1574 and Anthonis van Obbergen who finished it in 1585 . Modelled on a three @-@ winged French castle , it was finally completed as a full four @-@ winged building . The castle burnt down in 1629 but , under orders from Christian IV , was quickly rebuilt under the leadership of Hans van Steenwinckel the Younger , son of the famous Flemish artist . It is widely recognized as one of Europe 's most outstanding Renaissance castles and is a UNESCO World Heritage Site .
Frederiksborg Palace ( 1602 – 20 ) in Hillerød is the largest Renaissance palace in Scandinavia . Christian IV had most of Frederick II 's original building pulled down in order to have van Steenwinckel complete a three @-@ winged French @-@ styled castle with a low terrace wing around a courtyard . The architectural expression and the decorative finish clearly reflect Dutch Renaissance preferences as evidenced by the ornamental portals and windows and especially in sweeping Italianate gables .
Rosenborg Castle in Copenhagen , also built by Christian IV , is another example of the Dutch Renaissance style . In 1606 , the king first had a two @-@ storey summerhouse built on a site he used as a park for relaxation . He then decided to start work on a much more ambitious building , the castle , which developed in stages until a Dutch Renaissance masterpiece was completed in 1624 . Predating the castle , the Renaissance @-@ style park , is Denmark 's oldest royal garden .
Sponsored by Christian IV , Børsen , one of the first commodity exchanges in Europe , was built from 1618 to 1624 . It was designed to emphasize Copenhagen 's position as a commercial metropolis . Although inspired by the Dutch Renaissance style , the distinctive towers and garrets on the roof reflect the taste of Christian IV . The characteristic spire of the building with four intertwinded dragon tails topped by three crowns , symbolises the then Kingdom of Denmark , which included Norway and Sweden .
In 1614 , Christian IV began work on the construction of the then Danish Kristianstad in Scania , now in the south of Sweden , completing many of its buildings in the Renaissance style . Particularly impressive is the Church of the Trinity ( 1618 – 28 ) designed by Flemish @-@ Danish architect Lorenz van Steenwinckel . It is said to be Scandinavia 's finest example of a Renaissance church .
Christian IV also initiated a number of projects in Norway that were largely based on Renaissance architecture He established mining operations in Kongsberg and Røros , now a World Heritage Site . After a devastating fire in 1624 , the town of Oslo was moved to a new location and rebuilt as a fortified city with an orthogonal layout surrounded by ramparts , and renamed Christiania . King Christian also founded the trading city of Kristiansand , once again naming it after himself .
While stone buildings became more and more common as town houses , farms continued to be half @-@ timbered , sometimes in conjunction with a single stone house . Ordinary people continued to live in half @-@ timbered houses .
Holbæk in northwestern Sealand began to develop towards the end of the Middle Ages . Prosperity peaked in the 17th century as corn grown locally was traded with Germany and the Netherlands . The half @-@ timbered houses which now form the museum date back to that period , providing an insight into how the town functioned at the time .
Danish country vicarages from this period tended to be built in the same style as farmhouses , though usually rather larger . A fine example is Kølstrup Vicarage near Kerteminde in north @-@ eastern Funen . The house itself is a thatched half @-@ timbered building with a large rectangular courtyard flanked by outhouses .
= = Baroque = =
As during the Renaissance period , it was again principally Dutch influence which predominated in Baroque architecture , although many of the features originated in Italy and France . Symmetry and regularity were primary concerns , often enhanced by a projecting central section on the main façade .
Copenhagen 's Round Tower was also one of Christian IV 's projects after he provided funding for an observatory as proposed by the astronomer Tycho Brahe . Under the initial leadership of Hans van Steenwinckel who surprisingly adapted the design to Dutch Baroque , the Tower was completed in 1642 with a height of almost 40 m . The bricks , specially ordered from the Netherlands , were of a hard @-@ burned , slender type , known as muffer or mopper . A 210 @-@ meter @-@ long spiral ramp leads to the top , providing panoramic views over Copenhagen . The Round Tower is the oldest functioning observatory in Europe . Until 1861 it was used by the University of Copenhagen , but today , anyone can observe the night sky through the tower 's astronomical telescope during the winter .
Nysø Manor ( 1673 ) near Præstø , Sealand , was built for the local functionary Jens Lauridsen . It was the first Baroque country house in Denmark , replacing the earlier Renaissance style . The inspiration came from Holland and the architect was probably Ewert Janssen .
One of the foremost designers of the times was the Danish architect Lambert van Haven whose masterpiece was the Church of Our Saviour , Copenhagen ( 1682 – 96 ) which relies on the Greek cross for its basic layout . The façade is segmented by Tuscan pilasters extending up to the full height of the building . Other features such as the distinctive corkscrew spire were however not undertaken until the reign of Frederick V. It was Lauritz de Thurah who finally completed the building in 1752 .
Charlottenborg ( 1672 – 83 ) , on Kongens Nytorv in the centre of Copenhagen , is said to be the most important pure Baroque building remaining in Denmark . Van Haven may have been involved in its design although Ewert Janssen is usually credited with the work . Several other mansion houses in Denmark have been based on its design .
It was Henrik Ruse , a Dutch building engineer , who was charged by Frederick III to develop the area around Kongens Nytorv , especially in connection with the Nyhavn Canal which was designed to become Copenhagen 's new harbour . It was not , however , until Christian V became king in 1670 that Niels Rosenkrantz completed the work . Over the next few years , numerous town houses were built along the northern or sunny side of the canal . The oldest , Number 9 , was completed in 1681 , probably by Christen Christensen , the harbour master .
Clausholm Castle ( 1693 – 94 ) near Randers was designed by the Danish architect Ernst Brandenburger with assistance of the Swede Nicodemus Tessin who was invited to decorate the facade . The more sophisticated first @-@ floor apartments with their higher ceilings were designed for use by royalty .
The first Christiansborg Palace in Copenhagen , designed by Elias David Häusser and completed in the 1740s , was certainly one of the most impressive Baroque buildings of its day . Although the palace itself was destroyed by fire in 1794 , the extensive showgrounds and riding arena completed by Niels Eigtved have survived undamaged and can be visited today . Fredensborg Palace ( 1731 ) , the royal residence on the shore of Sealand 's Lake Esrum , with its exquisite Chancellery House , is the work of Johan Cornelius Krieger who was the court gardener at Rosenborg Castle . The park at Fredensborg is one of Denmark 's largest and best preserved Baroque gardens .
After the turn of the 19th century , architecture developed into the late Baroque style . Among the major proponents were Johan Conrad Ernst who built the Chancery Building or Kancellibygningen ( 1721 ) on Slotsholmen and Lauritz de Thurah who designed the Eremitage Palace ( 1734 ) in Dyrehaven , just north of Copenhagen . Even more ambitious was de Thurah 's work at Ledreborg near Roskilde , where he succeeded in working the components into a well @-@ balanced and cohesive Baroque palace .
= = = Rococo = = =
Following on closely from the Baroque period , Rococo came into fashion in the 1740s under the leadership of Nicolai Eigtved . Originally a gardener , Eigtved spent many years abroad where he became increasingly interested in architecture , especially the French Rococo style . On his return to Denmark , he built Prinsens Palæ ( 1743 – 44 ) in Copenhagen as a residence for Crown Prince Frederick ( later Frederick V ) . It is now the National Museum .
Soon afterwards , he was given prestige assignments including the overall architectural design for the Frederiksstaden district of Copenhagen 1749 , planned around the strictly octagonal square containing the four Amalienborg Palaces and considered to be one of Europe 's most important Rococo complexes . Adam Gottlob Moltke who , as Frederick V 's overhofmarskal or lord chamberlain , was in charge of the project gave Eigtved a free hand , not only to design the principal buildings but also to provide the area with straight broad streets and the mansions which lined them . Frederick V had wanted to emulate the grand building achievements of the French monarchs . Not surprisingly , therefore , the palace square is inspired by the Place de la Concorde in Paris from the same period . Although Eigtved died before the work was completed , other architects including Lauritz de Thurah faithfully continued to execute his plans . Perhaps the finest outcomes are the Amalienborg Palace complex , Frederik 's Church in its immediate vicinity and Frederiks Hospital .
Philip de Lange , although influenced by Eigtved , developed his own rather strict style during this period . His ornamental facade can be seen on the Kunstforeningen building ( 1750 ) on Gammel Strand in Copenhagen . The top storey with a gable was added later . De Lange also designed the small but well proportioned Damsholte Church on Møn , the only Rococo village church in Denmark .
= = Neoclassical = =
Neoclassicism which relied on inspiration from ancient Greece and Rome , was brought to Denmark by the French architect Nicolas @-@ Henri Jardin . His countryman , the sculptor Jacques Saly , who was already well established in Denmark , persuaded Frederick V that Jardin could complete Frederik 's Church after Eigtved 's death . Although Jardin did not succeed in this , he was successful in designing several prestige Neoclassical buildings such as Bernstorff Palace ( 1759 – 65 ) in Gentofte and Marienlyst Palace near Helsingør .
One of Jardin 's pupils , Caspar Frederik Harsdorff , turned out to be Denmark 's most prominent 18th @-@ century architect and is known as the Father of Danish Classicism . He undertook a considerable amount of redesign work , both for interiors and exteriors , including work on the Royal Theatre ( 1774 ) where he introduced a classical temple style with a wide entrance and large hall . He also carried out work on the Amalienborg complex including the colonnade , with its eight Ionic wooden columns , linking the crown prince 's residence ( Schacks Palæ ) with the king 's ( Moltkes Palæ ) .
Another remarkable example of neoclassicism is Liselund on the island of Møn in south @-@ eastern Denmark . This rather small country home built in the French Neoclassical style in the 1790s is exceptional in that it has a thatched roof . Like the surrounding Romantic park , the house was the work of Andreas Kirkerup , one of the foremost landscape architects of the times . It was designed as a summer retreat for Antoine de la Calmette , the island 's governor , and his wife , Lise . The building is T @-@ shaped with the main rooms on the ground floor , the first floor consisting of nine bedrooms . The interior was probably decorated by the leading decorator of the day , Joseph Christian Lillie .
= = 19th century = =
= = = Classicism = = =
After Hardorff 's death , the main proponent of Classicism was Christian Frederik Hansen who developed a more severe style with clean , simple forms and large , unbroken surfaces . From 1800 , he was in charge of all major building projects in Copenhagen where he designed the Copenhagen City Hall & Courthouse ( 1805 – 15 ) on Nytorv . He was also responsible for rebuilding Church of Our Lady ( Vor Frue Kirke ) and designing the surrounding square ( 1811 – 29 ) .
In 1800 , Hansen was also charged with rebuilding Christiansborg Palace which had burnt down in 1794 . Unfortunately , it burnt down once again in 1884 . All that remains is the magnificent chapel which , with its Ionic columns , conveys a sense of antiquity .
Michael Gottlieb Bindesbøll is remembered above all for designing Thorvaldsens Museum . In 1822 , as a young man , he had experienced Karl Friedrich Schinkel 's classicism in Germany and France and had met the German @-@ born architect and archaeologist Franz Gau who introduced him to the colourful architecture of antiquity . His uncle , Jonas Collin , who was an active art and culture official under Frederick VI , awakened the King 's interest in a museum for Bertel Thorvaldsen , the Danish @-@ Icelandic sculptor , and asked Bindesbøll to make some sketches for the building . As Bindensbøll 's designs stood out from those of other architects , he was given a commission to transform the Royal Carriage Depot and Theatre Scenery Painting Building into a museum . Emulating the construction of the Erechtheion and the Parthenon as freestanding buildings released from the traditional urban plan of closed streets , he completed the work in 1848 . He also incorporated aspects of ancient Egyptian architecture into his design , though " the plan as a whole ... is neither Egyptian nor Greek , but Bindesbøll 's own . "
= = = Historicism = = =
With the arrival of Historicism in the second half of the century , special importance was attached to high standards of craftsmanship and proper use of materials . This can be seen in Copenhagen 's University Library ( 1861 ) designed by Johan Daniel Herholdt and inspired by St Fermo 's Church in Verona .
Vilhelm Dahlerup was one of the most productive 19th @-@ century architects . Perhaps more than anyone else , he contributed to the way Copenhagen appears today . His most important buildings include Copenhagen 's Hotel D ’ Angleterre ( 1875 ) and the Danish National Gallery ( 1891 ) . With the support of the Carlsberg company , he designed the Ny Carlsberg Glyptoteque ( 1897 ) and a number of lavishly decorated buildings at the Carlsberg Brewery site , now under redevelopment as a new district in Copenhagen .
Ferdinand Meldahl , also a proponent of Historicism , completed the reconstruction of Frederiksborg Palace after the fire in 1859 and designed the Parliament Building in Reykjavík , Iceland , at that time a Danish colony . His greatest achievement was , however , the completion of Frederik 's Church in Copenhagen . The site had become a ruin after work was stopped on Jardin 's original design in 1770 . Meldahl 's plans differed significantly from Jardin 's in that the lateral towers were eliminated , the dome was lower and the columns were reduced from six to four before the main entrance . Nevertheless , the overall height almost matched Jardin 's , thanks to the lantern and the taller spire . The building , commonly known as the Marble Church , was completed in 1894 , more than 150 years after Eigtved had drawn up his original plans .
= = = National Romanticism = = =
Martin Nyrop was one of the main proponents of the National Romantic style . The main aim was to use distinctive Nordic motifs from the distant past , as is clearly demonstrated in Copenhagen City Hall which was completed in 1905 . The City Hall is certainly Copenhagen 's most monumental and most original building from the last quarter of the 19th century with its impressive facade , the golden statue of Absalon just above the balcony and its tall , slim clock tower . It was inspired by the Siena City Hall .
Another participant in the National Romanticism movement was Hack Kampmann who designed the Aarhus Theatre in the Art Nouveau style at the very end of the century .
= = = Urban development = = =
The harbour town of Svendborg in the south east of Funen dates back to the 13th century . Real prosperity emerged in the 19th century when shipbuilding and trade became important drivers . The town subsequently underwent a period of renovation with new brick and stone buildings lining its narrow streets . The old town has now become an important tourist attraction .
The fine architectural style of Skagen on the northern tip of Jutland is quite distinctive . From the 19th century on , the houses were whitewashed and had red @-@ tiled roofs . Yellow and red tones dominated , backed by white chimneys and roof decorations . These traditions are not only to be found in the town 's old districts but are maintained in the newer residential areas . Several of the town 's more imposing buildings from the beginning of the 20th century were designed by the Ulrik Plesner , others were designed by well @-@ known architects such as Thorvald Bindesbøll .
= = 20th century = =
= = = Nordic Classicism = = =
Neoclassicism or increasingly Nordic Classicism continued to thrive at the beginning of the century until about 1930 as can be seen in Kay Fisker 's Hornbækhus apartment buildings ( 1923 ) and Hack Kampmann 's police headquarters ( 1924 ) . Its development was no isolated phenomenon , drawing on existing classical traditions in the Nordic countries , and from new ideas being pursued in German @-@ speaking cultures . It can thus be characterised as a combination of direct and indirect influences from vernacular architecture ( Nordic , Italian and German ) and Neoclassicism .
While the movement had its greatest level of success in Sweden , there were a number of other important Danish proponents including Ivar Bentsen , Kaare Klint , Arne Jacobsen , Carl Petersen and Steen Eiler Rasmussen . Bentsen , with the assistance of Thorkild Henningsen , designed Denmark 's first terraced houses in the Bellahøj district of Copenhagen . Very appropriately Klint , working with Bentsen , adapted the design of Frederiks Hospital to serve as the Danish Museum of Art & Design . Carl Petersen 's main achievement was the Faaborg Museum built for collections of art from Funen . Steen Rasmussen is remembered above all for his town planning activities and for his contributions to the Dansk Byplanlaboratorium ( Danish town planning laboratory ) .
= = = Expressionism = = =
Grundtvig 's Church in Bispebjerg , Copenhagen , is named after the Danish philosopher and pastor Nikolai Grundtvig , remembered by most Danes for his resounding hymns , now an integral part of the national culture . As a result of its unusual appearance , it is Denmark 's most famous expressionist church . Designed by Peder Vilhelm Jensen @-@ Klint , it relied heavily on Scandinavian brick gothic traditions , especially Danish village churches with stepped gables . Jensen @-@ Klint combined the modern geometric forms of Brick Expressionism with the classical vertical of Gothic architecture . Construction began in 1921 but was only completed by his son Kaare Klint in 1940 after Jensen @-@ Klint 's death . The most striking feature of the building is its west facade , reminiscent of a westwork or of the exterior of a church organ .
= = = Functionalism = = =
Functionalism , which began in the 1930s , relied on rational architecture making use of concrete , iron and glass , preferably to meet social needs . Its main proponents in Denmark were Frits Schlegel , Mogens Lassen , Vilhelm Lauritzen and , especially Arne Jacobsen with his Bellavista developments north of Copenhagen . Another of Jacobsen 's masterpieces was the Aarhus City Hall which he designed together with Erik Møller in 1937 and completed in 1948 . The tower is 60 meters tall and the tower clock face has a diameter of 7 meters . The building is made of concrete plated with marble from Porsgrunn in Norway .
A more traditional approach was taken by Kay Fisker who , together with C. F. Møller , designed buildings for Aarhus University in 1931 .
= = = Modernism = = =
After World War II , Functionalism drew on trends in American Modernism with its irregular ground plans , flat roofs , open plan interiors and glass facades . Good examples are Jørn Utzon 's own family house ( 1952 ) on the outskirts of Hellebæk near Helsingør where good use is made of reasonably cheap materials for post @-@ war housing ; and the Kingo Houses ( 1956 – 58 ) in Helsingør which consist of 63 L @-@ shaped houses based upon the design of traditional Danish farmhouses . Another project , noted for the synthesis it creates between architecture and landscape , was the Louisiana Museum of Modern Art ( 1958 ) in Humlebæk , designed by Jørgen Bo and Vilhelm Wohlert .
During this period , Arne Jacobsen became the country ’ s leading Modernist with the design of the SAS Hotel in Copenhagen ( 1960 ) . Rødovre Town Hall , completed in 1956 , shows how well Jacobsen combined the use of different materials : sandstone , two types of glass , painted metalwork and stainless steel .
Following in Jacobsen 's footsteps , Denmark had some outstanding successes in 20th @-@ century architecture . Most notably , Jørn Utzon 's iconic Sydney Opera House earned him the distinction of becoming only the second person to have his work recognized as a World Heritage Site while still alive . His Bagsværd Church ( 1968 – 76 ) in Copenhagen has been considered an outstanding example of critical regionalism , for the synthesis created between universal civilisation and regional culture .
Winning the international competition for the Grande Arche at La Défense in Paris with a design based on simple geometrical forms brought Johann Otto von Spreckelsen international fame . Prolific Henning Larsen designed the Foreign Ministry building in Riyadh , as well as a variety of prestige buildings throughout Scandinavia , including the Copenhagen Opera House .
From the success of the Strøget 's transformation into a pedestrian zone in Copenhagen in the 1960s and his influential book Life Between Buildings , Jan Gehl earned an international reputation in urban design . He has advised on numerous city planning developments including those for Melbourne , London and New York . His work has often drawn on Copenhagen and its bicycle culture , to improve the quality of public space in city centres .
= = Contemporary period = =
Since the turn of the millennium , Danish architecture has flourished both at home and abroad . Two important areas of Greater Copenhagen have provided substantial opportunities for architectural developments on the domestic front while a number of firms have gained international recognition , winning important commissions abroad . For some , overseas assignments have become as important as those in Denmark itself .
Recent years have also seen the emergence of several new architectural firms operating both in Denmark and internationally .
= = = Recent urban developments = = =
Ørestad is a contemporary urban development to the south @-@ east of the Copenhagen 's city centre . Its origin is connected with the building of the Øresund Bridge linking Copenhagen to Malmö in Sweden , completed in 2000 . After initial planning stages in the 1990s , the first office building was realised in 2001 . Today the constantly expanding area has more than 3 @,@ 000 apartments and 192 @,@ 100 m ² of office space .
Copenhagen itself has also been undergoing significant transformations in recent years with the encouragement of various projects along the waterfront . Based on initial planning work in the 1980s , the area has already seen the appearance of several prestige buildings including the Black Diamond national library extension ( 1999 ) , the Opera House ( 2000 ) and the Royal Danish Playhouse ( 2004 ) .
= = = International presence = = =
Henning Larsen Architects , well established in the Nordic countries , are now active outside Denmark , particularly in the Middle East . They have a number of projects in Saudi Arabia and Syria , including the Massar Discovery Centre in Damascus . Another interesting project is a new building for Der Spiegel on the waterfront in Hamburg .
3XN have designed the award @-@ winning Muziekgebouw Concert Hall in Amsterdam and the new Museum of Liverpool . In 2007 , they won a competition for the design of a new headquarters for Deutsche Bahn in Berlin ahead of firms such as Foster + Partners of the UK and Dominique Perrault of France .
Schmidt Hammer Lassen have opened offices in London and Oslo . In addition to numerous projects in the Nordic countries , their international work includes Westminster College in London and a new library for the University of Aberdeen .
Among the most notable international projects of C. F. Møller Architects are extensions to the Natural History and the National Maritime museums in London ( 2009 – 11 ) . They were also successful in being commissioned to build the Akershus University Hospital in Oslo .
Dissing + Weitling are widely recognized as bridge architects after completing some 220 such projects worldwide . These include the Great Belt Bridge between Sealand and Funen , the Queensferry Crossing in Scotland , the Nelson Mandela Bridge in South Africa and the Stonecutters Bridge in Hong Kong . The Great Belt suspension bridge , completed in 1998 , is the world 's third largest . With a length of 6 @,@ 790 metres ( 22 @,@ 277 ft ) and a free span of 1 @,@ 624 metres ( 5 @,@ 328 ft ) , the vertical clearance for ships is 65 metres ( 213 ft ) .
Lundgaard & Tranberg are the designers of the Royal Danish Playhouse and the Tietgenkollegiet student housing complex , both considered to be among Copenhagen 's most successful new buildings in recent years .
= = = Emerging practices = = =
Another trend in contemporary Danish architecture is the emergence of a new generation of successful young practices , inspired more by international trends than by the modernist tradition in Scandinavia . The generation is spearheaded by Bjarke Ingels whose firm BIG ( Bjarke Ingels Group ) founded in 2006 has made an unusually rapid transition into a well @-@ established firm .
From the beginning , BIG received international recognition for a number of projects , including Mountain Dwellings in Ørestad . Ideologically and conceptually , the practice is more closely related to Dutch firms such as OMA – where Ingels worked from 1998 to 2001 – and MVRDV than to the work of Danish architects . BIG 's major international breakthrough came in 2009 when the firm won six international competitions and gained several large commissions . These include an art museum on a cliffside overlooking Mexico City , a canalside neighbourhood in Hamburg , a new city hall for Tallinn , Estonia , a new national library for Kazakhstan , a low @-@ energy highrise project in Shenzhen , China , and a World Village for Women 's Sports in Malmö .
Four young practices , CEBRA , COBE , Transform and Effekt , contributed to the project CO @-@ EVOLUTION : Danish / Chinese Collaboration on Sustainable Urban Development in China , which was awarded the Golden Lion at the 2006 Venice Biennale of Architecture . The project was commissioned by the Danish Architecture Centre and curated by the Danish architect @-@ urbanist Henrik Valeur and UiD . All four practices later went on to win high @-@ profile competitions in Denmark and abroad . Effekt has won the competition for a new building for the Estonian Art Academy in Tallinn , Transform has a project on the City Hall Square in Copenhagen and COBE has won first prize in a competition for Scandinavia 's largest sustainable district in Nordhavnen , Copenhagen .
Other notable emerging Danish architectural practices include Aart , Dorthe Mandrup Architects and NORD Architects .
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= Southern Rhodesian military involvement in the Malayan Emergency =
Southern Rhodesia , then a self @-@ governing colony of the United Kingdom , sent two military units to fight with the Commonwealth armed forces in the Malayan Emergency of 1948 – 60 , which pitted the Commonwealth against the Malayan National Liberation Army ( MNLA ) , the military arm of the Malayan Communist Party . For two years , starting in March 1951 , white Southern Rhodesian volunteers made up " C " Squadron of the Special Air Service ( SAS ) . The Rhodesian African Rifles , in which black rank @-@ and @-@ filers and warrant officers were led by white officers , then served in Malaya from 1956 to 1958 .
Of the hundreds of Southern Rhodesians who served in Malaya , eight were killed . " C " Squadron , which was formed especially to serve in Malaya , was the first SAS unit from a British colony or dominion . Several veterans of the conflict , Peter Walls and Ron Reid @-@ Daly among them , subsequently held key positions in the Rhodesian Security Forces during the Bush War of the 1970s .
= = Background and outbreak of war = =
The Malayan Emergency was a guerrilla war between the Federation of Malaya — a protectorate of Britain until August 1957 , and part of the Commonwealth of Nations thereafter — and the Malayan National Liberation Army ( MNLA ) , the armed wing of the Malayan Communist Party ( MCP ) . The MNLA sought to topple the Malayan government and force the British out , while the Commonwealth worked to prevent this . The conflict had its roots in the Second World War , in which groups of local ethnic Chinese fought alongside Britain 's limited forces in the country against the occupying Imperial Japanese ; these Malayan Chinese subscribed to communist political thinking , and called themselves the Malayan Peoples ' Anti @-@ Japanese Army .
Soon after Japan was defeated , the communist fighters renamed themselves the Malayan National Liberation Army , and began to agitate against British rule . Using the arms that Britain had given them — which they had cached , and then subsequently retrieved — they formed themselves into eight regiments , and began a campaign of Maoist @-@ style rural subversion , their intent being to politicise the villagers and gain popular support , which they could then use to take control of Malayan cities . In March 1948 , the MCP called on the Malayan people to rise up against the British . Three months later , on 16 June , MNLA guerrillas killed three British rubber plantation managers in Perak province . The British High Commissioner in Malaya , Sir Edward Gent , declared a state of emergency two days afterwards , marking the beginning of the Malayan Emergency .
In addition to British and Malayan units and personnel , the Commonwealth forces in Malaya included Australians , New Zealanders , Gurkhas , Fijians , Nyasalanders , and Northern and Southern Rhodesians . Southern Rhodesia had been self @-@ governing since 1923 . It ran its own affairs in most matters , including defence , but it was still constitutionally bound to Whitehall insofar as foreign affairs were concerned . The Southern Rhodesian government was therefore able to exercise a large degree of independence militarily , though diplomatically it came under the British flag .
= = " C " Squadron , Special Air Service ( 1951 – 53 ) = =
The Special Air Service ( SAS ) commando unit was formed by the British Army in 1941 , during the North African Campaign of the Second World War . Including some Southern Rhodesians in its ranks , it served for the rest of the conflict , also operating in Italy and on the European Western Front . It was disbanded by the British government in October 1945 , and reinstituted in 1950 to serve in the Korean War . The situation in Korea had changed by the end of its three @-@ month training period , however , and it was sent to Malaya instead . There it was placed under the command of a British officer , Major Mike Calvert .
Early the following year , Calvert travelled to Southern Rhodesia on a recruitment visit . Roughly 1 @,@ 000 white Southern Rhodesians , SAS veterans among them , volunteered to go to Malaya ; from these , about 100 were chosen to form an all @-@ Southern Rhodesian unit . This was the first SAS squadron from a British colony or dominion . Led by the 24 @-@ year @-@ old Temporary Captain Peter Walls , the volunteers arrived in Malaya in March 1951 . Walls was promoted to major soon after he and his men disembarked at Singapore . The SAS already had two Squadrons , " A " and " B " , so the Southern Rhodesians became " C " Squadron , known more informally as the Rhodesian SAS .
Engaged largely in counter @-@ insurgency warfare , the Southern Rhodesians became well @-@ drilled in the relevant principles and doctrines . They noticeably bolstered the hitherto thinly spread ranks of the SAS in Malaya , and performed strongly in the eyes of their superiors , though British Major C L " Dare " Newell believed that their attitude towards " the aborigines " was colder than that of the British soldiers . Barbara Cole , who wrote a history of the Rhodesian SAS , says by contrast that the Rhodesians became close friends with the Fijians they served alongside , and spent far more time socialising with black and mixed @-@ race soldiers off @-@ duty than their British counterparts did .
In March 1953 , after serving their required two years in Malaya , the men of " C " Squadron returned home . They were replaced in 1955 by a squadron from New Zealand . Three members of " C " Squadron — Sergeant O H Ernst , and Corporals J B Davies and V E Visagie — were killed while in Malaya . For his services during the emergency , Walls was awarded an MBE .
= = Rhodesian African Rifles ( 1956 – 58 ) = =
= = = Arrival in Malaya = = =
Following the departure of " C " Squadron , Southern Rhodesia was uninvolved in Malaya until early 1956 , when the 1st Battalion , the Rhodesian African Rifles ( RAR ) were tasked to relieve the Northern Rhodesia Regiment ( NRR ) in Johore province . Originally formed in 1916 as the Rhodesian Native Regiment , the RAR were , by Southern Rhodesian standards , an old and well @-@ tried unit ; they fought for Britain in East Africa during the First World War , and contributed to the Burma Campaign during the Second . The regiment 's black soldiers and warrant officers , led by white officers , came from both Mashonaland and Matabeleland , with Mashonas in the majority .
The Royal Australian Regiment was also present in Malaya , so to prevent confusion the Rhodesian African Rifles ' acronym was temporarily changed to " RhAR " . The regiment 's advance party , made up of officers , non @-@ commissioned officers ( NCOs ) and warrant officers , left the Southern Rhodesian capital Salisbury by air on 13 February 1956 . Their tortuous route took them through Nairobi , Aden , Karachi , and RAF Negombo ( in Ceylon ) . After touching down in Singapore , the RhAR 's advance party travelled to Kluang in Johore , where they spent three weeks in jungle training with the NRR . They then redeployed to Batu Pahat , where they camped with the Fiji Infantry Regiment . A spirit of camaraderie quickly developed between the Fijian and Southern Rhodesian soldiers . The RhAR officers and NCOs continued their acclimatisation with the local environment over the following weeks , assisted by the Fijians . The rest of the battalion travelled by sea aboard SS Empire Clyde , and reached Singapore on 26 April 1956 . Soon after , the RhAR set up headquarters at Chaah , about 130 kilometres ( 81 mi ) north @-@ west of the port city .
= = = MNLA and RhAR tactics = = =
By this stage of the insurgency , the MNLA had largely split into small groups of guerrillas , which existed by basing themselves in a chosen rural area , subverting local villagers and accumulating from them manpower and supplies . The lot of any security forces posted nearby was to play a constant game of hide @-@ and @-@ seek with the communists , whereby the army would indefinitely search for and destroy any base camps and food caches the MNLA set up . The Commonwealth leaders surmised that the MNLA could not possibly resist such a campaign forever , and would , in time , simply give up attempting to regroup .
In Malaya , the RhAR comprised A , B , C and D Companies , each of which was split into three 32 @-@ man platoons . The white lieutenant commanding each platoon carried the weapon of his choice , usually a shotgun or an FN FAL battle rifle , and acted with the assistance of a black platoon sergeant and a black warrant officer . Under the lieutenant , three black corporals led a rifle section each . These consisted of the section leader ( generally armed with a shotgun ) , a scout , a Bren gunner , a Patchett @-@ Sterling machine @-@ gunner , and up to seven FN FAL riflemen . When marching through thick jungle , an RhAR patrol moved in single file , with each trooper 5 metres ( 16 ft ) behind the man in front . The warrant officer followed close behind the lieutenant , ready to take over command if necessary , with the radio operator and medic with him . The platoon sergeant made up the rear . According to Second Lieutenant John Essex @-@ Clark , an Australian @-@ born officer who led an RhAR platoon in Malaya , these Southern Rhodesian units moved much faster in jungle conditions than those made up of British men . The black Southern Rhodesian soldiers were reportedly naturals when it came to tracking ; many of them came from rural backgrounds , and had acquired relevant instincts and skills while growing up .
= = = RhAR operations in Malaya = = =
The RhAR patrolled around Johore from May to September 1956 without major incident . The rain of the Malayan monsoon season seemed endless to many of the battalion 's men , and actual sightings of the communists were rare in the extreme . Even when the guerrillas were spotted , they almost invariably fled after a few shots . " We can but hope that the chaps will get a chance of seeing a CT [ communist terrorist ] for a change , " reported an RhAR officer in August ; " they are all as keen as mustard to come to blows with them . " So determined were the RhAR 's officers and men to come face to face with the enemy that they ambushed around the railway line at Bekok for seven nights in a row , starting on 30 October 1956 . Patrols were led by a different officer each night , but there were no contacts .
Around this time the British Royal Lincolnshire Regiment , operating in the Bahau area , about 200 kilometres ( 120 mi ) north @-@ west of Bekok , reported to the RhAR that they had encountered the communist 32 Independent Platoon , led by Hor Lung , which was then heading south @-@ east towards the Palong River . The RhAR therefore redeployed to intercept Hor Lung 's men . On 9 November , a half @-@ section of Southern Rhodesians led by Corporal Munyameni sighted 16 pack @-@ laden guerrillas , marching east . On his own initiative , Munyameni attacked , catching the communists by surprise ; the insurgents split up and fled , running in all directions . One fighter attempted to hide behind a tree , but was killed by RhAR rifle fire .
On 17 November , the RhAR was withdrawn for a period of rest and recuperation ( R & R ) . The battalion 's Transport Platoon was ambushed by communist guerrillas as it was returning to base : a shot through the windscreen of one of the two trucks nearly hit its driver , but the convoy was able to escape the ambush without anybody being injured . On 26 November , the RhAR and the King 's Own Scottish Borderers assisted the local police at Kelapa Sawit in an action called Tartan Rock : the security forces moved into the village and arrested 34 communist sympathisers , most of whom were ethnic Chinese students from the University of Malaya in Singapore . Two days later , the RhAR were back on regular duty .
Starting in February 1957 , the RhAR took part in Operations Cobble and Shoe . These were " food denial " operations , whereby efforts to deny supplies to the communists were to be redoubled . Patrols around the rubber plantations and the edges of the jungle were intensified . To prevent guerrilla supplies from north of the Rompin River from reaching the food denial areas to the south , covered by Operation Cobble , an RhAR platoon under Lieutenant David Heppenstall was posted to the area directly south of the river midway through the month . This action lasted from 21 February to 4 April 1957 . There were few contacts , and only one communist was killed by Heppenstall 's men , but a great deal of intelligence was secured regarding guerrilla organisation and supply routes .
Over the next few months , RhAR patrols in the Chaah , Labis , Bekok and Sungai Karas areas were stepped up to last between 10 and 18 days each , but contacts with the communist forces remained rare . The constant patrols gradually began to take their toll on the insurgents , and guerrillas began to give themselves up increasingly frequently . A contributing factor here was Britain 's granting of independence to Malaya within the Commonwealth on 31 August 1957 , which dented the motivation of many fighters . Starting in October 1957 , the RhAR were tasked to work alongside former MNLA personnel to wipe out any remaining communist forces in the region . The ex @-@ insurgents were supposed to lead the security forces to MNLA camps and resting places , but this strategy was not successful . The RhAR soon developed a low opinion of these ex @-@ MNLA men .
As it approached the end of its two @-@ year commitment in Malaya , the RhAR continued its patrolling in Johore province without major incident until February 1958 , when it returned to Rhodesia . Five of the regiment 's number had been killed over the previous two years : Corporal Tavengwa , and Privates Joseph , Hunyani , Manuel and Mjikijelwa .
= = Influence on the Rhodesian Bush War = =
Several veterans of Malaya proceeded to hold key positions in the Rhodesian Security Forces during the Rhodesian Bush War of the 1970s , most prominently Walls and another member of " C " Squadron , Ron Reid @-@ Daly . Walls reformed the all @-@ white Rhodesian Light Infantry ( RLI ) into a commando battalion similar to the SAS during the mid @-@ 1960s , with Reid @-@ Daly serving under him as regimental sergeant major . After leaving the RLI in 1967 , Walls became head of the Rhodesian Army in 1972 , and retained this role for the rest of the Bush War . Reid @-@ Daly , meanwhile , formed and commanded the Selous Scouts pseudo @-@ guerrilla regiment from 1973 . The Selous Scouts concept was influenced by similar operations conducted by Special Branch in Malaya . Both the Rhodesian African Rifles and the Rhodesian SAS endured following Malaya , and served in the Bush War .
The South African historian Jakkie Cilliers , writing about the Rhodesian Bush War , comments on the gulf between what he calls the " Malaya clique " and those lower @-@ ranking Rhodesian soldiers in the field , the latter of whom underestimated the threat posed by the nationalist campaigns , having not previously encountered an insurgency situation . From the mid @-@ 1970s , officers such as Walls attempted to impress upon their contemporaries the similarity between the Rhodesian situation and the one they had experienced in Malaya . Operations in Malaya had been coordinated nationally , while in Rhodesia the Army , Air Force and Police were sometimes at odds with each other . To resolve this the Rhodesians created a supreme body called Combined Operations in 1977 , influenced by similar posts in Malaya , with Walls at its head .
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= Beat It =
" Beat It " is a song written and performed by American singer Michael Jackson and produced by Quincy Jones ( with co @-@ production by Jackson ) . It is the third single from the singer 's sixth solo album , Thriller ( 1982 ) . Eddie Van Halen played the song 's distinctive overdriven guitar solo . While Van Halen was prevented by his record label from appearing in the music video , he did appear on stage with Jackson in Dallas during the Jackson brothers Victory Tour . Following the successful chart performances of the Thriller singles " The Girl Is Mine " and " Billie Jean " , " Beat It " was released on February 3 , 1983 as the album 's third single . The song was promoted with a short film that featured Jackson bringing two gangs together through the power of music and dance .
" Beat It " received the Grammy Awards for Record of the Year and Best Male Rock Vocal Performance , as well as two American Music Awards . It was inducted into the Music Video Producers Hall of Fame . The single , along with its music video , propelled Thriller into becoming the best @-@ selling album of all time . The single was certified platinum in the United States in 1989 . Rolling Stone placed " Beat It " on the 344th spot of its list of " The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time " . The song was also ranked number 81 on Rolling Stone 's " 100 Greatest Guitar Songs of All Time " .
In the decades since its release , " Beat It " has been covered , parodied , and sampled by numerous artists including Pierce the Veil , Fall Out Boy , Pomplamoose , Justin Bieber , Alvin and the Chipmunks , Fergie , John 5 , " Weird Al " Yankovic and Eminem . The song was also featured in the National Highway Safety Commission 's anti @-@ drunk driving campaign .
= = Production and composition = =
" Beat It " was composed by Michael Jackson for his Thriller album . Producer Quincy Jones had wanted to include a rock and roll song in the vein of the Knack 's " My Sharona " , though Jackson reportedly had never previously shown an interest in the genre . Jackson later said of " Beat It " , " I wanted to write a song , the type of song that I would buy if I were to buy a rock song ... That is how I approached it and I wanted the children to really enjoy it — the school children as well as the college students . " Jermaine Jackson has suggested the inspiration of " Beat It " and its video came from the Jackson family experiencing gang activity in Gary , Indiana . " From our front window , we witnessed , about three bad rumbles between rival gangs . "
Upon hearing the first recorded vocals , Jones stated that it was exactly what he was looking for . The song begins with seven distinct synthesizer notes played on the Synclavier digital synthesizer , while Tom Bahler is credited with Synclavier performance on the song . The intro is taken note for note from a demo LP released the year before , called " The Incredible Sounds of Synclavier II " first published in 1981 by Denny Jaeger Creative Services , Inc and sold by New England Digital , makers of the Synclavier .
Eddie Van Halen , lead guitarist of hard rock band Van Halen , was asked to add a guitar solo . When initially contacted by Jones , Van Halen thought he was receiving a prank call . Having established that the call was genuine , Van Halen recorded his guitar solo free of any charge . " I did it as a favor " , the musician later said . " I was a complete fool , according to the rest of the band , our manager and everyone else . I was not used . I knew what I was doing – I don 't do something unless I want to do it . " Van Halen recorded his contribution following Jones and Jackson arriving at the guitarist 's house with a " skeleton version " of the song . Fellow guitarist Steve Lukather recalled , " Initially , we rocked it out as Eddie had played a good solo — but Quincy thought it was too tough . So I had to reduce the distorted guitar sound and that is what was released . " The song was among the last four completed for Thriller ; the others were " Human Nature " , " P.Y.T. ( Pretty Young Thing ) " and " The Lady in My Life " .
On the record , right before Van Halen 's guitar solo begins , a noise is heard that sounds like somebody knocking at a door . It is reported that the knock was a person walking into Eddie 's recording studio . Another story has claimed that the sound was simply the musician knocking on his own guitar . The sound , however , is that of Jackson knocking on a drum case , as he is credited in the album 's liner notes .
The engineers were shocked during the recording of Van Halen 's solo to discover that the sound of his guitar had caused the monitor speaker in the control room to catch fire , causing one to exclaim , " This must be REALLY good ! "
The lyrics of " Beat It " are about defeat and courage , and have been described as a " sad commentary on human nature " . The line " don 't be a macho man " is said to express Jackson 's dislike of violence , whilst also referring to the childhood abuse he faced at the hands of his father Joseph . The song is played in the key of D ♯ minor at a moderately fast tempo of 132 beats per minute . In the song , Jackson 's vocal range is B3 to D5 .
Drums on the song were played by Toto co @-@ founder Jeff Porcaro .
A remix of " 2 Bad " , is featured on Blood on the Dance Floor : HIStory in the Mix containing a sample of " Beat It " as well as a rap by John Forté and guitar solo by Wyclef Jean .
= = Release and reception = =
" Beat It " was released on February 14 , 1983 , following the successful chart performances of " The Girl Is Mine " and " Billie Jean " . Frank DiLeo , the vice president of Epic Records , convinced Jackson to release " Beat It " whilst " Billie Jean " was heading towards No. 1 . Dileo , who would later become the singer 's manager , predicted that both singles would remain in the Top 10 at the same time . " Billie Jean " remained atop the Billboard Hot 100 for seven weeks , before being toppled by " Come On Eileen " . The Dexys Midnight Runners ' song stayed at No. 1 for a single week , before Jackson reclaimed the position with " Beat It " .
" Billie Jean " and " Beat It " occupied Top 5 positions at the same time , a feat matched by very few artists . The single remained at the top of the Hot 100 for a total of three weeks . The song also charted at No. 1 on the US R & B singles chart and No. 14 on the Billboard Top Tracks chart in the US . Billboard ranked it at the No. 5 song for 1983 . " Beat It " also claimed the top spot in Spain and The Netherlands , reached No. 3 in the UK and the Top 20 in Austria , Norway , Italy , Sweden and Switzerland .
In a Rolling Stone review , Christopher Connelly describes " Beat It " as the best song on Thriller , adding that it " ain 't no disco AOR track " . He notes of the " nifty dance song " , " Jackson 's voice soars all over the melody , Eddie Van Halen checks in with a blistering guitar solo , you could build a convention center on the backbeat " . AllMusic 's Stephen Thomas Erlewine states that the song is both " tough " and " scared " . Robert Christgau claimed that the song has Eddie Van Halen " wielding his might in the service of antimacho " . Slant Magazine observed that the song was an " uncharacteristic dalliance with the rock idiom " . The track also won praise from Jackson biographer J. Randy Taraborrelli , who stated that the song was " rambunctious " .
" Beat It " has been recognized with several awards . At the 1984 Grammy Awards , the song earned Jackson two of a record @-@ eight awards : Record of the Year and Best Male Rock Vocal Performance . The track won the Billboard Music Award for favorite dance / disco 12 " LP in 1983 . The single was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , a few months after its release , for shipments of at least one million units . In 1989 , the standard format single was re @-@ certified platinum by the RIAA , based on the revised sales level of one million units for platinum singles . The total number of digital sales in the US , as of September 2010 , stands at 1 @,@ 649 @,@ 000 .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Beat It " helped establish Jackson as an international pop icon . The video was Jackson 's first treatment of black youth and the streets . Both " Beat It " and " Thriller " are notable for their " mass choreography " of synchronized dancers , a Jackson trademark .
The video , which cost Jackson $ 150 @,@ 000 to create after CBS refused to finance it , was filmed on Los Angeles ' Skid Row — mainly on locations on East 5th Street — around March 9 , 1983 . To add authenticity to the production but also to foster peace between them , Jackson had the idea to cast members of rival Los Angeles street gangs Crips and Bloods . In addition to around 80 genuine gang members , the video , which is noted for opening up many job opportunities for dancers in the US , also featured 18 professional dancers and four breakdancers . Besides Jackson , Peters and Vincent Paterson , the cast included Michael DeLorenzo , Stoney Jackson , Tracii Guns , Tony Fields , Peter Tramm , Rick Stone and Cheryl Song .
The video was written and directed by Bob Giraldi , produced by Antony Payne and Mary M. Ensign through production company GASP . The second video released for the Thriller album , it was choreographed by Michael Peters who also performed , alongside Vincent Paterson , as one of the two lead dancers . Despite some sources claiming otherwise , Jackson was involved in creating some parts of the choreography . Jackson asked Giraldi , at the time already an established commercial director but who had never directed a music video , to come up with a concept for the " Beat It " video because he really liked a commercial Giraldi had directed for WLS @-@ TV in Chicago about a married couple of two elderly blind people who instead of running from a run @-@ down neighborhood all the other white people had fled from , chose to stay and throw a block party for all the young children in the area . Contrary to popular belief , the concept of the video was not based on the Broadway musical West Side Story ; in reality Giraldi drew inspiration from his growing up in Paterson , New Jersey .
The video had its world premiere on MTV during prime time on March 31 , 1983 though it should be noted that neither Beat It nor Billie Jean was , as is often claimed , the first music video by an African @-@ American artist to be played on MTV . Soon after its premiere the video was also running on other video programs including BET 's Video Soul , SuperStation WTBS 's Night Tracks , and NBC 's Friday Night Videos . In fact , Beat It was the first video shown on the latter 's first ever telecast on July 29 , 1983 .
The video opens with the news of a fight circulating at a diner . This scene repeats itself at a pool hall , where gang members arrive via foot , forklift , and out of sewers , while the video 's titular song begins to play . The camera cuts to a scene of Jackson lying on a bed , revealing he 's the one singing contemplating the senseless violence . The singer notices rival gangs and leaves . Michael Jackson dons a red leather J. Parks brand jacket , and dances his way towards the fight through the diner and pool hall . A knife fight is taking place between the two gang leaders in a warehouse . They dance battle for an interlude of music until MJ arrives ; the singer breaks up the fight and launches into a dance routine . The video ends with the gang members joining him in the dance , agreeing that violence is not the solution to their problems .
The video received recognition through numerous awards . The American Music Awards named the short film their Favorite Pop / Rock Video and their Favorite Soul Video . The Black Gold Awards honored Jackson with the Best Video Performance award . The Billboard Video Awards recognised the video with 7 awards ; Best Overall Video Clip , Best Performance by a Male Artist , Best Use of Video to Enhance a Song , Best Use of Video to Enhance an Artist 's Image , Best Choreography , Best Overall Video and Best Dance / Disco 12 " . The short film was ranked by Rolling Stone as the No. 1 video , in both their critic 's and reader 's poll . The video was later inducted into the Music Video Producer 's Hall of Fame .
The music video of the song appears on the video albums : Video Greatest Hits – HIStory , HIStory on Film , Volume II , Number Ones , on the bonus DVD of Thriller 25 and Michael Jackson 's Vision .
= = Live performances = =
On July 14 , 1984 , Jackson performed " Beat It " live with his brothers during The Jacksons ' Victory Tour . The brothers were joined on stage by Eddie Van Halen , who played the guitar in his solo spot . The song became a signature song of Jackson ; the singer performed it on all of his world tours : Bad , Dangerous and HIStory . The October 1 , 1992 Dangerous Tour performance of " Beat It " was included on the DVD of the singer 's Michael Jackson : The Ultimate Collection box set . The DVD was later repackaged as Live in Bucharest : The Dangerous Tour . Jackson also performed the song on the Michael Jackson : 30th Anniversary Special , a concert celebrating the musician 's thirtieth year as a solo performer . The performance featured Slash as the song 's guest guitarist .
A highlight of Jackson 's solo concert tour performances of the song is that would he would begin the song on a cherry picker ( which he would also later use with " Earth Song " during the HIStory World Tour ) after performing Thriller . Another live version of the song is available on the DVD Live at Wembley July 16 , 1988 . The song would have also been performed as part of the This Is It concerts which were cancelled due to Jackson 's death .
= = Legacy = =
Michael Jackson 's " Beat It " has been cited as one of the most successful , recognized , awarded and celebrated songs in the history of pop music ; both the song and video had a large impact on pop culture . The song is said to be a " pioneer " in black rock music , and is considered one of the cornerstones of the Thriller album . Eddie Van Halen has been praised for adding " the greatest guitar solo " , aiding " Beat It " into becoming one of the biggest selling singles of all time .
Shortly after its release , " Beat It " was included in the National Highway Safety Commission 's anti @-@ drunk driving campaign , " Drinking and Driving Can Kill a Friendship " . The song was also included on the accompanying album . Jackson collected an award from President Ronald Reagan at the White House , in recognition for his support of the campaign . Reagan stated that Jackson was " proof of what a person can accomplish through a lifestyle free of alcohol or drug abuse . People young and old respect that . And if Americans follow his example , then we can face up to the problem of drinking and driving , and we can , in Michael 's words , ' Beat It ' . "
Frequently listed in greatest song polling lists , " Beat It " was ranked as the world 's fourth favorite song in a 2005 poll conducted by Sony Ericsson . Over 700 @,@ 000 people in 60 different countries cast their votes . Voters from the UK placed " Billie Jean " at No. 1 , ahead of " Thriller " , with a further five of the top ten being solo recordings by Jackson . In 2004 , Rolling Stone magazine placed " Beat It " in the 337th spot on its list of the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time . The song was featured in the films Back to the Future Part II , Zoolander and Undercover Brother . When re @-@ released , as part of the Visionary campaign in 2006 , " Beat It " charted at No. 15 in the UK . The song has been used in TV commercials for companies like Budweiser , eBay , Burger King , Delta Air Lines , Game Boy , Coldwell Banker and the NFL . On the City Guys episode of season 3 's " Face the Music " , Jamal says to Slick Billy West , played by Sherman Hemsley , " Well Gone Michael Jackson and Beat It " which was in the final scene . The song also appeared in the 2008 music game , Guitar Hero World Tour , as the last song in the vocal career . Notably , in this game , the vocalist will perform the same dance routine performed by Jackson on the video and live performances when singing the final verse . The song is featured on the dancing game Michael Jackson : The Experience .
= = Track listing = =
12 " Maxi ( Epic TA 3258 )
" Beat It " – 4 : 18
" Burn This Disco Out " – 3 : 38
" The Jacksons – Don 't Stop ' til You Get Enough ( Live Version ) " – 4 : 22
12 " Single
" Beat It " – 4 : 18
" Working Day And Night " – 5 : 14
12 " Mexican Promo of Bille Jean
" Billie Jean " – 6 : 22
" Largate ( Beat It ) " – 5 : 41
7 " Single ( Epic A 318402 )
" Beat It " – 4 : 18
" Get on the Floor " – 4 : 44
Visionary Single
CD
" Beat It "
" Beat It " ( Moby 's Sub Remix )
DVD
" Beat It " ( Video )
= = Personnel = =
Performance
Michael Jackson – lead vocals , background vocals , drum case beater
Paul Jackson , Jr . – rhythm guitar
Steve Lukather – lead guitar , bass guitar
Eddie Van Halen – guitar solo
Steve Porcaro – synthesizer , synthesizer programming
Greg Phillinganes – Rhodes , synthesizer
Bill Wolfer – keyboards
Tom Bahler – Synclavier
Jeff Porcaro – drums
Production
Michael Jackson – writing , composition , co @-@ production , rhythm and vocal arrangement
Quincy Jones – production , rhythm arrangement
Greg Smith – synergy
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = = Weekly charts = = =
= = Beat It 2008 = =
For Thriller 25 , The Black Eyed Peas singer will.i.am remixed " Beat It " . The song , titled " Beat It 2008 " , featured additional vocals by fellow Black Eyed Peas member Fergie . Upon its release in 2008 , the song reached No. 26 in Switzerland , the Top 50 in Sweden and No. 65 in Austria . This was the second remixed version of " Beat It " to get an official release , following Moby 's Sub Mix which was released on the " Jam " and " Who Is It " singles in 1992 , as well as the " They Don 't Care About Us " single in 1996 ( and re @-@ released as part of the Visionary campaign . )
= = = Reception = = =
" Beat It 2008 " received generally unfavorable reviews from music critics . Rob Sheffield of Rolling Stone claimed that the song was a " contender for the year 's most pointless musical moment " . AllMusic criticized Fergie for " parroting the lyrics of " Beat It " back to a recorded Jackson " . Blender 's Kelefa Sanneh also noted that the Black Eyed Peas singer traded lines with Jackson . " Why ? " , she queried . Todd Gilchrist was thankful that the remix retained Eddie Van Halen 's " incendiary guitar solo " , but added that the song " holds the dubious honor of making Jackson seem masculine for once , and only in the context of Fergie 's tough @-@ by @-@ way @-@ of @-@ Kids Incorporated interpretation of the tune " . Tom Ewing of Pitchfork Media observed that Fergie 's " nervous reverence is a waste of time " .
= = = Charts = = =
= = = Remix credits = = =
Written and composed by Michael Jackson
Remix drums : will.i.am
Remix keyboards and synths : will.i.am
Remix engineered by will.i.am and Kerin
Remix produced and mixed by Michael Jackson and will.i.am
Remix recorded in November 2007
= = Fall Out Boy version = =
American rock band Fall Out Boy covered " Beat It " . The studio version was digitally released on March 25 , 2008 by Island Records as the only single from the band 's first live album , Live in Phoenix ( 2008 ) . The song features a guitar solo by John Mayer , which was performed by Eddie Van Halen in the original song . In the United States , the song peaked at No. 19 on the Billboard Hot 100 and reached No. 21 on the defunct @-@ Billboard Pop 100 chart , also charting internationally . The band has since regularly incorporated it in their set list at their shows .
= = = Background , recording and release = = =
In early 2008 it was announced that Fall Out Boy were to cover " Beat It " for their Live in Phoenix album . The band had previously performed the song at venues such as Coors Amphitheatre and festivals such as the Carling Weekend in Leeds . Bassist Pete Wentz , who has claimed to have an obsession with Jackson , stated that prior to recording the song , he would only watch Moonwalker . It was also announced that John Mayer was to add the guitar solo previously played by Eddie Van Halen .
The band 's lead singer / guitarist Patrick Stump stated that the band had not planned to cover the song . " Basically , I just started playing the riff in sound @-@ check one day , and then we all started playing it , and then we started playing it live , and then we figured we 'd record it and put it out with our live DVD . " Bassist Pete Wentz added that the band had not originally intended for the song to be released as a single either . " ' Beat It ' seemed like a song that would be cool and that we could do our own take on " , he said . Having spent time deciding on a guitarist for the song , Wentz eventually called John Mayer to add the guitar solo . " We were trying to think about who is a contemporary guitar guy who 's going to go down as a legend " , Wentz later noted .
Upon its digital release as a single in April 2008 , Fall Out Boy 's cover of " Beat It " became a mainstay on iTunes ' Top 10 chart . The song peaked at No. 8 in Canada , becoming another top 10 hit in the region . It also charted at No. 13 in Australia , No. 14 in New Zealand , No. 75 in Austria and No. 98 in the Netherlands .
= = = Music video = = =
The music video for Fall Out Boy 's " Beat It " was directed by Shane Drake and was made in homage to Jackson . " I think when you 're doing a Michael Jackson cover , there 's this expectation that you 're going to do one of his videos verbatim , " Stump said . " What we decided to do was kind of inspired by Michael Jackson and the mythology of him . There are specific images that are reference points for us , but at any given point , it 's not any of his videos . It 's kind of all of his videos , all at once , but on a Fall Out Boy budget , so it 's not quite as fancy . " The costumes for the video were similar to the originals . " My costume is this take on one of the guys from Michael Jackson 's original ' Beat It ' video , like , the guy who plays the rival dancer , " Wentz said during the filming of the video . The music video featured numerous cameos , including a karate class / dance session being taught by Tony Hale , Donald Faison and Joel David Moore dressed up like Michael Jackson . The short film later received a MTV Video Music Award nomination for Best Rock Video .
= = = Charts = = =
= = Other cover versions = =
In 1984 , parodist " Weird Al " Yankovic released his parody song " Eat It " . Yankovic recorded the song with Jackson 's permission . The song 's music video mocked the " Beat It " short film scene @-@ for @-@ scene , with Yankovic mimicking Jackson 's dance moves in a clumsy fashion . Jackson received royalties from Yankovic due to the strong similarities .
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= Myotis alcathoe =
Myotis alcathoe is a European bat in the genus Myotis . Known only from Greece and Hungary when it was first described in 2001 , its known distribution has since expanded to Spain , England , Sweden , and Azerbaijan , among other countries . It is similar to the whiskered bat ( Myotis mystacinus ) and other species and is difficult to distinguish from them . However , its brown fur is distinctive and it is clearly different in characters of its karyotype and DNA sequences . Although some genetic data suggest that it is related to Geoffroy 's bat ( Myotis emarginatus ) , other analyses do not support a close relationship between M. alcathoe and any other species .
With a forearm length of 30 @.@ 8 to 34 @.@ 6 mm ( 1 @.@ 21 to 1 @.@ 36 in ) and body mass of 3 @.@ 5 to 5 @.@ 5 g ( 0 @.@ 12 to 0 @.@ 19 oz ) , Myotis alcathoe is a small bat . The fur is usually reddish @-@ brown on the upperparts and brown below , but more grayish in juveniles . The tragus ( a projection on the inner side of the ear ) is short , as is the ear itself , and the inner side of the ear is pale at the base . The wings are brown and the baculum ( penis bone ) is short and broad . M. alcathoe has a very high @-@ pitched echolocation call , with a frequency that falls from 120 kHz at the beginning of the call to about 43 kHz at the end .
Usually found in old @-@ growth deciduous forest near water , Myotis alcathoe forages high in the canopy and above water and mostly eats flies . The animal roosts in cavities high in trees . Although there are some winter records from caves , it may also spend the winter in tree cavities . Several parasites have been recorded on M. alcathoe . The IUCN Red List assesses Myotis alcathoe as " Data Deficient " , but it is considered threatened in several areas because of its rarity and vulnerability to habitat loss .
= = Taxonomy = =
The whiskered bat ( Myotis mystacinus ) and similar species in Eurasia ( collectively known as " whiskered bats " ) are difficult to distinguish from each other ; for example , the distantly related Brandt 's bat ( Myotis brandtii ) was not recognized as distinct from M. mystacinus until the 1970s . Small , unusual M. mystacinus @-@ like bats were first recorded in Greece in the 1970s , but it was not until the advent of genetic studies that these bats could be confirmed as representing a distinct species , named Myotis alcathoe . In 2001 , the species was described by German zoologists Otto von Helversen and Klaus @-@ Gerhard Heller on the basis of specimens from Greece and Hungary . Although it also differs from other whiskered bats by morphological characters , Myotis alcathoe is most clearly distinct in its genetics , including DNA sequences and the location of the nucleolus organizer regions . Two studies used microsatellites markers on european whiskered bats : the first one used West @-@ europeans smples and recovered three well @-@ defined species clusters for M. alcathoe , M. brandtii and M. mystacinus , the other one , conducted in Poland , suggesting a high level of hybridization with other whiskered bats that would further complicates attempts to identify M. alcathoe morphologically .
Von Helversen and Heller argued that none of the old names now considered synonyms of M. mystacinus could apply to M. alcathoe , because these names all have their type localities in western or central Europe . However , the more recent discovery of M. alcathoe further to the west renders it possible that an older name may be discovered . In addition , Russian researcher Suren Gazaryan has suggested that the name caucasicus Tsytsulina , 2000 ( originally proposed for a subspecies of M. mystacinus from the Caucasus ) may prove to be applicable to M. alcathoe ; in that case , the species would be renamed Myotis caucasicus . The species may have remained undetected in Germany for so long because bat researchers did not sample its preferred habitats and would dismiss unusual @-@ looking whiskered bats as being abnormal M. mystacinus or M. brandtii .
On the basis of mitochondrial DNA sequence analysis , Myotis alcathoe first appeared close to Geoffroy 's bat ( Myotis emarginatus ) of southern Europe , North Africa , and southwestern Asia . However , a study of the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene incorporating many Myotis species did not support this relationship , and could not place M. alcathoe securely at a specific position among Eurasian Myotis . Two groups with slightly divergent mitochondrial DNA sequences ( separated by 1 @.@ 3 to 1 @.@ 4 % sequence divergence ) are distinguishable within the species , which probably correspond to different glacial refugia where M. alcathoe populations survived the last glacial period . One , known as the " Hungarian " group , has been recorded from Spain , France , Austria , Hungary , and Slovakia , and probably corresponds to a refugium in Iberia ; the other , the " Greek " group , is known only from Greece and Slovakia .
The specific name , alcathoe , refers to Alcathoe , a figure from Greek mythology who was turned into a bat when she refused the advances of the god Dionysus . She was associated with gorges and small streams , the preferred habitat of Myotis alcathoe in Greece . In their original description , von Helversen and colleagues described her as a nymph , and the common name " nymph bat " has therefore been used for this species . However , none of the classical sources speak of Alcathoe as a nymph ; instead , she was a princess , the daughter of King Minyas of Orchomenos . Therefore , Petr Benda recommended in 2008 that the common name " Alcathoe bat " or " Alcathoe myotis " be used instead . Other common names include " Alcathoe 's bat " and " Alcathoe whiskered bat " .
= = Description = =
Myotis alcathoe is the smallest European Myotis species . The fur is brownish on the upperparts , with a reddish tone in old specimens , and a slightly paler gray @-@ brown below . Younger animals may be completely gray @-@ brown . The brown fur distinguishes adult M. alcathoe from other whiskered bats , but juveniles cannot be unambiguously identified on the basis of morphology . M. alcathoe is similar to Daubenton 's bat ( Myotis daubentonii ) and M. emarginatus in color . On the upper side of the body , the hairs are 6 to 8 mm long and have dark bases and brown tips . The hairs on the lower side of the body are only slightly paler at the tip than at the base .
The face and the upper lips are reddish to pink , not dark brown to black as in M. mystacinus . Although most of the face is hairy , the area around the eyes is bare . The nostrils are heart @-@ shaped , and their back end is broad , as in M. brandtii , not narrow as in M. mystacinus . Several glands are present on the muzzle , most prominently in reproductively active males . The ears are brown and are lighter on the inside than the outside . There is a notch at the edge of the ear , and the pointed tragus ( a projection inside the ear that is present in some bats ) extends up to this notch ; the tragus is longer , extending beyond the notch , in both M. brandtii and M. mystacinus . The base of the inner side of the ear is white ; it is much darker in M. mystacinus . The feet and the thumbs are very small . The small size of the ear , tragus , feet , and thumb distinguishes M. alcathoe from the slightly larger M. mystacinus and M. brandtii , but the feet are relatively larger than in M. mystacinus .
The wings are brown , but lighter than those of M. mystacinus . The plagiopatagium ( the portion of the wing between the last digit and the hindlegs ) is attached to the fifth toe . The tail extends only about 1 mm beyond the back margin of the uropatagium ( the portion of the wing membrane between the hindlegs ) . The calcar , a cartilaginous spur supporting the uropatagium , is slender . With a width around 1 @.@ 3 mm , the penis is narrow , and it lacks a broadened tip ( except in one Croatian specimen ) . The baculum ( penis bone ) is about 0 @.@ 5 mm long . The short and broad shape of this bone distinguishes M. alcathoe from M. brandtii as well as M. ikonnikovi .
The skull is similar in shape to that of M. mystacinus and M. brandtii , but the front part of the braincase is higher . The second and third upper premolars ( P2 and P3 ) are tiny and pressed against the upper canine ( C1 ) and fourth premolar ( P4 ) . The canine is less well @-@ developed than in M. mystacinus . There is a clear cusp present on the side of the P4 . The accessory cusp known as the protoconule is present on each of the upper molars when they are unworn . M. mystacinus lacks the P4 cusp and the protoconules on the molars , but M. brandtii has an even larger cusp on P4 .
As usual in Myotis species , Myotis alcathoe has a karyotype consisting of 44 chromosomes , with the fundamental number of chromosomal arms equal to 52 . However , a 1987 study already found that M. alcathoe ( then called " Myotis sp . B " ) differs from both M. mystacinus and M. brandtii in the pattern of active nucleolus organizer regions on the chromosomes . M. alcathoe also differs from other Myotis species in the sequences of the mitochondrial genes 12S rRNA and NADH dehydrogenase subunit 1 by at least 5 % and 13 % , respectively .
Myotis alcathoe has the highest @-@ frequency echolocation call of any European Myotis . In open terrain , the call has an average duration of 2 @.@ 5 ms , but it may be up to 4 ms long . At the beginning , its frequency is around 120 kHz , but it then falls fast , subsequently falls slightly slower , and at the end falls faster again . The call reaches its highest amplitude at around 53 kHz . It terminates at around 43 to 46 kHz ; this characteristic is especially distinctive . In different experiments , the time between calls was found to be around 85 and 66 ms , respectively . The high @-@ pitched call may be an adaptation to the animal 's occurrence in dense vegetation .
Head and body length is about 4 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) and wingspan is around 20 cm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) . Forearm length is 30 @.@ 8 to 34 @.@ 6 mm ( 1 @.@ 21 to 1 @.@ 36 in ) , tibia length is 13 @.@ 5 to 15 @.@ 9 mm ( 0 @.@ 53 to 0 @.@ 63 in ) , hindfoot length is 5 @.@ 1 to 5 @.@ 8 mm ( 0 @.@ 20 to 0 @.@ 23 in ) , and body mass is 3 @.@ 5 to 5 @.@ 5 g ( 0 @.@ 12 to 0 @.@ 19 oz ) .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Although Myotis alcathoe was initially known only from Greece and Hungary and was thought to be restricted to southeastern Europe , records since then have greatly expanded its range , and it is now known from Spain and England to Sweden and European Turkey . In several European countries , focused searches were conducted to detect its occurrence . Its habitat generally consists of moist , deciduous , mature forest near streams , for example in ravines or in alluvial forest ( forest near a river ) , where there are many decaying trees that the bat can use as roosting sites . In Germany , its preferred habitat consists of mixed deciduous forest . In the south of the continent , it usually occurs in mountain ranges , but the factors affecting its distribution in the north are less well known . Its range appears to be similar in shape to those of the greater and lesser horseshoe bats ( Rhinolophus ferrumequinum and R. hipposideros ) and Myotis emarginatus . It may yet be found in other European countries , such as the Benelux countries , Ireland , and Moldova . Although there are abundant records from some areas , such as France and Hungary , the species appears to be rare in most of its range .
Known records are as follows :
Albania
A single specimen was caught in 2006 in a forest of planes ( Platanus orientalis ) and poplars ( Populus spp . ) next to a small stream . M. mystacinus was recorded at the same place .
Austria
Three specimens of Myotis alcathoe were recorded in Burgenland , southeastern Austria , in 2006 . They were caught near fishponds in a region dominated by oak ( Quercus petraea ) and hornbeam ( Carpinus betulus ) .
Azerbaijan
The species was recorded around 2009 .
Belgium
The species is known from the 31 of July 2011 in two places around the city of Rochefort .
Bulgaria
The species is known from six localities in the south and west of the country ; the first record dates from 2003 . Habitats include river and mountain forests .
Caucasus
Bats collected in the Russian part of the Caucasus and in Abkhazia ( a breakaway part of Georgia ) from 2003 to 2009 may represent Myotis alcathoe . They are small and morphometrically distinct from other local Myotis mystacinus @-@ like bats . The affinity of these bats to M. alcathoe has recently been confirmed by the genetic and morphological analyses .
Croatia
In 2003 , Myotis alcathoe was recorded here on the basis of two specimens ; three additional specimens were found in 2004 .
Czech Republic
Here , the species was recorded at nine sites clustered in three regions , with the first record dating from 2001 , in addition to records from roadkilled specimens at three further sites . The typical habitat was mature oak @-@ hornbeam forest near water with dead , decaying trees , at altitudes ranging from 170 to 390 m ( 560 to 1 @,@ 280 ft ) . Both M. mystacinus and M. brandtii occur in some of the same places in this country . M. alcathoe has a limited , patchy distribution within the country , but reaches a high abundance in suitable habitat .
France
Myotis alcathoe was informally recognized in France in 2000 as a small Myotis similar to Myotis mystacinus , the " Murin cantalou " ; in 2002 , it was realized that this bat represents Myotis alcathoe . A large number of sites are known , mostly in the north of the country . The species reaches altitudes of up to 2 @,@ 000 m ( 6 @,@ 600 ft ) . It is usually found close to water , but it has been found in a variety of habitats , including farmlands , swamps , forests , and wooden grounds . In late summer and autumn , it occurs in caves .
Germany
The species is known from two different areas in the country . In 2005 and 2006 , specimens were caught in an old moist forest near the Rhine in western Baden @-@ Württemberg . Two other bats were found in highway tunnels close to this site . The species is also known from the Kyffhäuser hill range of Thuringia in central Germany , an island of relatively warm habitat with some unusual wildlife . There , bats were caught near a spring in a karst landscape amid oak @-@ dominated deciduous forest . The species was also recorded in deciduous forest at a former Soviet military training site in eastern Thuringia . Myotis alcathoe has also been recorded in the nearby states of Saxony @-@ Anhalt and Saxony , where it occurs in mixed deciduous forest . Many Saxony @-@ Anhalt records are from near water . However , the species was also recorded in the center of the city of Chemnitz in Saxony .
Greece
The species has been recorded in the Pindus and Rhodopi Mountains of central and northern Greece . Here , Myotis alcathoe is usually found in stands of plane or alder trees next to small streams in ravines . The bat hunts close to the trees , within the stand . It is often found together with the lesser horseshoe bat and with M. mystacinus .
Hungary
Myotis alcathoe is not uncommon in the mountain forests of northeastern Hungary . It has been found at brooks and lakes in oak , beech , alder , and hornbeam ( Carpinetum ) forests at 230 to 670 m ( 750 to 2 @,@ 200 ft ) altitude . Both M. brandtii and M. mystacinus occur together with M. alcathoe there .
Italy
Myotis alcathoe has been recorded in beech forest in Majella National Park in the region of Abruzzo . Additional specimens of Myotis alcathoe have been identified in Italy using molecular methods . In December 2013 its presence has been confirmed in the protected area of Appennino Lucano National Park ( Basilicata ) .
Latvia
A small Myotis was captured at a cave in Latvia between 2007 and 2010 ; pending genetic testing , it is suspected to be M. alcathoe . However , this record had not been confirmed in the subsequent national report to EUROBATS in 2014 .
Luxembourg
A single male was caught in 2011 and confirmed as M. alcathoe on the basis of genetic data . Elsewhere in the country it has been recorded on the basis of acoustic data .
Poland
The species was recorded in four caves in southern Poland in 2005 and 2006 , and later at several other sites in the south of the country . It is known from 182 to 1 @,@ 294 m ( 597 to 4 @,@ 245 ft ) above sea level , most often in beech forest ( Fagus sylvatica ) , but also in several other forest types .
Romania
A single Myotis alcathoe was captured in 2007 in a nature reserve in the eastern Carpathians ; the reserve contains riverine and conifer forest . The species was additionally recorded in a forested valley containing a small stream in Alba County .
Serbia
The species was reported on the basis of three specimens shortly before 2009 , but is probably rare .
Slovakia
Here , Myotis alcathoe is known from a single site , a cave in old deciduous forest at 525 m ( 1 @,@ 722 ft ) altitude .
Slovenia
A single specimen was recorded in Slovenia in 2007 .
Spain
In Catalonia , the species is known from six sites , ranging from sea level to 1 @,@ 200 m ( 3 @,@ 900 ft ) altitude . It is known in beech and riverine forest and was first recorded in 2006 . The species is known from three sites in La Rioja , where it was recorded in 2004 , and occurs amidst beech and riverine forest at 790 to 1 @,@ 390 m ( 2 @,@ 590 to 4 @,@ 560 ft ) altitude . It has also been found at seven localities in Navarre , with the first record dating from 2004 . There , it occurs in beech and oak forest at altitudes from 140 to 980 m ( 460 to 3 @,@ 220 ft ) . In Galicia , it is known from three localities at 300 to 680 m ( 980 to 2 @,@ 230 ft ) above sea level .
Sweden
The species was recorded at five sites in the south of the country , starting in 2008 , on the basis of echolocation calls .
Switzerland
Myotis alcathoe has been recorded from the Col du Marchairuz in the Jura Mountains ( canton of Vaud ) . The species is acoustically detected in 2003 in the canton of Geneva , and subsequent captures led to the discovery of the first breeding sites for the country .
Turkey
Eight individuals have been caught at three sites in close vicinity in the European part of the country in 2006 .
Ukraine
In 2009 , the possible occurrence of Myotis alcathoe in Ukraine was recorded . In 2011 , the species was definitively recorded there on the basis of two bats caught in the far southwest of the country in 2009 .
United Kingdom
Myotis alcathoe has been recorded in England since 2003 , and is known from two swarming sites in the south and a third site in the north of the country . The northern England site , in Ryedale , is in a protected area with many old trees , and the southern sites ( in Sussex ) are in woodland .
The species is also known from Montenegro and possibly from Bosnia and Herzegovina . Early records of Myotis ikonnikovi — now known to be an eastern Asian species — from Ukraine , Bulgaria , and Romania may also pertain to this species . Because whiskered bats in many cases cannot easily be distinguished from each other without the use of genetic methods , some listings do not differentiate between them ; records of Myotis alcathoe and / or M. mystacinus and / or ( in some cases ) M. brandtii have been reported from Bulgaria , Belgium , and Montenegro .
= = Ecology and behavior = =
Myotis alcathoe is a rare species with narrow ecological requirements . According to a study in the Czech Republic , the diet of Myotis alcathoe mostly consists of nematoceran flies , but caddisflies , spiders , small lepidopterans , and neuropterans are also taken . The presence of spiders in the diet suggests that the species gleans prey from foliage . It forages mainly high in the canopy and over water , and is often found in dense vegetation . The parasitic mite Spinturnix mystacina has been found on M. alcathoe , and the mites on M. alcathoe , M. brandtii , and M. mystacinus are genetically closely related . The bat fly Basilia mongolensis nudior has been recorded on M. alcathoe in Thuringia and the tick Ixodes vespertilionis in Romania . When caught , individuals of Myotis alcathoe are much calmer than M. mystacinus or M. brandtii .
Myotis alcathoe lives in small groups . In Greece , a maternity colony , containing three females and two juveniles , has been found in a plane tree . Additional roosts were found high in oak trees in Baden @-@ Württemberg and Saxony @-@ Anhalt . Twenty @-@ seven roosting sites have been found in the Czech Republic , all but one in trees ( the last was in a concrete pole ) . Most of the tree roosts were in oaks ( Quercus robur ) ; others were in limes ( Tilia cordata ) , birches ( Betula pendula ) , and various other species . Its strong preference for roosting sites in trees is unusual among European bats . Roosts tend to be located high in the canopy , and are often in old trees . In summer , roosts may contain large groups of up to 80 individuals , but autumn roosts in the Czech Republic are occupied by smaller groups . M. alcathoe swarms from late July to mid @-@ September in southern Poland .
In Saxony @-@ Anhalt , the species forages deep in valleys when temperatures are above 10 ° C ( 50 ° F ) , but on warmer slopes or rocky areas when it is colder . There , Myotis alcathoe is relatively easy to capture in August , because M. brandtii and M. mystacinus already start swarming in late July . Although there are some records of Myotis alcathoe in caves during the winter , it is also possible that animals spend the winter in tree cavities , and whether swarming behavior occurs in Myotis alcathoe is unclear . An animal found in a cave in Saxony @-@ Anhalt in January was not sleeping deeply . Reproduction may also take place in caves , but pregnant females have been found as late as June . Relatively many juveniles are caught between July and September . In England , one individual of M. alcathoe was captured in 2003 ( and identified at the time as M. brandtii ) and again in 2009 . Three individuals that were telemetrically tracked ( in eastern France , Thuringia , and Baden @-@ Württemberg , respectively ) moved only 800 m ( 2 @,@ 600 ft ) , 935 m ( 3 @,@ 068 ft ) , and 1 @,@ 440 m ( 4 @,@ 720 ft ) from their night quarters ; M. brandtii and M. mystacinus tend to move over longer distances . A study in Poland suggested frequent hybridization among M. alcathoe , M. brandtii , and M. mystacinus sharing the same swarming sites , probably attributable to male @-@ biased sex ratios ( 1 @.@ 7 : 1 in M. alcathoe ) , a polygynous mating system , and the high number of bats at swarming sites . M. alcathoe showed a particularly high proportion of hybrids , perhaps because it occurs at lower densities than the other two species .
= = Conservation status = =
Because Myotis alcathoe remains poorly known , it is assessed as " Data Deficient " on the IUCN Red List . However , it may be endangered because of its narrow ecological preferences . Reservoir construction may threaten the species ' habitat in some places ; two Greek sites where it has been recorded have already been destroyed . Forest loss is another possible threat , and the species may be restricted to undisturbed habitats . Because of its patchy distribution and likely small population , it probably does not easily colonize new habitats . The species is protected by national and international measures , but the IUCN Red List recommends further research on various aspects of the species as well as efforts to increase public awareness of the animal . In addition , old forests need to be conserved and the species ' cave roosts need to be protected .
In Catalonia , the species is listed as " Endangered " in view of its apparent rarity there . The Red List of Germany 's Endangered Vertebrates lists Myotis alcathoe as " Critically Endangered " as of 2009 . In the Genevan region , the species is also listed as " Critically Endangered " as of 2015 . In Hungary , where the species is probably not uncommon in suitable habitat , it has been protected since 2005 . However , the species is declining there and is threatened by habitat loss and disturbance of caves .
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= Fire Emblem =
Fire Emblem ( ファイアーエムブレム , Faiā Emuburemu ) is a tactical role @-@ playing video game franchise developed by Intelligent Systems and published by Nintendo . First produced and published for the Family Computer ( Famicom ) , the series currently consists of fifteen games , including remakes , across multiple game systems . Described by its creators as an " RPG simulation " , the gameplay revolves around tactical movement of characters across grid @-@ based environments , while incorporating a story and characters similar to those in a more traditional role @-@ playing video game . A noted aspect of gameplay is the permanent death of characters in battle , removing them from the rest of the game should they be defeated . The series title refers to the titular object , the Fire Emblem , usually portrayed as a royally treasured weapon or shield , representing the power of war and dragons , a recurring element in the series . Development of the first game began as a dōjin project by Shouzou Kaga and three other developers . Its success prompted the development of further titles in the series . Kaga headed development of each entry until the release of Thracia 776 , when he left the company and founded his own game studio to develop Tear Ring Saga .
No games in the series were released outside of Japan until two characters , Marth and Roy , were included as playable characters in the 2001 fighting game Super Smash Bros. Melee . Their popularity eventually convinced Nintendo to release the next game , The Blazing Sword , in western regions under the title Fire Emblem in 2003 . Many games in the series have sold well , despite a decline during the 2000s which resulted in the series ' near @-@ cancellation . Individual entries have generally been praised , and the series as a whole has been praised for its gameplay , and it is cited as the origin of the tactical role @-@ playing genre . Characters from multiple games have also been included in crossovers with other franchises . On April 27 , 2016 , Nintendo showed off plans for a new mobile game based on the series that is set for release in Fall 2016 . Nintendo also announced that Fire Emblem is now considered as a " Major IP " for the company .
= = Titles = =
= = = Games = = =
According to a developer interview with the developers of Fire Emblem Fates , there are currently fifteen games in the Fire Emblem series , including remakes of earlier titles . The official Fire Emblem World portal lists thirteen games , excluding Fates . Counting only original titles , there have been twelve games in the series including Fates . A game was initially in development for the Nintendo 64 and its peripheral 64DD . Originally codenamed Fire Emblem 64 , it was first revealed by Shigeru Miyamoto in 1997 . Ultimately , due to poor sales for the 64DD and internal structural changes at Intelligent Systems , Fire Emblem 64 was cancelled in 2000 and development shifted to what would become Fire Emblem : The Binding Blade . It was speculated , and later confirmed by staff , that the work done for Fire Emblem 64 was incorporated into Binding Blade . A different title for the Wii was planned , but after some trial and error , in addition to an unfocused development schedule , the project was cancelled . No original Fire Emblem title is currently planned for the Wii U , and Nintendo producer Hitoshi Yamagami said such a game would need to sell 700 @,@ 000 copies to be profitable .
= = = = Main series = = = =
The first entry in the series , Shadow Dragon and the Blade of Light , was released in 1990 for the Japanese Family Computer , introducing the basic series mechanics . A second title for the Famicom set during the events of the first game , Fire Emblem Gaiden , released in 1992 . In 1994 , Mystery of the Emblem was released for the Super Famicom , containing both a remake of Shadow Dragon and the Blade of Light and a sequel continuing the story of the first game . Two more games were released for the Super Famicom in 1996 and 1999 respectively : Genealogy of the Holy War and Thracia 776 .
The next entry released was Binding Blade in 2002 for the Game Boy Advance , originally announced as Maiden of the Dark . A prequel to Binding Blade , The Sword of Flame , was released for the Game Boy Advance the following year . This entry was released overseas under the title Fire Emblem . It was released in 2003 in North America and 2004 in Europe . The final entry for the Game Boy Advance , The Sacred Stones , was released in 2004 in Japan , and 2005 in North America and Europe .
The next entry in the series , Path of Radiance , was released on the GameCube worldwide in 2005 . It was the first Fire Emblem to feature 3D graphics , voice acting , and full @-@ motion animated cutscenes . A direct sequel to Path of Radiance , Radiant Dawn was released for the Wii in 2007 in Japan and North America , and 2008 in Europe . The next entry in the series , Awakening for the Nintendo 3DS , was released in 2012 in Japan and 2013 in North America and Europe . The second entry for the 3DS , Fates , was released in June 2015 in Japan , February 2016 in North America and in May 2016 for Europe and Australia . It comes in multiple versions : two physical versions titled Birthright and Conquest , and a third route titled Revelation released as downloadable content .
= = = = Remakes and spin @-@ offs = = = =
An expanded remake of the first game , titled Fire Emblem : Shadow Dragon , was released for the Nintendo DS in 2008 in Japan and Europe , and 2009 in North America . Restoring content cut from the first game when it was remade in Mystery of the Emblem , the game makes use of the DS ' gameplay functions and includes additional story elements . A second remake for the DS was released in 2010 . Titled New Mystery of the Emblem , it was an expanded remake similar to Shadow Dragon , and did not receive a western release .
In 1997 , an episodic prequel to Mystery of the Emblem titled BS Fire Emblem were released through Satellaview . The events of Archanea Senki were included in the remake of Mystery of the Emblem . Characters from the Fire Emblem series have been included in multiple entries in the Super Smash Bros. series , beginning with main protagonists Marth and Roy in Super Smash Bros. Melee . Characters from Awakening also appeared in Intelligent System 's strategy game Code Name : S.T.E.A.M. as optional characters . A crossover with the Shin Megami Tensei series , titled Tokyo Mirage Sessions ♯ FE , was released in December 2015 in Japan and worldwide in June 2016 .
= = = Related media = = =
A short original video animation series based on Mystery of the Emblem was created in 1997 . These anime episodes were released in North America , six years before The Sword of Flame was localized . Amiibo figures based on Fire Emblem characters were produced , which are compatible with Fates , Code Name : S.T.E.A.M. and Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS and Wii U. Manga based on the games have also been produced , including Binding Blade and Awakening . A trading card game based on the series is also available in Japan , featuring character artwork by old and new artists .
= = Common elements = =
= = = Setting = = =
The Fire Emblem games takes place across multiple unrelated settings within a Medieval or Renaissance @-@ themed time period , with the story general focused on the main protagonist , usually a member of royalty , caught in the conflict of two or more countries across a continent and fighting for their cause before having to defeat the game 's final boss , who is either an evil dragon , tyrant or dark god hell @-@ bent on destroying the main character 's homeland if not the world and humanity itself . The continents of Archanea and Valentia are the settings of Shadow Dragon and the Blade of Light , Gaiden , Mystery of the Emblem and Awakening , with Awakening taking place several millennia after the other games . It was also the planned setting for Fire Emblem 64 . Genealogy of the Holy War and Thracia 776 are set in the land of Jugdral , while Fire Emblem and Binding Blade take place in Elibe . The Sacred Stones is set in the land of Magvel . Path of Radiance and Radiant Dawn are set on the continent of Tellius .
A recurring element in the series is the titular Fire Emblem , an object with magical powers . In Shadow Dragon and the Blade of Light , it is a shield inset with five magical gems . Its name derives from its connection to dragons and weapons of war , being the " emblem of flame " . It also appears as a family crest in the continuity of Genealogy of the Holy War , a family seal in The Binding Blade storyline , a magical gemstone in The Sacred Stones , and and in the Path of Radiance world it takes the form of a bronze medallion holding a goddess of chaos . Other magical elements , including feuding gods and conflict with mystical species such as dragons and shape @-@ shifters are also recurring elements in the series .
= = = Gameplay = = =
The Fire Emblem series has been described by its developers as an " RPG simulation " , combining tactical simulation gameplay with the plot and character development of a role @-@ playing game , creating a sense of connection with characters in the field not present in previous tactical games . Battles in the Fire Emblem series play out on a grid @-@ based map , with the player controlling a set number of characters across maps tied to both the game 's story and optional side stories . Each character has a specific character class , giving them set abilities and affecting how far they can move across the field . Some character classes have innate skills unique to them , and each character has its own class and stats . Depending on the series entry , a character 's class can be changed or upgraded with or without special items . During battle , each character gains experience points by performing actions , such as attacking an enemy , healing an ally , and slaying a foe ( which typically offers the most experience points ) . When a certain level is reached , the character levels up , and new skill points are awarded randomly to a character 's attributes , be they the character 's maximum health , agility or strength . The more a character is used in battle , the more experience that character gains .
A key element in combat since Genealogy of the Holy War is the Weapon Triangle , a system governing the strengths and weaknesses certain weapons and types of magic have against each other in a Scissors , Paper , Rock fashion . For weapons , lances are stronger than swords , swords are stronger than axes , and axes are stronger than lances . In magic , fire is stronger than wind , wind is stronger than thunder , and thunder is stronger than fire . For Fates , the Weapon Triangle relationships add other weapons in the following way : swords and tomes are stronger than axes and bows , axes and bows were stronger than lances and shuriken , lances and shuriken are stronger than swords and tomes , and so on . Several games use a Weapon Durability system : after being used a certain number of times , a character 's weapon will break . Different entries have various systems related to character weapons : in Genealogy of the Holy War , weapons can be repaired at special shops ; in Path of Radiance and future games , weapons can be bought and upgraded , while the durability system is replaced in Fates with a system where more powerful weapons weaken some of a wielder 's stats .
Both inside and outside battle , characters ' relationships can be developed through interactions on and off the battlefield . As the strength of their relationships grow , certain abilities in battle are also strengthened . A feature introduced in Genealogy of the Holy War and used in later titles was an aspect of relationships . A man and woman who fall in love will have a child , and that child will inherit certain skills and stats from them . One of the recurring features in the series is permanent death ( more frequently referred to as " permadeath " ) , a function where units defeated in battle are permanently removed from the rest of the game with a very few exceptions ( the main character , a character pivotal to the main story ) . Up until Fire Emblem : New Mystery of the Emblem : Heroes of Light and Shadow , there was no option to disable permanent death . In New Mystery of the Emblem , a new Casual Mode was added , where characters that died were revived at the end of a battle . Fates also added Phoenix Mode , where characters slain during one turn are revived on the player 's next turn . Another inclusion from Fates includes ' My Castle ' , a customisable castle that serves as the player 's base of operations throughout the game .
= = Development = =
The first Fire Emblem title , Shadow Dragon and the Blade of Light , was originally never intended as a commercial game , defined by creator Shouzou Kaga as a dōjin project with three other job @-@ holding students . As it turned out , the game was successful , prompting the development of more games in the series . The game was developed at Intelligent Systems , whose previous notable game was the strategy game Famicom Wars . Kaga would work on the Fire Emblem series until Thracia 776 , when he left Nintendo and began development on Tear Ring Saga for the PlayStation . After Thracia 776 , the Fire Emblem series had several releases on portable devices . At this time , Marth and Roy from Shadow Dragon and the Blade of Light and Sword of Seals appeared as playable characters in Super Smash Bros. Melee , prompting western interest in the Fire Emblem series . The positive reception of the characters made Nintendo decide to localize The Sword of Flame under the title Fire Emblem . Due to its overseas success , it was decided to return the series to home consoles for Path of Radiance for the GameCube . Despite it arriving late in the GameCube 's life cycle , it provided a late boost to sales , reaffirming Nintendo 's faith in the series . By 2010 , the series was suffering from declining sales and Nintendo told Intelligent Systems that if their next Fire Emblem failed to sell above 250 @,@ 000 units , the series would be cancelled . This prompted Intelligent Systems to include lots of features new to the series , intending to make it the culmination of the series . The game 's reception and sales ended up saving the series from cancellation , convincing Nintendo to continue production .
The series ' original music was composed by Yuka Tsujiyoko . As the only music composer at Intelligent Systems when Shadow Dragon and the Blade of Light was in production , she acted as both composer and sound director , up until Thracia 776 , when she left the company to freelance after completing the score for Paper Mario . She has worked on later Fire Emblem games , alongside other composers including Saki Kasuga , Hiroki Morishita , and Rei Kondoh . The series includes several other notable staff members : Tohru Narihiro , who was involved in every Fire Emblem since the original ; Masahiro Higuchi , who began as a graphics designer for Genealogy of the Holy War ; and Kouhei Maeda , who wrote the scenarios for every game since The Sword of Flame and became a director for Awakening . Multiple artists are associated with the series . The characters for the first game and the remake of Mystery of the Emblem were designed by Daisuke Idzuka . The characters of Mystery of the Emblem and Genealogy of the Holy War were designed by Katsuyoshi Koya , who later worked on designs for the Fire Emblem Trading Card Game . Katsuyoshi , who was unsatisfied with his work on the series , stepped down for Thracia 776 . The designer for Thracia 776 was Mayumi Hirota , whose brief tenure with the series ended when he left Intelligent Systems with Kaga after the game 's completion . Nevertheless , his art for the series was described by Kaga as his favorite up to that point . Other artists involved in later games are Eiji Kaneda ( Binding Blade ) , Sachiko Wada ( The Sacred Stones ) and Senri Kita ( Path of Radiance , Radiant Dawn ) . For Shadow Dragon , the character artwork was redone by Ghost in the Shell artist Masamune Shirow . Awakening 's character designers were Toshiyuki Kusakihara and Yūsuke Kozaki , who were brought on to give a new look to the series . Kozaki returned as character designer for Fates .
= = Reception = =
The first five Fire Emblem games were highly successful in Japan , selling 329 @,@ 087 , 324 @,@ 699 , 776 @,@ 338 , 498 @,@ 216 and 106 @,@ 108 copies respectively . As of 2002 , total sales had reached over two million copies . Sales of the series went into a decline beginning with Radiant Dawn , but Awakening topped the total sales of both Radiant Dawn and the Mystery of the Emblem remake in its first week . It went on to sell 1 @.@ 79 million copies worldwide and become the best @-@ selling Fire Emblem title in western territories .
The Fire Emblem series is highly popular in Japan . In 2007 , a Japanese public poll named Mystery of the Emblem as one of the country 's All Time Top 100 video games . Speaking to USGamer , Massive Chalice creator Brad Muir commented on how Fire Emblem had influenced the game , referring to it as " [ a ] venerable strategy series " , making positive reference to its gameplay and character relationships . In her review of Awakening , IGN 's Audrey Drake said that " Far too few people have played the Fire Emblem series " , calling it " [ a ] darling of the hardcore strategy RPG crowd - and one of the shining gems of the genre " .
Several journalistic sites have cited its low notoriety in the west as an effect of Nintendo 's sporadic localization efforts , along with its place in a niche game genre . At the same time , they have praised the series ' gameplay , regularly noting its high difficulty and relationship mechanics . Game Informer and Gamasutra both cited the series as an inspiration for later popular tactical role @-@ playing games , with Gamasutra naming Tactics Ogre : Let Us Cling Together , Final Fantasy Tactics and the Disgaea series as being influenced by its design . Destructoid writer Chris Carter , writing in 2014 , praised the series ' mechanics , at the same time listing the five best games in the series : among those he chose were Mystery of the Emblem , Radiant Dawn , and Awakening . Awakening is generally cited as having brought the series more publicity and player attention .
= = = Tear Ring Saga lawsuit = = =
After Kaga left Nintendo , he founded a studio called Tirnanog and began development on a game titled Emblem Saga , a strategy role @-@ playing game for the PlayStation . The game bore multiple similarities to the Fire Emblem series , and Nintendo filed a lawsuit against Tirnanog for copyright infringement . The first suit failed , but the court ruled in Tirnanog 's favor . Nintendo filed a second lawsuit , and this time was awarded a cash settlement of ¥ 76 million . Nevertheless , Tirnanog and publisher Enterbrain were still allowed to publish the title , though they changed its name to Tear Ring Saga , and eventually developed a sequel . Nintendo attempted taking a third lawsuit to the Japanese Supreme Court in 2005 , but the second ruling was upheld .
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= Battle of Winterthur ( 1799 ) =
The Battle of Winterthur ( 27 May 1799 ) was an important action between elements of the Army of the Danube and elements of the Habsburg army , commanded by Friedrich Freiherr von Hotze , during the War of the Second Coalition , part of the French Revolutionary Wars . The small town of Winterthur lies 18 kilometres ( 11 mi ) northeast of Zürich , in Switzerland . Because of its position at the junction of seven cross @-@ roads , the army that held the town controlled access to most of Switzerland and points crossing the Rhine into southern Germany . Although the forces involved were small , the ability of the Austrians to sustain their 11 @-@ hour assault on the French line resulted in the consolidation of three Austrian forces on the plateau north of Zürich , leading to the French defeat a few days later .
By mid @-@ May 1799 , the Austrians had wrested control of parts of Switzerland from the French as forces under the command of Hotze and Count Heinrich von Bellegarde pushed them out of the Grisons . After defeating Jean @-@ Baptiste Jourdan 's 25 @,@ 000 @-@ man Army of the Danube at the battles of Ostrach and Stockach , the main Austrian army , under command of Archduke Charles , crossed the Rhine at the Swiss town of Schaffhausen and prepared to unite with the armies of Hotze and Friedrich Joseph , Count of Nauendorf , on the plains surrounding Zürich .
The French Army of Switzerland and the Army of the Danube , now both under the command of André Masséna , sought to prevent this merger . Masséna sent Michel Ney and a small mixed cavalry and infantry force from Zürich to stop Hotze 's force at Winterthur . Despite a sharp contest , the Austrians succeeded in pushing the French out of the Winterthur highlands , although both sides took high casualties . Once the union of the Habsburg armies took place in early June , Archduke Charles attacked French positions at Zürich and forced the French to withdraw beyond the Limmat .
= = Background = =
= = = Political and diplomatic situation = = =
Initially , the rulers of Europe viewed the revolution in France as an event between the French king and his subjects , and not something in which they should interfere . As revolutionary rhetoric grew more strident , they declared the interest of the monarchs of Europe as one with the interests of Louis and his family ; this Declaration of Pilnitz threatened ambiguous , but quite serious , consequences if anything should happen to the royal family . The French position became increasingly difficult . Compounding problems in international relations , French émigrés continued to agitate for support of a counter @-@ revolution . On 20 April 1792 , the French National Convention declared war on Austria . In this War of the First Coalition ( 1792 – 1798 ) , France ranged itself against most of the European states sharing land or water borders with her , plus Portugal and the Ottoman Empire . Although the Coalition forces achieved several victories at Verdun , Kaiserslautern , Neerwinden , Mainz , Amberg and Würzburg , the efforts of Napoleon Bonaparte in northern Italy pushed Austrian forces back and resulted in the negotiation of the Peace of Leoben ( 17 April 1797 ) and the subsequent Treaty of Campo Formio ( 17 October 1797 ) .
The treaty called for meetings between the involved parties to work out the exact territorial and remunerative details . Convened at a small town in the mid @-@ Rhineland , Rastatt , the Congress quickly derailed in a mire of intrigue and diplomatic posturing . The French demanded more territory . The Austrians were reluctant to cede the designated territories . Compounding the Congress 's problems , tensions grew between France and most of the First Coalition allies . Ferdinand of Naples refused to pay agreed @-@ upon tribute to France , and his subjects followed this refusal with a rebellion . The French invaded Naples and established the Parthenopaean Republic . Encouraged by the French Republic , a republican uprising in the Swiss cantons led to the overthrow of the Swiss Confederation and the establishment of the Helvetic Republic . The French Directory was convinced that the Austrians were planning to start another war . Indeed , the weaker France seemed , the more seriously the Austrians , the Neapolitans , the Russians , and the English discussed this possibility . In mid @-@ spring , the Austrians reached an agreement with Tsar Paul of Russia by which the legendary Alexander Suvorov would come out of retirement to assist Austria in Italy with another 60 @,@ 000 troops .
= = = Outbreak of war in 1799 = = =
The French Directory 's military strategy in 1799 called for offensive campaigns on all fronts : central Italy , northern Italy , the Swiss cantons , the upper Rhineland , and Holland . Theoretically , the French had a combined force of 250 @,@ 000 troops , but this was on paper , not in the field . As winter broke in 1799 , General Jean Baptiste Jourdan and the Army of the Danube , at a paper strength of 50 @,@ 000 and an actual strength of 25 @,@ 000 , crossed the Rhine between Basel and Kehl on 1 March . This crossing officially violated the Treaty of Campo Formio . The Army of the Danube advanced through the Black Forest and , by mid @-@ March , established an offensive position at the western and northern edge of the Swiss Plateau by the village of Ostrach . André Masséna had already pushed into Switzerland with his force of 30 @,@ 000 , and successfully passed into the Grison Alps , Chur , and Finstermünz on the Inn . Theoretically , his left flank was to link with Jourdan 's right flank , commanded by Pierre Marie Barthélemy Ferino , at the far eastern shore of Lake Constance .
The Austrians had arrayed their own army in a line from the Tyrol to the Danube . A force of 46 @,@ 000 under command of Count Heinrich von Bellegarde formed the defence of the Tyrol . Another small Austrian force of 26 @,@ 000 commanded by Friedrich Freiherr von Hotze guarded the Vorarlberg . The main Austrian Army — close to 80 @,@ 000 troops under the command of Archduke Charles — had wintered in the Bavarian , Austrian , and Salzburg territories on the eastern side of the Lech . At the battles of Ostrach ( 21 March ) and Stockach ( 25 March ) , the main Austrian force pushed the Army of the Danube back into the Black Forest . Charles made plans to cross the upper Rhine at the Swiss town of Schaffhausen . Friedrich Freiherr von Hotze brought a portion ( approximately 8 @,@ 000 ) of his force west , leaving the rest to defend the Vorarlberg . At the same time , Friedrich Joseph , Count of Nauendorf , brought the left wing of the main Austrian force across the Rhine by Eglisau . They planned to unite with the main Austrian army , controlling the northern access points of Zürich and forcing an engagement with Masséna .
By mid @-@ May , French morale was low . They had suffered terrible losses at Ostrach and Stockach , although these had been made up by reinforcements . Two senior officers of the Army of the Danube , Charles Mathieu Isidore Decaen and Jean @-@ Joseph Ange d 'Hautpoul , were facing courts @-@ martial on charges of misconduct , professed by their senior officer , Jourdan . Jean @-@ Baptiste Bernadotte and Laurent de Gouvion Saint @-@ Cyr were sick , or claimed they were , and had left the army 's encampments to recover their health . Masséna 's force had been repelled by Hotze 's army at Feldkirch , and forced to fall back , and LeCourbe 's failure to push through against Bellegarde 's Austrian force in the Tyrol , meant Masséna had to pull his southern wing back as well as his center and northern wing , to maintain communication with the retreating armies on his flanks . At this point , also , the Swiss revolted again , this time against the French , and Zürich became the last defensible position Masséna could take .
= = = Locale = = =
Winterthur ( / ˈvɪntərtʊər / ; German pronunciation : [ ˈvɪntərˌtuːr ] ) lies in a basin south and east of the Töss approximately 31 kilometres ( 19 mi ) northeast of Zürich . To the north and east of the town lies a ring of hills approximately 687 metres ( 0 @.@ 427 mi ) high . To the west , the Töss runs on its 59 @.@ 7 @-@ kilometre ( 37 @.@ 1 mi ) course north toward the Rhine . The locale of a Roman settlement from 200 to 400 , and the site of a medieval battle in 919 , its location at seven crossroads gave it strategic importance in the effort to control north – south and east – west communication in the early days of the War of the Second Coalition .
= = = Leadership = = =
After the defeats at the battles at Ostrach and Stockach , and the Army of the Danube 's retreat into the Black Forest , the French Directory had sacked Jean Baptiste Jourdan in April 1799 and given command of both the Army of Switzerland and the Army of the Danube to André Masséna . Protecting the northern access to Zürich , Masséna gathered some of the best commanders he had available ; eventually , three of them would become Marshals of France , and Tharreau , a dependable General of Division .
The situation for the French was dire . Not only had they been trounced in southwestern Germany , the legendary Alexander Suvorov was on his way to northern Italy with 60 @,@ 000 Russians , to take command of Coalition forces there . Count Heinrich Bellegarde , positioned with 20 @,@ 000 men in the Grisons , effectively isolated Masséna 's force from any assistance out of Italy . Most threatening , Archduke Charles ' main army lay less than a day away ; in size alone , it could overwhelm him , or , if he withdrew to the west , its position cut off his avenue of withdrawal toward France . If Charles ' left wing , commanded by Nauendorf , united with Hotze 's force , approaching from the east , Masséna knew Charles would attack and very likely push him out of Zürich .
To prevent this merger of the Austrian forces , Masséna established a forward line centred at Winterthur , and under overall command of the experienced Jean Victor Tharreau . The French forces were arrayed in an uneven semicircle , in which Winterthur formed the central part . The command of the Winterthur brigades was the most important . If the center could not hold its position , the flanks would be isolated and crushed . Masséna sent newly promoted General of Division Michel Ney to Winterthur on 27 May 1799 to take command of the center . Masséna recalled him from his assignment commanding an outpost of Claude Lecourbe 's force in central Switzerland , and gave him a command more fitting with his new rank . Ney arrived with the reputation for boldness considered typical of cavalry officers , but with minimal experience in commanding mixed forces . Anxious to prove himself but aware of protocols , he had hurried to Tharreau 's headquarters , but had to wait for his letters of service before he could take command . These arrived on 25 May . The troops at Winterthur included a brigade of four battalions commanded by Dominique Mansuy Roget , a weak brigade commanded by Théodore Maxime Gazan , and a cavalry brigade commanded by Frédéric Henri Walther .
Like Ney , Friedrich Freiherr von Hotze , the Austrian commander , was also a cavalry officer . Unlike Ney , he had broad field experience . The Swiss @-@ born Hotze had entered the military service of the Duke of Württemberg in 1758 and had been promoted to Rittmeister , or captain of cavalry ; he had campaigned briefly in the Seven Years ' War , but saw no combat . Later , he served in the Russian army in the Russo @-@ Turkish War ( 1768 – 74 ) . With an Austrian commission , he joined the Habsburg imperial army , and served in the brief War of the Bavarian Succession ( 1778 – 79 ) . His campaigning in the War of the First Coalition , particularly at the Battle of Würzburg , had earned him the confidence of Archduke Charles and elevation to the ranks of nobility by Charles ' brother , Francis II , Holy Roman Emperor .
= = Action = =
= = = Preliminaries = = =
On 22 May 1799 , Friedrich Joseph , Count of Nauendorf , led a large column across the Rhine at Constance , Stein and Eglisau . Hotze 's force had already crossed the Rhine further east , where it was still a mountain stream , and passed through the Grisons , into Toggenburg , and moved toward Zürich .
To prevent these two forces from joining with Archduke Charles ' 100 @,@ 000 men , on 22 May , Masséna and 23 @,@ 000 troops of the Army of the Danube marched from Zürich in the direction of Winterthur . Once past Winterthur , they made their way another 14 kilometres ( 8 @.@ 7 mi ) northeast and , on 25 May , the two armies clashed at Frauenfeld . Out @-@ numbered almost four to one , Hotze 's force was badly mauled by the French ; 750 of Hotze 's men were killed or wounded , and 1 @,@ 450 captured ; in addition , Hotze lost two guns , and one color . His second @-@ in @-@ command , Major General Christoph Karl von Piacsek , was wounded in action and died later of his wounds . Despite the superiority of the French numbers , though , Hotze extricated his force from the engagement , manoeuvred around the French position , and escaped in the direction of Winterthur .
Meanwhile , by 26 May Nauendorf established camp near Andelfingen and reacquired contact with the main Austrian force . Having united with Nauendorf , Archduke Charles awaited Hotze 's force , coming from the east , before he would attack the French at Zürich . That same night , Hotze camped between Frauenfeld and Hüttwilen , about 10 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) southeast of Nauendorf 's position , and sent his advance posts as far ahead as Islikon and Elgg , only 9 kilometres ( 6 mi ) east of Winterthur .
= = = Clash = = =
On the morning of 27 May , Hotze assembled his force into three columns and marched toward Winterthur . Opposite him , Michel Ney , newly in command of his division of approximately 3 @,@ 000 men , deployed his force around the heights , the so @-@ called Ober @-@ Winterthur , a ring of low @-@ lying hills some 6 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 7 mi ) north of the city .
Given the size of the Austrian force approaching him , Ney planned to withdraw to Winterthur . Before he could implement this action , the over @-@ all commander of the forward line , Jean Victor Tharreau , had galloped to his position and said he would support Ney by sending Jean @-@ de @-@ Dieu Soult 's division ; Ney understood this to mean he was to make a stand along the entire outpost line , and that he would not be isolated . His small force would receive reinforcements from Soult 's division . Consequently , Ney directed the weakest brigade , under the command of Gazan , to move up a long valley toward Frauenfeld , and another brigade , under the command of Roget , to take the right , preventing any Austrian flanking manoeuvre .
By mid @-@ morning , Hotze 's advanced guard had encountered moderate French resistance first from Roget 's brigade , and then , almost immediately , from Gazan 's . The Austrian advance troops quickly overran Gazan 's weak brigade and took possession of the woods surrounding the village of Islikon . After securing the villages of Gundeschwil , Schottikon , Wiesendangen , and Stogen , further west of Islikon , Hotze deployed two of his columns facing the French front , while a third angled to the French right , as Ney had expected he would .
By mid @-@ morning , Ney had moved toward the front with Gazan 's brigade and he could see the enemy advancing toward him ; still expecting Soult 's reinforcements on his flanks , he anticipated an easy victory , like the one three days earlier in which Masséna 's force had pounded Hotze 's column at Frauenfeld . He did not realise , at least not yet , that Hotze had 8 @,@ 000 men with which to secure the crossroads north of Winterthur . Ney brought more of his men to the front , and moved against the Austrian left . In an Austrian volley , he and his horse went down ; the horse was killed and Ney received a knee injury . He had his wound bandaged , called for another horse , and reentered the fight .
Ney now had two problems : he expected support columns from Soult 's division on both flanks to arrive momentarily and he did not know that the Austrians had arrived in force , directly in front of his center . Although Roget 's brigade was strong enough to prevent the Austrians from flanking the position , Gazan 's brigade was too weak to resist the superior Austrian force , which was growing visibly stronger as Hotze 's troops continued to arrive at the forward line and throw themselves into the fray .
Finally accepting that Soult would not arrive , Ney could not hope to hold his position , much less push the Austrians back . He concluded that he must fall back to Winterthur . To cover the retreat , he instructed Walther and his cavalry to establish a position on the Töss , above the bridge at Stieg . From there , the cavalry could protect an orderly retreat . Amidst a muddy rivulet feeding the Töss , Ney positioned a second detachment guarding the village of Töss and the road leading to a ridge of the hills , where he placed a couple of cannons . From the ridge , his rear guard could fire its artillery on the Austrian advance .
For Walther , at the bridge , the position appeared defensible for as long as it would take to remove Ney 's force through Winterthur , yet the shock of the Austrian force , as it hit his defences , was sufficient to break his line after 90 minutes of brisk fighting . But there the Austrian forward momentum stalled . Although Hotze 's men forced Walther 's from the bridge , they themselves could not cross it . From the ridge , Ney 's rear guard maintained a steady stream of cannon fire on any of the Austrians who crossed the bridge and attempted to advance up the hill . Hotze recognised the futility of throwing his men into direct cannon fire and ordered instead a steady musketry barrage . This proved effective , for Ney was again injured , this time in his left hand , and his second horse was killed ; he relinquished command to Gazan , who organised the continued withdrawal from the position .
When the Archduke heard of Hotze 's success in taking Winterthur crossroads , he directed his troops to augment Nauendorf 's , and to take the village and the environs of Neftenbach , 7 kilometres ( 4 @.@ 3 mi ) west @-@ northwest of Winterthur . Nicolas Oudinot , whose men had secured Neftenbach as part of the French forward line , held out for most of the day , but was forced to retreat 4 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 5 mi ) to Pfungen in the late afternoon ; his position there was not defensible and he was pushed further back to the outskirts of Zürich . By taking Neftenbach , Charles placed a formidable group of troops between Ney 's force and Hotze 's flank and forced an uneven French withdrawal toward Zürich . Tharreau manoeuvred around the Töss , attempting to re @-@ establish his forward line , but Masséna did not want a general engagement between Zürich and Neftenbach , not there and not then . The Armies of Switzerland and the Danube were not ready to take on Charles ; Masséna 's forces were not prepared for a battle on the scale required in facing Charles ' entire army , and he needed the defences offered by Zürich to mount a proper line against the impending Austrian attack . Eventually , Tharreau withdrew the entire forward line to Zürich . The clash took 11 hours .
= = Aftermath = =
Hotze 's force took relatively high casualties — 1 @,@ 000 men killed , wounded or missing ( 12 @.@ 5 percent ) of his entire force of 8 @,@ 000 — although his losses were comparable to Ney 's 800 killed wounded or missing , from his 7 @,@ 000 @-@ man force ( 11 @.@ 5 percent ) . More importantly , though , Hotze succeeded not only in pushing the French back from Winterthur , but also in uniting his force with Nauendorf 's and Charles ' . The unified Austrian force completed the semicircle around Masséna 's positions at Zürich .
For the French , despite their success earlier at Frauenfeld , the action was considerably less successful . In the clash , Ney was sufficiently wounded that he took immediate leave , and remained out of action and command until 22 July . The conduct of the battle also demonstrated the weakness of the French command system in which personal animosity and competition between high @-@ ranking officers , in this case , Soult and Tharreau , undermined French military objectives . Tharreau eventually charged Soult with insubordination ; Soult had outright refused to go to Ney 's assistance , despite specific , and direct , orders to move his division to Ney 's flanks .
Furthermore , the French dangerously underestimated Austrian tenacity and military skill . The white coats , as the French called the Austrians , were far better soldiers than the French assumed , and despite such demonstrations as that at Ostrach , Stockach and Winterthur , the French continued to hold this prejudice . This did not change until 1809 when the Battle of Aspern @-@ Essling and the Battle of Wagram a few weeks later caused Napoleon to revise his opinion of the Austrian military .
Finally , the battle at Winterthur made possible the victory at Zürich . Once the Austrian armies united west , north and east of Zürich , Charles decided he had a sufficiently superior force to attack Masséna 's positions in Zürich . His strategy , to develop a converging attack , was not entirely possible without another Austria corps , which was commanded by Suvorov , and positioned in the mountains in Italy ; this would have made possible the near encirclement of Masséna 's command at Zürich , making the French position untenable . Even so , at the First Battle of Zürich ( 4 – 7 June 1799 ) , the Austrian army forced the French to abandon Zürich ; Masséna withdrew across the Limmat , where he set up a defensive position on the low @-@ lying hills overlooking the city and awaited his opportunity to reacquire the city .
= = Order of battle = =
= = = Austrian = = =
Lt. Field Marshal Friedrich Freiherr von Hotze
12 . Infantry Regiment Manfredini ( 3 battalions )
21 . Infantry Regiment Gemmingen ( 2 companies )
41 . Infantry Regiment Bender ( 3 battalions )
1 . Light Infantry Regiment Strozzi ( 1 battalion )
7 . Dragoon Regiment Waldeck ( 6 squadrons )
First Battalion , Hungarian @-@ Banat Border Regiment
Total : ~ 8000 men
= = = French = = =
General of Division Michel Ney
Honoré Théodore Maxime Gazan de la Peyrière 's column ( 4 battalions )
Dominique Mansuy Roget 's column ( 2 battalions )
Frédéric Henri Walther 's cavalry ( 3 squadrons )
Total : 7 @,@ 000 men
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= Herdwick =
The Herdwick is a breed of domestic sheep native to the Lake District of Cumbria in North West England . The name " Herdwick " is derived from the Old Norse herdvyck , meaning sheep pasture . Though low in lambing capacity and perceived wool quality when compared to more common commercial breeds such as Merino sheep , Herdwicks are prized for their robust health , their ability to live solely on forage , and their tendency to be territorial and not to stray over the difficult upland terrain of the Lake District . It is considered that up to 99 % of all Herdwick sheep are commercially farmed in the central and western Lake District .
The wool quality of a Herdwick has unique qualities relating to durability . Thick bristle type fibres will often protrude from garments forming a protective barrier layer in blizzards — most likely the same qualities that protect the sheep in similar conditions . They have been known to survive under a blanket of snow for three days while eating their own wool .
Severely threatened by the 2001 outbreak of foot @-@ and @-@ mouth disease in England and Wales , the breed has survived due to the intent to preserve this unique animal as a crucial part of traditional Lakeland agriculture . Still far less in number than most commercial breeds , Herdwicks survive largely due to farming subsidies and the aid of the British National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty .
= = History = =
= = = Early history = = =
The root word of the breed 's name , herdvyck , " sheep pasture " , is recorded in documents dating back to the 12th century . The origin of the breed itself is unknown , but the most common theory is that the ancestors of Herdwick sheep were introduced by early Norse settlers . According to this , it was brought to the region somewhere between the 10th and 11th centuries during the Viking invasions of western England . Alternatively , a piece of local folklore once suggested that it came from a wrecked Spanish Armada ship . In any case , the Herdwick was an important breed in the Lake District by the end of the 12th century .
For centuries , the husbandry of Herdwick sheep has been a large factor in shaping the culture and terrain of the Lake District . Topographically , grazing by sheep continues to keep the hillsides of fells largely treeless , and the ubiquitous dry stone walls of the valleys were built to protect grazing land and to confine livestock . Linguistically , many words of Lakeland speech relate to sheep husbandry . The ancient Yan Tan Tethera counting system for sheep is a survival of Brittonic counting systems .
= = = = Beatrix Potter = = = =
In the latter half of her life , the children 's author Beatrix Potter was involved with keeping and breeding Herdwicks , even acting as president of the breed association for a time . Between 1930 and 1938 she won a number of prizes for Herdwick ewes at shows across Cumbria . Upon her death in 1943 , she bequeathed fifteen farms – approximately a total sum of 4 @,@ 000 acres ( 16 km ² ) - to the National Trust , and per her instructions all continue to graze Herdwick flocks .
= = = Modern history = = =
In the modern era , the main industry of the Lake District has shifted from agriculture to tourism . The subsequent influx of tourists to the District has at times conflicted with traditional life , including the raising of Herdwicks . One Lake District farmer summed the problem up as , " We get 100 @,@ 000 visitors across our land every year ... If just one in a thousand forgets to shut a gate or can 't be bothered , that 's a hundred times we have to go out and round up our sheep . "
In the late 20th century , the keeping of Herdwicks became economically inviable without outside support ; open market prices for Herdwick fleeces sometimes drop as low as a penny a kilogram ( which is about the weight of wool from a single sheep ) . Without direct monetary guarantees for wool prices from the National Trust , it actually costs farmers a considerably larger amount of money to shear their Herdwicks than they would receive in compensation ; the majority of farmers once burned their fleeces as waste products . The Trust now acts as a wool merchant itself , thus being able to bargain for better prices directly with the British Wool Marketing Board and operate a Herdwick wool trademark . Most farmers survive through the sale of lambs , as well as both National Trust and European Union farm subsidies . Lake District farmers in particular receive subsidies for operating in a designated Less Favored Area from the England Rural Development Programme . Those who agree to maintain their land in accordance with sustainable farming practices also receive additional subsidies .
95 % of all 50 @,@ 000 or so Herdwicks live within 14 miles of Coniston , Cumbria , and this makes them particularly vulnerable to outbreaks of disease . The outbreak of foot @-@ and @-@ mouth disease in 2001 led to the destruction of many flocks , and to fears for the survival both of the breed and of the typical Lakeland sheep farming industry . Of the estimated 100 @,@ 000 Herdwick sheep present before the outbreak , a full 25 % were lost . They were not easily replaceable because long @-@ standing herds are hefted so the introduction of new stock to the fells would have required extensive fencing . The call for vaccination rather than culling to preserve what is considered a part of the traditional identity of the fells and moors was led by parties – such as the Duke of Westminster , Earl Peel , Lord Barnard and Lord Lonsdale – who wished to save the hill sheep on their lands . Many Lake District residents saw the breed as an indispensable icon of the region . Longtime resident and writer for The Guardian A. Harry Griffin expressed this feeling :
There are other mountain sheep on the Lakeland fells , notably Swaledales and Rough @-@ Fells , but the hardy Herdwick is the sheep most likely to be seen in and around the Duddon valley , the Coniston fells , the Buttermere fells and , through Borrowdale or Wasdale , up to the highest land in England , the Scafells . More than the old drystone walls that quarter the fells , the packhorse bridges or the whitewashed farmsteads , the little grey Herdwick sheep typify the Lakeland .
If they and their shepherds go , that is the end of the Lakeland where I have climbed , walked , skied and skated for nearly 80 years ; of the Lakeland I have written about nearly all my life .
The destruction of entire flocks meant that the shepherds were forced to undergo the process of again heafing ( the local term for hefting ) their new sheep to the hills . Normally , ewes teach this behaviour to their lambs , but with no more ewes left acquainted with a particular heaf the behavior had to be taught all over again to new ewes , inevitably involving much rounding up of flocks that had strayed over the often inaccessible fells . Unheafed sheep might also cause overgrazing by wandering if they replaced the original Herdwicks . The Cumbria Hill Sheep Initiative was set up to " reassess the position and circumstances " in the aftermath of the disease ; tough government restrictions in order to prevent another outbreak are still in place .
In 2008 , an Oregon sheep farmer began importing semen from Herdwick rams in to the United States to begin a breeding program using artificial insemination and designed to bring the breed to the country for the first time . In 2013 , Lakeland Herdwick meat received a Protected Designation of Origin from the European Union .
= = Characteristics = =
Herdwicks are a dual @-@ purpose breed , producing strongly flavoured lamb and mutton and a coarse , grey wool . This slowly maturing breed is one of the most hardy of all the British hill sheep breeds , withstanding the cold and relentless rain of the Lake District at heights upwards of 3 @,@ 000 feet ( about 1 @,@ 000 metres ) . Most Herdwicks spend winter on the fells , from approximately December to April . They are normally left to graze freely on the hillsides ( without any additional feed ) , but each ewe tends to stay in her heaf ( the local term for heft ) , the same small area of fell . Due to the rough conditions on fells , lambing losses can be as high as 25 % . This ability to thrive unassisted is part of the reason fell farmers so highly value Herdwicks over much higher @-@ producing lowland breeds .
A Herdwick 's grey fleece is not easily dyed , and is coarse , and so is best suited to use as carpet wool . The wool is also an excellent natural insulator ; it is possible to buy sheets of fireproofed wool to fit as loft insulation . Herdwick lamb and mutton has a very distinct taste , and was even eaten at Queen Elizabeth II 's 1953 coronation banquet . Herdwick ewes also commonly produce desirable market lambs and mules by cross @-@ breeding with Suffolk , Cheviot , Charollais and Texel sheep .
Herdwick lambs are born black , and after a year they lighten to a dark brown colour ( the sheep are called hoggs or hoggets at this stage ) . After the first shearing , their fleece lightens further to grey . Rams are horned , and ewes polled . For shows and auctions , Herdwicks traditionally have their wool ruddied up ( the local term for raddled ) with dye . Rams are also ruddied when put out with the ewes to show which have been mated , and the dye is also one method ( called a smit ) of marking sheep for ownership . Before chemical dyes became available , this dye was made from either iron ore or graphite mixed with grease . For many years the legal method of identifying a particular shepherd 's sheep were notches cut out of a sheep 's ear , called lug marks – now replaced by ear tags .
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= Project 86 =
Project 86 is an American Christian rock band from Orange County , California , formed in 1996 . The band has released eight albums , which have collectively sold nearly 500 @,@ 000 units worldwide , two EPs , two DVDs , and one live album . Their music is characterized by a rock / post @-@ hardcore / alternative style . Frontman Andrew Schwab 's poetic and introspective lyrics have addressed a wide variety of topics such as conformity and emptiness .
The band was started by Schwab as a way to inspire people to live their lives with hope . In 1998 , BEC Recordings released a self @-@ titled debut album that was well received by critics and consumers . Their second release , Drawing Black Lines , garnered attention from mainstream record labels ; Atlantic licensed the album from Tooth & Nail Records , the parent company of BEC . The band 's third release , Truthless Heroes , was released exclusively by Atlantic , after the band was bought @-@ out of their original deal with Tooth & Nail . The band parted ways with Atlantic shortly after their third release , upon which they had a short stint as an independent . The band then negotiated a new contract with Tooth & Nail , and subsequently released three more albums , the last one being Picket Fence Cartel in summer 2009 . After fulfilling their last agreement with T & N , in December 2011 the band announced a Kickstarter campaign via their official website and Facebook page , stating that " the fans are now our record label . " Their eighth studio release , Wait for the Siren , was released on August 21 , 2012 . Their ninth album , Knives to the Future , was independently released by Team Black Recordings on November 11 , 2014 .
= = History = =
= = = 1996 – 1999 : Formation and self @-@ titled debut = = =
According to the official Project 86 documentary " XV , " Project 86 was formed in mid 1996 by vocalist Andrew Schwab in Orange County , California . Guitarist Randy Torres , who was a sophomore in high school , was the first member recruited . The original lineup included Schwab , Torres , Ethan Luck ( Demon Hunter , Relient K ) , and bassist Matt Hernandez ( Unashamed , The Dingees ) . Drummer Alex Albert was added when Hernandez left the band after a few rehearsals , then Luck moved to bass from drums . Luck left the band to join The Dingees in Summer 1997 , after which high school senior Steven Dail joined in late 1997 .
Schwab comments in a 2004 interview regarding the number 86 in the band name : " The generation before us used that phrase to describe when they would reject or remove something ... Project 86 is like the whole idea of being rejected , or separate , or not going along with the current . " The group did not travel much initially ; they decided to hone their sound and live performances before embarking on tours . In 1997 , Project 86 was voted one of the top independent acts of the year by HM magazine readers . At Tomfest the same year , their performance was a big hit and Tooth & Nail Records , became interested and subsequently signed them .
Bryan Carlstrom produced their self @-@ titled debut . He had engineered albums by multi @-@ platinum outfits The Offspring and Alice in Chains as well as producing labelmates Stavesacre . Schwab drew upon personal struggles he was experiencing at the time to write meaningful lyrics . Sonny Sandoval , lead singer of nu metal group P.O.D. , appeared as a guest performer . The album was released in June 1998 and was well received . It sold over 50 @,@ 000 copies to date and gained mainstream exposure on MTV shows Road Rules and The Real World . Project 86 was observed by Allmusic to be the " most daring album at the time for its genre " . The success of their debut made Project 86 a top seller for BEC / Tooth and Nail . The band embarked on a pioneering tour called " The Warriors Come Out and Play Tour " in May 1999 with friends P.O.D. and Blindside as the middle slot , which drew crowds of 600 @-@ 1000 across the nation .
= = = 2000 – 2003 : Drawing Black Lines and Truthless Heroes = = =
The group worked on their sophomore record with producer Garth " GGGarth " Richardson. in Vancouver , BC . Schwab wrote lyrics about a wider variety of issues , rather than just focusing on personal expression with their sophomore release : " The new album deals a lot less with me , and more with the world around us ; Issues in people , society , culture " . The sound was heavier and more progressive , with more hints of melody as well . As soon as the album was finished it garnered interest from several major labels , and Atlantic records licensed the album for co @-@ release with Tooth and Nail / BEC in March 2000 . Drawing Black Lines peaked at No. 37 on Heatseekers , and was well received by critics . By this time , listeners in the band had begun to amass a sizable fanbase . Despite heavy reliance on tour dates and word of mouth to inform people of its release , the album experienced some commercial success when it eventually sold nearly 120 @,@ 000 copies . The band added Cory Edelmann , previously of No Innocent Victim , after the album was finished . Project 86 traveled nationwide with P.O.D. , Hed PE , and Linkin Park on the " Kings of the Game " tour in October 2000 . They also played a string of shows with Queensrÿche .
In 2002 , Project 86 teamed with Slayer producer Matt Hyde to record their next album . The record was envisioned as a critique of post @-@ 9 / 11 America and the music industry . Formatted as a concept album , it told the story of a character attempting to find fulfillment in modern culture . " Songs were written and assembled with a certain ebb and flow in mind , " said Schwab , " I approached the album like writing chapters in a book . " The group spent over 14 months recording demos for Atlantic , which invested nearly $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 in the project when it was all said and done . . Because of the pressure to produce radio singles , the sound of the album was quite different from its previous releases , as was Schwab 's cryptic lyrics , which represented the frustrations of being stifled creatively and feeling powerless in the process .
Truthless Heroes was released in September 2002 and peaked at No. 146 on the Billboard 200 . Their first and only single , " Hollow Again " , peaked at No. 35 on Mainstream Rock Tracks . Atlantic refused to release the second single because they claimed the lyrics conflicted with the Iraq War effort . While lauded by critics for its pounding criticism of the media and entertainment industry , the album proved to be controversial , particularly the promotional website . Additionally , many Christians felt alienated by its dark material ; one young fan deemed the album " too depressing " . Fans also complained that the record was " overproduced " and lacked the raw energy present in Drawing Black Lines . In a later interview , Schwab expressed disappointment about the record , stating he had " different aspirations for [ it ] than what came out . " The group performed with Taproot on their self @-@ titled tour in fall 2002 . In addition , they played shows with Thirty Seconds to Mars , Trapt , Blindside , Trust Company , Sevendust , and Finger Eleven .
During this time , Project 86 distanced themselves from the Christian market to a certain extent , due to having more general market opportunities for touring , as well as a natural shift in marketing emphasis from the label . According to Andree Farias of Christianity Today , " Their commitment with Atlantic required them to give precedence to their newfound mainstream audience . " While their first single , " Hollow Again , " gained respectable traction at rock radio , Atlantic did not release their second single , " Your Heroes are Dead " to alternative radio due to concerns about the lyrics in light of 9 / 11 . After moderate sales of nearly 75 @,@ 000 copies , the band parted ways with Atlantic in early 2003 .
= = = 2003 – 2006 : Songs to Burn Your Bridges By and ... And the Rest Will Follow = = =
The departure from Atlantic was a big disappointment for the band . " All of the hype about our future successes turned out to be just that – hype , " said Schwab in an interview , " We did not go platinum [ ... ] the record fell short of expectations and did not come close to the impact of our previous effort . " The band parted with their management company and did not tour for several months . Project 86 then started an independent label called " Team Black Recordings " . Work began on a new album after Hyde was convinced to produce again . Their fourth album , Songs to Burn Your Bridges By , was made available exclusively on their website in Fall 2003 .
The following year , Project 86 re @-@ signed with their previous label , Tooth and Nail . Songs to Burn Your Bridges By was re @-@ released in June 2004 . The new version included 3 new tracks produced by Aaron Sprinkle and mixed by J.R. McNeely , several new mixes , and featured new artwork . The release peaked at No. 36 on Heatseekers , and was met with positive reviews by critics . According to Schwab , the album was a return to the bands heavier roots , and a means to express the frustrations the band went through during Truthless Heroes . The group performed at Purple Door , a Christian music festival , later that year . When Project 86 played their set , moshers threw mud everywhere and covered the stage and musical equipment . Thousands of dollars worth of musical equipment was damaged .
In Spring 2005 , Project 86 reunited with Drawing Black Lines producer Garth Richardson to record their fifth album , ... And the Rest Will Follow . After spending several days recording demos , the band flew to Vancouver , British Columbia , to record at The Farm Studios Compound . The band filmed the entire production and later released a DVD documentary entitled Subject to Change : The Making of ... And the Rest Will Follow . The album marked a spiritual change for the group who felt humbled by their past experiences . " The record is about growing up and becoming a man ( or woman ) and taking responsibility for your past mistakes , " stated Schwab , " [ We are ] refocusing our goals back to what they were when we started , reaching kids and inspiring them to live lives with hope and purpose . "
To promote the album , Project 86 released a new song on PureVolume every Monday until the release date . ... And the Rest Will Follow was released in September 2005 and debuted at No. 131 on the Billboard 200 . Critics were positive about the release . The band began a fall release tour and traveled with Spoken , Number One Gun , The Fold , and Mourning September . In January 2006 , a live performance of the single " My Will Be A Dead Man " was broadcast on Attack of the Show ! . A collaboration with synthpop group The Echoing Green resulted in a remix of the song " Something We Can 't Be " . The song appeared on MySpace alongside a remix of " From December " later that year .
= = = 2007 – 2008 : Rival Factions , The Kane Mutiny EP , and This Time of Year EP = = =
In March 2007 , Project 86 announced that Alex Albert had parted with the band on friendly terms to pursue other interests . Instead of searching for a full @-@ time replacement , the band recruited Jason Gerken , formerly of Shiner , to play drums on tour . Production of their sixth album , entitled Rival Factions , followed suit with Deftones producer Ulrich Wild . The album proved to be a large departure from their edgier material by sporting a distinct 1980s sound influenced by goth rock .
The majority of writing took place while the band took a break ; Dail got married in the Netherlands , while Schwab and Torres worked in Southern California and Seattle respectively . The men collaborated by emailing MP3s they recorded . In the end , 40 songs were amassed for the new record , but only ten were used . According to Schwab , the album 's title was chosen to represent " the tension that exists in everybody [ ... ] the flesh and the spirit . " It was also representative of their new musical direction , an attempt to polarize themselves from other heavy rock acts . Similarly to their last record , a documentary was filmed that detailed the recording process , entitled I Want Something You Have : Rival Factions The DVD .
Rival Factions was released in June 2007 and peaked at No. 124 on the Billboard 200 , the band 's highest debut to date . The record sold 6 @,@ 000 copies in the first week and was well received by critics , who made favorable comparisons to Duran Duran , Billy Idol , and the Killers . The band proceeded to tour with labelmates MXPX , Showbread , and Sullivan on the summer Tooth & Nail Tour . A performance also took place at the annual Christmas Rock Night event in Ennepetal , Germany that December .
Several tracks were recorded and mixed that were not included on Rival Factions . These songs were compiled with their previous remixes to form an EP . A cover of " Lucretia , My Reflection " by the Sisters of Mercy was also included . The Kane Mutiny EP was released exclusively on iTunes in November 2007 . Shortly after its release , the band uploaded a cover of " This Time of the Year " by Brenda Lee on iTunes . " Our version was a little bit more like A Nightmare Before Christmas [ sic ] , " declared Schwab . The single was well received and led Project 86 to build an entire album around the Christmas concept . This Time of Year EP was released in November 2008 . Unlike the previous EP , This Time of Year was made available in digital and physical formats . Jason Martin of indie rock outfit Starflyer 59 helped produce both albums .
= = = 2009 – 2012 : Picket Fence Cartel and XV Live = = =
In early 2009 , the band returned to the studio with Martin and Ulrich Wild to record their seventh album , Picket Fence Cartel . Time was spent leisurely crafting the album ; previous endeavors had been limited by deadlines . " This time around , we said , ' Look , let 's not just put out another record , ' " said Schwab , " ' Let 's make sure we get the record to a place that we 're happy with it . ' " The band focused on a heavy metal sound . However , they did not entirely jettison their 1980s influences as synthesizers percolated several songs . Schwab 's lyrics focused on his belief that power and corruption often " run hand @-@ in @-@ hand when it comes to human souls . " " The world is teaching us that fame is to be sought after ; that recognition will equal success , fortune and , ultimately , peace , " he said , " But the search for and attainment of fame and wealth usually destroy us in the end . "
The record was released in July 2009 and peaked at No. 137 on the Billboard 200 . Critics praised the title for its barrage of heavy rock and spiritually minded lyrics . Later that summer , Project 86 traveled nationwide on the Scream the Prayer Tour with metalcore outfits The Chariot , Haste the Day , and Gwen Stacy . Coming mid @-@ October , Project 86 started the Picket Fence Cartel Tour with Children 18 : 3 , Showbread , The Wedding , and Yearling , and added a second part in spring 2010 with Flatfoot 56 and Wavorly . The band released their first live album , entitled XV Live , in December 2010 to commemorate their 15th anniversary . The album 's songs spanned every studio album with the exception of the first . In February 2011 , Project 86 went on tour with Disciple . In June 2011 , Project 86 headlined the XV Tour with support from Children 18 : 3 and Write This Down .
Randy Torres , who had been gradually becoming less involved in the band over the previous several albums , decided to officially leave the band in late 2010 to work for Tooth and Nail records , and later , Microsoft . Steven Dail followed suit approximately one year later , citing the need to stop touring and be home with his family . Gerken left in early 2012 .
= = = 2012 – 2013 : Wait for the Siren = = =
Project 86 launched a Kickstarter campaign in December 2011 in an effort to " Make the fans the record label " after fulfilling their most recent contract with Tooth and Nail Records . Their eighth studio album titled Wait for the Siren was recorded in January and February 2012 .
Featuring all star guest appearances by : Bruce Fitzhugh ( Living Sacrifice ) , Rocky Gray ( Living Sacrifice ) , Brian " Head " Welch ( Korn , Love and Death ) , Andrew Welch ( Disciple ) , Blake Martin ( A Plea for Purging ) and The Wedding . The new album was produced by Steve Wilson and Andrew Schwab and engineered / mixed by Steve Blackmon .
Described as Andrew Schwab 's opus the record promises to be a fresh take on the P86 sound . Schwab said , " On this record I was really able to take the reins of the creative process in a direction I was passionate about . I was able to write songs that pushed me to grow as an artist . It was also insanely fun to have so many of my friends involved in the process and at this point in the game that is what its about . I am really looking forward to people hearing this album . " With concert goers noting the new energy of the songs and new band members Scott Davis on drums , Dustinn Lowry on guitar and Mikee " Norman " Williams on bass it seems P86 has benefited from a back to basics reinvention .
Wait for the Siren was recorded and produced independently through fan support via the band 's 2011 @-@ 2012 Kickstarter campaign . On May 24 , 2012 , Project 86 released four preview tracks for the tracks " Fall , Goliath Fall " , " Sots " , " Off the Grid " , and " Take the Hill " .
The album was officially released on August 20 , 2012 .
= = = 2014 – present : Knives to the Future = = =
In late 2013 , Project 86 announced that they were about to work on their ninth album which will also be released independently . He also stated that they will also do an acoustic EP plus Andrew Schwab will also release a solo album which will also be produced independently . They started an Indiegogo funding campaign on Feb 11 and closed on April 12 , 2014 ( 11 : 59 pm PT ) . They successfully got US $ 89 @,@ 816 raised of a goal of $ 50 @,@ 000 .
Schwab announced that pre @-@ production for a new album began on June 6 followed by a month @-@ long recording session in Steelman Studios in Van Nuys , CA . Matt McClellan and the band collaborated on production and Steve Evetts mixed the album . Dan Mumford is scheduled to do the artwork . The band has spent the middle of the year in Los Angeles recording 18 new tracks including an acoustic EP . With a career spanning nearly 20 years and selling over half a million records Andrew Schwab feels this album is a special landmark for P86 . He says , " We have loved pushing the envelope of evolution on every Project 86 release and this record is no exception . The inspiration behind this record is completely different and it 's been incredible to write and record with such a talented group of guys . " . Joining Schwab in the studio is Darren King ( The Overseer ) on guitar , Cody Driggers ( The Wedding ) on bass , and Ryan Wood ( 7 Horns 7 Eyes ) on drums .
Project 86 indicated that the name of their new record will be Knives to the Future and will release on November 11 , 2014 . " Spirit of Shiloh " , the first song from the album , debuted on SoundCloud .
= = Musical style = =
Project 86 's music is characterized by heavy rock and Schwab 's " loud , eerie , and atmospheric " vocal style . Their sound has been likened to rock groups Helmet , Rage Against the Machine , and Tool . The moniker " intense " has frequently been used as a description . Rick Anderson of Allmusic called the music " dense and crunchy " , while Albuquerque Journal writer Ron Gonzales declared it a " blisteringly heavy sound . " Commenting on their musical style , Schwab stated " Our goal as a band has been to never make the same record twice . The only rule is that there are no rules . If there is a rule , it 's that we try not to over @-@ think things , that the music that comes out is honest and real , spontaneous and from our heart . "
When Project 86 released their self @-@ titled record , they were generally acknowledged to be a rapcore band . Schwab has maintained it was never intentional , " I think we got lumped in with that music because we [ had ] toured with P.O.D. and Linkin Park . " According to writer Mark Allan Powell , the music featured " cryptic , down @-@ tuned guitars " and " half @-@ spoken , half @-@ rapped " vocals . Drawing Black Lines saw their style adopt elements of traditional metal , groove metal , and hard rock . The band used their song " Pipedream " as a blueprint to build the album : " We knew that was one of the brightest spots on the album , " said Schwab , " I just wanted to take what we did in ' Pipedream ' and go further with it " . Experimentation with noise occurred in track " Twenty @-@ Three " , and would be revisited on their fourth album with " Circuitry " .
Truthless Heroes and Songs To Burn Your Bridges By generally focused on a " dark and intense musical direction " . The group strayed from the style for their fifth album ... And The Rest Will Follow , opting to flirt with melodies and harmonies . Rival Factions marked a great departure when they embraced 1980s music and utilized keyboards . The band was inspired to write experimental songs after Dail penned " Evil ( A Chorus of Resistance ) " . " [ It ] was way different than anything we 'd done before , " stated Torres , " everything after that [ had ] to be as different as possible from things we 'd done prior . " Their signature hardcore sound was reinstated for Picket Fence Cartel . " We have had a great time adding more melody along the way , " insisted Schwab , " but in our hearts , we still really enjoy playing aggressive songs " . Even so , some songs retained synthesizers while others boasted folk influences .
Project 86 is considered a Christian band and every member professes Christianity . However , they have remained uncomfortable with the assertion . " We 're not going to go in there and say ' Hey we 're the Christian band . ' " stated Schwab in a 2004 interview . " We 're going to carry ourselves like a normal band . Hopefully people will like our music and investigate into the band [ ... ] and they will learn our beliefs . " In a 2007 interview , he further opined " We always tell people that the goal has been to just write music that we love , and write music hopefully that is challenging and inspiring to people and doesn 't sound like everything else out there . "
= = = Influences = = =
Rock bands have largely influenced the band like the Deftones , Sepultura , Sick of It All , and Snapcase . Torres expressed a particular affinity for The Beatles and Led Zeppelin : " I just love to listen to their albums over and over and pick apart stuff here and there that is amazing , " he said , " It is a huge influence on me musically . " Dail has revealed The Clash , Fugazi , and Rocket from the Crypt to be personally influential . At an early age , Schwab listened to Slayer , S.O.D. , and Metallica . He later discovered East Coast hip hop . During the recording of Rival Factions , the band took heavy influence from post @-@ punk groups like Depeche Mode , Joy Division , Psychedelic Furs , and The Sisters of Mercy . Some of their favorite bands are The Cure , Portishead , Quicksand , Shiner , and Sunny Day Real Estate .
Some musicians have cited Project 86 as an influence . Jessy Ribordy , lead singer and songwriter for alternative rock band Falling Up , has been affected by Schwab 's writings . " Andrew 's lyrics have always been a source of inspiration to me , " he told CCM Magazine . " I 've tried to use more imaginative metaphors and things that are more symbolic , so that the songs can mean more things and have a bigger impact . " 38th Parallel , a short lived Christian rap rock group , also acknowledged the band 's influence .
= = = Lyrics = = =
Vocalist Andrew Schwab has remained the band 's lead lyricist . Schwab has stated most lyrics are based on his emotions . He also tries to incorporate social commentary from literature . Prominent influences include comic book artist Chris Ware and writers Chris Bachelder , Don DeLillo , Aldous Huxley , George Orwell , and T. S. Eliot . He has written lyrics around a variety of topics that include alcohol abuse ( " One @-@ Armed Man " ) , conformity ( " S.M.C. " ) , emptiness ( " Evil ( A Chorus of Resistance ) " ) , greed ( " Cold and Calculated " ) , nightlife ( " Molotov " ) , and spirituality ( " Chapter 2 " ) . Controversial issues like pornography ( " P.S. " ) and child molestation ( " Sioux Lane Spirits " ) have also been addressed .
According to John DiBiase , president of Jesus Freak Hideout , early lyrics reflected " anger , frustration , and often hopelessness . " Some journalists interpreted it as cynicism ; Sean Richardson writing for The Phoenix called it " overbearing " and hoped " positive vibes " from P.O.D. and Blindside would rub off , while Losey believed it to be a longtime " burden " being carried . " It is easy to give in to these types of [ cynical ] feelings when you have been wronged , " Schwab told CCM Magazine , " It 's a very selfish mentality that chokes you off from being proactive in your gifts and purpose . " Critics have noted that Schwab 's later material contains more optimistic perspectives .
Honesty is highly regarded by Schwab ; he has stated " I don 't want to be known or remembered as a positive band , but as a band that was sort of honest and had a quiet sense of hope . " He has sometimes used humor to convey his feelings . " Salem 's Suburbs " and " Your Heroes Are Dead " examine how society blindly accepts opinions found on television and the internet . " Caveman Jams " was directed at critics who claimed their music was too aggressive . The song tells how a fan was inspired to leave a life of self @-@ destruction . " That song was written to be funny , " stated Schwab , " [ It ] was definitely written as a response to some experiences we 've had as a band over the years , but in such a way that we 're having fun with it . I tried to approach it comically . "
= = Members = =
Timeline
= = Discography = =
Studio albums
Notes
A ^ Wait for the Siren also charted at number 7 on the Hard Rock Albums Chart , number 18 on the Independent Albums Chart , and number 38 on the Top Rock Albums Chart
Live albums
2010 : 15 . Live .
EPs
2007 : The Kane Mutiny EP ( digital only )
2008 : This Time of Year EP ( Christmas )
2012 : The Midnight Clear Single ( Christmas )
Singles
= = Filmography = =
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= Sam Simon =
Samuel Michael " Sam " Simon ( June 6 , 1955 – March 8 , 2015 ) was an American director , producer , writer , animal rights activist , boxing manager , tournament poker player , and philanthropist , most noted as co @-@ creator of the television series The Simpsons .
While at Stanford University , Simon worked as a newspaper cartoonist and after graduating became a storyboard artist at Filmation Studios . Simon submitted a spec script for the sitcom Taxi , which was produced , and he later became the series ' showrunner . Over the next few years , Simon wrote and produced for Cheers , It 's Garry Shandling 's Show and other programs , as well as writing the 1991 film The Super .
In 1989 , Simon developed the animated sitcom The Simpsons with Matt Groening and James L. Brooks . Simon assembled the show 's first writing team , co @-@ wrote eight episodes and has been credited with " developing [ the show 's ] sensibility " . Simon 's relationship with Groening was strained and he left the show in 1993 , negotiating a pay @-@ off which saw him receive tens of millions of dollars from the show 's revenue each year . The following year Simon co @-@ created The George Carlin Show , before later working as a director on shows such as The Drew Carey Show . Simon won nine Primetime Emmy Awards for his television work .
Simon turned to fields outside television in his later years . Simon regularly appeared on Howard Stern 's radio shows , managed boxer Lamon Brewster and helped guide Lamon to the World Boxing Organization Heavyweight Championship in 2004 and was a regular poker player and six @-@ time in the money finisher at the World Series of Poker . Simon founded the The Sam Simon Foundation , which consists of a mobile veterinary clinic that goes into low @-@ income neighborhoods offering free surgeries for cats and dogs several days per week , as well as a program that rescues and trains shelter dogs . He also funded the self @-@ christened Sea Shepherd Conservation Society vessel the MY Sam Simon . Simon was engaged at the time of his death , having been previously twice married , including to the actress Jennifer Tilly . Following a profile of Simon on 60 Minutes in 2007 , CBS writer Daniel Schorn wrote in an online article that Simon was " perhaps the Renaissance man of the baffling , uncertain age we live in . "
Simon was diagnosed with terminal colorectal cancer in 2012 and given only three to six months to live . Simon died on March 8 , 2015 . He bequeathed his $ 100M estate to various charities which he actively supported during his lifetime .
= = Early life = =
Simon was born Samuel Michael Simon on June 6 , 1955 in Los Angeles , California , United States . He grew up in Beverly Hills and Malibu . Simon 's family lived opposite Groucho Marx . Simon 's father was a cheap clothing manufacturer and was of Estonian Jewish heritage . Simon had a childhood which has been described as " comfortable " and " privileged " . Although his parents wanted Simon to become a lawyer , Simon was interested in art from a young age , appearing on televised local art programs at the age of five . He once was told by Walt Disney that he would one day work at his studio .
Simon attended Beverly Hills High School , where he was on the football team and served as a cartoonist for the school newspaper . He was awarded " Most Humorous " and " Most Talented " in his senior yearbook . He later attended Stanford University , graduating in 1977 . Simon had not wished to attend college , but Stanford persuaded him to apply due to his sufficient grades and proficiency at football ; Simon quit the football team after one day . Simon drew comics for the college newspaper , but was denied admission to a drawing class for not being talented enough . As he recalled to the Stanford alumni magazine , he was told , “ You ’ d be taking the space of a student who has talent . ” Simon majored in psychology , but did not focus on his academics .
= = Career = =
= = = Early career = = =
While still at Stanford , Simon 's first job was a newspaper sports cartoonist for The San Francisco Chronicle and The San Francisco Examiner . After graduating , he worked as a television storyboard artist , and later a writer , at Filmation Studios . There he worked on several animated shows , including The New Adventures of Mighty Mouse and Heckle & Jeckle and Fat Albert and the Cosby Kids ( 1979 ) . Simon recalls Filmation approving of his work because he was " self @-@ taught and unschooled , " but Simon felt the majority of what the studio produced was " awful " . On the suggestion of Filmation producer Lou Scheimer who was impressed by Simon 's writing ability , Simon submitted a spec script for the series Taxi which was produced and aired in 1981 during its third season . Simon was hired as a writer , quickly becoming showrunner for its fifth and final season in 1983 . Simon next worked as a writer and producer on Cheers from seasons one to three ( 1982 – 1985 ) , writing five episodes : " Endless Slumper " , " Battle of the Ex 's " , " Fairytales Can Come True " , " Cheerio Cheers " and " The Bartender 's Tale " . Simon created , wrote and produced the short @-@ lived sitcom Shaping Up in 1984 , alongside Ken Estin ; the show starred Leslie Nielsen as a gym owner and ran for five episodes on ABC . Simon also wrote and produced for Best of the West ( 1981 ) , Barney Miller ( 1982 ) and It 's Garry Shandling 's Show ( 1987 – 1988 ) , and wrote the 1991 film The Super .
= = = The Simpsons = = =
Simon co @-@ developed the animated series The Simpsons , which premiered on the Fox network in 1989 and has remained on air ever since . The show is regarded as one of the greatest television shows of all time , with Time magazine naming it the 20th century 's best series . The premise for the series originated as a series of short cartoons airing in 1987 as part of The Tracey Ullman Show , on which Simon was a writer and executive producer alongside James L. Brooks , with whom Simon had worked on Taxi . The cartoons were developed into a full series two years later . For The Simpsons , Simon served alongside Matt Groening ( who conceived the show and the five main characters ) and Brooks as executive producer and showrunner for the show 's first ( 1989 – 1990 ) and second ( 1990 – 1991 ) seasons , and was creative supervisor for the first four seasons . He assembled and led the initial team of writers , consisting of John Swartzwelder , Jon Vitti , George Meyer , Jeff Martin , Al Jean , Mike Reiss , Jay Kogen and Wallace Wolodarsky .
Simon has been credited with " developing [ the show 's ] sensibility " . Former Simpsons director Brad Bird has described him as " the unsung hero " of the show , while Vitti has stated to " leave out Sam Simon " is to tell " the managed version " of The Simpsons ' history , because " he was the guy we wrote for . " Writer Ken Levine called Simon " the real creative force behind The Simpsons ... The tone , the storytelling , the level of humor – that was all developed on Sam 's watch . " Levine says that Simon " brought a level of honesty to the characters " and made them " three @-@ dimensional " , adding that his " comedy is all about character , not just a string of gags . In The Simpsons , the characters are motivated by their emotions and their foibles . ' What are they thinking ? ' — that is Sam 's contribution . The stories come from the characters . " Simon crafted much of the world of Springfield and designed the models for many of the show 's recurring characters , including Mr. Burns , Dr. Hibbert , Chief Wiggum and Eddie and Lou , as well as many of the one @-@ time and guest star roles , such as Bleeding Gums Murphy . One of his contributions to the show 's character development was his proposal that Waylon Smithers should be gay , but that this should never have too much attention drawn to it ; Smithers ' sexuality became one of the show 's longest @-@ running gags . Simon saw The Simpsons as a chance to solve " what [ he ] didn 't like about the Saturday @-@ morning cartoon shows [ he had ] worked on ... [ he ] wanted all the actors in a room together , not reading their lines separated from each other . The Simpsons would have been a great radio show . If you just listen to the sound track , it works . "
The Simpsons utilized a process of collaborative script re @-@ writing by the show 's whole writing staff ; this meant the credited writer may not have been responsible for the majority of an episode 's content . Nevertheless , Simon was credited with co @-@ writing the season one episodes " The Telltale Head " , " The Crepes of Wrath " and the season finale " Some Enchanted Evening " . " Some Enchanted Evening " was intended to be the show 's premiere but was delayed due to poor animation . Simon adapted Edgar Allan Poe 's The Raven for the third segment of the season two episode " Treehouse of Horror " . Groening was nervous about " The Raven " because it did not have many gags , and felt it would be " the worst , most pretentious thing [ they had ] ever done " on the show . Nevertheless , the segment has often been praised as one of the best Treehouse of Horror stories in the show 's history . Ryan J. Budke of TV Squad described the segment as " one of the most refined Simpsons pop references ever " and knows " people that consider this the point that they realized The Simpsons could be both highly hilarious and highly intelligent . " Simon co @-@ wrote the episode " Two Cars in Every Garage and Three Eyes on Every Fish " with Swartzwelder , an episode which Tom Shales of the Washington Post has described as " a bull 's @-@ eye political satire " . The final episode he co @-@ wrote for season two was " The Way We Was " , alongside Jean and Reiss . While Reiss and Jean took over as showrunners , Simon remained on the writing staff for seasons three ( 1991 – 1992 ) and four ( 1992 – 1993 ) . For the third season he co @-@ wrote " Treehouse of Horror II " , and conceived the story for the Sideshow Bob episode " Black Widower " , together with mystery author Thomas Chastain , hoping to construct a full mystery story ; Vitti wrote the episode 's teleplay . Simon also substantially contributed to the episode " Stark Raving Dad " , pitched the episode " Homer at the Bat " , and proposed the " Land of Chocolate " sequence from " Burns Verkaufen der Kraftwerk " . Simon 's final writing credit was for the " Dial ' Z ' For Zombies " segment of " Treehouse of Horror III " .
Although they initially worked well together , Simon and Groening 's relationship became " very contentious " according to Groening . Simon never expected the show to be a success , often proclaiming to fellow staff members " We 're thirteen and out " — meaning that the show would be canceled after the thirteen episodes of the first season . Therefore , he also told the staff that they had creative freedom to do whatever they wanted to make The Simpsons as good a show as possible , regardless of network or public opinion , because he thought it inevitably would not be renewed ; he elaborated in 2009 that " really I was saying that to take the pressure off of everyone . I was just saying let 's just go out and make 13 episodes that are really good and really funny . " However , Groening interpreted it as meaning Simon was uncommitted and did not care whether the show was a success or not , as Simon 's career would survive , whereas his own would not . In 2001 , Groening described Simon as " brilliantly funny and one of the smartest writers I 've ever worked with , although unpleasant and mentally unbalanced . " According to John Ortved 's book The Simpsons : An Uncensored , Unauthorized History , when the show became successful Simon resented the media attention Groening received , particularly the praise for the show 's writing ; Simon felt that Groening 's involvement was limited , and that he should have been the one receiving credit for the show . Simon later spoke well of Groening 's influence , particularly on the show 's positive tone .
As well as Groening , Simon was often at odds with Brooks and production company Gracie Films . While working on The Simpsons , he and Brooks had co @-@ created the series Sibs ( 1991 ) and Phenom ( 1993 ) as part of a multi @-@ series deal for ABC . Simon did not want to work on either series , both of which were poorly received and swiftly canceled , which put a strain on the pair 's relationship .
Simon left Gracie Films and The Simpsons in 1993 . Simon commented that he " wasn 't enjoying it anymore , " wished to pursue other projects , and " that any show I 've ever worked on , it turns me into a monster . I go crazy . I hate myself . " Before leaving , he negotiated a deal that saw him receive a share of the show 's profits every year , particularly from home media , and an executive producer credit despite not having worked on the show since 1993 . The deal means he made over $ 10 million a year from The Simpsons ; he later told Stanford Magazine that " tens of millions " was a closer figure . Simon commented : " When I was there I thought I was underpaid . I thought I wasn 't getting enough credit for it . Now , I think it 's completely the opposite . I get too much credit for it . And the money is ridiculous . "
= = = Subsequent media work = = =
In January 1994 , Simon co @-@ created with comedian George Carlin the sitcom The George Carlin Show for Fox . It aired for 27 episodes before being canceled in December 1995 . Simon served as showrunner throughout its run and directed several episodes . Simon persuaded Carlin to do the show after writing it as something which would not be " typically sitcomy . " He conceived the show as what Carlin 's life would have been like had he never become a comedian ; Carlin played a heavy drinking New York taxi driver . Simon commented : " When I was doing The Simpsons , people couldn 't see how smart it was because of the low moments . There 's something about this show . People who like it say it 's classy . They don 't see how vulgar it is . " Carlin wrote negatively of his relationship with Simon . On his own website , Carlin wrote of the show : " always check mental health of creative partner beforehand . Loved the actors , loved the crew . Had a great time . Couldn 't wait to get the fuck out of there . " In his final book , the posthumously published Last Words ( 2009 ) , Carlin elaborated : " I had a great time . I never laughed so much , so often , so hard as I did with cast members Alex Rocco , Chris Rich , Tony Starke . There was a very strange , very good sense of humor on that stage ... The biggest problem , though , was that Sam Simon was a fucking horrible person to be around . Very , very funny , extremely bright and brilliant , but an unhappy person who treated other people poorly . " Simon described himself as " combative " and said that most people see him as having a " bad attitude " .
In the late 1990s , Simon primarily worked as a director . He directed on the American adaptation of the sitcom Men Behaving Badly in 1996 , the Friends season three episode " The One Without the Ski Trip " in 1997 , and several episodes of The Norm Show ( 1999 ) and The Michael Richards Show ( 2000 ) . From 1998 to 2003 , he served as a consulting producer and director for The Drew Carey Show , and directed the show 's series finale . He was also a creative consultant on Bless This House in 1996 .
After leaving The Simpsons and The George Carlin Show , Simon sought to find a " life outside television , " as working in the industry " made [ him ] crazy . " On working in television , Simon concluded : " In some ways , it 's the greatest job in the world . You make a product that 's given away , and all it does is make people smile . Nobody gets hurt , there 's no damage , and you can get crazy rich . " Simon retired from full @-@ time television work , although still worked in the media , frequently contributing , as a writer and a participant , to Howard Stern 's radio shows . He wrote and directed the one @-@ off radio sitcom " The Bitter Half " for Stern 's Howard 101 in 2006 . Simon had his own show on Radioio . Simon returned to television production work in 2012 , serving as a consultant and director on the series Anger Management for half a day a week .
= = = Other ventures = = =
Simon was a staunch advocate for animal rights . Starting in 2002 , Simon self @-@ funded , at an annual cost of several million dollars , The Sam Simon Foundation , which has a mobile clinic that provides free surgeries for cats and dogs , as well as rescuing and retraining shelter dogs who might otherwise be euthanized . An episode of 60 Minutes broadcast in March 2007 described it as " the grandest dog shelter in the country , a five star , [ 6 acres ( 0 @.@ 024 km2 ; 0 @.@ 0094 sq mi ) ] spread in Malibu , perhaps the most desirable real estate on the planet . Here , among the waterfalls and the manicured grounds , The Sam Simon Foundation gives stray and abandoned dogs a new lease on life , literally . "
As Simon explained , the foundation aims to " rescue dogs " and " train them to be service dogs , [ to help ] people with disabilities , " primarily the deaf . It also provides free veterinary surgeries to pets belonging to low @-@ income families , and trains dogs to help soldiers returning from combat in Iraq and Afghanistan deal with post @-@ traumatic stress disorder . Simon said the money he used was " well spent just for the pleasure it gives me . " The training program has a 20 % success rate , because many of the rescued dogs " have physical and psychological problems " but the dogs who cannot be trained are put up for adoption . The foundation is non @-@ profit , does not accept public donations , but does receive some federal government funding due to a bill written and passed by Senator Al Franken . In 2011 , Simon established and self @-@ funded the Sam Simon Foundation Feeding Families program , a food truck which delivers vegan food to low @-@ income families ; the program helps feed some 200 families per week . He donated an undisclosed sum to the Sea Shepherd Conservation Society in 2012 for the purpose of purchasing another vessel for their fleet , the MY Sam Simon , which was unveiled in December 2012 . Simon was also a board member for Save the Children , and hosted the largest annual fundraiser for PETA , who named him an Honorary Director and their Norfolk , Virginia headquarters building after him . Simon has stated that animal rights charities have been his main target for donations , over other causes like human disease and environmental damage , because " your money can bring success " with visible results . Simon stated in 2011 that there is " nothing [ which gives him ] more pleasure than " helping others via his charities , and gave away most of his fortune .
Simon was a long time fan of boxing , attending fights with his grandfather , but his interest increased particularly after seeing the 1990 heavyweight championship fight between Evander Holyfield and James " Buster " Douglas which he described as " the most electrifying feeling I 'd had in my life . " He began training and won six out of nine amateur fights ; he was also a reserve contestant on the Fox series Celebrity Boxing . Simon was for eight years the manager of heavyweight boxer Lamon Brewster , the now @-@ retired former World Boxing Organization heavyweight champion . He met Brewster in 1997 and began managing him , helping him rise to the top of the WBO rankings . He considers guiding Brewster to his April 2004 victory over Wladimir Klitschko to win the vacant WBO Heavyweight Championship , with Klitschko the heavy favorite , to be amongst the greatest moments of his life ; it " eclipsed everything he had achieved in a glittering 26 @-@ year showbiz career . " Before the Klitschko fight , Simon calculated he had spent several hundred thousand dollars funding Brewster , paying him a large salary on top of match fees as well as letting him stay rent @-@ free at one of his houses , and taking only a 10 % cut of the match fees ; however , he never intended boxing to be a substantial " source of revenue " . Simon retired from boxing management soon after Brewster became WBO Heavyweight Champion .
Simon was a regular poker player , and Texas hold ' em in particular . He was introduced to the game as a child through weekly family poker games and casino trips with his grandfather . Simon did not consider himself a serious player until a game at writer David Steinberg 's house with several " scholarly " players , which encouraged him to study the game and enter numerous tournaments , although he decided not to become professional . He competed at the World Series of Poker ( WSOP ) each year between 2007 and 2011 , finishing in the money in six events . In 2007 , at the 6 @,@ 358 @-@ player $ 10 @,@ 000 No @-@ Limit Texas Hold 'em Main Event , he finished 329th with $ 39 @,@ 445 . He also finished 16th winning $ 35 @,@ 493 at the $ 1 @,@ 000 1 @,@ 048 @-@ player No @-@ Limit Hold 'em w / Re @-@ Buys in 2007 , 41st winning $ 10 @,@ 708 at the $ 1 @,@ 000 706 @-@ player No @-@ Limit Hold 'em w / ReBuys in 2008 , 53rd winning $ 10 @,@ 692 at the $ 1 @,@ 000 879 @-@ player No @-@ Limit Hold 'em w / ReBuys in 2008 , 20th winning $ 24 @,@ 066 at the $ 10 @,@ 000 275 @-@ player World Championship Pot @-@ Limit Hold 'em in 2009 , and 500th winning $ 23 @,@ 876 at the $ 10 @,@ 000 6 @,@ 865 @-@ player No @-@ Limit Hold 'em Championship in 2011 . He also won the $ 300 438 @-@ player No @-@ Limit Hold 'em Bounty $ 100 @,@ 000 Guarantee at the 2009 L.A. Poker Open , winning $ 22 @,@ 228 . His biggest win in terms of both field size and prize money was the $ 200 1 @,@ 082 @-@ player No @-@ Limit Hold 'em $ 150 @,@ 000 Guarantee at the 2010 Winnin O ' The Green , where he won $ 57 @,@ 308 . Simon 's private poker games between him and his celebrity friends have been described as " raucous and very entertaining " . Their reputation led Playboy TV to produce the show Sam 's Game , a televised version featuring Simon as host and master of ceremonies of a Las Vegas celebrity Texas Hold ' em match ; he produced the show . He had previously appeared on a 2009 episode of High Stakes Poker .
= = Awards = =
Simon won nine Primetime Emmy Awards and received ten further nominations for his work . For The Tracey Ullman Show he won the Emmys for Outstanding Variety , Music Or Comedy Series in 1989 and Outstanding Writing In A Variety Or Music Program in 1990 . In the former he was nominated again in 1990 , for the latter he was also nominated in 1987 , 1988 and 1989 . He received the Emmy for Outstanding Animated Program ( for Programming Less Than One Hour ) for The Simpsons in 1990 , 1991 , 1995 , 1997 , 1998 , 2000 and 2001 with further nominations in 1990 ( for " Simpsons Roasting on an Open Fire " which was counted as a separate special ) , 1992 , 1996 , 1999 and 2002 . He was nominated for Outstanding Comedy Series for Taxi in 1983 and Cheers in 1985 , Outstanding Writing for a Comedy Series for It 's Garry Shandling 's Show in 1988 and Outstanding Variety , Music Or Comedy Special for The Best of Tracey Ullman Show in 1990 . He also won a Peabody Award for The Simpsons in 1996 . In 2013 , Simon was awarded the Writers Guild of America Award Animation Writers Caucus lifetime achievement award for his work in animation ; the following year the WGA awarded him the Valentine Davies Award for his humanitarian and philanthropic efforts .
= = Personal life = =
Simon was married to actress Jennifer Tilly from 1984 to 1991 and remained friends with her . He married Playboy Playmate Jami Ferrell in 2000 , and the marriage lasted three weeks . Simon was engaged to chef and caterer Jenna Stewart around 2011 . He was dating Kate Porter , a make @-@ up artist , from 2012 until his death . Simon had three dogs , supported the Democratic Party , and was vegan .
He lived in Pacific Palisades , Los Angeles , in the restored Bailey House , designed by Richard Neutra . After his home was destroyed by a fire in 2007 , Simon redesigned it to be environmentally friendly ; much of the interior is constructed from recycled materials while solar panels provide virtually its entire power needs . The building has a Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design Gold certificate . He had an extensive art collection ; he owned paintings by Thomas Hart Benton , John Singer Sargent and one of the original casts of Auguste Rodin 's The Thinker . He also had a sculpture by Robert Graham and works by Alberto Vargas , Gil Elvgren , Ed Ruscha and Richard Estes .
= = Illness and death = =
In late 2012 , Simon was diagnosed with terminal colorectal cancer which later metastasized to his other organs , including his liver and kidneys . He had been feeling ill for some time and had earlier been misdiagnosed . He was given between three and six months to live ; chemotherapy treatment reduced the size of his tumors over the following six months . He arranged for his fortune to be left to various charitable causes , stating " The truth is , I have more money than I 'm interested in spending . Everyone in my family is taken care of . And I enjoy this . " Simon died in his Los Angeles home from complications from the disease on March 8 , 2015 , aged 59 . His remains were interred at Westwood Village Memorial Park Cemetery in Los Angeles .
Controversy surrounds the management of his trust , and the lack of donations to groups which he generously supported in his lifetime .
= = Credits = =
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= Russian frigate General Admiral =
General Admiral ( Russian : Генерал @-@ адмирал ) was a screw frigate ordered by the Imperial Russian Navy from the United States before the American Civil War . She spent the bulk of her career in the Mediterranean Sea where she evacuated insurgents and their families from Crete in 1868 during the Cretan Revolt . She was struck from the Navy List the following year and broken up in 1870 .
= = Description = =
General Admiral was a very large screw frigate designed by Captain 1st Rank Ivan Shestakov and named after General Admiral Grand Duke Konstantin Nikolayevich of Russia , commander of the Russian Navy . She was built of live oak , but was reinforced with diagonal and longitudinal iron braces . General Admiral displaced 5 @,@ 669 long tons ( 5 @,@ 760 t ) . She was 305 feet ( 93 @.@ 0 m ) long between perpendiculars , had a beam of 54 feet 8 inches ( 16 @.@ 7 m ) and a deep draft of 23 ft 6 in ( 7 @.@ 2 m ) . She was sheathed in copper to reduce biofouling . A novel system of zinc pipes that penetrated sheathing and connected with the ventilation fan was installed in the hold to prevent the decay of her hull . Its efficacy is unknown although General Admiral 's short life suggests that it was not effective .
Two steam engines , rated at a total of 2 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 1 @,@ 500 kW ) , and six fire @-@ tube boilers powered the single propeller when the ship was under steam . Using her engines , she had a maximum speed of 12 @.@ 25 knots ( 22 @.@ 69 km / h ; 14 @.@ 10 mph ) . General Admiral 's propeller could be hoisted out of the water and her funnel retracted to improve her sailing qualities . She was considered to be an excellent sailer and could reach 14 knots ( 26 km / h ; 16 mph ) under sail alone . She carried 750 long tons ( 760 t ) of coal which gave her a range of 5 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 9 @,@ 300 km ; 5 @,@ 800 mi ) , but it was her 75 days of provisions that were the practical limit of her endurance .
General Admiral 's armament was made and installed in Russia . Her battery deck carried thirty @-@ six 60 @-@ pounder muzzle @-@ loading guns and four long 36 @-@ pounder chase guns . The upper deck had twenty @-@ four 60 @-@ pounder guns and two long 36 @-@ pounder chase guns . Two 3 @-@ pood shell guns were mounted fore and aft on revolving platforms . In 1862 her armament was revised and two 60 @-@ pounder and the two long 36 @-@ pounder guns on her upper deck were removed . Four years later , it was rearranged with two 60 @-@ pounders moved from her upper deck to the lower deck and two long 36 @-@ pounders moved from the lower deck to the upper deck .
= = Career = =
General Admiral was laid down on 21 September 1857 at the William H. Webb Shipyard in New York City . She was launched on 3 September 1858 and was delivered to Kronstadt on 15 March 1859 by an American crew , commanded by an American captain , although Captain Shestakov accompanied her back to Russia . Her total cost , including delivery , was 1 @,@ 419 @,@ 629 @.@ 51 silver rubles . En route she only took 11 days to reach Cherbourg from New York City under steam , a record time for a warship at that time . She sailed for the Mediterranean the following year under the command of Captain Shestakov , stopping at Kiel in July 1860 . While in the Mediterranean she made port visits at Beirut , Piraeus and Nice . General Admiral departed Nice on 16 April 1863 for the Baltic Sea . She met the newly completed coast @-@ defence ship Pervenets en route and escorted her from England to the Baltic .
Three years later , on 8 June 1866 , General Admiral departed Kronstadt for the Mediterranean , making a port visit at Copenhagen on 22 June en route . In June 1867 she made another port visit at Piraeus before leaving Cadiz on 26 July bound for the Baltic . She returned to the Mediterranean the next year and evacuated Cretan insurgents and their families in 1868 during the Cretan Revolt against the Ottoman Empire . Having returned to Russia by 1869 , she was struck from the Navy List on 26 June 1869 and broken up the following year .
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= SR N15X class =
The SR N15X class or Remembrance class were a design of British 4 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 steam locomotives converted in 1934 by Richard Maunsell of the Southern Railway from the large LB & SCR L class 4 @-@ 6 @-@ 4 tank locomotives that had become redundant on the London – Brighton line following electrification . It was hoped that further service could be obtained from these locomotives on the Southern 's Western Section , sharing the duties of the N15 class locomotives . The locomotives were named after famous Victorian engineers except for Remembrance , which was the LBSCR 's memorial locomotive for staff members who died in the First World War .
In their new form the locomotives were similar in outline to the N15 class , though suffered from the expectation amongst crews that they were an improved version of this type . Despite this , their ability to accelerate well was put to good use on cross @-@ country trains between main lines . The class saw service into nationalisation in 1948 . All had been withdrawn by 1957 , with none preserved .
= = Background = =
With the impending electrification of the Southern Railway 's Central Section ( the former LB & SCR lines ) , the question arose as to what to do with the relatively new and powerful LB & SCR designs . Maunsell looked at the possibility of converting the LBSCR “ Remembrance ” or LB & SCR L Class 4 @-@ 6 @-@ 4 tanks built by L. B. Billinton between 1914 and 1922 . These Baltics had proved to be capable machines on the Brighton line , although their relatively low boiler pressure ( 170 psi or 1 @.@ 17 MPa ) , the excessive difference between " first valve " and " second valve " on the regulator , and more particularly their small ( 8 in or 203 mm ) piston valves in relation to their large ( 21 in or 533 mm ) cylinders were a significant limitation , precluding their use on any other part of the Southern system . The decision was taken to rebuild them into more conventional 4 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 tender locomotives .
= = Conversion = =
All seven of the Billinton L Class locomotives entered Eastleigh works in 1934 for rebuilding , each leaving the works the same year . Conversion into the 4 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 tender type , entailed removing the trailing bogie , water tanks , and bunker , shortening the mainframes and fitting new cabs ; these were of the side @-@ window variety already used on the Lord Nelson class . At the same time there was a revision of the locomotives ' front end arrangement incorporating a " King Arthur " N15 type of blast pipe and chimney ; boiler pressure was increased to 180 psi ( 1 @.@ 24 MPa ) , whilst the piston diameter was marginally decreased from 22 in ( 559 mm ) to 21 inches ( 533 mm ) .
The class received 5 @,@ 000 imperial gallons ( 23 @,@ 000 l ; 6 @,@ 000 US gal ) bogie tenders from Robert Urie 's S15 class and Southern @-@ type smoke deflectors on either side of the smokebox . The result was classified N15X , the suffix corresponding to the old LBSCR designation for a rebuilt / modified locomotive . The conversion process created a locomotive that was similar in appearance to the N15 " King Arthur " class as modified by Maunsell in the 1920s .
= = = Naming the locomotives = = =
Two of the locomotives retained their original names : number 2333 Remembrance and 2329 Stephenson , whilst the other members of the L class , were newly new named after famous railway engineers . The new locomotive names were suggested by Maunsell 's assistant , Harry Holcroft , and were distributed as thus :
2327 Trevithick , 2328 Hackworth , 2329 Stephenson , 2330 Cudworth , 2331 Beattie , 2332 Stroudley , 2333 Remembrance
2333 Remembrance retained its name as it had been the LBSCR 's designated memorial to employees lost in the First World War . However the original LBSCR nameplates were straight for water tank mounting , necessitating new rounded plates to fit over the central wheel splashers ( see colour plate in infobox above ) .
= = Operational details = =
The rebuilding caused a certain amount of controversy among footplate crews , with some maintaining that one could not make so many changes and have a reliable locomotive at the end of the process . The class suffered on the South Western section from the expectation that they were an improved version of the N15 " King Arthur " class . Once this misconception was overcome , the class came into their own on the Basingstoke services , where their ability to accelerate well was put to good use . However , the rebuilds gained a reputation for rough – riding and relatively poor efficiency when compared to the N15s , and were dissimilar in performance to the original L class locomotives , making them unpopular with crews . Because of this , the class was used on secondary duties , cross – country and inter – regional trains around Basingstoke rather than the heavy London to Exeter expresses for which they were intended .
Several of the class were loaned to the Great Western Railway between 1942 and 1944 to assist in bolstering freight power , of which there was an acute shortage on that railway during the Second World War . The class saw use after nationalisation in 1948 , though with increasing numbers of Bulleid Pacifics able to take over their duties , the Remembrance class began to be withdrawn from service during the mid @-@ 1950s , starting with Hackworth in 1955 , and finally Beattie in 1957 . The early withdrawal of the class ensured that none were preserved .
No. 2332 Stroudley featured in the opening shots of the 1945 film Waterloo Road .
= = Accidents and incidents = =
On 23 December 1955 , locomotive No. 32327 Trevithick was hauling a passenger train that ran into the rear of another at Woking , Surrey . The locomotive was deemed beyond economic repair and was scrapped at Eastleigh Works , Hampshire .
= = Livery and numbering = =
= = = Southern = = =
Under Southern ownership , the " Remembrances " were originally painted in Maunsell 's Olive Green livery as seen above , with " Southern " and the locomotive 's number on the tender tank . Wartime service under the Southern saw the locomotives painted in black livery with " Sunshine Yellow " lettering . Numbers allocated to the locomotives were 2327 to 2333 . After the war , the locomotives were turned out in Bulleid 's Southern Railway Malachite Green livery with " Sunshine Yellow " lettering .
= = = British Railways = = =
After nationalisation in 1948 , the locomotives ' initial livery was a slightly modified Southern Malachite Green livery , where " British Railways " replaced " Southern " in " Sunshine Yellow " lettering on the tender sides . From 1949 , the class was turned out in British Railways mixed @-@ traffic black livery with red and cream lining . The British Railways crest was placed on the tender water tank sides . Numbering was in the 32xxx series , as numbers 32327 to 32333 .
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= Gabriel Slaughter =
Gabriel Slaughter ( December 12 , 1767 – September 19 , 1830 ) was the seventh Governor of Kentucky and was the first person to ascend to that office upon the death of the sitting governor . His family moved to Kentucky from Virginia when he was very young . He became a member of the Kentucky militia , serving throughout his political career . He received a citation from the state legislature in recognition of his service at the Battle of New Orleans .
After spending a decade in the state legislature , Slaughter was elected the fourth Lieutenant Governor , serving under Charles Scott . With the War of 1812 looming at the end of his tenure , Slaughter ran for governor against Isaac Shelby , the state 's first governor and a noted military leader . Shelby beat Slaughter soundly . Four years later , Slaughter was again elected as lieutenant governor , serving under George Madison .
Madison died a short time into his term , whereupon Slaughter became acting governor . He sought to be sworn in as governor , but public sentiment turned against him when he replaced Shelby 's son @-@ in @-@ law with John Pope as Secretary of State . Pope was an unpopular figure in Kentucky and , after his appointment , some in the General Assembly began to call for a special election to replace Slaughter . The measure did not pass , but Slaughter was never able to shed the title of " acting governor . " Following his term as governor , Slaughter became a Baptist lay minister and served on the first board of trustees of Georgetown College . He died September 19 , 1830 and was buried in his family 's cemetery .
= = Early life = =
Gabriel Slaughter was born in Culpeper County , Virginia on December 12 , 1767 , the son of Robert and Susannah ( Harrison ) Slaughter . He was educated in the county 's public schools and worked as a farmer . In 1786 , Slaughter married a cousin , Sarah Slaughter , and the couple had two daughters – Mary Buckner Slaughter and Susan Harrison Slaughter .
Slaughter 's father visited Kentucky as early as 1776 , and moved to Mercer County permanently in 1789 . In September 1791 , Gabriel Slaughter sold his land in Virginia , and he and his family followed his father to Kentucky . He became known for his generosity , and his large mansion on the turnpike to Lexington was nicknamed " Wayfarer 's Rest " because of the vast number of travelers that he allowed to stay there . Among his guests was future lieutenant governor Robert B. McAfee . Soon after his arrival in Kentucky , however , his wife Sarah died , leaving Slaughter to care for his two daughters alone .
In 1795 , Slaughter was appointed justice of the peace in Mercer County by Governor Isaac Shelby . The same year , he was also named a tax commissioner for a district of Mercer County . On a return trip to Virginia in 1797 , Slaughter married his second wife , Sara Hord . The couple returned to Slaughter 's home in Mercer County , where they had three children : John Hord Slaughter , Frances Ann Hord Slaughter , and Felix Grundy Slaughter .
= = Service in the Kentucky General Assembly = =
Slaughter 's political career began in earnest with his 1797 election to the Kentucky House of Representatives representing Mercer County . He was named to the Committee on Enrollments , and probably served as chair , since he delivered the committee 's reports to the Assembly . It is unclear whether he did not seek re @-@ election in 1798 , or whether he was defeated in that year 's canvass . Whatever the case , he filled the space of his legislative hiatus by serving as trustee of the newly incorporated Harrodsburg Academy . He was re @-@ elected to the state House in 1799 . In addition to the Committee on Enrollments , he served on the Committee on Privileges and Elections and a joint committee that reported on the state of the Auditor 's , Treasurer 's , and Registrar 's offices . Records show that he also served as chairman when the House sat as a committee of the whole on November 25 , 1799 .
Slaughter was re @-@ elected to the state House in 1800 , and from 1801 to 1808 he served in the Kentucky Senate . In 1801 , he was chosen as one of three commissioners from Mercer County charged with selling stock shares in the Kentucky River Company , which was chartered to clear obstructions in the Kentucky River from its mouth to the mouth of its south fork . In 1804 , he was a candidate for President Pro Tempore of the Kentucky Senate following the death of the Senate 's presiding officer , Lieutenant Governor John Caldwell . Ultimately , however , Thomas Posey proved the more popular choice . From 1807 to 1808 , he served as chair of the Senate Committee of Propositions and Grievances .
Slaughter was elected lieutenant governor in 1808 . In a four @-@ man race , he received more than three times the number of votes as his nearest opponent . His four @-@ year term under Governor Charles Scott was largely undistinguished . Although the exact date is unknown , it is likely that the death of Slaughter 's second wife preceded his election as lieutenant governor . On October 3 , 1811 , he married his third wife , Elizabeth ( Thompson ) Rodes , a widow from Scott County .
Prohibited by the Kentucky Constitution from succeeding himself as lieutenant governor , Slaughter ran for governor of Kentucky in 1812 . The impending war with England , however , drew military hero and former governor Isaac Shelby into the race . Despite Shelby 's immense popularity , Slaughter refused to withdraw from the race and was soundly beaten by more than a two @-@ to @-@ one margin . Following his defeat , Slaughter took a two @-@ year hiatus from public life , and engaged in farming at his estate in Mercer County .
= = Service in the state militia = =
Slaughter had been commissioned as a lieutenant colonel in the Fifth Regiment of the Kentucky militia on December 24 , 1803 . He was promoted to the rank of major in 1802 and colonel in 1803 . In 1814 , he answered Governor Shelby 's call for volunteers to serve in the army of the Southwest under General Andrew Jackson .
When the Quartermaster general did not deliver promised supplies to Slaughter 's regiment , private funds had to be used to purchase boats for their travel down the Mississippi River . They also ran short of weapons . Upon their arrival at New Orleans on January 4 , 1815 , General Jackson noted in his official report that " Not one man in ten was well armed , and only one man in three had any arms at all . " The citizens of New Orleans provided enough firearms to equip the rest of Slaughter 's men and another Kentucky battalion . Despite being vastly outnumbered , Jackson 's forces were victorious . Units from Kentucky and Tennessee , including Slaughter 's regiment , bore the brunt of the British attack . Slaughter was later recognized by the state legislature for his service .
Following their service together , Jackson asked Slaughter to preside over a court martial . When the verdict was not satisfactory to Jackson , he ordered Slaughter to reconsider and reverse the decision . Slaughter declined , replying " I know my duty , and have performed it . " This decision was respected by Jackson , and apparently did no harm to the mutual respect between him and Slaughter .
= = Ascension to the governorship = =
In 1816 , Slaughter was again elected to the post of lieutenant governor over Richard Hickman and James Garrard . George Madison was elected governor without opposition . Madison died October 14 , 1816 , and Slaughter ascended to the governorship . This was the first time a sitting governor had died in office in Kentucky , and some questioned the legality of Slaughter 's status in the position .
Following Governor Madison 's death , Secretary of State Charles Stewart Todd offered to step down if Slaughter preferred to appoint someone else to the post . The letter was not an explicit resignation , as Todd emphatically declared his intention to work with Slaughter should the governor choose to retain him . Slaughter did replace Todd with former Senator John Pope , however , apparently as a political favor . This move proved disastrous for Slaughter 's political career . Todd was very popular by virtue of being the son @-@ in @-@ law of twice @-@ governor Shelby . By contrast , Pope was extremely unpopular for his vote in the U.S. Senate against declaring war in the War of 1812 .
The move was panned in the state 's newspapers , and by prominent citizens such as future governor James Turner Morehead . Yet Slaughter followed up with another unpopular decision , appointing Martin D. Hardin , a member of the hated Federalist Party , to fill the Senate seat of William T. Barry . Despite this , the General Assembly made the appointment permanent when it convened in December 1816 . However , the administration candidate for a full senatorial term , John Adair was defeated in the General Assembly , which opted for John J. Crittenden .
On January 27 , 1817 , a faction in the Kentucky House of Representatives led by Joseph Cabell Breckinridge proposed a bill calling for the election of " a governor to fill the vacancy occasioned by the death of " Governor Madison . The measure failed , but the legislative elections of 1817 showed a popular mandate for a special gubernatorial election . The Kentucky House passed a bill calling for such elections by a vote of 56 – 30 , but the measure died in the state senate . Nevertheless , Slaughter was never officially given the title of governor and was referred to as " lieutenant governor " or " acting governor " throughout his administration . The General Assembly censured both Slaughter and Pope for failing to require the proper security and oath of office for the state treasurer .
Slaughter 's unpopularity led to the demise of many of his proposals , regardless of their merits . He suggested a comprehensive system of public schools and , though the idea had been proposed by previous governors , Slaughter devised a means of funding it . The hostile legislature refused the plan and overrode Slaughter 's vetoes of bills that allowed individual schools to be supported by lotteries . Slaughter further proposed a reform of the penal system and recommended internal improvements , including the creation of a state library . These measures were also rejected .
Slaughter 's governorship was further complicated by the financial panic of 1819 , and he spent the majority of his term working to stabilize that state 's economy . Politicians of the day generally divided into those who favored measures favorable to debtors – called the " relief " position or party – and those who insisted that creditors be paid in a timely manner – called the " anti @-@ relief " position or party . On December 16 , 1819 , the General Assembly passed a law requiring a six @-@ month moratorium on the collection of debts . Slaughter , an anti @-@ relief partisan , vetoed the bill , but relief party legislators held a large majority in the General Assembly thanks to the previous fall 's elections , and overrode the veto . The following February , the General Assembly passed an even more liberal stay law , preventing the collection of debts for one year if the creditor would accept payments in the devalued notes of the Bank of Kentucky and two years if they demanded payment in specie or specie @-@ backed notes . These actions were a precursor to the Old Court @-@ New Court controversy . While Slaughter clashed with the General Assembly over potential solutions to the crisis at the state level , he adopted a strong states ' rights policy at the national level . He challenged the constitutionality of the Bank of the United States and the Supreme Court 's ruling that individual states could not tax branches of the Bank .
= = Religious leadership and later life = =
Following his term as governor , Slaughter failed in a bid to return to the state senate in 1821 , but was re @-@ elected to the state House of Representatives in 1823 , serving a single term . During this term , he continued to support measures to improve education . He voted to ask Congress for aid for the Deaf and Dumb School in the state , and opposed redirecting fines and forfeitures earmarked for the state 's " Seminaries of Learning " into the state treasury . He was also named to a joint committee to investigate the use of state appropriations to Transylvania University .
Concurrent with his political career , Slaughter took a leading role in the affairs of his church . He was born into the tradition of the Church of England , but soon became associated with the Baptist congregation at Shawnee Run . He served as a messenger from this congregation to the various associations with which it was connected for over thirty years . One such association was the South District Association ; Slaughter served as clerk at that body 's annual meeting in 1808 and 1809 , and later served as its moderator for nine years . In 1813 , he helped found the Kentucky Bible Society .
Following his term in the state House , Slaughter retired from politics and became an active lay minister of the Baptist faith . In 1829 , he was appointed to the first board of trustees of Georgetown College , a Baptist college in Georgetown , Kentucky . He died on September 19 , 1830 , and was interred in his family 's cemetery in Mercer County .
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= Northrop YF @-@ 23 =
The Northrop / McDonnell Douglas YF @-@ 23 was an American single @-@ seat , twin @-@ engine stealth fighter aircraft technology demonstrator designed for the United States Air Force ( USAF ) . The design was a finalist in the USAF 's Advanced Tactical Fighter ( ATF ) competition , battling the Lockheed YF @-@ 22 for a production contract . Two YF @-@ 23 prototypes were built with the nicknames " Black Widow II " and " Gray Ghost " .
In the 1980s , the USAF began looking for a replacement for its fighter aircraft , especially to counter the USSR 's advanced Sukhoi Su @-@ 27 and Mikoyan MiG @-@ 29 . Several companies submitted design proposals ; the USAF selected proposals from Northrop and Lockheed . Northrop teamed with McDonnell Douglas to develop the YF @-@ 23 , while Lockheed , Boeing and General Dynamics developed the YF @-@ 22 .
The YF @-@ 23 was stealthier and faster , but less agile than its competitor . After a four @-@ year development and evaluation process , the YF @-@ 22 was announced the winner in 1991 and entered production as the Lockheed Martin F @-@ 22 Raptor . The U.S. Navy considered using the production version of the ATF as the basis for a replacement to the F @-@ 14 , but these plans were later canceled . The two YF @-@ 23 prototypes were museum exhibits as of 2010 .
= = Development = =
American reconnaissance satellites first spotted the advanced Soviet Su @-@ 27 and MiG @-@ 29 fighter prototypes in 1978 , which caused concern in the U.S. Both Soviet models were expected to reduce the maneuverability advantage of contemporary US fighter aircraft . In 1981 , the USAF requested information from several aerospace companies on possible features for an Advanced Tactical Fighter ( ATF ) to replace the F @-@ 15 Eagle . After discussions with aerospace companies , the USAF made air @-@ to @-@ air combat the primary role for the ATF . The ATF was to take advantage of emerging technologies , including composite materials , lightweight alloys , advanced flight @-@ control systems , more powerful propulsion systems , and stealth technology . In October 1985 , the USAF issued a request for proposal ( RFP ) to several aircraft manufacturers . The RFP was modified in May 1986 to include evaluation of prototype air vehicles from the two finalists . At the same time , the U.S. Navy , under the Navalized Advanced Tactical Fighter ( NATF ) program , announced that it would use a derivative of the ATF winner to replace its F @-@ 14 Tomcat . The NATF program called for procurement of 546 aircraft along with the USAF 's planned procurement of 750 aircraft .
In July 1986 , proposals were submitted by Lockheed , Boeing , General Dynamics , McDonnell Douglas , Northrop , Grumman and Rockwell . The latter two dropped out of competition shortly thereafter . Following proposal submissions , Lockheed , Boeing , and General Dynamics formed a team to develop whichever of their proposed designs was selected , if any . Northrop and McDonnell Douglas formed a team with a similar agreement . The Lockheed and Northrop proposals were selected as finalists on 31 October 1986 . Both teams were given 50 months to build and flight @-@ test their prototypes , and they were successful , producing the Lockheed YF @-@ 22 and the Northrop YF @-@ 23 .
The YF @-@ 23 was designed to meet USAF requirements for survivability , supercruise , stealth , and ease of maintenance . Supercruise requirements called for prolonged supersonic flight without the use of afterburners . Northrop drew on its experience with the B @-@ 2 Spirit and F / A @-@ 18 Hornet to reduce the model 's susceptibility to radar and infrared detection . The USAF initially required the aircraft to land and stop within 2 @,@ 000 feet ( 610 m ) , which meant the use of thrust reversers on their engines . In 1987 , the USAF changed the runway length requirement to 3 @,@ 000 feet ( 914 m ) , so thrust reversers were no longer needed . This allowed the aircraft to have smaller engine nacelle housings . The nacelles were not downsized on the prototypes .
The first YF @-@ 23 ( serial number 87 @-@ 0800 ) , Prototype Air Vehicle 1 ( PAV @-@ 1 ) , was rolled out on 22 June 1990 ; PAV @-@ 1 took its 50 @-@ minute maiden flight on 27 August with Alfred " Paul " Metz at the controls . The second YF @-@ 23 ( serial number 87 @-@ 0801 , PAV @-@ 2 ) made its first flight on 26 October , piloted by Jim Sandberg . The first YF @-@ 23 was painted charcoal gray and was nicknamed " Spider " and " Black Widow II " , the latter after the Northrop P @-@ 61 Black Widow of World War II . It briefly had a red hourglass marking resembling the marking on the underside of the black widow spider before Northrop management had it removed . The second prototype was painted in two shades of gray and nicknamed " Gray Ghost " .
= = Design = =
The YF @-@ 23 was an unconventional @-@ looking aircraft , with diamond @-@ shaped wings , a profile with substantial area @-@ ruling to reduce aerodynamic drag at transonic speeds , and an all @-@ moving V @-@ tail . The cockpit was placed high , near the nose of the aircraft for good visibility for the pilot . The aircraft featured a tricycle landing gear configuration with a nose landing gear leg and two main landing gear legs . The weapons bay was placed on the underside of the fuselage between the nose and main landing gear . The cockpit has a center stick and side throttle .
It was powered by two turbofan engines with each in a separate engine nacelle with S @-@ ducts , to shield engine axial compressors from radar waves , on either side of the aircraft 's spine . Of the two aircraft built , the first YF @-@ 23 ( PAV @-@ 1 ) was fitted with Pratt & Whitney YF119 engines , while the second ( PAV @-@ 2 ) was powered by General Electric YF120 engines . The aircraft featured fixed engine nozzles , instead of thrust vectoring nozzles as on the YF @-@ 22 . As on the B @-@ 2 , the exhaust from the YF @-@ 23 's engines flowed through troughs lined with heat @-@ ablating tiles to dissipate heat and shield the engines from infrared homing ( IR ) missile detection from below .
The flight control surfaces were controlled by a central management computer system . Raising the wing flaps and ailerons on one side and lowering them on the other provided roll . The V @-@ tail fins were angled 50 degrees from the vertical . Pitch was mainly provided by rotating these V @-@ tail fins in opposite directions so their front edges moved together or apart . Yaw was primarily supplied by rotating the tail fins in the same direction . Test pilot Paul Metz stated that the YF @-@ 23 had superior high angle of attack ( AoA ) performance compared to legacy aircraft . Deflecting the wing flaps down and ailerons up on both sides simultaneously provided for aerodynamic braking . To keep costs low despite the novel design , a number of " commercial off @-@ the @-@ shelf " components were used , including an F @-@ 15 nose wheel , F / A @-@ 18 main landing gear parts , and the forward cockpit components of the F @-@ 15E Strike Eagle .
= = Operational history = =
= = = Evaluation = = =
The first YF @-@ 23 , with Pratt & Whitney engines , supercruised at Mach 1 @.@ 43 on 18 September 1990 , while the second , with General Electric engines , reached Mach 1 @.@ 6 on 29 November 1990 . By comparison , the YF @-@ 22 achieved Mach 1 @.@ 58 in supercruise . The YF @-@ 23 was tested to a top speed of Mach 1 @.@ 8 with afterburners and achieved a maximum angle @-@ of @-@ attack of 25 ° . The maximum speed is classified , though sources state a maximum speed greater than Mach 2 at altitude and a supercruise speed greater than Mach 1 @.@ 6 . The aircraft 's weapons bay was configured for weapons launch , and used for testing weapons bay acoustics , but no missiles were fired ; Lockheed fired AIM @-@ 9 Sidewinder and AIM @-@ 120 AMRAAM missiles successfully from its YF @-@ 22 demonstration aircraft . PAV @-@ 1 performed a fast @-@ paced combat demonstration with six flights over a 10 @-@ hour period on 30 November 1990 . Flight testing continued into December . The two YF @-@ 23s flew 50 times for a total of 65 @.@ 2 hours . The tests demonstrated Northrop 's predicted performance values for the YF @-@ 23 . The YF @-@ 23 was stealthier and faster , but the YF @-@ 22 was more agile .
The two contractor teams submitted evaluation results with their proposals in December 1990 , and on 23 April 1991 , Secretary of the Air Force Donald Rice announced that the YF @-@ 22 was the winner . The Air Force selected the YF119 engine to power the F @-@ 22 production version . The Lockheed and Pratt & Whitney designs were rated higher on technical aspects , were considered lower risks , and were considered to have more effective program management . It has been speculated in the aviation press that the YF @-@ 22 was also seen as more adaptable to the Navy 's NATF , but by 1992 the U.S. Navy had abandoned NATF .
Following the competition , both YF @-@ 23s were transferred to NASA 's Dryden Flight Research Center at Edwards AFB , California , without their engines . NASA planned to use one of the aircraft to study techniques for the calibration of predicted loads to measured flight results , but this did not take place .
= = = Possible revival = = =
In 2004 , Northrop Grumman proposed a YF @-@ 23 @-@ based bomber to meet a USAF need for an interim bomber , for which the FB @-@ 22 and B @-@ 1R were also competing . Northrop modified aircraft PAV @-@ 2 to serve as a display model for its proposed interim bomber . The possibility of a YF @-@ 23 @-@ based interim bomber ended with the 2006 Quadrennial Defense Review , which favored a long @-@ range bomber with much greater range . The USAF has since begun the Next @-@ Generation Bomber program .
= = Aircraft on display = =
Both YF @-@ 23 airframes remained in storage until mid @-@ 1996 , when the aircraft were transferred to museums .
YF @-@ 23A PAV @-@ 1 , Air Force serial number 87 @-@ 0800 , registration number N231YF , was on display as of 2015 in the Research and Development hangar of the National Museum of the United States Air Force near Dayton , Ohio .
YF @-@ 23A PAV @-@ 2 , AF ser. no . 87 @-@ 0801 , registration number N232YF , was on exhibit at the Western Museum of Flight until 2004 , when it was reclaimed by Northrop Grumman and used as a display model for a YF @-@ 23 @-@ based bomber . PAV @-@ 2 was returned to the Western Museum of Flight and was on display as of 2010 at the museum 's new location at Torrance Airport , Torrance , California .
= = Specifications ( YF @-@ 23 ) = =
Data from Pace , Sweetman , Winchester , Aronstein ,
General characteristics
Crew : 1 ( pilot )
Length : 67 ft 5 in ( 20 @.@ 60 m )
Wingspan : 43 ft 7 in ( 13 @.@ 30 m )
Height : 13 ft 11 in ( 4 @.@ 30 m )
Wing area : 900 ft2 ( 88 m2 )
Empty weight : 29 @,@ 000 lb ( 13 @,@ 100 kg )
Loaded weight : 51 @,@ 320 lb ( 23 @,@ 327 kg )
Max. takeoff weight : 62 @,@ 000 lb ( 29 @,@ 000 kg )
Powerplant : 2 × Pratt & Whitney YF119 or General Electric YF120 afterburning turbofan , 35 @,@ 000 lbf ( 156 kN ) each
Performance
Maximum speed : At altitude : Mach 2 @.@ 2 + ( 1 @,@ 450 + mph , 2 @,@ 335 + km / h )
Supercruise : Mach 1 @.@ 6 + ( 1 @,@ 060 + mph , 1 @,@ 706 + km / h )
Range : over 2 @,@ 790 mi ( over 4 @,@ 500 km )
Combat radius : 750 – 800 nmi ( 865 – 920 mi , 1 @,@ 380 – 1480 km )
Service ceiling : 65 @,@ 000 ft ( 19 @,@ 800 m )
Wing loading : 54 lb / ft2 ( 265 kg / m2 )
Thrust / weight : 1 @.@ 36
Armament
None as tested but provisions made for :
1 × 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) M61 Vulcan cannon
4 × AIM @-@ 120 AMRAAM or AIM @-@ 7 Sparrow medium @-@ range air @-@ to @-@ air missiles
2 × AIM @-@ 9 Sidewinder short @-@ range air @-@ to @-@ air missiles
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= Techno Cumbia =
" Techno Cumbia " is a song recorded by American recording artist Selena for her fourth studio album , Amor Prohibido ( 1994 ) . It was posthumously released as the b @-@ side track to " Dreaming of You " through EMI Latin on August 14 , 1995 . " Techno Cumbia " was written by Pete Astudillo and co @-@ written and produced by Selena 's brother @-@ producer A.B. Quintanilla . The song is a techno @-@ pop cumbia recording with influences of dancehall , rap , Latin dance , and club music . Lyrically , Selena calls on people to dance her new style the " techno cumbia " and calls out those who can 't dance .
" Techno Cumbia " garnered acclaim from music critics , who believed it to be one of the better recordings found on Amor Prohibido . Musicologists believed " Techno Cumbia " predated the Latin urban music market and found that Selena spearheaded a new style of music . The song posthumously peaked at number four on the United States Billboard Hot Latin Songs and Regional Mexican Airplay charts . The recording received the Tejano Music Award for Tejano Crossover Song of the Year in 1995 and received nominations for Single of the Year at the Broadcast Music Inc . ' s pop awards and Music Video of the Year at the 1996 Tejano Music Awards .
= = Background and release = =
" Techno Cumbia " was written by Selena y Los Dinos backup dancer and vocalist Pete Astudillo . The song was co @-@ written by Selena 's brother @-@ producer A.B. Quintanilla who arranged the piece and served as producer . In 2002 , A.B. spoke on how Amor Prohibido ( 1994 ) was experimental music @-@ heavy and commented on how " Techno Cumbia " was an example of his ideas of keeping the band 's image modern . During the recording sessions , Selena added rap verses to the song ; A.B. believed it to be first of its kind for the genre . Selena was shot and killed by Yolanda Saldívar , her friend and former manager of the singer 's Selena Etc. clothing boutiques , on March 31 , 1995 . The song was included on the track listing of the posthumously released album Dreaming of You ( 1995 ) . A.B. flew to Manhattan to meet up with R & B group Full Force who remixed " Techno Cumbia " along with updating their remix version of Selena 's 1992 song " Missing My Baby " . San Antonio Express @-@ News writer and Billboard Latin music correspondent , Ramiro Burr believed the addition of " Techno Cumbia " were " remastered , injecting extra percussions to spice them up . " The album 's remix version and radio edit of " Techno Cumbia " was released as the b @-@ side track to the lead single " Dreaming of You " .
= = Composition = =
" Techno Cumbia " is a Spanish @-@ language uptempo techno @-@ pop cumbia song . It draws influences from Latin dance , dancehall , rap , and club music . Musicologists Ilan Stavans and Harold Augenbraum called it a hip @-@ hop fusion song . Billboard magazine Latin music correspondent , John Lannert wrote the liner notes of Dreaming of You and called " Techno Cumbia " a " dancehall thumper " . Musicologist James Perone found the recording to be the " richest track " off of Amor Prohibido because of its " rhythmic and textural contrast " . Perone compared it to the ' 90s American dance music scene and commented on how the " techno aspect of the piece is muted ; however , Selena 's voice is electronically processed for part of the recording . " " Techno Cumbia " incorporates " rhythmic shifts from accentuation on off @-@ beats to accentuation on the beat " . The " hey , ho " is a reference to American soul singer Ray Charles ' call and response 1950s single " What 'd I Say " , used under a " Latin @-@ style drumbeat " .
Texas Monthly editor , Joe Nick Patoski believed " Techno Cumbia " contained the " most popular rhythm [ at the time ] coursing through the Latin music world " . Patoski further wrote that the track " honored " it by " updating it with vocal samples , second line drumming from New Orleans , and horn charts inspired by soca from the Caribbean . " This was echoed by word for word from author Deborah Paredez on her book on Selena 's fandom . Patoski further wrote that the remix version " may have been laced with such exotica as a reggae toastmaster talking over a teeth @-@ rattling bass line " , and called it a " electronic mishmash " , and a " pan @-@ Caribbean attack that included soca and Hi Life from the Trinidad " . Written in the key of G minor , the beat is set in common time and moves at a moderate 91 beats per minute . The remix version on Dreaming of You has a key signature set in C minor and moves at a moderate 90 bpms . The remix employs a piano , güira , tambourine , French horn and drums . Lyrically , Selena calls on people to dance her new style the " techno cumbia " dance and " humorously " calls out people who can 't dance cumbia . Italian essayists Gaetano Prampolini and Annamaria Pinazzi described the lyrics of " Techno Cumbia " that " summons everyone to the dance floor " . Patoski found it to resemble the " nonsensical novelty " song by Shirley Ellis ' 1964 single " The Name Game " .
= = Critical reception and chart performance = =
Because of its mixture of different cultural music genres , " Techno Cumbia " reminded authors Sara Misemer and Walter Clark of Chicano performance artist Guillermo Gómez @-@ Peña 's suggestion that " cultures are being superimposed " . According to Ed Morales who wrote in his book The Latin Beat , " Techno Cumbia " is easily " forgettable throwaways " among the average listener , but found the recording " catchy " and " sticks in your gut " . Author Michael Corcoran wrote in his music guide on Texan music that " Techno Cumbia " has " Michael Jackson @-@ like trills " . Patoski believed " Techno Cumbia " was aimed towards the Spanish international market , calling it " the most compelling tune " . Author Norma Elia Cantú called " Techno Cumbia " , " La Tracalera " ( 1990 ) , and " La Carcacha " ( 1992 ) the " auditory of Tejano music " . Morales believed the song " may have been an indirect influence on the fin de siècle collective of disc jockeys from the borderlands around Tijuana called Nortec " . Stavans and Augenbraum called " Bidi Bidi Bom Bom " , " No Me Queda Más " , and " Techno Cumbia " to have been the " key hits of [ Amor Prohibido ] " . Lannert wrote in the Dreaming of You liner notes that Selena " amazingly and quickly reverses field [ from the previous track " Tú Sólo Tú " ] to reveal a playful cooing growl " .
" Techno Cumbia " debuted at number 13 on the United States Billboard Hot Latin Tracks chart on October 7 , 1995 . In its second week the song rose to number nine , receiving airplay honors that week . On October 21 , 1995 , " Techno Cumbia " jumped to number five and subsequently debuted at number seven on the U.S. Regional Mexican Airplay chart . The following week the recording gained more airplay spins at radios , however it remained at number five on the Hot Latin Tracks chart while the song moved to number six on the Regional Mexican Airplay chart . On November 4 , 1995 , " Techno Cumbia " reached its peak at number four on the Hot Latin Tracks chart . In the issue dated November 11 , 1995 , " Techno Cumbia " received increased airplay spins from the previous tracking week and peaked at number four on the Regional Mexican Airplay chart .
= = Cultural impact and legacy = =
" Techno Cumbia " is believed by musicologist to have predated the Latin urban music genre — which became one of the most popular subgenres of Latin music in the 2000s decade — and to have spearheaded a new style of music . During a 2002 interview , Astudillo spoke on how the success of " Techno Cumbia " and its cultural impact on Latin music " has set a new trend " . He further said that at the time of recording the song , he didn 't envision the track to be as successful or impactful as it has been . Following Selena 's death , A.B. formed his own group the Kumbia Kings and released " Boom Boom " from his album Shhh ! ( 2001 ) ; believed by Billboard to be the direct " descendants of Techno Cumbia " . Author Charles Tatum , found " Techno Cumbia " along with Selena 's 1992 single " La Caracaha " and " Bidi Bidi Bom Bom " to have revolutionized the Tejano cumbia music scene . Music analyst Guadalupe San Miguel wrote that " Techno Cumbia " , " Como la Flor " ( 1992 ) , and " La Carcacha " were Selena 's " biggest cumbia hits " . Selena popularized the technocumbia genre during her career . Vibe magazine reported that Full Force was awarded gold and platinum discs for Selena 's 1992 song " Missing My Baby " and " Techno Cumbia " .
The music video of " Techno Cumbia " was released posthumously and used the remix version found on Dreaming of You . The video was choreographed by Kenny Ortega , who later choreographed the music video of Selena 's posthumously released " A Boy Like That " single in 1996 . The music video featured live performances of Selena singing the song at the Houston Astrodome concert on February 26 , 1995 , outtakes from her music video for " Bidi Bidi Bom Bom " , and performances of the singer during her tour for Amor Prohibido ( 1994 – 95 ) . Cecilia Miniucchi served as the director of the video and found the project to be rather challenging to do . " Techno Cumbia " was awarded the Tejano Music Award for Tejano Crossover Song of the Year in 1995 . During the awards ceremony , presenter Raul Yzaguirre mistakenly read the Tejano Crossover Song of the Year award as being Shelly Lares . The mistake was corrected during the awards " lengthy break " and Lares gave the award to Selena who was seen in tears and refused to accept the award from Lares , despite Jose Behar ( president of EMI Latin ) urging the singer to do so . The song was nominated for Music Video of the Year at the 1996 Tejano Music Awards , and Song of the Year at the 1997 Broadcast Music Inc . ' s pop awards . Mexican group Liberación recorded the song for the tribute album Mexico Recuerda a Selena ( 2005 ) . AllMusic 's Alex Henderson commented on how Liberación gave " Techno Cumbia " a " grupero treatment " . Mexican group Banda El Recodo performed and recorded the track for the live televised tribute concert Selena ¡ VIVE ! in April 2005 . "
= = Charts = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from Dreaming of You liner notes .
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= Jaki Byard =
John Arthur " Jaki " Byard ( June 15 , 1922 – February 11 , 1999 ) was an American jazz pianist , composer and arranger who also played tenor and alto saxophones , among several other instruments . He was known for his eclectic style , incorporating everything from ragtime and stride to free jazz .
Byard played with Maynard Ferguson in the late 1950s and early 1960s , and was a member of bands led by Charles Mingus for several years , including on several studio and concert recordings . The first of his recordings as a leader was in 1960 , but , despite being praised by critics , his albums and performances did not gain him much wider attention . In his 60 @-@ year career , Byard recorded at least 35 albums as leader , and more than 50 as a sideman . Byard 's influence on the music comes from his combining of musical styles during performance , and his parallel career in teaching .
From 1969 Byard was heavily involved in jazz education : he began teaching at the New England Conservatory and went on to work at several other music institutions , as well as having private students . He continued performing and recording , mainly in solo and small group settings , but he also led two big bands – one made up of some of his students , and the other of professional musicians . His death , from a single gunshot while in his home , remains an unsolved mystery .
= = Early life = =
Byard was born in Worcester , Massachusetts . At that time , his parents – John Sr and Geraldine Garr – were living at 47 Clayton Street . Both of his parents played musical instruments ; his mother played the piano , as did his uncles and grandmother , the last playing in cinemas during the silent film era . He began piano lessons at the age of six , but they ended when his family was affected by the Great Depression . He was also given a trumpet that belonged to his father , and attempted to copy the popular players of the time , Roy Eldridge and Walter Fuller . As a boy he often walked to Lake Quinsigamond to listen to bands performing there . He heard Benny Goodman , Lucky Millinder , Fats Waller , and Chick Webb , and listened to other bands of the era on the radio . " Those were the things that inspired me – I guess it stuck with me " , he commented decades later .
Byard began playing professionally on piano at the age of 16 , in bands led by Doc Kentross and Freddy Bates . His early lessons had involved mostly playing by rote , so his development of knowledge of theory and further piano technique occurred from the late 1930s until 1941 , including studying harmony at Commerce High School . In that year he was drafted into the army , where he continued with piano lessons and was influenced by pianist Ernie Washington , with whom he was barracked , although Byard also took up trombone at this time . He also studied Stravinsky and Chopin , and continued studying classical composers into the 1960s . Part of his military service was in Florida , where he was a mentor to the young saxophonist Cannonball Adderley and his brother , Nat . After leaving the army in 1946 , Byard 's musical education continued , through discussions with others , and using library materials combined with music school syllabuses .
= = Career as musician = =
Byard played with bands from the Boston area , including for two years with violinist Ray Perry , who encouraged Byard to add tenor saxophone to his array of instruments . He then joined Earl Bostic 's band as pianist in 1947 and they toured for around a year . Byard then formed a bebop band with Joe Gordon and Sam Rivers in Boston , before touring for a year with a stage show band . Back once more in Boston , he had a regular job for three years with Charlie Mariano in a club in nearby Lynn . They recorded together in 1953 . Byard was a member of Herb Pomeroy 's band as a tenor saxophonist from 1952 to 1955 , and recorded with him in 1957 . Byard also played solo piano in Boston in the early to mid @-@ 1950s and freelanced in that area later in the same decade . He joined Maynard Ferguson in 1959 , and stayed until 1962 . As one of Ferguson 's players and arrangers , Byard found that his own preference for experimentation in time signatures , harmony and freer improvisation was restricted by the preferences of other band members .
Byard moved to New York in the early 1960s . His first recording as a leader , the solo piano Blues for Smoke , was recorded there on December 16 , 1960 ( but not released in the United States until 1988 ) Also in 1960 , Byard first played with the bassist Charles Mingus . He recorded extensively with Mingus in the period 1962 – 64 ( including on the important albums on Impulse ! Records – Mingus Mingus Mingus Mingus Mingus and The Black Saint and the Sinner Lady ) , and toured Europe with him in 1964 . Byard also made recordings as a sideman between 1960 and 1966 with Eric Dolphy , Booker Ervin , Roland Kirk , and Rivers . His performance on Dolphy 's Outward Bound put Byard at the forefront of modern jazz .
As a leader , Byard recorded a string of albums for the Prestige label during the 1960s . Some of these albums included Richard Davis on bass and Alan Dawson on drums , a trio combination described by critic Gary Giddins as " the most commanding rhythm section of the ' 60s , excepting the Hancock @-@ Carter @-@ Williams trio in Miles Davis 's band " , although it existed only for recordings . One such album was Jaki Byard with Strings ! , a sextet recording that featured Byard 's composing and arranging : on " Cat 's Cradle Conference Rag " , each of five musicians " play five standards based on similar harmonies simultaneously " . A further example of Byard 's sometimes unusual approach to composition is the title track from Out Front ! , which he created by thinking of fellow pianist Herbie Nichols ' touch at the keyboard . Popularity with jazz critics did not translate into wider success : a Washington Post review of his final Prestige album , Solo Piano from 1969 , remarked that it was by " a man who has been largely ignored outside the inner circles " . Giddins also commented in the 1970s on the lack of attention that Byard had received , and stated that the pianist 's recordings from 1960 to 1972 " are dazzling in scope , and for his ability to make the most of limited situations " .
Byard also continued to play and record with other leaders . While in Europe in 1965 , he joined Art Blakey 's band for a series of concerts there . In 1967 Byard played in a small group with drummer Elvin Jones . Between 1966 and 1969 Byard recorded three albums with the saxophonist Eric Kloss , then , in 1970 , returned to Mingus ' band , including for performances in Europe . Byard occasionally substituted on piano in Duke Ellington 's orchestra in 1974 when the leader was unwell . In 1974 – 75 Byard had a residency at Bradley ’ s in New York . He also fronted a big band , the Apollo Stompers , which was formed in the late 1970s . There were two versions of the band : one made up of musicians in New York , and the other using students from the New England Conservatory , where Byard had taught from 1969 .
In 1980 Byard was the subject of a short documentary film , Anything for Jazz , which featured him playing , teaching and with his family . By the 1980s his main instrument remained the piano , and he still played both alto and tenor saxophones , but he had stopped playing the other instruments that he used to use professionally – bass , drums , guitar , trombone , and trumpet , although he still taught all of them . In the same period , he was often heard in New York playing solo , in duos , or in trios . In 1988 he played with a band founded by Mingus ' widow to perform the bassist 's compositions – the Mingus Big Band . Byard played and recorded with a former student of his , Ricky Ford , from 1989 to 1991 , and continued to play and teach during the 1990s .
= = Career as teacher = =
Byard was a charter faculty member at the New England Conservatory , helping to establish its jazz studies program , initially named ' Afro @-@ American Music ' ; he stayed for more than 15 years . He also taught at the Hartt School of Music from 1975 , the Manhattan School of Music from 1989 to 1999 , the New School for Jazz and Contemporary Music , and lectured for three years at Harvard University .
As teacher and player , Byard was renowned for his knowledge of the history of jazz piano . This meant that some aspiring young musicians sought him out as a teacher . One of these was pianist Jason Moran , who described their first meeting , at a performance by the Apollo Stompers :
Jaki had all these toys and whistles and bells and things that he was playing from the piano , and also screaming and yelling from the piano in joy . I remember thinking , ' This guy 's out of his mind . ' After the set , I went up to him , introduced myself , and said that I would be studying with him . He said something to the effect of , ' get ready ' .
Moran studied with Byard for four years , and credits the older man with developing his skills , building his awareness of jazz history , and creating his willingness to experiment with different styles . Another student , Fred Hersch , reported that Byard was both organized and chaotic as a teacher : giving his students worksheets and having them study early stride piano , but also behaving eccentrically and missing lessons .
Jazz flautist Jamie Baum also studied with Byard , and after his death organized a tribute band consisting mainly of his students : Baum , Adam Kolker , Jerome Harris , George Schuller and Ugonna Okegwo , called Yard Byard or The Jaki Byard Project , using compositions Byard had left with Baum but never performed .
= = Death = =
Byard died in his home in Hollis , Queens , New York City , of a gunshot wound on February 11 , 1999 . He was shot once in the head . The police reported that Byard 's family , with whom he shared the house , last saw him at 6 pm , that he was killed around 10 pm , that there " were no signs of robbery , forced entry or a struggle " , and that no weapon was found . The death was soon declared to be a homicide , but the circumstances surrounding it have not been determined , and the case remains unsolved .
Byard was survived by two daughters , a son , four grandchildren , and six greatgrandchildren . His wife of four decades had died five years earlier .
= = Playing style and influence = =
Giddins described the nature of Byard 's piano playing : " His tone [ ... ] is unfailingly bright . His middle @-@ register improvisations are evenly articulated with a strong touch and rhythmic elan [ ... he ] likes ringing tremolos and portentous fifths [ ... and ] barely articulated keyboard washes that float beyond the harmonic bounds but are ultimately anchored by the blues " . Byard played in a variety of styles , often mixed together in one performance : John S. Wilson commented that Byard " progresses from a basic melodic statement to nimble Art Tatum fingering to Fats Waller stride , to prickly Thelonious Monk phrases , to Cecil Taylor dissonances " . This could have deliberately comic , surrealistic effects .
Byard pointed out that the use of humor did not mean that his music was not serious : " I might do it with humor , but it 's still serious because I mean what I 'm doing " . He stated that his choice to play in a variety of styles was not imitatory or superficial : " I can 't play one way all night ; I wouldn 't want to and I wouldn 't want the public to hear me that way " . One obituary writer noted that , " Nobody thinks it odd if a pianist underpins melody with stride patterns or a boogie bass . When Byard did that 30 years ago , distinctions were drawn more tightly " . Music writer Dan Lander also stated that Byard 's playing was ahead of its time , and added that it has influenced 21st @-@ century pianists :
Byard 's grasp and integration of historical forms , his ability to embrace tradition and risk taking , was visionary , impacting on a new generation of jazz musicians who understood the history of jazz as a material to build on and work with , at the service of creating something new , rather than as an unmovable weight , fixing them to the past .
A 1968 review of a Byard concert reported that his alto saxophone playing was " in a manner rooted in the bop era " , and that he occasionally accompanied himself , " saxophone with his left hand , piano with his right " . His playing on tenor saxophone was influenced by Lester Young ; Byard himself cited Ben Webster as an influence on his tenor ballad playing .
= = Discography = =
= = = As leader / co @-@ leader = = =
Byard plays only piano , unless otherwise noted .
= = = As sideman = = =
An asterisk ( * ) indicates that the year is that of release .
Sources :
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